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I Sl* 3 t Occupational Outlook for College Graduates, 1978-79 Edition U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics 1978 Bulletin 1956 / s jj, Containing the midpoints of the legs of right triangie pt. ( - 5 , 5), S is pt. (1 ,1), and T is pt. (3,4). Containing the longer diagonal of a quadrilateral whoae pts. (2, 2), ( - 2, - 2), ( l , - 1), and (6, 4). Show that the equations y - 1 = f(x + 3) and y - 4 are equivalent. An equation of the line containing pts. ( —2, 3) and (4, written in the form y — 3 = - §(x + 2) or in y + 1 = - §(x - 4), depending upon which point yo>(.*,.>>,)• Show that the two equations are equivalent. dent. Show that the equations are equivalent. X j — X, m 1m f 9* Iff m ^q/f*-***. Occupational Outlook for College Graduates, 1978-79 Edition U.S. Department of Labor Ray Marshall, Secretary Bureau of Labor Statistics Julius Shiskin, Commissioner 1978 Bulletin 1956 Material in this publication is in the public domain and may be reproduced without permission of the Federal Government. Please credit the Bureau of Labor Statistics and cite the name and number of this publication. Preface C areer planning has becom e increasingly im portant to college graduates who seek a rewarding career. For the past 6 or 7 years, the num ber o f college graduates entering the labor force has exceeded the num ber o f jo b openings in the kinds o f jobs usually sought by graduates. As a result, college graduates, as a group, have faced com petition for the jobs they wanted. However, graduates prepared to en ter some occupations have fared m uch better than those prepared to enter others. A t least through 1985, this com petition for jobs is likely to continue. G raduates least well prepared for the job m arket will probably continue to face difficulties finding the kinds o f jobs they want. T he Occupational Outlook fo r College Graduates is a guide to career opportunities in a broad range o f occupations for which a college degree is, or is becoming, the usual background for em ploym ent. It contains a brief summary o f the expected changes in the econom y, in addition to an analysis o f the overall supply and dem and situation for college graduates through the m id-1980’s. Each occupational statem ent presents inform ation on the nature o f the work; places o f em ploym ent; education, skills, and abilities required for entry; em ploym ent outlook; earnings; and working conditions. T he assessm ent o f em ploym ent outlook for college graduates was prepared by Daniel E. H ecker, Division o f O ccupational Outlook. iii Contents Page Page > > I. How to use this b o o k ........................................... II. W here to go for m ore in fo rm atio n .................. III. Assum ptions and m ethods used in preparing em ploym ent p ro jec tio n s................................. . T om orrow ’s jobs for college graduates........... . O ccu p atio n s........................................................... A cco u n tan ts................................................... A ctors and ac tresses.................................... A ctuaries......................................................... Advertising w o rk ers..................................... Air traffic controllers.................................. Airplane p ilo ts .............................................. A nthropologists............................................. A rchitects........................................................ A stronom ers................................................... Bank officers and m anagers....................... B iochem ists.................................................... Blue-collar w orker supervisors................. B roadcast tech n ician s.................. B uyers.............................................................. C hem ists.......................................................... C h iro p racto rs................................................. City m an ag ers............................................... Claim representatives.................................. C lergy............................................................... P rotestant m inisters............................. R ab b is..................................................... R om an C atholic p rie sts..................... College student personnel w orkers.......... C om m ercial artists....................................... C ooperative extension service workers .. C o u n selo rs...................................................... School counselors................................ Em ploym ent counselors..................... R ehabilitation c o u n se lo rs.................. College career planning and placem ent counselors..................... C redit m anagers............................................ D an cers........................................................... D ental hygienists........................................... D en tists........................................................... D ietitians......................................................... D rafters........................................................... Econom ists...................................................... Engineering and science tech n ician s...... E n g in eers........................................................ A ero sp ace.............................................. Agricultu ral............................................ B iom edical............................................. C e ra m ic ................................................. 105 C hem ical................................................ 106 C iv il........................................................ 106 Electrical................................................ 108 Industrial................................................ 108 M echanical........................................... 109 M etallurgical......................................... 110 M ining..................................................... I l l P etro leu m .............................................. 112 FBI special ag en ts........................................ 113 Flight atte n d a n ts.......................................... 114 Food scientists.............................................. 115 F o re ste rs........................................................ 117 G eographers.................................................. 119 Geologists....................................................... 121 G eophysicists................................................ 123 H ealth and regulatory inspectors (G o v e rn m e n t).......................................... 125 H ealth services adm inistrators.................. 129 H istorians....................................................... 131 H om e econom ists......................................... 133 H otel managers and assistants................. 135 Industrial designers..................................... 135 Industrial traffic m anagers........................ 137 Insurance agents and b ro k e rs................... 139 Interior designers......................................... ^44Interpreters .................................................... r43 Landscape a rc h ite c ts.................................. 145 Law yers........................................................... 147 L ibrarians....................................................... 150 Life scientists................................................ 153 M anufacturers sales w o rk e rs.................... 156 M arketing research w orkers..................... 157 M athem aticians............................................. 159 M edical laboratory w orkers...................... 161 M edical record adm inistrators.................. 164 M erchant marine o fficers.......................... 165 M eteorologists............................................... 169 M usicians....................................................... 171 N ew spaper re p o rters................................... 173 O ccupational th e ra p ists............................. 175 O ccupational safety and.health workers... 177 O ceanographers........................................... 180 O ptom etrists.................................................. 182 O steopathic physicians................................ 1 83 Park, recreation, leisure service workers.. 185 Personnel and labor relations workers ... 189 P harm acists.................................................... 192 P hotographers............................................... 195 1 7 15 19 29 29 31 34 36 38 40 43 44 47 48 50 51 53 54 56 59 60 62 64 65 66 68 70 72 74 75 76 77 79 81 83 85 86 88 90 92 93 96 100 103 104 104 V Contents— Continued Page Physical therapists........................................ Physicians........................................................ Physicists......................................................... P o d ia trists....................................................... Police o ffic ers............................................... Political scientists......................................... Program m ers.................................................. Psychologists.................................................. Public relations w o rk e rs............................ Purchasing a g e n ts ........................................ R adio and television announcers............. Range m anagers............................................ Real estate sales w orkers and brokers.... R egistered n u rse s......................................... Securities sales w o rk e rs.............................. Singers.............................................................. Social w orkers............................................... S ociologists.................................................... Page Soil conservationists.................................... Soil scientists................................................. Speech pathologists and audiologists...... State police o fficers.................................... S tatisticians.................................................... S urveyors....................................................... Systems analysts............................................ T eachers.......................................................... Kindergarten and elem entary school teachers................................. Secondary school te a c h e rs ............... College and university teach ers....... Technical w rite rs......................................... U nderw riters................................................. U rban p lan n ers............................................. V eterinarians................................................. W holesale trade sales w orkers.................. 197 199 202 204 205 207 210 212 215 218 220 221 223 226 228 230 231 235 VI 237 239 241 242 244 246 248 250 250 252 254 256 260 261 263 264 I. HOW TO USE THIS BOOK This ch ap ter o f the Occupational Outlook fo r College Graduates tells how the inform ation was assembled and discusses a num ber o f points that need to be kept in mind while inter preting the occupational statem ents th at m ake up the m ain body o f the book. C hapter II gives suggestions re garding su p p lem en tary sources o f o ccu pational inform ation and tells how you can keep up to date on de v elo p m en ts affecting th e em ploy m ent o u tlo o k in d ifferent o ccupa tio n s . C h a p te r III p r o v id e s in fo rm a tio n on th e s o u rc e s and m ethods used to analyze the occupa tional outlook in different fields of work as well as for college graduates in g en eral. C h a p te r IV d escrib es some o f the m ost im portant occupa tio n al and in d u strial em p lo y m en t trends—and their relationship to col lege graduates—to provide a back ground for interpreting the reports on individual occupations. M ore th an one hundred occupa tions are described in this book, al though the total num ber o f occupa tions in the U.S. econom y may be counted in the thousands. The occu pational statem ents th a t follow the four introductory chapters are re printed from the 1978-79 edition o f th e O c c u p a tio n a l O u tlo o k H an d book. T hese occupations generally are those o f greatest interest to col lege students and graduates, and are those for which a college education is required, is becom ing increasingly necessary, o r is the usual educational background for em ploym ent. O ccu pations covered include w orkers in professional and related occupations, sales occu p atio n s, m anagerial and adm inistrative occupations, and ser vice occupations. The statem ents in this publication account for about 90 percent o f all workers in professional and re la te d o cc u p atio n s, and for sm aller p ro p o rtio n s o f w orkers in o th er m ajor groups. A lm ost threefifths o f all college graduates work in professional and related occupations; sm aller proportions are in other m a jo r occupational groups. An alphabetical list o f the occupa tional reports is provided in the table o f contents at the front o f the book. O nce you have chosen a place to b e gin—an o c c u p a tio n y o u ’d like to learn m ore about—you can use the O ccupational O utlook f o r College Graduates to find out w hat the jo b is like, w hat education and training are necessary, and w hat the ad vance m ent possibilities, earnings, and em ploym ent outlook are likely to be. Each section o f this book follows a standard form at, m aking it easier to com pare different jobs. W hat follows is a description o f the type o f infor m ation presented in each statem ent, with a few words o f explanation. The num bers in parentheses th at appear just below the title o f m ost statem ents are D.O.T. code num bers. D.O.T. stands for Dictionary o f Occu pational Titles, now in its fourth edi tion, a U.S. D epartm ent o f L abor publication which “ defines” each o f about 20,000 jobs according to a sys tem th a t uses num bers to classify each job by the type o f work p e r form ed, training required, physical dem ands, and w orking conditions. B ecause m any users o f this book have n o t y et re ceiv ed th e re c e n t fo u rth ed itio n o f th e D .O .T ., th e D.O.T. num ber accom panying each sta te m e n t re fers to th e p revious, third edition o f th at volume. The Nature of the Work section describes the m ajor duties of w orkers in the occupation. It tells w hat w ork ers do on the jo b and how they do it. A lthough ea ch jo b d esc rip tio n is typical o f the occupation, duties are likely to vary by em ployer and size o f employing organization, geographic location, and other factors. In som e occupations, individual workers spe cialize in certain tasks. In others they perform the entire range o f work in the occupation. O f course, job duties continually change as technology ad vances, new industrial processes are developed, and products or services change. The Places of Employment section provides inform ation on the num ber o f workers in an occupation and tells w hether they are co n cen trated in c e rta in in d u strie s o r g eo g rap h ic areas. W h e th e r an o cc u p atio n is larg e o r sm all is im p o rta n t to a jobseeker because large occupations, even th o se grow ing slowly, o ffer m ore openings than small ones be cause o f the many workers who retire or die each year. Some occupations are concentrat ed in p a rtic u la r industries. M ost aerospace engineers, for exam ple, are em ployed in th e aircraft and parts industry while accountants are em ployed in almost every industry. If an occupation is found primarily in certain industries, this section lists them. A few occupations are concentrat ed in certain parts o f the country. Actors and actresses, for example, usually work in California or New York. This inform ation is included for the benefit o f people who have strong preferences about where they live—because they do not wish to be sep a rated from th e ir families and friends, for example. For most occu p atio n s, how ever, em ploym en t is widely scattered and generally fol lows the same pattern as the distribu tion o f th e population. In addition, inform ation on parttim e em ploym ent is included b e cause it is im p o rtan t to students, hom em akers, retired persons, and others who may w ant to work p art time. Knowing which occupations ofl fer good opportunities for part-tim e work can be a valuable lead. T h e Training, O ther Q ualifica tio n s, and A dvancem ent s e c tio n should be read carefully because the decisions you m ake concerning p rep aration for an occupation represent a considerable investm ent o f tim e and m o n ey . E a rly an d w ise p la n n in g tow ard a career goal can save you u n w a rran te d exp en d itures later. If you cu rren tly are in school, it’s a good idea to look closely at the list o f high school and college courses re garded as useful preparation for the career you have in m ind. N early all statem ents list such courses. W orkers can qualify for jobs in a variety o f ways, including com pletion o f a 4-year college curriculum . T he section dealing with training general ly presents the m inim um level and type o f ed u cation required for the v ario u s o c c u p a tio n s an d th e p re ferred background for entry. In many cases, alternative ways o f obtaining training are listed as well. It is w orth rem em bering th at the level at which you e n te r an o c c u p a tio n and th e speed with which you advance often are d eterm in ed by th e am ount o f training you have. M any o c c u p a tio n s a re n a tu ra l s te p p in g sto n e s to o th e rs . A fte r working for a tim e as a program m er, for exam ple, many people advance to jobs as systems analysts. The world o f w ork is dynam ic and few w orkers spend th eir lives in one or even two occupations. Some have several jobs o v er a lifetim e, ch an g in g c a re e rs when it is advantageous to do so. F re quently observed p atterns o f m ove m ent from one occupation to anoth e r , s u c h as a d v a n c e m e n t fro m program m er to systems analyst, are discussed in the Occupational O ut look fo r College Graduates. This type o f inform ation can be useful in sever al ways. It is helpful to know, for example, th at skills gained working at one job can m ake you m ore em ployable in another—perhaps a jo b that is m ore desirable in term s o f earnings, w ork ing conditions, o r scope for self-ex pression. On the oth er hand, it also is useful to know which jobs offer the most opportunity for transferring to other work o f a sim ilar nature. P er 2 sons trained in electrical o r chem ical —work in a confined area. engineering, for example, frequently —perform repetitious work. can transfer to another engineering —enjoy working outside, regardless of the specialty w here they can apply gen weather. eral engineering knowledge in differ The Employment Outlook section ent ways. discusses prospective job opportuni It usually is wise, however, to dis ties. Knowing w hether or not the jo b cuss the patterns o f jo b transfer and m arket is likely to be favorable is advancem ent described in the Occu im p o rta n t in deciding w heth er to pational Outlook fo r College Gradu pursue a specific career. While your ates with counselors, local em ploy interests, your abilities, and your ca ers, and others who know about th e reer goals are significant, you also p a rtic u la r jo b m a rk e t w h ere you w ant to work. Typical patterns o f need to know som ething about the m ovem ent from one occupation to availability o f jobs in the fields th at another may not apply in every em interest you most. The em ploym ent outlook section ploym ent setting. o f m ost o f th e sta te m e n ts in th e All States have certification o r li O ccupational O utlook f o r College censing requirem ents for some o ccu pations. Physicians and elem entary G raduates begins w ith a sen ten ce and secondary school teachers are about expected em ploym ent growth examples o f occupations th at are li through 1985. The occupation o r in censed. If you are considering o ccu dustry is described as likely to grow pations th at require State licensing, about as feist as the average for all be sure to check the requirem ents in occupations or industries; faster than the State in which you plan to work. the average; or m ore slowly than the A n im p o rta n t fa c to r in c a re e r average (figure I). Job opportunities choice is the extent to which a p a r in a particular occupation or industry ticular jo b suits your personality. A l usually are favorable i f employment though it often is difficult for people increases at least as rapidly as in the to assess them selves, your counselor economy as a whole. Occupations or u n d o u b ted ly is fam iliar w ith tests industries in which employment stays that can help. Each statem ent p ro about the same or declines generally vides inform ation which allows you offer less favorable job prospects than to m atch your own unique personal those that are growing because the characteristics—your likes and dis only openings are those due to deaths, likes—with the characteristics o f the retirem ents, and other separations job. F or a particular job, you m ay fro m the labor force. need the ability to: Some statem ents take note of the —make responsible decisions. effect o f fluctuations in econom ic ac tivity. This inform ation is valuable to —motivate others. people looking into long-range ca —direct and supervise others. reer possibilities at a tim e when the —work under close supervision. econom y is in a recession. Persons —work in a highly competitive atmosphere. understandably w onder: W hat will —enjoy working with ideas and solving prob the econom y be like when I enter the lems. labor m arket? Will it be harder to —enjoy working with people. find a jo b 5 or 10 years from now —enjoy working with things—good coordina than it is today? The Occupational tion and manual dexterity are necessary. Outlook fo r College Graduates gives —work independently—initiative and self-dis inform ation, w herever feasible, on cipline are necessary. o cc u p atio n s and industries w hose —work as part of a team. levels o f em ploym ent fluctuate in re —enjoy working with detail, either numbers or sponse to shifts in the econom ic cli technical written material. m ate. It is im portant to bear in m ind th at em ploym ent in m any—but not —enjoy helping people. —use creative talents and ideas and enjoy hav all—occupations and industries is di re c tly a f fe c te d by an e c o n o m ic ing an opportunity for self-expression. dow nturn. A sharp im provem ent in —derive satisfaction from seeing the physical the o u tlo o k for these occupations results of your work. Figure I Projected 1976-85 change in employment requirements Description Much faster than the average for all occupations...................... Faster than the average for all occupations................................. About as fast as the average for all occupations 1...................... More slowly than the average for all occupations...................... Little change is expected................................................................. Expected to decline........................................................................... 50.0 percent or greater 25.0 to 49.9 percent 15.0 to 24.9 percent 5.0 to 14.9 percent 4.9 to —4.9 percent —5.0 percent or greater 1The average increase projected for all occupations for the 1976-85 period is 19.2 percent. and industries is likely as the econ omy picks up. However, other occu pations and industries are less affect e d b y s h o r t - t e r m c h a n g e s in econom ic activity. O th er factors in flu e n c e th e ir g ro w th o r d ec lin e . These m atters are explored in a num ber o f statem ents. F o r som e o ccu pations, inform a tion is available on th e supply o f w orkers—th at is, the num ber o f peo ple pursuing the type o f education or training needed and the num ber sub sequently entering the occupation. W hen such inform ation is available, the Occupational Outlook fo r College Graduates describes prospective job opportunities in term s o f the expect ed dem and-supply relationship. The prospective jo b situation is term ed “ excellent” when dem and is likely to greatly exceed supply; “ keen com pe tition” when supply is likely to ex ceed dem and. O ther term s used are shown in Figure II. W orkers who transfer in to one oc cu p atio n from a n o th e r som etim es are a significant com ponent o f sup ply; similarly, those who transfer out may have a substantial effect on de m and because their leaving usually creates a jo b opening. Although the inform ation cu rren tly available on transfers am ong occupations is limit ed, some statem ents discuss transfer patterns and their effect on the sup ply for certain occupations. The em ploym ent outlook for engineers, for example, notes th at transfers into the field are likely to constitute a sub sta n tia l p o rtio n o f supply if p a st trends continue. T he in fo rm atio n in this section should be used carefully. G etting a jo b may be difficult if the field is so small th at openings are few (a ctu ar ies and range m anagers are exam ples) or so popular th a t it attracts many m ore jobseekers than there are jobs (radio and television broadcast ing, journalism , and the perform ing arts). G etting a jo b also can be diffi cult in occupations and industries in which em ploym ent is declining (m er chant m arine), although this is n o t always the case. But even occupa tions th at are small or overcrow ded provide som e jobs. So do o ccupa tions in which em ploym ent is grow ing very slowly o r even declining, fo r there is a need to replace w orkers who leave the occupation. If the o c cupation is large, the num ber o f jo b openings arising from replacem ent needs can be quite substantial. A c countants and real estate agents and brokers are examples o f large o ccu p atio n s th a t provide a significant num ber o f jo b openings each year because w orkers leave. Openings re sulting from replacem ent needs are expected to account fo r nearly twothirds o f all jo b openings for the la bor force as a whole. An assessm ent o f th e overall jo b m arket for college graduates is p re sented in C hapter IV. It com pares the num ber o f college graduates like- Figure II Job opportunities Excellent Very good Good or favorable May face competition Keen competition Prospective demand-supply relationship Demand much greater than supply Demand greater than supply Rough balance between demand and supply Likelihood o f more supply than demand Supply greater than demand ly to seek jobs through 1985 with the projected num ber of openings in the types of jobs usually sought by gradu ates. How reliable is the information on the outlook for em ploym ent over the next 10 years? No one can predict future labor m arket conditions with perfect accuracy. In every occupa tion and industry, th e num ber o f jo b seek ers and the num ber o f jo b openings constantly changes. A rise o r fall in the dem and for a product or service affects the num ber o f w ork ers needed to produce it. New inven tions and technological innovations create som e jobs and eliminate o th ers. Changes in the size or age distri bution o f the population, work atti tu d e s, tra in in g o p p o rtu n itie s , o r retirem ent program s determ ine the n u m b er o f w o rk ers available. As these fo rces in te ra c t in the lab o r m arket, som e occupations ex p eri en ce a sh o rtag e, som e a surplus, some a balance betw een jobseekers an d o p e n in g s. M e th o d s u sed by econom ists to develop inform ation on future occupational prospects dif fer, and judgm ents th at go into any assessment o f the future also differ. Therefore, it is im portant to under stand w hat underlies each statem ent on outlook. For every occupation and industry covered in the Occupational Outlook fo r College Graduates, an estimate of future em ploym ent needs is devel oped. These estim ates are consistent with a set o f assumptions about the future o f the economy and the coun try. For m ore detail, see the section entitled, Assumptions and M ethods Used In Preparing the Em ployment Projections. Finally, you should rem em ber th at job prospects in your community or State m ay not correspond to the de scription o f the em ploym ent outlook in this book. For th e particular job you are interested in, the outlook in your area may be better, or worse. The Occupational Outlook fo r College Graduates does not discuss the o u t look in local areas because the analy sis is far too much for a centralized staff to handle. Such information has been developed, however, by many States and localities. The local office o f your State em ploym ent service is 3 the best place to ask about local-area em ploym ent projections. Names and addresses o f these State and local in form ation sources and suggestions for additional inform ation on the job m arket are given in the following sec tion, W here to Go for M ore Inform a tion. T he Earnings section helps answer many o f the questions th at you may ask when choosing a career. Will the incom e be high enough to m aintain the standard o f living I w ant and ju s tify my training costs? How m uch will my earnings increase as I gain experi ence? Do som e areas o f the country o r som e industries offer better pay th a n o th e rs fo r th e sam e type o f work? L ike m ost people, you probably think o f earnings as m oney. But m on ey is only one type o f financial re ward for work. Paid vacations, health insurance, uniform s, and discounts on cloth in g o r o th e r m erchandise also are p art o f total earnings. A bout 9 o u t o f 10 w orkers receive m oney incom e in the form o f a wage or salary. A wage usually is an hourly o r daily rate o f pay, while a salary is a weekly, m onthly, o r yearly rate. M ost craft workers, operatives, and la b o re rs a re w age e a rn e rs, w hile m o st p ro fessio n al, te c h n ic a l, and clerical w orkers are salary earners. In addition to th eir regular pay, wage and salary w orkers may receive extra m oney for working overtim e, o r on a night shift or irregular sched ule. In som e occupations, w orkers also may receive tips o r be paid a commission based on the am ount o f sales o r services they provide to cus tom ers. Factory w orkers are som e times paid a piece rate, which is an ex tra paym ent for each item they produce. F or m any w orkers, these types o f pay am ount to a large part o f their total earnings. T he rem aining 10 p ercen t o f all w orkers are in business for th em selves and earn self-employment in come instead o f wages or salaries. This g ro u p includes w orkers in a wide variety o f occupations: Physi c ia n s, s h o p k e e p e rs , w rite rs, an d farm ers are examples o f workers who frequently are self-employed. W orkers in some occupations earn self-employment incom e in addition to their wages or salaries. For exam 4 ple, salaried lawyers often have a p ri vate practice as well, seeing clients during evenings o r w eekends, and co lleg e p ro fesso rs fre q u e n tly a re paid for publishing articles based on independent research. Besides m oney incom e, m ost wage and salary w orkers receive a variety o f fringe benefits as p art of their earn ings on the job. Several are required by Federal and State law, including social security, w orkers’ com pensa tion, and unem ploym ent insurance. T hese benefits provide incom e to persons when they are not working because o f old age, w ork-related in jury or disability, o r lack of suitable jobs. Among the m ost com m on fringe benefits are paid vacations, holidays, and sick leave. In addition, m any workers are covered by life, health, and accident insurance; participate in retirem ent plans; and are entitled to s u p p le m e n ta l u n e m p lo y m e n t benefits. All o f these benefits are provided—in p art or in full—through th e ir em ployers. Som e em ployers also offer stock options and profitsharing plans, savings plans, and b o nuses. W orkers in m any occupations re ceive p art o f their earnings in the form o f goods and services, or pay ments in kind. Sales w orkers in d e partm ent stores, for example, often receive discounts on m erchandise. W orkers in other jobs may receive free meals, housing, business expense accounts, or free transportation on com pany-owned planes. W hich jobs pay the most? This is a difficult question to answer because good inform ation is available for only one type o f ea rn in g s—wages and salaries—and for some occupations even this is unavailable. N everthe less, the Occupational Outlook fo r College Graduates does include some c o m p a riso n s o f e a rn in g s am o n g occupations. Most statem ents indi cate w hether earnings in an o ccupa tion are greater than or less than the average earnings of workers who are not supervisors and work in private industry, but not in farm ing. T his group represented about 60 percent o f all w orkers in 1976 and had the m ost reliable earnings data currently available for com parison purposes. Besides differences am ong o ccu patio n s, m any levels o f pay exist within each occupation. Beginning workers almost always earn less than those who have been on the jo b for some tim e because pay rates increase as w orkers gain experience o r do m ore responsible work. E arnings in an o c c u p atio n also vary by geographic location. The av erage weekly earnings o f beginning co m puter program m ers, for exam ple, vary considerably from city to city. (See table 1.) T he highest earn ings of th e nine cities listed occurred in D etroit, Mich., and the lowest in C hattanooga, Tenn. A lthough it is generally true that earnings are high er in the N orth C entral and N orth east regions than in the W est and South, th ere are exceptions. You also should rem em ber th a t those cities which offer the highest earnings are often those in which it is most expen sive to live. In addition, workers in the sam e occupation may have different earn ings depending on the industry in which they work. F or example, in 1976, engineers with 18 to 20 years experience averaged $28,750 a year Table 1. Average weekly earnings of beginning computer programmers, 1976, by selected city City Detroit....................................... New York................................ . Cleveland................................ . Chicago.................................... San Francisco-Oakland......... Greenville-Spartanburg, S.C. Baltimore.................................. Salt Lake City-Ogden............ Chattanooga............................ SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics. Average weekly earnings $239.50 239.00 238.00 230.00 229.50 201.50 193.00 190.00 185.50 Table 2. Average annual salaries of chemists, with Ph.D. degrees, by type of work, 1976 Type of work Annual salaries Management............................................................................ Marketing and technical services.................................................................. Research and development................................................................. Teaching......................................................................................... $36,500 29.500 25,300 20.500 26,900 SOURCE: American Chemical Society. in re se a rc h o rg an izatio n s and re s e a rc h la b o r a to r ie s , $ 2 6 ,5 0 0 in m anufacturing, $25,400 in construc tion, and $20,700 in State govern ment. Salaries also vary by the type of work a person perform s. The salaries of Ph. D. chemists, for exam ple, vary considerably depending on the spe cific nature of the job, as shown in table 2. In 1976, chem ists in m anage m ent jobs earned $7,000 a year more than those in m arketing and techni cal services. C hem ists in research and developm ent, however, earned $4,200 less than those in m arketing, but $4,800 more than chem istry pro fessors. B ecau se o f th ese v a ria tio n s in earnings, you should check with a counselor or with local employers if you are interested in specific earn ings inform ation for occupations in your area. T he Working Conditions section provides inform ation on factors that can affect job satisfaction because preferences for working conditions vary considerably among individuals. Some people, for exam ple, p refer o u td o o r w ork while others p refer working in an office. Some people like the variety o f shift work, and others want the steadiness o f a 9-to-5 jo b . Follow ing is a list of several w orking co n d itio n s th a t apply to some of the occupations in the Occu pational Outlook fo r College Gradu ates. Overtime work. W hen overtim e is re quired on a job, employees must give up some o f their free time and need to be flexible in their personal lives. Overtim e, however, does provide the opportunity to increase earning pow er. Shift work. part of the some jobs. these shifts Evening or night work is reqular work schedule in Employees who work on usually are working while most other people are off. Some p er sons prefer shift work, however, be cause they can pursue certain day tim e ac tiv itie s, such as hu n tin g , fishing, or gardening. E nvironm ent. W ork settings vary from clean, air-conditioned offices to places that are dirty, greasy, or poor ly ventilated. By knowing the setting o f jobs you find interesting, you can avoid an environm ent that you may find particularly unpleasant. Outdoor work. Persons who work outdoors are exposed to all types of weather. This may be preferred to indoor work, however, by those who consider outdoor work more health ful. Hazards. In some jobs employees are subject to possible burns, cuts, falls, and other injuries and must be care ful to follow safety precautions. Physical demands. Some jobs require standing, stooping, or heavy lifting. You should be sure that you have the physical strength and stam ina re quired before seeking one of these jobs. C onsidering working conditions when you make up your mind about a career can help you choose a job that brings you satisfaction and en joym ent. 5 II. WHERE TO GO FOR MORE INFORMATION W hether you have questions about a particular job or are trying to com pare various fields, the Occupational Outlook fo r College Graduates is a good place to begin. It will introduce you to some of the im portant aspects of an occupation and answ er many of your initial questions. But the Occu pational Outlook fo r College Gradu ates is only one o f m any sources of inform ation about jobs and careers. A fter reading a few statem ents, you may decide that you w ant m ore de tailed inform ation about a particular occupation. O r you may want to find out where you can find this kind of work in your com m unity or where you can go for appropriate training. If you are willing to m ake an effort, you will discover a wealth o f occupa tional inform ation—m uch of it avail able at little or no cost. Sources of Career Information M uch inform ation on careers is p u t o u t by g o v ern m en t, industry, trad e unions, schools, professional associations, private guidance serv ices, and o th er organizations. You should be careful in assessing any sin gle piece o f career guidance m ateri al. Keep in mind the date and source, in particular. M aterial th at is too old may contain obsolete o r even mis leading inform ation. Be especially cautious ab o u t accepting inform a tion on em ploym ent outlook, earn ings, and training requirem ents if it is more than 5 years old. You also need to consider the source—and thus the intent—of the career guidance m ate rial you obtain. Although some occupational m a terials are produced solely for the purpose o f objective vocational guid ance, o th ers are p ro d u ced for re cruitm ent purposes. Y ou should be wary o f biased inform ation, which may ten d to leave o u t im p o rtan t items, overglamorize the occupation, overstate the earnings, or exaggerate the dem and for workers. School counselors can be a very im portant source o f guidance inform a tion. C ounselors should be able to refer you to the different types o f c a re e r m aterials available in your school or community. They are likely to be familiar with the job m arket. They also can discuss entry require m ents and costs of the schools, col leges, or training program s that offer preparation for the kind o f work in which you are interested. M ost im p o rtan t o f all, your counselor can help you consider the occupational inform ation you obtain in relation to your own abilities, personal aspira tions, and career goals. Guidance offices usually have col lections o f ca re e r inform ation. In fact, the book th at y o u ’re reading now may have com e from the guid ance office. Find out what else the office has to offer. Some schools have career centers; often, these are located in or near the library or m edia center. C areer cen ters provide a sam pling of printed and audiovisual career inform ation m aterials, and also may offer individ ual counseling, group discussions, guest speakers, and field trips. Libraries have books, brochures, magazines, and audiovisual m aterials that contain inform ation about jobs and careers. C heck your school li brary or m edia center, o f course— but d o n ’t forget the public library. Many libraries have pam phlet files d e v o te d to sp ecific o c c u p a tio n s. Some libraries also have collections o f filmstrips, records and tapes, and m icrofilms with occupational infor mation. The reference shelf undoubt edly contains one directory or m ore that you will find useful if you want to get the nam es of specific schools, colleges, or business concerns. The library staff can direct you to the in form ation best suited to your needs. Trade unions, business firms, trade associations, professional societies, and educational institutions all pub lish career inform ation, and much of this is available for the asking. The Sources o f Additional Infor m ation section at the end of most statem en ts lists organizations you can write to. This is a good way to begin. For the names and addresses o f other organizations, consult the directories on your library’s refer ence shelf. There, you are likely to find directories that list: —trade associations. —professional associations. —business firms. —junior and community colleges. —colleges and universities. —home study and correspondence programs. —business, trade, and technical schools. —sources of scholarships and financial aid. Your school library or career cen ter may have one directory or more put out by com m ercial publishers that list sources of career informa tion by occupation. A n o th er useful directory is the U.S. Office of Education’s Directory o f Postsecondary Schools with Occu pational Programs, 1973-74, which lists schools offering specific occupa tional training programs. The direc tory lists private business, trade, and technical schools as well as com m u nity and junior colleges and 4-year colleges and universities. Computer-assisted occupational in form ation systems have been in stalled in some schools and career centers. These systems allow users to obtain career inform ation stored in a co m p u ter by entering specific re quests and receiving immediate an swers. Through the occupational in form ation systems, users are able to examine the ways in which different personal abilities, interests, and pref erences are related to different occu pations. The U.S. D epartm ent of La 7 bor is currently providing funds for such systems in eight States. D on’t overlook the im portance of personal contacts. An interview with som eone in a particular jo b can often tell you m uch m ore than a booklet or b ro ch u re can. By asking the right questions, you find out what kind of train in g is really im p o rta n t, how w orkers got their first jobs as well as the one th ey ’re in now, and what they like and dislike about the work. State employment security agencies in many States publish career briefs for dozens of different occupations and industries. These briefs usually describe earnings and jo b outlook in form ation for a p articular S tate—and som etim es for a city or m etropolitan area. By contrast, the Occupational Outlook fo r College Graduates gives in fo rm a tio n fo r th e N a tio n as a w hole. In a d d itio n , a n u m b er o f States publish brochures on writing resumes, finding jo b openings, p re paring for interviews, and other as pects o f a job search. To find out what m aterials are available for your State, consult the U.S. Em ploym ent and T raining A d m inistration’s 1976 Guide to Local Occupational Inform a tion. O r write directly to the chief inform ation officer in your State em ploym ent security agency. Following is a list o f their titles and addresses: Alabama Public Information Officer, Department of In dustrial Relations, Industrial Relations Bldg., 649 Monroe St., Montgomery, Ala. 36130. Alaska Information Officer, Employment Security Di vision, Department of Labor, P.O. Box 37000, Juneau, Alaska 99811. Colorado Louisiana Public Information Officer, Division of Em ployment, Department of Labor and Em ployment, 251 East 12th Ave., Denver, Colo. 80203. Public Relations Director, Department of Em ployment Security, P.O. Box 44094, Ba ton Rouge, La. 70804. Connecticut Public Information Supervisor, Connecticut Employment Security Division, 200 Folly Brook Blvd., Weatherfield, Conn. 06109. Arkansas Chairman, Employment Security Commission, 20 Union St., Augusta, Maine 04330. Maryland Delaware Secretary, Department of Labor, 801 West 14th St., Wilmington, Del. 19899. Director o f Public Relations, Department of Employment and Social Services, Room 601, 1100 North Eutaw St., Baltimore, Md. 21201. District of Columbia Chief, Community Relations and Information Office, D.C. Department of Manpower, Room 601, 500 C St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20212. Florida Information Director, Florida Department of Commerce, Collins Bldg., Tallahassee, Fla. 32304. Georgia Chief of Public Relations and Information, Georgia Department of Labor, 254 Wash ington St. SW., Atlanta, Ga. 30334. Hawaii Information Specialist, Department of Labor and Industrial Relations, 825 Mililani St., Honolulu, Hawaii 96813. Idaho Massachusetts Supervisor of Information, Division of Em ployment Security, Hurley Bldg., Govern ment Center, Boston, Mass. 02114. Michigan Director, Information Services Division, Em ployment Security Commission, Depart ment of Labor Bldg., 7310 Woodward Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48202. Minnesota Director of Public Information, Department of Employment Services, 390 North Robert St., St. Paul, Minn. 55101. Mississippi Public Relations Representative, Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 1699, Jackson, Miss. 39205. Public Information Coordinator, Department of Employment, P.O. Box 35, Boise, Ida ho 83707. Missouri Illinois Information Supervisor, Division of Employ ment Security, Department of Labor and Industrial Relations, P.O. Box 59, Jeffer son City, Mo. 65101. Director, Communications and Public Infor mation, Illinois Department of Labor, State Office Bldg., Room 705, Springfield, 111. 62706. Indiana Director of Information and Education, Em ployment Security Division, 10 North Senate Ave., Indianapolis, Ind. 46204. Arizona Chief of Information and Education, Arizona State Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 6123, Phoenix, Ariz. 85005. Maine Iowa Chief of Information Services, Employment Security Commission, 1000 East Grand Ave., Des Moines, Iowa 50319. Kansas Montana Information Officer, Employment Security Di vision, P.O. Box 1728, Helena, Mont. 59601. Nebraska Information Officer, Division of Employment, Department of Labor, P.O. Box 94600, State House Station, Lincoln, Nebr. 68509. Nevada Public Information Officer, Employment Se curity Department, 500 East Third St., Carson City, Nev. 89701. Public Information Officer, Employment Se curity Division, P.O. Box 2981, Little Rock, Ark. 72203. Public Relations Director, Department of Hu man Resources, 401 Topeka Ave., Tope ka, Kans. 66603. California Kentucky New Hampshire Public Information Section, Employment De velopment Department, 800 Capitol Mall, Sacramento, Calif. 95814. Supervisor, Public Information, Department of Human Resources, 592 East Main St., Frankfort, Ky. 40601. Commissioner, Department of Employment Security, 32 South Maine St., Concord, N.H. 03301. 8 New Jersey Tennessee Director of Public Information, Division of Employment Security, Department of La bor and Industry, John Fitch Plaza, Tren ton, N.J. 08625. Chief of Public Relations, Department of Em ployment Security, 519 Cordell Hull Bldg., Nashville, Tenn. 37219. New Mexico Information Officer, Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 1928, Albuquer que, N. Mex. 87103. New York Texas Public Information Officer, Texas Employ ment Commission, TEC Bldg., 15th and Congress Ave., Austin, Tex. 78778. Utah Director, Division of Research and Statistics, Department of Labor, 2 World Trade Center, New York, N.Y. 10047. Public Relations Director, Department of Em ployment Security, P.O. Box 11249, Salt Lake City, Utah 84111. North Carolina Vermont Communications and Information Specialist, Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 25903, Raleigh, N.C. 27602. Public Information Officer, Department of Employment Security, P.O. Box 488, Montpelier, Vt. 05602. North Dakota Virginia Public Information Section, Employment Se curity Bureau, 145 South Front St., Bis marck, N. Dak. 58501. Director, Information Services, Virginia Em ployment Commission, P.O. Box 1358, Richmond, Va. 23211. Ohio Washington Public Information Officer, Bureau of Em ployment Services, 145 South Front St., Columbus, Ohio 43216. Information Officer, Employment Security Department, P.O. Box 367, Olympia, Wash. 98504. Oklahoma West Virginia Information Director, Employment Security Commission, Will Rogers Memorial Of fice Bldg., Oklahoma City, Okla. 73105. Oregon Information Officer, Employment Division, 875 Union St. NE., Salem, Oreg. 97310. Pennsylvania Director of Public Relations, Bureau of Em ployment Security, Department of Labor and Industry Bldg., 7th and Forster Sts., Harrisburg, Pa. 17121. Information Representative, Department of Employment Security, 4407 McCorkle Ave. SE., Charleston, W. Va. 25305. Wisconsin Director of Information, Department of Indus try, Labor, and Human Relations, P.O. Box 2209, Madison, Wis. 53701. Wyoming Information Officer, Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 2760, Casper, Wyo. 82601. Puerto Rico Information Officer, Bureau of Employment Security, 414 Barbosa Ave., Hato Rey, P.R. 00917. Rhode Island Information Officer, Department of Employ ment Security, 24 Mason St., Providence, R.I. 02903. South Carolina Public Information Director, Employment Se curity Commission, P.O. Box 995, Colum bia, S.C. 29202. South Dakota Public Information Director, Department of Labor, Office Bldg. No. 2, Pierre, S. Dak. 57501. Career Information for Special Groups C ertain groups of jobseekers face special difficulties in obtaining suit able and satisfying em ploym ent. All too often, veterans, youth, h an d i capped persons, m em bers of ethnic and racial m inorities, older workers, and women experience difficulty in the labor m arket. Choosing a career wisely and realistically is im portant for everyone, but it is doubly im por tan t for m em bers of these groups. S pecial co u n selin g , train in g , and p la c e m e n t are availab le in m any co m m u n itie s—th ro u g h the public em ploym ent service, community ser vice agencies, or other organizations. In addition, literature on career guidance and vocational training for special labor force groups is available from the Federal Governm ent. Most of these publications can be obtained free of charge. Following are select ed examples: Youth Employment and Training fo r Youth. (p ro g ra m fa c t s h e e t) , F e b ru a ry 1977. Office of Information, Inquiries Section, Room 10225, Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of La bor, 601 D St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20213. A Message to Young Workers About the Fair Labor Standards Act, As Amended in 1974. (WH Publication 1236), 1976. Office of Information, Room 4331, Employ ment Standards Administration, U.S. De partment of Labor, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20210. Mentally handicapped These, Too, Must Be Equal:America's Needs in Habilitation and Em ploy ment o f the Mentally Retarded, 1974. President’s Committee on Mental Retarda tion, Regional Office Building, 7th and D Sts. SW., Washington, D.C. 20201. Guide to Job Placement o f Mentally Retarded Workers. Preparing fo r Work, 1975. How to Get a Job. Jobs and Mentally Retarded People, 1974. President’s Committee on Employment of the Handicapped, Room 600, Vanguard Building, 1111 20th St. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. Affirmative Action to Employ Handi capped People. Office of Information, Room 4331, Employ ment Standards Administration, U.S. De partment of Labor, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20210. Physically handicapped Careers fo r the Homebound. People at Work:50 Profiles o f Men and Women With MS, 1975. President’s Committee on Employment of the Handicapped, Room 600, Vanguard Building, t i l l 20th St. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. 9 Affirm ative Action to Employ Handi capped People. Office of Information, Room 4331, Employ ment Standards Administration, U.S. De partment of Labor, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20210. Older workers The Law Against Age Discrimination in E m p lo ym en t. (W H P ub licatio n 1303). Office of Information, Room 4331, Employ ment Standards Administration, U.S. De partment of Labor, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20210. Services fo r Older Workers, (program fact sheet), April 1977. M emo to Mature Jobseekers, 1977. Office of Information, Inquiries Section, Room 10225, Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of La bor, 601 D St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20213. Em ploym ent and Volunteer Opportu nities fo r Older People. (A oA F act Sheet), Revised 1976. National Clearinghouse on Aging, Room 4146, U.S. Department of Health, Educa tion, and Welfare, 330 Independence Ave. SW., Washington, D.C. 20201. Women Steps to Opening the Skilled Trades to Women, June 1974. Why N ot be an Apprentice and Be come a Skilled Craft Worker, (leaflet 52), 1974. Publications o f the Women's Bureau, January 1977. Selected Sources o f Career Inform a tion, 1974. Women’s Bureau, Employment Standards Ad ministration, U.S. Department of Labor, 200 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20210. Veterans Out o f the Service and Looking fo r a Job? Here's Help!, 1976. Veterans fo r Hire: Good Business, 1976. Office o f Information, Inquiries Section, Room 10225, Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Department of La bor, 601 D St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20213. V etera n s R e a d ju s tm e n t A p p o in t m e n t s — Q u e s t i o n s a n d A nswers.(BRE-36), revised 1977. Bureau of Recruiting and Examining, Room 6552, Civil Service Commission, 1900 E St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20415. 10 T he follow ing p u b lic a tio n s are available from VA regional offices (listed in the telephone directory u n d er “ U nited States G overnm ent— V eterans A dm inistration” ) or from: your job search are also likely to give you ideas. Want ads. The “ Help W anted” ads in a m ajor newspaper contain hundreds of job listings. As a job search tool, Department of Veterans Benefits - 232A, Vet they have two advantages: They are erans Administration Central Office, 810 Vermont Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. cheap and easy to acquire, and they 20420. often result in successful placem ent. T h ere are disadvantages as well. A p p re n tic e sh ip or O th e r O n-Job Training Benefits fo r Veterans With W ant ads give a distorted view of the Service Since January 31, 1975. (VA local labor m arket, for they tend to u n d e rre p re se n t sm all firm s. T hey pam phlet 20-69-4), M arch 1975. also tend to overrepresent certain A Sum m ary o f Employment Benefits o ccu p atio n s, such as clerical and and Opportunities fo r Vietnam Era sales jobs. How helpful they are to Veterans. (V A pam phlet 20-69-6), you will depend largely on the kind D ecem ber 1974. of job you seek. Bear in mind that want ads do not provide com plete inform ation; many Information on Finding a Job ads give little or no description of the Do you need help in finding a job? jo b , w orking conditions, and pay. For inform ation on job openings, fol Some ads om it the identity of the low up as many leads as possible. em ployer. In addition, firms often P are n ts, neighbors, teac h ers, and run multiple listings. Some ads offer counselors may know of jobs. C heck jobs in other cities (which do not the w ant ads. Investigate the local help the local w orker); others adver office of your State em ploym ent ser tise em ploym ent agencies rather than vice. And find out w hether private or employment. If you use the want ads, keep the nonprofit em ploym ent agencies in your com m unity can help you. The following suggestions in mind: * D o n ’t rely exclusively on the following section will give you some idea of where you can go to look for want ads; follow up other leads, too. * Answer ads promptly. The open a job and what sort of help to expect. ing may be filled before the ad stops Informal job search methods. Infor running. * Follow the ads diligently. C heck mal m ethods of job search are the most popular, and also the most ef ing them every day as early as possi fective. Informal m ethods include di ble gives you the best advantage over rect application to employers with or other applicants, which may m ean w ithout referral by friends or rela the difference between a job and a tives. Jobseekers locate a firm th at rejection. * D o n ’t expect too m uch from might employ them and file an appli cation, often without certain know l “ blind ad s” that do not reveal the em ployer’s identity. Employers use edge that an opening exists. You can find targets for your infor blind ads to avoid being swamped mal search in several ways. The Y el with applicants, or to fill a particular low Pages and local cham bers o f vacancy quietly and confidentially. com m erce will give you the nam es The chances of finding a job through and addresses of appropriate firms in blind ads tend to be slim. * Be cautious about answering “ no the com m unity where you wish to experience necessary” ads. Most em work. You can also get listings of most firms in a specific industry— ployers are able to fill job openings banking, insurance, m anufacturing, that do not require experience with and new spaper publishing, for exam out advertising in the new spaper. ple—by consulting one of the direc This type of ad may m ean that the tories on the reference shelf of your job is h ard to fill because of low public library. Friends and relatives wages or poor working conditions, or may suggest places to apply for a job, because it is straight com m ission and people you m eet in the course of work. Public employment service. The pub lic em ploym ent service, also called the Job Service, can be a good source of inform ation about job openings in your com m unity. Em ploym ent secu rity (ES) agencies in each of the 50 States and the D istrict of Colum bia are affiliated with the U.S. Em ploy m ent Service, and provide their ser vices w ith o u t c h a rg e . O p e ra tin g through a netw ork o f 2,500 local of fices, State agencies help jobseekers find em ploym ent and help em ployers find qualified workers. To find the office nearest you, look in the State governm ent telephone listings under “ Job Service” or “ E m ploym ent.” If the local office does not provide the inform ation or services you are look ing for, write to the inform ation offi cer in your State capital. Addresses are given in the first section o f this chapter. of interest, suggest training program s and other m eans o f preparing for a particular occupation, or simply ad vise you on compiling a resume. One other aspect o f your local of fice’s services deserves particular a t ten tio n —the occupational registers. E m ploym ent service offices often m aintain files of resum es o f qualified workers in professional, clerical, and craft occupations, for use by em ploy ers seeking such w orkers. Ask to have your resume filed in the appro priate register. Job Information Service. The Job In form ation Service (JIS) plays an im portant role in m atching workers and jobs. JIS provides a self-service list ing o f job openings, as well as a li brary o f occupational and job search literatu re. Em ploym ent service o f fices in m ost large cities have a Job Bank as well—a com puterized file o f General services. Assuming you come job openings, revised and printed out to your local em ploym ent service of daily. Because it is self-service, the fice because you’re looking for a job, JIS unit is m eant for applicants who the first step is to filLout an applica know w hat kind o f work they are tion th at asks for general background qualified to do. Those applicants can and work history. To speed up the look over Job Bank listings and select process, you should bring along com the openings they w ant to apply for. plete inform ation on previous jobs, This gives them quick access to job in c lu d in g d a te s o f e m p lo y m e n t, inform ation and frees em ploym ent nam es and addresses o f employers, service staff to spend m ore time with and pay levels. clients who need personal assistance. The JIS may include the Job Bank A fter com pleting the application, you will talk briefly with an inter Openings Summary (JBOS) and the viewer in o rder to be classified into a Job Bank Frequently Listed O pen p articular jo b clu ster—professional ings R eport (JOB-FLO). JBOS is a and m anagem ent, sales, clerical, and m onthly report that provides infor so forth. This process, although cru m ation on jo b opportunities listed cial, takes very little time. If you have during the previous m onth in Job specific training and experience and Banks across the Nation. JOB-FLO know exactly what you want, the ini provides similar inform ation, but fo tial interview may suffice. M ost ap cuses on the “ high volum e” occupa plicants, however, can benefit from tions—those with the greatest num additional guidance services, which ber of openings. JBOS and JOB-FLO are available on request. The u n may not help you find a particular skilled and inexperienced may take a opening, but they can describe em g en eral a p titu d e te st b attery th at ploym ent trends in a particular city m easures their abilities, and a voca or pinpoint the cities that have the tional interest questionaire that m ea greatest num bers o f openings in a sures th e ir o cc u p atio n al interests. particular occupation. The JIS also includes a m onthly Specific tests in typing and shorthand publication, entitled “ O ccupations in may also be given. You may also talk at length with D em and,” that reports the num ber o c c u p a tio n a l c o u n s e lo r s . T h e se and locations o f openings in highcounselors, or interview ers, can as dem and occupations during the p re sist in a wide range of areas. They vious m onth. It is designed to be eas can help you pinpoint a suitable field ily read by the average jobseeker and can be found in libraries and counsel ing offices as well as at the employ m ent service. Special services. Serving people with job m arket disadvantages is an im portant function of the employm ent service, and many local offices have specially trained counselors who ad vise veterans, youth, handicapped, or older workers. By law, veterans are entitled to pri ority in interview ing, counseling, testing, jo b developm ent, and jo b placem ent. Special counselors called veterans reem ploym ent representa tives are trained to deal with the p ar ticular problem s of veterans, many of whom find it difficult to readjust to civilian life. While such veterans of ten face multiple problem s, jobless ness alone is a m ajor barrier to re suming an ordinary life. Special help for disabled veterans begins with o u t reach units in each State, whose job it is to identify jobless disabled veter ans and m ake them aw are o f the many kinds of assistance available to them. As p art of the effort to reduce ex cessive youth unem ploym ent, local em ploym ent service offices test and co u n sel young p eo p le, and re fer them to training program s or jobs whenever possible. These offices also m anage sum m er youth program s. Youthful jobseekers from very poor families receive inform ation on the various kinds of federally funded job program s for young people, includ ing part-tim e and w ork-experience projects and the Job Corps. For people with m ental or physical disabilities, the em ploym ent service provides assistance in making realis tic job choices, and in overcoming problem s related to getting and hold ing jobs. Job openings for h an d i capped workers are listed as well. Of t e n , t h e s e o p e n in g s a re w ith governm ent contractors and oth er firms th at are making a positive ef fort to employ handicapped workers. O lder worker specialists in many local em ploym ent service offices as sist middle-aged and older workers, whose jo b search generally differs from that of younger workers. Both counseling and placem ent services are tailored to the unique needs of 11 o lder w orkers. Jo b seekers over 55 who have very low incom es may be referred to one o f the thousands of p art-tim e, com m unity service jobs for the elderly funded by the Federal G overnm ent. Private employment agencies. In the appropriate section of the classified ads o r the telephone book you can find n u m ero u s ad v ertisem en ts for private em ploym ent agencies. All are in business to m ake m oney, but some offer higher quality service and b et ter chances o f successful placem ent than others. T h e th re e m ain places in which private agencies advertise are news p ap er w ant ads, the Yellow Pages, and trad e journals. T elephone list ings give little m ore than the nam e, address, phone num ber, and special ty of the agency, while trade journals only list openings for a particular o c cupation, such as accountant or com puter program m m er. W ant ads, then, are the best source o f general listings o f agencies. These listings fall into two catego ries—those offering specific o p en ings and those offering general prom ise o f e m p lo y m e n t. Y o u sh o u ld co n cen trate on the form er, using the latter only as a last resort. W ith a specific opening m entioned in the ad, you have g reater assurance o f the agency’s desire to place qualified in dividuals in suitable jobs. W hen responding to such an ad, you may learn m ore about the job over the phone. If you are interested, visit the agency, fill out an applica tion, p resent a resum e, and talk with an interview er. The agency will then arrange an interview with the em ployer if you are qualified, and p er haps suggest alternative openings if you are not. M ost agencies operate on a com mission basis, with the fee contingent upon a successful m atch. Agencies advertising “ no fees, no co n tracts” are paid by the em ployer and charge the ap p lican t nothing. Many other agencies, how ever, do charge their applicants. You should find out b e fore using them exactly what the ser vices will cost you. C om m unity agencies. A grow ing n um ber o f n o n p ro fit organizations 12 throughout the N ation provide co u n seling, career developm ent, and jo b placem ent services. These agencies generally concentrate on services for a p a r tic u la r la b o r fo rc e g ro u p — wom en, the elderly, youth, m inori ties, or ex-offenders, for example. C om m unity em ploym ent agencies serve an im portant function in p ro viding the extensive counseling th at many disadvantaged jobseekers re quire. They often help their clients resolve p erso n al, fam ily, or o th e r fu n d a m e n ta l p ro b le m s th a t m ay stand in the way o f finding a suitable job. Some agencies provide neces sary job training, while others refer th e ir clients to train in g program s elsewhere. For the m ost part, these com m unity agencies take a strong active interest in their clients, and provide an array of services designed to help people find and keep jobs. It’s up to you to discover w hether there are such agencies in your com m unity—and w hether they can help you. The State em ploym ent service should be able to tell you w hether such an agency has been established in your com m unity. If the local office cannot help, write the State inform a tio n o ffic e r. Y o u r c h u rc h , sy n a gogue, or local library may have the inform ation, too. The U.S. D epart m ent o f L abor is another possible source o f inform ation, for many o f these agencies receive some or all o f their funding from the Federal G ov ernm ent, through the C om prehen sive Em ploym ent and Training A ct (C ETA ). Among its many and varied provisions, CETA authorizes Federal m oney for local organizations th at offer jo b counseling, training, and placem ent help to unem ployed and disadvantaged persons. For further inform ation, write: Office of Comprehensive Employment Devel opment, Employment and Training Ad ministration, U.S. Department of Labor, Room 6000, 601 D St. NW., Washington, D.C., 20213; or the Office of Information, Room 10406, at the same address. A nother likely source of inform a tion is the U.S. D epartm ent of L a b o r’s Directory fo r Reaching Minority Groups. Although the 1973 directory is out o f print, a revised edition is being prepared, and will list organi zations th at provide job inform ation, training, and other services to m inor ities. For inform ation, write to: Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor, 601 D St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20213. A directory that lists em ploym ent counseling and advocacy organiza tions for wom en is available for a nom inal charge from: Wider Opportunities for Women (WOW), 1649 K St. NW., Washington, D.C., 20006. College career planning and place ment offices. For those who have ac cess to them , career planning and p lace m en t offices at colleges and universities offer the jobseeker many valuable services. Like the com m uni ty agencies that serve disadvantaged jo b se e k e rs by offering supportive services, college placem ent offices function as m ore than just em ploy m ent agencies. In addition to coun seling, they teach students to acquire jo b seek in g skills. They em phasize writing resumes and letters of appli cation, making a list of possible em ployers, preparing for interviews, and other aspects of job searching. C ol lege placem ent offices offer o th er services, too. A t larger cam puses they bring students and em ployers together by providing schedules and facilities for interviews with industry recruiters. Many offices also m ain tain lists of local part-tim e and tem porary jobs, and some have files of summer openings. Labor Market Information All S ta te em p lo y m en t sec u rity agencies develop detailed labor m ar ket data needed by em ploym ent and train in g specialists and ed u cato rs who plan for local needs. Such infor m ation helps policym akers decide whether or not to expand a vocation al training program , for exam ple—or drop it altogether. Jobseekers and counselors also may find these stud ies helpful. Typically, State agencies publish reports that deal with future occupational supply, characteristics of the work force, changes in State and area econom ic activities, and the em ploym ent structure of im portant industries. For all S tates, and for nearly all Standard M etropolitan Sta tistical A reas (SM SA’s) of 50,000 in habitants or more, d ata are available th a t show cu rren t em ploym ent as well as estim ated future needs. This inform ation is very detailed; general ly, each State issues a report covering current and future em ploym ent for as many as 200 industries and 400 occupations. In addition, m ajor sta tistical indicators of labor m arket ac tivity are released by all of the States on a m onthly, quarterly, and annual basis. For inform ation on the various labor m ark et studies, reports, and analyses available in a specific State, c o n ta c t the ch ief o f research and analysis in the State em ploym ent se curity agency. Titles and addresses are as follows: Alabama Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Industrial Relations, Industrial Relations Bldg., 649 Monroe St., Montgomery, Ala. 36130. Alaska Chief, Research and Analysis, Employment Security Division, Department of Labor, P.O. Box 3-7000, Juneau, Alaska 99811. Arizona Manager, Labor Market Information, Re search and Analysis, Department of Eco nomic Security, P.O. Box 6123, Phoenix, Ariz. 85005. District of Columbia Maine Chief, Division of Manpower Reports and Analysis, Office of Administration and Management Services, D.C. Department of Manpower, 605 G St. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20001. Director, Manpower Research Division, Em ployment Security Commission, 20 Union St., Augusta, Maine 04330. Florida Director, Research and Statistics, Division of Employment Security, Florida Depart ment of Commerce, 1720 South Gadsden St., Tallahassee, Fla. 32304. Georgia Director, Information Systems, Employment Security Agency, Department of Labor, 254 Washington St. SW., Atlanta, Ga. 30334. Hawaii Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Labor and Industrial Relations, 825 Mililani St., Honolulu, Hawaii 96813. Idaho Chief, Research and Analysis, Department of Employment, P.O. Box 35, Boise, Idaho 83707. Illinois Manager, Research and Analysis Division, Bu reau of Employment Security, Depart ment of Labor, 910 South Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60605. Indiana Arkansas Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Security Division, P.O. Box 2981, Little Rock, Ark. 72203. California Chief, Employment Data and Research Divi sion, Employment Development Depart ment, 800 Capitol Mall, Sacramento, Calif. 95814. Chief of Research, Employment Security Divi sion, 10 North Senate Ave., Indianapolis, Ind. 46204. Iowa Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Security Commission, 1000 East Grand Ave., Des Monies, Iowa 50319. Kansas Colorado Chief, Research and Analysis, Division of Em ployment, Department of Labor and Em ployment, 251 East 12th Ave., Denver, Colo. 80203. Connecticut Chief, Research and Analysis Department, Employment Security Division, Depart ment of Labor, 401 Topeka Ave., Tope ka, Kans. 66603. Maryland Acting Director, Research and Analysis, De partment of Human Resources, 1 100 North Eutaw St., Baltimore, Md. 21201. Massachusetts Assistant Director, Research and Information Service, Division of Employment Securi ty, Hurley Bldg., Government Center, Boston, Mass. 02114. Michigan Director, Research and Statistics Division, Employment Security Commission, De partment of Labor Bldg., 7310 Wood ward Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48202. Minnesota Director, Research and Planning, Department of Employment Services, 390 North Rob ert St., St. Paul, Minn. 55101. Mississippi Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 1699, Jackson, Miss. 39205. Missouri Chief, Research and Analysis, Division of Em ployment Security, Department of Labor and Industrial Relations, P.O. Box 59, Jef ferson City, Mo. 65101. Montana Chief, Research and Analysis, Employment Security Division, P.O. Box 1728, Helena, Mont. 59601. Nebraska Chief, Research and Statistics, Division of Em ployment, Department of Labor, P.O. Box 94600, State House Station, Lincoln, Nebr. 68509. Nevada Chief, Manpower Information and Research, Employment Security Department, 500 East Third St., Carson City, Nev. 89701. Kentucky Director, Research and Special Projects, De partment of Human Resources, State Of fice Building Annex, Frankfort, Ky. 40601. New Hampshire Delaware Louisiana New Jersey Chief, Office of Research, Planning, and Evaluation, Department of Labor, 801 West 14th St., Wilmington, Del. 19899. Acting Chief, Research and Statistics, Depart ment of Employment Security, P.O. Box 44094, Baton Rouge, La. 70804. Director, Division of Planning and Research, Department of Labor and Industry, John Fitch Plaza, Trenton, N.J. 08625. Director, Research and Information, Con necticut Employment Security Division, 200 Folly Brook Blvd., Weatherfield, Conn. 06109. Supervisor, Economic Analysis and Reports, Department of Employment Security, 32 South Main St., Concord, N.H. 03301. 13 New Mexico Pennsylvania Utah Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 1928, Al buquerque, N. Mex. 87103. Assistant Director, Research and Statistics, Bureau of Employment Security, Depart ment of Labor and Industry, 7th and For ster Sts., Harrisburg, Pa. 17121. Director, Reports and Analysis, Department of Employment Security, P.O. Box 11249, Salt Lake City, Utah 84111. New York Director, Division of Research and Statistics, Department of Labor, 2 World Trade Center, New York, N.Y. 10047. Puerto Rico Chief of Research and Statistics, Bureau of Employment Security, 427 Barbosa Ave., Hato Rey, P.R. 00917. North Carolina Vermont Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Employment Security, P.O. Box 488, Montpelier, Vt. 05602. Rhode Island Virginia Supervisor, Employment Security Research, Department of Employment Security, 24 Mason St., Providence, R.I. 02903. Chief, Manpower Research, Virginia Employ ment Commission, P.O. Box 1358, Rich mond, Va. 23211. North Dakota South Carolina Washington Chief, Reports and Analysis, Employment Se curity Bureau, P.O. Box 1537, Bismarck, N. Dak. 58501. Director, Manpower Research and Analysis, Employment Security Commission, 1550 Gadsden St., Columbia, S.C. 29202. Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Security Department, P.O. Box 367, Olympia, Wash. 98504. Ohio South Dakota West Virginia Director, Division of Research and Statistics, Bureau o f Employment Services, 145 South Front St., Columbus, Ohio 43216. Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Security Department, 607 North Fourth St., Box 730, Aberdeen, S. Dak. 57401. Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Employment Security, 112 California Ave., Charleston, W. Va. 25305. Oklahoma Tennessee Chief, Research and Planning Division, Em ployment Security Commission, Will Rog ers Memorial Office Bldg., Oklahoma City, Okla. 73105. Chief, Research and Statistics, Department of Employment Security, 519 Cordell Hull Bldg., Nashville, Tenn. 37219. Manager, Bureau of Employment Security Re search, Employment Security Commis sion, P.O. Box 25903, Raleigh, N.C. 27602. Texas Oregon Chief, Research and Statistics, Employment Division, 875 Union St. NE., Salem, Oreg. 97310. 14 Chief, Manpower Data Analysis and Research, Texas Employment Commission, TEC Bldg., 15th and Congress Ave., Austin, Tex. 78778. Wisconsin Director, Research and Statistics, Department of Industry, Labor and Human Relations, P.O. Box 2209, Madison, Wis. 53701. Wyoming Chief, Research and Analysis, Employment Security Commission, P.O. Box 2760, Casper, Wyo. 82601. III. ASSUMPTIONS AND METHODS USED IN PREPARING EMPLOYMENT PROJECTIONS Although the discussions o f future job prospects contained in the Occu pational Outlook fo r College Gradu ates are written in qualitative term s, the analyses upon w hich they are based begin with quantitative esti mates o f projected em ploym ent, re placem ent openings, an d —in a few cases—supply. These projections were developed using the m ost recent d ata available on population, industry and occupa tio n al em p lo y m en t, p ro d u c tiv ity , consum er ex p enditures, and o th er factors expected to affect em ploy m ent. T he B ureau’s research offices provided m uch o f these data, but many oth er agencies of the Federal G o v ern m en t w ere im p o rta n t c o n trib u to rs, including the B ureau of A pprenticeship and Training and the U.S. Em ploym ent Service, both in the Em ploym ent and Training A d m inistration o f the D epartm ent of Labor; the Bureau o f the Census of the D epartm ent o f C om m erce; the Office o f E ducation and the R eha bilitation Services Adm inistration of the D ep artm en t o f H ealth, E duca tion, and W elfare; the V eterans Ad m inistration; the Civil Service Com m ission; th e In terstate C om m erce Com m ission; the Civil A eronautics Board; the Federal Com m unications C o m m issio n ; th e D e p a rtm e n t o f Transportation; and the National Sci ence Foundation. In ad d itio n , experts in industry, unions, professional societies, and trade associations furnished data and supplied inform ation through inter views. M any of these individuals also reviewed prelim inary drafts of the statem ents. The inform ation present ed in each statem ent thus reflects the knowledge and judgm ent not only of the Bureau of L abor Statistics staff, but also o f leaders in the fields dis cu sse d , a lth o u g h th e B u rea u , o f course, takes full responsibility. After the inform ation from these sources was com piled, it was an a lyzed in conjunction with the Bu r e a u ’s m o d el o f th e econom y in 1985. Like other m odels used in eco nom ic forecasting, it encom passes the m ajor facets of the economy and represents a com prehensive view o f its projected structure. The B ureau’s model is com prised of internally con sistent projections of gross national p r o d u c t (G N P ) an d its c o m p o nents—consum er expenditures, busi ness investm ent, governm ent expen ditures, and net exports; industrial output and productivity; labor force; average weekly hours of work; and em ploym ent fo r detailed industry groups and occupations. The m eth ods used to develop the em ploym ent projections in this publication are the same as those used in other Bureau o f L ab o r S tatistics studies o f th e econom y. D etailed descriptions o f these m ethods appear in The U.S. E conom y in 1985, BLS B u lle tin 1809, an d th e B L S H andbook o f Methods fo r Surveys and Studies, Bul letin 1910. Assumptions. The B ureau’s projec tions to 1985 are based on the fol lowing general assumptions: —The institutional framework of the U.S. economy will not change radically. —Current social, technological, and scientific trends will continue, including values placed on work, education, income, and leisure. —The economy will gradually recover from the high unemployment levels of the mid1970’s and reach full employment (de fined as an unemployment rate of 4 per cent) in the mid-1980’s. —No major event such as widespread or longlasting energy shortages or war will signif icantly alter the industrial structure of the economy or alter the rate of economic growth. —Trends in the occupational structure of in dustries will not be altered radically by changes in relative wages, technological changes, or other factors. Methods. Beginning with popula tion projections by age and sex devel oped by the Bureau of the Census, a projection of the total labor force is derived using expected labor force participation rates for each of these groups. In developing the participa tion rates, the Bureau takes into ac count a variety of factors that affect a person’s decision to enter the labor force, such as school attendance, re tirem en t practices, and family re sponsibilities. The labor force projection then is translated into the level of GNP that would be produced by a fully em ployed labor force. Unemployed p er sons are subtracted from the labor force estim ate and the result is m ulti plied by a projection of output per worker. The estimates of future o u t p u t p er w orker are based on an analysis o f tren d s in productivity (output per work hour) among in dustries and changes in the average weekly hours of work. Next, the projection of GNP is di vided among its m ajor components: Consum er expenditures, business in v e s tm e n t, g o v e rn m e n t e x p e n d i tu re s—F ederal, S tate, and lo cal— and net exports. Each of these com ponents is broken down by produc ing industry. Thus, consum er expen d itu res, for exam ple, are divided am ong industries producing goods and services such as housing, food, autom obiles, medical care, and edu cation. Once estimates are developed for these products and services, they are translated into detailed projections of industry output, not only for the industries producing the final prod uct, but also for the interm ediate and 15 basic industries that provide the raw m aterials, electric pow er, transporta tion, com ponent parts, and other in puts required in the production p ro cess. To facilitate this translation, the D epartm ent of C om m erce has devel oped input-output tables that indi cate the am ount of output from each industry—steel, glass, plastics, e tc.— th at is required to produce a final product, autom obiles for example. By using estim ates of future output per w ork-hour based on studies of p r o d u c ti v i t y a n d te c h n o lo g ic a l tren d s for each industry, industry em ploym ent projections are derived from the o u tput estim ates. These projections are then com pared with em ploym ent projections d eriv ed using reg ressio n analysis. This analysis develops equations that relate em p lo y m en t by industry to com binations o f econom ic variables, such as population and incom e, that are considered determ inants of longrun changes in em ploym ent. By com paring projections resulting from in p u t-o u tp u t analysis and regression analysis, areas m ay be id en tified where one m ethod produces a p ro jection inconsistent with past trends or with the B ureau’s econom ic m od el. The projections are then adjusted accordingly. Occupational employment projec tions. Projections o f industry em ploy m en t are tra n sla te d into o c c u p a tional em ploym ent projections using an industry-occupation matrix. This matrix, which is divided into 200 in dustry sectors and 400 occupation sectors, describes the cu rren t and projected occupational structure of each industry. By applying the pro je c te d o c c u p a tio n a l stru c tu re for each industry to the industry em ploy m ent projection and aggregating the resulting estim ates, em ploym ent pro jections for each of the 400 occupa tions contained in the matrix are ob ta in e d . T h e g ro w th ra te o f an occupation, thus, is determ ined by 1) changes in the proportion of workers in the occupation to the total work force in each industry, and 2) the growth rate of industries in which an occupation is concentrated. An o c cupation that is projected to increase as a proportion of the work force in each industry, for example, or one 16 that is concentrated in industries p ro jected to grow m ore rapidly than the average for all industries, would be projected to grow faster than the av erage for all occupations. In some cases em ploym ent is relat ed directly to one of the com ponents of the B ureau’s m odel—for example, the num ber of physicians is related to consum er ex p en d itu res for health care. In others, em ploym ent is relat ed to an independent variable not explicitly projected in the model, but believed to be a prim ary determ inant of em ploym ent in th at occupation. The projection of airplane pilots, for example, is based on the expected num ber o f hours th at com m ercial aircraft will be flown. Keep in mind that some variables can be predicted more accurately than others. For ex am ple, the size o f the school-age population, which affects needs for teachers, can be estim ated with a high degree o f confidence because most of the people who will be a t tending school over the next decade have already been born. On the other hand, the level of defense spending, which affects the needs for scientists and engineers is quite difficult. D e fense spending depends on govern m e n t p o lic y , w hich ca n c h a n g e quickly and radically. Projections that are developed in d e p e n d e n tly a re c o m p a re d w ith those in the m atrix and revised, if necessary, to assure consistency. Replacement needs. In addition to a projection of em ploym ent for each occupation, a projection is made o f the num ber of workers who will be needed as replacem ents. Separations co n stitu te a significant source o f openings. In most occupations, more workers are needed to replace those who retire, die, or leave the occupa tion than are needed to fill jobs creat ed by grow th. C onsequently, even som e declining o c c u p atio n s offer em ploym ent opportunities. To estim ate replacem ent openings, the Bureau has developed tables o f working life based on actuarial expe rience for deaths and on decennial census data for general patterns o f labor force participation by age and sex. W ithdrawals from each occupa tion are ca lcu lated separately for men and women by age group and used to com pute an overall separa tion rate for the occupation. These rates are used to estim ate average annual replacem ent needs for each occupation over the projection peri od. The Bureau is currently analyzing data from the 1970 Census to d eter m ine th e e ffe c t o f o c c u p a tio n a l tra n sfe rs on jo b openings. T hese transfers have not been taken into account in calculating replacem ent needs. Some data on occupational transfers have been published in two M o n th ly L abor R ev iew a r tic le s , “ O c c u p a tio n a l M o b ility in th e Am erican Labor F orce” and “ O ccu pational Mobility of H ealth W ork ers,” January and May 1977, respec tively. Supply. Supply estim ates used in analysis of many occupations p re sented in this publication represent the num bers of workers who are like ly to seek entry to a particular occu pation if past trends of entry to the o c c u p a tio n co n tin u e. T hese e s ti mates are developed independently of the dem and estimates. Thus, sup ply and dem and are not discussed in the usual economic sense in which wages play a major role in equating supply and demand. Statistics on col lege enrollm ents and graduations by field are the chief sources of inform a tion on the potential supply of per sonnel in professional, technical, and other occupations requiring exten sive form al ed u catio n . A B ureau p u b licatio n , O ccupational Supply: Concepts and Sources o f Data fo r M anpower Analysis (BLS B ulletin 1816, 1974), explores several as pects of occupational supply. Job outlook for college graduates as a whole. In addition to projecting the job outlook for many occupations sought by college graduates, the Bu reau has analyzed the outlook for graduates as a whole. The analysis was done by com paring projected openings in the types of jobs requir ing a college degree or usually sought by graduates with estim ates of the num ber of graduates expected to en ter the labor force. Table 1 presents data on trends in the p ro p o rtio n of w orkers with 4 years of college or m ore in each o f the nine major occupational groups. Table 1. Percent of workers in major occupational groups with 4 years of college or more, selected years, 1959-76 and projected 1985 Year 1959......................................... 1962......................................... 1964......................................... 1965......................................... 1966......................................... 1968......................................... 1969......................................... 1970......................................... 1971......................................... 1972......................................... 1973 ......................................... 1974......................................... 1975......................................... 1976......................................... Projected 1985....................... All occupa tional groups Profes sional and technical workers Managers and admini strators Sales workers Clerical workers Service workers Craft workers Opera tives Labor ers Farm workers 10.0 11.5 11.7 12.0 12.1 12.8 12.9 12.8 14.1 14.1 14.6 15.5 16.7 17.4 18.1 56.1 57.5 59.2 58.8 59.1 59.4 59.1 59.8 60.2 60.3 62.4 62.9 63.8 64.6 68.0 13.1 15.5 16.2 17.7 19.6 20.6 20.1 20.1 23.5 25.7 26.4 28.0 28.5 28.9 36.2 10.1 11.7 10.6 9.8 11.3 10.7 11.0 11.8 13.3 15.2 15.5 16.5 17.2 18.7 21.5 4.9 5.8 5.3 5.5 4.8 4.7 4.5 4.7 5.0 5.8 5.5 6.5 7.6 8.3 6.5 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.8 2.2 2.5 2.9 3.1 3.9 3.5 2.1 1.6 1.6 2.1 1.7 1.6 2.0 1.8 1.9 2.1 2.7 3.1 3.3 3.6 3.1 0.8 .9 1.0 .8 .6 .7 .7 .8 .9 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.7 1.8 1.5 0.5 .7 .8 .9 .4 .7 .6 .7 1.6 1.5 1.3 1.4 2.2 2.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 2.2 1.7 1.8 1.2 2.2 1.2 2.3 2.8 4.3 4.8 5.1 7.4 6.1 These trends were analyzed to d eter mine w hat proportion o f the jobs in each m ajor group by 1985 would re quire a degree o r be o f the type usu ally sought by graduates. These pro portions were applied to projections o f total requirem ents for w orkers in each m ajor o ccu p ational group to obtain projections o f requirem ents for college graduates by m ajor occu pational group, and group totals were sum m ed. T he p ro jec ted grow th in jobs for college graduates, therefore, reflects bo th the overall grow th in jobs in the econom y and the increas ing p ro p o r tio n o f jo b s re q u irin g graduates. H igher p ro p o rtio n s o f graduates are projected to be needed in profes sional and technical, m anagerial and ad m in istrativ e, and sales o c c u p a tions, reflecting long-term trends in the increasingly sophisticated nature o f many o f these jobs. T he increased sophistication o f m anagem ent tech niques, the greater am ount o f legisla tion affecting adm inistrators, and the m ore advanced level o f technology all should contribute to the upgrad ing o f many jobs. To some extent, however, upgrading o f jobs in these groups reflects em ployers’ responses to the greater availability o f college graduates, rather than any change in the nature o f the work. The proportions o f w orkers in the o th er m ajor occupational groups— c le ric a l, b lu e -c o lla r, service, an d fa rm —re q u irin g a college d eg ree were projected to be som ewhat lower in 1985 th an actual 1976 p ro p o r tions. Em ployers traditionally have n o t so u g h t college g ra d u a te s fo r these kinds o f jobs, and, during the 1960’s when other jobs for graduates were plentiful, few graduates entered th e s e o c c u p a tio n s . D u rin g th e 1970’s, however, the proportions o f graduates in these jobs increased rap idly—reflecting, for the m ost p art, difficulty in finding m ore desirable jobs rath er than any upgrading o f jo b content. The projected proportions, nevertheless, are higher than those occurring during the 1960’s—reflect ing the g reater attractiveness, and perhaps upgrading, o f certain jobs in these groups such as police officers and detectives, insurance adjusters and investigators, and craft workers. Estim ates o f jo b openings over the 1976-85 period resulting from col lege graduates who are expected to die, retire, or leave the labor force for other reasons were calculated by applying actuarial-type d ata for age and sex groups to the age and sex distribution o f college graduates in the labor force. Estim ates of the num ber o f college graduates who are expected to en ter the labor force were based primarily on projections o f earned bachelor’s degrees developed by the National C enter for Education Statistics. T he average num ber o f b ac h elo r’s d e g re es g ra n te d a n n u a lly o v er th e 1976-85 period is expected to be slig h tly h ig h e r th a n th e n u m b e r granted during the 1975-76 academ ic year. F o r detailed discussion o f the m ethod used to develop these degree projections, see Projections o f Educa tion Statistics to 1985—86, U.S. D e partm ent o f Health, Education, and W elfare, National C enter for E duca tion Statistics, NCES 77-402. A d vanced degrees were not included in the calculations since virtually all ad vanced degree recipients would al ready have a bachelor’s degree and, therefore, were accounted for in the bachelor’s degree calculations. The num ber o f persons with co l lege degrees entering the labor force over th e 1976-85 period also in cludes som e graduates with degrees earned before 1976 who are not c u r rently in the labor force, graduates separating from the military, and im migrants with degrees. Projections of labor force entrants and re-entrants from these sources are based on his torical trends. 17 % IV. TOMORROW’S JOBS FOR COLLEGE GRADUATES M any questions m ust be consid ered by young persons as they at tem pt to m atch their abilities and int e r e s t s w ith th e v a r ie ty o f o ccu p atio n al choices. W hat fields are expected to offer good prospects for em ploym ent? W hat jobs require a college ed u catio n ? W ill education beyond a b achelor’s degree enhance career prospects in a particular occu pation? How do earnings com pare am ong occupations requiring similar training? W hat types o f em ployers provide which kinds o f jobs? Does a p a rtic u la r jo b o ffer stead y , yearround work or is it affected by m inor swings in the economy? T h e answ ers to th ese questions chan g e as o u r eco nom y changes. C urrent inform ation, therefore, is a necessity. This ch ap ter explores how changes in o u r industrial and eco nom ic fram ew ork affect the growth o f em ploym ent in specific occupa tions. Employment Projections in a Changing Economy T he dem and for w orkers in any oc cupation depends ultim ately on the tastes and desires o f consum ers. If a p ro d u c t o r se rv ic e is u n w a n te d , w h eth er by private o r public p u r chasers, no w orkers will be needed to produce o r provide it. C redit m anag ers w ould beco m e unn ecessary if everyone preferred to pay cash for the things they bought, as would as tronauts if the Federal G overnm ent abandoned its space program . Closely interw oven with the d e mand for products o r services is tech n ological inn o v atio n. In th e 20th century, technology has both created and elim inated h u n d red s o f th o u sands o f jobs. T he telephone, for ex ample, gave birth to an entire indus try at about the same tim e that the autom obile put stable ow ners and carriage m anufacturers out o f busi ness. Changes in the way businesses are organized and m anaged have had similar effects; the rise of superm ar ket chains has drastically reduced the num ber o f self-employed grocers. F ortunately, m ost o f the factors th at alter the dem and for w orkers in various occupations do not change overnight. Shifts in the state o f the econom y, th e introduction o f new technology, and the developm ent o f new organization and m anagem ent techniques generally occur in an o r derly, fairly predictable fashion. A l though no one can forecast the fu ture with certainty, it is possible to m ake industry and occupation em ploym ent projections th at are useful to ed u cato rs, vocational planners, and individuals who are planning their careers. The econom ic and sta tistical analysis used by the Bureau o f L abor Statistics to develop its projec tions is described in some detail in C hapter III. The following assessm ent o f indus trial and occupational growth begins with a projection o f the total labor force. By 1985, approxim ately 108.6 million persons will be in the civilian labor force. This represents a p ro jected 15 percent increase in the la bor force over the 1976-85 period. The growth o f individual industries and occupations will differ, however, from th a t o f the total labor force. T he following sections discuss the projected growth o f industries and occupations. The last part of this chapter relates jo b o p en in g s re su ltin g from th is growth to other inform ation about the labor m arket, and describes the overall em ploym ent situation th a t college graduates are likely to face through 1985. Industrial Profile Econom ists customarily divide our econom y into nine industry catego ries under two broad groups—goods p ro d u cin g and service producing. M ost o f the N ation’s workers cu r rently are em ployed in industries th at 1 Where people w ork Millions of workers, 1976 Goods-producing industries Manufacturing Contract construction Agriculture Mining Service-producing industries W holesale and retail trade Governm ent Services Transportation and public utilities Finance, insurance, and real estate Less than 4 years of college l 1 College ♦ Wage and salary workers, except agriculture, which includes self-employed and unpaid fam ily workers. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 19 Through the mid-1980's employment growth will vary widely by industry Percent change, 1976-85 projected -40 -20 0 20 40 60 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics provide services, such as education, health care, trade, repair and m ainte nance, governm ent, transportation, banking, and insurance. The produc tion o f goods through farm ing, con struction, mining, and m anufacturing requires only about one-third o f the country’s work force. Em ploym ent in the goods-producing industries has rem ained relatively constant since W orld W ar II, w here as the service-producing industries have expanded rapidly. Among the fa cto rs co n trib u tin g to this rapid growth w ere the m igration from rural to urban areas and the accom panying need for m ore local governm ent ser vices, and rising incom es and living standards th at resulted in a dem and for im proved health and education services. These factors are expected to continue to cause the dem and for services to grow. Service-Producing In d u stries. In 1976, m ore than 4 o u t o f 5 employed college graduates, ab o u t 11.7 m il lion, w ere in service-producing in dustries. (S ee ch a rt 1.) T otal em ploym ent in the service-producing ind ustries is ex p ected to increase from 56.1 million w orkers in 1976 to 71.0 million in 1985, an increase of 26 percent. O f course, growth rates will vary am ong the industries within this group. (See ch art 2.) 20 Trade, the largest o f the service in d u strie s, is e x p e c te d to grow by about 20 percent betw een 1976 and 1985, from 17.7 million to 21.3 m il lion workers. B oth w holesale an d retail trad e have in cre ased as p o p u latio n has grown and as rising incom es have e n abled people to buy a greater num ber and variety o f goods. R etail trade has grown m ore rapidly than wholesale trade as the expansion o f the suburbs has created a dem and for m ore shop ping centers. Although self-service is expected to becom e m ore prevalent, em ploym ent in retail trade nonethe less will continue to grow faster than in wholesale trade. In 1976, about 1 o u t of 10 em ployed college graduates, roughly 1.6 million, was in trade. O f all w orkers in tra d e , 9 p e rc e n t w ere college graduates. Government has been the second fastest growing service industry. E m ploym ent in State and local govern m ents doubled betw een 1960 and 1976. G row th has been greatest in agencies providing education, health, sanitation, welfare, and police and fire protection. Federal G overnm ent em ploym ent has increased only 20 percent during the sam e period. G overnm ent is a m ajor area of em ploym ent for college educated w ork ers. M ore than a third o f em ployed college graduates, about 5.2 million, were in governm ent in 1976. O f all workers in governm ent, 35 percent were college graduates. Between 1976 and 1985, total em ploym ent in governm ent is expected to rise 22 percent, from 14.9 million to 18.3 million workers. This growth rate is less than th a t expected for services as a whole. Although State and local governments will continue to be th e m ajor source o f jobs, the budget problem s many local govern m ents now face are expected to re tard the expansion o f some govern m ent program s. F urtherm ore, slow growth is expected in State and local governm ent education em ploym ent where alm ost all teachers work. This will occur because o f declines in the school age population, resulting in fewer students to teach. Service industries have been the fastest growing group in the serviceproducing category, nearly doubling in em ploym ent betw een 1960 and 1976. T he growing need for health care, m aintenance and repair, adver tising, and accounting, legal, and en gineering services has been the pri m ary fo rce behind this growth. In 1976, on e-q u arter o f all em ployed college graduates were in service in dustries. O f all workers in the service industries, 24 percent were college graduates. In the future, service industries are e x p e c te d to co n tin u e th e ir ra p id growth—em ploym ent is projected to increase from 14.6 million w orkers in 1976 to 20.6 million in 1985. This projected growth rate o f 40 percent is nearly twice as rapid as that o f the serv ic e-p ro d u cin g in d u stries as a group. Em ploym ent requirem ents in health care are expected to grow ra p idly due to population grow th—in particular the growth in the num ber o f elderly p ersons—and rising in com es th at increase people’s ability to pay for m edical care. Business ser vices, in clu d in g a c co u n tin g , d a ta processing, and m aintenance, also are expected to grow rapidly. Transportation and public utility in dustries experienced a m uch slower growth ra te betw een 1960 and 1976 than any o f the other service-produc ing industries. This has largely been due to em ploym ent declines in the railroad and w ater transportation in dustries. Only about 3 percent o f em ployed college g ra d u ates in 1976 were in transportation industries. O f all w orkers in these industries, about 9 p ercent were college graduates. Although em ploym ent in the rail road and w ater transportation indus tries is expected to continue to de clin e (b u t a t a slo w er ra te th an before), o th er industries in this group will ex p erien ce increases. T he air transportation industry, which nearly doubled in size betw een 1960 and 1976, will continue to grow at a m od erate pace. Between 1976 and 1985, em ploy m en t in tran sp o rtatio n and public utilities industries is expected to rise from 4.5 million to 5.2 million work ers, an increase o f 16 percent. Finance, insurance, and real estate will grow faster than services as a whole. Em ploym ent is expected to increase from 4.3 million to 5.6 mil lio n w o rk e rs b e tw e e n 1976 and 1985, an increase o f 30 percent. W ithin this group, the two fastest growing industries have been bank ing and credit agencies. Employment in banking nearly doubled betw een 1960 and 1976, reflecting a growing population th at increasingly pays its bills by check. Em ploym ent require m ents also grew as banks began to provide m ore services, particularly the bank credit cards, and rem ained o p e n lo n g e r h o u rs . P o p u la tio n growth also m eant an increased de m and fo r th e services o f finance com panies, savings and loan associ ations, and o th e r c re d it agencies. These trends are expected to contin ue through the m id-1980’s. A bout 7 p ercent o f em ployed col lege graduates in 1976 were in fi nance, insurance, and real estate. O f all w o rk ers in th ese industries in 1976, ab out 22 p ercent were college graduates. Goods-Producing Industries. In 1976, less than 1 out o f 5 em ployed college graduates, about 2.4 million, was in the goods-producing industries. To tal em ploym ent in the goods-produc ing industries—agriculture, mining, co n struction, and m anufacturing— has changed very little since 1960. Significant gains in productivity re sulting from autom ated production, improved m achinery, and other tech nological breakthroughs have p e r m itted large increases in output with o u t a d d itio n a l w o rk e rs. B etw een 1976 an d 1 985, e m p lo y m e n t in goods-producing industries is expect ed to increase by about 17 percent, from 26.6 m illion to 31.1 m illion workers. Grow th rates will vary from in d u s try to in d u s try w ith in th is group. Em ploym ent in agriculture, which has long been declining, stabilized at about 3.5 million w orkers betw een 1970 and 1975, but dropped again to 3.3 million in 1976. O f all workers in agriculture in 1976, about 6 percent w ere college graduates. Since th e 1950’s, the trend tow ard fewer b u t larger farm s and the use of m ore and b e tte r m achinery has reduced th e need for farm ers and farm workers. So too has the developm ent o f im proved hybrid crops. Recently, for example, a hybrid tom ato was devel oped that has a harder skin and can be m achine harvested. A lthough em ploym ent on farm s has declined, rapid m echanization c o m b in ed w ith b e tte r fe rtiliz e rs, feeds, pesticides, and hybrids have created large increases in outp u t. The worldwide dem and for food is risin g ra p id ly as p o p u la tio n i n creases, but production is expected to continue to rise without reversing the em ploym ent decline in agricul ture. Between 1976 and 1985, em ploym ent is expected to drop about 29 percent, from 3.3 million to 2.3 million workers. Mining, once declining in em ploy m ent, in creased abruptly betw een 1970 and 1976, experiencing a 26percent growth rate during this peri od and m atching the growth rate o f the fastest growing industry group, services. O f all workers in mining in 1976, about 12 percent were college graduates. M ost of the growth in mining was a direct result o f our need for addition al energy. Em ploym ent in the oil and gas extraction industry rose 33 p e r cent betw een 1970 and 1976, and is expected to rise another 70 percent by 1985. Coal, the m ost commonly used alternative energy source, has been and will continue to be in great dem and. Em ployment in mining is expected to grow 39 percent betw een 1976 and 1985, from 0.8 to 1.1 million workers. Contract construction, which grew fairly ra p id ly b etw e en 1960 and 1968, stagnated between 1968 and 1976. The earlier growth, which re fle c te d an in c re a s in g n e e d fo r houses, apartm ent and office build ings, highways, and shopping centers, was d a m p e n e d by th e ec o n o m ic d o w n tu rn th a t b egan in th e la te 1960’s. Buildings that had been vacant are now filling up, however, and as our econom y recovers, em ploym ent in construction is expected to increase, rising by 38 percent between 1976 and 1985, or from 3.6 million to 4.9 million workers. O f all workers in construction in 1976, about 6 percent were college graduates. M anufacturing em ploym ent, also adversely affected by the economic conditions of the early 1970’s, is ex pected to grow from 18.9 million to 22.8 million between 1976 and 1985, an increase o f 20 percent. In 1976, about 1 out of 8 employed college graduates was in m anufactur ing. O f all workers in m anufacturing in 1976, about 10 percent were col lege graduates. M anufacturing is divided into two b ro a d c a te g o rie s, d u ra b le goods m a n u f a c tu r in g a n d n o n d u ra b le goods m anufacturing. Em ploym ent in durable goods m anufacturing is expected to increase by about 25 percent, from 11.0 million to 13.8 million workers, while employm ent in nondurable goods m anufacturing is expected to increase by only 13 percent, from 7.9 million to 9.0 mil lion workers. G row th rates will vary among indi vidual industries within each of these categories. In nondurable goods in dustries, for example, em ploym ent in tobacco m anufacturing is expected to decline, while a m oderate rise in em ploym ent is projected for the syn thetic fiber industry. Among durable g o ods m a n u fa c tu rin g in d u strie s, medical instrum ent m anufacturing is expected to undergo a rapid employ m ent increase; m otor vehicle m anu facturing will employ about the same 21 3 Requirements for college graduates are expected to grow faster than requirements for all workers Percent change, 1976-85 projected -5 0 - 25 IH Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics num ber o f workers in 1985 as it did in 1976. Occupational Profile Custom arily, occupations also are divided into several groups. W hitecollar w orkers are those in profes sional an d tech n ic al, m anagerial, sales, and clerical jobs. Blue-collar workers are those in craft, operative, and la b o re r jobs. Service w orkers and farm w orkers constitute separate groups. 0 25 All workers I 50 75 I College graduates O nce a small proportion o f the to tal labor force, white-collar w orkers have steadily in creased in im p o r tance until they now represent about half o f the total. The num ber o f ser vice w orkers also has risen rapidly, while the blue-collar work force has grown only slowly and the num ber o f farm workers has declined. M ost o f these changes in occupa tional em ploym ent have been due to variations in the growth rates o f in dustries. Every industry group has a u n iq u e o c c u p a tio n a l p a tte rn . F i Most professional and technical workers are college graduates Millions of workers, 1976 W hite-collar workers Professional and technical workers Managers and administrators except farm Sales workers Clerical workers Blue-collar workers Craft workers Operatives Nonfarm laborers Service workers Farm workers 0 Source: Bureau o f Labor Statistics 22 BW8 5 10 Less than 4 years of college nance, insurance, and real estate, for example, employ mostly white-collar w orkers, while construction is p re dom in an tly a blue-collar industry group. G row th in the finance, insur ance, and real estate group would result in an increase in em ploym ent o f w hite-collar workers. The sam e would be true for growth in services and trad e—industries that also em ploy large proportions o f white-collar w o rk e rs . T h e m a g n itu d e o f th e change would depend on both the rate of growth and the size o f the industry. T he follow ing sections d escrib e the changes that are expected to o c cur am ong the broad occupational groups betw een 1976 and 1985. College graduates White-collar workers, who num bered 43.7 million iri 1976, included m ore than 9 o u t o f every 10 employed col lege graduates. M ore than 31 p e r cent, or 13.6 million, o f all whiteco llar jo b s w ere filled by college g r a d u a t e s i n 1 9 7 6 . By t h e m id-1980’s, 33 percent, or 17.5 mil lion, o f the 53.5 million white-collar jobs are expected to require a college degree. A lthough em ploym ent re quirem ents for college graduates are expected to increase by 28 percent, requirem ents in som e w hite-collar occupations will vary greatly. (See chart 3.) Professional and technical workers in c lu d e a w ide ra n g e o f h ig h ly trained w orkers, such as scientists and engineers, medical practitioners, teachers, entertainers, pilots, and ac countants. In 1976, 65 percent o f the workers in this group were college graduates. (See ch art 4.) Nearly 3 out o f 5 employed college graduates in 1976 w ere in this group. (S ee chart 5.) Em ploym ent o f professional and te c h n ic a l w orkers is ex p e cted to grow by about 18 percent betw een 1976 and 1985, rising from 13.3 m il lion to 15.8 m illion w orkers. R e quirem ents for college graduates in this group are expected to grow by about 23 percent, from 8.7 million to 10.7 million. G reater efforts in energy produc tion, tra n sp o rta tio n , and en v iro n m ental protection will contribute to a growing dem and for scientists, engi- neers, and technicians. The medical professions can be expected to grow as the health services industry ex pands. T he dem and for professional workers to develop and utilize com puter resources also is projected to grow rapidly. Some occupations will offer less favorable jo b prospects because the supply o f w orkers exceeds the avail able openings. Teachers will contin ue to face com petition, as will artists and entertainers, airline pilots, and oceanographers. M anagers and administrators in clude w orkers such as corporate ex ecutives, school and health services a d m in is tra to rs , d e p a rtm e n t sto re m anagers, and self-em ployed busi ness operators. In 1976, nearly 30 percent o f the workers in this group were college graduates. Nearly 1 out o f 5 em ployed g rad u ates in 1976 were in this group. Em ploym ent o f m anagers and ad m inistrators is expected to grow from 9.3 million to 11.3 million between 1976 and 1985, an increase o f 21 percen t. R equirem ents for college graduates are expected to increase by 54 percent, from 2.7 million to 4.1 million. The rapidly expanding service in dustries are expected to offer more jobs for m anagers than the slowly growing m anufacturing industries. Changes in business size and o r ganization have resulted in differing trends for self-employed and salaried m anagers. The num ber o f self-em ployed m anagers will probably co n tinue to decline as m any areas o f business are increasingly dom inated by large corporations and chain o p erations. Some kinds o f small estab lishments in the retail trade and busi ness serv ic es in d u stries still will provide oppo rtu n ities for self-em ploym ent, however. T he dem and for salaried m anagers will continue to grow rapidly as the econom y grows, and as firms increasingly depend on trained m anagem ent specialists. Sales workers are em ployed p ri marily by retail stores, manufactur ing and wholesale firms, insurance com panies, and real estate agencies. In 1976, 19 percent of the workers in this group were college graduates. A bout 7 percent o f employed college graduates in 1976 were in sales jobs. Total em ploym ent o f sales w orkers is expected to grow from 5.5 million to 6.4 million workers, an increase o f 17 percent. R equirem ents for college gradu ates in this group are expected to grow by about 37 percent betw een 1976 and 1985. M uch o f the growth o f sales workers will be due to expan sion in th e re ta il tra d e in d u stry , w hich em ploys ab o u t o n e-h alf o f these workers. College graduates in sales jobs, however, are concentrated in industries other than retail trad e— in o cc u p atio n s such as insurance agents, m anufacturers sales re p re sentatives, and securities sales work ers, which employers generally p re fer to fill with college graduates. Clerical workers constitute bo th the largest and the fastest growing occupational group. Few jobs in this group require a college degree, how ever, and many graduates employed in clerical jobs in 1976 were likely to be in positions not requiring a de gree. Less than one employed college graduate in 10 in 1976 was in this group. Em ploym ent in clerical occu p a tions is expected to grow about 29 percent between 1976 and 1985, ris ing from 15.6 million to 20.0 million workers. Because no developm ents which would require a college degree are expected, the proportion of jobs in this group is not expected to grow. B lue-collar w orkers. Persons em ployed in craft, operative, and nonfarm laborer jobs are called blue-col lar workers. Craft workers include a wide variety o f highly skilled w ork ers, such as carpenters, tool-and-die m a k e rs, in s tru m e n t m ak ers, a ll round m achinists, electricians, and autom obile m echanics. Operatives are the largest blue-collar group, in cluding workers such as assemblers, packers, truck and bus drivers, and many types o f m achine operators. L aborers, (e x c e p t fa rm ) in clu d e workers such as garbage collectors, co n stru c tio n laborers, freight an d stock handlers, and equipment wash ers. In 1976, about 5 percent of em ployed college grad u ates were in blue-collar jobs. Em ployment o f blue-collar w ork ers is expected to grow by about 18 percent between 1976 and 1985, ris ing from 29 million to 34.1 million workers. Very few blue-collar jobs require a college degree, and em ploym ent requirem ents for college graduates in these occupations are not expected to increase. Service workers include a wide range o f w orkers—firefighters, cosm etolo gists, and bartenders are a few exam ples. These workers, most of whom are employed in the service-produc23 ing industries, m ake up one o f the fastest growing occupational groups. In 1976, only 3 p ercent o f em ployed college g ra d u ates w ere in service jobs. Some o f the m ain factors th at are ex p ected to increase th e need for these w orkers are the rising dem and for m edical care; the g reater need for com m ercial cleaning and protective services; and the m ore frequent use o f restaurants, beauty salons, and lei sure services as incom es rise. Em ploym ent o f service w orkers is expected to increase 23 percent b e tw een 1976 and 1985, from 12.0 mil lion to 14.8 m illion w orkers. R e quirem ents for college graduates in this group are expected to grow at about the sam e rate as for all service workers. Farm workers include farm ers and farm operators, as well as farm labor ers. A bout 1 p ercen t o f em ployed graduates in 1976 were in this group. Em ploym ent o f these w orkers has declined fo r decades as farm produc tivity has increased as a result o f the trend tow ard fewer b ut larger farms, the use o f m ore and b etter m achin ery, and th e d ev elo pm ent o f new feeds, fertilizers, and pesticides. Be tween 1976 and 1985, th e num ber o f farm w orkers is expected to decline 34 percent, from 2.8 million to 1.9 million workers. g Bachelor's degrees earned 1959-60 to 1984-85 Thousands of bachelor's degrees 1,200 1 ■; ::M & ■• ■- 1,000 800 600 400 200 0 Source: National Center for Education Statistics College Graduates: Demand and Supply, 1976-85 T hroughout m ost o f the 1960’s, a college degree was considered a l m ost a g u a ra n te e o f a good jo b . Overall, th ere probably were m ore jo b s fo r w hich em p lo y ers so u g h t graduates than there w ere graduates to fill them . Consequently, graduates generally had their pick o f jobs and almost all graduates found the kinds of jobs they sought. T he job m arket fo r c o lle g e g ra d u a te s , h o w e v e r, c h a n g e d d ra m a tic a lly b e g in n in g about 1969, and since then, gradu ates have faced increasing com peti tion for the kinds of jobs they w ant ed. T he slowdown in the N a tio n ’s econom ic grow th during the early and m id -1 9 7 0 ’s and a drop in the need for new teachers contributed, in part, to this turnaround. H owever, the principal reason for the com peti tion faced by college graduates has been the sharp increase in the nu m ber o f graduates seeking jobs. T his Job Openings T he rate o f em ploym ent growth in an occupation is only one indicator o f future jo b prospects; another indi cator is the total num ber o f jo b open ings expected in the occupation. The total includes not only openings re sulting from em ploym ent growth, but also those resulting from labor force separations (retirem ents and deaths) and transfers to oth er occupations. M any jo b openings also are creat ed because o f occupational transfers. W hen a technician is upgraded to an engineer, for example, a job opening for a technician is created. O f course, this shift also adds to the supply o f engineers. D ata for estim ating occu pational losses and gains resulting from transfers are n ot yet available, but work is continuing towards the developm ent o f such data. 24 Jobs entered by college graduates 1962-69 and 1969-76, by major occupational group Millions of workers 8 Unemployed workers Service worker Nonfarm laborers Craft workers Operatives, laborers, service, farm and unemployed Operatives Clerical workers - Craft workers Sales workers ■Clerical workers Managers and administrators except farm Sales workers Managers and administrators except farm Professional and technical workers Professional and technical workers 1962-69 1969-76 increase has com e about because o f sharp in creases in th e n u m b er o f bach elo r’s degrees granted (c h art 6), as well as because higher proportions o f college graduates are seeking jobs. For exam ple, betw een M arch 1966 and M arch 1976, th e proportion of all college graduates age 25 to 34 not in m ilitary service w ho w ere em ployed o r looking for w ork increased from 79 to 85 percent. It is estim ated th at about twice as many college graduates entered the la b o r m a rk e t b e tw e e n 1969 and 1976 as entered during the previous 7-year period. (See ch a rt 7.) But be cause th ere have n ot been enough openings in the kinds o f jobs sought by graduates to absorb all jo b seek ers, m ore and m ore graduates have been forced to en ter jobs o f the type n o t tra d itio n a lly so u g h t. C h a rt 7 com pares the kinds o f jobs entered by graduates betw een 1962 and 1969 and betw een 1969 and 1976. O f the roughly 4 m illion new en trants betw een 1962 and 1969, about 73 p ercen t entered professional and technical occupations. This grouping in c lu d e s a c c o u n ta n ts , e n g in e e rs, doctors, lawyers, teachers, and oth ers in which a college degree usually is req u ired . A bout 17 percen t en tered m anagerial and adm inistrative occupations, another m ajor occupa tional area generally felt by gradu ates to be appropriate for their edu c a tio n a n d a b ilitie s . A n o th e r 3 p e rc e n t e n te re d sales jo b s; m ost probably in the b etter paying sales jobs, such as securities sales workers and m anufacturers sales representa tives. Less than 6 p ercen t entered clerical, blue-collar, service and farm occupations. Between 1969 and 1976 an esti m ated 8 million college graduates en tered the labor force. M ore gradu a te s e n t e r e d p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d technical occupations than had en tered over the previous 7 years, but because th ere were so many m ore g raduates com peting fo r available positions, those finding professional and te c h n ic a l jo b s re p re se n te d a m uch sm aller percent o f the total, only about 46 percent. A bout 19 p er cent entered managerial jobs and an o ther 8 percent entered sales jobs. A bout 25 percent o f the graduates spilled over into many occupations not previously sought by o r filled by g ra d u a te s—clerical, service, bluecollar and farm occupations, and to som e e x ten t m anagerial and sales occupations. M ost o f the increasing proportions entering m anagerial and sales jo b s probably rep resen ts u p grading. U pgrading occurs as jo b s becom e m ore com plex and therefore require people with m ore education. For example, as m anagerial and sales jo b s previously filled by no n g rad uates require an understanding o f m ore com plex governm ent regula tio n s an d m ore so p h istic a te d a c counting and inventory procedures, em ployers may decide that a college graduate is now needed for the jobs. The great m ajority o f graduates who to o k clerical, service, blue-collar, and farm jobs over the 1969-76 peri od, however, did not en ter upgraded positions. In addition to a spilling over into nontrad itio n al occupations, g rad u ates also have experienced higher rates o f unem ploym ent. From early 1969 to early 1976, the unem ploy m ent rate for all graduates increased from less than 1 p ercen t to 2.4 p e r ce n t, and fo r g ra d u ates 20 to 24 years old, from 2.4 percen t to 6.1 percent. A lthough some o f this in crease can be attributed to generally poor econom ic conditions, the rise in the rate o f unem ploym ent of college graduates reflects mostly an oversup ply o f graduates. Y oung graduates still fared m uch better than young high school graduates, however, who had an unem ploym ent rate o f 14.1 percent. The difference in rates indi cates, fo r the most part, that gradu ates have been able to outbid non graduates for jobs rather than rem ain unem ployed. Overall, it is estim ated that about 1 out o f 4 graduates who entered the labor force over the 1969 to 1976 period had to take the kind of jobs not sought by or filled by graduates in better times, or were unemployed. The increased com petition among graduates for jobs has also had an adverse effec t on th e ir earnings. While average salaries of newly hired graduates have increased since 1969, earnings o f nongraduates have in creased m ore rapidly. As a result, the prem ium paid to college graduates has declined (chart 8). Part of this decline is due to the fact that com pe titio n fo r en try level positions in fields traditionally sought by gradu ates—such as accounting, law, teach ing, and engineering has kept salaries down. A nother is th at a num ber of graduates have been forced to accept lower paying jobs not filled by gradu ates in the past. College graduates entering th e la bor force through the m id-1980’s are g Earnings of college graduates have declined relative to earnings of high school graduates Earnings of college graduates divided by earnings of high school graduates, 1969-75 4 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 Source: Bureau of the Census 25 College graduates entering the labor force are 9 expected to exceed openings in jobs traditionally filled by graduates by 2 7 million between 1976 and 1985 Millions of openings N e w entrants 10.4 Job openings 0 2 10 12 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics likely to face jo b m arket conditions very sim ilar to those faced by gradu ates during the early and m id-1970’s. The num ber of labor force entrants having a college degree is expected to continue to exceed openings in the types o f jobs traditionally sought by graduates. A bout 3 graduates out of 4 are expected to continue to find the kinds o f jo b s sought by graduates, but about 1 graduate in 4 will have to en ter nontraditional occupations or face unem ploym ent. It is estim ated th at about 10.4 mil lion college graduates will enter the labor force over the 1976—85 period, but only about 7.7 million jo b open ings in traditional jobs for college graduates are expected. (See chart 9.) A bout half are projected to result from growth in the kinds o f jobs filled by graduates in the past and from upgrading o f jobs, and half to replace graduates who retire, die, or leave the labor force for o th er reasons. Like g raduates in th e early and m id -1 9 7 0 ’s, fu tu re grad u ates may have to w ork h arder at finding jobs and may be less likely to find jobs in the occupation o f their choice than were g raduates during the 1960’s. M any may continue to experience periods o f unem ploym ent, o r move from jo b to jo b in an attem pt to find em ploym ent th at fits their abilities and expectations. A substantial num ber may continue to com pete with 26 nongraduates for the m ore desirable jobs not previously filled by gradu ates. As in the past, college graduates will have an advantage over those w ith less ed u c atio n in m ost jo b s. However, they may face com petition in some fields from junior and com munity college graduates who have learned jo b related skills. In others, such as high paying sales jobs, proven sales ability may be m ore valued by employers than a degree. G raduates who are least well prepared for th e jo b m a rk e t o r m ost unlucky will clearly face the prospect o f underuti lization o f their skills and job dissatis faction. As in the early and m id1970’s, however, alm ost all will p ro b ably be able to find a job, and few should fa c e su stain ed u n em p lo y ment. While it is difficult to describe the e m p lo y m e n t o u tlo o k fo r c o lle g e g rad u ates optim istically, th e situ ation should not be characterized as bleak. Job satisfaction depends upon a num ber o f factors th at are difficult to analyze, and it is n o t possible to classify all jobs as being appropriate or not appropriate for graduates. T he fact that an occupation has not trad i tio n a lly b e e n s o u g h t by c o lle g e graduates does not necessarily m ean th a t g rad u ates will be dissatisfied with it. M any high paying jobs with substantial responsibility have been filled prim arily by non-college gradu ates in the past, and graduates can be expected to move into these in great er num bers. G raduates who en ter clerical, sales, and blue-collar jobs may be able to prove their abilities once on the job and be prom oted. Some graduates who may take jobs as clerks should eventually be able to move into adm inistrative positions, and those in craft and service-worker jobs are likely to be able to advance m ore quickly within their organiza tion, or start their own businesses. Finding a jo b directly related to o n e ’s m ajor field of study in college is probably not necessary for job satis faction. A study of college graduates found th a t m ost liberal arts gradu a te s—th o se whose college m ajors were in fields such as English, histo ry, and psychology—working as busi ness adm inistrators w ere generally quite happy with their jo b s.1It is like ly that business adm inistration, like many o th er jobs, perm its graduates to use th e writing, analytical, and in terpersonal skills developed by all g rad u ates, regardless o f m ajor. If graduates feel they are using those skills, they are likely to be satisfied with th eir jobs. A nother finding of the study was that a substantial p ro portion of graduates who were w ork ing in jobs they considered nonpro fessional, perhaps not fully utilizing these skills, were nevertheless satified. Ideas about w hat constitutes an ap p ro p ria te jo b for graduates are changing. M ore and m ore graduates see jobs as craft w orkers, farm ers, and self-employed retail store m an agers, those associated with “ alterna tive life styles,’’ as m ore desirable than the traditional jobs chosen by graduates. This shift in attitudes has tended to ease the problem s of un derem ploym ent and job dissatisfac tion for many college graduates. It should be pointed out that the num ber of people actually obtaining degrees and entering the labor force may be lower than th at projected in this article. A higher proportion of high school graduates, aware o f the plight of college graduates, may de cide not to attend a 4-year college. '( J o b S a tisfactio n A fter C ollege. . . T h e G rad u ates V iew p oint, T he C P C F oundation, 1977. T h e study is a follow up o f people who w ere freshm en in 1961, w hose highest degre e held was a b a c h elo r's d egree, and who w ere w orking full tim e. It was co n d u c te d betw een N ovem ber 1974 and M arch 1975). They may decide th at attending a 2year com m unity or ju n io r college, entering an apprenticeship, or find ing a jo b right out o f high school is a b e tte r p re p a ra tio n for th eir long term career goals. College enrollees already are m ak ing some adjustm ents in their selec tion o f m ajor field o f study. For ex am ple, the proportions preparing to e n te r overcrow ded fields have d e clined. In teaching, it has declined from 20 percen t in 1970 to 11 per cent in 1976, and lower proportions are studying liberal arts as well. High er proportions are obtaining degrees in career related m ajors such as engi neering, accounting, and public af fairs and service. While this does not alter the num ber o f graduates who are likely to seek jobs through the m id -1 9 8 0 ’s, it may m ake graduates b e tte r e q u ip p ed to co m p ete w ith n o n g ra d u ates who have tech n ical training or work experience in these fields. D espite the overall unfavorable jo b outlook for college graduates, those prepared to enter certain o ccu pations such as accountant, bank of ficer, com puter program m er, engi neer, and physician are expected to have good em ploym ent opportuni ties. Even in overcrowded occupa tions, many of the better qualified graduates will find jobs. Knowledge about prospective em ploym ent opportunities in various occupations can enable individuals to m ake a more informed decision about w hether to attend college, and if they do choose to attend, what field to study. The following chapter discusses the outlook for more than 100 occupations usually sought by college graduates. 27 V. OCCUPATIONS A C C O U N TA N TS (D.O.T. 160.188) Nature of the Work M anagers must have up-to-date fi nancial inform ation to m ake im por tant decisions. A ccountants prepare and analyze financial reports that furnish this kind of inform ation. Three m ajor accounting fields are pub lic, m an ag em en t, and govern m ent accounting. Public account ants have th eir own businesses or work for accounting firms. M anage m ent accountants, also called indus trial or private accountants, handle the financial records of the com pany they work for. G overnm ent account ants exam ine the records of govern m ent agencies and audit private busin e s s e s a n d i n d i v id u a ls w h o se dealings are subject to governm ent regulations. A ccountants often concentrate on one particular phase of accounting. For exam ple, many public account ants specialize in auditing (reviewing a clien t’s financial records and re ports to judge their reliability). O th ers specialize in tax m atters, such as preparing incom e tax forms and ad vising their clients o f the advantages and disadvantages of certain business decisions. Still others becom e spe cialists in m an ag em ent consulting and give advice on a variety o f m at ters. They might develop or revise an accounting system to serve the needs of clients m ore effectively or give ad vice about different types of account ing equipm ent. M anagem ent accountants provide the financial inform ation executives need to m ake sound business deci sions. They may choose to work in areas such as taxation, budgeting, or investments. Internal auditing is an area of specialization within m anage m ent accounting that is rapidly grow ing in im portance. A ccountants who w ork as internal auditors exam ine and evaluate th eir firm ’s financial system s and m an ag em en t co n tro l procedures to ensure efficient and econom ical operation. Many accountants in the Federal G overnm ent work as Internal Rev enue agents, investigators, and bank exam iners; o th e r go v ern m en t a c countants have regular accounting positions. Places of Employment A bout 865,000 people worked as accountants in 1976. Almost 20 p e r cent were Certified Public A ccount ants (C P A ’s) and nearly 12 percent w ere C e rtifie d In te rn a l A u d ito rs (C IA ’s). A bout 60 percent o f all account an ts do m a n a g e m e n t a c c o u n tin g work; one-fifth of these work as in ternal auditors. An additional 25 p e r cent are engaged in public account ing as p r o p r ie to r s , p a r tn e rs , o r employees of independent account ing firms. O ther accountants work for Federal, State, and local govern m ent agencies, and a small num ber teach in colleges and universities. O pportunities are plentiful for parttime work in accounting, particularly in smaller firms. A ccountants are found in all busi ness, industrial, and governm ent o r ganizations. Most, however, work in large urban areas where many public accounting firms and central offices of large businesses are concentrated. For example, over 20 percent of all a c co u n tan ts are em ployed in ju st four m ajor cities: Chicago; Los A n geles; New York; and W ashington, DC. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training in accounting is available at colleges and universities, account ing and business schools, and corre spondence schools. Although many graduates of business and correspon dence schools are successful in small firms, m ost large public accounting and business firms require applicants for accountant and internal auditor positions to have at least a bachelor’s degree in accounting or a closely re lated field. Many employers prefer those with the m aster’s degree in ac counting. A growing num ber of lafge employers prefer applicants who are fam iliar with com puter technology for both accounting and internal au ditor positions. For beginning ac counting positions, the Federal Gov ernm ent requires 4 years of college training (including 24 sem ester hours in accounting) or an equivalent com bination of education and experi ence. For teaching positions, most colleges and universities require at least the m aster’s degree or the C er tified Public A ccountancy C ertifi cate. Previous work experience in ac counting can help an applicant get a job. Many colleges offer students an o p p o rtu n ity to g ain e x p e rie n c e through internship program s co n ducted by public accounting or busi ness firms. Anyone working as a “ certified public accountant” must hold a ce r tificate issued by the State board of accountancy. All states use the CPA examination, prepared by the Am eri can Institute of Certified Public A c countants, to establish certification. Most successful candidates have col lege degrees, and three-fourths of the States require CPA candidates to be college graduates. Nearly all States require applicants to have at least 2 years of public accounting experi ence for a CPA certificate. R equirem ents vary, but more than half the States restrict the title “ pub lic accountant” to those who are li censed o r registered. Some States 29 mathem atics. Neatness and accura cy also are necessary. Em ployers seek applicants who can handle re sponsibility and work with little su pervision. To get to the top in the profession, accountants usually must continue their study of accounting even though they already have a college degree or professional certificates. They may participate in seminars sponsored by various professional as sociations or take courses offered by their employers. A growing num ber of States require both C PA ’s and li censed public accountants to com plete a certain num ber o f hours of continuing education courses before their licenses can be renewed. An increasing num ber o f accou n tan ts study com puter operation and p ro gramming to adapt accounting p ro c e d u re s to new d a ta p ro c essin g m eth o d s. A lthough ca p ab le a c co u n tan ts should advance rapidly, those having inadequate academ ic preparation may be assigned routine jobs and find prom otion difficult. Junior public accountants usually start by assisting with auditing work for several clients. They may ad vance to interm ediate positions with more responsibility in 1 or 2 years and to senior positions within anoth er few years. In larger firms, those who deal successfully with top indus try executives often become supervi sors, managers, or partners, or trans Traveling auditor reviewing financial records at a company plant. require only a high school diplom a while others require 2 years of col lege o r m ore. Info rm ation on re quirem ents may be obtained directly from individual State boards o f ac countancy or from the National Soci ety of Public A ccountants. The recognized m ark of com pe tence and experience in the field of internal auditing is the designation, C ertified In tern al A u d ito r (C IA ). 30 The Institute of Internal A uditors, Inc., confers this designation upon candidates who have com pleted 3 years’ experience in internal auditing and who have passed a four-part ex a m in a tio n . B eginning in 1978, a bachelor’s degree from an accredited college or university also will be re quired. Persons planning a career in a c counting should have an aptitude for fer to executive positions in private firms. Some open their own public accounting offices. Beginning m anagem ent account ants often start as ledger account ants, junior internal auditors, or as trainees for technical accounting po sitions. They may advance to jobs such as chief plant accountant, chief cost accountant, budget director, or m anager of internal auditing. Some becom e controllers, treasurers, fi nancial vice-presidents, or corpora tion presidents. In the Federal G ov e rn m e n t, b eg in n ers are h ired as trainees and usually are prom oted in a year or so. In college and universi ty teaching, those having minimum training and experience may receive the rank of instructor without tenure; advancem ent and perm anent faculty status depend upon further educa tion and teaching experience. Earnings and Working Conditions Employment Outlook Starting salaries o f beginning ac countants in private industry were $ 11,500 a year in 1976, according to a survey in urban areas. Earnings o f experienced accountants ranged b e tween $15,400 and $23,400, depend ing on their level o f responsibility and the com plexity of the accounting system. In general, experienced ac countants earn about twice as m uch as nonsupervisory w orkers in private industry, except farming. C hief a c countants who direct the accounting program o f a com pany or one of its e s ta b lis h m e n ts e a r n e d b e tw e e n $ 2 0 ,5 0 0 and $ 3 3 ,9 0 0 , d ep en d in g upon the scope o f their authority and size of professional staff. A ccording to the sam e survey, b e ginning auditors averaged $ 11,800 a year in 1976, while experienced au d ito r s ’ e a rn in g s ra n g e d b e tw e e n $16,100 and $20,000. In the Federal Civil Service, the entrance salary for junior account ants and auditors was about $9,300 in 1977. C andidates who had a supe rio r a c a d e m ic re c o rd re ceiv ed a starting salary of about $11,500. A p plicants with a m aster’s degree or 2 years’ professional experience began at about $ 14,100. A ccountants in the Federal G overnm ent averaged about $21,800 a year in 1977. A ccountants who specialize in in com e tax p re p a ra tio n w ork long hours under heavy pressure during the tax season; those em ployed by national accounting firms may travel extensively to c o n d u c t audits and perform other services for their cli ents. The majority, however, work in one office betw een 35 and 40 hours a week, under the same general condi tions as fellow office workers. E m p lo y m en t is e x p e c te d to in crease ab out as fast as the average for all occupations through the mid19 8 0 ’s as businesses and governm ent agencies continue to expand in size and com plexity. In addition to jobs resulting from grow th, many thou sands o f openings will result each year w hen w orkers die, re tire , or leave the occupation. D em and for skilled accountants will rise as m anagers rely m ore on accounting inform ation to make business decisions. For exam ple, offi cers o f large corporations base their decisions concerning proposals such as plant expansion, m ergers, or for eign in v e stm e n ts on in fo rm a tio n about the financial condition o f the firm , tax im plications o f the p ro posed actio n , and o th e r consider ations. On a sm aller scale, owners of small businesses are expected to rely m ore and m ore on the expertise of public accountants in planning their operations. G o vernm ent legislation to m onitor business activity also is expected to add to the dem and for accountants. An exam ple is the Pen sion Reform A ct o f 1974, which es tablishes m inimum standards for pri vate pension plans. This and other legislation should create many new jobs for m anagem ent accountants to m aintain new systems and public ac countants to audit them . Because o f the growing com plexity of business, college graduates will be in greater dem and than applicants who lack this training. M any em ploy e rs p r e f e r g r a d u a te s w ho h av e w orked p art tim e in a business or a c c o u n tin g firm w hile in school. Those who have been trained in a specific phase o f accounting should find ample opportunities. As d ata processing systems contin ue to replace m anual preparation of accounting records and statem ents, the need for some acco u n tan ts to perform routine tasks, particularly in large firms, may be reduced. How ever, many opportunities will arise for accountants w ithout a college de gree, mainly in small businesses and public accounting firms. Sources of Additional Information Inform ation about C P A ’s and about aptitude tests in high schools, colleges, and public accounting firms may be obtained from: American Institute of Certified Public A c countants, 1211 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10036. F urther inform ation on specialized fields of accounting is available from: National Association of Accountants, 919 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10022. National Society of Public Accountants, 1717 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Institute o f Internal Auditors, 249 Maitland Ave., Altamonte Springs, Fla. 32701. ACTO RS AND ACTRESSES (D.O.T. 150.028 and 150.048) Nature of the Work Making a character come to life before an audience is a job that has great glam our and fascination. This dem anding work requires special tal en t and involves many difficulties and uncertanties. Only a few actors and actresses achieve recognition as stars on the stage, in m otion pictures, or on tele vision o r radio. A somewhat larger num ber are well-known, experienced perform ers, who frequently are cast in supporting roles. However, most actors and actresses struggle for a toehold in the profession, and are glad to pick up parts wherever they can. New stage actors generally start in “ b it” parts where they speak only a few lines. If successful, they may progress to larger, supporting roles. They also may serve as understudies for the principals. Film and television actors, in contrast, may begin in large roles or move into programs from working in commercials. A ctors who prepare for stage, screen, and television roles rehearse many hours. They must memorize their lines and know their cues. In addition to the actors and ac tresses with speaking parts, “ extras,” who have no lines to deliver, are used in various ways in almost all m otion pictures and many television shows and theatre productions. In “ spectac u lar” productions, a large num ber of extras take part in crowd scenes. Some actors find alternative jobs as coaches of dram a or directors of stage, television, radio, or m otion picture productions. A few teach in 31 dram a departm ents o f colleges and universities. Places of Employment A bout 13,000 actors and actresses w orked in stage plays, m otion pic tures (including films m ade especial ly for television), industrial shows, and com m ercials in 1976. In the w inter, m ost em ploym ent opportunities on the stage are in New York and o th er large cities. In the sum m er, stock com panies in subur ban and reso rt areas provide em ploy m ent. In addition, many cities have “ little th e a tre s ,” rep erto ry com pa nies, and dinner theatres, which p ro vide opportunities for local talent as well as for professional actors and actresses. N orm ally, plays are p ro duced and casts are selected in New Y ork City for shows th a t go “ on the ro a d .” Em ploym ent in m otion pictures and film television is essentially cen tered in Hollywood and New York City, although a few studios are lo cated in M iami and o th er parts of the country. In addition, m any films are shot on location, and em ploy local professionals and nonprofessionals as “ day p layers” and “ extras.” A num ber o f A m erican-produced films are being shot in foreign countries. In television, m ost opportunities for ac tors are at the headquarters of the m ajor netw orks—in New York, Los Angeles, and, to a lesser extent, C hi cago. A few local television stations occasionally employ actors. Training and Other Qualifications Young persons who aspire to act ing careers should take part in high school and college plays, or work with little theatres and other acting groups for experience. Form al training in acting, which is increasingly necessary, can be o b tained at dram atic art schools, locat ed chiefly in New Y ork, and in hun d red s o f colleges and universities throughout the country. A bout 760 c o lle g e s a n d u n iv e rs itie s c o n fe r bach elo r’s or higher degrees on stu dents who m ajor in dram atic and th e ater arts. College dram a curriculum s usually include courses in liberal arts, 32 Acting demands patience and total commitment. speech, pantom im e, directing, play writing, play production, and history of the dram a, as well as practical courses in acting. From these, the student develops an appreciation o f the great plays and a greater under standing o f the roles he or she may be called on to play. G raduate degrees in fine arts or dram a are needed for college teaching positions. Acting dem ands patience and total com m itm ent, since aspiring actors and actresses m ust wait for parts o r filming schedules, work long hours, and often do m uch traveling. Flaw less perform ances require the tedious m em orizing o f lines, which som e times involves long rehearsal sched ules. O th er perform ances, such as television programs, often allow little time for rehearsal, so that the actor m ust d eliver a good perform an ce with very little preparation. The ac tor needs stam ina to withstand the heat of stage or studio lights, or the adverse weather conditions that may exist “ on location.” Above all, p er sons who plan to pursue an acting career m ust have talent and the c re ative ability to portray different ch ar acters. They must have poise, stage presence, and aggressiveness to proj ect them selves to the audience. At the sam e time, the ability to follow directions is im portant. In all m edia, the best way to start is to use local o p p o rtu n ities and to build on the basis of such experience. Many actors who are successful in local productions eventually try to appear on the New York stage. M od eling experience may also be helpful in obtaining em ploym ent in televi sion or m otion pictures. To becom e a movie extra, one must usually be listed by C entral Casting, a no-fee agency that works with the Screen E xtras Guild and supplies all extras to the m ajor movie studios in Hollywood. A pplicants are accepted only when the num ber of persons o f a particular type on the list—for example, athletic young men, old ladies, or small children—is below the foreseeable need. In recent years, only a very small proportion of the total num ber of applicants have succeeded in being listed. An actor employed as an extra in a film has very little opportunity to advance to a speaking role in th at film. T he length o f an a c to r’s o r ac tress’s working life depends largely on skill and versatility. G reat actors and actresses can work alm ost indefi nitely. On the other hand, em ploy m ent becom es increasingly limited by middle age, especially for those w ho b e c o m e ty p e d in ro m a n tic , youthful roles. Due to the factors dis cussed, persons who intend to pursue an acting career may find unstable em ploym ent conditions and financial pressures. Employment Outlook Overcrow ding has existed in the acting field for many years, and this condition is expected to persist. In the legitim ate th eate r, m otion pic tures, radio, and television, job appli cants greatly exceed the jobs avail able. M o reo v er, m any ac to rs and actresses are em ployed in their pro fession for only a p art of the year. M otion pictures and TV have greatly reduced em ploym ent oppor tunities for actors in the theater. Al though a m otion picture production may use a very large num ber o f ac tors during filming, films are widely d is trib u te d and m ay be used fo r years. A lso, som e A m e ric a n -p ro duced films are shot in foreign coun tries, resulting in reduced em ploy m en t o p p o rtu n ite s fo r A m erican actors and actresses. Television em ploys a large num ber of actors on TV program s and com m ercials. H ow ever, em ploym ent in this m edia has been reduced by the FCC ruling th at decreased m ajor TV netw ork prim e time programming. Local stations of ten substitute with reruns or with low cost game shows that employ few a c tors. Also, the trend tow ard 1- to 2h o u r p ro g ra m s an d m o re re ru n s shortens the period o f em ploym ent and reduces the num ber of persons needed. One possibility for future growth in the legitim ate theater lies in the es tab lish m en t o f year-round p ro fes sional acting com panies in cities. The n u m b er o f such ac tin g groups is growing. The recent growth of sum m er and w inter stock com panies, outdoor and regional theatre, rep er tory com panies, and dinner theaters also has increased em ploym ent o p p o rtu n itie s. In ad d itio n , som e in creases may be likely in the em ploy m e n t o f a c to rs on te le v isio n in response to expansion of the Public Broadcasting System, UHF stations, and cable TV. The developm ent and wider use of video cassettes also may result in some em ploym ent opportu nities. These m edia will have a posi tive influence on em ploym ent only if original m aterial and program s re sult, not reruns or old movies. Though the field o f acting as a whole is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s, the num ber of persons seeking to enter the p ro fession is ex p ected to far exceed available openings. Even highly tal ented young people are likely to face stiff com petition and econom ic diffi culties. Earnings and Working Conditions A ctors and actresses in the legiti m ate theater belong to the A ctors’ Equity Association; in m otion p ic tures, including television films, to the Screen A ctors Guild, Inc., or to the Screen Extras Guild, Inc.; in tele vision or radio, to the Am erican F ed eration of Television and Radio A rt ists (A FTR A ). These unions and the show producers sign basic collective b arg ain in g a g re e m e n ts w hich set m inim um salaries, hours o f w ork, and other conditions of em ploym ent. Each actor also signs a separate con tract, which may provide for higher salaries than those specified in the basic agreem ent. The minimum weekly salary for actors in Broadway productions was about $285 in 1976. Those in small “ off-Broadway” theaters received a minimum of $175 a week. For shows on the road, the minimum rate was about $395 a week. (All minimum salaries are adjusted upward au to m atically, by union contract, com m ensurate with increases in the cost of living as reflected in the Bureau of Labor Statistics Consum er Price In dex.) In 1976, motion picture and televi sion actors and actresses earned a minimum daily rate of $172.50, or $604 for a 5-day week. For extras, the minimum rate was $52.50 a day. A ctors and actresses who did not work on prime time network televi sion received a minimum program fee of about $232.50 for a single p ro gram and 8 hours of rehearsal time. Television actors also receive addi tional com pensation for reruns. However, annual earnings of ac tors and actresses are adversely af fected by the frequent periods of un em ploym ent experienced by many. According to recent surveys by the A cto rs’ Equity Association (which represents actors who work on the stage) and the Screen Actors Guild, almost three quarters of their m em bers earned $2,500 or less a year from acting jobs, and only about 3 percent earned over $25,000 from such work. Because of the frequent periods of unem ploym ent character istic of this profession, many actors m ust supplem ent their incom es by maintaining other, non-acting jobs. In all fields, many well-known ac tors and actresses have salary rates above the minimums. Salaries of the few top stars are many times the fig ures cited. Eight perform ances am ount to a w eek’s work on the legitimate stage, and any additional perform ances are paid for as overtime. After the show opens, the basic workweek is 36 hours, including 12 hours for re hearsals. Before it opens, however, the workweek usually is longer to al low tim e for reh earsals. E vening work is, of course, a regular part o f a 33 stage a c to r’s life. R ehearsals may be held late at night and on weekends and holidays. W hen plays are on the road, w eekend traveling often is nec essary. M ost actors are covered by a union health, welfare and pension fund, in cluding hospitalization insurance, to which em ployers contribute. U nder some em ploym ent conditions, Equity and AFTRA m em bers have paid va cations and sick leave. Most stage actors get little if any unem ploym ent c o m p e n s a tio n solely from a c tin g since they seldom have enough em ploym ent in any State to m eet the eligibility requirem ents. C onsequent ly, when they are betw een acting jobs they often have to take any casual work they can find. Sources of Additional Information Inform ation on colleges and uni versities and conservatories that of fer a m ajo r in d ram a is available from: American Theater Association, 1029 Vermont Ave., NW., Suite 402, Washington, D.C. 20005. A C TU A R IE S (D .O .T. 020.188) die during this period is a risk to the co m p an y . T hey th e n c a lc u la te a price for assuming this risk that will be profitable to the com pany yet be co m p etitiv e w ith o th e r in su ran ce com panies. Finally, they m ust m ake sure that the price charged for the insurance will enable the com pany to pay all claims and expenses as they occur. In the same m anner, the ac tu ary calculates prem ium rates and d e term ines policy co n tract provisions for each type o f insurance offered. M ost actuaries specialize in eith er life and health insurance or property and liability (casualty) insurance; a growing num ber specialize in p en sion plans. To perform their duties effectively, actuaries must keep inform ed about general econom ic and social trends, and legislative, health, and other d e velopm ents that may affect insurance practices. B ecause o f th eir bro ad know ledge o f insurance, com pany actuaries may work on problem s aris ing in their com pany’s investm ent, group underwriting, or pension plan ning departm ents. A ctuaries in ex ecutive positions help determ ine gen eral com pany policy. In th at role, they may be called upon to explain complex technical m atters to com pa ny executives, governm ent officials, policyholders, and the public. They may testify before public agencies on proposed legislation affecting the in surance business, for example, or ex plain intended changes in premium rates or contract provisions. A ctuaries who work for the Feder al G overnm ent usually deal with a particular insurance or pension p ro gram, such as social security or life insurance for veterans and members o f the A rm ed Forces. Actuaries in State governm ent positions regulate insurance com panies, supervise the o p eratio n s o f S tate retirem en t or pension systems, and work on p ro b lems connected with unem ploym ent insurance or w orkers’ com pensation. Consulting actuaries set up pension and welfare plans for private com pa nies, unions, and governm ent agen cies. They calculate future benefits and determ ine the am ount of the an nual em ployer contribution. A ctuar ies w ho a re e n ro lle d u n d e r th e provisions of the Employee R etire m ent Income Security Act of 1974 (E R IS A ) e v a lu a te th e se p en sio n plans and subm it reports certifying their financial soundness. Places of Employment A p p ro x im a te ly 9 ,0 0 0 p e rs o n s worked as actuaries in 1976. Four of every 10 actuaries worked in five m a jo r cities—New York, Hartford, C hi cago, Philadelphia, and Boston. About two-thirds of all actuaries worked for private insurance com pa nies. A lm ost 90 p ercen t of these Nature of the Work Why do young persons pay m ore for autom obile insurance than older persons? How m uch should an insur ance policy cost? Answers to these and similar questions are provided by actuaries who design insurance and pension plans that can be m aintained on a so u n d fin an cial basis. T hey assemble and analyze statistics to cal culate probabilities o f death, sick ness, injury, d isability, unem ploy m ent, retirem ent, and property loss from accident, theft, fire, and other potential hazards. A ctuaries use this inform ation to determ ine the expect ed insured loss. For exam ple, they m ay ca lc u la te how m any persons who are 21 years old today can be expected to live to age 6 5 —the prob ability th at an insured person m ight 34 Employment of actuaries is influenced by the volume of insurance sales. worked for life insurance com panies; exam inations covering the pension the rest worked for property and li field. Because the first parts of the ability (c asu alty ) com panies. The exam ination series o f each society num ber of actuaries em ployed by an co v e r sim ilar m a te ria ls, stu d e n ts insurance com pany depends on the need not com m it themselves to a c a volume o f its business and the num reer specialty until they have taken ber and types of insurance policies it about four examinations. Success in offers. Large com panies may employ passing the first few exam inations over 100 actuaries on their staffs; helps students evaluate their p oten others, generally sm aller com panies, tial as actu aries. T hose who pass may rely instead on consulting firms these exam inations usually have b et or rating bureaus (associations that te r o p p o rtu n itie s for em ploym ent supply a c tu a ria l d a ta to m em ber and receive a higher starting salary. com panies). A ctuaries are encouraged to com C onsulting firm s and rating bu plete an entire series o f exam inations reaus employ about one-fifth o f all as soon as possible. It generally takes actuaries. O ther actuaries work for from 5 to 10 years to com plete the private organizations adm inistering series required for full professional in d e p e n d e n t pen sio n and w elfare status. Exam inations are given twice plans or for Federal and State gov each year. Extensive hom e study is ern m en t agencies. A few teach in req u ired in o rd e r to pass the a d colleges and universities. vanced examinations; many actuaries spend as m uch as 20-25 hours a week studying. A ctuaries who com plete Training, Other Qualifications, five exam inations in either the life and Advancement insurance series or the pension series A good educational background or seven exam inations in the casualty for a beginning job in a large life or series are aw arded “ associate” m em casualty com pany is a bachelor’s de bership in their respective society. gree with a m ajor in m athem atics or Those who have passed an entire se statistics; a degree in actuarial sci ries receive full m em bership and the ence is even better. Some com panies title “ fellow.” Consulting pension actuaries who hire applicants with a m ajor in engi neering, econom ics, or business ad service private pension plans and m inistration, provided they dem on certify their solvency m ust be e n s tra te a th o ro u g h fo u n d a tio n in rolled by the Joint Board for the E n calculus, probability, and statistics rollm ent of Actuaries. Applicants for (2 0 -2 5 h o u r s ) . O th e r d e s ira b le enrollm ent must m eet certain experi courses are insurance law, econom ence and education requirem ents as ics, and accounting. Although only stipulated by the Joint Board. Beginning actuaries often rotate 25 colleges and universities offer a degree in actuarial science, several among different jobs to learn various hundred schools offer a degree in actuarial operations and to becom e familiar with different phases of in m athem atics or statistics. A strong background in m athem at surance work. At first, their work ics is essential for persons interested may be rather routine, such as p re in a career as an actuary. O f equal paring calculations or tabulations for im portance, however, is the need to actuarial tables or reports. As they pass while in school one or m ore of gain experience, they may supervise the exam inations offered by profes actuarial clerks, prepare correspon sional societies. T hree societies spon dence and reports, and do research. A dvancem ent to m ore responsible sor program s leading to full profes sional status in their speciality. The work as assistant, associate, and chief Society of A ctuaries gives 9 actuarial actuary depends largely on job p er exam inations for the life and health form ance and the num ber of actu ar in su ran c e and p en sio n field, the ial exam inations passed. Many ac tu Casualty A ctuarial Society gives 10 a r ie s , b e c a u s e o f t h e i r b r o a d exam inations for the property and li knowledge of insurance and related ability field, and the Am erican Soci fields, are selected for adm inistrative ety of Pension A ctuaries gives nine positions in other com pany activities, p a rtic u la rly in u n d erw ritin g , a c counting, or data processing depart m ents. Many actuaries advance to top executive positions. Employment Outlook E m ploym ent of actu aries is ex pected to rise faster than the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s. In addition to job openings resulting from this growth, several hundred actu aries will be needed each year to replace those who re tire, die, or transfer to other occupa tions. Job opportunities will be best for new college graduates who have passed a t least two actuarial exami nations while still in school and have a strong m athem atical and statistical background. However, because of the large num ber of persons expect ed to receive degrees in actuarial sci ence, m athem atics, and statistics, and the large num ber of students tak ing actuarial examinations, com peti tion for beginning jobs should remain keen. Employment in this occupation is influenced to a great extent by the volume of insurance sales, which will continue to grow over the next d ec ade. Shifts in the age distribution of the p o p u latio n thro u g h the m id1980’s will result in many more peo ple with established careers and fam ily responsibilities. This is the group that traditionally has accounted for the bulk of private insurance sales. Increased sales, however, are only one determ inant of the demand for actuaries. In addition, changes in ex isting insurance practices are creat ing a need for more actuarial servic es. As m ore and m ore insurance co m p an ies b ran ch o u t into m ore than one kind of insurance coverage, a greater num ber of actuaries will be needed to establish the rates for the variety o f insurance offered. Growth in sales of relatively new forms of protection, such as dental, prepaid legal, and kidnap insurance will cre ate additional demand for actuaries. As more States pass competitive rat ing laws, many companies that previ ously relied on rating bureaus for ac tu a ria l d a ta can be ex p e cted to expand existing a c tu a ria l d e p a rt ments o r create new ones. 35 R ecent court decisions concerning product liability have focused m uch attention on this com plex area. In the years ahead, actuaries will be spend ing a lot o f time developing better ways to pro v id e p ro d u c t liability, m edical m alp ractice, and w o rk ers’ com pensation insurance protection. A doption of a “ no-fault” autom o bile insurance plan requires com pa nies writing autom obile insurance to reevaluate their pricing structures in light of no-fault requirem ents. It is uncertain w hether Federal no-fault legislation will be enacted soon; how ever, the growing num ber of States enacting no-fault plans or revising existing o n es in d ic a te s c o n tin u e d strong dem and for actuaries to m ake the required analyses. ERISA has im posed strict respon sibilities on actuaries for the opera tion and funding of pension plans. As the num ber of pension plans contin ues to grow, there will be an increas ing need for pension specialists to develop adequately financed plans and to prepare the reports that certi fy their solvency. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1976, actuaries had average salaries m ore than twice as high as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. New college graduates en tering the life insurance field without having passed any actuarial exams averaged $10,600 in 1976, according to a survey o f U.S. com panies by the Life Office M anagem ent Association (LO M A ). Applicants who had suc cessfully com pleted the first exam re ceived $ 11,200 and those who had passed two exams averaged $11,800. In the Federal G overnm ent, new graduates with the b ach elo r’s degree could start at $9,300 a year in 1977. Applicants with either 1 year of graduate study or relevant work ex perience were hired at $11,500, and those with the m aster’s degree or 2 years’ experience started at $14,100 a year. A ctuaries in the Federal Gov ernm ent averaged $25,100 a year in 1977. Beginning actuaries can look for ward to a m arked increase in earn ings as they gain professional experi 36 ence and advance in an actu arial society’s exam ination program . Life in su ran ce co m panies usually give m erit increases averaging from $500 to $850 to their actuaries as they pass each successive exam ination leading to m em bership in the Society of A c tuaries. Associates who received that d e s i g n a t i o n in 1 9 7 6 a v e r a g e d $16,500 a year; salaries for actuaries who were aw arded a full fellowship during th at year averaged $24,800. Fellows with additional years of ex perience earned substantially m ore— top a c tu a rial executives averaged about $43,000 in 1976. Although data are not available for salaries paid actuaries in casualty com panies or consulting firms, it is believed that salaries for these spe cialists generally are com parable to those paid by life insurance com pa nies. Sources of Additional Information For facts about actuarial opportu nities and qualifications, contact: American Society of Pension Actuaries, 1700 K St., NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. Casualty Actuarial Society, 200 East 42nd St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Society of Actuaries, 208 South LaSalle St., Chicago, 111. 60604. A D V E R TIS IN G W ORKERS (D.O.T. 050.088; 132.088; 141.081 and .168; 162.158; and 164.068 through .168) Nature of the Work Almost every business, from a small grocery store to a large bank, does some form of advertising to pursuade people to buy its products or use its services. Advertising re quires the talents of people in many d iffe re n t kinds o f jo b s. C rea tiv e workers such as writers, artists, and designers develop and produce ad vertisem ents, while people with busi ness and sales ability handle the a r ra n g e m e n ts fo r b ro a d c a stin g th e advertisem ents on radio and televi sion, publishing them in newspapers or magazines, mailing them directly, or posting them on billboards. The following occupations are those most com m only associated with advertis ing. Advertising managers direct the ad vertising program of the businesses for which they work. They determ ine the size of the advertising budget, the type of ad and the m edia to use, and what advertising agency, if any, to employ. M anagers who decide to em ploy an agency work closely with the advertising specialists from the agen cy. These m anagers may supervise the preparation of pam phlets, b ro chures, o r other m aterials developed to prom ote the firm ’s products or services. Advertising m anagers w ork ing for new spapers, radio stations, and o th e r com m unications m edia have so m ew h a t d iffe re n t d u ties. They are responsible for selling ad vertising time or space, and do work that is similar to the work of sales managers in other businesses. Account executives are em ployed by advertising agencies to develop advertising programs for client firms and individuals. They first study the client’s sales, public image, and ad vertising problems, and then create a program that suits the client’s needs. In most agencies, artists and copy writers are responsible for develop ing the actual artwork and advertis ing copy, but in some small agencies, the account executives have this re sponsibility. Research directors and their assis tants study the m arket. They review possible uses for the product or ser vice being sold, com pare its advan tages or disadvantages with those of co m p etito rs, and suggest ways of reaching potential buyers. To devel op m arket information, these w ork ers may survey buying habits and m o tives of customers, or try out sample ads to find the them e or medium th at best sells the product. (See the state m ent on marketing research workers for more information on this occupa tion.) Advertising copywriters develop the headlines and text to be used in the ads. By studying inform ation about the product and its potential custom ers, they are able to write copy aim ed at the particular group of custom ers the advertiser seeks to at er people in the advertising field tract. They may specialize in writing worked for printers, art studios, let copy for a certain group o f people, ter shops, package design firms, and such as business m anagers, teenag similar businesses. ers, or sports lovers, or for a class of products, such as cars or com puter Training, Other Qualifications, e q u ip m e n t. C o p y w rite rs u su ally and Advancement w ork closely with ac co u n t ex ecu M ost em ployers prefer college tives. In som e agencies, they may be graduates. Some em ployers seek p e r supervised by copy chiefs. Artists and layout workers create sons with degrees in advertising with the visual im pact o f an ad by select heavy em phasis on m arketing, busi ing p h o to g rap h s, draw ing illu stra ness, and journalism ; others prefer tions or figures, and selecting the size graduates with a liberal arts b ack or type o f print to be used in a m aga ground (social science, lite ratu re , zine or new spaper ad. W hen televi art, and other disciplines); some em sion com m ercials are planned, they ployers place little em phasis on the usually sketch sample scenes for the type of degree. No p artic u la r educational b a c k client to consider. (S ee the sta te m en ts on co m m eric al artists and ground is equated with success in ad photographers for m ore inform ation vertising. In fact, relevant work expe rience may be m ore im portant than on this type of w ork.) educational background. Experience Media directors (o r space buyers selling ads for school publications o r and time buyers) negotiate contracts for advertising space or air time. radio stations, or on a sum m er jo b They determ ine the day and time with a m arketing research service, when a television com m ercial will can be a distinct advantage to the reach the largest group of prospec jobseeker. Som e organizations re cru it o u t tive buyers at the lowest cost. To se standing college graduates for train lect the best medium for the advertis ing program s that cover all aspects o f er, m edia directors m ust know the advertising work. In other firms, em costs o f using various m edia and the ployees im mediately enter a specialty c h a r a c te r i s t ic s o f th e a u d ie n c e and do not gain such all-round expe reached by specific publications or rience. Some beginners start as re television stations. search or production assistants or as Production managers and their as space or time buyers. A few begin as sistants arrange to have the ad print junior copywriters. ed for publication, film ed for televi Many advertising jobs require sion, or re co rd e d for radio. They im agination, creativity, and a flair for m ust know which firms or freelance language. These traits are especially workers will be able to produce the im portant to artists, layout w orkers, best ad for the least cost. and account executives. All creative effort m ust be directed toward the Places of Employment sales function. People interested in becom ing advertising m anagers, a c In 1976, about 180,000 people count executives, m edia buyers, and w orked in jobs requiring consider production m anagers m ust be able to able knowledge of advertising. Those get along well with people and be em p lo y ed in ad v e rtisin g agencies able to sell their ideas. R esearch d i w ere heavily co n c en trate d in New rectors and their assistants m ust have York City, Los Angeles, and C hica an understanding of hum an behavior. go. All advertising w orkers m ust be able Many others worked in the adver to accept criticism of their work and tising departm ents o f m anufacturing be able to function as part o f a team . firm s, re ta il sto res, banks, pow er O pportunities for advancem ent in com panies, professional and trade this field generally are excellent for associations, and many other organi creative, talented, and hard-working zations. Some people had advertising people. For example, copyw riters jobs with television or radio stations, and account executives may advance newspapers, and magazines. Still oth to more responsible work in their specialties, or to m anagerial jobs, if they dem onstrate ability in dealing with clients. Some especially capable workers may becom e partners in an existing agency, or they may estab lish their own agency. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent of advertising w ork ers is expected to increase faster than th e a v e ra g e fo r all o c c u p a tio n s through the m id-1980’s. Most open ings, however, will result from the need to replace workers who die, re tire, or leave the occupation for o th er reasons. The growing num ber o f consum er and industrial goods and increasing com petition in many product and service m arkets will cause advertis ing expenditures to rise. Such expen ditures also may be spurred by the growing tendency toward self service in retail m arketing. An additional factor is the growing need of small businesses for professional advertis ing services. Em ployment in advertis ing occupations is strongly affected by general business conditions be cause firms expand or contract their a d v e rtisin g b u d g ets acco rd in g to their financial success. Although op portunities should be favorable for highly qualified applicants, particu larly in re ta il advertising, o th ers seeking entry jobs will face keen com petition because the glamorous nature o f the field attracts many p eo ple. Local television, radio, and news papers are expected to increase their share o f total advertising expendi tures while direct mail, magazines, and national newspapers continue to lose ground. The few very large agen cies th at account for nearly all na tional advertising are expected to m aintain fast growth because of their expanding international business. Earnings and Working Conditions Based on limited inform ation, an nual salaries for beginning advertis ing w orkers with bachelor’s degrees ranged from $8,000 to $10,000 in 1976. Higher starting salaries gener ally were paid by the largest firms or advertising agencies to outstanding 37 For additional inform ation on ca reers and a list o f colleges that p ro vide training in advertising, contact: American Advertising Federation, 1225 Con necticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. A IR TR A FFIC CO N TR O LLE RS (D.O.T. 193.168) Nature of the Work Advertising can be a satisfying career for persons who enjoy variety, creative challenges, and competition. ap p lican ts, p articu larly those w ith advertising experience. Salaries o f experienced advertising w orkers varied by size and type of firm as well as by type o f job. A c cording to a survey o f advertising agencies tak en in 1975, average an nual salaries o f w orkers in selected occupations were as follows: C hief executive officer, $45,300; account supervisor, $28,400; account execu tive, $18,500; executive art director, $24,400; a rt director, $17,100; sen ior layout artist, $12,900; junior lay o u t a r t i s t , $ 9 ,3 0 0 ; c o p y c h ie f , $22,300; senior copyw riter, $16,600; ju n io r copyw riter, $10,500; m edia director, $ 16,800; space or tim e buy e r , $ 9 ,4 0 0 ; r e s e a r c h d i r e c t o r , $24,000; research analyst, $13,500; p ro duction m anager, $14,400. Sev eral o th er surveys yielded these re sults: In 1976, the top advertising of ficers in large retail firms averaged over $32,000 a year; in 1975, the m edian salary o f advertising direc to rs in la rg e b a n k s ra n g e d fro m $16,000 to $17,000 a year; in 1975, th e av e rag e salary o f ad v ertisin g m anagers in a wide variety o f com pa nies ranged from $ 18,000 to $34,000 a year, depending upon the annual sales volum e o f the firm. Salaries of advertising m anagers generally are higher in consum er th an industrial 38 products firms, and m any receive in centive com pensation. People in advertising work under great pressure, and do not have th e job security enjoyed by workers in many o th er occupations. These workers are expected to produce quality ads in as short a tim e as possible. Sometim es they m ust w ork long o r irregular hours to m eet d ead lines o r m ake last-m inute changes. A c c o u n t ex e cu tiv es, co p y w rite rs, and la y o u t w o rk ers m ay b e c o m e frustrated by a clien t’s inability to define the type o f ad he or she wants for a product. Advertising can be a satisfying c a reer for persons who enjoy variety, excitem ent, creative challenges, and com petition. Unlike w orkers in m any other occupations, advertising w ork ers ex p e rien ce th e satisfactio n o f having their work in print, on televi sion, o r on radio, even though they rem ain unknow n to th e public at large. Sources of Additional Information Inform ation on advertising agen cies and the ca ree rs they offer is available from: American Association of Advertising Agen cies, 200 Park Ave. New York, N.Y. 10017. Air traffic controllers are the guardians o f the airways. C ontrollers keep track o f planes flying within their assigned area, giving pilots in structions that will keep the planes separated. Their im m ediate concern is safety, but within this fram ework, controllers m ust d irect planes effi ciently to m inim ize delays. Som e regulate airport traffic; others regu late flights between airports. From the control tower, airport traffic controllers can see the planes that are on the ground and in the air nearby. Planes that are farther away or at a higher altitude show up on the radar screen. As planes approach an airport, pilots radio ahead to inform the tow er o f their presence and re quest perm ission to land. If the way is clear, controllers direct the pilots to a runway; if the airport is busy, co n trollers fit the plane into a traffic p a t tern w ith other aircraft waiting to land. They also provide pilots with inform ation about conditions at the a irp o rt, such as th e w eather, th e speed and direction o f the wind, and the visibility. C ontrollers constantly observe the planes under their d irec tion, and if a controller notices th at two planes are on a collision course, one of th e pilots will be instructed to turn o r change altitude. A sim ilar procedure is used for takeoffs. If necessary, a tem porary break in traffic is arranged, the plane is instructed to depart, and a control ler observes it on radar to guide the pilot around other planes. A fter each plane departs, airport traffic controllers notify the enroute controllers who will be next to tak e Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Controllers coordinate flight activities to prevent accidents and expedite takeoffs and landings. charge. T here are 25 enroute control centers located around the country. Enroute controllers work in team s of two or three. Because airplanes gen erally fly along specially designated routes, each team is assigned a cer tain am ount o f airspace along one of these routes. A team , for example, m ight be responsible for all planes th at are betw een 30 to 100 miles north o f the airport and flying at an altitude betw een 6,000 and 18,000 feet. W hen a plane enters a team ’s air space, one controller com m unicates with the pilots by radio and follows the plan e’s flight path on radar. The remaining team m em bers prepare for other planes about to en ter their area by com m unicating with neighboring control towers and adjacent centers, and organizing flight plans coming over teletype m achines and com put er displays. These plans were filed by pilots and provide controllers with inform ation such as when a plane will enter the team ’s airspace and at what altitude. Enroute controllers also warn pi lots about nearby pianes, bad w eath er conditions, and o ther possible haz ards. If two planes are on a collision course they will be directed around each other. Or if a pilot wants to change altitude in search of better flying conditions, the controller will check to d eterm ine th at no o th er planes will be along the proposed path during the altitude change. As the flight progresses, the team responsible for the aircraft notifies the next team that will be in charge. Through this coordination, one team after another watches over the plane until it safely arrives at its destina tion. C ontrollers usually have several planes under their control at one time, and often have to make quick decisions about com pletely different activities. For example, an airport controller might be directing a plane on its landing approach, and at the same time be providing pilots just entering the airp o rt’s airspace with inform ation about conditions at the airport. W hile instructing these pi lots, the controller also would be o b serving other planes in the vicinity, such as those in a holding pattern waiting for permission to land, to d e term ine th at they rem ain well sepa rated. Places of Employment The sole em ployer of civilian air traffic controllers is the Federal Avi ation A dm inistration (FA A ). A bout 21,000 persons worked as air traffic controllers in 1976, mostly at m ajor airports and air route traffic control centers located near large cities. Air traffic controller trainees are selected through the com petitive Federal Civil Service System. Appli cants m ust be less than 31 years old and m ust pass a written test that m ea sures their ability to learn and p er form the controller’s duties. In addi tion, applicants must have 3 years of general work experience or 4 years of college, or a com bination of both. Applicants with sufficient experience as military controllers, pilots, or navi gators may be hired without taking the written test. Applicants must be in excellent health and have vision correctable to 20/20. Potential controllers should be ar ticu late, since directions to pilots must be given quickly and clearly. A quick and retentive memory also is im portant because controllers con stantly receive information about the planes under their direction which they m ust immediately grasp, inter pret, and rem em ber for a short p eri od. A decisive personality is an asset, since controllers often have to make rapid decisions. Successful applicants receive a com bination of on-the-job and for mal training to learn the fundam en tals of the airway system, Federal avia tio n re g u la tio n s , c o n tr o lle r equipm ent, and aircraft perform ance c h a ra c te ristic s. T hey receiv e a p proxim ately 16 weeks of intensive training, including practice on simu lators, a t the FAA Academy in O kla hom a City. It usually takes 2 to 3 years of progressively more respon sible work experience to becom e a fully qualified controller. Each year, controllers must pass a physical ex am ination; they must pass a job p er form ance exam ination twice each year. C ontrollers can transfer to jobs at different locations and advance to supervisory positions. Some advance to m ore responsible m anagem ent jobs in air traffic control and a few to top administrative jobs in the FAA. Employment Outlook Em ployment of air traffic control lers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations 39 through the m id-1980’s. In addition to openings resulting from growth, many others will arise as experienced controllers retire, die, or leave the occupation for o ther reasons. C om p e titio n fo r jo b s should be keen, h o w ev er, b ec au se th e n u m b er o f qualified applicants is expected to be m uch g re a te r than the num ber o f openings. As th e n u m b e r o f a irc ra f t in creases, th e skyways will becom e m ore congested and m ore controllers will be needed. Also, to prevent col lisions, the FAA has created spaces near certain airports and above ce r tain altitudes which require all pilots to receive directions from air traffic controllers. If, as expected, the num ber and size of these spaces are ex panded, additional controllers will be n eed ed desp ite the g re ater use of new, autom ated control equipm ent. College graduates who have civil ian or m ilitary experience as control lers, pilots, or navigators, will have the best em ploym ent opportunities. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1976 controller trainees earned $11,500 a year; the average earnings for all controllers was $22,300 a year, or over twice the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private in dustry, ex cep t farm ing. D epending on length o f service, they receive 13 to 26 days o f paid vacation and 13 days o f paid sick leave each year, life insurance, health benefits, and, due to the stress involved in the work, a m o re lib e ra l re tire m e n t p ro g ram than oth er Federal employees. C ontrollers work a basic 40-hour week; however, they may work addi tional hours for which they receive overtim e pay or equal time off. Be cause c o n tro l tow ers and ce n te rs m ust be operated 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, controllers are assigned to night and weekend shifts on a ro tating basis. Air traffic controllers som etimes work under great stress. They m ust keep track of several planes at the same time and m ake certain all pilots receive co rrect instructions. Many controllers belong to the Professional Air Traffic C ontrollers Organization. 40 Sources of Additional Information A pam phlet providing general in form ation about controllers and in structions for subm itting applications is available from any U.S. Civil Ser vice C om m ission Job Inform ation C en ter. Look under U.S. G overn m ent, Civil Service Commission, in your telephone book to obtain a local Job Inform ation C en ter telephone num ber and call for a copy of A n nouncem ent 418. If there is no listing in your telephone book, dial the tollfree num ber 800-555-1212 and re quest the toll-free num ber of the U.S. Civil Service Commission Job Infor m ation C enter for your location. A IR P LA N E PILOTS (D.O.T. 196.168, .228, .268, and .283) Nature of the Work Pilots are skilled, highly trained professionals who fly planes to carry out a wide variety o f tasks. Although most pilots transport passengers and cargo, many others perform tasks such as crop dusting, inspecting power lines, and taking photographs. Except on small aircraft, two pilots usually are needed to fly the plane. Generally, the m ost experienced pi lot (called captain by the airlines) is in com m and and supervises any o th er crew m em bers on board. The co pilot assists in com m unicating with air traffic controllers, m onitoring the instrum ents, and flying the plane. Most large airliners have a third pilot in the cockpit who serves as flight engineer. The flight engineer assists the other pilots by m onitoring and operating many of the instrum ents, making m inor inflight repairs, and looking out for other aircraft. Before departure, pilots plan their flights carefully. They confer with dispatchers and w eather forecasters to find out about w eather conditions on route and at their destination. Based on this inform ation, they choose a route, altitude, and speed that will give a fast, safe, and sm ooth flight. It is the responsibility of the pilot in com m and to inform air traffic control of the flight plan so that the flight can be coordinated with other air traffic. Before taking off, pilots thorough ly check their planes to determ ine th a t the engines, controls, in stru m ents, and o th er com ponents are working properly. They also m ake sure that baggage or cargo has been loaded correctly. Takeoff and landing are the most difficult parts of the flight and re quire close coordination between the pilot and copilot. For example, as the plane accelerates for takeoff, the pi lot concentrates on the runway while the copilot scans the instrum ent pan el. The pilots already have calculated the speed they must attain to becom e airborne, taking into account the alti tude of the airport, the weight of the plane, and the speed and direction of the wind. The m om ent the plane reaches this speed, the copilot in forms the pilot who then pulls back on the controls to raise the nose of the plane. Unless the w eather is bad, the ac tual flight is relatively easy. Pilots steer the plane along their planned route, and radio their position, air speed, and other flight details to the air traffic control stations they pass along th e way. They continuously scan the instrum ent panel to check their fuel and the condition of their engines. Pilots may request a change in altitude or route if circum stances dictate. For example, if the w eather briefing led the pilots to expect a sm oother ride than is being experi enced, they may ask air traffic con trol if pilots flying at other altitudes have reported better conditions. If so, they may request a change. This procedure also may be used to find a stronger tailwind or a weaker head wind to save fuel and increase speed. If visibility is poor, pilots must rely com pletely on their instruments. Using the readings on the altim eter, they know how high above ground they are and can fly safely over m ountains and other obstacles. A special navigation radio gives pilots inform ation which, with the help of special maps, tells them their exact position. O ther, very sophisticated traveled airports not serviced by the airlines. Others worked for a variety of businesses performing tasks such as crop dusting, inspecting pipelines, or conducting sightseeing trips. Fed eral, S tate, and local governm ents also employed pilots. Most pilots work at the major air ports located close to cities. In fact, over one-third of all pilots work near seven m etropolitan areas—Los An geles, San Francisco, New York, Dallas-Fort W orth, Chicago, Miami, and Atlanta. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement equipm ent provides directions to a point ju st above the end o f a runway and enables pilots to land com pletely “ blind.” Once on the ground, pilots must com plete records on their flight for their com pany and the Federal Avi ation Adm inistration (FA A ). Airline pilots have the services of large support staffs and consequently perform few nonflying duties. Pilots employed by businesses that use their own aircraft, however, usually are the businesses’ only experts on flying and consequently have many other duties. For example, since pilots un derstand the requirem ents for a bal anced plane, the business pilot loads the plane and handles all passenger luggage. While the plane is being re fueled, the business pilot stays with it to assure th at the job is done proper ly. O ther nonflying responsibilities include keeping records, scheduling flights and m ajor m aintenance, and perform ing minor m aintenance and repair work on their planes. Some pilots are instructors and spend m uch o f their tim e giving flying lessons. They teach their students the princi ples of flight in ground school classes and dem onstrate how to operate the aircraft in “ dual-controlled” planes. A few specially train ed pilots are “ evaluators” or “ check pilots.” They fly with each airline pilot and copilot at least twice a year to make sure th at they are proficient. Places of Employment A bout 83,000 civilian pilots worked full time in 1976. A bout onehalf worked for the airlines. M uch o f the rem ainder worked as flight in structors at local airports or for large businesses th a t use th eir own a ir planes to fly com pany cargo and ex ec u tiv e s. Som e p ilo ts flew sm all planes for air taxi com panies, usually flying passengers to or from lightly All pilots who are paid to transport passengers or cargo must have at least a commercial pilot’s license from the FAA. To qualify for this license, applicants must be at least 18 years old and have at least 250 hours of flight experience. They also must pass a strict physical examination to make sure that they are in good health, have 20/20 vision with or without glasses, good hearing, and no physical handicaps that prevent quick reactions. Applicants must pass a written test that includes ques tions on the principles of safe flight, n av ig atio n tec h n iq u e s, and FAA regulations; and dem onstrate their flying ability to FAA examiners. In addition to a com m ercial li cense, pilots who want to fly in bad weather must be licensed by the FAA to fly by instrum ents. Pilots may qualify for this license by having 40 hours of experience flying by instru ments, passing a written examination on procedures and FAA regulations covering instrum ent flying, and dem onstrating their ability to fly by in strum ents. Airline pilots must fulfill additional requirem ents. They must pass FAA written and flight examinations to earn a flight engineer’s license. C ap tains m ust have an airline transport pilot’s license. Applicants for this li cense m ust be at least 23 years old and have a minimum of 1,500 hours of flying experience during the previ ous 8 years, including night and in strum ent flying. All licenses are valid as long as a pilot can pass the required physical 41 exam inations and the periodic tests o f flying skills dem anded by govern m ent regulations. Flying can be learned in military or civilian flying schools. Either kind of training satisfies the flight experience requirem ents for licensing, but p er sons serving in the A rm ed Forces have the opportunity to gain the sub stan tial ex p erien ce on je t a irc raft th at is preferred by airlines and many businesses. Pilots hired by airlines m ust be high school graduates; however, m ost airlines require 2 years of col lege and prefer to hire college gradu ates. Because pilots m ust be able to m ake quick decisions and accurate ju d g m en ts u n d er p re ssu re, airline com panies give all applicants psy chological tests and reject those who do not pass. New airline pilots usually start as flight engineers. A lthough airlines fa vor applicants who already have a flight e n g in e e r’s license, they may train those who have only the com m ercial license. All new pilots re ceiv e se v e ra l w eek s o f in ten siv e training in sim ulators and classrooms before being assigned to a flight. C om panies other than airlines gen erally do n o t require as m uch flying experience. However, a com m ercial p ilo t’s license is required and com pa nies prefer applicants who have ex perience in the type o f plane they will be flying. New em ployees generally start as copilots. A dvancem ent for all pilots gener ally is limited to other flying jobs. Many pilots start as flight instructors, building up their flying hours while they teach. As they becom e m ore ex perienced, these pilots occasionally may have the opportunity to fly ch ar ter planes and perhaps get jobs with small air transportation firms such as air taxi com panies. Some advance to business flying jobs. Only a small num ber get flight engineer jobs with the airlines because the airlines p re fer pilots who have been trained in the military. In the airlines, advancem ent usual ly depends on seniority provisions es tablished by union contracts. A fter 5 to 10 years, flight engineers advance acco rd in g to seniority to co -p ilo t and, after 10 to 20 years, to captain. 42 Seniority also determ ines which pi lots get the m ore desirable routes. In non-airline jobs, copilots may a d vance to pilot and, in large com pa nies, to chief pilot in charge of air craft scheduling, m aintenance, and flight procedures. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent of pilots is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s. In addition to the jobs from em ploym ent growth, openings will result as experienced pilots die o r retire. C om petition for job openings should be keen, however, because the num ber of qualified pilots seek ing jobs is expected to exceed the num ber of openings. M ore than half the openings for pilots will occur outside the airlines. Businesses are expected to operate an increasing num ber of planes and employ m ore pilots to fly executives and cargo to locations that the sched uled airlines do not service. M ore flight instructors also will be needed to train new pilots. The expected growth in airline passenger and cargo traffic will c re ate a need for m ore airliners and m ore pilots to fly them . The short term outlook, however, is poor. The recent slowdown in air travel com bined with the introduction of bigger planes has caused a tem porary d e crease in the need for airline pilots. Therefore, many of the new jobs th at do develop will be taken by experi enced airline pilots now on furlough. R ecent college graduates who have experience flying large, multiengine aircraft and who have a com m ercial p ilo t’s license and a flight en g in eer’s license can expect first consideration for jobs with the m ajor airlines. Businesses generally have fewer formal education and experi en c e re q u ire m e n ts th a n airlin es. However, these com panies prefer ap plicants with flying experience in the type of plane they will be flying on the job. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of airline pilots are among the highest in the Nation. In 1976, the average salary for airline pilots was $46,253 a year. Starting salaries for flight engineers averaged $9,000 a year, while some senior captains on the largest aircraft earned m ore than $80,000. Earnings depend on factors such as the type, size, and speed of the planes, and the num ber of hours and miles flown. Extra pay is given for night and inter n atio n al flights. As an add itio n al benefit, pilots and their im m ediate families usually are entitled to a lim ited am ount of reduced fare trans portation on their own and other air lines. Earnings of business pilots ranged from $10,000 for copilots on small planes to $45,000 for chief pilots of com panies with large jets. Most busi ness pilots flying single-engine planes m ade from $14,200 to $19,000 a year while salaries of those flying jets ranged from $16,500 to $29,500. Most flight instructors m ade between $7,000 and $16,000 a year while an nual salaries for air taxi pilots ranged from $12,000 to $17,000. By law, airline pilots cannot fly more than 85 hours a m onth. Most airline pilots actually fly less than 70 hours a month and, although they have additional nonflying duty hours, usually only work 16 days a m onth. However, the majority of flights in volve layovers away from hom e. W hen pilots are away from home, the airlines provide hotel accom m oda tions and an allowance for expenses. Airlines operate flights at all hours of the day and night, so work schedules often are irregular. Pilots with little seniority may be assigned night or early morning flights. Pilots em ployed outside the air lines often have irregular schedules; they may fly 30 hours one m onth and 90 hours the next. Since these pilots frequently have many nonflying re sponsibilities, they have m uch less free time than airline pilots. With the exception of business pilots, most pi lots employed outside the airlines do not rem ain away from hom e over night. They may w ork odd hours, how ever. Instructors, for exam ple, often give lessons at night or on weekends. Although flying does not involve much physical effort, the mental stress o f being responsible for a safe flight, no m atter what the w eather, can be very tiring. Particularly during takeoff and landing, pilots m ust be alert and ready to act if som ething goes wrong. M ost airline pilots are m em bers of the Air Line Pilots Association, In ternational. Those em ployed by one m ajor airline are m em bers of the Al lied Pilots Association. Sources of Additional Information Inform ation about job opportuni ties in a particular airline, and the qualifications required, may be ob tained by writing to the personnel m anager o f the airline. Addresses of airline com panies are available in the booklet The People o f the Airlines. For a copy, write to: Public Relations Department, Air Transport Association of America, 1709 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. For inform ation ab out the duties, as well as the physical and education al re q u irem en ts for airline pilots, contact: Air Line Pilots Association, International, 1625 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. For inform ation about job oppor tunities in com panies other than air lines, consult the classified section of aviation trade m agazines and apply to com panies th at operate aircraft at local airports. A N T H R O P O LO G IS TS (D.O.T. 055.088) Nature of the Work Anthropologists study m an—his origins, physical characteristics, and culture. These areas o f study exam ine p eo p le’s traditions, beliefs, cus tom s, languages, m ateria l posses sions, social relationships, and value systems. A lthough anthropologists generally specialize in one of four specific areas—cultural anthropolo gy, archeology, linguistics, and phys ical anthropology—they are expect ed to have a general knowledge of all of them . Most anthropologists specialize in cultural anthropology, som etim es called ethnology. Ethnologists may spend long periods living with tribal groups or in m odern com m unities to learn about their ways o f life. The cultural anthropologist lives with a group o f people to observe and write about their social custom s, beliefs, and m aterial possessions. They usu ally learn the native language in the process. They also m ake com para tive studies of the cultures and soci eties of various groups. In recent years, investigations have included few er prim itive societies and m ore com plex urban societies, including ghetto inhabitants, drug addicts, and the aged. Archeologists study cultures which no longer exist or have changed greatly. They study the remains o f homes, tools, clothing, ornam ents, and other evidences o f hum an life and activity to reconstruct the in habitants’ history and customs. For example, in a desert in New Mexico, archeologists uncovered an ancient kiva— an Indian religious cham ber. In a cave by the Dead Sea, some have found pieces of ancient scrolls 2,000 years old. A rcheological team s also have excavated three large prehistor ic com m unities along the Illinois Riv er. Linguistic anthropologists study the evolution of language and the place of language in a culture. They exam ine the sounds and structure of a so ciety’s language and relate them to the behavior and thought patterns o f m em bers of that society. Such stud ies may be used to trace the diffusion o f a language or people over wide geographical areas. Physical anthropologists studying hum an evolution investigate how the physical characteristics of different races or groups of people are influ enced by heredity and environm ent. This work requires extensive training in hum an anatom y, biology, genetics, and the study of prim ates (the order o f mammals that includes man, apes, and m onkeys). A physical an th ro pologist may identify a fossil o f a h u man ancestor or teach a chim panzee to com m unicate with sign language. A knowledge of body structure en ables physical an th ro p o lo g ists to work as consultants on projects such as the design of cockpits for airplanes and spaceships, and the sizing of clothing. Most new em ploym ent opportuni ties are expected to be in applied an thropology, a specialty which uses the findings o f anthropology in a practi cal m anner. Applied cultural an thropologists may, for example, p ro vide technical guidelines to ease the transition o f nonindustrial societies to a m ore complex level of socioeco nomic organization, or a medical an thropologist studying cultural a tti tudes tow ards health and m edical treatm ent may help form ulate and adm inister a health program for an e th n ic m in o rity . M any m ed ical schools hire medical anthropologists as instructors. Applied linguistic anthropologists may create a written alphabet to help advance literacy in societies with un w ritten languages. A nother related specialty area is urban anthropology, the study of urban life, urbanization, rural-urban migration, and the influ ence of city life. Most anthropologists teach in col leges and universities, and they often co m b in e teac h in g w ith researc h . Some specialize in m useum work, which generally com bines adminis trative duties with fieldwork and re search on anthropological co llec tions. A n th ro p o lo g ists also w rite cultural, social, and archeological im pact statem ents for proposed G ov ernm ent projects. Some work in busi ness and industry including construc tion firms or engage in nontechnical writing. Places of Employment About 3,500 persons worked as anthropologists in 1976. About fourfifths of all anthropologists work in colleges and universities. The F eder al G overnm ent employs a small but growing num ber, chiefly in museums, national parks, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the Army C orps of E ngi neers, and technical aid programs. State and local governm ent agencies employ anthropologists, usually for m useum work or health research. 43 Some work as consultants in private, co m m u n ity , o r o v erseas d e v e lo p m ent organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Students who w ant to becom e an thropologists should obtain the Ph. D. degree. College graduates with b ach elo r’s degrees often get tem po rary positions and assistantships in graduate departm ents w here they are w orking fo r advanced degrees. A m a s te r’s d eg ree, plus field ex p eri ence, is sufficient for m any beginning professional positions, b u t prom otion to top positions generally is reserved for individuals who have a Ph. D. degree. M any colleges and universi ties require a Ph. D. degree for p er m anent teaching appointm ents. P er sons w ith a m aster’s o r b a c h e lo r’s degree in anthropology may be hired as governm ent social science analysts or placed in m anagerial positions by private em ployers. A stu d en t interested in studying anthropology should have a strong background in the social and phys ical sciences. M athem atics is helpful, since statistical and com puter m eth ods are becom ing m ore widely used for research in this field. U ndergrad uates may begin th eir field training in a rc h e o lo g y by arran g in g , th ro u g h their university departm ents, to ac com pany expeditions as laborers or to attend field schools established for training. They may later becom e su pervisors in charge o f the digging or collection o f m aterial and finally may direct a portion o f the work of the ex p ed itio n . E th n o logists and lin guists usually do their fieldwork in dependently. M ost anthropologists base their doctoral dissertations on data collected through field research; th ey a re , th e re fo re , e x p e rie n c e d fieldw orkers by the tim e they earn the Ph. D. degree. Nearly 300 colleges and universi ties have b ach elo r’s degree program s in anthropology; some 130 offer m as te r’s degree program s and about 80, doctoral program s. T he choice of a graduate school is very im portant. Students interested in m useum work should select a school which is asso ciated with a m useum that has an thropological collections. Similarly, 44 those interested in archeology should choose either a university that offers opportunities for sum m er experience in archeological fieldwork, or attend an archeological field school else where during sum m er vacations. Anthropologists should have spe cial interest in natural history and social studies and enjoy reading, re search, and writing. Traveling to re m ote areas, working in an uncom f o r ta b le c lim a te , a n d liv in g in primitive housing are som etimes n ec essary. A nthropologists work with ideas and have the opportunity for self-ex pression. They should be able to work independently and with detail. (F o r inform ation on advancem ent, see the Handbook statem ent on C ol lege and University T eachers.) Employment Outlook Em ploym ent o f anthropologists is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations. M ost new jobs are expected to be in p ri vate industry, the Federal G overn m ent, m ental and public health agen c i e s , an d u rb a n p la n n in g d e p a rtm e n ts o f city governm ents. C o lleg e an d u n iv ersity te a c h in g , which will rem ain the largest area o f em ploym ent for anthropologists, is likely to have little growth due to the projected slowdown in college e n rollments. The num ber of qualified an th ro pologists seeking to enter the field will likely exceed available positions. As a result, doctorate holders may face keen com petition through the m id-1980’s, particularly for jobs in colleges and universities. G raduates with only bachelor’s and m aster’s d e grees are expected to face very keen com petition, although they may be preferred for some nonacadem ic p o sitions. Some teaching positions may be available in junior colleges or high schools for those who m eet state c e r tification requirem ents. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for an th ro p o lo gists with a Ph. D. degree were gener ally about $16,000 a year in 1976. M ost ex p e rien ce d an th ro p o lo g ists e a r n e d b e t w e e n $ 1 7 ,0 0 0 a n d $27,000 a year, according to limited data available. In general, salaries of experienced anthropologists are a lit tle less than the average for all social science professional workers. In the Federal G overnm ent, an thropologists having a bachelor’s de g re e c o u ld b eg in as tra in e e s at $9,303 or $11,523 a year in 1977, depending upon the applicant’s aca dem ic record. The starting salary for those having a m aster’s degree was $14,097 a year, for those having a Ph. D., $17,056. Anthropologists in the F ederal G overnm ent averaged around $23,800 in 1977. Many anthropologists in colleges and universities supplem ent their regular salaries with earnings from other sources such as sum m er teach ing and research grants. Anthropologists som etimes are re quired to do fieldwork under adverse w eather conditions. They also m ust adapt themselves to cultural environ m ents which are materially and so cially different. Sources of Additional Information F or in fo rm atio n ab o u t em ploy m ent opportunities and schools th at offer g rad u ate training in an th ro pology, contact: The American Anthropological Association, 1703 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20009. The Archeological Institute of America, 260 W. Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10013. ARCHITECTS (D.O.T. 001.081) Nature of the Work A ttractive buildings improve the physical environm ent of a com m uni ty. But buildings also must be safe and m ust allow people both inside and around them to perform their duties properly. A rchitects design buildings that successfully com bine th ese e le m e n ts of a ttra c tiv e n e ss, safety, and usefulness. M ost a rch itects provide p ro fes sional services to clients planning a building project. They are involved in all phases o f developm ent of a building or project, from the initial discussion o f general ideas to the fi nal piece o f construction. Their du ties require a variety o f skills—de sign, engineering, m anagerial, and supervisory. The architect and client first dis cuss the purposes, requirem ents, and cost o f a project, as well as any pref erence in design th at the client may have. T he arch itect th en prepares schem atic drawings to show the scale and stru ctu ral relationships o f the building. If the schem atic drawings are ac cepted, the architect develops a final design showing the floor plans and the structural details o f the project. For exam ple, in designing a school, the architect determ ines the width of corridors and stairways so that stu dents may move easily from one class to another; the type and arrangem ent o f storage space, and the location and size o f classrooms, laboratories, lunchroom or cafeteria, gymnasium, and adm inistrative offices. Next the architect prepares work ing drawings showing the exact di mensions o f every p art of the struc ture and the location o f plumbing, heating units, electrical outlets, and air conditioning. A rchitects also specify the building m aterials, and, in som e cases, the interior furnishings. In all cases, the architect m ust insure th at the struc tu re ’s design and specifications con form to lo cal and S ta te building codes, zoning laws, fire regulations, and other ordinances. T hroughout this time, the architect may m ake changes to satisfy the cli ent. A client may, for exam ple, d e cide that an original house plan is too expensive and ask the architect to make modifications. O r clients may decide th at their own ideas are more appealing than those of the architect. As a result, architects could becom e frustrated, redesigning their plans to m eet the clients’ expectations. A fter all drawings are com pleted, the architect assists the client in se lecting a co ntractor and negotiating Training, Other Qualifications, the contract. As construction p ro and Advancement ceeds, the architect m akes periodic visits to the building site to insure All States and the District of C o that the contractor is following the design, using the specified m aterials, lum bia require architects to be li and m eeting the specified quality censed. To qualify for the 2-day li standards. The job is not com pleted censing exam, a person must have until construction is finished, all re either a bachelor of architecture de quired tests are m ade, bills are paid, gree followed by 3 years of experi and guarantees are received from the ence in an architect’s office or a m as ter of architecture degree followed contractor. A rchitects design a wide variety o f by 2 years of experience. As a substi structures such as houses, churches, tute for formal training, most States hospitals, office buildings, and air accept additional experience (usual ports. They also design multibuilding ly 12 years) and successful com ple com plexes for urban renewal proj tion of a qualifying test for admission ec ts, college cam puses, industrial to the licensing examination. Many parks, and new towns. Besides d e architectural school graduates work signing stru c tu re s, a rch itects also in the field even though they are not may help in selecting building sites, licensed. However, a registered ar preparing cost and land-use studies, chitect is required to take legal re and long-range planning for site d e sponsibility for all work. In 1976, the National A rchitectur velopm ent. W hen working on large projects o r al Accrediting Board had accredited for large architectural firms, archi 80 of the 101 schools offering profes tects often specialize in one phase o f sional degrees in architecture. Most the work such as designing, or ad of these schools offer a 5-year cu r m inistering construction contracts. riculum leading to a Bachelor of A r This often requires working with en chitecture degree or a 6-year cu r gineers, urban planners, landscape ric u lu m lead in g to a M a ste r o f architects, and other design person A rchitecture degree. Students also may transfer to professional degree nel. program s after completing a 2-year ju n io r o r com m unity college p ro Places of Employment gram in architecture. Many architec A b o u t 5 0 ,0 0 0 r e g is te r e d ( l i tural schools also offer graduate edu censed) architects were em ployed in cation for those who already have 1976. In addition, many unlicensed their first professional degree. Al architectural schpol graduates also though such training is not essential work as architects, but they m ust for practicing architects, it often is work u n d er the supervision o f li desirable for those in research and teaching. A typical college architec censed architects. Most architects work in architec tural program includes courses in ar tural firms, for builders, for real es chitectural theory, design, graphics, tate firm s, or for o th er businesses engineering, and urban planning, as th a t have large co n stru c tio n p ro well as in E nglish, m ath em atics, grams. Some work for governm ent chemistry, sociology, economics, and agencies, often in city and com m uni a foreign language. Persons planning careers in archi ty planning or urban redevelopm ent. A bout 1,300 architects work for the tecture should be able to work in Federal G overnm ent, mainly for the d ep e n d en tly , have a capacity for D ep artm en ts o f D efense, H ousing solving technical problem s, and be and U rban D evelopm ent, and the artistically inclined. They also must be prepared to work in the com peti G eneral Services Adm inistration. Although found in many areas, a tive environm ent of business where large proportion of architects are leadership and ability to work with em ployed in seven cities; Boston, others are important. W orking for ar Chicago, Los Angeles, New Y ork, chitects or building contractors d u r Philadelphia, San Francisco, and ing sum m er vacations is useful for gaining practical knowledge. W ashington. 45 ments for architects to teach in col leges and universities. Growing public concern about the quality o f the physical environm ent is expected to increase the dem and for urban redevelopm ent and city and com m unity environm ental planning projects. This should create further opportunities for employment. (See statem en t on urban planners else where in the Handbook.) Earnings and Working Conditions New graduates usually begin as junior drafters in architectural firms. New graduates usually begin as ju nior d rafters in architectural firms, w h ere th ey p re p a re a rc h ite c tu ra l drawings and m ake m odels o f struc tures under the direction o f a regis tered architect. A fter several years of e x p e rie n c e , they m ay advance to chief or senior drafter responsible for all m ajor details o f a set o f working drawings and for supervising other drafters. O thers may work as design ers, co nstruction co n tract adm inis trators, or specification writers who prepare directions explaining the ar ch itect’s plan to the builder. Em ploy ees who becom e associates in their firms receive, in addition to a salary, a share o f the profits. Usually, how ever, the arch itect’s goal is to own his or her own business. Employment Outlook A rchitects are expected to face c o m p e titio n fo r jo b s th ro u g h the m id -1 9 8 0 ’s. A lthough em ploym ent of architects is expected to rise about as fast as the average for all workers during this period, the num ber of d e grees granted in architecture also has 46 been increasing rapidly. If this trend c o n tin u e s, th e n u m b er of peo p le seeking em p lo y m en t in th e field could exceed the num ber o f openings from g ro w th , d e a th s, and re tir e ments. The best em ploym ent pros pects are expected to occur in the South and in those States which do not have architectural schools. The outlook for these workers may change, however, during short-run periods. Because the dem and for architects is highly dependent upon the level of new construction, any significant upsurge or downturn in building could tem porarily alter d e mand. Most job openings are expected to be in architectural firms but some openings are also expected to occur in colleges and universities, construc tion firms, and the Governm ent. The m ajor factor contributing to the increase in em ploym ent of archi tects is the expected rapid growth o f nonresidential construction. In addi tion, the projected increase in enroll m en ts in a r c h ite c tu ra l p ro g ra m s should result in additional require The average salary for architects in 1976 was well over $20,000, accord ing to the limited inform ation avail able. Architects with well-established p riv a te p ra c tic e s g en e ra lly e a rn m uch m ore than even highly paid salaried em ployees o f architectural firms. A lthough the range in their incomes is very wide, some architects with many years of experience and good reputations earned well over $35,000 a year. Architects starting their own practices may go through a period when their expenses are great er than their income. Annual income may fluctuate due to changing busi ness conditions. In 1977, the average salary for architects working in the Federal G overnm ent was about $23,000. Most architects spend long hours at the drawing board in well equipped offices. An architect som e times has to work overtime to m eet a deadline. The routine often is varied by interviewing clients or contractors and discussing the designs, construc tion procedures, or building m ateri als of a project with other architects or engineers. C ontract adm inistra tors frequently work outdoors during inspections at construction sites. Sources of Additional information General inform ation about careers in architecture, including a catalog of publications, can be obtained from: The American Institute of Architects, 1735 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Inform ation about schools of ar chitecture and a list of junior colleges offering courses in architecture are available from: The Association of Collegiate Schools of Ar chitecture, Inc., 1735 New York Ave. N W , Washington, D. C. 20006. Inform ation about the licensing ex am inations can be obtained from: The National Council of Architectural Regis tration Boards, 1735 New York Ave. NW., Suite 700, Washington, D.C. 20006. ASTRONOM ERS (D .O .T .021.088) Nature of the Work A stronom ers seek answers to ques tions about the fundam ental nature of the universe, such as its origin and history and the evolution of our solar system . A s tro n o m e rs—som etim es called astrophysicists—use the princi ples o f physics and m athem atics to study and determ ine the behavior of m atter and energy in distant galaxies. One application of the inform ation they gain is to prove or disprove theories o f the nature o f m atter and energy such as E instein’s theory o f relativity. To m ake observations o f the uni verse, astro n o m ers use large te le scopes, radio telesco pes, and other instrum ents th at can d etect electro m a g n e tic ra d ia tio n fro m d is ta n t sources. A stronom ers o f today spend little tim e visually observing stars through telescopes because pho to graphic and electronic light-detect ing equipm ent is m ore effective with dim or distant stars, and galaxies. By using spectroscopes to analyze light from stars astronom ers can d e te r m ine th e ir chem ical com position. A s tro n o m e rs also use r a d io te le scopes and other electronic m eans to observe rad io w aves, X -rays, and cosm ic rays. E lectronic com puters are used to analyze data and to solve co m p lex m a th e m a tic a l eq u a tio n s that astronom ers develop to repre sent various theories. C om puters also are useful for processing astronom i cal data to calculate orbits of aster oids or com ets, guide spacecraft, and w ork o u t tab les fo r n av ig atio n al handbooks. Astronom ers usually specialize in one of the many branches of the science such as instrum ents and tech niques, the sun, the solar system, and the evolution and interiors o f stars. A stronom ers who work on obser vational program s begin their studies by deciding what stars or other o b jects to observe and the m ethods and instrum ents to use. They may need to design optical m easuring devices to attach to the telescope to make the required m easurem ents. A fter com pleting their observations, they an a lyze the results, present them in p re cise num erical form , and explain them on the basis of some theory. Astrom om ers usually spend relative ly little tim e in actual observation and relatively m ore tim e in analyzing the large quantities of data that o b servatory facilities collect. Some astronom ers concentrate on theoretical problem s and seldom visit observatories. They form ulate th eo ries or m athem atical models to ex plain observations m ade earlier by o th er astronom ers. These astrono m ers develop m athem atical e q u a tions using the laws o f physics to com pute, for exam ple, theoretical models o f how stars change as their nuclear energy sources become ex hausted. A lm ost all a stro n o m ers do re search o r teach; those in colleges and universities often do both. In schools th at do not have separate d ep a rt ments of astronomy or only small en rollm ents in the subject, they often te a c h co u rses in m ath em atics or physics as well as astronomy. Some a stro n o m e rs a d m in iste r re se a rc h program s, develop and design astro nomical instrum ents, and do consult ing work. Places of Employment Astronom y is the smallest physical science; only 2,000 persons worked as astronom ers in 1976. Most as tronom ers work in colleges and uni versities. Some work in observatories operated by universities, nonprofit organizations, and the Federal Gov ernm ent. Almost all astronomers do research or teach. 47 T h e F e d e r a l G o v e rn m e n t e m ployed alm ost 600 astronom ers and s p a c e s c ie n tis ts in 1 9 7 6 . M o st worked for the N ational A eronautics and Space A dm inistration. O thers worked for the D epartm ent of D e fense, mainly at the U.S. Naval O b servatory and the U.S. Naval R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y . A fe w astronom ers worked for firms in the aerospace field, or in m useum s and planetarium s. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The usual requirem ent for a job in astronom y is a Ph. D. degree. P er sons with less education may qualify for som e jobs; how ever, high-level positions in teaching and research and advancem ent in m ost areas are open only to those with the doctor ate. Many students who undertake graduate study in astronom y have a bach elo r’s degree in astronom y. In 1976, about 50 colleges and universi ties h ad p ro g ram s leading to the b a c h e lo r ’s d e g re e in a stro n o m y . However, students with a bachelor’s degree in physics, or in m athem atics w ith a physics m inor, usually can qualify for graduate program s in as tronom y. A bout 55 universities offer the Ph. D. degree in astronom y. These p ro grams include advanced courses in astronom y, physics, and m athem at ics. Some schools require that gradu ate stud en ts spend several m onths working at an observatory. In m ost institutions, the work program lead ing to the doctorate is flexible and allows stu d en ts to take courses in their own particular area of interest. Persons planning careers in astron omy should have im agination and an inquisitive mind. Perseverance and the ability to co n centrate on detail and to work independently also are im portant. New graduates with a bachelor’s or m aster’s degree in astronom y usually begin as assistants in observatories, planetarium s, large departm ents of astronom y in colleges and universi ties, G overnm ent agencies, or indus try. Some work as research assistants while studying toward advanced d e 48 grees. New graduates with the d o c torate can qualify for teaching and research jobs in colleges and univer sities and for research jobs in Gov ernm ent and industry. Employment Outlook Persons seeking positions as as tronom ers will face keen com petition for the few available openings ex pected through the m id-1980’s. Em ploym ent of astronom ers is expected to grow slowly, if at all, because the funds available for basic research in astronom y, which com e mainly from the Federal G overnm ent, are not ex pected to increase enough to create many new positions. M ost openings will occur as replacem ents for those who die or retire. Since astronom y is such a small profession, there will be few openings needed for re p la c e ments. There will be keen com peti tion for these openings because the num ber o f degrees granted in astron omy probably will continue to ex ceed available openings. Earnings and Working Conditions A stronom ers have relatively high salaries, with average earnings m ore than twice the average earnings for nonsupervisory workers in private in dustry, except farming. In the Federal G overnm ent in 1977, astronom ers holding the Ph. D. degree could begin at $17,056 or $20,442 depending on their college record. Those having the bachelor’s degree could start at $9,303 or $1 1,523; with the m aster’s degree at $11,523 or $14,097. The average annual salary for astronom ers and space scientists in the Federal G ov ernm ent was about $25,100 in 1977. A stro n o m ers teac h in g in colleges and u n iv ersities receiv ed salaries equivalent to those o f other faculty members. (See statem ent on college and university teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most astronom ers spend most o f their time working in offices or class room s, although astronom ers who make observations may need to trav el to the observing facility and fre quently work at night. Sources of Additional Information For inform ation on careers in as tro n o m y and on schools offering training in the field, contact: American Astronomical Society, 211 FitzRandolph Rd., Princeton, N.J. 08540. BANK O FFICERS AND M ANAGERS (D.O.T. 186.118, .138, .168, and .288; 161.118, 189.118 and .168) Nature of the Work Practically every bank has a pres ident who directs operations; one or more vice presidents who act as gen eral m anagers or who are in charge of bank departm ents such as trust or credit; and a com ptroller or cashier who, unlike cashiers in stores and other businesses, is an executive offi cer generally responsible for all bank property. Large banks also may have treasurers and other senior officers, as well as junior officers, to supervise the various sections within different departm ents. Banks employed over 300,000 officers and m anagers in 1976. Bank officers make decisions within a framework of policy set by the board of directors and existing laws and regulations. They must have a broad knowledge of business activi ties to relate to the operations of their departm ent. For example, loan officers evaluate the credit and col lateral o f individuals and businesses applying for a loan. Similarly, trust officers m ust understand each ac co u n t before they invest funds to support families, send young people to college, or pay retirem ent p en sions. Besides supervising financial services, officers advise individuals and businesses and p artic ip a te in com m unity projects. Because banks offer many servic es, a wide choice of careers is avail able to w orkers who specialize. Loan officers may handle install m ent, com m ercial, real estate, or ag ricultural loans. To evaluate loan ap plications properly, officers need to A loan officer evaluates an individual’s credit rating before approving a loan. be fam iliar with econom ics, produc tio n , d is trib u tio n , m erch an d isin g , and com m ercial law. Also, they need to know b u sin ess o p e ra tio n s and should be able to analyze an indus try ’s financial statem ents. Bank officers in trust m anagem ent require knowledge o f financial plan ning and investm ent for investm ent research and for estate and trust ad m inistration. O perations officers plan, coordi nate, and control the work flow, up date systems, and strive for adm inis trative efficiency. C areers in bank o p eratio n s include electro n ic data processing m anager and other posi tions involving internal and custom er services. A correspondent bank officer is responsible for relations with other banks; a branch m anager, for all functions o f a branch office; and an international officer, for advising custom ers with financial dealings abroad. A working knowledge of a foreign co u n try ’s financial system, trade relations, and econom ic condi tions is beneficial to those interested in international banking. O ther career fields for bank offi cers are auditing, econom ics, person nel adm inistration, public relations, and operations research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Bank officer and m anagem ent p o sitions generally are filled by m an agem ent trainees, and occasionally by p ro m o tin g o u ts ta n d in g b a n k clerks or tellers. College graduation usually is required for m anagem ent trainees. A business adm inistration m ajor in finance or a liberal arts c u r riculum including accounting, ec o nom ics, co m m ercial law, political science, and statistics serves as excel lent preparation for officer trainee positions. In fact, a M aster of Busi ness Adm inistration (M BA) in addi tion to a social science b ac h elo r’s degree com es closest to the “ ideal” college education. However, banks do hire people with diverse backgounds such as chem ical engineer ing, nuclear physics, and forestry to m eet the needs of com plex, hightech n o lo g y in d u stries w ith w hich they deal. Valuable experience may be gained through sum m er em ploy m ent programs. A m anagem ent or officer trainee may spend a year or two learning the various banking areas before choos ing a perm anent position. This p rac tice is com m on but not universal. A bank may hire an applicant with spe cific skills for a position that is clear ly defined at the outset. Persons interested in becoming bank officers should like to work in d ep en d en tly and to analyze d e tailed inform ation. They also need tact and good judgm ent to counsel custom ers and supervise employees. A dvancem ent to an officer or m anagem ent position may come slowly in small banks where the num ber of positions is limited. In large banks th at have special training p ro grams, prom otions may occur more quickly. For a senior officer position, however, an employee usually needs many years o f experience. Although experience, ability, and leadership are emphasized for p ro m otion, advancem ent may be accel erated by special study. The Am eri can B an k ers A sso cia tio n (A B A ) offers courses, publications, and o th er training aids to officers on every phase of banking. The American In stitute o f Banking, an arm of the ABA, has long filled the same educa tional need among bank support p er sonnel. (See the statem ent on the banking industry elsew here in the Handbook for m ore inform ation on these and o th er training program s sponsored by universities and local bankers’ associations.) Employment Outlook Through the m id-1980’s, em ploy m ent of bank officers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations. Rising costs due to expanded banking services and the increasing dependence on com puters will require more officers to provide sound m an ag em en t and effectiv e quality control. O pportunities also will arise as ex p erien ced officers leave th eir jobs. College graduates who m eet the standards for m anage m ent trainees should find good op portunities for entry positions. Earnings Officer trainees at the bachelor’s level generally earned between $800 and $900 a month in 1976. Those with an M.A. or M.S. started at be49 tween $ 1,000 and $ 1,200 a m onth. A M aster o f Business A dm inistration, however, appears to be worth m ore in salary term s: graduates with an MBA were offered starting salaries of $1,300 to $1,400 a m onth in 1976. Salaries o f senior bank officers may be several times as m uch as starting salaries. T he actual salary level depends upon the particular position and the size and location of the bank. F or officers, as well as for o th er bank em ployees, earnings are likely to be lower in small towns than in big cities. See th e statem ent on the banking industry elsew here in the Handbook for additional inform ation on bank ing occupations. Laboratory research involves weighing, filtering, distilling, drying, and culturing (growing m icroorga nism s). Some experim ents also re quire the designing and constructing of laboratory apparatus or the use o f radioactive tracers. Biochemists use a variety o f instrum ents, including electron m icroscopes and centrifug es, and they may devise new instru m ents and tech n iq u e s as need ed . T hey usually re p o rt the results o f their research in scientific journals o r before scientific groups. Som e b io ch em ists co m b in e r e search with teaching in colleges and universities. A few work in industrial production and testing activities. Places of Employment B IO C H E M IS T S (D .O .T. 041.081) Nature of the Work B iochem ists study th e chem ical com position and behavior of living things. Since life is based on com plex c h e m ic a l co m b in a tio n s and re a c tions, the work o f biochem ists is vital for an und erstan d in g o f re p ro d u c tion, grow th, and heredity. Biochem ists also m ay study th e effects of food, horm ones, or drugs on various organisms. The m ethods and techniques of biochem istry are applied in areas such as m edicine, nutrition, and agri cu ltu re. F o r in stan ce, biochem ists may investigate causes and cures for diseases, identify the nutrients neces sary to m aintain good health, or d e velop chem ical com pounds for pest control. M ore than 3 out o f 4 biochem ists work in basic and applied research activities. T he distinction betw een basic and applied research is often one of degree and biochem ists may do both types. M ost, however, are in basic research. The few doing strictly applied research use the results of basic research to solve practical problem s. For exam ple, knowledge of how an organism form s a horm one is used to synthesize and produce horm ones on a mass scale. 50 A bout 12,700 biochem ists w ere em ployed in the U nited S tates in 1976. A bout one-half are em ployed in colleges and universities; over onefourth work in private industry, p ri marily in com panies m anufacturing drugs, insecticides, and cosm etics; some work for nonprofit research in stitutes and foundations; and others for Federal, State, and local govern m ent ag encies. M ost g o v ern m en t biochem ists do health and agricultur al research for Federal agencies. A few self-em ployed biochem ists are Many biochemists work in basic and ap plied research activities. consultants to industry and govern ment. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum educational require m ent for many beginning jobs as a biochem ist, especially in research or teaching, is an advanced degree. A Ph. D. degree is a virtual necessity for persons who hope to contribute significantly to biochem ical research and advance to many m anagem ent and adm inistrative jobs. A bachelor’s degree with a m ajor in biochem istry or chem istry, or with a m ajor in biol ogy and a m inor in chemistry, may qualify some persons for entry jobs as research assistants or technicians. M ore than 100 schools award the bachelor’s degree in biochemistry, and nearly all colleges and universi ties offer a m ajor in biology or chem istry. P ersons planning careers as biochem ists should take undergrad uate courses in chem istry, biology, b io c h e m is try , m a th e m a tic s , an d physics. About 150 colleges and universi ties offer graduate degrees in bio chemistry. G raduate students gener ally are required to have a bachelor’s degree in biochemistry, biology, or chemistry. Many graduate program s emphasize one specialty in biochem istry because of the facilities or the research being done at that particu lar school. G ra d u ate train in g re quires actual research in addition to advanced science courses so students should select their schools carefully. For the doctoral degree, the student does intensive research and a thesis in one field of biochemistry. Persons planning careers as bio chemists should be able to work in dependently or as p art of a team . Precision, keen powers of observa tion, and m echanical aptitude also are im portant. B iochem ists should have analytical abilities and curious minds, as well as patience and perse verance to com plete hundreds of ex perim ents necessary to solve a single problem . They should also express them selves clearly when writing and speaking to com m unicate the find ings of their research effectively. G raduates with advanced degrees may begin their careers as teachers or researchers in colleges or universi ties. In private industry, m ost begin in research jobs and with experience may advance to positions in which they plan and supervise research. New graduates with a bach elo r’s degree usually start work as research assistants o r technicians. These jobs in private industry often involve test ing and analysis. In the drug industry, for exam ple, research assistants ana lyze the ingredients o f a product to verify and m aintain its purity or qual ity. Employment Outlook Job opportunities for biochem ists with advanced degrees should be fa vorable through the m id-1980’s. The em ploym ent o f biochem ists is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations during th is p e rio d . Som e a d d itio n a l jo b openings will result each year as bio chem ists retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. T he outlook for biochem ists is based on the assum p tion th at research and developm ent expenditures in biochem istry and re lated sciences, prim arily by the Fed e ra l G o v e rn m e n t, w ill in c re a s e through the m id-1980’s, although at a slower rate than during the 1960’s. If actual expenditures differ signifi cantly from those assum ed, the out look for biochem ists would be al tered. The anticipated growth in this field should result from the effort to find cures for cancer, h eart disease, and other diseases, and from public con cern with environm ental protection. Biochem ists will also be needed in the drug and o ther industries and in hospitals and health centers. Colleg es and universities may need addi tional teachers as biochem istry en rollm ents continue to increase. Earnings and Working Conditions Average earnings of biochemists were about twice the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private in dustry, except farming. According to a 1976 su rv ey by th e A m erican Chem ical Society, salaries for experi enced biochem ists averaged $18,000 for those with a bachelor’s degree; $19,000 for those with a m aster’s d e gree; and $26,000 for those with a Ph. D. Starting salaries of biochem ists employed in colleges and universities are com parable to those for other faculty m em bers. (See statem ent on college and university teachers else where in the Handbook.) Biochemists in research and devel opm ent do m ost o f their work in a laboratory, but they also may write, lecture, and do library research. Sources of Additional Information For general inform ation on careers in biochem istry, contact: American Society of Biological Chemists, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md. 20014. B LU E-CO LLAR W ORKER SU PER VISO R S Nature of the Work In any organization, someone has to be boss. For the millions of w ork ers who assemble television sets, ser vice autom obiles, lay bricks, unload ships, or perform any of thousands o f other activities, a blue-collar w orker supervisor is the boss. These supervi sors direct the activities of other em ployees and frequently are respon sible fo r seein g th a t m illions o f dollars worth of equipm ent and m a terials are used properly and effi ciently. While blue-collar worker su pervisors are most commonly known as forem en or forewom en, they also have many other titles. In the textile industry they are referred to as sec ond hands; on ships they are known as boatswains; and in the construc tion industry they are often called overseers, straw bosses, or gang lead ers. Although titles may differ, the job of all blue-collar w orker supervisors is similar. They tell other em ployees what jobs are to be done and m ake sure the jobs are done correctly. For example, loading supervisors at truck term inals assign workers to load trucks, and then check that the m ate rial is loaded correctly and that each truck is fully used. They may mark freight bills and keep charts to record the loads and weight of each truck. In some cases, supervisors also do the same work as other employees. This is especially true in the construction industry where, for example, brick layer supervisors also lay brick. Because they are responsible for the output of other workers, supervi sors m ake work schedules and keep production and em ployee records. They use considerable judgm ent in planning and must allow for unfore seen problem s such as absent work ers and m achine breakdowns. T each ing em ployees safe work habits and enforcing safety rules and regulations are other supervisory responsibilities. They also may dem onstrate timesav ing o r lab o rsav in g tech n iq u e s to workers and train new employees. In addition to their other duties, blue-collar w orker supervisors tell th eir subordinates about com pany p lan s an d p o licies; rew ard good w orkers by m aking reco m m en d a tions for wage increases, awards, or p ro m o tio n s; and d ea l w ith p o o r workers by issuing warnings or rec omm ending that they be fired or laid off w ithout pay for a day or more. In com panies where employees belong to lab o r unions, supervisors may m eet with union representatives to discuss work problem s and grievanc es. They must know the provisions of labor-m anagem ent contracts and run their operations according to these agreem ents. Places of Employment About 1,445,000 blue-collar worker supervisors were employed in 1976. Although they work for almost all businesses and government agen cies, over half work in m anufactur ing, supervising the production of cars, washing m achines, or any of thousands of other products. Most of the rest work in the construction in dustry, in wholesale and retail trade, and in public utilities. Because em ploym ent is distributed in much the 51 Employment Outlook Coordinating assignments is a responsibility of the blue-collar worker supervisor. same way as population, jobs are lo cated in all cities and towns. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement W hen choosing supervisors, em ployers generally look for ex p e ri ence, skill, and leadership qualities. Em ployers place special emphasis on the ability to m otivate em ployees, m aintain high m orale, com m and re sp ect, and get along w ith people. Com pletion of high school often is th e m inim um edu cational re q u ire m ent, and 1 or 2 years of college or technical school can be very helpful to w orkers who want to becom e su pervisors. M ost supervisors rise through the ran k s—th a t is, they are prom oted from jobs where they operated a m a ch in e, or w orked on an assem bly line, or at a construction craft. This work experience gives them the ad vantage of knowing how jobs should be d o n e and w hat problem s may arise. It also provides them with in sight into m anagem ent policies and em ployee attitu d e s tow ards these policies. Supervisors are sometimes fo rm er union rep resen tativ es who are fam iliar with grievance p ro c e dures and union contracts. To sup 52 plem ent this work experience, larger com panies usually have training p ro grams to help supervisors make m an agem ent decisions. Smaller com pa nies often use independent training organizations or written training m a terials. Although few blue-collar w orker supervisors are college graduates, a growing num ber of employers are hiring trainees with a college or tech nical school background. This p ra c tice is m ost prevalent in industries with highly technical production p ro cesses, such as the chemical, oil, and electro n ics industries. E m ployers generally prefer backgrounds in busi ness adm inistration, industrial rela tions, m athem atics, engineering, or science. The trainees undergo onthe-job training until they are able to accept supervisory responsibilities. Supervisors with outstanding abil ity, particularly those with college education, may move up to higher m anagem ent positions. In m anufac turing, for exam ple, they may a d vance to jobs such as d ep artm en t head and plant m anager. Some su pervisors, particularly in the c o n struction industry, use the experi ence and skills they gain to go into business for themselves. Employment of blue-collar worker supervisors is expected to increase at about the same rate as the average for all occupations through the mid19 8 0 ’s. In addition, many job open ings will arise as experienced supervi sors retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Population growth and rising in com es will stim u late dem and for goods such as houses, air condition ers, TV sets, and cars. As a result, m ore b lu e-c o lla r w orkers will be needed to produce and sell these items, and more supervisors will be needed to direct their activities. Al though m ost of these supervisors will continue to work in m anufacturing, a large part of the increase in jobs will be due to the expansion of nonm anu facturing industries, especially in the trade and service sectors. There is usually keen com petition for supervisory jobs. C om petent workers who possess leadership abil ity and have a few years of collge are the m ost likely to be selected. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1976, average annual earnings of blue-collar worker supervisors who worked full time were $15,149, com pared with $12,946 for workers in all occupations. Supervisors usu ally are salaried. Their salaries gener ally are determ ined by the wage rates of the highest paid workers they su pervise. For example, some com pa nies keep wages of supervisors about 10 to 30 percent higher than those of their subordinates. Some supervisors may receive overtime pay. Since supervisors are responsible for the work of other employees, they generally work more than 40 hours a week and are expected to be on the jo b before other workers ar rive and after they leave. They som e times do paperwork at home, such as making work schedules or checking employee time cards, and may find themselves worrying about job-relat ed problem s after work. W orking conditions vary from in dustry to industry. In factories, su pervisors may get dirty around ma- chinery and m aterials and have to p u t up with noisy factory operations. Some supervisors who have limited authority may feel isolated, neither a m em ber o f the work force nor an im portant p art o f m anagem ent. On the oth er hand, supervisors have m ore challenging and prestigious jobs than m ost blue-collar workers. Sources of Additional Information A bibliography o f career literature on m anagem ent occupations is avail able from: American Management Association, 135 West 50th St., New York, N.Y. 10020. B R O AD C AST T E C H N IC IA N S (D.O.T. 194.168, .281, .282, and 782; 957.282; and 963.168 through .887) Nature of the Work B roadcast technicians operate and m aintain the electronic equipm ent used to reco rd and transm it radio and television program s. They work with m icrophones, sound recorders, light and sound effects, television cam eras, video tape recorders, and other equipm ent. In th e co n tro l room , b ro a d cast technicians operate equipm ent th at regulates the quality o f sounds and pictures being re co rd ed or b ro a d cast. They also operate controls th at switch broadcasts from one cam era o r studio to another, from film to live program ming, or from netw ork to lo cal program s. By m eans o f hand sig nals and, in television, by use o f tele phone headsets, they give technical directions to personnel in the studio. W hen events outside the studios are to be broadcast, technicians may go to the site and set up, test, and operate the equipm ent. After the broadcast, they dism antle the equip m ent and return it to the station. As a rule, broadcast technicians in small stations perform a variety o f duties. In large stations and in n e t w orks, on the o th er hand, tech n i cians are m ore specialized, although specific job assignments may change from day to day. Transmitter techni cians m onitor and log outgoing sig nals and are responsible for transm itte r o p e ra tio n . M a in te n a n c e technicians set up, maintain, and re pair electronic broadcasting equip m ent. Audio control technicians regu late sound pickup, transmission, and switching, and video control techni cians regulate the quality, brightness, and contrast of television pictures. The lighting o f television program s is directed by lighting technicians. For program s originating outside the stu dio, field technicians set up and o p er ate broadcasting equipm ent. Record ing technicians operate and maintain sound recording equipm ent; video re cording tech n ic ia n s o p e ra te a n d m aintain video tape recording equip m ent. Som etim es th e term “ engi n eer” is substituted for “ technician.” Places of Employment A bout 22,500 broadcast tech n i cians w ere em ployed in radio and television stations in 1976. Most ra dio stations employ fewer than four tech n ician s, although a few large ones have more than 10. Nearly all television stations employ at least 10 broadcast technicians, and those in large m etro p o lita n areas average about 30. In addition to the techni cians, som e supervisory personnel, with job titles such as chief engineer or director o f engineering, work in engineering departm ents. Although broadcast technicians are employed in every State, m ost are located in large m etropolitan areas. T he highest paying and m ost specialized jobs are concentrated in New Y ork, Los Angeles, and W ash ington, D .C .—the originating centers for most of the netw ork programs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A person interested in becoming a broadcast technician should plan to get a First Class Radiotelephone O p e ra to r L ice n se from th e F ed eral C o m m u n i c a t i o n s C o m m is s io n (F C C ). F ederal law requires th a t an y o n e w ho o p e ra te s b ro a d c a s t tra n sm itte rs in television statio n s must hold such a license. The law also requires that the chief engineer of a broadcasting station hold a first 53 class license. The FCC issues a Third C lass O p e ra to r L icense, to o , and some stations require all their broad cast technicians to have one or the o th er o f these licenses. A pplicants for an FCC license m ust pass a series o f w ritten exam inations. These cover construction and operation o f trans m ission an d receiving eq uipm ent; c h a ra c te ristic s o f e lec tro m ag n etic waves; and regulations and practices, b o th F e d e r a l an d in te r n a tio n a l, which govern broadcasting. Am ong high school courses, alge bra, trigonom etry, physics, electron ics, and o th er sciences provide valu a b le b a c k g r o u n d f o r p e r s o n s anticipating careers in this occupa tion. Building and operating an am a teu r radio station also is good train ing. Taking an electronics course in a technical school is still another good way to acquire the knowledge for b e com ing a broadcast technician. Some persons gain work experience as tem porary em ployees while filling in for regular b ro ad cast technicians who are on vacation. M any schools give courses espe cially designed to prepare the student for the F C C ’s first class license test. T echnical school or college training is an advantage for those who hope to advance to supervisory positions or to the m ore specialized jobs in large stations and in the networks. Persons with FCC first class licens es who get entry jobs are instructed and advised by the chief engineer or by o th e r ex p e rien ce d tech n ic ia n s concerning the work procedures of the station. In small stations, they may start by operating the transm it ter and handling o ther technical du ties, after a brief instruction period. As they acquire m ore experience and skill they are assigned to m ore re sponsible jobs. Those who dem on s tra te ab o v e -a v e ra g e ability m ay move into top-level technical posi tions, such as supervisory technician or chief engineer. A college degree in engineering is becom ing increasingly im portant for advancem ent to super visory and executive positions. Employment Outlook People seeking beginning jobs as broadcast technicians face com peti 54 tion, especially in m ajor m etropoli hours a day, 7 days a week. Network tan areas where the num ber o f quali technicians may occasionally have to fied jobseekers exceeds the num ber work continuously for many hours of openings. Job prospects may be and under great pressure in order to b e tte r in sm aller cities for people m eet broadcast deadlines. T ec h n ician s generally w ork in with appropriate training in electron doors in pleasant surroundings. The ics. Em ploym ent o f broadcast techni work is interesting, and the duties are cians is expected to increase about as varied. W hen rem ote pickups are fast as the average for all occupations m ad e, how ever, tec h n ic ia n s m ay through the m id-1980’s. M ost jo b work out of doors at some distance openings, however, will result from from the studios, under less favorable th e n ee d to re p la c e ex p e rien ce d conditions. technicians who retire, die, or trans fer to other occupations. Sources of Additional Some new job opportunities for Information technicians will arise as new radio For inform ation about radiotele and television stations go on the air. Demand for broadcast technicians phone o p erato r’s examinations, and also will increase as cable television guides to study for them , write to: stations broadcast m ore of their own Federal Communications Commission, Wash ington, D.C. 20554. programs. At the same time, techno logical developm ents are likely to F or inform ation on careers for limit future dem and; such laborsav broadcast technicians, write to: ing technical advances as autom atic program m ing, autom atic operation National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. logging, and rem ote control of trans Corporation for Public Broadcasting, 1111 m itters all hold down dem and for ad 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. ditional technicians. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of beginning technicians in com m erical radio and television ranged from about $155 to $215 a week in 1976 and those of experi enced technicians from about $200 to $450, according to the limited in form ation available. As a rule, tech nicians’ wages are highest in large cities and in large stations. Techni cians em ployed by television stations usually are paid m ore than those who work for radio stations because tele vision work is generally more com plex. Technicians em ployed by edu c a ti o n a l b r o a d c a s t i n g s t a t i o n s generally earn less than those who work for com m ercial stations. M ost technicians in large stations work a 40-hour week with overtim e pay for additional hours. Some broadcast technicians in the larger cities work a 37-hour week. In small stations, many technicians work 4 to 12 hours of overtim e each week. Evening, night, and w eekend work frequently is necessary since many stations are on the air as many as 24 BUYERS (D.O.T. 162.158 and 185.168) Nature of the Work The Am ericans have been invited to a private showing in Paris. R epre senting a m ajor New York depart m ent sto re, they sit with a select g ro u p in an e le g a n tly fu rn ish e d room. They watch closely as graceful models float down the runway before them to display the latest creations by the w orld’s most famous design ers. A fter some consultation, they m ake choices involving thousands, perhaps millions of dollars. All in a day’s work. The jo b of retail buyer often brings to mind the glamour of high fashion; indeed, many fashion buyers do lead exciting, fast-paced lives involving frequent travel abroad. N ot every buyer, however, deals in fashion. All m erchandise sold in a retail store— garden furniture, autom obile tires, toys, aluminum pots, and canned soups alike—appears in that store on the decision of a buyer. Although all buyers seek to satisfy their stores’ custom ers and sell at a profit, the kind and variety o f goods they pur chase d ep en d on the store w here they work. A buyer for a small cloth ing store, for example, may purchase its com plete stock o f m erchandise from sportsw ear to form al evening clothes. Buyers who work for larger retail businesses often handle one or a few related lines of goods, such as m en ’s w ear, ladies’ sportsw ear, or children’s toys. Some, known as fo r eign buyers, purchase m erchandise outside the United States. In order to purchase the best selec tion of goods for their stores, buyers must be familiar with the m anufac turers and distributors who handle the m erch an d ise they need. They also m u st k e e p in fo rm e d a b o u t changes in existing products and the developm ent of new ones. To learn ab o u t m erchandise, buyers attend fashion and trad e shows and visit m a n u fa c tu re rs ’ show room s. They usually o rd e r goods during buying trip s, an d also p lace o rd e rs with wholesale and m anufacturers’ sales workers who call on them to display their m erchandise. Buyers m ust be able to assess the resale value o f goods after a brief inspection and m ake a purchase d e cision quickly. They are aw are o f their stores’ profit margins and try to se le c t m e rc h a n d ise th a t will sell quickly a t well above the original cost. Since m ost buyers work within a limited budget, they m ust plan their purchases to keep needed items al ways in stock but also allow for unex pected purchases when a “ good buy” presents itself. B ecause b u y ers p u rc h a se m e r chandise for their firms to resell (u n lik e p u rc h a sin g a g e n ts w ho buy goods for direct use by the firm —see the statem ent on purchasing agents elsew here in the H andbook), they m ust know what motivates custom ers to buy. Before ordering a particular line o f m erchandise, buyers study m arket research reports and analyze past sales records to determ ine what products are currently in dem and. They also work closely with assistant buyers and sales clerks whose daily contact with custom ers furnishes in form ation about consum er likes and dislikes. In addition, buyers read fashion and trade magazines to keep abreast of style and m anufacturing trends; follow ads in newspapers and other m edia to check retail com peti to rs’ sales activities; and watch gen eral econom ic conditions to antici pate consum er buying patterns. Merchandise managers (D.O.T. 185.168) plan and coordinate buying and selling activities for large and medium-sized stores. They divide the budget among buyers, decide how much m erchandise to stock, and as sign each buyer to purchase certain goods. M erchandise managers may review buying decisions to insure that needed categories of goods are in stock, and help buyers to set gen eral pricing guidelines. Buyers and m erchandise managers usually have very busy schedules and deal with many different people in the course of a day. They work with m anufacturers’ representatives, o th er store personnel including store ex ecutives and sales workers, and cus t o m e r s . A s s i s t in g w ith s a l e s prom otions and creating enthusiasm among sales personnel are part of the buyer’s job, and he or she may be asked to provide inform ation such as dress sizes and product descriptions to the advertising departm ent for a sales p rom otion, o r to m eet w ith floor sales workers before a new line of m erchandise is introduced. Some buyers direct assistants who handle routine aspects of purchasing such as verifying shipments; others supervise departm ent managers. Some buyers represent large stores or chains in cities where many m anu facturers are located. The duties of these “ m arket representatives” vary by em ployer; some purchase goods, while others supply inform ation and arrange for store buyers to m eet with m a n u fa c tu re rs w hen they are in town. New technology has altered the buyer’s role in retail chain stores. In the past, firms employed a buyer for each store or group of stores in a local area. Now cash registers co n n e c te d to a co m p u ter, know n as point-of-sale term inals, allow retail chains to m aintain centralized, up-tothe-m inute inventory records. W ith 55 these records, a single garden furni ture buyer, for exam ple, can p u r chase lawn chairs and picnic tables for the entire chain. Places of Employment In 1976, approxim ately 109,000 buyers and m erchandise m anagers worked for retail firms. Although jobs for buyers are found in all parts of the country, most jobs are in m ajor m etropolitan areas where retail stores are concentrated. M arket rep resentatives work for buying offices in m ajor m arket areas such as New York, Chicago, and Dallas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Distributive education program s at thousands of high schools have launched careers in retailing leading to a bu y er’s position. (A dditional in form ation on distributive education appears in the statem ent on retail trade sales workers elsewhere in the H andbook.) Indeed, m any a good buyer began in a stockroom or be hind a counter and worked up the ladder w ithout any college training. However, new buyers will find a col lege degree increasingly necessary. Many ju n io r and 4-year colleges of fer program s in m arketing and p u r chasing and confer thousands o f d e g r e e s e a c h y e a r . In a d d i t i o n , n u m erous trad e schools train stu dents for careers in fashion m erchan dising. C ourses in m erchandising or m arketing may help in getting a first jo b , b u t m o st e m p lo y e rs a c c e p t graduates in any field o f study and train them on the job. Many stores, especially the larger ones, have formal training program s for m anagem ent or executive train ees, in cluding buyers. T hese p ro grams usually last from 6 to 8 m onths and com bine classroom instruction in m e rc h an d isin g and purchasing with short rotations to various jobs in the store. This training introduces the new w orker to store operations and policies, and provides the funda mentals o f m erchandising and m an agem ent as well. The train e e’s first job is likely to be that of assistant buyer. The duties 56 Earnings and Working Conditions include supervising sales workers, checking invoices on m aterial re ceived, and keeping account of stock on hand. Assistant buyers gradually assume purchasing responsibilities, d e p e n d in g u p o n th e ir in d iv id u a l abilities and the size of the d ep art m ent where they work. Training as an assistant buyer usually lasts at least a year. A fter years of working as a buyer, those who show exceptional ability may advance to m erchandise manager. A few find further prom o tion to top executive jobs such as general m erchandise m anager for a retail store or chain. The length o f time it takes to reach any of these levels depends not just on the indi v idual’s ability but on the s to re ’s need for m anagem ent personnel. The faster the com pany grows, the great er the opportunity for a worker to acquire responsibility. Buyers should be good at planning and decisionm aking and have an in terest in merchandising. They need leadership ability and com m unica tions skills to supervise sales workers and assistant buyers and to deal ef fectively with m anufacturers’ rep re sentatives and store executives. Be cause of the fast pace and constant pressure of their work, buyers need physical stam ina and em otional sta bility. Buyers for discount departm ent stores and other mass m erchandising firms are among the most highly paid in the industry, as are those who buy centrally for large chain departm ent stores. Most earned between $ 15,000 and $25,000 a year in 1976, though many earned salaries outside this range. M erchandising managers earned considerably more. The actu al incom e depends upon the product line purchased, the sales volume of the store, and the individual’s senior ity. Buyers often earn large bonuses for exceptional perform ance. In ad dition, m any stores have incentive plans, such as p ro fit sharing and stock options. Buyers regulate their own hours, and often work more than 40 hours a week because of special sales, con ferences, and travel. The am ount of traveling a buyer does varies with the type of merchandise bought and the location of suppliers, but most spend 4 or 5 days a m onth on the road. M erchandise m anagers also travel frequently, averaging several trips a m onth in many cases. Employment Outlook G eneral inform ation about a ca reer in retailing is available from: Em ployment of buyers is expected to grow m ore slowly than the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s. Centralized buying is gaining popularity among chain stores, which are expected increasingly to dom i nate general m erchandise retailing. Although anticipated growth of in dependent food stores should partial ly offset these trends, they will still reduce the num ber of openings for buyers. M ost job openings will arise each year from the need to replace workers who leave the occupation. Com petition for these jobs is expect ed to be keen, for m erchandising a t tra c ts la rg e n u m b e rs o f co lleg e graduates every year. Prospects are likely to be best for qualified appli cants who enjoy the com petitive n a ture of retailing and work best in a dem anding, fast-paced job. Sources of Additional Information National Retail Merchants Association, 100 West 31st St., New York, N.Y. 10001. Inform ation on schools that teach retailing is available from: United States Office of Education, Division of Vocational/Technical Education, Wash ington, D.C. 20202. National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, 2021 L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. CHEM ISTS (D.O.T. 022.081, .168, .181, and.281) Nature of the Work The clothes we wear, the foods we eat, the houses in which we live—in Many modern products, including plastics and other synthetics, have resulted from research in chemistry. team of analytical chemists. Organic chem ists at one tim e studied the chemistry of only living things, but this area has been broadened to in clude all carbon compounds. W hen com bined with other elem ents, car bon forms a vast num ber of substanc es. Many m odern com m ercial prod ucts, including plastics and o th er synthetics, have resulted from the work of organic chemists. Inorganic ch em ists study co m p o u n d s o th e r than carbon. They may, for example, develop m aterials to use in solid state e le c tro n ic c o m p o n e n ts. Physical chem ists study energy transform a tions to find new and better energy s o u rc e s . In c re a sin g ly , h o w e v er, chemists consider themselves m em bers of new specialties that include two of the preceding fields or more. Biochemists, often considered as ei ther chemists or life scientists, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Som e ch e m ists sp ecialize in the chem istry of foods. (See statem ent on food scientists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Places of Employment fact m ost things th at help m ake our lives b etter, from m edical care to a cleaner environm ent—result, in part, from the work done by chemists. Chem ists search for and put into practical use new knowledge about substances. They develop new com pounds, such as rocket fuel; improve foods; and create clothing th at is chem ically treated against flam m a bility, soil, and wrinkles. exists, experim entation with various substances yields a product with the required specifications. Nearly one-fifth of all chemists work in production and inspection. In production, chemists prepare in structions (batch sheets) for plant w orkers th at specify the kind and am ount of ingredients to use and the exact mixing time for each stage in the process. A t each step, samples Over one-half o f all chemists work are tested for quality control to meet in research and developm ent. In ba sic research, chemists investigate the properties and com position of m atter and the laws that govern the com bi nation of elem ents. Basic research often has practical uses. For exam ple, sy n th etic ru b b e r and plastics have resulted from research on small molecules uniting to form larger ones (p o ly m erizatio n ). In research and developm ent, new products are cre ated or improved. The process of de veloping a product begins with de scriptions o f the ch a rac te ristic s it should have. If similar products exist, chemists test samples to determ ine their ingredients. If no such product industry and governm ent standards. Records and reports show results o f tests. Others work as m arketing or sales representatives to obtain technical knowledge of products sold. A num ber of chemists teach in colleges and universities. Some chemists are co n sultants to private industry and to governm ent agencies. Chem ists often specialize in one of the subfields of chemistry. Analytical chemists determ ine the structure, com position, and nature of substanc es, and develop new techniques. An outstanding example was the analysis o f moon rocks by an international Nearly 150,000 persons worked as chemists in 1976. About three-fifths of all chemists work in private indus try, alm ost one-half of them in the chem ical m anufacturing industry. M ost o th e rs w ork for com panies m anufacturing food, scientific instru ments, petroleum , paper, and electri cal equipm ent. C o lle g e s and u n iv e rsitie s e m ployed 25,000 chemists in 1976. An equal num ber worked for State and lo c a l g o v e rn m e n ts, p rim arily in health and agriculture, and for Fed eral agencies, chiefly the D epartm ent of Defense; Health, Education, and W elfare; Agriculture; and Interior. Sm aller num bers w orked for n o n profit research organizations. Chemists are employed in all parts of the country, but they are concen trated in large industrial areas. N ear ly one-fifth of all chemists were lo cated in four m etropolitan areas— New Y ork, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Newark. About half worked in six States—New York, New Jersey, California, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Illinois. 57 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A b ach elo r’s degree with a m ajor in chem istry or a related discipline is sufficient for many beginning jobs as a chemist. However, graduate train ing is required for many research and college teaching positions. Beginning chemists should have a broad back ground in chem istry, with good labo ratory skills. A bout 1,175 colleges and universi ties o ffer a b a c h e lo r’s d eg ree in chem istry. In addition to required courses in analytical, inorganic, o r ganic, and physical chem istry, under graduates usually study m athem atics and physics. M ore than 350 colleges and uni versities award advanced degrees in chemistry. In graduate school, stu dents generally specialize in a p ar ticu lar subfield o f chem istry. R e q u ire m e n ts fo r th e m a s te r’s and d o cto r’s degree usually include a th e sis based on independent research. Students planning careers as chemists should enjoy studying sci ence and m athem atics, and should like working with their hands build ing scientific apparatus and perform ing experim ents. Perseverance and the ability to concentrate on detail and to work independently are essen tial. O ther desirable assets include an inquisitive mind, and imagination. Chem ists also should have good eye sight and eye-hand coordination. G raduates with the bachelor’s d e gree generally begin their careers in governm ent or industry by analyzing or testing products, working in tech nical sales o r service, or assisting sen ior chem ists in research and develop m ent laboratories. M any em ployers have special training and orientation program s which are concerned with the special knowledge needed for the em ployer’s type of work. C andidates for an advanced degree often teach or do research in colleges and univer sities while working tow ard advanced degrees. Beginning chemists with the m as te r’s degree can usually go into ap plied research in governm ent or pri vate industry. They also may qualify for teaching positions in 2-year col leges and some universities. 58 The Ph. D. generally is required for basic research, for teaching in colleges and universities, and for ad vancem ent to many adm inistrative positions. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent opportunities in chemistry are expected to be good for graduates at all degree levels through the m id-1980’s. The em ploy m ent o f chemists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations during this period; thou sands o f new jobs will be created each year. In addition, several th o u sand openings will result each year as chem ists retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. This outlook for chemists is based on the assum ption that research and developm ent expenditures of govern m en t an d in d u stry will in c re a se through the m id-1980’s, although at a slower rate than during the 1960’s. If actual expenditures differ signifi cantly from those assumed, the o u t look for chemists would be altered. Approxim ately three-fourths of to tal em ploym ent is expected to be in private industry, primarily in the d e velopm ent of new products. In addi tion, industrial com panies and gov ernm ent agencies will need chemists to help solve problem s related to en ergy shortages, pollution control, and health care. Some also will work in Federal, State, and local crim e labo ratories. Little growth in college and uni versity em ploym ent is expected, and com petition for teaching positions will be keen. (See statem ent on col lege and university teac h ers else where in the Handbook.) Some graduates will find openings in high school teaching after com p le tin g p r o f e s s io n a l e d u c a t i o n courses and other requirem ents for a State teaching certificate. They usu ally are then regarded as teachers rather than chemists. (See statem ent on secondary school teachers else where in the Handbook.) nonsupervisory workers in private in dustry, except farming. According to th e A m erican C h em ical S ociety , salaries of experienced chemists hav ing a b a c h e lo r’s degree averaged $21,200 a year in 1976; for those with a m aster’s degree, $22,100; and for those with a Ph. D., $25,800. Private industry paid chemists with the b achelor’s degree starting sala ries averaging $11,500 a year in 1976,; those with the m aster’s d e gree, $13,600; and those with the Ph. D„ $18,700. In colleges and universities, the av erage salary of those with the m as t e r ’s d eg ree was $17,0 0 0 and of those with the Ph. D., $21,000. In addition, many experienced chemists in educational institutions su p p le m ent their regular salaries with in com e from consulting, lecturing, and writing. Depending on a person’s college record, the annual starting salary in the Federal G overnm ent in 1977 for an inexperienced chem ist with a bachelor’s degree was either $9,303 or $1 1,523. Those who had 2 years of graduate study could begin at $14,097 a year. Chemists having the Ph. D. degree could start at $17,056 or $20,442. The average salary for all chemists in the Federal G overnm ent in 1977 was $19,900 a year. Chemists usually work in m odern, well-equipped, and well-lighted labo ratories, offices, or classrooms. Some hazard is involved in handling poten tially explosive or highly cau stic chem icals. However, when safety regulations are followed, health haz ards are negligible. Sources of Additional Information G eneral information on career op portunities and earnings for chemists is available from: American Chemical Society, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Manufacturing Chemists Association, 1825 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. Earnings and Working Conditions For specific inform ation on F eder al G overnm ent careers, contact: Earnings of chemists averaged more than twice as m uch as those o f Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Exam iners for Washington, D.C., 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. For additional sources of inform a tion, see statem ents on biochemists, chem ical engineers, food scientists, and the industrial chem ical industry. Inform ation on chem ical technicians may be found in the statem ent on engineering and science technicians. C H IR O PR A C TO R S (D.O.T. 079.108) Nature of the Work C hiropractic is a system of treat m ent based on the principle that a person’s health is determ ined largely by the nervous system, and that inter ference with this system impairs nor mal functions and lowers resistance to disease. C hiropractors treat pa tients prim arily by m anual m anipula tion (ad ju stm en ts) of parts of the body, especially the spinal column. Because o f the em phasis on the spine and its position, m ost chiro practors use X-rays to aid in locating the source of p atients’ difficulties. In addition to m anipulation, most chiro p ra c to rs use su p p lem en tary m ea sures such as water, light, and heat therapy, and prescribe diet, exercise, and rest. M ost State laws specify the types of supplem entary trea tm e n t perm itted in chiropractic. C h iro practors do not use drugs or surgery. Places of Employment About 18,000 persons, practiced chiropractic in 1976. Most chiro p ra cto rs w ere in private p ractice. Some were salaried assistants of es tablished practitioners or worked for chiropractic clinics. O thers taught or conducted research at chiropractic colleges. C hiropractors often locate in small com m unitees—about half of all a c tive chiropractors work in cities of 50,000 inhabitants or less. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District o f Colum bia regulate the practice of chiropractic and grant licenses to chiropractors who m eet certain edu ca tio n al re q u irem en ts and pass a State board examination. Although the type of practice perm itted and the educational requirem ents for a license vary considerably from one State to another, most States require successful com pletion of a 4-year chiropractic course following 2 years o f p re p ro fe ssio n a l college w ork. Some S tates require th at specific subjects such as English, chemistry, biology, or physics be a part of this preprofessional work. In addition, several States require that chiroprac tors pass a basic science exam ina tion. C hiropractors licensed in one State often may obtain a license in other States by reciprocity. In 1976, there were 13 chiroprac tic colleges. Four of these institutions were fully accredited by the Council on Chiropractic Education; four o th ers were recognized candidates for accred itatio n and working tow ard accreditation. All require a minimum of 2 years of college before entrance, an d m o st c o lle g e s re q u ire th a t courses in chemistry and biology be taken during these 2 years. By 1979, the Council on Chiropractic Educa tion will approve only those schools which include courses in English and the social sciences. Chiropractic col leges emphasize courses in m anipula tion and spinal adjustments. Most offer a broader curriculum however, including subjects such as physio therapy and nutrition. In most chiro practic colleges, the first 2 years of the curriculum include chiefly class room and laboratory work in subjects such as anatom y, physiology, and b io ch em istry . D uring the last 2 years, students obtain practical expe rience in college clinics. The degree of D octor of Chiropractic (D .C .) is aw arded to students com pleting 4 years of chiropractic training. Chiropractic requires a keen sense of observation to detect phyical ab norm alities and considerable hand dexterity but not unusual strength or endurance. Persons desiring to be come chiropractors should be able to work independently and handle re sponsibility. The ability to work with detail is im portant. Sympathy and understanding are am ong personal q u a litie s co n sid ered desirab le in dealing effectively with patients. Most newly licensed chiropractors either set up a new practice or p ur chase an established one. Some start as salaried chiropractors to acquire experience and funds needed to es tablish their own practice. A m oder ate financial investm ent is usually 59 necessary to open and equip an of fice. Employment Outlook Enrollm ents in chiropractic colleg es have grown dram atically, partly in a p p a re n t response to the b ro a d er public acceptance of the profession. As m ore students graduate, new chi ro p racto rs may find it increasingly difficult to establish a practice in those areas where other practitioners already are located. The best oppor tunities for new chiropractors may be in small towns and in areas with com paratively few established practition ers. Earnings and Working Conditions In chiropractic, as in other types of independent practice, earnings are relatively low in the beginning. New graduates who worked as associates to established practitioners earned about $ 12,000 a year in 1976. Expe rie n c e d c h i r o p r a c t o r s a v e ra g e d about $25,000, according to limited data available, although many earn considerably more. C ITY M A NA G ER S (D.O.T. 188.118 and 188.168) Nature of the Work Population growth and industrial expansion place increasing pressure on housing, transportation, and other facilities o f cities. Problem s associat ed with growing m odern com m uni ties, such as air and w ater pollution and rising crim e rates, also dem and attention. To cope effectively with these problem s, many com m unities hire a specialist in m anagem ent tech niques—the city manager. A city m anager usually is appoint ed by the com m unity’s elected offi cials and is responsible directly to them. Although duties vary by city size, city m anagers generally adm in ister and coordinate the day-to-day operations of the city. They are re sponsible for functions such as tax collection and disbursem ent, law e n forcem ent, and public works. They also hire departm ent heads and their staffs and prepare the annual budget to be approved by elected officials. In addition, they study current prob lem s, such as traffic co n g estio n , crime, or urban renewal, and report their findings to the elected council. City m anagers must plan for future growth and developm ent of cities and surrounding areas. To provide for an expansion of public services, they frequently appear at civic m eet ings to advocate certain programs or to inform citizens of current govern m ent operations. City m anagers work closely with planning departm ents to coordinate new and existing programs. In small er cities th at have no p erm an en t planning staff, coordination may be done entirely by the manager. To aid the city manager, many cities employ management assistants: assistant city managers, departm ent head assistants, and administrative assistants. U nder the m anager’s di rection, m anagem ent assistants ad minister programs, prepare reports, receive visitors, answer correspon- Sources of Additional Information The State board of licensing in the capital of each State can supply in form ation on State licensing require ments for chiropractors. G eneral inform ation on chiroprac tic as a career is available from: American Chiropractic Association, 2200 Grand Ave., Des Moines, Iowa 50312. International Chiropractors Association, 741 Brady St., Davenport, Iowa 52808. For a list of chiropractic colleges, as well as general inform ation on chi ropractic as a career, contact: Council on Chiropractic Education, 3209 Ingersoll Street, Suite 206, Des Moines, Iowa 50312. For inform ation on requirem ents for admission to a specific chiroprac tic college, con tact the admissions office o f th at school. 60 A city manager often deals with members of the community. dence, generally help to keep the city g o v ern m en t fun ctio ning sm oothly. Assistant city m anagers organize and coordinate city program s, supervise city em ployees, and act for the city m anager upon occasion. They also may assum e responsibility for some projects, such as the developm ent of a prelim inary annual budget. D epart m ent head assistants generally are re sponsible for one activity, such as personnel, finance, or law enforce m ent, but they also may assist in oth er areas. A dm inistrative assistants, also called executive assistants or as sistants to the city m anager, usually do adm inistrative and staff work in all departm ents under the city m an ager. For instance, they may compile o p eratin g statistics o r review and analyze w ork procedures. States, but one-half are concentrated in the eastern part of the Nation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A m aster’s degree, preferably in public or business adm inistration, is becom ing essential for those seeking a ca re e r in city m anagem ent. A l though some applicants with only a bachelor’s degree may find em ploy m ent, strong com petition for posi tions, even am ong m aster’s degree recipients, will m ake the graduate degree a requirem ent for m ost entry level jobs. In some cases, em ployers may hire a person with training in a field related to public adm inistration, such as engineering, recreation, so cial work, or political science. In 1976, 185 colleges and universi ties o ffered g rad u ate degree p ro Places of Employment grams in public or municipal adm in A bout 3,000 city m anagers were istratio n . D egree re q u irem en ts in em ployed in 1976. In addition, som e sch o o ls in c lu d e su cc essfu l nearly 9,000 persons w orked as ad com pletion of an internship program m inistrative assistants, d ep artm en t in a city m anager’s office. During this head assistan ts, and assistant city internship period, w hich may last m a n a g e rs . M o st c ity m a n a g e rs from 6 m onths to a year, the degree worked for cities and counties that candidate observes local governm ent had a council-m anager form o f gov operations and does research under ernm ent. U nder this type of govern the d ire c t supervision o f the city m ent, an elected council appoints a manager. Nearly all city m anagers begin as m anager who is responsible for the day-to-day operation o f the govern m anagem ent assistants. M ost new m ent as well as for the hiring and graduates work as adm inistrative as firin g o f a s s is ta n ts , d e p a rtm e n t sistants to city m anagers for several heads, and other staff. Many other years to gain experience in solving city m anagers worked for m unicipal urban problem s, coordinating public ities th at had the m ayor-council form services, and applying m anagem ent of governm ent, in which the m ayor techniques. O thers work in a govern appoints the city m anager as his or m ent d ep artm en t such as finance, her ch ief adm inistrative officer. A public w orks, o r public planning. few city m anagers also worked for They may acquire supervisory skills county governm ents, m etropolitan or and additional experience by w ork regional planning organizations, and ing as assistant city m anager or d e councils of governm ents. All types of partm ent head assistant. City m anag local governm ents em ployed m an ers often are first em ployed in small agem ent assistants, but larger juris cities, but during their careers they dictions generally em ployed them in may work in several cities o f increas ing size. greater num bers. Persons who plan a career in city Although over three-quarters of all city m anagers work for small cities m anagem ent should like to work having less than 25,000 inhabitants, with detail and to be a part o f a team . many larger cities also employ a city They m ust have sound judgm ent, m anager. A bout half o f the cities self-confidence, and the ability to having a population of between perform well under stress. To handle 10,000 and 500,000 have city m an em ergency situations, city m anagers agers. City m anagers w ork in all m ust quickly isolate problem s, iden tify their causes, and provide a num ber of possible solutions. City m anag ers should be tactful and able to co m m unicate and w ork well with people. City m anagers also must be dedi cated to public service since they of ten put in long, hard hours in times of crisis. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent o f city managers and local governm ent m anagem ent assis tants is expected to expand faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s as m anage m ent of our governm ents becomes more complex. Examples of more so phisticated m anagem ent techniques include com puterized tax and utility billing, electronic traffic control, and application of systems analysis to ur ban problem s. The dem and for city m anagers also will increase as m ore cities convert to the council-m anager form of governm ent, currently the fastest growing form of city govern m ent. F urtherm ore, city m anagers and m anagem ent assistants will be employed by other types of local gov ernm ent to help elected officials with d ay -to -d ay o p era tio n s o f g o v ern ment. Increased emphasis on region al solutions to urban problem s should result in additional job opportunities for city m anagers and m anagem ent assistants in councils o f government. Persons who seek beginning m an ag e m e n t assistan t jo b s m ay fa ce strong com petition through the mid1980’s, especially if they do not have a graduate degree in public adm inis tration o r related m anagem ent expe rience. Com petition should be keen am ong the growing num ber of ad m inistrative assistants, d ep artm en t head assistants, and assistant city m anagers for the relatively few city m anager positions. However, many of those unable to find em ploym ent in this area should find jobs in other fields of public administration. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of city managers and m an agement assistants vary according to education, experience, job responsi bility, and city size. Generally, city 61 m a n a g e rs ’ earn in g s are very high relative to the average earnings for nonsupervisory w orkers in private in dustry, except farming. In 1976, av erage annual salaries of city m anag ers ranged from about $20,000 in cities o f 5,000 inhabitants to m ore th a n $ 4 0 ,0 0 0 in c itie s o f o v e r 100,000 in h ab itan ts, acco rd in g to the International City M anagem ent A ssociation. T he average annual sal ary for all city m anagers was m ore than $23,000. City m anagers in cities not having council-m anager govern m ents received slightly less. Salaries o f m anagem ent assistants averaged $17,000 in 1976, and ranged from about $12,000 in small cities to m ore than $20,000 in large ones. Salaries of assistant city m anag ers generally were higher than those o f oth er m anagem ent assistants. City m anagers often work m ore than 40 hours a week. Em ergency problem s may require evening and w eekend work and m eetings with in dividuals and citizen’s groups co n sume additional time. Fringe benefits usually include health and life insurance program s, pension plans, sick leave, vacation tim e, and often a car for official business. M anagers generally are re im bursed fo r expenses incurred while attending professional m eetings and sem inars. Sources of Additional Information For inform ation on a career in city m anagem ent, contact: International City Management Association, 1140 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. C LA IM R EPR E S E N TA TIV E S (D .O .T. 168.288, 241.168, and 249.268) Nature of the Work Fast and fair settlem ent o f all claims is essential to any insurance com pany if it is to m eet its com m it m ents to policyholders and also p ro tect its own financial well-being. The 62 Claims adjuster gathering evidence in investigating a claim. people who investigate claims, nego tiate settlem ent with policyholders, and authorize paym ent are known as claim representatives—a group th at includes claim adjusters and claim examiners. W hen a property-liability (casual ty) insurance com pany receives a claim, the claim adjuster determ ines w hether the policy covers it and the am ount of the loss. Adjusters use re ports, physical evidence, and testi mony of witnesses in investigating a claim. W hen their com pany is liable, they negotiate with the claim ant and settle the case. Adjusters m ust m ake sure that set tlem ents are in line with the real ex tent of the loss. They m ust protect their com pany from false or inflated claims but, at the same time, settle valid claim s fairly and p rom ptly. Some adjusters are allowed to issue ch e ck s on com pany funds; m ost, how ever, subm it th e ir findings to claim exam iners who review them to insure th at proper procedures have been follow ed and th en authorize payment. Some adjusters work with all lines of insurance. O thers specialize in claims from property dam age by fire, m arine loss, autom obile dam age, w orkers’ com pensation loss, or p ro d uct liability. Several States have “ n o fa u lt” autom obile insurance plans that relieve the adjuster from d eter mining responsibility for a loss. A d justers in these States still must de cide the am ount of loss, however. A growing num ber of casualty com pa nies employ special claims people to settle small claims, usually minor au to m o b ile o r h o m eo w n e r dam age claims. These claim workers, gener ally c a lle d “ inside a d ju s te rs ” or “ te le p h o n e a d j u s t e r s ,” c o n ta c t claim ants by telephone or mail and have th e policyholder send repair costs, m edical bills, and other state ments to the company. Many com pa nies centralize this operation in a drive-in claims center where the cost of repair is determ ined and a check is issued on the spot. Adjusters work away from the of fice m ost o f the time. They may be called to the site of an accident or to the location of a fire or burglary. A d justers m ake their own schedules of the activities needed to dispose o f a claim properly. They also keep w rit ten or taped records of inform ation obtained from witnesses and other sources and prepare reports of their findings. In life insurance com panies, the counterpart of the claim adjuster is the claim examiner, who investigates the details surrounding questionable claims o r those exceeding a specified amount. They may check claim ap plications for com pleteness and ac curacy, interview medical specialists, consult policy files to verify inform a tion on a claim, or calculate benefit paym ents. Generally, exam iners are au th o riz ed to in v estigate and ap prove paym ent on all claim s up to a certain limit; larger claim s are re ferred to a senior exam iner. Exam iners checking incorrect or questionable claims may correspond with investigating com panies, field m anagers, agents, or the family of the insured. Claim exam iners occasional ly travel to obtain inform ation by personal interview, or contact State insurance departm ents and other in surance com panies. In addition to verifying claims and approving pay m ent, exam iners also m aintain rec ords o f settled claim s and prepare reports to be subm itted to their com p any’s d ata processing departm ent. Some experienced exam iners serve on com m ittees, co n duct surveys of claim practices within their com pa ny, and help devise m ore efficient ways to process claim s. They, like claim adjusters, som etim es testify in court on contested claims. Places of Employment A bout 155,000 persons worked as claim representatives in 1976. The m ajority o f claim adjusters worked for insurance com panies that sell property and liability coverage. Some w ere em ployed by indepen d en t adjusting firm s th a t co n tract th eir services for a fee. These in dependent firms range from national com panies em ploying hundreds of adjusting specialists to small 3- or 4person local operations. A relatively small num ber o f adjusters represent the insured rather than the insurance com pany. These “ public adjusters” usually are retained by banks, finan cial organizations, and other business firms to handle fire and other losses to property. They negotiate claims ag ain st in su ran c e co m p an ie s and deal with adjusters for such com pa nies. Most claim examiners worked for life insurance com panies in large cities such as New Y ork, San F ran cisco, Chicago, Dallas, and Philadel phia, where most hom e offices are located. Adjusters may travel to almost any area of the United States, since claims m ust be settled locally. O cca sionally, an e x p e rie n c e d a d ju ste r may travel to the scene of a disaster, such as a hurricane or a riot, to work with local personnel. Some cases re sult in trav e l o u tsid e th e U n ited States. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although a growing num ber of in surance com panies prefer claim re p resentatives to have a college degree, m any h ire th o se w ith o u t college training, particularly if they have spe cialized ex p erien ce. F or exam ple, persons experienced in autom obile repair work may qualify as auto ad justers, and those with clerical work experience m ight be hired as inside adjusters. No specific field of college study is recom m ended. Although courses in insurance, econom ics, or other busi ness subjects are helpful, a m ajor in alm ost any college field is adequate preparation. An adjuster who has a business or accounting background might specialize in loss from business interruption or dam age to m erchan dise. Those with college training in engineering will find their education helpful in adjusting industrial claims. A legal background is m ost helpful to those handling w orkers’ com pensa tion and product liability cases. Most large insurance com panies provide beginning claim adjusters and exam iners on-the-job training and home study courses. Claim rep resentatives are encouraged to take courses designed to enhance their professional skills. For example, the Insurance Institute of Am erica offers a six-semester study program leading to an associate degree in claims ad justing upon successful com pletion of six exam inations. A djusters can prepare for these examinations by in d ep en d en t hom e study or through com pany or public classes. A profes sional C ertificate in Insurance A d justing also is available from the C ol lege of Insurance in New York City. The Life Office M anagem ent A s sociation (L O M A ) in co operation with the International Claim Associ ation offers a claims education p ro gram for life and health examiners. The program is part of the LOMA Institute Insurance Education P ro gram leading to the professional des ignation, FLMI (Fellow, Life M an agem ent Institute) upon successful com pletion of eight written examina tions. About three-fourths of the States require adjusters to be licensed. D e spite wide variation in State licensing re q u ire m e n ts , a p p lic a n ts usually must comply with one or more of the following: Pass a written examination covering the fundam entals of adjust ing; furnish character references; be 20 or 21 years of age and a resident o f the State; offer proof that they have com pleted an approved course in insurance or loss adjusting; and file a surety bond. Because they often work closely with claimants, witnesses, and other insurance professionals, representa tives m ust be able to adapt to many d iffe re n t p erso n s and situ atio n s. They should be able to com m unicate effectively and gain the respect and cooperation of people from different backgrounds. For example, when ad ju sters’ evaluations of claims differ from those of the persons who have suffered the loss, they should be able to explain their conclusions tactfully. Examiners need to be familiar with medical and legal term s and practic es and Federal and State insurance laws and regulations. Because they may have to check prem ium pay ments, policy values, and other nu merical items in processing a claim, examiners should be adept at making m athem atical calculations. Both ad justers and examiners should have a good m em ory and enjoy w orking with details. Beginning adjusters and examiners work on small claims under the su pervision of an experienced worker. As they learn more about claim in vestigation and settlem ent, they are assigned claims that are higher in loss value and m ore difficult. Trainees are prom oted as they dem onstrate com petence in handling assignments and progress in the courses they take. Because of the complexity of insur ance regulations and claims proce dures, workers who lack formal aca dem ic training may advance m ore slowly than those with 2 years or 63 m ore o f colleg e. E m ployees who show unusual com petence in claims work or outstanding adm inistrative skills may be pro m oted to d ep a rt m ent supervisor in a field office or to a m anagerial position in the hom e office. Qualified adjusters and exam iners som etim es transfer to other d e partm ents, such as underw riting or sales. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent of claim representa tives is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s as the num ber o f insurance claims continues to increase. In addition to jobs created by growth o f the occupation, many others will result from the need to replace w orkers who die, retire, or transfer to oth er jobs. Several factors point to a growing volume o f insurance and a resulting need for claim adjusters. Over the next decade a steadily rising num ber of w orkers will be entering their m ost productive years. These workers and their families are likely to seek insur an ce p ro te c tio n as they p u rch ase hom es, autom obiles, and other con sum er durables. New o r expanding businesses will need protection for new plants and equipm ent and for insurance covering their em ployees’ health and safety. As m ore people live and work in densely populated areas, the increased risk of autom o bile accident, fire, or theft should re sult in a greater num ber of claims. As ways o f doing business continue to change, the dem and for certain kinds o f claim adjusters will be stron ger than for others. For example, the growing trend toward drive-in claim centers and claim handling by tele phone should reduce the dem and for autom obile adjusters while it stim u lates dem and for inside adjusters. In d ep endent adjusters who specialize in autom obile dam age claims should continue to suffer some loss o f busi ness. Prospects should be very good, however, for adjusters who specialize in highly com plex types of business in su ra n c e such as m arin e ca rg o , w orkers’ com pensation, and product liability. A similar situation exists for claim examiners. Em ploym ent of exam in 64 ers in casualty com panies should rise about as fast as for adjusters; how ever, m uch slower growth is expect ed for life insurance examiners as in creased use o f com puters enables them to process m ore claims, espe cially routine ones and those th at arise under group policies. Earnings and Working Conditions According to a recent survey o f property and liability com panies, claim adjusters averaged about $ 13,000 a year in 1976; inside adjust ers earned average salaries o f about $9,900. M ost public adjusters are paid a percentage of the am ount o f th e se ttle m e n t—generally 10 p e r cent. Adjusters are furnished a com pany car or are reim bursed for use o f their own vehicles for business p u r poses. Salaries o f claim adjusters are about one and one-half times the av erage earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming; salaries of inside adjusters are slightly above the average for all nonsupervisory work A survey of life insurance com pa nies by the Life Office M anagem ent Association revealed that claim ex am iners earned average salaries of $13,300 a year in 1976. According to the survey of property and liability com panies, casualty claim examiners averaged $15,280. Claim supervisors in casualty com panies and life com p an ies av erag ed $ 1 7 ,3 0 0 a year. Claim examiners earn more than 1 1/2 times the average for all nonsu pervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Claim adjusting is not a desk job. It requires that a person be physically fit because m uch o f the day may be spent in traveling from one place to another, walking about outdoors, and climbing stairs. Adjusters may have to work evenings or weekends in order to interview witnesses and claim ants when they are available. Since m ost companies provide 24h o u r claim service to th e ir p o l icyholders, som e adjusters always m ust be on call. (See the statem ent on the Insurance Industry for addi tional inform ation on working condi tions and employee benefits.) Claim examiners have desk jobs that require no unusual physical ac tivity. Although the average w ork week for examiners is 35 to 40 hours, they may work longer at times of peak claim loads or when quarterly and annual statem ents are prepared. They also may need to travel o cca sionally. Sources of Additional Information G eneral inform ation about a ca reer as a claim examiner or adjuster is available from the home offices of many life and property and liability insurance companies. Inform ation ab o u t licensing re quirem ents for claim adjusters may be obtained from the departm ent of insurance in each State. Inform ation about career opportu nities in these occupations also may be obtained from: Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, N.Y. 10038. American Mutual Insurance Alliance, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60606. The National Association of Independent In surers, Public Relations Department, 2600 River Rd., Des Plaines, 111. 60018. For inform ation about public in surance adjusting, contact: National Association of Public Adjusters, 1613 Munsey Building, Baltimore, Md. 21202 . C areer information on life insur ance claim exam ining is available from: American Council of Life Insurance, 1850 K St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. CLERGY Deciding on a career in the clergy involves considerations different from those involved in other career choices. W hen persons choose to en ter the ministry, priesthood, or rabbi nate, they do so primarily because they possess a strong religious faith and a desire to help others. N ever theless, it is im portant to know as much as possible about the profes sion and how to prepare for it, the kind of life it offers, and its needs for personnel. The num ber o f clergy needed de pends largely on the num ber o f peo ple who participate in organized reli gious groups. This affects the num ber of churches and synagogues estab lished and pulpits to be filled. In addition to the clergy who serve con gregations, many others teach or act as adm inistrators in sem inaries and in oth er ed ucational institutions; still o th e rs serv e as c h a p la in s in the Armed Forces, industry, correctional institutions, hospitals, o r on college campuses; or render service as mis sionaries o r in social welfare agen cies. Persons considering a career in the clergy should seek the counsel of a religious leader of their faith to aid in evaluating their qualifications. The m ost im portant o f these are a deep religious belief and a desire to serve the spiritual needs o f others. The priest, m inister, or rabbi also is ex pected to be a m odel o f moral and ethical conduct. A person consider ing one o f these fields must realize that the civic, social, and recreation al activities of a m em ber of the clergy often are influenced and restricted by the custom s and attitudes of the community. The clergy should be sensitive to the needs o f others and able to help them deal with these needs. The job dem ands an ability to speak and write effectively, to organize, and to supervise others. The person enter ing this field also m ust enjoy studying because the ministry is an occupation which requires continuous learning. In ad d itio n , the m inistry dem ands considerable initiative and self-disci pline. M ore detailed inform ation on the clergy in the three largest faiths in the U nited States—P rotestant, Ro man Catholic, and Jewish—is given in the following statem ents, prepared in cooperation with leaders of these faiths. Inform ation on the clergy in other faiths may be obtained directly fro m le a d e rs o f th e r e s p e c tiv e groups. PR O TESTAN T M IN IS T E R S (D.O.T. 120.108) Nature off the Work Protestant ministers lead their co n gregations in worship services and adm inister the rites of baptism, co n firm atio n , and Holy C om m union. They prepare and deliver serm ons and give religious instruction to p e r sons who are to becom e new m em bers of the church. They also p er form m arriages; co n d u ct funerals; counsel individuals who seek guid ance; visit the sick, aged, and handi capped at hom e and in the hospital; c o m fo rt th e b ereav e d ; and serve c h u rc h m em b ers in o th e r w ays. Many Protestant m inisters write arti cles for publication, give speeches, and engage in interfaith, com m unity, civic, educational, and recreational activities sponsored by or related to the interests of the church. Some ministers teach in seminaries, colleg es, and universities. The services th at m inisters c o n d u c t differ am ong P ro te sta n t d e nom inations and also among congre gations within a denom ination. In many denom inations, m inisters fol low a traditional order of worship; in others they adapt the services to the needs o f youth and o th er groups within the congregation. Most serv ices include Bible reading, hym n singing, prayers, and a serm on. In some denom inations, Bible reading by a m em ber of the congregation and individual testim onials may consti tute a large part of the service. M inisters serving small congrega tions generally work on a personal basis with their parishioners. Those serving large co n g reg atio n s have g re ater adm inistrative responsibil ities, and spend considerable tim e working with com m ittees, church of ficers, and staff, besides perform ing their o th er duties. They may have one or m ore associates or assistants who share specific aspects o f the The services that ministers conduct differ among Protestant denominations and also among congregations within a de nomination. ministry, such as a minister of educa tion who assists in educational p ro grams for different age groups, or a minister of music. Places of Employment In 1976, about 190,000 ministers served m ore than 72 million Protes tants. M ost ministers serve individual congregations. In addition, however, thousands of ministers work in close ly related fields such as chaplains in hospitals and the Armed Forces. The greatest num ber of clergy are affiliat ed with the five largest groups of churches—Baptist, United M ethod ist, Lutheran, Presbyterian, and Epis copal. All cities and most towns in the United States have at least one Prot estant church with a full-time minis ter. Some churches employ part-time ministers; many part-time clergy are sem inary students or m inisters re tired from full-time pastoral respon sibilities. Although m ost m inisters are located in urban areas, many live 65 in less densely populated areas where they may serve two congregations or more. Training and Other Qualifications E ducational requirem ents for en try into the Protestant ministry vary greatly. Som e denom inations have no form al educational requirem ents, and o th e rs o rd ain persons having varying am ounts and types o f train ing in Bible colleges, Bible institutes, or liberal arts colleges. In 1976, there were 138 Am erican theological institutes accredited by the Association of Theological Schools in the United States and C anada. These adm it only students who have received a bachelor’s d e gree or its equivalent with a liberal arts m ajor from an accredited col lege. Many denom inations require a 3-year course o f professional study in one of these accredited schools or sem inaries after college graduation. The degree of m aster o f divinity is aw arded upon com pletion. Recom m ended presem inary or un dergraduate college courses include E n g lish , h isto ry , p h ilo so p h y , the natural sciences, social sciences, the fine arts, music, religion, and foreign languages. These courses provide a knowledge of m odern social, cultur al, and scien tific in stitu tio n s and problems. However, students consid ering theological study should con tact, at the earliest possible date, the schools to which they intend to ap ply, to learn how to prepare for the program they expect to enter. The standard curriculum for ac credited theological schools consists of four m ajor categories: biblical, his to rical, theological, and p ractical. Courses o f a practical nature such as psychology, religious education, and a d m in is tr a tio n a re e m p h a s iz e d . Many accredited schools require that students gain experience in church work under the supervision of a fac ulty m em ber or experienced minis ter. Some institutions offer doctor of m inistry d eg rees to stu d en ts who have com pleted 1 year or more of additional study after serving at least a year as minister. Scholarships and loans are available for students of theological institutions. 66 In general, each large denom ina tion has its own school or schools o f theology th at reflect its p articu lar doctrine, interests, and needs. How ever, many of these schools are open to students from o th er denom ina tions. Several interdenom inational schools associated with universities give both undergraduate and gradu ate training covering a wide range o f theological points of view. Persons who have denom inational qualifica tions for the ministry usually are o r dained after graduation from a sem i nary. In denom inations that do not require, seminary training, clergy are ordained at various appointed times. Men and women entering the clergy often begin their careers as pastors o f small congregations or as assistant pastors in large churches. Employment Outlook The trend toward m erger and unity among denom inations, com bined with the closing of smaller parishes and the downturn in financial sup port, has reduced dem and for Protes tant m inisters in recent years. As a result, new graduates of theological schools will face increasing com peti tion in finding positions. The supplydem and situation will vary among d e nom inations and the chance of o b taining em ploym ent will depend, in part, on the length of the candidate’s fo rm al p re p a ra tio n . M ost o f th e openings for clergy that are expected through the m id-1980’s will th e re fore result from the need to replace those in existing positions who retire, die, or leave the ministry. The need for m inisters in Evangelical church es, however, is expected to continue to grow. Although fewer opportunities may arise for Protestant ministers to serve individual congregations, newly o r dained ministers may find work in youth, family relations, and welfare organizations; religious education; and as c h a p la in s in th e A rm e d Forces, hospitals, universities, and correctional institutions. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of Protestant clergy vary substantially, depending on age, ex perience, education, denom ination, size and wealth of congregation, type of community, and geographic loca tion. According to a study by the In stitute for Church Development, av erage income including benefits for Protestant ministers in five denom i nations was about $13,650 in 1976. These earnings are somewhat higher than the average for Protestant de nom inations as a whole. Annual va cations average 3 weeks and there often is opportunity for time off. Because of the wide range of serv ice that the minister provides, he or she may work long or irregular hours, often involving considerable travel. Sources of Additional Information Persons who are interested in en tering the Protestant ministry should seek th e counsel of a m inister or church guidance worker. Each theo logical school can supply information on admission requirem ents. Prospec tive ministers also should contact the ordination supervision body of their particular denom ination for inform a tion on special requirem ents for ordi nation. RABBIS (D.O.T. 120.108) Nature of the Work Rabbis are the spiritual leaders of their congregations and teachers and interpreters of Jewish law and tradi tion. They conduct religious services and deliver sermons at services on the Sabbath and on Jewish holidays. Rabbis customarily are available at all times to counsel m embers of their congregation, other followers of Ju daism, and the community at large. Like o th er clergy, rabbis co n d u ct weddings and funeral services, visit the sick, help the poor, com fort the bereaved, supervise religious educa tion program s, engage in interfaith activities, and involve themselves in com m unity affairs. Rabbis serving large congregations may spend considerable time in ad- Rabbi instructing nursery school children about the Friday evening Sabbath meal. m in istra tiv e d u ties, w orking w ith their staffs and com m ittees. Large congregations frequently have an as s o c ia te o r a ssista n t ra b b i. M any assistant rabbis serve as educational directors. Nearly all rabbis serve O rthodox, C onservative, o r Reform congrega tions. Regardless o f their particular point o f view, all Jewish congrega tions preserve the substance o f Jew ish religious worship. T he congrega tions differ in the extent to which they follow the traditional form of worship—for exam ple, in the w ear ing o f head coverings, the use of He brew as the language o f prayer, or the use o f music or a choir. The for m at o f th e w o rsh ip serv ic e and, therefore, the ritual th at the rabbis use may vary even am ong congrega tions belonging to the sam e branch of Judaism. Rabbis also may write for religious and lay publications, and teach in theological seminaries, colleges, and universities. Places of Employment About 4,000 rabbis served over 6 million followers o f the Jewish faith in this country in 1976; approxim ate ly 1,550 were Orthodox rabbis, 1,350 were C onservative, and 1,200 R e form. O thers work as chaplains in the m ilitary services, in hospitals and other institutions, or in one of the m any Jew ish co m m u n ity serv ic e agencies. A growing num ber are em ployed in colleges and universities as teachers in Jewish Studies programs. Although rabbis serve Jewish com munities throughout the Nation, they are concentrated in those States that have large Jewish populations, p a r tic u la rly N ew Y o rk , C a lifo rn ia , Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Illinois, M assachusetts, F lorida, M aryland, and the W ashington, D.C. m etropol itan area. Training and Other Qualifications To becom e eligible for ordination as a rabbi, a student m ust com plete a prescribed course of study in a sem i nary. Entrance requirem ents and the curriculum depend upon the branch of Judaism with which the seminary is associated. Nearly 30 sem inaries train O rtho dox rabbis in program s of varying lengths. The required course of study to prepare for ordination is usually 3 or 4 years. However, students who are not college graduates may spend a longer period at these sem inaries and com plete the requirem ents for the bachelor’s degree while pursuing the rabbinic course. Some Orthodox sem inaries do not require a college degree to qualify for ordination, al though students who qualify usually have com pleted 4 years o f college. The Hebrew Union College—Jew ish Institute of Religion is the official sem inary that trains rabbis for the Reform branch o f Judaism. It is the only branch that has approved the training and ordination o f women as rabbis. In 1976, almost half the en tering class at the Reform seminary were women. The Jewish Theologi cal Seminary of Am erica is the offi cial sem inary that trains rabbis for the Conservative branch of Judaism. Both seminaries require the com ple tion of a 4-year college course, as well as earlier preparation in Jewish studies, for admission to the rabbinic program leading to ordination. N or mally 5 years of study are required to com plete the rabbinic course at the Reform seminary, including 1 year of preparatory study in Jerusalem. Ex ceptionally w ell-prepared students can shorten this 5-year period to a minimum of 3 years. A student hav ing a strong background in Jewish studies can com plete the course at the Conservative seminary in 4 years; for other enrollees, the course may take as long as 6 years. In general, the curriculum s of Jew ish theological sem inaries provide s tu d e n ts w ith a c o m p re h e n s iv e know ledge o f the B ible, T alm ud, R abbinic literature, Jewish history, theology, and courses in education, p a s to ra l p sy ch o lo g y , an d p u b lic speaking. Students o f the Reform seminary get a thorough preparation in the classics as well as extensive practical training in dealing with the social and political problem s in the com m unity. Training for alternatives to the pulpit, such as leadership in com m unity services and religious education, increasingly is stressed. Some seminaries grant advanced academ ic degrees in fields such as Biblical and Talm udic research. All Jewish theological seminaries m ake scholarships and loans available. Newly ordained rabbis usually be gin as leaders of small congregations, assistants to experienced rabbis, di rectors o f Hillel Foundations on col 67 lege cam p u ses, te a c h e rs in sem i n a r ie s a n d o th e r e d u c a tio n a l in s titu tio n s , o r c h a p la in s in th e A rm ed Forces. As a rule, the pulpits o f large and well-established Jewish congregations are filled by experi enced rabbis. Employment Outlook T he d em an d for R abbis has d e clined in recen t years because some e s ta b l i s h e d c o n g r e g a tio n s h a v e closed and fewer new ones are being form ed. As a result, m any newly o r dained R abbis will take positions in sm aller Jewish com m unities and as assistant R abbis in larger Jewish co n gregations. O pportunities still exist for R abbis to teach in colleges and universities, to serve as chaplains in the A rm ed Forces, and to work in hospitals and oth er institutions or in one o f the m any Jewish social service ag en cies. O penings in established congregations will com e largely from a need to replace those Rabbis who retire or die. The em ploym ent outlook for rab bis varies am ong th e th ree m ajor branches o f Judaism , however. R e form rabbis may face som e com peti tion for available positions and O r th o d o x c le r g y a re e x p e c te d to e n c o u n te r very keen co m petition. C o n serv ativ e rabbis, on the o th er h and, will have good em ploym ent opportunities, if present trends con tinue. Earnings and Working Conditions Incom es vary depending on the size and financial status of the con gregation, as well as its denom ina tional branch and geographic loca tion. Rabbis usually earn additional incom e from gifts or fees for officiat ing at cerem onies such as weddings. In 1976 the annual earnings of rabbis averaged betw een $15,000 and $20,000, including pension and housing allowance. Earnings of O r thodox rabbis ten d ed to be at the lower end o f the scale. Average earn ings o f newly ordained Conservative an d R e fo rm ra b b is w e re a b o u t $19,000; m ore ex p erienced rabbis e a rn ed m uch higher salaries and, w ith o th e r b e n e fits, av e rag e d as 68 m uch as $35,000 a year. Some senior rabbis in large tem ples earned up to $60,000 a year. R abbis’ working hours are d eter m ined by their role in the congrega tion. Besides conducting regular reli gious services, they also may spend considerable time in adm inistrative, educational, and com m unity service functions, as well as presiding over various cerem onial services. Rabbis also m ust be available to serve the em ergency needs of their congrega tion m em bers. Sources of Additional Information Persons who are interested in b e com ing rabbis should discuss their plans for a vocation with a practicing rabbi. Inform ation on the work o f rabbis and allied occupations can be obtained from: The Jewish Theological Seminary of America, (Conservative), 3080 Broadway, New York, New York 10027. The Rabbi Issac Elchanan Theological Semi nary, an affiliate of Yeshiva University, (Orthodox), 2540 Amsterdam Ave., New York, N.Y. 10033. Hebrew Union College and Jewish Institute of Religion, (Reform), whose three campus es are located at 40 W. 68th St., New York, N.Y. 10023; at 3101 Clifton Ave., Cincinnati, Ohio 45220; and at 3077 Uni versity Mall, Los Angeles, Calif. 90007. R O M A N CATHO LIC PRIESTS (D.O.T. 120.108) Nature of the Work Rom an Catholic priests attend to the spiritual, pastoral, m oral, and educational needs of the m em bers o f their church. Their duties include presiding at liturgical functions; of fering religious enlightenm ent in the form o f a serm on; hearing confes sions; adm inistering the Sacram ents (including the sacram ents of M ar riage and Penance); and conducting funeral services. They also com fort the sick, console relatives and friends of the dead, counsel those in need o f guidance, and assist the poor. The number of priests has been insuffi cient to fill all the needs of Catholic instl tutions. Priests spend long hours working for the church and the community. Their day usually begins with m orn ing m editation and Mass, and may end with the hearing of confessions or an evening visit to a hospital o r a home. Many priests direct and serve on church com m ittees, work in civic and charitable organizations, and as sist in com m unity projects. There are two main classifications of priests—diocesan (secular) and religious. Both types have the same powers acquired through ordination by a bishop. The differences lie in their way of life, the type of work to which they are assigned, and the church authority to whom they are immediately subject. Diocesan priests generally work as individuals in parishes assigned to them by the bishop of their diocese. Religious priests generally work as part o f a religious order, such as the Jesuits, Dominicans, or Franciscans. They engage in specialized activities such as teaching or missionary work as signed to them by superiors of their order. Both religious and diocesan priests hold teaching and administrative posts in Catholic seminaries, colleges and universities, and high schools. Priests attached to religious orders staff a large proportion of the institu tions of higher education and many high sc h o o ls , w h e re a s d io c e s a n priests are usually concerned with the p aro ch ial schools attac h ed to parish churches and with diocesan high schools. The m em bers o f reli gious orders do m ost of the mission ary work conducted by the Catholic C hurch in this country and abroad. Places of Employment Approxim ately 59,000 priests served nearly 49 million Catholics in the U nited States in 1976. There are priests in nearly every city and town and in many rural com m unities. The majority are in m etropolitan areas, where m ost Catholics reside. C atho lics are concentrated in the N orth east and G reat Lakes regions, with sm aller concentrations in California, Texas, and Louisiana. Large num bers of priests are located in com m u nities near C atholic educational and other institutions. Training and Other Qualifications P reparation for the priesthood generally requires 8 years of study beyond high school. T here are over 450 sem inary institutions where stu dents may receive training for the priesthood. P reparatory study may begin in the first year o f high school, at the college level, or in theological sem inaries after college graduation. High school sem inaries provide a college preparatory program that emphasizes English gramm ar, speech, literature, and social studies. Some study of Latin is required and the study o f m odern language is en couraged. The sem inary college of fers a liberal arts program , stressing philosophy and religion; the study of man through the behavioral sciences and history; and the natural sciences and m athem atics. In m any college sem inaries, a student may concen trate in any o f these fields. The remaining 4 years of prepara tion include sacred scripture; dog matic, m oral, and pastoral theology; hom iletics (art of preaching); church history; liturgy (M ass); and canon law. Field work experience usually is req u ired in addition to classroom study; in recent years this aspect of a p rie s t’s training has been em p h a sized. Diocesan and religious priests atten d differen t m ajor sem inaries, where slight variations in the training reflect the differences in the type of work expected of them as priests. Priests are not perm itted to marry. Postgraduate work in theology is offered at a num ber of A m erican C atholic universities or at ecclesiasti cal universities around the world, p articu larly in R om e. Also, m any priests do graduate work at o th er universities in fields unrelated to th e ology. Priests are encouraged by the C atholic C hurch to continue their studies, at least informally, after ordi nation. In recen t years continuing education for ordained priests has stressed social sciences, such as soci ology and psychology. Young m en never are denied entry into sem inaries because of lack o f funds. In seminaries for secular priests, the church authorities may m ake arrangem ents for student scholarships or loans. Those in reli gious sem inaries are financed by co n tributions of benefactors. The first assignment of a newly ordained secular priest is usually that o f assistant pastor or curate. Newly ordained priests of religious orders are assigned to the specialized duties for which they are trained. D epend ing on the talents, interests, and ex perience o f the individual, many o p portunities for greater responsibility exist within the church. Employment Outlook A growing num ber of priests will be needed in the years ahead to provide for the spiritual, educational, and social needs of the increasing num ber of Catholics in the Nation. The num ber of ordained priests has been insufficient to fill the needs o f newly established parishes and other Catholic institutions, and to replace priests who retire or die. This situ ation is likely to persist and perhaps worsen, if the recent drop in sem i nary enrollm ents continues. H ow ever, perm anent deacons, who may m arry and hold full-time jobs outside the C hurch, are being ordained as Catholic m inisters to preach and p e r form other liturgical functions, such as com m union and baptism. They are not perm itted to celebrate Mass or h e a r confession. A lthough priests usually continue to work longer than persons in other professions, the var ied dem ands and long hours create a need for young priests to assist the older ones. Also, an increasing num ber of priests have been acting in many diverse areas of service—in so cial work; religious radio, newspaper, and television work; and labor-m an agem ent m ediation. They also have been serving in foreign posts as mis sionaries, particularly in countries that have a shortage of priests. Earnings and Working Conditions Diocesan priests’ salaries vary from diocese to diocese and range from $2,000 to $6,000 a year. The diocesan priest also may receive a car allowance of $25 to $50 a month, free room and board in the parish rectory, and fringe benefits such as group insurance and retirem ent benefits in the diocese. Religious priests take a vow of poverty and are supported by their religious order. Priests who do special work relat ed to the church, such as teaching, usually receive a partial salary which is less than a lay person in the same position would receive. The differ ence betw een the usual salary for these jobs and the salary that the priest receives is called “ contributed service.” In some of these situations, housing and related expenses may be provided; in other cases, the priest m ust m ake his own arrangem ents. Some priests doing special work may receive the same com pensation that a lay person would receive. These may include priests working as law yers, counselors, consultants, etc. Due to the wide range of duties which m ost clergy have, priests often must work long and irregular hours. Their working conditions vary widely with the type and area of assignment. Sources of Additional Information Young men interested in entering the priesthood should seek the guid ance an d counsel o f th eir parish priest. For information regarding the d ifferen t religious orders and the 69 secular priesthood, as well as a list o f th e sem inaries w hich prep are stu dents for the priesthood, contact the d io c e s a n D ire c to rs o f V o c a tio n s through the office o f the local pastor or bishop. C O LLEG E STU D E N T P E R S O N N E L W O RK ER S (D.O.T. 045.108, 090.118 and .168, 129.108, and 166.168) Nature of the Work A stu d en t’s choice o f a particular institution o f higher education is in fluenced by many factors. Availabil ity o f a specific educational program , quality o f the school, cost, and loca tion all may play im portant roles. For m any students, however, an equally im portant factor is the insti tu tio n ’s ability to provide for their housing, social, cultural, and recrea tional needs. Developing and adm in istering these services are the tasks of college stu d en t personnel workers. T he admissions officer, the registrar, the dean o f students, and the career planning an d p lacem en t counselor are probably the best known am ong these. O th er workers th a t m ake up this broad occupational field include student activities and college union personnel, student housing officers, counselors in the college counseling center, financial aid officers, and for eign student advisers. Titles o f student personnel w ork ers vary from institution to institution and from program to program within a single school. Titles also vary with the level o f responsibility within a s tu d e n t p e rs o n n e l p ro g ra m . T h e m ore com m on titles include dean, di rector, officer, associate dean, assist ant director, and counselor. The dean o f students, or the vice president for student affairs, heads the student personnel program a t a school. Among his o r h er duties are evaluating the changing needs o f the students and helping the president of the college develop institutional poli cies. For example, to m eet the needs o f an increasing n u m ber of older, 70 part-tim e students, colleges and uni versities have been changing policies in areas such as student housing and student participation in decisions on graduation requirem ents and course offerings. In addition, the dean o f students generally coordinates a staff o f associate o r assistant deans who are in charge o f the specific p ro grams th at deal directly with the stu dents. A t some schools, the admissions office and the records office are separate. Admissions counselors in terview and evaluate prospective stu dents and process their applications. They may travel extensively to re cruit high school, junior college, and older students and to acquaint them with opportunities available at their college. They work closely with fac ulty, ad m in istrato rs, financial aid personnel, and public relations staff to determ ine policies for recruiting and adm itting students. Personnel in the office o f the registrar m aintain the academ ic records o f students and provide current enrollm ent statistics to those who require them both w ith in the college and in the community. S tu d en t fin a n c ia l aid p erso n n el help students obtain financial sup port for their education. W orkers in this field m ust keep well-inform ed about the sources and m anagem ent o f all forms of financial aid—scholar ships, grants, loans, employm ent, fel lowships, and teaching and research assistan tsh ip s. T hey w ork closely with adm inistrators and the admis sions, counseling, business, and aca dem ic office staffs. Career planning and placement counselors, sometimes called college placem ent officers, assist students in career selections and also may help them get part-tim e and sum m er jobs. On m any campuses, they arrange for prospective employers to visit the school to discuss their personnel needs and to interview applicants. (F or further inform ation on this field, see statem ent on college career planning and placem ent counselors.) The student personnel staff in charge o f student activities work with m em b ers o f p ro p o se d and e s ta b lished stu d en t organizations, esp e cially with student government. They help the student groups to plan, im plem ent, and evaluate their activi ties. O ften, the student activities staff will assist in the orientation o f new students. College union staff mem bers work with students to provide intellectual, cultural, and recreational programs. Many college union staff m em bers direct th e operation o f the physical facilities and services o f the building, Student financial aid personnel help students obtain financial support for their education. such as food and recreational servic es, building m aintenance, fiscal plan ning, and conference facilities. Student housing officers sometimes live in the dorm itories and, in gener al, help the students to live together in harm ony. They may serve as coun selors to individual students with per sonal problem s. Housing officers also may be involved in m anaging the fis cal, food service, and housekeeping operations o f student residences. Counselors help students with p er sonal, ed u catio n al, and vocational problem s. Students may com e to the counselors on th eir own or be re ferred by a faculty m em ber, a resi dence hall counselor, or a friend. C ounseling needs m ay arise from lack of self-confidence or motivation on the p art of the student, failure in academ ic work, desire to leave col lege or transfer to another college, inability to get along with others, loneliness, drug abuse, or m arriage p ro b lem s. In a d d itio n , th e re is a growing trend for counselors to try to reach m ore students by establishing group sensitivity sessions and tele phone “ hotlines.” Counselors often adm inister tests th at indicate apti tudes and interests to students having tro u b le u n d erstan d ing them selves. Some also teach in the college or as sist with admissions, orientation, and training o f residence hall staff. (F or further inform ation on this field, see statem ent on psychologists.) Foreign student advisers adm inister and coordinate many of the services that help to insure a successful aca dem ic and social experience for stu d en ts from o th e r co u n tries. They usually assist with foreign student ad missions, orientation, financial aid, housing, English as a foreign lan guage, academ ic and personal coun seling, student-com m unity relation ships, jo b p lacem en t, and alum ni relations. In addition, they may be an adviser for international associations and nationality groups and for U.S. students interested in study, educa tional travel, work, or service proj ects abroad. university, w hether a 2-year or a 4year school, has a staff perform ing stu d en t personnel functions. They are not always organized as a unified program . Large colleges and univer sities generally have specialized staffs for each personnel function. In many small colleges a few persons may ca r ry out the entire student personnel program . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because of the diversity in duties, the education and backgrounds o f college student personnel workers vary considerably. Generally, how ever, a m aster’s degree is preferred and a doctoral degree may be neces sary for advancem ent to top-level p o sitions. Schools often prefer persons with a bachelor’s degree in a social science, such as econom ics or histo ry, and a m aster’s degree in student personnel work. In 1976, 120 colleg es and universities offered graduate program s in this area. O ther specialized training may also be required for some student person nel occupations. A m aster’s degree in clinical o r counseling psychology usually is required for work as a col lege counselor. This degree also is helpful in o th er student personnel fields such as career planning and placem ent. Familiarity with data p ro cessing is an asset, especially for work in admissions, records, or fi nancial aid. Social science and recre ation degrees also are useful, as is work experience in business, govern m ent, or educational associations. College student personnel workers m ust be interested in, and able to work with, people of all backgrounds and ages. They m ust have the p a tience to cope with conflicting view points of students, faculty, and p a r ents. People in this field often deal with the unexpected and the unusual; therefore em otional stability and the ability to function while under pres sure are necessities. Entry level positions usually are those of student activities advisers, Places of Employment admissions counselors, financial aid An estim ated 57,000 college stu counselors, residence hall directors, d en t p erso n n el w orkers were em and assistants to deans. Persons w ith ployed in 1976. Every college and out graduate degrees may find ad vancem ent opportunities limited. A doctorate usually is necessary for the top student personnel positions. Employment Outlook The em ploym ent outlook for col lege stu d en t personnel w orkers is likely to be som ewhat com petitive through 1985. Tightening budgets in both public and private colleges and universities, are expected to lim it growth in employment. Student p er sonnel positions least likely to be af fected if some reduction becom es necessary are those in admissions, fi nancial aid, and records. Most open ings will result from the need to re place personnel who transfer to other positions, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Any em ploym ent growth that does occur is expected to be in junior and com m unity colleges. Enrollm ent at this level of education has been rising and many new schools have opened. If these recent trends continue, some additional student personnel workers will be needed in 2-year institutions. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries vary greatly depending on geographic location and the size of the school. According to the limited data available, top adm inistrators with at least 5 years of experience averaged between $28,000 and $30,000 a year in 1976. In the larger colleges and universities, salaries reached as high as $46,000. College student personnel workers frequently work more than a 40-hour week; often irregular hours and over tim e work are necessary. Em ploy m ent in these occupations usually is on a 1 2 -m o n th b a sis. In m an y schools, they are entitled to retire m ent, group medical and life insur ance, and sabbatical and other bene fits. Sources of Additional Information A pam phlet, Careers in Higher Education, is available from: The American Personnel and Guidance Asso ciation, 1607 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. 71 C O M M E R C IA L A R TIS TS they m ay do several sk etch e s o r rough visuals before the director is satisfied. (D.O.T. 141.031 and .081, 970.281 O ther com m ercial artists, usually and .381, and 979.381) with less experience, are needed to turn out the finished product. LetNature of the Work terers put together headlines and o th A team o f com m ercial artists with er words on the ad. They use set or varying skills and specializations of p h o to letterin g , and m ust have a ten creates the artw ork in new spa knowledge of type faces and the abil p ers an d m ag azin es an d on b ill ity to reproduce them in a variety o f boards, brochures, and catalogs. This sizes and mediums such as ink, p en team is supervised by an art director, cil, or cutout pieces o f paper. M e whose m ain function is to develop a chanical artists paste up an engrav them e o r idea for an ad or an adver e r ’s guide o f the ad with all th e tising campaign. A fter the art direc elem ents in the exact size and place to r has d e term in e d th e m ain e le in w hich they will finally appear. m ents o f an ad or design, he or she Since this pasteup will be the engrav will turn it over to two specialists for e r ’s b lu e p rin t, m ech a n ical artists further refinem ent. The sketch artist, must be very precise. Pasteup artists and other beginners also called a Tenderer, does a rough draw ing o f any p ictu re s required. do more routine work such as cutting The layout artist, who is concerned mats, assembling booklets, or ru n with graphics rather than art work, ning errands. In a small office, the art director constructs or arranges the illustra tions or photographs, plans the ty may perform the layout and m ore pography and picks colors for the ad. routine work with the help of train W hat em erges is a “ rough visual,” a ees. In a large office, however, the art sketch of the finished ad. Both the director develops concepts with the sketch artist and the layout artist copywriter; sets standards; deals with work closely with the art director; clients; and purchases needed photo graphs, illustrations, lettering, and other artw ork from freelancers. Advertising agencies or advertising departm ents who lack time or p er sonnel hire freelance illustrators to prepare sketches. These artists must be highly talented and able to work qu ick ly —an agency, for exam ple, may require a finished sketch in 1 day. Only the highly talented will re ceive enough assignments to m ain tain a sufficient income. Advertising artists create the con cept and artwork for a wide variety of items. These include direct mail advertising, catalogs, co u n ter dis plays, slides, and filmstrips. They also design o r lay out the editorial pages an d fe a tu re s o f n ew sp a p ers an d magazines and produce or purchase the necessary illustrations or a r t work. Some com m ercial artists spe cialize in producing fashion illustra tio n s , g re e tin g c a r d s , o r b o o k illustrations, or in making technical drawings for industry. Places of Employment About 67,000 persons worked as com m ercial artists in 1976. Although some com m ercial artists can be found in nearly every city, the m ajor ity work in large cities, such as New York, Los Angeles, Boston, W ash ington, D.C., and Chicago, where the largest users of commercial art are located. Most commercial artists work as staff artists for advertising d ep a rt ments o f large companies, advertis ing agencies, printing and publishing firm s, te x tile co m p an ie s, p h o to graphic studios, television and m o tio n p ic tu re stu d io s, d e p a rtm e n t stores, and a variety of other business org an izatio n s. M any are self-em ployed or freelance artists. Som e salaried com m ercial artists also do freelance work in their spare time. A few th o u sa n d co m m ercial artists work for Federal G overnm ent agen cies, principally in the Defense D e partm ent. A few teach in art schools. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some salaried commercial artists also do freelance work in their spare time. 72 Artistic ability, imagination, n eat ness, and a capacity to visualize ideas on paper are im portant qualifications for success in com m ercial art. How ever, these qualities may be devel oped by specialized training in the tech n iq u es o f com m ercial and ap plied art. Persons can prepare for a career in com m ercial art by attending a 2- or 4-year trad e school, or a junior col lege, college, or university which of fers a program in com m ercial art. In 1976, ab out 900 institutions offered instruction in com m ercial art. M ost artists who en ter the field are graduates o f trade schools. Admis sion to these schools is based upon high school grades, a portfolio of art work, and an interview. A growing num ber of colleges and universities, however, confer degrees in com m er cial art. These college program s sup plem ent art instruction with liberal arts courses such as English or histo ry. A lthough many em ployers prefer graduates o f a college or university program in com m ercial art, the qual ity and reputation o f a particular pro gram is m ore im portant than the type of institution offering it. Limited training in com m ercial art also may be obtained through public vocational high schools and practical experience on the job. There is no formal training program for the com mercial art trainee, however. Instead, trainees may run errands for the art director or do o ther general chores while learning. A dditional training usually is needed for advancem ent. B eginners also should supplem ent their form al education and training by making posters, layouts, illustra tions, and similar projects for schools and other organizations. The first year in art school may be spent studying fu n d am en tals—p er sp ec tiv e , d esig n , c o lo r h arm o n y , com position—and the use of pencil, crayon, pen and ink, and other art media. Subsequent study, generally m ore specialized, includes drawing from life, advertising design, graphic design, lettering, typography, illus trations, and other courses in the stu d en t’s particular field of interest. In order to advance beyond a be ginner’s jo b , com m ercial artists must develop specialized skills. For exam ple, letterers and retouchers must do precise and detailed work that re q u ire s e x c e lle n t c o o rd in a tio n . A sketch artist m ust be able to draw anything adequately in alm ost any m edium , including die m arker, p en cil, ink or transparencies. Most com m ercial artists advance by specializ ing either in the m echanical elem ents of producing an ad (letterers and m e chanical and layout artists) or in the pictorial elem ents (sketch artists and illu s tr a to r s ) . T h u s, a su c c e ssfu l sketch artist may not be very skilled in typography. A rt directors, how ever, need a strong educational b ack ground in art and business practices in addition to experience with pho tography, typography, and printing production m ethods. Advertising art directors require a special kind o f creativ ity —the ability to conceive ideas that will stim ulate the sale o f the client’s products or services. C om m ercial artists usually assem ble their best artw ork into a “ portfo lio,” to display their work. A good portfolio is essential for initial em ploym ent, for freelance assignments, and for job changes. Employment Outlook T ale n te d and w ell-trained co m m ercial artists may face com petition for em ploym ent and advancem ent in m ost kinds of work through the mid1980’s. Those with only average abil ity and little specialized training are likely to encounter keen com petition for beginning jobs and have very lim ited opportunities for advancem ent. Em ploym ent of com m ercial artists is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. One antici pated area of growth is in visual ad vertising such as television graphics, packaging displays, and poster and w indow displays. T he expanding field of industrial design also is ex pected to require m ore qualified a rt ists for three-dim ensional work with en g in eerin g co n c ep ts. (S ee s ta te m ent on industrial designers.) In ad dition, a few thousand jobs for com m ercial artists are expected to open each year throughout the period to replace workers who will die, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. The dem and for com m ercial artists is expected to vary by specialization or type. For example, dem and for freelance artists is expected to in crease and experienced paste-up and m echanical artists are always need ed; jobs for art directors and layout artists, however, will be fewer, much sought after, and open only to experi enced, very talented, and creative artists. E m ploym ent opportu n ities are expected to be best for those who have a variety of skills rather than expertise in one or two specialties. Com m ercial art occupations are particularly sensitive to changes in business conditions. Therefore, jobseekers may find that opportuni ties vary from year to year depending upon econom ic conditions. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1976, beginning com m ercial artists having no training beyond vo cational high school typically earned from $90 to $110 a week; graduates of 2-year professional schools, $100 to $ 125 a week; and graduates of 4y e a r p o st-h ig h sch o o l p ro g ram s, $120 to $175 a week, according to the limited data available. Talented artists who had strong educational b ackgrounds and good portfolios, however, started at higher salaries. A fte r a few years o f ex p erien ce, qualified illustrators may expect to earn $185 to $300 a week. Art direc tors, executives, w ell-know n fre e lance illustrators, and others in top positions generally have much higher earnings, from $480 to $580 a week or more. Earnings of freelance artists vary widely, since they are affected by factors such as skill level, variety, and popularity of work. Freelance artists may be paid by the hour or by the assignment. Com mercial artists who worked for the Federal G overn m ent in 1977 had an average annual salary o f $15,550 or about $300 a week. Salaried com m ercial artists gener ally work 35 to 40 hours a week, but som etimes they must work additional hours under considerable pressure to m eet dead lin es. F ree la n ce artists usually have irregular working hours. 73 Sources of Additional Information Inform ation on institutions offer ing program s in com m ercial art is available from: National Art Education Association, National Education Association, 1916 Association Dr., Reston, Va. 22091. C O O P E R A TIV E E X T E N S IO N S E R V IC E W O RK ER S feeds to m eet cow s’ nutritional needs and to raise their output of milk, and recognizing and com bating health hazards including the possible estab lishm ent of a herd inspection p ro gram. They also may help local farm ers m arket their products. Extension agents for com m unity resource developm ent m eet with com m unity leaders to plan and p ro vide for econom ic developm ent of the com m unity. They also assist com munity leaders in developing recrea tional program s and facilities and in planning other public projects, such as water supply and sewage systems, libraries and schools. In addition to group work, they also do field work with individuals. If a farm er is having a problem with his or her crops, an extension agent will visit the farm, examine the problem and suggest remedies. Likewise, hom e econom ics extension agents occasionally visit hom em akers to give personal help in solving prob lems. An im portant part of each exten sion w orker’s job is to provide infor mation th at is im portant to people in (D .O .T. 096.128) Nature of the Work C ooperative extension service workers, or extension agents as they are often called, co n d uct educational program s for rural residents in areas such as agriculture, hom e econom ics, youth activities, and com m unity re so u rc e d ev e lo p m e n t. E xtension agents generally specialize in one of these areas and have titles that m atch their specialties, such as extension agent for youth activities or exten sion agent for agriculture science and h o rtic u ltu re . T h ey a re em p lo y ed jointly by State land-grant universi ties and the U.S. D epartm ent of Agri culture. Extension agents usually work with groups o f people. For exam ple, the extension agent for youth activities conducts 4-H m eetings for m em bers in the area. During the sum m er, they may hold day cam ps to organize youth recreational activities. Agents who work in hom e econom ics set up m eetings and program s to illustrate the benefits o f proper nutrition and to educate hom em akers in good nu trition. A griculture science extension agents conduct group meetings on topics o f special interest to area farmers. In a county which has m uch dairy farm ing, extension agents ar range sem inars covering dairy herd health or the raising of forage crops. D uring th ese sem in ars, agents in stru ct farm ers in using the proper 74 County extension worker gives technical advice to dairy farmer. th e co m m u n ity . M any e x te n sio n ag en ts w rite articles dealing with their areas o f specialization for publi catio n in local new spapers. O ften these are regular fe atu re colum ns that appear once a week. O thers ap pear on local radio and television shows to give m arketing reports for ag ricu ltu ral p ro d u cts im p o rtan t to the area, or present Saturday m orn ing program s for young people. A few extension service w orkers pro duce docum entary films on topics in which they have special training for broadcast on local television stations. Also, extension workers at some land g r a n t u n iv e r s itie s p r o d u c e an d b ro ad cast program s on universityowned UHF and cable television sta tions. In addition to the extension service workers who work at the county lev el, State extension specialists, at land grant universities coordinate the ef forts of county agents. State exten sion agents keep abreast of the latest research in their fields of study and develop ways of using the research in extension work at the county level. Some State extension w orkers may be on a split assignm ent and may teach classes at the university. Also, about 200 agricultural extension spe cialists are em ployed by the Exten sion Service of the U.S. D epartm ent of A griculture in W ashington, D.C. Places of Employment M ore than four-fifths o f the ap proxim ately 16,000 cooperative ex ten sio n se rv ic e w o rk e rs are em ployed by counties throughout the United States. Alm ost all of the more th an 3 ,000 co u n ties have county staffs. D epending on the population of the county, staffs range in size from one agent, who serves a wide variety o f clientele interests, to a doz en or m ore agents, each serving a highly specialized need. M ost o f the remaining extension agents are em ployed by State extension services lo cated on the campuses o f land grant universities. A few work for regional staffs serving m ulticounty areas, and a small num ber are em ployed by the Extension Service of the U.S. D e partm ent of Agriculture. In addition, a few work in urban areas, mostly organizing 4-H activities for youth. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement C ooperative Extension Service agents are required to be proficient in disciplines related to the needs o f their clientele. They m ust have a bachelor’s degree in their subjectm atter field. In addition, training in educational techniques and in a com m unications field such as journalism is extrem ely helpful. O ften, they receive specific in struction in extension work in a p re induction training program , and can improve their skills through regular in -serv ice train in g p ro g ram s th a t cover both educational techniques and the subject m atter for which they are responsible. Beside being profi cient in their subject m atter exten sion workers m ust like to work with people and to help them. In m ost States, specialists and agents assigned to m ulticounty and State staff jobs are required to have at least one advanced degree and in many they m ust have a Ph. D. Employment Outlook The em ploym ent o f cooperative extension service workers is expect ed to increase m ore slowly than the average for all occupation through the m id-1980’s. As agricultural tech nology becom es m ore com plicated, m ore extension w orkers trained in education and com m unications will be needed to dissem inate inform a tion concerning advances in agricul tural research and technology to the farm population. Also, m odern farm ers often are college educated and, thus, m ore likely to use innovative farming practices. This may increase the dem an d for extension agents since extension agents relay advanc es in farm in g p ra c tic e s from re searchers to farmers. Earnings and Working Conditions The salaries of extension workers vary by locality, but, for the most part, they are competitive with sala ries of other municipal and county p ro fe ssio n a l e m p lo y ee s, such as school teachers. Extension agents work in offices and in the field. Since most extension service offices are located in small towns, persons who wish to live o u t side the city may find extension work the ideal career. Extension agents of ten get great satisfaction out of help ing others. Sources of Additional Information Additional information is available from County Extension offices, the State D irector of the Cooperative Extension Service located at each land-grant university, or the Exten sion Service, U.S. D epartm ent of Ag riculture, W ashington, D.C. 20250. CO U N SELO RS At some point in their lives, m ost people seek advice or assistance for personal, education, or vocational problem s. These problem s may be relatively minor, such as a conflict in a student’s class schedule, or may in volve serious em otional or physical disabilities. Regardless of the p ro b lem, counselors often are the ones to whom people turn for help. Counselors may specialize in a spe cific area and work setting. Some deal primarily with school children, while others work only with adults. Some counselors are trained to assist in vocational planning and may work for State or private, nonprofit agen cies. W hatever the area of specializa tion, counselors help people under stand them selves—their capabilities and potential—so that they can make and carry out decisions and plans for a satisfying and productive life. This chapter covers four counsel ing specialties: school; rehabilita tion; em ployment; and college career planning and placem ent. School counselors are the largest counseling group. They are primarily concerned with the personal, social, 75 and educational developm ent o f stu dents. Rehabilitation counselors help p er sons with physical, m ental, or social handicaps to becom e productive in dividuals. Em ploym ent counselors counsel p e rs o n s — th e u n em p lo y ed o r u n skilled, fo r ex am p le—who ca n n o t find a jo b and/or have problem s in career choice and planning. College career planning and place m ent counselors help college students examine their own interests, abilities, and goals; explore ca re e r a lte rn a tives; and m ake and follow through with a career choice. Persons who want to enter the counseling field m ust be interested in helping people and have an ability to understand their behavior. A pleas ant but strong personality that instills co n fid en ce in clients is desirable. C ounselors also m ust be patient, sen sitive to the needs o f others, and able to com m unicate orally as well as in writing. School counselors must keep up to date on opportunities for education and vocational training. SC H O O L C O U N SELO R S (D.O.T. 045.108) Nature of the Work U ncertainty about career choice, learning disabilities, or an unhappy home life are typical problem s that many students face. Usually these problem s cannot be solved by the student alone; professional assistance often is needed. M ost schools hire counselors to give individual atten tion to students’ educational, career, and social developm ent. A counselor role is to help students understand themselves better—their abilities, talents, and career options, for example. To accom plish this, counselors may use tests and individ ual or group counseling; sometimes they develop specialized m ethods or seek the assistance o f com m unity re source persons. W hen helping students in career choices, counselors often adm inister and evaluate tests. Some counselors also have responsibility for a career inform ation center and the school’s 76 career education program . The counselor may, for example, suggest ways in which a m ath teacher can incorporate into a lesson inform ation on occupations that require m athe m atics. O r the counselor may a r range field trips to factories and busi ness firm s o r show film s w hich provide a view o f real work settings. The desired result is a student who is more aware of careers that m atch his or her talents, likes, and abilities and who can, with the assistance of the counselor, develop an educational and career plan. School counselors m ust keep upto-date on opportunities for educa tional and vocational training beyond high school to counsel students who w ant this inform ation. They m ust keep inform ed about training p ro grams in 2- and 4-year colleges; in t r a d e , t e c h n i c a l , a n d b u s in e s s schools; ap p ren ticesh ip program s; and available federally su p p o rted program s. C o u n selo rs also advise students about educational require ments for entry level jobs, job chang es caused by technological advances, college entrance requirem ents, and places o f employment. Counselors in junior high and high schools often help students find parttime jobs, either to enable them to stay in school or to help them p re pare for their vocation. They may help both graduates and dropouts to find jobs or may direct them to com munity em ploym ent services. They also may conduct surveys to learn m ore about hiring experiences of re cent graduates and dropouts, local job opportunities, or the effective ness of the educational and guidance programs. Counselors also work with prob lems affecting the school as a whole or one or two individuals. If drug abuse is a problem , counselors may, for example, initiate group counsel ing sessions to discuss the dangers of taking drugs. Or they may speak in dividually with students and th eir parents. Counselors work closely with o th er staff m em bers of the school, m em bers of the community, and parents. Often, teachers and counselors co n fer about problems affecting a stu dent or group of students. A teacher may refer a student who appears to have problem s dealing with class m ates to a counselor who will at tem pt to find the cause. Counselors may arrange m eetings with parents or com m unity agencies, such as m en tal health organizations, if a student’s problem s are serious. Elem entary school counselors help children to m ake the best use o f their abilities by identifying these and oth er basic aspects of the child’s m ake up at an early age, and by evaluating any learning problem s. M ethods used in counseling grade school children differ in many ways from those used with older students. O bservations of classroom and play activity furnish clues ab o u t children in the lower grades. To b etter u nderstand chil dren, elem entary school counselors sp end m uch tim e consulting with teachers and parents. They also work closely with other staff m em bers of the school, including psychologists and social workers. Some school counselors, particu larly in seco n d ary schools, teac h classes in occupational inform ation, social studies, or other subjects. They also may supervise school clubs or other extracurricular activities, often after regular school hours. Places of Employment About 43,000 people worked full time as public school counselors dur ing 1976. M ost counselors work in large schools. An increasing num ber o f school districts, however, provide g u id a n c e serv ic es to th e ir sm all schools by assigning m ore than one school to a counselor. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most States require school counse lors to have counseling and teaching c e rtific a te s . H o w ever, a grow ing num ber o f States no longer require te a c h e r c e rtific a tio n . (S ee s ta te ments on elem entary and secondary school teach ers for ce rtificate re q u ire m e n ts .) D e p e n d in g on th e State, a m aster’s degree in counseling and from 1 to 5 years of teaching experience usually are required for a counseling certificate. People who plan to becom e counselors should learn the requirem ents of the State in which they plan to work since re quirem ents vary am ong States and change rapidly. College students interested in b e com ing school counselors usually take the regular program o f teacher education, with additional courses in psychology and sociology. In States where teaching experience is not a requirem ent, it is possible to m ajor in a liberal arts program . A few States substitute a counseling internship for teaching experience. In some States teachers who have com pleted part of the courses required for the m aster’s degree in counseling are eligible for provisional c e rtific a tio n and may work as counselors under supervision while they take additional courses. C ounselor education program s at the graduate level are available in m ore than 450 colleges and universi ties, usually in the departm ents o f education or psychology. One to 2 years of graduate study are necessary for a m aster’s degree. M ost program s provide supervised field experience. Subject areas of required graduate level courses usually include apprais al of the individual student, individ ual counseling p ro c ed u re s, group guidance, inform ation service for c a reer developm ent, professional rela tions and ethics, and statistics and research. The ability to help young people accept responsibility for their own lives is im portant for school counse lors. They m ust be able to coordinate the activity of others and work as part o f the team which forms the educational system. School counselors may advance by moving to a larger school; becoming director or supervisor of counseling or guidance; or, with further gradu ate education, becom ing a college counselor, educational psychologist, school psychologist, or school a d m inistrator. Usually college counse lors and educational psychologists m ust earn the Ph. D. degree. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent of school counselors is likely to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s as declining school enrollm ents coupled with financial constraints limit demand. If Federal assistance for career education is in creased, however, many m ore jobs should result. Thus, future growth in counselor em ploym ent will depend largely on the am ount of funds that the Federal G overnm ent provides to the States. Earnings and Working Conditions According to a recent survey, the average salary of school counselors ranged from $11,646 to $18,929. School counselors generally earn m ore than teachers at the same school. (See statem ents on kinder garten and elem entary school teach ers and secondary school teachers.) In m ost school systems, counselors receive regular salary increments as they obtain additional education and experience. Some counselors supple m ent their income by part-tim e con sulting or other work with private or public counseling centers, govern m ent agencies, or private industry. Sources of Additional Information State departm ents of education can supply information on colleges and universities that offer training in guidance and counseling as well as on the State certification req u ire ments. Additional information on this field of work is available from: American School Counselor Association, 1607 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20009. EM PLO YM ENT COUNSELORS (D.O.T. 045.108) Nature of the Work Uncertainty about career plans is a problem faced not only by young sters in school but also by many adults. Many persons lack realistic career goals, adequate job training, or knowledge about the labor m ar 77 ket. Some becom e unem ployed. V et erans and school dropouts are exam ples of other individuals who often do not know how to turn their talents and abilities into m arketable skills. Em ploym ent counselors (som etim es called vocational counselors) help these and o ther jobseekers. M ost em ploym ent counselors as sist p erso n s who turn to S tate or com m unity agencies for advice. The handicapped, older workers, and in dividuals displaced by autom ation and industry shifts or unhappy with their present occupational fields are typical applicants. Some jobseekers are skilled in specific occupations and ready for im m ediate job place m ent; others, who have little educa tion and lack m arketable skills, need intensive training to prepare for jobs. In S tate em ploym ent services, the counselor also helps those who are least em ployable, such as welfare re cipients, ex-prisoners, and the educa tionally and culturally deprived. C ounselors interview jobseekers to learn em ploym ent-related facts about their interests, training, work experience, work attitudes, physical capacities, and personal traits. If n ec essary, they may get additional data by a r r a n g in g fo r a p t i t u d e a n d achievem ent tests and interest inven tories, so th at m ore objective advice may be given. They also may get ad ditional inform ation by speaking with the app lican t’s form er em ployer or school principal. W hen a jo b seek er’s background— the perso n ’s abilities and limitations has been thoroughly reviewed, the em ploym ent counselor discusses occupational requirem ents and job opportunities in different fields within the potential of the jobseeker. Then the counselor and the client develop a vocational plan. This plan may specify a series of steps involv ing rem edial education, job training, work experience, or o th er services needed to enhance the person’s em ployability. In many cases, em ploym ent coun selors refer jobseekers to other agen cies for physical re h ab ilitatio n or psychological or oth er services be fore or during counseling. If, for ex ample, a person is ham pered in a job search b ec au se o f stu tte rin g , the 78 counselor m ight suggest visits with city or county m edical personnel. Proper referrel requires that counse lors be fam iliar with the available com m unity services so that they can select those m ost likely to benefit a particular jobseeker. Counselors may help jobseekers by suggesting em ploym ent sources and appropriate ways o f applying for work. In some cases, counselors may contact em ployers about jobs for ap plicants, although in State em ploy m ent services agencies, placem ent specialists often handle this work. After job placem ent or entrance into training, counselors may follow up to determ ine if additional assistance is needed. The expanding responsibility o f public em ploym ent service counse lors for improving the employability o f d isad v an ta g ed p erso n s has in creased their contacts with these p e r sons during training and on the job. Also, it has led to group counseling and the stationing of counselors in neighborhood and com m unity cen ters. Places of Employment In 1976, about 3,400 persons worked as em ploym ent counselors in State em ploym ent service offices, lo cated in every large city and many sm aller tow ns. In addition, ab o u t 3 ,0 0 0 e m p lo y m e n t c o u n s e lo r s worked for various private or com m unity agencies, prim arily in th e larger cities. Some worked in institu tions such as prisons, training schools for delinquent youths, and m ental hospitals. Also, the Federal G overn m ent employed a limited num ber o f em ploym ent counselors, chiefly in the V eterans Adm inistration and in the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Some counselors teach in graduate training program s or conduct research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The national qualification stand ard for first level em ploym ent coun selors in State em ploym ent service offices calls for 30 graduate sem ester hours of counseling courses beyond a bachelor’s degree. However, 1 year o f c o u n se lin g -re la te d e x p e rie n c e may be substituted for 15 graduate sem ester hours. All States require counselors in their public em ploym ent offices to m eet State civil service or m erit sys tem requirem ents that include mini m um e d u c atio n al and experien ce standards. Applicants with advanced degrees and additional qualifying experience may enter at higher levels on the counselor career ladder. Many States also m ake provision for individuals with extensive experience in the em ploym ent service, w heth er or not they have college degrees, to enter th e c o u n se lo r c a re e r la d d e r an d move upward by acquiring the p re scribed university coursew ork and qualifying experience for each level. A lthough minimum entrance re q u ire m e n ts are n o t sta n d a rd iz e d among private and com m unity agen cies, m ost prefer, and some require, a m aster’s degree in vocational coun seling o r in a related field such as psychology, personnel adm inistra tion, counseling, guidance education, or public administration. Many pri vate agencies prefer to have at least one staff m em ber who has a doctor ate in counseling psychology or a re lated field. For those lacking an ad vanced degree, em ployers usually emphasize experience in closely re lated w ork such as reh ab ilitatio n counseling, em ploym ent interview ing, school or college counseling, teaching, social work, or psychology. In each State, the public employ m ent service offices provide some inservice training program s for their new counselors or trainees. In addi tion, both their new and experienced counselors often are given part-tim e training at colleges and universities during the regular academ ic year or at institutes or summer sessions. Pri vate and community agencies also of ten provide in-service training oppor tunities. College students who wish to be come em ploym ent counselors should enroll in courses in psychology and basic sociology. At the graduate lev el, requirem ents for this field usually include co u rses in tech n iq u e s of counseling, psychological principles and psychology of careers, assess m ent and appraisal, cultures and en vironm ent, and occupational infor m a tio n . C o u n s e lo r e d u c a tio n program s at the graduate level are available in m ore than 450 colleges and universities, m ainly in d e p a rt m ents o f education or psychology. To obtain a m aster’s degree, students m ust com plete 1 to 2 years of gradu ate study including actual experience in counseling under the supervision of an instructor. Persons aspiring to be em ploym ent counselors should have a strong in terest in helping others m ake voca tional plans and carry them out. They should be able to work independent ly and to keep detailed records. W ell-qualified counselors with ex perience may advance to supervisory or adm inistrative positions in their own o r o th e r organizations. Some may becom e directors o f agencies or o f oth er counseling services, or area supervisors o f guidance program s; some may becom e consultants; and others may becom e professors in the counseling field. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent counselors with m as te r’s degrees or experience in related fields are ex p e cted to face som e com petition in both public and com m u n ity e m p l o y m e n t a g e n c i e s th ro u g h th e m id - 1 9 8 0 ’s. A c tu a l growth in em ploym ent o f counselors will depend in large p art on the level o f Federal funding to State, local and c o m m u n ity a g e n c ie s to p ro v id e counseling services. Some openings for em ploym ent counselors will re sult, however, from the need to re place those who die, retire, or trans fer to oth er occupations. Earnings and Working Conditions for counselors in private, nonprofit organizations in 1976 was $8,500. The average for experienced w orkers was $16,000. In general, salaries o f em ploym ent counselors are about 1 1/2 times as high as average earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in pri vate industry, except farming. M ost counselors work about 40 hours a week and have various b en e fits, including vacations, sick leave, pension plans, and insurance cover age. C ounselors em ployed in com munity agencies may work overtim e. Sources of Additional Information For general inform ation on em ploym ent or vocational counseling, contact: National Employment Counselors A ssoci ation, 1607 New Hampshire Ave., NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. National Vocational Guidance Association, 1607 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Wash ington D.C. 20009. U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, USES, Division of Counseling and Testing, Washington, D.C. 20210. The adm inistrative office for each S tate’s em ploym ent security agency, bureau, division, or commission can supply specific inform ation about lo cal job opportunities, salaries, and entrance requirem ents for positions in public em ploym ent service offices. R E H A B ILITA TIO N C O U NSELO R S (D.O.T. 045.108) Nature of the Work Salaries o f em ploym ent counselors in State em ploym ent services vary considerably from State to State. In 1976, salaries ranged from about $7,000 for entry level positions to $21,000 for experienced counselors. The average starting salary for begin ning w orkers was $10,506, while ex p e r ie n c e d c o u n s e lo r s a v e ra g e d $13,814. According to the limited data available, the average starting salary Each year m ore m entally, physi cally, and emotionally disabled p e r sons becom e self-sufficient and p ro d u c tiv e c i tiz e n s . T h e y fin d em p lo y m en t in a w ide variety o f occupations previously thought too com plex or dangerous for them to handle. A growing num ber are study ing in colleges and technical schools throughout the U nited States. O ne m em ber o f the team o f professionals who help disabled individuals leave a sheltered environm ent to lead as n o r mal a life as possible is the rehabilita tion counselor. Rehabilitation counselors begin their work by learning about their client. They may read school reports, confer with m edical personnel, and talk with family m em bers to d eter mine the exact nature of the disabil ity. They also discuss with physicians, p sy c h o lo g ists, an d o c c u p a tio n a l therapists the types o f skills the client can learn. A t that point, the counsel or begins a series o f discussions with the client to explore training and ca reer options. The counselor then uses this inform ation to develop a reha bilitation plan. A rehabilitation program generally includes specific job training, such as secretarial studies, as well as other specialized training the disabled p er son may need. W hen working with a blind individual, for exam ple, the counselor may arrange for training with seeing-eye dogs. The disabled person then may spend a few months learning to cross streets and ride pub lic transportation systems. Through out this period, the counselor and disabled client m eet reguarly to dis cuss progress in the rehabilitation program and any problem s that may arise. Counselors also must find jobs for disabled persons and often make fol low-up checks to insure that place m ent has been successful. If the new em ployee has a specific problem on the job, the counselor may suggest adaptations to the employer. Rehabilitation counselors m ust m aintain close contact with handi capped clients and their families over m any m onths or even years. T he counselor often has the satisfaction of watching day-by-day progress in the disabled p erso n ’s fight for in dependence. At other times, how ever, the counselor may experience the disappointm ent o f a client’s fail ures. Because job placem ent is an im portant aspect of a counselor’s work, he or she must keep in touch with m em bers of the business community to learn the type of jobs available and training required. They also try to alleviate any fears on the part of em79 ployers ab o u t the suitability o f hiring handicapped individuals. As a result, counselors may spend tim e publiciz ing th e re h a b ilita tio n program to b u sin e ss an d c o m m u n ity a s s o c i ations. An increasing num ber o f counse lors specialize in a particular area of reh ab ilitatio n ; som e m ay work al m ost exclusively with blind people, alcoholics o r drug addicts, the m en tally ill, or retarded persons. O thers may work alm ost entirely with p er sons living in poverty areas. The am ount o f time spent counsel ing each client varies with the sever ity o f the disabled p erso n ’s problem s as well as with the size o f the counse lo r’s caseload. Usually, counselors in private organizations can spend m ore time with clients than their co u n ter parts in State agencies. Some reh a bilitation counselors are responsible for many persons in various stages of rehabilitation; on the o th er hand, less e x p e rie n c e d c o u n se lo rs o r th o se working with the severely disabled 80 may work with relatively few cases at a time. Places of Employment A bout 19,000 persons worked as rehabilitation counselors in 1976. A bout 70 percent worked in State and local rehabilitation agencies fi nanced cooperatively with Federal and State funds. Some rehabilitation counselors and counseling psycholo gists w orked for the V eterans A d m inistration. R ehabilitation centers, sheltered workshops, hospitals, labor unions, insurance com panies, special schools, and other public and private ag en ices w ith re h a b ilita tio n p r o grams and job placem ent services for the disabled employ the rest. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with courses in counseling, psychology, and relat ed Fields is the minimum educational requirem ent for rehabilitation coun selors. However, employers are plac ing increasing emphasis on the m as t e r ’s d e g r e e in r e h a b i l i t a t i o n counseling or vocational counseling, or in related subjects such as psy chology, education, and social work. W ork experience in fields such as vo cational counseling and placem ent, psychology, edu catio n , and social work is an asset for securing em ploy m ent as a rehabilitation counselor. Most agencies have work-study p ro grams whereby em ployed counselors can ea rn graduate degrees in the field. More than 75 college and universi ties offered graduate program s in re habilitation counseling in 1976. Usu ally, 1 1/2 to 2 years of study are required for the m aster’s degree. In cluded is a period of actual work ex perience as a rehabilitation counsel or under the close supervision of an instructor. Besides a basic founda tion in psychology, courses generally included in m aster’s degree programs are c o u n se lin g th e o ry and te c h niques, occupational and educational in fo rm a tio n , and com m u n ity r e sources. O ther requirem ents may in clude courses in placem ent and fol low up, te sts and m e a su re m e n ts , psychosocial effects of disability, and medical and legislative aspects of re habilitation. To earn the doctorate in rehabili tation counseling or in counseling psychology may take a total of 4 to 6 years o f graduate study. Intensive training in psychology and other so cial sciences, as well as in research m ethods, is required. Many States require that rehabili tation counselors be hired in accord ance with State civil service and m er it system rules. In most cases, these regulations require applicants to pass a com petitive written test, sometimes supplem ented by an interview and evaluation by a board of examiners. In addition, some private organiza tions require rehabilitation counse lors to be certified. To becom e certi fied, counselors m ust pass exam s adm inistered by the Commission on R ehabilitation C ounselor C ertifica tion. Because rehabilitation counselors deal with the welfare of individuals, the ability to accept responsibility is im portant. It also is essential that they be able to work independently and be able to m otivate and guide the activity of others. Counselors who work with the severely disabled need unusual em otional stability. They must be very patient in dealing with clients who often are discouraged, angry, or otherw ise difficult to han dle. C ounselors who have limited expe rience usually are assigned the less difficult cases. As they gain experi ence, their caseloads are increased and they are assigned clients with m ore com plex rehabilitation p ro b lems. A fter obtaining considerable experience and m ore graduate edu cation, rehabilitation counselors may advance to supervisory positions or top adm inistrative jobs. $14,097. In general, salaries of reha bilitation counselors are above the average earnings for all nonsupervisory w orkers in private industry, ex cept farming. C ounselors may spend only part o f their time in their offices counseling and p erfo rm in g n ecessary p a p e r work. The rem ainder o f their time is spent away from the office, working with prospective em ployers, training agencies, and the disabled person’s family. The ability to drive a car of ten is necessary for this work. Rehabilitation counselors general ly work a 40-hour week or less, with some overtim e work required to a t tend com m unity and civic meetings in the evening. They usually are cov ered by sick and annual leave bene fits and pension and health plans. Employment Outlook Sources of Additional Information Because most State and private rehabilitation agencies are funded prim arily by the F ed eral G overn m en t, th e e x te n t o f em p lo y m en t grow th will depend largely on the level of governm ent spending. Addi tional positions, however, are expect ed to becom e available in private com panies, such as m anufacturing and service firms, for rehabilitation counselors to help in equal em ploy m ent opportunity efforts. In addition to grow th needs, many counselors will be required annually to replace those who die, retire, or leave the field for oth er reasons. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries o f beginning rehabilitation counselors in State agencies aver aged $10,441 a year in 1976. Begin ning salaries ranged from $7,200 in Puerto Rico to $15,774 in Alaska. The V eterans Adm inistration paid counseling psychologists with a 2year m aster’s degree and 1 year of subsequent experience—and those with a Ph. D .—starting salaries of $ 17,056 in 1976. Those with a Ph. D. and a year of experience, and those with a 2-year m aster’s degree and much experience, started at $20,442. Some rehabilitation counselors with a b achelor’s degree were hired at starting salaries of $ 1 1,523 and For inform ation about rehabilita tion counseling as a career, contact: American Psychological Association, Inc., 1200 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. American Rehabilitation Counseling Associ ation, 1607 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. National Rehabilitation Counseling Associ ation, 1522 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Inform ation on certificatio n r e quirem ents and procedures is avail able from: Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor Cer tification, 520 North Michigan Ave., Chi cago, 111. 60611. COLLEGE CAREER P LA N N IN G AND P LA C EM EN T C O U NSELO R S (D.O.T. 166.268) Nature of the Work Choosing a career is a decision faced by many college students. Finding an occupation that m atches o n e ’s likes, dislikes, and talents can be difficult and time consuming. And, once the decision is made, there is still the problem of writing resumes, being interviewed, and searching out prospective em ploy ers—often an anxiety-producing and discouraging experience. C areer planning and placem ent counselors help bridge the gap be tween education and work by assist ing students in all phases of career decisionm aking and planning. These counselors, sometimes called college placem ent officers, provide a variety of services to college students and alumni. They assist students in m ak ing career selections by encouraging them to examine their interests, abili ties, and goals, and th en helping them to explore possible career alter natives. They may, for example, ar range part-tim e or summer employ m ent with a local government agency for an architectural student consider ing a career as a city planner. Or they may discuss em ploym ent options and training requirem ents with students majoring in history. Ofen, counselors suggest additional courses or further training to enchance em ploym ent prospects. C are er planning and placem ent counselors also arrange for job re cruiters to visit the campus to discuss their firm ’s personnel needs and to interview applicants. They provide em ployers with inform ation about students and inform students about business operations and personnel needs in industry. A counselor may, for example, explain to students that workers in certain industries are sub ject to layoffs. In order to counsel students adequately, counselors must keep abreast of job m arket develop m ents by reading literature in the field and m aintaining contact with industry and government personnel recruiters. Some career planning and place m ent counselors, especially those in junior o r community colleges, advise ad m in istrato rs on curriculum and course content. They may suggest courses that employers believe would train students m ore adequately. In addition, some counselors, especially those working in small schools, also teach. All counselors maintain a li brary of career guidance and recruit m ent information. 81 trative staff. Universities frequently have placem ent officers for each m a jo r branch or campus. About 3,900 persons worked as career planning and placem ent coun selors in colleges and universities in 1976. Nearly three-fourths worked in 4-year in stitu tio n s. T he rem ain er worked in junior and community col leges. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Counselor discusses career alternatives with college student. Placem ent counselors may special ize in areas such as law, education, or part-tim e and sum m er work. How ever, the extent of specialization usu ally depends upon the size and type o f college as well as the size of the placem ent staff. Places of Employment Nearly all 4-year colleges and uni versities and many o f the increasing num ber of junior colleges provide ca 82 reer planning and placem ent services to their students and alumni. Large colleges may employ several counse lors working under a director of c a reer planning and placem ent activi ties; in many institutions, however, a com bination of placem ent functions is perform ed by one director aided by a clerical staff. In some colleges, especially the smaller ones, the func tions of career counselors may be perform ed on a part-tim e basis by m em bers of the faculty or adm inis Although no specific educational program exists to prepare persons for career planning and placem ent work, a bachelor’s degree, preferably in a behavioral science, such as psychol ogy or sociology, is custom ary for entry into the field, and a m aster’s degree is increasingly being stressed. In 1976, 120 colleges and universi ties offered graduate program s in co lleg e s tu d e n t p e rso n n e l w ork. G raduate courses that are helpful for career planning and placem ent coun seling include counseling theory and techniques, vocational testing, th e ory of group dynamics, and occupa tio n al re se a rc h and em p lo y m en t trends. Some people enter the career plan ning and placem ent field after gain ing a broad background of experi e n c e in b u s i n e s s , i n d u s t r y , governm ent, or educational organi zations. An internship in a career planning and placem ent office also is helpful. College career planning and place m ent counselors must have an inter est in people. They must be able to com m unicate with and gain the co n fidence of students, faculty, and em ployers in order to develop insight into the employm ent needs of both em ployers and students. People in this field should be energetic and able to work under pressure because they m ust organize and adm inister a wide variety of activities. A dvancem ent for career planning and placem ent professionals usually is through prom otion to an assistant or associate position, director of ca reer planning and placem ent, direc tor of student personnel services, or some other higher level adm inistra tive position. However, the extent of such o p p o rtu n ity usually depends upon the type of college or university and the size of the staff. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent of college career planning and placem ent counselors is expected to increase through the m id-1980’s. Dem and will be greatest in junior and com m unity colleges, where, in many cases, there are no career planning and placem ent pro gram s at present. In addition, the large num ber of adults entering com m unity colleges who have been out of the labor m arket or who are seek ing a m id-career change will require specialized counseling. Also contributing to the dem and in all postsecondary institutions will be the expected continued expansion in services to students from minority and low-income groups, who require special counseling in choosing ca reers and assistance in finding parttime jobs. G row th also is expected in services to the handicapped and to adu lts p a rtic ip a tin g in continuing education. However, many institutions of higher education faced financial problem s in 1976. If this situation persists, colleges and universities may be forced to limit expansion of counseling and placem ent services, resulting in com petition for available positions. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries vary greatly am ong educa tional institutions. According to the limited inform ation available, the av erage salary of college career plan ning and p lacem en t d irecto rs was m ore than $17,000 a year in 1976. C areer planning and placem ent counselors frequently work m ore than a 40-hour week; irregular hours and overtim e often are necessary, particularly during the “ recruiting seaso n .” M ost counselors are em ployed on a 12-month basis. They are paid for holidays and vacations and usually receive the same benefits as o th e r p ro fessio n al p erso n n el em ployed by colleges and universities. Sources of Additional Information A booklet on the college student personnel professions, as well as o th er inform ation on career counseling and placem ent, is available from: The College Placement Council, Inc., P.O. Box 2263, Bethlehem, Pa. 18001. C R E D IT M A NA G ER S (D.O.T. 168.168) Nature of the Work Both businesses and individuals may require cred it (th e postpone m ent of paym ent until a future d a te ) to m eet their daily needs for a variety o f goods and services. F or m ost forms of credit, a credit m anager has final authority to accept or reject a credit application. In extending credit to a business (com m ercial credit), the credit m an ager, or an assistant, analyzes d e tailed financial reports subm itted by the applicant, interviews a represent ative of the com pany about its m an agem ent, and reviews credit agency reports to determ ine the firm ’s re c ord in repaying debts. The m anager also checks at banks where the com pany has deposits or previously was granted credit. In extending credit to individuals (consum er cred it), d e tailed financial reports usually are not available. The credit m anager m ust rely m ore on personal in ter views, credit bureaus, and banks to provide inform ation about the p e r son applying for credit. Particularly in large organizations, executive level credit managers are responsible for formulating a credit policy. They must establish financial standards to be m et by applicants and thereby determ ine the am ount o f risk that their com pany will accept when offering its products or services for sale on credit. M anagers usually cooperate with the sales departm ent in developing a credit policy liberal enough to allow the com pany’s sales to increase and yet strict enough to deny credit to custom ers whose abil ity to repay their debts is question able. Many credit managers establish o ffice p ro c e d u re s and su perv ise w orkers who g ath er inform atio n , analyze facts, and perform general office duties in a credit departm ent; they include application clerks, col lection w orkers, bookkeepers, and secretaries. In smaller com panies that handle a limited num ber of accounts, credit m anagers may do m uch of the work of granting credit themselves. They may interview applicants, analyze the inform ation gained in the interview, and m ake the final approval. They frequently must contact customers who are unable or refuse to pay their debts. They do this through writing, telephoning, or personal contact. If these attem pts at collection fail, credit m anagers may refer the ac count to a collection agency or assign an attorney to take legal action. Places of Employment About 53,000 persons worked as credit m anagers in 1976. About onehalf were employed in wholesale and retail trade, but many others, about one-third of the total, worked for m anufacturing firms and financial in stitutions. Although credit is granted throughout the United States, most credit m anagers work in urban areas where many financial and business establishments are located. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college degree is becoming in creasingly im portant for entry level jobs in credit m anagement. Employ ers usually seek persons who have m ajored in business administration, economics, or accounting, but may also hire graduates holding liberal arts degrees. Some employers p ro mote high school graduates to credit m anager positions if they have expe rience in credit collection or process ing credit information. Newly hired workers normally be gin as m an ag em en t train e es and work under the guidance of more ex perienced personnel in the credit de partm ent. Here they gain a thorough u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e c o m p a n y ’s 83 use of com puters for storing and re trieving information will enable this greater volume of inform ation to be processed more efficiently. The use of telecom m unications networks en ables retail outlets to have immediate access to a central credit office, re gardless of distance. A nother factor that is expected to slow the growth in the num ber of credit m anagers is the increased use of bank credit cards. As stores substi tute bank credit cards for their own charge accounts, credit departm ents may be reduced or eliminated. Earnings and Working Conditions A college degree is becoming increasingly important for entry level jobs in credit management. credit procedures and policies. They may analyze previous credit transac tions to learn how to recognize which applicants should prove to be good custom ers. T rainees also learn to deal with credit bureaus, banks, and other businesses that can provide in form ation on the past credit dealings of their custom ers. Many formal training program s are available through the educational branches o f the associations that serve the credit and finance field. This training includes home study, college and university program s, and special instruction to im prove begin n e rs’ skills and keep experienced credit m anagers aware of new devel opm ents in their field. A person interested in a career as a credit m anager should be able to analyze detailed inform ation and draw valid conclusions based on this analysis. Because it is necessary to m ain tain good cu sto m er re la tio n ships, a pleasant personality and the ability to speak and write effectively also are characteristics of the suc cessful credit m anager. The work perform ed by credit m anagers allows them to becom e fa m iliar with alm ost every phase of th eir co m p an y ’s business. Highly qualified and experienced m anagers can advance to top-level executive 84 positions. However, in small and m e dium-sized com panies, such opportu nities are limited. Employment Outlook T hrough the mid-1980’s em ploy m ent is expected to grow more slow ly than the average for all occupa tions. D espite this relatively slow growth, many jobs will becom e avail able each year due to the need to replace persons who leave the occu pation. Although there will be oppor tunities throughout the country, em ploym ent prospects should continue to be best for well-qualified jobseek ers in m etropolitan areas. The volume of credit extended rose very rapidly during the past d ec ade. In the years ahead, businesses can be expected to require increasing am ounts of credit to secure raw m a terials for production and obtain fin ished goods for eventual resale. It is in the area of business credit where dem and for credit m anagers will be strongest. C onsum ers, w hose personal in com es have risen, are expected to finance g re a te r num bers o f highpriced items. In addition, the use of credit for everyday purchases is ex pected to grow as dem and increases for recreation and household goods as well as for consum er services. D e spite increases in consum er debt, the In 1976, credit m anager trainees who had a college degree earned annual salaries that ranged from about $10,000 to $11,000, depend ing on the type of em ployer and the geographic location of the job. A ssistant cred it m anagers av er aged ab o u t $12,000 to $14,000 a year and credit managers had aver age earnings of about $17,000. Indi viduals in top-level positions often earn over $40,000 a year. Credit managers normally work the standard workweek of their com pany—35-40 hours, but some work longer hours. In wholesale and retail trade, fo r exam ple, a seasonal in crease in credit sales can produce a greater work volume. Some credit m anagers attend conferences spon sored by industry and professional organizations where managers m eet to develop and discuss new te c h niques for the m anagem ent of a cred it departm ent. Sources of Additional Information Inform ation about a career in co n sum er credit may be obtained from: International Consumer Credit Association, 375 Jackson Ave., St. Louis, Mo. 63130. National Consumer Finance Association, 1000 16th St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. F or in fo rm atio n ab o u t train in g program s available in com m ercial credit, write: National Association of Credit Management, 475 Park Ave. South, New York, N.Y. 10016. D ANCERS (D.O.T. 151.028 and 151.048) Nature of the Work Dancing is an ancient and world w ide a rt th a t has m any d iffe ren t form s. D an ce m ovem ents may be used to in terp ret an idea or a story, or they may be purely physical ex pressions o f rhythm and sound. Pro fessional d an cers m ay perform in classical ballet or m odern dance, in dance adaptations for musical shows, in folk dances, and in other popular kinds o f dancing. In addition to being an im p o rtan t art form for its own sake, dance also is used to supple m ent oth er types of entertainm ent, such as opera, musical com edy, and television. In dance productions, perform ers m ost often work as a group. How ever, a very few top artists do solo work. Many dancers com bine stage work with full-time teaching. A few danc ers becom e choreographers and cre ate new routines. O thers are dance directors who train dancers in new productions. (This statem ent does not include instructors of ballroom , A m erican or international folk dance, or other so cial dancing.) Places of Employment A bout 8,000 dancers perform ed on the stage, screen, and television in 1976. M any others taught in second ary schools, in colleges and universi ties, in dance schools, and in private studios. A few teachers, trained in d an ce th era p y , w o rked in m ental hospitals. Dance teachers are located chiefly in large cities, but many smaller cities and towns have dance schools as well. New York City is the hub for perform ing dancers. O ther large cities th at have prom ising em ploy ment opportunities, including m ajor dance com panies, include Los Ange les, C h icag o , H o u sto n , Salt Lake City, C incinnati, Miami, San Francis co, Los Angeles, M inneapolis, Seat tle, Boston, and Philadelphia. Training and Other Qualifications Serious training for a career in dancing traditionally begins by age 12 or earlier. Ballet training is partic ularly disciplined, and persons who wish to becom e ballet dancers should begin taking lessons at the age o f 7 or 8. Early and intense training also is im p o rtan t for the m odern dancer. M ost dancers have their professional auditions by age 17 or 18, but train ing and practice never end. For ex am ple, professional ballet dancers take from 10 to 12 lessons a week for 11 or 12 m onths of the year, and m ust spend many additional hours practicing. T he early training a d an c er r e ceives is crucial to the later skill of the dancer, and therefore the selec tion o f a professional dance school is very im portant. Because of the strenuous training required, a d an c er’s general educa tion may be m inim al. How ever, a dan cer should study m usic, lite ra ture, and history along with the arts to help in the interpretation of d ra m atic episodes, ideas, and feelings. Over 115 colleges and universities confer bachelor’s or higher degrees in dance. College or university dance degrees are generally offered through the departm ents of physical education, music, theater, or fine arts. A college education is not essential to obtaining em ploym ent as a profes sional dancer. In fact, ballet dancers who postpone their first audition u n til graduation may com pete at a dis advantage with younger dancers. Although a college education is an advantage in obtaining em ploym ent as a dance teacher in a college o r university, it is of little use for one who teaches professional dance or choreography in a studio situation. Professional schools usually require teachers to have experience as a p e r form er; colleges and conservatories generally require graduate degrees, but experience as a perform er often may be substituted. M aturity and a broad educational background also are im portant. The d an c er’s life is one of rigorous practice and self-discipline; therefore patience, perseverence, and a devo- The dancer’s life is one of rigorous prac tice and self-discipline. tion to dance are essential. Good health and physical stam ina are n ec essary, both to keep in good condi tion and to follow the rugged travel schedule which is often required. Body height and build should not vary m uch from the average. Good feet and normal arches also are re quired. Above all, one m ust have agility, grace, and a feeling for music, as well as a creative ability to express oneself through dance. Seldom does a dancer perform un accom panied. Therefore, young p e r sons who consider dancing as a ca reer should be able to function as part of a team. They also should be prepared to face the anxiety of unsta ble working conditions brought on by show closings and audition failures. Because of the strenous nature of the art, young dancers have an ad vantage over older dancers in com peting for jobs. Many dancers retire in their thirties or transfer to related fields such as teaching dance. How ever, some skillful dancers continue perform ing beyond the age of 50. Those who becom e choreographers or dance directors can continue to w ork as long as persons in o th er occupations. Employment Outlook Em ployment of dancers is expect ed to grow about as fast as the aver age for all occupations. However, the num ber of dancers seeking profes sional careers will continue to exceed the num ber of available positions, 85 and com petition will be keen. M ost em ploym ent opportunities will result from replacem ent needs. Em ploym ent opportunities in stage productions are limited, and com pe titio n fo r such p o sitio n s is g re at. Television is partly responsible for the reduction in stage productions, yet at the sam e time this m edia offers new outlets for dance. New profes sional dance com panies form ed from the increasing num ber of civic and com m unity groups offer additional em ploym ent opportunities. As a re sult o f the increased general popular ity o f dance in recen t years, the best e m p lo y m e n t o p p o rtu n itie s are in teaching dance. Earnings and Working Conditions Professional dancers who perform usually are m em bers o f one o f the unions affiliated with the Associated A ctors and Artistes o f A m erica (A FL-C IO ). D ancers in opera ballet, classical ballet, and the m odern dance belong to the A m erican Guild o f M usical Artists, Inc.; those on live or videotaped television belong to the A m erican F ederation of Televi sion and R adio A rtists; those who perform in films and TV belong to th e S c re e n A c to rs G u ild o r th e S creen E xtras G uild; and those in musical com edies join A ctors’ Equity Association. O ther dancers may be m em bers o f oth er unions, depending upon the fields in which they p er form. T he unions and producers sign basic ag reem en ts specifying m ini mum salary rates, hours o f work, and o th e r c o n d itio n s o f em p lo y m en t. H o w e v e r, th e s e p a r a te c o n tr a c t signed by each dancer with the p ro d ucer o f the show may be m ore fa vorable th an the basic agreem ent re garding salary, hours o f work, and working conditions. In 1976, the minim um salary for dancers in opera and other stage productions was about $250 a week. The single perform ance rate for bal let dancers was about $ 100 for a solo dance and about $50 per dancer for a group. D ancers on tour received an allowance o f $30 a day in 1976 for room and board, with the em ployer paying the cost of transportation. For a brief appearance in a perform ance 86 on television or a few days’ work in a movie, the minimum rate was higher, relative to tim e w orked. However, this difference was offset by the brev ity o f the engagem ent and the long period likely waiting for the next one. U nem ploym ent rates for dancers are higher than the average for all occupations. Many qualified people cannot obtain year-round work as dancers, and are forced to supple m ent their incom es by other types of work. Some dancers who are quali fied to teach com bine teaching with performing. Salaries o f dance teachers vary with the location and the prestige o f the school in which they teach. Dance instructors in colleges and universities are paid on the same basis as other faculty m em bers. (See statem ent on college and university teachers.) The norm al workweek is 30 hours (6 hours per day m axim um ) spent in rehearsals and m atinee and evening perform ances. Extra com pensation is paid for additional hours worked. Most stage perform ances take place, of course, in the evening, and re hearsals require very long hours, of ten on weekends and holidays. For shows on the road, weekend travel often is required. D ancers are entitled to some paid sick leave and various health and welfare benefits provided by their unions, to which the em ployers co n tribute. Dance instructors in schools receive benefits com parable to those of other teachers. Sources Of Additional Information Inform ation on colleges and uni versities th a t give a m ajor in th e dance or some courses in the dance, as well as details on the types o f courses and other pertinent inform a tion is available from: National Dance Association, a division of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. For inform ation on all aspects o f dance, counseling services, and jo b listings, contact: American Dance Guild, 1619 Broadway, Room 603, New York, N.Y. 10019. D ENTAL H Y G IE N IS TS (D.O.T. 078.368) Nature of the Work D ental hygienists are oral health clinicians and educators who help th e p u b lic develop and m ain tain good oral health. As m em bers of the dental health team , dental hygienists may perform preventive and th era peutic services under the supervision o f the dentist. Specific responsibil ities of the hygienist vary, depending on the law of the State where the hygienist is em ployed, but may in clude: removing deposits and stains from p a tie n ts’ teeth; providing in structions for patient self-care, and dietetic and nutritional counseling; and the application o f m edicine for the prevention o f tooth decay. They take m edical and dental histories, ex pose and develop dental X-ray films, m ake m odel impressions o f teeth for study, and prepare other diagnostic aids for use by the dentist. Pain con trol and restorative procedures also may be perform ed by dental hygien ists in some States. D e n tal hygienists who w ork in school systems serve in several ca pacities. Clinical functions include: exam ination of children’s teeth, as sistance to the dentist in determ ining the dental treatm ent needed, and re porting of their findings to parents. They also scale and polish teeth and give in stru ctio n on p ro p e r m outh care. In addition, they develop class room or assembly program s on oral health. A few dental hygienists assist in research projects. Those having ad vanced training may teach in schools of dental hygiene. Places of Employment Nearly 27,000 persons worked as dental hygienists in 1976. Many are em ployed part time. Most work in private dental offices. Public health agencies, school systems, industrial plants, clinics, hospitals, dental hy giene schools, and the Federal Gov ernm ent are other sources of em ploym ent for dental hygienists. Some who are graduates of bachelor’s de gree program s are commissioned of ficers in the Armed Forces. Dental hygienists must be licensed. Training and Other Qualifications Dental hygienists m ust be licensed. To obtain a license in m ost States, a candidate must be a graduate of an accredited dental hygiene school and pass both a written and clinical ex am ination. For the clinical exam ina tion, the applicant is required to p er form d e n ta l hygiene p ro c e d u re s, such as removing deposits and stains from a p atien t’s teeth. In 1976, can didates in 48 States and the District of Colum bia could com plete part of the State licensing requirem ents by passing a written examination given by the N ational Board of Dental Ex am iners. Few States perm it dental hygienists licensed in other States to practice in their jurisdictions without further examination. In 1976, 182 schools of dental hygiene in the United States were accredited by the Am erican Dental Association. Most programs grant an associate degree; others lead to a bachelor’s degree. Some institutions offer both types of programs. Eigh teen schools offer m aster’s degree program s in dental hygiene or related fields. C om pletion of an associate degree program usually is sufficient for the dental hygienist who wants to prac tice in a private dental office. In o r der to do research, teach, and work in public or school health programs, at least a baccalaureate degree usual ly is required. Dental hygienists with a m aster’s degree work as teachers or adm inistrators in dental hygiene and dental assisting training program s, public health agencies, and in associ ated research. Com petition is keen for admission to dental hygiene schools. The mini mum requirem ent for admission to a school o f dental hygiene is gradu a tio n fro m high sch o o l. S ev eral schools that offer the bachelor’s de gree adm it students to the dental hy giene program only after they have com pleted 2 years of college. Many schools also require that applicants take an aptitude test given by the Am erican Dental Hygienists’ Associ ation. D ental hygiene training given in the A rm ed Forces does not fully p rep are one to pass the licensing exam, but credit for that training may be granted to those who seek admis sion to accred ited dental hygiene programs. The curriculum in a dental hygiene program consists of courses in the basic sciences, dental sciences, clini cal science, and liberal arts. These schools offer laboratory, clinical, and classroom in stru ctio n in su b jects 87 such as anatom y, physiology, chem is try, pharm acology, nutrition, histol ogy (th e study of tissue structure), p erio d o n to lo g y (th e study o f gum diseases), dental m aterials, and clini cal dental hygiene. People who want to becom e dental hygienists should be those who enjoy working with others. T he ability to p u t patients at ease is helpful. P er sonal neatness and cleanliness, m an ual dexterity, and good health also are im portant qualities. Among the c o u r s e s re c o m m e n d e d fo r h ig h school students interested in careers in th is o c c u p a tio n a re b io lo g y , h e a lth , c h e m is tr y , s p e e c h , a n d m athem atics. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent opportunities for dental hygienists are expected to be good th ro u g h the m id-1980’s. D e spite an anticipated rise in the num ber o f graduates from schools of d en tal hygiene, the dem and is expected to be greater than the num ber avail able for em ploym ent if recent trends in enrollm ents continue. T here also should be very good opportunities for those desiring part-tim e em ploy m ent, and for those willing to work in rural areas. Em ploym ent of dental hygienists is expected to grow m uch faster than the average for all occupations, b e cause o f an expanding population and the growing aw areness o f the im portance o f regular dental care. In creased participation in dental p re p a y m e n t p la n s an d m o re g ro u p practice am ong dentists should result in new jo b s for d en tal hygienists. D ental care program s for children also may lead to m ore em ploym ent opportunities in this field. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings o f dental hygienists are affected by the type o f em ployer, education and experience of the indi vidual hygienist, and the geographic location. D ental hygienists who work in private dental offices usually are salaried em ployees, although some are paid a commission for work p er form ed, or a com bination of salary and commission. 88 D ental hygienists working full tim e in private offices earned average salaries o f about $12,900 a year in 1976, according to the limited d ata available. This salary was slightly above the average for all nonsupervisory w orkers in private industry, ex cept farming. In 1977, the Federal G overnm ent paid dental hygienists with no experience starting salaries of $8,316 a year. Experienced dental hygienists working for the Federal G overnm ent earned average annual salaries o f $10,500. D ental hygienists em ployed full time in private offices usually worked between 35 and 40 hours a week. They may work on Saturdays or d u r ing evening hours. Some hygienists work for two dentists or more. D ental hygienists usually work in clean, well-lighted offices. Im portant health protections for persons in this occupation are regular m edical checkups and strict adherence to es tablished procedures for using X-ray equipm ent and for disinfection. D ental hygienists who work for school systems, health agencies, and the Federal or State governm ents have the same hours, vacation, sick leave, retirem ent, and health insur ance benefits as o th er w orkers in these organizations. Sources of Additional Information DENTISTS (D.O.T. 072.108) Nature of the Work Dentists examine teeth and other tissues o f the m outh to diagnose dis eases or abnormalities. They take Xrays, fill cavities, straighten teeth, and treat gum diseases. Dentists ex tra c t teeth and substitute artificial dentures designed for the individual patient. They also perform corrective surgery o f the gums and supporting bones. In addition, they may clean teeth. Dentists spend most of their time with patients, but may devote some time to laboratory work such as m ak ing dentures and inlays. Most den tists, how ever—particularly those in large cities—send their laboratory w ork to com m ercial firm s. Some dentists also employ dental hygienists to clean patients’ teeth and provide instruction for patient self-care. (See s ta te m e n t on d e n ta l h y g ien ists.) They also may employ other assis tants who perform office work, assist in “ ch airsid e” duties, and provide therapeutic services under the super vision of the dentist. Most dentists are general practi tioners who provide many types of dental care; about 10 percent are specialists. The largest group of spe c ia lis ts a re o r th o d o n tis ts , w ho For inform ation about accredited program s and the educational r e quirem ents to enter this occupation, contact: Office of Education, American Dental Hygien ists’ Association, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. O th er m aterial on opportunities fo r d e n ta l hygienists is available from: Division of Dentistry, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md. 20014. The State Board of Dental Exam iners in each State, or the N ational Board of Dental Examiners, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611, can supply inform ation on licensing requirem ents. About 9 out of every 10 dentists are in private practice. straig h ten teeth . T he next largest group, oral surgeons, operate on the m outh and jaws. T he rem ainder spe cialize in pedodontics (dentistry for children); periodontics (treating the gums); prosthodontics (m aking arti ficial teeth o r dentures); endodontics (ro o t canal therapy); public health dentistry; and oral pathology (diseas es o f the m outh). A bout 4 percent o f all dentists teach in dental schools, do research, or adm inister dental health program s on a full-time basis. M any dentists in private practice do this work on a part-tim e basis. Places of Employment A bout 112,000 dentists were at work in the United States in 1976—9 o f every 10 were in private practice. A bout 5,000 served as commissioned officers in the A rm ed Forces, and about 1,400 worked in other types of Federal G overnm ent positions— chiefly in the hospitals and clinics of the V eterans Adm inistration and the Public H ealth Service. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license to practice dentistry is required in all States and the District o f Colum bia. To qualify for a license in m ost States, a candidate m ust be a graduate o f a dental school approved by the A m erican D ental Association and pass w ritten and practical exami nations. In 1976, candidates in 48 States and the District of Columbia could fulfill p art o f the State licens ing requirem ents by passing a written exam ination given by the N ational B oard o f D ental Exam iners. M ost State licenses perm it dentists to en gage in both general and specialized practice. In 14 States, how ever, a dentist cannot be licensed as a “ spe cialist” without having 2 or 3 years of g ra d u ate ed u c atio n an d , in som e cases, passing a special State exam i nation. In the o th er 36 states, the extra education also is necessary, but a specialist’s practice is regulated by the dental profession, not the State licensing authority. In order to prac tice in a different State, a licensed dentist usually must pass the S tate’s exam ination. H owever, at least 21 States grant licenses w ithout further exam ination to dentists already li censed in other States on the basis o f their credentials. Dentists who w ant to teach o r do research usually spend an additional 2 to 4 years in a d vanced dental training in program s operated by dental schools, hospitals, and other institutions o f higher ed u cation. Dental colleges require from 2 to 4 years of predental education. H ow ever, o f those students entering d en tal school in 1976, 85 percent had a b ac c a la u re a te o r m a ste r’s degree. P red en tal ed u c atio n m ust include courses in the sciences and hum an ities. Com petition is keen for admission to dental schools. In selecting stu d e n ts, sch o o ls give c o n sid e ra b le w eight to college grades and th e am ount o f college education. In addi tion, all dental schools participate in a nationwide admission testing p ro gram , and scores earn ed on these tests are considered along with infor m ation gathered about the applicant through recom m endations and inter views. Many State-supported dental schools also give preference to resi dents o f their particular States. Dental school training generally lasts 4 academ ic years although some institutions condense this into 3 cal endar years. Studies begin with an em phasis on classroom instruction and laboratory work in basic sciences such as anatom y, microbiology, bio chem istry, and physiology. Courses in clinical sciences and preclinical technique also are provided at this time. The last 2 years are spent chief ly in a dental clinic, treating patients. The degree o f D octor of D ental Surgery (D.D.S.) is aw arded by m ost dental colleges. An equivalent d e gree, D o c to r o f D en tal M edicine ( D .M .D .) , is c o n f e r r e d by 19 schools. Dental education is very costly b e cause of the length o f time required to earn the dental degree. However, Federal funds provide a limited num ber o f loans for dental students, and a limited num ber of scholarships are available for qualifying students who agree to a minimum o f 2 years’ F ed eral service. T he p rofession o f dentistry re quires both m anual skills and a high level o f diagnostic ability. Dentists should have good visual memory, ex cellent judgm ent of space and shape, and a high degree o f manual dexter ity, as well as scientific ability. Good business sense, self-discipline, and the ability to instill confidence are helpful for success in private prac tice. High school students who want to becom e dentists are advised to take courses in biology, chemistry, health, and m athematics. Most dental graduates open their own offices or purchase established practices. Some start in practice with established dentists, to gain experi ence and to save the money required to equip an office; others may enter residency training program s in ap proved hospitals. Dentists who enter the Arm ed Forces are commissioned as ca p ta in s in the Arm y and A ir Force and as lieutenants in the Navy. G ra d u a te s o f re c o g n iz e d d e n ta l schools are eligible for Federal Civil Service positions and for com m is sions (equivalent to lieutenants in the Navy) in the U.S. Public Health Ser vice. Employment Outlook E m p lo y m e n t o p p o rtu n itie s fo r dentists are ex p ected to be good th ro u g h th e m id -1 9 8 0 ’s. D e n ta l school enrollm ents have grown in re cent years because of federally assist ed construction o f additional training facilities. As a result, the num ber of new entrants to the field is expected to fall short o f the number needed to fill openings created by growth of the occupation and by death or retire m ent from the profession. Em ployment of dentists is expect ed to grow about as fast as the aver age for all occupations due to pop u lation grow th, increased awareness that regular dental care helps prevent and control dental diseases, and the expansion o f prepaym ent arran g e ments, which m ake it easier for p eo ple to afford dental services. Fluori dation o f community water supplies and im proved dental hygiene may prevent some tooth and gum disor ders, and preserve teeth that m ight otherw ise be ex tracted . How ever, since the preserved teeth will need 89 care in the future, these m easures may increase ra th e r th an decrease the dem and for dental care. Similar ly, while new techniques, equipm ent, and drugs, as well as the expanded use o f dental hygienists, assistants, and lab o rato ry tech n ician s should enable individual dentists to care for m ore patients, these developm ents are n o t expected to offset the need for m ore dentists. T here will continue to be a need for dentists to adm inister dental pub lic health program s and teach in den tal colleges. Also, many dentists will c o n tin u e to serv e in th e A rm ed Forces. Earnings and Working Conditions During the first year or two of practice, dentists often earn little m ore than the m inimum needed to cover expenses, b u t their earnings usually rise rapidly as their practice develops. Specialists generally earn considerably more than general p rac titioners. T he average incom e o f den tists in 1976 was about $39,500 a year, according to the limited infor m ation available. In the Federal G ov ern m en t, new g rad u ates o f d ental sch o o ls co u ld e x p e c t to s ta rt a t $17,056 a year in 1977. Experienced dentists working for the Federal G ov ernm ent in 1977 earned average an nual salaries o f $31,600, with some earning as m uch as $39,600 a year. Location is one o f the m ajor fac tors affecting the incom e of dentists who open their own offices. For ex ample, in high-income urban areas, dental services are in great dem and; however, a practice can be devel oped m ost quickly in small towns, w here new dentists easily becom e kqown and where they may face less com petition from established practi tioners. A lthough the incom e from practice in small towns may rise rap idly at first, over the long run the level o f earnings, like the cost o f liv ing, may be lower than it is in larger communities. M ost dental offices are open 5 days a week and some dentists have evening hours. Dentists usually work between 40 and 45 hours a week, although many spend m ore than 50 hours a week in the office. Dentists 90 often work fewer hours as they grow older, and a considerable num ber continue in part-tim e practice well beyond the usual retirem ent age. Sources of Additional Information Persons who wish to practice in a given S tate should o b tain the re q uirem ents for licensure from th e board o f dental exam iners o f th a t State. Lists of State boards and o f accredited dental schools, as well as inform ation on dentistry as a career, is available from: American Dental Association, Council on Dental Education, 211 East Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. American Association of Dental Schools, 1625 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. Inform ation on dentistry as a c a reer also is available from: Division of Dentistry, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md. 20014. Students should contact the d irec to r of student financial aid at th e school they attend for inform ation ab o u t F ed eral or o th e r loans and scholarships. D IE TITIA N S (D.O.T. 077.081 through .168) Nature of the Work Dietitians plan nutritious and ap petizing meals to help people m ain tain or recover good health. They also supervise the food service p e r sonnel who prepare and serve the m eals, m anage dietetic purchasing and accounting, and give advice on good eating habits. Clinical dietitians form the largest group in this occupa tion; the others are adm inistrative, teaching, and research dietitians. N u tritionists also are included in this field. Administrative dietitians apply the principles of nutrition and sound m anagem ent to large-scale m eal planning and preparation, such as that done in hospitals, universities, schools, and other institutions. They supervise the planning, preparation, and service of meals; select, train, and direct food service supervisors and w orkers; budget for and p u r chase food, equipm ent, and supplies; enforce sanitary and safety regula tions; and prepare records and re ports. Dietitians who are directors of a dietetic departm ent also decide on departm ental policy; coordinate di etetic service with the activities of other departm ents; and are respon sible for the dietetic departm ent bud get, which in large organizations may am ount to millions o f dollars annual ly* Clinical dietitians, sometimes called therapeutic dietitians, plan diets and supervise the service of meals to m eet the nutritional needs o f patients in hospitals, nursing homes, or clinics. Among their du ties, clinical dietitians confer with doctors and other m em bers of the health care team about patients’ nu tritional care, instruct patients and their fam ilies on the requirem ents and im portance of their diets, and suggest ways to keep on these diets after leaving the hospital or clinic. In a small institution, one person may be both the administrative and clini cal dietitian. Research dietitians conduct, evalu ate, and in terp ret research to im prove the nutrition of both healthy and sick people. This research may be in nutrition science and ed u ca tion, food managem ent, or food serv ice system s and equipm ent. T hey may conduct studies o f how the body uses food. Research projects may in vestigate the nutritional needs of the aging, o r persons with a chronic dis ease, or space travelers. Research di e titia n s usually a re em ployed in medical centers or education facili ties, but also may work in community Places of Employment A bout 45,000 persons worked as dietitians in 1976. M ore than onehalf work in hospitals, nursing homes, and clinics, including about 1,100 in the V eterans Adm inistration and the U.S. Public Health Service. Colleges, universities, and school sys tem s employ a large num ber of dieti tians as teachers or in food service systems. M ost o f the rest work for health-related agencies, restaurants or cafeterias, and large com panies th at provide food service for their employees. Some dietitians are com m issioned o fficers in th e A rm ed Forces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Clinical dietitians plan meals for patients in hospitals, nursing homes, or clinics. health program s. (See statem ent on fo o d s c ie n tis ts e ls e w h e re in th e Handbook.) Dietetic educators teach dietetics to dietetic, m edical, dental, and nurs ing students and to interns, residents, and oth er m em bers o f the health care team . They usually work in medical and educational institutions. N utritionists may counsel individ uals and groups on sound nutrition p ractices to m aintain and improve health or they may engage in teach ing and research. This work covers such areas as special diets, meal plan ning and preparation, and food bud geting and purchasing. Nutritionists in com m unity health may be respon sible for the nutrition com ponents of preventive health and m edical care services. This includes planning, de veloping, coordinating, and adm inis tering a nutrition program or a nutri tion com ponent as an integral part of a com m unity health program . N utri tionists work in such diverse areas as fo o d in d u s trie s , e d u c a tio n a l and health facilities, and agricultural and w elfare agencies, both public and private. An increasing num ber of dietitians work as consultants to hospitals and to health-related facilities. O thers act as consultants to com m ercial en ter prises, including food processors and equipm ent m anufacturers. A bachelor’s degree, preferably with a m ajor in foods and nutrition o r institution m anagem ent, is the basic ed u catio n al req u irem en t for d ieti tians. This degree can be earned in about 240 colleges and universities, usually in departm ents o f hom e ec o nomics. College courses usually re quired are in food and nutrition, in stitu tio n m an ag e m en t, ch em istry , bacteriology, physiology, and related courses such as m athem atics, data processing, psychology, sociology, and economics. For a dietitian to qualify for p ro fessional recognition, the A m erican Dietetic Association (A D A ) recom m ends the com pletion after gradu ation of an approved dietetic intern sh ip o r an a p p ro v e d in d iv id u a l traineeship program . The internship lasts 6 to 12 m onths and the traineeship program 1 to 2 years. Both p ro gram s com bine clinical experience under a qualified dietitian with some classroom work. In 1976, 68 intern ship program s were approved by the A m erican D ietetic A ssociation. A growing num ber of coordinated u n d e rg ra d u a te p rogram s, lo cated in schools o f m edicine and in allied health and hom e econom ics d ep a rt m ents of both colleges and universi ties, en ab le stu d en ts to co m p lete both the requirem ents for a bache lo r’s degree and the clinical experi ence req u irem en t in 4 years. T he ADA approves coordinated u n d er graduate programs. Persons m eeting the qualifications established by the A D A ’s Commis sion on Dietetic Registration can be com e Registered Dietitians (R .D .’s). R egistration with the ADA is ac knowledgem ent of a dietitian’s com petence. E x p erien ced d ietitia n s may a d vance to assistant or associate direc tor or director o f a dietetic d ep art ment. A dvancem ent to higher level positions in teaching and research usually requires graduate education; public health nutritionists must earn a g ra d u a te d e g re e in th is field . G ra d u ate study in institutional or business adm inistration is valuable to those interested in adm inistrative di etetics. Persons who plan to becom e dieti tians should have organizational and adm inistrative ability, as well as high scientific aptitude, and should be able to work well with a variety of people. Among the courses recom m ended for high school students in terested in careers as dietitians are hom e econom ics, business adminis tration, biology, health, m athem at ics, and chemistry. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for qualified dietitians on both a full time and part-tim e basis are expected to be good through the m id-1980’s. In recent years, employers have used dietetic assistants trained in voca tional and technical schools and di etetic technicians educated in junior colleges to help m eet the dem and for dietetic services. Because this situ ation is likely to persist, employm ent opportunities also should continue to be favorable for graduates of these programs. E m ploym ent of dietitians is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the m id -1 9 8 0 ’s to m eet the food m anagem ent needs o f hospitals and extended care facilities, industrial plants, and restaurants. D ietitians also will be needed to staff com m uni ty health programs and to conduct research in food and nutrition. In ad dition to new dietitians needed be cause of occupational growth, many others will be required each year to re p la ce those who die, re tire , or 91 leave the profession for other rea sons. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries o f hospital dieti tians av erag ed $ 1 1 ,3 0 0 a year in 1976, according to a national survey conducted by the University o f Texas M edical Branch. E xperienced dieti tians received annual salaries ranging from $13,900 to $25,300, according to th e A m erican D ie te tic A ssoci ation. T he m edian salary paid by col leges and universities to dietitians with b ach elo r’s degrees was $13,900 a year in 1976. T he m edian salary for those with b ach elo r’s degrees w ork ing in com m ercial or industrial estab lishm ents was $14,400 a year; for those in public and voluntary health a g e n c ie s , $ 1 3 ,0 0 0 . F o r se lf-e m ployed dietitians w ith a b a c h e lo r’s degree, the m edian salary was over $16,000 a year in 1976. The en trance salary in the Federal G overnm ent for those com pleting an approved internship was $11,523 in 1977. Beginning dietitians with a m aster’s degree who had com pleted an internship earned $14,097. In 1977, the Federal G overnm ent paid experienced dietitians average sala ries o f $18,109 a year. M ost dietitians w ork 40 hours a week; how ever, dietitians in hospitals may som etim es w ork on weekends, and those in com m ercial food service have som ew hat irregular hours. Some hospitals provide laundry serv ice in addition to salary. Dietitians usually receive paid vacations, holi days, and health insurance and re tirem ent benefits. m ents for dietetic interns and dieti tians in Federal G overnm ent hospi tals and for public health nutritionists and dietitians in the Public H ealth Service, U.S. D epartm ent o f Health, Education, and W elfare, and in the D istric t o f C o lu m b ia g o v ern m e n t program s. DRAFTERS (D.O.T. 001.281, 002.281, 003.281, 005.281, 007.281, 010.281, 014.281, and 017.) Nature of the Work W hen building a space capsule, television set, or bridge, workers fol low drawings that show the exact di m ensions and specifications o f the entire object and each of its parts. W orkers who draw these plans are drafters. D rafters prepare detailed drawings based on rough sketches, specifica tions, and calulations m ade by scien tists, engineers, architects, and d e sig n ers. T h ey also c a lc u la te th e strength, quality, quantity, and cost of m aterials. Final drawings contain a detailed view of the object from all sides as well as specifications for m a terials to be used, procedures fol lowed, and other inform ation to c a r ry out the job. In preparing drawings, drafters use com passes, dividers, protractors, tri angles, and o th er drafting devices. T hey also use en g in ee rin g h a n d books, tables, and calculators to help solve technical problems. Drafters are classified according to the work they do or their level of responsibility. Senior drafters trans late an engineer’s or architect’s p re liminary plans into design “ layouts” (scale drawings of the object to be b u ilt). D etailers draw ea ch p a rt shown on the layout, and give dim en sions, m aterials, and other inform a tion to m ake the drawing clear and com plete. Checkers carefully exam ine drawings for errors in com puting or recording dimensions and specifi cations. U nder the supervision of ex perienced drafters, tracers make mi nor corrections and trace drawings for reproduction on paper or plastic film. D rafters usually specialize in a p ar ticular field o f work, such as m e chanical, electrical, electronic, aero nautical, structural, or architectural drafting. Places of Employment About 320,000 persons worked as drafters in 1976—m ore than 9 out of 10 worked in private industry. Engi neering and architectural firms em ployed about 3 out of the 10. O ther m ajor em ployers included the fabri cated m etals, electrical equipm ent, m achinery, and construction indus tries. About 20,000 drafters worked for F ed eral, S tate, and local govern m ents in 1976. Most drafters in the Federal G overnm ent worked for the Defense D epartm ent; those in State and local governments were mainly in highway and public works d ep art m ents. A n o th er several th o u san d Sources of Additional Information For inform ation on approved di etetic internship program s, scholar ships, e m p lo y m en t o p p o rtu n itie s, and registration, and a list o f colleges providing training for a professional career in dietetics, contact: The American Dietetic Association, 430 North Michigan Ave., 10th floor, Chica go, 111. 60611. T he U.S. Civil Service C om m is sion, W ashington, D.C. 20415, will send in fo rm atio n on th e re q u ire 92 Drafters may specialize in mechanical, electrical, aeronautical, structural, or architec tural drafting. drafters worked for colleges and uni versities and nonprofit organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Persons interested in becoming drafters can acquire the necessary training in technical institutes, junior and com m unity colleges, extension divisions o f universities, and voca tional and tech n ical high schools. Some persons receive training and e x p e rien ce in th e A rm ed F orces. O th ers qualify th ro u g h on-the-job train in g p ro g ram s co m b in ed with part-tim e schooling or 3- to 4-year apprenticeship program s. Training for a career in drafting, w hether in a high school or posthigh sc h o o l p ro g ra m , s h o u ld in c lu d e courses in m athem atics, physical sci e n c e s , m e c h a n ic a l d ra w in g , and drafting. Shop p ra ctices and shop skills also are helpful since m any h ig h er level d raftin g jo b s require knowledge of m anufacturing or con struction m ethods. M any technical schools offer courses in structural de sign, architectural drawing, and engi neering or industrial technology. Those planning careers in drafting should be able to do freehand draw ings of three-dim ensional objects and also detailed work requiring a high d eg ree o f ac cu ra cy . T hey should have good eyesight and m anual dex terity. In addition, they should be able to function as p art of a team since they work directly with engi neers, architects, and skilled work ers. A rtistic ability is helpful in some specialized fields. High school graduates usually start out as tracers. Those having posthigh school technical training may begin as junior drafters. A fter gaining expe rience, they may advance to check ers, detailers, senior drafters, or su p e r v is o rs . S om e m ay b e c o m e in d ep en d e n t designers. C ourses in engineering and m athem atics som e times enable drafters to transfer to engineering positions. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent of drafters is expect ed to increase faster than the average fo r all o cc u p atio n s. T his grow th, along with the need to replace those who retire, die, or move into other fields of work, should provide favor able job opportunities through the m id-1980’s. Holders o f an associate (2-year) degree in drafting will have the best prospects. Many large em ployers already require postsecon dary te c h n ic a l e d u c a tio n , tho u g h well-qualified high school graduates who have studied drafting may find opportunities in some types o f jobs. Em ploym ent of drafters is expect ed to rise rapidly as a result of the increasingly com plex design p ro b lems of m odern products and p ro cesses. In addition, m ore su p p o rt personnel will be needed as the em ploym ent of engineers and scientists grows. P hotoreproduction of draw ings and expanding use of electronic drafting equipm ent and com puters, how ever, will reduce the need for less skilled drafters. Earnings and Working Conditions In private industry, tracers aver aged about $8,400 a year in 1976, while m ore experienced drafters av eraged betw een $9,800 and $12,000 a year. S en io r d ra fte rs av e rag e d about $ 15,300 a year in 1976. On the average, experienced drafters earn ab o u t one and o n e -h a lf tim es as m uch as the average earnings of nonsupervisory workers in private indus try, except farming. The Federal G overnm ent paid drafters having an associate degree starting salaries of $8,316 a year in 1977. Those with less education o r experience generally started at $7,408. The average Federal G ov ernm ent salary for all drafters was about $ 11,000 a year. Although drafters usually work in well-lighted and well-ventilated rooms, they often m ust sit for long periods of time doing very detailed work. Occasionally, drafters may visit other offices or construction sites to gain first-hand inform ation about a certain assignment. Sources of Additional Information G eneral inform ation on careers for drafters is available from: American Institute for Design and Drafting, 3119 Price Rd., Bartlesville, Okla. 74003. International Federation of Professional and Technical Engineers, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. See Sources of Additional Infor m ation in the statem ent on engineer ing and science tech n ician s e lse where in the Handbook. EC O N O M ISTS (D.O.T. 050.088 and .118) Nature of the Work Economists are concerned with how to utilize scarce resources such as land, raw materials, and hum an resources to provide goods and ser vices for society. Economists analyze the relationship between the supply and dem and of goods and services and study how they are produced, distributed, and consum ed. Some econom ists are concerned with spe cific fields such as farm , wage, tax, and ta riff problem s and policies, while others attem pt to develop th eo ries explaining the causes of em ploy m ent and unem ploym ent or inflation. Most econom ists analyze and inter pret a wide variety of economic data in the course of their work. Econom ists in colleges and univer sities are engaged primarily in teach ing th e th e o rie s, p rin cip les, and m ethods of economics. In addition, econom ics faculty m em bers often are involved in research, writing, and o th er nonteaching activities. They frequently act as consultants to busi ness firms, governm ent agencies, or individuals. Econom ists in governm ent collect and analyze data and prepare studies used to assess econom ic conditions and the need for changes in govern m e n t p o lic y . M o st g o v e rn m e n t econom ists are in the fields of agri culture, forestry, business, finance, labor, transportation, or internation al trade and developm ent. For exam ple, econom ists in the U.S. D epart m ent of Com m erce study domestic prod u ctio n , distribution, and c o n sum ption of comm odities or services; in the Federal T rade Commission, econom ists prepare econom ic evi dence or industry analyses to assist in 93 Economics is the largest social science field. enforcing Federal statutes designed to elim inate unfair, deceptive, or m o n o p o lis tic p ra c tic e s in in te rs ta te com m erce; econom ists in the Bureau o f L ab o r Statistics assist in survey planning and analyze data on prices, wages, em ploym ent, and productiv ity. Econom ists who work for business, firms provide m anagem ent with in form ation to m ake decisions on m ar keting and pricing o f com pany produ c ts ; a n a ly z e th e e f f e c t o f governm ent policies on business or international trade; or look at the ad visability o f adding new lines of m er chandise, opening new branch o p era tions, o r otherw ise expanding the com pany’s business. Business econo mists working for firms th at carry on extensive operations abroad may be asked to p rep are short- and long term forecasts of foreign econom ies as well as forecasts of the U.S. econ omy. Places of Employment Econom ics is the largest social sci ence field. A bout 115,000 persons worked as econom ists in 1976, ex cluding those teaching in secondary schools. A bout 3 o ut o f 4 of these jo b s are in private industry or re search organizations. Im portant em 94 ployers of econom ists include m anu fa c tu rin g firm s, ban k s, in su ran ce com panies, securities and investm ent com panies, and m anagem ent c o n sulting firms. Colleges and universi ties employ about 10 percent of the N a tio n ’s econom ists while govern m ent agencies, prim arily F ederal, em ploy an o th er 10 percent. Some econom ists run their own consulting businesses. Econom ists work in all large cities and university towns. The largest num ber are in the New York City and the W ashington, D.C. m etropol itan areas. Som e w ork overseas, mainly for the U.S. D epartm ent o f State including the Agency for Inter national D evelopm ent. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Econom ists must have a thorough understanding o f econom ic theory and of m athem atical m ethods of ec o nom ic analysis. Since many begin ning jobs for econom ists in govern m e n t a n d b u s in e s s in v o lv e th e collection and com pilation of data, a thorough knowledge of basic statisti cal procedures is required. In addi tion to courses in m acroeconom ics, m icroeconom ics, econom etrics, and business and ec o n o m ic statistics, training in com puter science is highly recom m ended. At the undergraduate level, courses in one or more of the follow ing subjects also are valuable: busi ness cycles; econom ic and business history; econom ic developm ent of selected areas; money and banking; international econom ics; public fi nance; industrial organization; labor econom ics; com parative econom ic systems, economics o f national plan ning; urban econom ic problems and policies; m arketing principles and o r ganization; consum er analysis; o r ganizational behavior; and business law. A bachelor’s degree with a m ajor in econom ics is sufficient for many beginning research, administrative, m anagem ent trainee, and business sales jobs. However, graduate train ing increasingly is required for ad vancem ent to more responsible posi tio n s as e c o n o m is ts . A re a s o f specialization at the graduate level include advanced economic theory, com parative economic systems and planning, econom etrics, econom ic developm ent, economic history, en v iro n m en tal and n atu ral reso u rce e c o n o m ic s, h isto ry o f ec o n o m ic thought, industrial organization, in stitutional econom ics, international economics, labor economics, m one tary econom ics, public finance, re gional and urban economics, and so cial policy. Students should select graduate schools strong in specialties in which they are interested. Some schools help graduate students find part-tim e em ploym ent in nearby gov ernm ent or private organizations en gaged in econom ic research where students may gain valuable experi ence. In the Federal Governm ent, candi dates fo r en tran ce positions m ust have a m inim um o f 21 sem ester hours of economics and 3 hours of statistics, accounting, or calculus. A m aster’s degree generally is the minimum requirem ent for a job as a college instructor in many junior col leges and small 4-year schools. In many large colleges and universities, com pletion of all the requirem ents for a Ph. D. degree, except the disser tation, is necessary for appointm ent as a teaching assistant or instructor. The Ph. D. degree usually is required for a professorship and alm ost always is necessary to gain tenure. In governm ent, industry, research organizations, and consulting firms, econom ists who have a graduate d e gree usually can qualify for m ore re sponsible research and adm inistra tive positions. E xperienced business econom ists may advance to m anage rial or executive positions in banks, in d u stria l co n c ern s, tra d e asso ci ations and oth er organizations where they form ulate practical business and adm inistrative policy. A bout 1,500 colleges and universi ties offer b ach elo r’s degree program s in econom ics; about 230, m aster’s; and about 120, doctoral programs. Persons who consider careers as econom ists should be able to work accurately and in detail since much time is spent on careful analysis of data. Frequently, the ability to work as p art o f a team is required. E cono mists m ust be objective in their work and be able to express them selves effectively both orally and in writing. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent of econom ists is ex pected to grow faster than the aver age for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. However, m ost openings will result from deaths, retirem ents, and oth er separations from the labor force. Private industry and business will continue to provide the largest num ber o f em ploym ent opportunities for econom ists because o f the increasing complexity of the dom estic and inter n a tio n a l e c o n o m ie s a n d th e in c re a s e d re lia n c e on q u a n tita tiv e m e th o d s o f a n a ly z in g b u s in e s s trends, forecasting sales, and plan ning purchases and production op erations. Em ployers will seek those well-trained in econom etrics and sta tistics. In addition, th e increasing need for business econom ists to assist lawyers, accountants, engineers, and other professionals in solving prob lems should stim ulate em ploym ent growth. Em ploym ent o f econom ists in State and local governm ent agen cies is expected to increase because of the growing responsibilities of lo cal g ov ernm ents in areas such as housing, transportation, environm ent and n atu ral resources, health, and em ploym ent developm ent and train ing. Em ploym ent of econom ists in the Federal G overnm ent is expected to rise slowly—in line with the rate of grow th p ro je c te d fo r the F ed eral work force as a whole. Colleges and universities, the traditional em ployer of many highly qualified economists, are not expected to significantly in c re a se em p lo y m en t. As a re su lt, many such econom ists may seek nonacadem ic positions. Persons who graduate with a bachelor’s degree in econom ics through the m id-1980’s are likely to face keen com petition for jobs as economists. However, many of these degree holders will find em ploym ent in governm ent, industry, and busi ness as m anagem ent or sales trainees, or as research assistants. C andidates who hold m aster’s degrees in ec o nomics face very strong com petition for teaching positions in colleges and universities, b u t they should find good opportunities for adm inistra tive, research, and planning positions in private industry and governm ent. Ph. D .’s are likely to face com peti tion for academ ic positions, although those graduating from high-ranking universities should have an advan tage. Ph. D .’s should have favorable opportunities in governm ent, indus try, research organizations, and co n sulting firms. Econom ists specializing in the e n vironm ent, energy and natural re sources, health, and transportation are expected to have good job o ppor tunities. However, since practicing econom ists may shift from one spe cialty to another, fields of specializa tion offering favorable job opportu nities may change over short periods of time. A strong background in ec o nomic theory and econom etrics p ro vides the tools for acquiring any spe cialty within the field. Earnings A ccording to the 1975-76 College Placem ent Council Salary Survey, bachelor’s degree candidates in the social sciences received offers aver aging around $10,000 a year; m as te r’s degree candidates in the social sciences, around $12,000; bachelor’s degree candidates offered positions in the field of finance and econom ics, around $10,600. A ccording to an Am erican E co nom ic Association survey, average salary offers made to new Ph. D .’s for the academ ic year 1975-76 were as follows: in colleges and universities, around $ 13,100 to $ 14,600 for the 9m onth academ ic year; in business and in d u stry , $18,0 0 0 a year; in banking and finance, $17,775 a year; in consulting and research, $ 17,500 a year; in the Federal G overnm ent, $18,750 a year; and in State and lo cal government, $15,500 a year. Av erage salaries o f econom ists em ployed in colleges and universities for the academ ic year 1975-76 were as follows: for professors, ab o u t $25,400; for associate professors, about $18,700; for assistant profes sors, about $15,300; and for instruc tors, about $12,100. Economists who have a Ph. D. generally are paid higher salaries than those who have lesser degrees and similar experience. A substantial num ber of economists supplem ent their salaries by consulting, teaching, and research activities. In general, salaries of experienced econom ists are m uch higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. The Civil Service Commission rec ognizes education and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions in the Federal Government. In general, the entrance salary for econom ists having a bachelor’s de gree was $9,303 a year in 1977; how ever, those with superior academic re c o rd s could begin at $1 1,523. Those having a m aster’s degree could qualify for positions at an annual sal ary of $14,097, while those with a Ph. D. co u ld b eg in a t $ 1 7 ,0 5 6 . Econom ists in the Federal Govern m ent averaged around $25,100 in 1977. Econom ists work in many gov ernm ent agencies, prim arily in the D e p a rtm e n ts o f S ta te , T re asu ry , Army, Interior, A griculture, C om m erce, L abor, H ealth, E ducation, and W elfare, Housing and Urban D e velopm ent, and Transportation. Sources of Additional Information For inform ation on job openings for econom ists with graduate degrees 95 and on schools offering graduate training in econom ics, contact: American Economic Association, 1313 21st Avenue South, Nashville, Tenn. 37212. For additional inform ation on ca reers in business econom ics, contact: National Association of Business Economists, 28349 Chagrin Blvd., Suite 201, Cleve land, Ohio 44122. E N G IN E E R IN G A ND S C IE N C E T E C H N IC IA N S (D .O .T. 002. through 029.) Nature of the Work Knowledge o f science, m athem at ics, industrial m achinery, and techni cal p ro cesses en ab les engineering and science technicians to work in all phases o f business and governm ent, from research and design to m anu facturing, sales, and custom er ser vice. Although their jobs are m ore limited in scope and m ore practically oriented than those of engineers or scientists, technicians often apply the theoretical knowledge developed by en g in eers and scien tists to actu al situ atio n s. T ech n ician s freq u en tly use com plex electronic and m echani cal instrum ents, experim ental labora tory equipm ent, and drafting instru m e n ts . A lm o s t a ll t e c h n i c i a n s described in this statem ent m ust be able to use technical handbooks and com puting devices such as slide rules and calculating machines. In research and developm ent, one of the largest areas of em ploym ent, technicians set up experim ents and calculate the results using complex instrum ents. They also assist engi neers and scientists in developing ex perim ental equipm ent and m odels by making drawings and sketches and, frequently, by doing routine design work. In production, technicians usually follow the plans and general direc tions of engineers and scientists, but often w ithout close supervision. They may prepare specifications for m ate rials, devise tests to insure product quality, or study ways to improve the efficiency o f an operation. They of 96 ten supervise production workers to m ake sure they follow prescrib ed plans and procedures. As a product is built, technicians check to see that specifications are followed, keep e n gineers and scientists inform ed as to progress, and investigate production problem s. As sales workers or field represen tatives fo r m an u factu rers, te c h n i cians give advice on installation and m aintenance o f com plex m achinery, and may w rite specifications and technical manuals. (See statem ent on technical w riters elsew here in the Handbook.) Technicians may work in the fields o f engineering, physical science, or life science. W ithin these general fields, job titles may describe the level (biological aide or biological technician), duties (quality control technician or time study analyst), o r area of work (m echanical, electrical, or chem ical). As an engineering technician, one might work in any of the following areas: A eronautical T echnology. T e c h n i cians in this area work with engineers and scientists to design and produce aircraft, rockets, guided missiles, and sp acecraft. Many aid engineers in preparing design layouts and models o f stru c tu re s, c o n tro l system s, o r equipm ent installations by collecting inform ation, m aking com putations, and perform ing laboratory tests. For example, a technician might estim ate w eight factors, cen ters of gravity, and other items affecting load cap ac ity of an airplane or missile. O ther technicians prepare or check draw ings for technical accuracy, practica bility, and economy. A eronautical technicians frequent ly work as m anufacturers’ field ser vice representatives, serving as the link between their com pany and the m ilitary services, com m ercial a ir lines, and other custom ers. T echni cians also prepare technical inform a tio n f o r i n s t r u c t i o n m a n u a ls , bulletins, catalogs, and other litera ture. (See statem ents on aerospace engineers, airplane m echanics, and occupations in aircraft, missile, and spacecraft m anufacturing elsewhere in the Handbook.) Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Re frigeration Technology. A ir-condi tioning, heating, and refrigeration te c h n ic ia n s design, m a n u fa c tu re , sell, and service equipm ent to regu late interior tem peratures. T echni cians in this field often specialize in one area, such as refrigeration, and sometimes in a particular type of ac tivity, such as research and develop ment. W hen working for firms that m a n u fa ctu re te m p e ra tu re -c o n tro l ling equipm ent, technicians generally work in research and engineering de partm ents, where they assist engi neers and scientists in the design and testing o f new equipm ent or produc tion m ethods. For example, a techni cian may construct an experim ental model to test its durability and o p er ating ch a rac te ristic s. T echn ician s also work as sales workers for equip m ent m anufacturers or dealers, and must be able to supply engineering firms and other contractors that de sign and install systems with inform a tion on installation, m aintenance, op erating costs, and the perform ance specifications of the equipm ent. O th er technicians work for contractors, where they help design and prepare installation instructions for air-condi tioning, heating, or refrigeration sys tems. Still others work in custom er service, and are responsible for su pervising the installation and m ainte nance o f equipment. (See statem ent on refrigeration and air-conditioning m echanics elsewhere in the Hand book.) Civil Engineering Technology. T ech nicians in this area assist civil engi neers in planning, designing, and c o n s tru c tin g h ig h w ay s, b rid g e s , dams, and other structures. They of ten specialize in one area such as highway or stru ctu ra l technology. During the planning stage, they esti m ate costs, prepare specifications for m aterials, or participate in surveying, d rafting, or designing. O nce c o n struction begins, they assist the co n tractor o r superintendent in schedul in g c o n s t r u c t i o n a c ti v i t i e s o r inspecting the work to assure co n form ance to blueprints and specifica tions. (See statem ents on civil engi n e e r s , d r a f t e r s , a n d s u rv e y o rs elsewhere in the Handbook.) Electronics Technology. Technicians in this field develop, m anufacture, and service electronic equipm ent and systems. The types o f equipm ent range from radio, radar, sonar, and television to industrial and m edical m easuring or control devices, naviga tio n al e q u ip m e n t, an d e le c tro n ic com puters. Because th e field is so broad, technicians often specialize in one area such as autom atic control devices or electronic amplifiers. F ur th e rm o re , te c h n o lo g ic a l a d v a n c e m ent is constantly opening up new areas o f work. For exam ple, the d e velopm ent of printed circuits stim u lated th e g ro w th o f m in ia tu rized electronic systems. W hen working in design, pro d u c tion, or custom er service, electronic tech n ician s use sophisticated m ea suring and diagnostic devices to test, a d ju st, an d re p a ir e q u ip m e n t. In m any cases, they m ust understand the requirem ents o f the field in which the electronic device is being used. In designing equipm ent for space explo ration, for example, they m ust co n sider the need for minimum weight and volume and maximum resistance to shock, extrem e tem perature, and pressure. Some electronics tech n i cians also work in technical sales, while others work in the radio and te le v isio n b ro a d c a s tin g in d u stry . (See statem ents on broadcast techni cians and occupations in radio and television broadcasting elsewhere in the Handbook.) Industrial Production T echnology. T e c h n ic ia n s in this a re a , usually called industrial or production tech nicians, assist industrial engineers on problem s involving the efficient use o f p e rso n n e l, m a te ria ls, and m a chines to produce goods and servic es. They prepare layouts of m achin ery and equipm ent, plan the flow o f work, m ake statistical studies, and analyze production costs. Industrial technicians also conduct tim e and Since technicians are part of a scientific team, they sometimes work under the super vision of engineers and scientists. m otion studies (analyze the time and m ovem ents a w orker needs to ac complish a task) to improve the p ro duction m ethods and procedures in m anufacturing plants. M any industrial technician s ac quire experience that enables them to qualify for other jobs. For exam ple, those specializing in machinery and production m ethods may move into industrial safety. Others, in job analysis, may set job standards and interview, test, hire, and train p er sonnel. Still others may move into production supervision. (See state m ents on personnel workers and in dustrial engineers elsew here in the Handbook.) Mechanical Technology. M echanical technology is a broad term that cov ers a large num ber o f specialized fields including autom otive technol ogy, diesel technology, tool design, m a c h in e d esign, an d p ro d u c tio n technology. Technicians assist engineers in de sign and developm ent work by m ak ing freehand sketches and rough lay o uts o f p ro p o se d m ach in ery and o th e r eq u ip m e n t and p arts. T his w ork re q u ire s know ledge o f m e chanical principles involving to ler ance, stress, strain, friction, and vi b ra tio n fa cto rs. T ec h n ician s also analyze the costs and practical value o f designs. In planning and testing experim en tal m achines and equipm ent for p er form ance, durability, and efficiency, technicians record data, m ake com putations, plot graphs, analyze re sults, and write reports. They som e times recom m end design changes to improve perform ance. Their job of ten requires skill in the use of com plex in stru m en ts, te st equipm ent, and gauges, as well as in the prepara tion and interpretation of drawings. W hen a product is ready for p ro d u ctio n , technicians help prep are layouts and drawings of the assembly process and of parts to be m anufac tured. They frequently help estim ate labor costs, equipm ent life, and plant space. Some m echanical technicians test and inspect m achines and equip m ent in m anufacturing departm ents or work with engineers to eliminate p ro d u c tio n problem s. O th ers are technical sales workers. 97 Tool designers are am ong the b et d ata that will be the basis for deci ter known specialists in m echanical sions and future research. engineering technology. Tool design C hem ical technicians in pro d u c ers prepare sketches o f the designs tion generally put into com m ercial for cutting tools, jigs, dies, special operation those products or process fixtures, and oth er devices used in es developed in research laborato mass p ro d u ctio n . F req u en tly , they ries. They assist in making the final redesign existing tools to im prove design, in stallin g eq u ip m en t, and their efficiency. They also m ake or training and supervising operators on supervise others in m aking detailed the production line. Technicians in drawings o f tools and fixtures. quality control test m aterials, p ro M achine drafting, with some d e duction processes, and final p ro d signing, is an o th er m ajor area often ucts to insure th a t they m eet th e grouped under m echanical technol m a n u fa c tu re r’s specificatio n s and ogy and is described in th e statem ent quality standards. Many also work as on drafters. (Also see statem ents on te c h n ic a l sales p e rso n n e l, selling m ech a n ical en g in eers, autom obile chem icals or chem ical products. m e c h a n ic s , m a n u f a c tu r e r s ’ sales Many chem ical technicians use w orkers, and diesel m echanics else com puters and instrum ents, such as a where in the Handbook.) dilatom eter (which m easures the ex pansion o f a substance). Because the Instrum entation Technology. A u to field o f chem istry is so broad, chem i m ated m anufacturing and industrial cal technicians frequently specialize processes, oceanographic and space in a particular industry such as food exploration, w eather forecasting, sat processing or pharm aceuticals. (See ellite com m unication systems, envi statem ents on chemists, chem ical en ronm ental p ro tectio n , and m edical gineers, and occupations in the in research have helped to m ake instru dustrial chem ical industry elsewhere m entation technology a fast-growing in the Handbook.) field for technicians. They help d e Meteorological technicians support velop and design com plex m easuring m eteorologists in the study of atm o and con tro l devices such as those in a spheric conditions. Technicians cali sp acecraft th at sense and m easure brate instrum ents, observe, record, changes in h eat or pressure, au to and re p o rt m eteo ro lo g ical o c c u r m atically reco rd data, and m ake n ec rences, and assist in research projects essary ad ju stm en ts. T h ese te c h n i and the developm ent o f scientific in cians have extensive knowledge of strum ents. Geological technicians assist geolo physical sciences as well as electri cal-electronic and m echanical engi gists in evaluating earth processes. neering. (S ee statem en t on in stru C urren tly m uch research is being m e n t w o rk e rs e ls e w h e re in th e conducted in seismology, petroleum and m ineral exploration, and ecol Handbook.) Several areas o f opportunity exist ogy. These technicians install seismographic in stru m en ts, reco rd m ea in the physical sciences: C hem ical technicians w ork with surem ents from these instrum ents, chem ists and chem ical engineers to assist in field evaluation of e a rth develop, sell, and utilize chem ical quake dam age and surface displace and related products and equipm ent. m ent, or assist geologists in ea rth M ost chem ical technicians do re q u a k e p r e d ic tio n r e s e a r c h . In search and developm ent, testing, or petroleum and m ineral exploration, o th er laboratory work. They often they help conduct tests and record set up and conduct tests on processes sound wave data to determ ine the and products being developed or im likelihood of successful drilling, or proved. F or exam ple, a technician use radiation detection instrum ents may exam ine steel for carbon, phos and collect core samples to help ge phorus, and sulfur content or test a ologists evaluate the econom ic possi lu b ricatin g oil by subjecting it to bilities of mining a given resource. Hydrologic technicians gather d ata changing tem peratures. The techni cian m easures reactions, analyzes the to help hydrologists predict river results o f experim ents, and records stages and w ater quality levels. They 98 m onitor instrum ents that measure w ater flow, w ater table levels, or w ater quality, and record and ana lyze the d ata obtained. (See state m en t on en v iro n m en tal scientists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Technician positions in the life sci ences generally are classified into two categories: Agricultural technicians work with agricultural scientists in the areas of food production and processing. Plant technicians conduct tests and experim ents to improve the yield and quality o f crops, or to increase resist ance to disease, insects, or other haz ards. Technicians in soil science ana lyse th e c h e m ic a l an d p h y sic a l properties of various soils to help de term ine the best uses for these soils. Animal husbandry technicians work mainly with the breeding and nutri tion o f animals. O ther agricultural technicians are em ployed in the food industry as food processing techni cians. They work in quality control or in food science research, helping food scientists develop b etter and m ore efficient ways o f processing food m aterial for hum an consum p tion. (See statem ent on food scien tists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Biological technicians work prim ar ily in laboratories where they p er form tests and experim ents under controlled conditions. M icrobiologi cal technicians study microscopic o r ganisms and may be involved in im m unology or parasitology research. L aboratory animal technicians study and report on the reaction of labora tory animals to certain physical and chem ical stimuli. They also study and conduct research to help biologists develop cures that may be applied to hum an diseases. Biochemical techni cians assist biochemists in the chem i cal analysis of biological substances (b lo o d , o th e r body fluids, foods, drugs). Most of their work involves conducting experim ents and rep o rt ing their results to a biochemist. As a biological technician, one might also work primarily with insects, studying insect control, developing new insec ticides, or determ ining how to use insects to control other insects or un desirable plants. (See statem ents on life scientists elsewhere in the Hand book.) Technicians also specialize in fields such as m etallurgical (m etal), electrical, and optical technology. In the atom ic energy field, technicians work with scientists and engineers on problem s o f radiation safety, inspec tio n , an d d e c o n ta m in a tio n . (S ee s ta te m e n t on o c c u p a tio n s in the atom ic energy field elsew here in the Handbook.) New areas of work in c lu d e e n v iro n m e n ta l p ro te c tio n , w here tech n ician s study the p ro b lems of air and w ater pollution, and industrial safety. Places of Employment Over 585,000 persons worked as engineering and science technicians in 1976. Alm ost 400,000 worked in engineering fields, about 130,000 in the physical science occupations, and about 55,000 in the life sciences. A bout two-thirds of all technicians worked in private industry. In the m anufacturing sector, the largest em ployers w ere the e lec trical equip m e n t, c h e m ic a l, m a c h in e ry , and aerospace industries. In nonm anu facturing, large num bers worked in wholesale and retail trade, com m uni cations, and in engineering and ar chitectural firms. In 1976, the Federal G overnm ent em ployed about 95,000 technicians, chiefly as engineering and electron ics technicians, equipm ent special ists, b io logical tech n ic ia n s, c a rto graphic tech n ician s (m apm aking), m e te o ro lo g ic a l te c h n ic ia n s , and physical scien ce tech n ic ia n s. The largest num ber worked for the D e p artm e n t o f D efense; m ost o f the others w orked for the D epartm ents of T ransportation, A griculture, Inte rior, and Com m erce. S tate g o v ern m e n t agencies em ployed nearly 50 ,0 00 engineering and science technicians, and local governm ents about 11,500. The re m ainder worked for colleges and uni versities and nonprofit organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although persons can qualify for technician jobs through many com bi nations of work experience and edu cation, m ost em ployers prefer appli cants who have had some specialized technical training. Specialized train ing is available at technical institutes, junior and com m unity colleges, area vocational-technical schools, exten sion divisions of colleges and univer sities, and vocational-technical high schools. Some engineering and sci ence students who have not com plet ed the bachelor’s degree and others who have degrees in science and m athem atics also are able to qualify for technician positions. Persons also can qualify for techni cian jobs by less form al m ethods. W orkers may learn through on-thejo b tra in in g , a p p re n tic e sh ip p ro grams, or correspondence schools. Some qualify on the basis of experi ence gained in the A rm ed Forces. However, postsecondary training is becoming increasingly necessary for ad v an cem en t to m ore responsible jobs. Some of the types of postsecon dary and other schools that provide technical training are discussed in the following paragraphs: Technical Institutes. Technical in stitutes offer training to qualify stu d ents for a jo b im m ediately after graduation with a minimum of onthe-job training. In general, students receive intensive technical training but less theory and general education than in engineering schools or liberal arts colleges. A few technical insti tutes and com m unity colleges offer cooperative program s in which stu dents spend part of the time in school and part in paid em ploym ent related to their studies. Some technical institutes operate as regular or extension divisions o f colleges and universities. O ther insti tutions are operated by States and municipalities, or by private organi zations. Junior and C om m unity Colleges. C urriculum s in junior and com m uni ty colleges which prepare students for technician occupations are simi lar to those in technical institutes, but with m ore em phasis on theory and liberal arts course work. A fter c o m p letin g th e 2-year p ro g ram s, some graduates qualify for tech n i cian jobs while others continue their education at 4-year colleges. M ost large com m unity colleges offer 2year technical program s, and many em ployers prefer graduates who have m ore specialized training. Area Vocational-Technical Schools. These postsecondary public institu tions serve students from surround ing areas and train them for jobs in the local area. Most of these schools require a high school degree or its equivalent for admission. Other Training. Some large corpo rations co n d u ct training program s and operate private schools to m eet their needs for technically trained personnel in specific jobs; such train ing rarely includes general studies. Training for some technician o ccu pations, for instance tool designers and electronic technicians, is avail able through formal 2- to 4-year ap prenticeship programs. The appren tice gets on-the-job training under the close supervision of an experi enced technician and related techni cal knowledge in classes, usually af ter working hours. The Arm ed Forces have trained many technicians, especially in elec tronics. A lthough m ilitary jo b re quirem ents generally are different from those in the civilian economy, military technicians often are able to find em ploym ent with only minimal additional training. Technician training also is avail able from many private technical and correspondence schools that often specialize in a single field such as electronics. Some of these schools are owned and operated by large co r porations that have the resources to provide very up-to-date training in a technical field. Those interested in a career as a technician should have an aptitude for m athem atics and science and en joy technical work. An ability to do detailed work with a high degree of accu racy is necessary; for design work, creative talent also is desir able. Since technicians are part o f a scientific team , they sometimes must work under the close supervision of engineers and scientists as well as with o th e r technicians and skilled workers. Some technicans, such as repair and m aintenance technicians, should be able to deal effectively with custom ers requiring their servic es. E ngineering and science tech n i cians usually begin work as trainees in routine positions under the direct supervision of an experienced techni99 cian, scientist, or engineer. As they gain experience, they receive m ore responsibility and carry out a p ar ticular assignm ent under only gener al su p e rv is io n . T e c h n ic ia n s m ay eventually move into supervisory p o sitions. Those who have the ability an d o b ta in a d d itio n a l e d u c a tio n som etimes are prom oted to positions as scientists or engineers. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent opportunities for en gineering and science technicians are expected to be favorable through the m id -1 9 8 0 ’s. O p p o rtu n ities will be best for graduates of postsecondary school technician training program s. Besides the openings resulting from the faster-th an -av erage grow th ex pected in this field, additional techni cians will be needed to replace those who die, retire, or leave the occupa tion. Industrial expansion and the in creasing com plexity o f m odern tech nology underlie the anticipated in crease in dem and for technicians. Many will be needed to work with the growing num ber o f engineers and scientists in developing, producing, and distributing new and technically advanced products. A utom ation of industrial processes and grow th of new areas o f work such as environ m ental protection and urban devel opm ent will add to the dem and for technical personnel. The anticipated grow th of research and developm ent expenditures in in dustry and governm ent should in crease requirem ents for technicians. B ecause space and defense p ro grams are m ajor factors in the em ploym ent o f technical personnel, ex penditures in these areas affect the dem and for technicians. The outlook for technicians is based on the as sum ption th at defense spending will increase from the 1976 level by the m id-1980’s, but will still be slightly low er th a n th e levels o f the late 1960’s. If defense spending should differ substantially from this level, the dem and for technicians would be affected accordingly. Earnings In private industry in 1976, aver age starting salaries for 2 -year gradu 100 ates ranged from about $9,000 to $10,800 a year, while those who did n o t c o m p le te a 2 -y e a r p ro g ra m earned average starting salaries from ju st over $6,400 to about $9,300. Senior engineering technicians in p ri vate industry earned average salaries of about $16,000 a year. Starting salaries for all technicians in the Federal G overnm ent were fairly uniform in 1977. A high school graduate with no experience could expect $6,572 annually to start. W ith an associate degree, the starting sal ary was $8,316, and with a bache lo r’s, $9,303 or $11,523. At higher experience levels, how ever, differ ences in earnings are significant. The average annual salary for all engi neering technicians em ployed by the F ed eral G overnm ent in 1977 was $17,800; for physical science techni cians, $17,100; and for life science technicians, about $11,400. Sources of Additional Information and engineering and technology p ro grams, contact: Engineers Council for Professional Develop ment, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Inform ation on schools offering te c h n ic ia n p ro g ram s is av ailab le from: National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, Accrediting Commission, 2021 L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, Washing ton, D.C. 20202. S tate dep artm en ts o f edu catio n also h av e in fo rm atio n ab o u t a p proved technical institutes, ju n io r colleges, and other educational insti tutions within the State offering posthigh school training for specific tech nical occupations. O ther sources in clude: American Association of Community and Jun ior Colleges, Suite 410, 1 Dupont Circle, Washington, D.C. 20036. National Home Study Council, 1601 18th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. For inform ation on careers for e n gineering and science tech n ician s EN G IN EER S The work of engineers affects our lives in thousands of different ways. Their past accom plishm ents have e n abled us to drive safer autom obiles, reach the m oon, and even prolong life through special machinery. F u ture accom plishm ents could help us increase energy supplies, develop more pollution-free powerplants, and aid m edical scien ce’s fight against disease. In 1976, m ore than 1.1 million persons were em ployed as engineers, the second largest professional o ccu pation, exceeded only by teachers. Most engineers specialize in one o f the m ore than 25 specialties recog nized by professional societies. W ith in the m ajor branches are over 85 m inor subdivisions. Structural, envi ronm ental, hydraulic, and highway engineering, for example, are subdi visions o f civil engineering. E ngi neers also may specialize in the engi neering problem s of one industry, such as m otor vehicles, or in a p ar ticular field of technology, such as propulsion or guidance systems. This section, which contains an overall discussion of engineering, is followed by separate statem ents on 12 branch es of the profession—aerospace, ag r ic u ltu r a l, b io m e d ic a l, c e ra m ic , chemical, civil, electrical, industrial, m echanical, m etallurgical, mining, and petroleum engineering. Nature of the Work Engineers apply the theories and principles of science and m athem at ics to practical technical problems. Often their work is the link between a scientific discovery and its useful application. Engineers design m a chinery, products, systems, and p ro cesses for efficient and economical perform ance. They develop electric power, w ater supply, and waste dis posal systems to m eet the problem s o f urban living. They design industri al m achinery and equipm ent used to m anufacture goods; and heating, airconditioning, and ventilation equip m ent for m ore com fortable living. E n g in eers also d ev e lo p scien tific equipm ent to probe o u ter space and the ocean depths, design defense and w e ap o n s sy stem s fo r th e A rm ed Forces, and design, plan, and super vise the co n stru ctio n o f buildings, highways, and rapid transit systems. They design and develop consum er products such as autom obiles, televi sion sets, and refrigerators, and sys tem s for control and autom ation of m anufacturing, business, and m an agem ent processes. Engineers must consider many fac tors in developing a new product. For example, in developing new devices to reduce autom obile exhaust em is sions, engineers m ust determ ine the general way the device will work, d e sign and test all com ponents, and fit them together in an integrated plan. They m ust then evaluate the overall effectiveness of the new device, as well as its cost and reliability. These factors apply to m ost products, in cluding those as different as medical eq u ip m en t, ele c tro n ic co m puters, and industrial m achinery. In addition to design and develop m ent, many engineers work in test ing, production, operation, or m ain t e n a n c e . T h e y s u p e r v i s e th e operation o f p ro d u ction processes, determ ine the causes o f breakdowns, and perform tests on newly m anufac tured products to ensure that quality standards are m aintained. They also estim ate the tim e needed to com plete engineering projects and their cost. Still others are in adm inistrative and m anagem ent jobs where an engi neering background is necessary, or in sales where they discuss the tech nical aspects of a p ro duct and assist in planning its installation or use. (See statem en t on m a n u fa c tu re rs’ salesworkers elsewhere in the Hand book.) Engineers with considerable education or experience sometimes work as consultants. Some with ad vanced degrees teach in the engi neering schools of colleges and uni versities. Engineers within each o f the branches may apply their specialized knowledge to many fields. Electrical engineers, for example, work in m edicine, com puters, missile guid ance, or electric power distribution. Because engineering problem s are usually complex, the work in some fields c u ts ac ro ss th e tra d itio n a l branches. Using a team approach to solve pro b lem s, en g in eers in one field often work closely with special ists in other scientific, engineering, and business occupations. Places of Employment M ore than half of all engineers work in m anufacturing industries— mostly in the electrical and electron ic equipm ent, aircraft and parts, m a chinery, chemicals, scientific instru m ents, prim ary m etals, fab ricated m etal products, and m otor vehicle industries. Over 340,000 were em ployed in nonm anufacturing indus tries in 1976, primarily in construc tion, public utilities, engineering and architectural services, and business and m anagem ent consulting services. Federal, State, and local govern m ents em ployed about 150,000 engi neers. Over half o f these worked for the Federal G overnm ent, mainly in the D epartm ents of Defense, Interi or, Agriculture, T ransportation, and in th e N a tio n a l A e ro n au tics and S pace A dm inistration. M ost engi neers in State and local governm ent agencies worked in highway and pub lic works departm ents. C o lle g e s an d u n iv e rs itie s e m ployed about 45,000 engineers in re search and teaching jobs, and a small n u m b er w orked for no n p ro fit r e search organizations. Engineers are employed in every State, in small and large cities and in rural areas. Some branches of engi neering are concentrated in particu lar industries and geographic areas, as discussed in the statem ents later in this chapter. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in engineering is the generally accepted educational requirem ent for beginning engineer ing jobs. College graduates trained in one of the natural sciences or m athe matics also may qualify for some b e ginning jobs. E xperienced te c h n i c i a n s w ith s o m e e n g i n e e r i n g education are occasionally able to advance to some types of engineering jobs. Many colleges recently have estab lished 2- or 4-year program s leading to degrees in engineering technology. These program s prepare students for practical design and production work rather than for jobs that require more theoretical scientific and m athem at ical knowledge. G raduates of 4-year en g in eerin g tech n o lo g y program s may get jobs sim ilar to those o b tained by engineering bachelor’s d e gree graduates. However, the status of those with the engineering tech nology degree is still not clear. Some em ployers regard them as having skills somewhere between those o f a technician and an engineer. G raduate training is being em pha sized for an increasing num ber of jobs; it is essential for most beginning teaching and research positions, and is desirable for advancem ent. Some specialties, such as nuclear engineer ing, are taught mainly at the graduate level. About 250 colleges and universi ties offer a bachelor’s degree in engi neering, and over 50 colleges offer a b a c h e lo r’s deg ree in engineerin g technology. Although program s in the larger branches of engineering are offered in most of these institu tio n s, som e sm all specialties are taught in only a very few. Therefore, students desiring specialized training should investigate curriculum s b e fore selecting a college. Admissions requirem ents for undergraduate en g ineering schools usually include high sch o o l co u rses in adv an ced m athem atics and the physical scienc es. In a typical 4-year curriculum , the first 2 years are spent studying basic sciences—m athem atics, physics, chem istry, in tro d u cto ry en g in ee r ing—and the humanities, social sci ences, and English. The last 2 years are devoted, for the m ost part, to sp e c ia liz e d e n g in e e rin g co u rses. Some program s offer a general engi neering curriculum , perm itting the stu d e n t to choose a specialty in graduate school or acquire it on the job. Some engineering curriculum s re quire m ore than 4 years to com plete. 101 A num ber o f colleges and universi ties now offer 5-year m aster’s degree program s. In addition, several engi neering schools have form al arrange m e n ts w ith lib e ra l a rts c o lle g e s whereby a student spends 3 years in a liberal arts college studying pre-engi neering subjects and 2 years in an engineering school and receives a bachelor’s degree from each. Some schools have 5- or even 6year co o p erativ e plans w here stu d en ts c o o rd in a te classroom study and practical work experience. In ad dition to gaining useful experience, stu d en ts can finance p a rt o f th eir education. Because o f the need to keep up with rapid advances in tech nology, en g in ee rs o fte n co n tin u e their education throughout their ca reers. All 50 States and the District of C olum bia require licensing for engi neers w hose work may affect life, h ealth , o r p ro p erty , o r who offer their services to the public. In 1976, there were over 300,000 registered engineers. Generally, registration re quirem ents include a degree from an a c c re d ite d e n g in e e rin g sch o o l, 4 years o f relevant work experience, and the passing of a State exam ina tion. Engineering graduates usually b e gin work under the supervision o f ex perienced engineers. Some com pa n ie s h a v e s p e c ia l p ro g r a m s to acquaint new engineers with special industrial practices and to determ ine the specialties for which they are best suited. E xperienced engineers may advance to positions of greater re sp o n sib ility an d som e e n g in e e rs move to m anagem ent or adm inistra tive positions after several years o f engineering. Some engineers obtain graduate degrees in business adm in istration to improve their advance m ent opportunities, while still others obtain law degrees and becom e p at ent attorneys. Many high level execu tives in private industry who began their careers as engineers. Engineers should be able to work as part of a team and should have creativity, an analytical mind, and a capacity for detail. They should be able to express their ideas well orally and in writing. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent opportunities for en g in eers are ex p e cted to be good through the m id-1980’s in most spe cialities. In addition there may be so m e o p p o r tu n itie s fo r c o lle g e graduates from related fields in c e r tain engineering jobs. Em ploym ent requirem ents for en gineers are expected to grow slightly faster than the average for all o ccu p a tio n s th ro u g h th e m id -1 9 8 0 ’s. M uch of this growth will stem from Growth and replacement needs are expected to provide many job openings for engineers Selected engineering occupations Average annual openings, 1976-85 (in thousands) A e ro s p a c e e n g in e e rs C h e m ic a l e n g in e e rs 1 I | | 1 C ivil e n g in e e rs E le c tric a l e n g in e e rs industrial expansion to m eet the de mand for m ore goods and services. M ore engineers will be needed in the design and construction of factories, utility systems, office buildings, and transportation systems, as well as in the developm ent and m anufacture of defense-related products, scientific instrum ents, industrial m achinery, chem ical products, and m otor vehi cles. Engineers will be required in en er g y -r e la te d a c tiv itie s d e v e lo p in g sources of energy as well as designing energy-saving systems for autom o biles, hom es, and o th er buildings. E ngineers also will be needed to solve environm ental problems. The level of expenditures in some of these areas, particularly defense, however, has fluctuated in the past, affecting the requirem ents for engi neers, and may do so in the future. The outlook for engineers given here is based on the assumption that de fense spending will increase from its 1976 level but will still be lower than the peak levels of the 1960’s. If, how ever, defense activity is higher or lower than the level assumed, the de mand for engineers will be higher or lower than now expected. Further, if the dem and for their specialty d e clines, engineers may lose their jobs. This can be a particular problem for older engineers, who may face diffi culties in Finding other engineering jobs. These difficulties can be mini mized by selection of a career in one of the m ore stable industries and en gineering specialties, and by continu ing-education to keep up on the lat est technological developments. Despite these problems, over the long run the num ber of people seek ing jobs as engineers is expected to be in balance with the num ber of job openings. (The outlook for various branches is discussed in the separate state ments later in this section.) Earnings and Working Conditions In d u s tria l e n g in e e rs M e c h a n ic a l e n g in e e rs O th e r 15 Source; Bureau of Labor Statistics 102 R e p la c e m e n t A ccording to the College Place m ent Council, engineering graduates with a bachelor’s degree and no ex perience were offered average start ing salaries of $14,800 a year in pri vate industry in 1976; those with a m aster’s degree and no experience, alm ost $ 1 6 ,500 a year; and those with a Ph. D., over $21,000. Starting offers for those with the bach elo r’s degree vary by branch as shown in the accom panying table. Starting salaries for engineers, by branch, 1976 Average starting Branch salaries Aeronautical engineering..... $14,268 Chemical engineering........... 16,212 Civil engineering................... 13,764 Electrical engineering........... 14,448 14,568 Industrial engineering........... Mechanical engineering....... 14,964 Metallurgical engineering.... 15,600 In th e F e d e ra l G o v e rn m e n t in 1977, engineers with a b ach elo r’s d e gree and no experience could start at $9,303 or $11,523 a year, depending on their college records. Those with a m a s te r ’s d eg ree co u ld s ta rt at $11,523 or $14,097. Those having a Ph. D. degree could begin at $17,056 or $20,442. T he average salary for experienced engineers in the Federal G overnm ent was ab out $25,900 in 1977. For a 9-m onth academ ic college year in 1976, faculty m em bers with 5 years’ experience beyond the bache lo r’s degree received about $15,150; those with 18 to 20 years experience bey o n d th e b a c h e lo r’s degree re ceived ab o u t $21,150. (See sta te m ent on college and university teach ers elsew here in the Handbook.) Engineers can expect an increase in earnings as they gain experience. A ccording to an Engineering M an power Commission survey, the aver age salary for engineers with 20 years of experience was $26,000 in 1976. Some in m anagem ent positions had m uch higher earnings. M any engineers work indoors in offices and re searc h lab o ra to ries. Others, however, spend time in more active w ork—in a factory or mine, at a co n stru ctio n site, or some other outdoor location. stu d y , a n d s a la r ie s —is a v a ila b le from: Directory of Engineering Societies, published by Engineers Joint Council, 345 E. 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Engineers’ Council for Professional Develop ment, 345 E. 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Scientific and Technical Societies of the United States and Canada, published by the Na tional Academy of Sciences, National Re search Council, 2101 Constitution Ave., NW., Washington, D.C. 20418. Engineering Manpower Commission of Engi neers Joint Council, 345 E. 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. National Society of Professional Engineers, 2029 K St. N W , W ashington, D.C. 20006. For inform ation about graduate study, contact: American Society for Engineering Education, One Dupont Circle, Suite 400, Washing ton, D.C. 20036. Societies representing the individ ual branches of the engineering p ro fession are listed later in this chapter. Each can provide inform ation about c a re e rs in th e p a rtic u la r b ra n ch . M any o th e r engineering o rganiza tions are listed in the following publi cations available in m ost libraries o r from the publisher: Some engineers are mem bers of labor unions. Inform ation on engi neering unions is available from: International Federation of Professional and Technical Engineers, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. A ERO SPACE E N G IN E E R S (D.O.T. 002.081) Nature of the Work A erospace engineers design, d e velop, test, and help produce com m ercial and m ilitary aircraft, m is siles, and spacecraft. They play an Sources of Additional Information G eneral inform ation on engineer ing c a re e rs —including engineering sc h o o l re q u ire m e n ts , c o u rse s o f Aerospace engineer checking out part of a spacecraft. 103 im portant role in advancing the state o f tech n o lo g y in co m m ercial avi ation, defense systems, and space ex ploration. A erospace engineers often special ize in an area o f work like structural design, navigational guidance and co n tro l, in stru m en tatio n and co m m unication, or production m ethods. They also may specialize in one type of aerospace product such as passen ger planes, helicopters, satellites, or rockets. Places of Employment A bout 50,000 aerospace engineers were em ployed in 1976, mainly in the aircraft and parts industry. Some w o rk e d fo r F e d e ra l G o v e rn m e n t a g e n c ie s, p rim a rily th e N a tio n a l A eronautics and Space A dm inistra tion and the D epartm ent o f Defense. A few w orked for com m ercial air lines, consulting firms, and colleges and universities. Employment Outlook E m ploym ent o f ae ro sp ac e engi neers is expected to grow m ore slow ly than the average for all occupa tio n s th r o u g h th e m i d - 1 9 8 0 ’s. Em ploym ent of aerospace engineers is largely determ ined by the level of Federal expenditures on defense and space program s: in the past, rapid changes in spending levels have usu ally been accom panied by sharp em ploym ent fluctuations. Expenditures for the space program are expected to increase only slightly from 1976 to the m id-1980’s, while defense spend ing will probably increase m oderate ly. Although few jobs will be created by em ploym ent growth, many w ork ers will be required to fill openings created by deaths, retirem ents, and transfers o f workers to o th er occupa tions. (See in tro d u ctory section of this ch ap ter for discussion of training requirem ents and earnings. See also statem en t on aircraft, missile, and spacecraft m anufacturing elsewhere in the Handbook.) A G R IC U LTU R A L E N G IN E E R S (D.O.T. 013.081) Nature of the Work Agricultural engineers design m a chinery and equipm ent, and develop m ethods to im prove efficiency in the production, processing, and distribu tion o f food and other agricultural products. They also are concerned with the conservation and m anage m ent o f energy, soil, and w ater re sources. Agricultural engineers work in research and developm ent, p ro duction, sales, or m anagem ent. Places of Employment M ost o f the 12,000 agricultural engineers em ployed in 1976 worked for m an u fa ctu rers o f farm e q u ip m ent, electric utility com panies, and distributors of farm equipm ent and supplies. Some worked for engineer ing consultants who supply services to farm ers and farm -related indus tries; others were independent co n sultants. A bout 450 agricultural engineers are em ployed in the Federal G overn m ent, mostly in the D epartm ent o f A griculture; some are employed in colleges and universitites; and a few work in State and local governm ents. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent of agricultural engi neers is expected to grow faster than th e a v e ra g e fo r all o c c u p a tio n s through the m id-1980’s. Increasing dem and for agricultural pro d u cts, m odernization o f farm operations, increasing emphasis on conservation of resources, and the use of agricul tural products and wastes as industri al raw m aterials should provide addi tional oppo rtu n ities for engineers. (See introductory part of this section for inform ation on training require m ents and earnings. See also state m ent on agriculture elsewhere in the Handbook.) Sources of Additional Information American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 2950 Niles Rd., St. Joseph, Mich. 49085. B IO M E D IC A L EN G IN EER S Nature of the Work B iom edical en g in eers use en g i neering principles to solve medical and health-related problem s. Many do research, along with life scientists, chemists, and mem bers of the m edi cal profession, on the engineering as- Sources of Additional Information American Institute of Aeronautics and Astro nautics, Inc., 1290 Avenue of the Amer icas, New York, N.Y. 10019. Many biomedical engineers are involved in research. 104 p ects o f the biological system s of man and animals. Some design and develop m edical instrum ents and de vices including artificial hearts and kidneys, lasers for surgery, and pace m akers th at regulate the heartbeat. O th er biom edical engineers ad ap t com puters to m edical science, and design and build systems to m odern ize laboratory, hospital, and clinical procedures. M ost engineers in this field require a sound background in one o f the m ajor engineering disci plines (m echanical, electrical, indus trial, or chem ical) in addition to spe cialized biom edical training. Places of Employment T here were about 3,000 biom edi cal engineers in 1976. Most teach and do research in colleges and uni versities. Some work for the Federal G o v ern m en t, prim arily in the N a tional A ero n au tics and Space A d m inistration, or in State agencies. An increasing num ber w ork in private in d u stry d ev elo p in g new devices, techniques, and systems for im prov ing health care. Some work in sales positions. C E R A M IC E N G IN E E R S (D.O.T. 006.081) Nature of the Work C eram ic engineers develop new ceram ic m aterials and m ethods for making ceram ic m aterials into useful products. Although to some, the w ord ceram ics m eans pottery, c e ramics actually include all nonm etallic, inorganic m aterials which require the use of high tem perature in their processing. Thus, ceram ic engineers work on diverse products such as glassw are, h ea t-resistan t m aterials for furnaces, electronic com ponents, and nuclear reactors. They also d e sign and supervise the construction of plants and equipm ent to m anufac ture these products. C eram ic engineers generally spe cialize in one product or m ore—for exam ple, p ro d u c ts o f re frac to ries (fire -a n d h e a t-re s is ta n t m ateria ls such as firebrick); whitewares (p o r celain and china dinnerw are or high voltage electrical insulators); struc tural m aterials (such as brick, tile and terra cotta); electronic ceram ics (ferrites for memory systems and mi crowave devices); protective and re fractory coatings for m etals; glass; abrasives; cem ent technology; or fuel elem ents for atomic energy. Places of Employment About 12,000 ceram ic engineers were em ployed in 1976, mostly in the stone, clay, and glass industry. O th ers work in industries that produce or use ceram ic products such as the iron and steel, electrical equipm ent, aero sp ac e, and ch e m ic als in d u stries. Some are in colleges and universities, independent research organizations, and the Federal Governm ent. Employment Outlook Em ployment of ceram ic engineers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. Programs related to nuclear energy, electronics, defense, and medical science will provide job opportunities for ceram ic engineers. Employment Outlook E m ploym ent o f biom edical engi neers is expected to grow faster than th e a v e ra g e fo r all o c c u p a tio n s through the m id-1980’s, but the actu al num ber o f openings is not likely to be very large. Those who have ad vanced degrees will be in dem and to teach and to fill jobs resulting from increased expenditures for m edical research. Increased research funds could also create new positions in instrum entation and systems for the delivery o f health services. (See in troductory p art o f this chapter for inform ation on training requirem ents and earnings.) Sources of Additional Information Alliance for Engineering in Medicine and Biol ogy, Suite 404, 4405 East-West Highway, Bethesda, Md. 20014. Biomedical Engineering Society, P.O. Box 2399, Culver City, Calif. 90230. Most ceramic engineers are employed in the stone, clay, and glass industry. 105 Additional ceram ic engineers will be required to im prove and adapt tradi tio n al c e ra m ic p ro d u c ts, such as w hitew ares and abrasives, to new uses. The developm ent of filters and catalytic surfaces to reduce pollu tion, and the developm ent of ceram ic m aterials for energy conversion and conservation, should create addition al openings for ceram ic engineers. (See introductory p art o f this section for inform ation on training require m ents and earnings.) Sources of Additional Information American Ceramic Society, 65 Ceramic Dr., Columbus, Ohio 43214. C H E M IC A L E N G IN E E R S (D .O .T. 008.081) Nature of the Work C hem ical engineers are involved in m any phases of the production of ch em icals and ch em ical products. They design equipm ent and chem ical plants as well as determ ine m ethods o f m anufacturing the product. Often, they design and operate pilot plants to test their work and develop chem i cal processes such as those to remove chem ical contam inants from waste m a te ria ls . B ecau se th e d u tie s o f chem ical engineers cut across many fields, these professionals must have a working knowledge o f chem istry, physics, and m echanical and electri cal engineering. This branch of engineering is so diversified and com plex that chem i cal engineers frequently specialize in a particular operation such as oxida tion or polym erization. Others spe cialize in a particular area such as pollution control or in the p roduc tion o f a specific pro duct like plastics or rubber. Places of Employment Most of the 50,000 chem ical engi neers working in 1976 were in m anu facturing industries, prim arily those producing chemicals, petroleum , and related products. Som e w orked in 106 governm ent agencies or taught and did research in colleges and universi ties. A small num ber worked for in dependent research institutes and e n gin eerin g co n su ltin g firm s, o r as independent consulting engineers. Employment Outlook E m p lo y m en t o f ch em ical e n g i neers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. A m ajor fac tor underlying this growth is industry expansion—the chem icals industry in particular. The growing complexity and au to mation of chem ical processes will re quire additional chem ical engineers to design, build, and m aintain the n ecessary p lan ts and eq u ip m en t. C h e m ic a l e n g in e e rs also will be needed to solve problem s dealing with environm ental protection, d e velopm ent of synthetic fuels, and the design and developm ent of nuclear reactors. In addition, developm ent o f new chemicals used in the m anufac ture of consum er goods, such as plas tics and synthetic fibers, probably will create additional openings. (See introductory part of this section for inform ation on training requirem ents and earnings. See also the statem ent on chemists and the industrial chem i cal industry elsewhere in the Hand book.) Sources of Additional Information American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. C IV IL ENG IN EER S (D.O.T. 005.081) Nature of the Work Civil engineers, who work in the oldest branch of the engineering p ro fession, design and supervise the con- cluding highways and railways), geo technical, and soil mechanics. Many civil engineers are in super visory o r adm inistrative positions ranging from supervisor of a co n struction site to city engineer to toplevel executive. Others teach in col leges and universities or work as con sultants. Places of Employment About 155,000 civil engineers were employed in 1976. Most work for Federal, State, and local govern m ent agencies or in the construction industry. Many work for consulting engineering and architectural firms or as independent consulting engi neers. O thers work for public utili ties, railroads, educational institu tions, and m anufacturing industries. Civil engineers work in all parts of the country, usually in or near major industrial and com m ercial centers. They often work at construction sites, sometimes in rem ote areas or in foreign countries. In some jobs, they must often move from place to place to work on different projects. Employment Outlook Em ployment of civil engineers is expected to increase about as fast as th e a v e ra g e fo r all o c c u p a tio n s through the m id-1980’s. Job oppor tunities will result from the growing needs for housing, industrial build ings, e le c tr ic p o w e r g e n e ra tin g plants, and transportation systems created by a growing population and an expanding economy. Work relat ed to solving problem s of environ m ental pollution and energy self-suf ficiency will also require additional civil engineers. Many civil engineers also will be needed each year to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirem ents and earnings.) Most civil engineers work for construction companies and Federal, State, and local governments. struction of roads, harbors, airports, tunnels, bridges, w ater supply and sewage systems, and buildings. M ajor specialties within civil engineering are stru ctu ral, hydraulic, en v iro n m ental (sanitary), transportation (in Sources of Additional Information American Society of Civil Engineers, 345 E. 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. 107 (D.O.T. 003.081, .151, and .187) sea rch , d ev e lo p m e n t, and design, many are in m anufacturing, adm inis tration and m anagem ent, technical sales, or college teaching. Nature of the Work Places of Employment Electrical engineers design, devel op, test, and supervise the m anufac tu re o f e le c tric a l an d e le c tro n ic equipm ent. E lectric equipm ent in cludes pow er generating and trans mission equipm ent used by electric m o to rs, m a ch in e ry c o n tro ls , and lighting and wiring in buildings, and in autom obiles and aircraft. E lec tro n ic eq u ip m e n t in clu d es ra d a r, com puters, com m unications equip ment, missile guidance systems, and consum er goods such as televisions and stereos. Electrical engineers generally spe cialize in a m ajor area—such as inte grated circuits, com puters, electrical equipm ent m anufacturing, com m u n ic a tio n s , o r p o w e r d is trib u tin g eq u ip m en t—or in a subdivision of these a re a s—m icrow ave com m uni cation or aviation electronic systems, for example. Electrical engineers d e sign new products and specify their uses and write perform ance require m ents and m aintenance schedules. They also test equipm ent, solve o p er ating p ro b lem s, and estim ate the time and cost o f engineering proj ec ts. B esid es em p lo y m e n t in r e Electrical engineering is the largest b ra n c h o f th e p ro fessio n . A b o u t 300,000 electrical engineers w ere em ployed in 1976, mainly by m anu facturers o f electrical and electronic equipm ent, aircraft and parts, busi ness m achines, and professional and scientific equipm ent. Many work for telep h o n e , telegraph, and electric light and pow er com panies. Large num bers are em ployed by govern m ent agencies and by colleges and universities. O thers work for co n struction firms, for engineering co n sultants, or as independent consult ing engineers. ELEC TR IC A L E N G IN E E R S and developm ent in new types of power generation, should create ad ditional jobs. Many electrical engi neers also will be needed to replace personnel who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. The long-range outlook for electri cal engineers is based on the assump tion th a t defense spending in the m id-1980’s will increase from the 1976 level, but will still be somewhat lower than the peak level o f the late 1960’s. If defense activity is higher or lower than the projected level, the dem and for electrical engineers will be higher or lower than now expect ed. (See introductory part of this sec tion for information on training re quirem ents and earnings. See also statem ent on electronics m anufac turing elsewhere in the Handbook.) Sources of Additional Information Employment Outlook E m ploym ent o f e le c tric a l e n g i neers is expected to increase about as fast as average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. Although in creased dem and for com puters, com m unications, and military electronics is expected to be the m ajor contribu tor to this growth, dem and for elec tr ic a l a n d e le c tr o n ic c o n s u m e r goods, along with increased research Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers/United States Activities Board, 2029 K St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006. IN D U S TR IA L EN G IN EER S (D.O.T. 012.081, .168, and .188) Nature of the Work Industrial engineers determ ine the most effective ways for an organiza tion to use the basic factors of p ro duction—people, machines, and m a terials. They are m ore concerned with people and methods of business organization than are engineers in other specialties who generally are c o n c e rn e d m ore w ith p a rtic u la r products or processes, such as m et als, power, or mechanics. To solve organizational, produc tion, and related problem s most effi ciently, industrial engineers design d ata processing systems and apply m athem atical concepts (operations research techniques). They also de velop m anagem ent control systems to aid in financial planning and cost analysis, design production planning 108 A dditional num bers of industrial engineers will be required each year to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. (See introductory part of this section for inform ation on training requirem ents and earnings.) Sources of Additional Information American Institute of Industrial Engineers, Inc., 25 Technology Park/Atlanta, Norcross, Ga. 30092. M E C H A N IC A L E N G IN E E R S (D.O.T. 007.081, .151, .168, and .187) Nature of the Work Industrial engineer reviewing film of production process to check for problems. and control systems to coordinate ac tivities and control product quality, and design or im prove systems for the physical distribution of goods and services. In d u strial en g in eers also c o n d u c t p la n t lo c a tio n su rv e y s, where they look for the best com bi nation o f sources o f raw m aterials, transportation, and taxes, and devel op wage and salary adm inistration systems and job evaluation programs. Because the work is closely related, many industrial engineers move into m anagem ent positions. Places of Employment A b o u t 2 0 0 ,0 0 0 in d u strial en g i neers were em ployed in 1976; more than two-thirds worked in m anufac turing industries. Because their skills can be used in alm ost any type of com pany, they are m ore widely dis tributed am ong industries than are those in o th er branches o f engineer ing. For exam ple, some work for in surance com panies, banks, construc tion and m ining firm s, and public utilities. H ospitals, retail organiza tions, and other large business firms em ploy industrial engineers to im prove operating efficiency. Still o th ers work for governm ent agencies and colleges and universities. A few are in d e p e n d e n t co n su ltin g e n g i neers. Employment Outlook E m ploym ent of in d u strial en g i neers is expected to grow faster than th e a v e ra g e fo r all o c c u p a tio n s through the m id-1980’s. The increas ing com plexity of industrial o p era tions and the expansion of autom ated p r o c e s s e s , a lo n g w ith in d u s tr y growth, are factors contributing to em ploym ent growth. Increased re c ognition o f the im portance o f scien tific m anagem ent and safety engi n e e r in g in r e d u c in g c o s ts a n d increasing productivity, and the need to solve enviro n m en tal problem s, should create additional opportuni ties. M ech an ical en g in eers are c o n cerned with the production, tran s mission, and use of power. They de sign and develop pow er-producing m achines such as internal com bus tion engines, steam and gas turbines, and jet and rocket engines. They also design and develop power-using m a chines such as refrigeration and airconditioning equipm ent, elevators, machine tools, printing presses, and steel rolling mills. The work of m echanical engineers varies by industry and function since many specialties have developed within the field. Specialties included are m otor vehicles, m arine eq u ip m ent, energy conversion system s, heating, ventilating and air-condi tioning, in stru m en tatio n , and m a ch in es fo r sp ecialized in d u stries, such as petroleum , rubber and plas tics, and construction. Large num bers of m echanical en gineers do research, test, and design work. M any are adm inistrators or m anagers, while others work in m ain tenance, technical sales, and produc tion operations. Some teach in col leges and universities or work as consultants. Places of Employment About 200,000 m echanical engi neers w ere em ployed in 1976. Al most three-fourths were employed in 109 m anufacturing—mainly in the prim a ry and fabricated m etals, m achinery, transportation equipm ent, and elec trical equipm ent industries. O thers w o rked fo r g o v ern m e n t agencies, educational institutions, and consult ing engineering firms. Employment Outlook E m ploym ent of m echanical engi neers is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. The growing dem and for industrial m achinery and m ach in e to o ls and th e increasing com plexity of industrial m achinery and processes will be m ajor factors su p p o rtin g in cre ased em p lo y m en t opportunities. M echanical engineers will be needed to develop new energy systems and to help solve environ m ental pollution problem s. Large num bers o f m echanical en gineers also will be required each year to replace those who retire, die, o r tra n s fe r to o th e r o c c u p a tio n s. (See introductory p art o f this section for inform ation on training require Metallurgical engineers study the physical properties of metal. m ents and earnings. See also state m ent on occupations in the atom ic energy field elsew here in the Hand ful metal. Physical metallurgists deal Employment Outlook with the nature, structure, and phys book.) Em ployment of m etallurgical and ical properties of m etals and their m aterials engineers is expected to alloys, and with m ethods of convert Sources of Additional grow faster than the average for all ing refined m etals into final products. Information M ech an ical m etallu rg ists develop occupations through the m id-1980’s. The American Society of Mechanical Engi m ethods to work and shape m etals An increasing num ber of these engi neers, 345 E. 47th St., New York, N.Y. such as casting, forging, rolling, and neers will be needed by the m etal 10017. drawing. Scientists working in this working industries to develop new field are known as m etallurgists or metals and alloys as well as to adapt m aterials scientists, but the distinc current ones to new needs. For ex tion between scientists and engineers ample, com m unications equipm ent, com puters, and spacecraft require in this field is small. M E TA LLU R G IC A L lightweight metals of high purity. As E N G IN E E R S the supply of high-grade ores dim in Places of Employment ishes, m ore m etallurgical engineers (D .O .T. 011.081) will be required to develop new ways The m etalworking industries—p ri of recycling solid waste m aterials in Nature of the Work marily the iron and steel and nonfer- addition to processing low-grade ores now re g a rd e d as u n p ro fitab le to M etallurgical engineers develop rous m etals in d u strie s—em ployed mine. M etallurgical engineers also o v e r o n e h a lf o f th e e s tim a te d m ethods to process and convert m et will be needed to solve problems as 17,000 m etallurgical and m aterials als into useful p ro d u c ts. M ost of engineers in 1976. M etallurgical en sociated with the efficient use of nu these eng in eers g enerally w ork in one o f the three main branches of gineers also work in industries th at clear energy. (See introductory p art m etallurgy—extractive or chem ical, m anufacture m achinery, electrical o f this section for inform ation on physical, and m echanical. Extractive equipm ent, and aircraft and parts, training requirem ents and earnings. m etallurgists are concerned with ex and in the m ining industry. Som e Also see statem ent on the iron and tracting m etals from ores, and refin work for governm ent agencies and steel industry elsewhere in the Hand ing and alloying them to obtain use colleges and universities. book.) 110 Sources of Additional Information The Metallurgical Society of the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Pe troleum Engineers, 345 E. 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio 44073. M IN IN G E N G IN E E R S (D .O .T. 010.081 and .187) Nature of the Work Mining engineers find, extract, and prepare m inerals for m anufacturing industries to use. They design the layouts o f open pit and underground mines, supervise the construction of m ine shafts and tu nnels in u n d er ground operations, and devise m eth ods for transporting m inerals to pro cessing plants. Mining engineers are responsible for the econom ic and ef ficient operation o f m ines and mine safety, including ventilation, w ater supply, power, com m unications, and equipm ent m aintenance. Some min ing engineers work w ith geologists and m etallurgical engineers to locate and appraise new ore deposits. O th ers develop new m ining equipm ent or direct m ineral processing opera tions, which involve separating m in erals from the dirt, rocks, and other m aterials they are m ixed with. Min ing engineers frequently specialize in the m ining o f one specific m ineral such as coal or copper. W ith increased em phasis on pro tecting the environm ent, many min ing engineers have been working to solve problem s related to mined-land reclam ation and w ater and air pollu tion. Places of Employment A b o u t 6 ,0 0 0 m ining en g in ee rs were em ployed in 1976. M ost work in the mining industry. Some work for firms th at produce equipm ent for the m ining industry, while o th ers work in colleges and universities, in governm ent agencies, or as indepen dent consultants. Mining engineers are responsible for the efficient operation of mines and mine safety. Mining engineers are usually em ployed at the location o f mineral d e posits, often near small comm unities. However, those in research, teac h ing, m anagem ent, consulting, or sales often are located in large m etropoli tan areas. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent of mining engineers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. Efforts to attain energy self-sufficiency should spur the dem and for coal, and th ere fore for mining engineers in the coal industry. The increase in dem and for coal will depend, to a great extent, on the availability and price o f other d o mestic energy sources such as p etro leum, natural gas, and nuclear en e r gy. M ore technologically advanced mining systems and further enforce m ent of mine health and safety regu lations also will increase the need for mining engineers. In addition, explo ration for all other minerals is also increasing. Easily m ined deposits are being depleted, creating a need for engineers to devise m ore efficient m ethods for mining low-grade ores. Em ploym ent opportunities also will arise as new alloys and new uses for metals increase the dem and for less widely used ores. Recovery of m etals from the sea and the developm ent of oil shale deposits could present m a jo r challenges to th e mining engi neer. (See introductory part of this section for inform ation on training requirem ents and earnings. See also statem ent on mining elsewhere in the Handbook.) ill Sources of Additional Information The Society of Mining Engineers of the Ameri can Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, 540 Arapeen Dr.—Research Park, Salt Lake City, Utah 84108. PETR O LEUM E N G IN E E R S (D.O.T. 010.081) Nature of the Work Petroleum engineers are mainly in volved in exploring and drilling for an d p ro d u c in g oil and gas. T hey work to achieve the maximum profit able recovery o f oil and gas from a petroleum reservoir by determ ining and developing the best and most ef ficient production m ethods. Since only a small proportion of the oil and gas in a reservoir will flow out under natural forces, petroleum engineers develop and use various a r tificial recovery m ethods such as flooding the oil field with w ater to force the oil to the surface. Even when using the best recovery m eth ods, about half the oil is still left in the ground. Petroleum engineers’ re search and developm ent efforts to in crease the proportion of oil recov ered in each reservoir can m ake a significant contribution to increasing available energy resources. Places of Employment About 20,000 petroleum engineers were employed in 1976, mostly in the petroleum industry and closely allied fields. T heir employers include not only the major oil companies, but also the hundreds of smaller indepen dent oil exploration and production com panies. They also work for com panies th at produce drilling equip m ent and supplies. Some petroleum engineers work in banks and other fin an c ial in stitu tio n s w hich n eed their knowledge of the economic val ue of oil and gas properties. A small num ber work for engineering con sulting firms or as independent con sulting engineers, and for the Federal and State governments. The petroleum engineer’s work is concentrated in places where oil and gas are found. Almost three-fourths of all petroleum engineers are em ployed in the oil-producing States of T exas, O klahom a, Louisiana, and California. There are many Am eri can p etro leu m engineers w orking overseas in oil-producing countries. Employment Outlook The em ploym ent of petroleum en gineers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. Econom ic exp an sio n will req u ire increasing supplies of petroleum and natural gas, even with energy conservation measures. With efforts to attain en er gy self-sufficiency, and high petrole um prices, increasingly sophisticated and expensive recovery methods will be used. Also, new sources of oil such as oil shale and new offshore oil sources may be developed. All of these factors will contribute to in creasing dem and for petroleum engi neers. (See introductory part of this section for inform ation on training requirem ents and earnings.) Sources of Additional Information Society of Petroleum Engineers of AIME, 6200 North Central Expressway, Dallas, Tex. 75206. Petroleum engineers discuss problem with drilling supervisor. 112 FBI SPEC IA L A G E N TS (D.O.T. 375.168) Nature of the Work F ed eral B ureau o f Investigation (FBI) special agents investigate vio lations o f Federal laws in connection with b an k ro b b eries, kidnappings, white-collar crim e, thefts of G overn m ent property, organized crim e, es p io n ag e, and sab o tag e . T he FBI, which is p art of the U.S. D epartm ent of Justice, has jurisdiction over many different Federal investigative m at ters. Special agents, therefore, may be assigned to any type of case, al though those with specialized train ing usually work on cases related to their background. Agents with an accounting background, for exam p le, m ay in v e stig a te w h ite-c o lla r crim es such as bank em bezzlem ents, or fraudulent bankruptcies or land deals. Because the FBI is a fact-gathering agency, its special agents function strictly as investigators, collecting evidence in cases in which the U.S. G overnm ent is or may be an interest ed party. In their casew ork, special agents conduct interviews, examine records, observe the activities of sus pects, and participate in raids. Be cause the FBI’s work is highly confi d e n tia l, sp e c ia l a g e n ts m ay n o t disclose any of the inform ation gath ered in the course of their official duties to unauthorized persons, in cluding m em bers of their families. F requently agents m ust testify in court about cases that they investi gate. Although they work alone on m ost assignments, agents com m unicate with their supervisors by radio or telephone as the circum stances dic tate. In perform ing potentially d an gerous duties, such as arrests and raids, two agents or m ore are as signed to work together. Places of Employment About 8,600 persons were special agents in 1976. Most agents were as signed to the FBI’s 59 field offices located throughout the Nation and in Puerto Rico. They worked in cities where field office headquarters are located or in resident agencies (sub offices) established under field office supervision to provide prom pt and efficient handling o f investigative m atters arising throughout the field office territory. Some agents are as signed to the Bureau headquarters in W ashington, D.C., which supervises all FBI activities. Special agents process a car for fingerprints. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To be considered for appointm ent as an FBI special agent, an applicant usually m ust be a graduate of a Stateaccredited law school or a college graduate with a major in accounting. The law school training must have been preceded by at least 2 years of undergraduate college work. From time to time, as the need arises, the FBI accepts applications from persons who have a 4-year col lege degree with a physical science m ajor or fluency in a foreign lan guage, o r who have 3 years of profes sional, executive, complex investiga tive, or other specialized experience. Applicants for the position of FBI special agent must be citizens of the United States, be at least 23 years old but not have reached their 35 th birthday before they begin duty and be willing to serve anywhere in the United States or Puerto Rico. They must be capable of strenuous phys ical ex e rtio n , and have excellen t hearing and vision, normal color p er ception, and no physical defects that would prevent their using firearms or p articip atin g in dangerous assign ments. All applicants must pass a rigid physical examination, as well as written and oral examinations testing their aptitude for meeting the public and conducting investigations. All of the tests except the physical exami nations are given by the FBI at its facilities. Background and character investigations are made of all appli cants. A ppointm ents are made on a probationary basis and become p er m anent after 1 year of satisfactory service. Each newly appointed special agent is given about 15 weeks of training at the FBI Academy at the U.S. M arine Corps Base in Quantico, Va. before assignment to a field of fice. During this period, agents re ceive intensive training in defensive tactics and the use of firearms. In a d d i t i o n , th e y a re th o r o u g h ly schooled in Federal criminal law and procedures, FBI rules and regula tions, fingerprinting, and investiga tive work. After assignment to a field office, the new agent usually works closely with an experienced agent for 113 about 2 weeks before handling any assignments independently. All adm inistrative and supervisory jobs are filled from within the ranks by selecting those FBI special agents who have dem onstrated the ability to assume m ore responsibility. Employment Outlook The jurisdiction o f the FBI has ex panded greatly over the years. Al though it is im possible to forecast sp ec ia l a g e n t p e rs o n n e l re q u ir e ments, em ploym ent may be expected to increase with growing FBI respon sibilities. The FBI provides a career service and its rate of turnover is traditional ly low. Nevertheless, the FBI is al ways interested in applications from qualified persons who would like to be considered for the position of spe cial agent. Earnings and Working Conditions The entrance salary for FBI special agents was $15,524 in late 1976. Special agents are not appointed un der Federal Civil Service regulations, but, like o th er Federal em ployees, they receive periodic w ithin-grade salary raises if their work perform ance is satisfactory; they can advance in grade as they gain experience. Salaries of supervisory agents start at $28,725 a year. Special agents are subject to call 24 hours a day and m ust be available for assignm ent at all times. Their duties call for some travel, for they are assigned w herever they are needed in the United States or Puerto Rico. They frequently work longer than the custom ary 40-hour week an d , un d er specified co n d i tions, receive overtim e pay up to about $3,900 a year. They are grant ed paid vacations, sick leave, and an nuities on retirem ent. Agents are re quired to retire at age 55 if they have served at least 20 years. FLIG H T A TTE N D A N TS (D.O.T. 352.878) Nature of the Work Flight attendants (also called stew ardesses and stew ards) are aboard alm o st all c o m m ercial p asse n g er planes to help m ake the passengers’ flight safe, com fortable, and enjoy able. Before each flight, attendants see that the passenger cabin is in order. They check that supplies such as food, beverages, blankets, and read ing m aterial are adequate, and that first aid kits and o th er em ergency equipm ent are aboard. As passengers com e aboard, attendants greet them , check their tickets, and assist them by hanging up coats and stow ing small pieces of luggage under the seats. Before the plane takes off, atten dants use the public address system to instruct passengers in the use o f em ergency equipm ent and check to see that all passengers have their seat belts fastened. In the air, they answer questions about the flight, distribute magazines and pillows, and help care for small children, elderly persons, and handicapped persons. On many flights, they serve cocktails and p re cooked meals. One o f the most im portant func tions of attendants is to assist passen gers in the rare event of an em ergen cy. T hese range from a disabled engine, where passengers must be re a ssu re d , to em erg en cy lan d in g s, where attendants evacuate the plane, opening doors and inflating em ergen cy slides. A ttendants also must be prepared to adm inister first aid to passengers who becom e ill during the flight. Places of Employment About 42,000 flight attendants worked for the airlines in 1976. Most attendants are stationed in m ajor cities at the airlines’ main bases; nearly three-fifths work near C hica go, Dallas, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, and San Francisco. Airliners generally carry 1 to 10 flight atten dants, depending on the num ber of seats on the plane and the proportion of economy to first-class passengers. Large aircraft like the Boeing 747 may have as many as 16 flight atten dants. Sources of Additional Information The Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. De partment of Justice, Washington, D.C. 20535. Most airlines provide a 5-week training course for newly hired attendants. 114 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The airlines place great stress on the hiring o f poised, tactful, and re sourceful people. In particular, appli cants should be able to talk com fort ab ly w ith s tra n g e rs . As a ru le , applicants m ust be at least 19 years old. They m ust be in excellent health and have good vision. Vision may be corrected with con tact lenses or, on m ost airlines, with glasses. A ppli cants also m ust speak clearly. A pplicants m ust be high school graduates. Those having 2 years of college, n u rses’ training, or experi ence in dealing with the public are preferred. Flight attendants for inter national airlines generally m ust be able to speak an appropriate foreign language fluently. M ost large airlines give newly hired flight attendants about 5 weeks of training in their own schools. T ransportation to the training cen ters and an allowance while in train ing may be provided. Trainees are taught how to react to em ergencies, including instruction on evacuating an airplane, operating an oxygen sys tem , and giving first aid. A ttendants also are taught flight regulations and duties, and com pany operations and policies. A dditional courses in pass port and custom s regulations are giv en to trainees for the international ro u tes. T o w ard s th e en d o f th eir tra in in g , stu d e n ts go on p ra c tic e flights. T he few airlines that do not operate schools generally send new em ployees to the school of another airline. After com pleting their training, flight attendants are assigned to one of their airline’s main bases. New attendants usually fill in on extra flights or replace attendants who are sick or on vacation. Because assign ments are based on seniority, experi enced atten d a n ts usually get their choice o f base and flights. O pportunities for advancem ent are lim ited. However, some atten dants may advance to flight service instructor, custom er service director, instructor, or recruiting representa tive. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent of flight attendants is expected to grow m uch faster than th e a v e ra g e fo r all o c c u p a tio n s through the m id-1980’s. In addition to grow th, openings will occur b e cause o f the need to replace experi enced attendants who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. In creases in p o p u latio n and in com e are expected to increase the num ber o f airline passengers. To deal with this growth, airlines usually en large their capacity by increasing the num ber and size of planes in o p era tion. Since the Federal Aviation A d m inistration safety rules require one attendant for every 50 seats, m ore flight attendants will be needed. Job opportunities may vary from year to year, however, because air travel is sensitive to ups and downs in the economy. Because the job is attractive and offers a chance to travel, many p eo ple are interested in becom ing flight atten d an ts. A pplicants can expect keen com petition for any available jobs because the num ber of appli cants is expected to exceed the num ber of openings. Applicants with 2 years of college and experience in dealing with the public have the best chance o f being hired. Earnings and Working Conditions The average m onthly earnings o f all flight attendants were $1,042 in 1976. According to a num ber o f union contracts, salaries of m ost b e ginning flight attendants on dom estic flights ranged from $690 to $780 a m onth, while those on international flights earned from $830 to $980. As an additional benefit, flight a tte n dants and their im m ediate families are entitled to reduced fare transpor tation on their own and m ost other airlines. Since airlines operate around the clock 365 days a year, attendants may work at night, on holidays, and on weekends. They usually fly no m ore than 80 hours a m onth, but they may devote up to 35 hours a m onth on the ground duties involved in preparing their planes for flights. As a result of variations in scheduling and limitations on flying time, many attendants have 15 days or more off each m onth. A ttendants may be away from their hom e bases about one-third of the time or more. W hen they are away from hom e, the air lines provide hotel accom m odations and an allowance for meal expenses. Flight attendants have the oppor tunity to m eet interesting people and see new places. The com bination of free time and discount air fares p ro vides su b sta n tia l o p p o rtu n ity for travel. How ever, the w ork can be stren u o u s and trying. M any sh o rt flights require speedy service if all passengers are to be served. Poor w eather can make it difficult to serve drinks and meals. A ttendants stand during m uch of the flight and must remain pleasant and efficient regard less of how tired they may be. M ost flight attendants are m em bers of either the Transport W orkers Union of Am erica or the Association of Flight Attendants. Sources of Additional Information Inform ation about job opportuni ties in a particular airline and the qualifications required may be ob tained by writing to the personnel m anager of the company. Addresses of com panies are available from: Air Transport Association of America, 1709 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. FOOD S C IE N TIS TS (D.O.T. 022.081, 040.081, and 041.081) Nature of the Work In the past, consum ers processed m ost food in the hom e, but today industry processes almost all foods. A key w orker involved in the devel opm ent and processing of the large variety o f foods available today is the food scientist or food technologist. Food scientists investigate the chem ical, physical, and biological nature o f food and apply this knowl 115 edge to processing, preserving, p ack aging, d istrib u tin g , and storing an a d e q u a te , n u tritio u s, w holesom e, and econom ical food supply. A bout three-fifths o f all scientists in food processing work in research and d e velopm ent. O thers w ork in quality assurance laboratories o r in pro d u c tio n o r p ro c essin g a re a s o f food plants. Some teach o r do basic re search in colleges and universities. Food scientists in basic research study the structure and com position o f food and the changes it undergoes in storage and processing. For exam ple, they may develop new sources of proteins, study the effects o f process ing on m icroorganism s, or search for factors th at affect the flavor, texture, or appearance of foods. Food scien tists who w ork in applied research and developm ent create new foods and develop new processing m eth ods. They also seek to im prove exist ing foods by making them m ore nu tritious and enhancing their flavor, color, and texture. Food scientists insure th a t each p roduct will retain its characteristics and n u tritive value during storage. They also conduct chem ical and m i crobiological tests to see that p ro d ucts m eet industry and governm ent standards, and they may determ ine the nutritive contents o f products in Food scientists conduct tests to identify bacterial cultures. 116 order to comply with Federal nutri tional labeling requirem ents. In quality control laboratories, food scientists check raw ingredients for freshness, m aturity, or suitability for processing. They may use m a chines th a t test for tenderness by finding the am ount of force neces sary to puncture the item. Periodical ly, they inspect processing line o p erations to insure conform ance with governm ent and industry standards. F o r ex a m p le , sc ie n tists te st p ro cessed foods for sugar, starch, p ro tein, fat, vitamin, and mineral co n te n t. T hey m ake su re th a t, a fte r processing, various enzymes are in active and m icrobial levels are ad e quately low so that the food will not spoil during storage or present a safe ty hazard. O ther food scientists are involved in developing and im prov ing packaging and storage m ethods. Food scientists in production p re p a re p r o d u c tio n s p e c if ic a tio n s , s c h e d u le p ro c e s s in g o p e r a tio n s , m aintain proper tem perature and h u midity in storage areas, and supervise sanitation operations, including the efficient and econom ical disposal of wastes. To increase efficiency, they advise m anagem ent on the purchase of equipm ent and recom m end new sources of m aterials. Some food scientists apply their knowledge in areas such as m arket research, advertising, and technical sales. O thers teach in colleges and universities. ganizations such as the United N a tions. Some teach or do research in colleges and universities. (See state m ent on college and university teach ers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a m ajor in food science, or in one of the physical or life sciences such as chem istry and biology, is the usual minimum requirem ent for beginning jobs in food science. An advanced degree is necessary for many jobs, particularly research and college teaching and for some m anagem ent level jobs in industry. About 60 colleges and universities offered program s leading to the bachelor’s degree in food science in 1976. U ndergraduate students m a joring in food science usually take courses in physics, chemistry, m athe matics, biology, the social sciences and hum anities, and business adm in istration, as well as a variety of food s c ie n c e c o u r s e s . F o o d s c ie n c e courses cover areas such as preserva tion, processing, sanitation, and m ar keting o f foods. Most of the colleges and universi ties that provide undergraduate food scien c e p ro g ram s also o ffer a d vanced degrees. G raduate students usually specialize in a particular area of food science. R equirem ents for the m aster’s or d o cto r’s degree vary by institution, but usually include ex tensive laboratory work and a thesis. Places of Employment People planning careers as food A bout 7,000 persons worked as scientists should have analytical food scientists in 1976. Food scien minds and like details and technical tists work in all sectors of the food work. Food scientists must be able to industry and in every S tate. T he express their ideas clearly to others. Food scientists with a bachelor’s types of products and processes with which they work may depend on the degree might start work as quality locality. For example, in Maine and assurance chemists or as assistant Idaho they work with potato process production managers. After gaining ing; in the Midwest, with cereal p ro d experience, they can advance to ucts and m eatpacking; and in Florida more responsible m anagem ent jobs. and California, with citrus fruits and A food scientist might also begin as a junior food chemist in a research and vegetables. Some food scientists do research developm ent laboratory of a food for Federal agencies such as the com pany, and be prom oted to sec Food and Drug Adm inistration and tion head or another research m an the D epartm ents of A griculture and agem ent position. People who have m aster’s degrees Defense; others work in State regula tory agencies. A few work for private may begin as senior food chemists in consulting firms and international o r a research and developm ent labora tory. Those who have the Ph. D. d e gree usually begin their careers doing basic research or teaching. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent o f food scientists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. M ost openings will result from the need to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other fields, although some openings will arise from em ploym ent growth. Em ploym ent is expected to grow as the food industry responds to the challenge o f providing wholesome and econom ical foods th at can m eet changing consum er preferences and food standards. In addition, both pri vate households and food service in stitutions th at supply custom ers such as airlines and restaurants will de m and a greater quantity of processed convenience foods. Em ploym ent opportunities should generally be favorable through the m id-1980’s for food scientists with degrees in food science. O pportuni ties may not be as good for scientists with degrees in related fields such as chem istry or biology. Food scientists with advanced degrees are expected to have m ore favorable opportunities than those with only a bachelor’s de gree. An increasing num ber of food sci entists are expected to find jobs in research and product developm ent. In recent years, expenditures for re search and developm ent in the food industry have increased m oderately and probably will continue to rise. T h ro u g h re searc h , new foods are being produced from m odifications of wheat, corn, rice, and soybeans. F o r ex a m p le , fo o d sc ie n tists are working to improve “ m eat” products m ade from vegetable proteins. There will be an increased need for food scientists in quality control and pro duction because of the complexity of products and processes and the ap plication o f higher processing stan dards and new governm ent regula tions. Earnings and Working Conditions Food scientists had relatively high earnings in 1976, twice as high as the average for all nonsupervisory w ork ers in private industry, except farm ing. Food scientists with the bache lo r ’s deg ree had average startin g salaries of about $11,300 a year in 1976. Those with a m aster’s degree started at about $13,500, and those w ith th e Ph. D. d eg ree a t ab o u t $17,400. In the Federal G overnm ent in 1977, food scientists with a bache lo r’s degree could start at $9,303 or $11,523 a year, depending on their college grades. Those with a m aster’s deg ree could s ta rt a t $1 1,523 o r $14,097, and those with the Ph. D. degree could begin at $17,056 o r $20,442. The average salary for ex perienced food scientists in the F ed eral G overnm ent was about $21,500 a year in 1977. Sources of Additional Information For inform ation on careers in food science, contact: Institute of Food Technologists, Suite 2120, 221 North LaSalle St., Chicago, 111. 60601. Foresters also do research, provide forestry information to forest owners and to the general public (called extension w ork), and teach at colleg es and universities. Foresters often specialize in one area of work, such as tim ber m anage m ent, outdoor recreation, or forest economics. Some of these areas are recognized as distinct professions. Places of Employment About 25,000 persons worked as foresters in 1976. Nearly 2 out o f 5 worked in private industry, mainly for pulp and paper, lum ber, logging, and milling companies. About onefourth worked for the Federal Gov ernm ent, primarily in the Forest Ser vice of the D epartm ent of Agricul ture. The rem ainder worked for State and local governments, colleges and universities, or consulting firms or were self-employed, either as consul tants or forest owners. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a m ajor in forestry is the minimum educa tional requirem ent for those desiring p ro fe ssio n a l c a re e rs in fo re stry . FORESTERS (D.O.T. 040.081) Nature of the Work F o re sts are a vital n a tu ra l r e source. They can be used repeatedly w ithout being destroyed—if properly managed. The condition o f our envi ronm ent has becom e a m ajor nation al concern, and foresters play an im p o r t a n t ro le in p r o te c tin g t h a t environm ent by ensuring th at our forests are properly used. Foresters manage, develop, and protect these lands and their resources—tim ber, w ater, wildlife, forage, and re cre a tional areas. Foresters plan and supervise the cutting and planting o f trees. They also protect the trees from fire, harmful insects, and disease. F orest ers may be responsible for other d u ties ranging from wildlife protection and w atershed m anagem ent to the d e v e lo p m e n t and su p e rv isio n o f camps, parks and grazing lands. Foresters spend considerable time out doors in all kinds of weather. 117 However, due to keen job com peti tion and the increasingly com plex na ture o f the fo rester’s work, em ploy e rs p r e f e r g r a d u a te s w ho h o ld advanced degrees. C ertain jobs such as teaching and research require ad vanced degrees. Education in forestry leading to a bach elo r’s or higher degree was of fered in 1976 by 50 colleges and uni versities, of which 43 w ere accredit ed by th e S o c ie ty o f A m e ric a n Foresters. C urriculum s stress the lib eral arts and com m unications skills as well as technical forestry subjects. M ost program s also include courses in forest econom ics and business ad m inistration to supplem ent the stu d e n t’s scientific and technical know l edge. M a n y c o l l e g e s r e q u ir e students to spend one sum m er in a field cam p operated by the college. All schools encourage sum m er jobs th at give firsthand experience in for est or conservation work. In addition to m eeting the intellec tual dem ands of forestry, foresters m ust en joy w orking o u td o o rs, be physically hardy, and be willing to move, often to rem ote places. F orest ers should also be able to work well with people and be able to express them selves clearly. Forestry graduates usually work under the supervision of experienced foresters. A fter gaining experience, they may advance to m ore respon sible positions. In the Federal Gov e rn m e n t, an ex p e rien ce d fo re ste r may supervise an entire forest area, and may advance to regional forest supervisor or to a top adm inistrative position. In private industry, forest ers start by learning the practical and adm inistrative aspects of the busi ness. M any foresters work their way up to top m anagerial positions within their com panies. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent requirem ents for for esters are expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through th e m id -1 9 80’s. In re cen t years, however, the num ber o f p er sons earning degrees in forestry has e x c e e d e d o c c u p a tio n a l r e q u ir e ments, creating com petition for jobs. If the n u m b er o f degrees granted each year remains at present levels, 118 com petitio n is expected to persist throughout the period. O pportunities will be better for those who can offer an em ployer either an advanced d e gree or several years’ experience. The country will need m ore forest ers in the future to ensure an increas ing output of forest products. E m ploym ent also may increase as we becom e m ore aware of the need to conserve and replenish our forest re sources, and to improve the environ m ental quality of our forest lands. Private owners of tim berland may well employ m ore foresters as they recognize the need for—and the higher profitability of—im proved forestry and logging practices. The forest products industry will require additional foresters to apply new techniques for using the entire forest crop, to develop m ethods of growing superior trees in a shorter period o f time, and to do research in the fields o f plant genetics and fertilization. Em ploym ent of foresters will p ro b ably continue to grow faster in p ri vate industry th an in the F ederal G o v ern m en t w here budget lim ita tions may restrain growth. State gov ernm ent agencies will probably hire more foresters through Federal-State cooperative program s for fire co n trol, protection against insects and disease, recreation, and technical as sistance to owners of forest lands. The expected rapid increase in the em ploym ent of forestry technicians will reduce the am ount of time spent by foresters in perform ing routine tasks, but the forester will have to devote m ore and m ore time to super visory work and to the general m an agem ent o f the forest. Earnings and Working Conditions The average starting salary for fo r esters in 1976 was $10,000 a year, while experienced foresters averaged over $ 18,000, according to the limit ed data available. In private industry, starting forest ers averaged $10,300 a year in 1976 and the overall average salary was $17,700, according to the lim ited data available. G raduates entering the Federal G overnm ent as foresters in 1977 with just a bachelor’s degree started at $9,303 a year. However, because o f keen com petition, most foresters hired by the Federal Governm ent either held a m aster’s degree or had some experience, and generally started a t $1 1,523 a year. Ph. D .’s generally started at $14,097 or $17,056 a year. The m edian annual salary in 1977 for federally employed foresters exceeded $20,000. In local government, foresters gen erally began at about $10,700 a year in 1976, while their median annual salary was $15,400. State govern m ents paid about $9,200 annually to start in 1976, and State m edian sala ries were $15,400 per year. College professors generally started at about $ 11,000 annually in 1976, while their m edian salary was over $20,000 per year. Many faculty foresters supple m ent their regular salaries with in com e from lecturing, consulting, and writing. Many experienced foresters ad vance to jobs which require them to spend m ost of their time in an office. H o w ev er, th e b eginning fo re ste r spends considerable time outdoors in all kinds of w eather, sometimes in rem ote areas. F oresters may also work extra hours on emergency duty, as in firefighting or search and rescue missions. Sources of Additional Information G eneral information about the for estry profession, lists of reading m a terials, and lists of schools offering education in forestry are available from: Society of American Foresters, 5400 Grosvenor Lane, Washington, D.C. 20014. National Forest Products Association, 1619 Massachusetts Ave., NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. G eneral career inform ation is also available from: American Forest Institute, 1619 Massachu setts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. American Forestry Association, 1319 18th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. For details on forestry careers in the Forest Service, contact: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Ser vice, Washington, D.C. 20250. G EO G R APH ER S (D.O.T. 017.281, 029.088, and 059.088) Nature of the Work G eographers study the spatial characteristics of the e a rth —and all that is found on it. Such studies help to explain changing patterns of hu man settlem ent—where people live, why they are located there, and how they earn a living. G eographers are involved in a vari ety o f activities. M ost are college or university teach ers; o th ers are in volved in research, writing, and other n o n te a c h in g a c tiv itie s. T h e ir r e search includes the study and analy sis of the distribution o f land forms, clim ate, soils, vegetation, m ineral, w ater, and hum an resources. They also analy ze th e d istrib u tio n and structure o f political organizations, tra n s p o rta tio n system s, m arketing systems, urban systems, agriculture, an d in d u s try . M any g e o g ra p h e rs sp en d c o n s id e ra b le tim e in field study, using surveying and m eteoro logical in stru m en ts. T hey analyze maps, aerial photographs, and data transm itted by rem ote sensing equip m ent on satellites, and apply a d vanced statistical techniques in their work. Some geographers also co n struct maps, graphs, and diagrams. Econom ic geographers deal with the geographic distribution of eco nom ic activ ities—including m an u facturing, mining, agriculture, trade, and com m unications. Political geog raphers study the relationship o f geo graphic conditions to political affairs. Urban geographers study cities and their problem s and m ake recom m en dations about com m unity planning and developm ent, including housing, transportation, and industrial plant sites. (See statem ent on Urban Plan ners elsew here in the Handbook.) The physical characteristics and p ro cesses affecting the earth are the co n c ern s of physical geographers. Typically, they specialize in a p ar ticular branch of physical geography such as hydrology—the study of w a ter and its effects, or geomorphology, which is the study of land forms. R e gional geographers study the physical, ec o n o m ic , p o litica l, and cu ltu ra l characteristics of a particular region or area, which may range in size from a river basin or an island, to a State, a country, or even a continent. Car tographers com pile and in te rp re t data and design and construct maps and charts. They also conduct re search in surveying and m apping techniques and procedures. A grow ing num ber of medical geographers are concerned with the geographic aspects of hum an health problem s and planning o f health services. They study the effect of the natural envi ronm ent on health, including such factors as climate, vegetation, m iner al traces in water, and atm ospheric pollution, as well as the geographic distribution of hum an health prob lems and health care facilities. Form al training in geography p ro vides th e background for a wide range of jobs requiring expertise in environm ental resources and plan ning, research m ethods, and a variety of other areas. Examples of such jobs are aerial photo interpreter, clim a to lo g ist, com m unity develop m en t specialist, ecologist, intelligence ana lyst, m ap analyst, land econom ist, m arketing analyst, regional planner, research analyst, site researcher, and transportation planner. Jobs such as these generally require knowledge not only of geography, but of other disciplines as well. Particularly useful com binations include geography and economics, political science, sociol ogy, anthropology, or urban plan ning. Places of Employment Some geographers specialize in making maps. About 10,000 persons worked as geographers in 1976, excluding those teaching in secondary schools. Colleges and universities employ about three-fifths of all geographers. However, the Federal G overnm ent is an im portant em ployer of geogra phers, and many work in the W ash ington, D.C. area. For these geogra phers, em ployed mostly by mapping and intelligence agencies, skills in cartography, aerial photograph inter pretation, and remote sensing are im portant. The principal Federal employers are the Departm ents of Defense, In terior, Com m erce, and Agriculture. O ther agencies include the D epart ments o f State; Transportation; and 119 Health, E ducation, and W elfare; and the Environm ental Protection A gen cy (E P A ), N atio n al A e ro n au tical and Space A dm inistration (N A SA ), Energy R esearch and D evelopm ent Agency (E R D A ), and C entral Intelli gence Agency (CIA). State and local governm ents em ploy a growing num ber of geogra phers, mostly on city and State plan ning and developm ent commissions. Private industry em ploys a small but growing num ber o f geographers involved in research, planning, and location analysis. M ost work for text b o o k an d m ap p u b lish e rs, trav e l agencies, m anufacturing firms, real estate developm ent corporations, in surance com panies, com m unications and tran sp o rta tio n firm s, or chain sto res. O th ers w ork fo r scientific foundations and research organiza tions, or run their own research or consulting business. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum educational require m ent for beginning positions in geog raphy in governm ent, industry, or secondary schools usually is a bache lo r’s degree with a m ajor in the field. B achelor’s degree holders would find it helpful to have training in a spe cialty such as carto g rap h y , aerial photograph or rem ote sensing data interpretation, statistical analysis, or environm ental analysis. A m aster’s degree usually is the minimum requirem ent for the posi tion of college instructor, and is im portant for advancem ent in business and governm ent. In m any colleges and universities, however, a Ph. D. degree usually is required for a p ro fessorship and often is necessary to gain tenure. The Ph. D. degree often is necessary for senior level planning, research , and adm inistrative posi tions in governm ent, industry, re search organizations, and consulting firms. In the Federal G overnm ent, geog raphers generally must have a m ini mum of 24 sem ester hours in geogra phy or related fields. R equirem ents may vary for certain specialties such as cartography. A bout 400 colleges and universi ties offered program s in geography in 120 1976. U ndergraduate study provides a general introduction to the field o f geography and often includes field study. Research m ethods and writing skills also are taught. Typical courses offered are physical geography, cul tural geography, climatology and m e teorology, econom ic geography, p o litical geography, urban geography, and quantitative m ethods in geogra phy. C ourses in cartography, rem ote sensing, historical geography, ecol ogy, natural resource planning, social geography, geography of transporta tion, geographic aspects of pollution, and geography o f various regions also are offered. Geography m ajors should take appropriate electives in o th e r d e p a rtm e n ts. For exam ple, courses in economics, architecture, urban planning, and urban and rural sociology are im portant for planners; courses in drawing, design, com puter science, and m athem atics are im por tant for cartographers; and courses in physics, botany, and geology are im portant for physical geographers. In 1976, about 150 institutions of fered m aster’s degree programs; 55 offered Ph. D. programs. Applicants are required to have a bachelor’s d e gree in any of the social or physical scien ces w ith a su b stan tial b a c k ground in geography. Requirem ents for advanced degrees include field and laboratory work as well as ad vanced classroom study in geography and preparation of a thesis. M any graduate schools also require course work in advanced m athem atics, sta tistics, and c o m p u ter science b e cause of the increasing emphasis on these areas in the field. A language may be required for those students who plan to enter the field of foreign regional geography. Students should select graduate schools that offer appropriate areas of specialization and good research opportunities in nearby libraries, a r chives, laboratories, and field sta tions. Em ployment often is available at area governm ent agencies or re search, scientific, or industrial firms. Persons who w ant to becom e geog raphers should enjoy reading, study ing, and research because they m ust keep abreast of developm ents in the field. G eographers m ust work with abstract ideas and theories as well as do practical studies. They also must be able to work independently and com m unicate their ideas orally and in writing. Employment Outlook Em ployment of geographers is ex pected to grow faster than the aver age for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. However, most openings are likely to result from deaths, re tire m e n ts , and o th e r sep a ra tio n s from the labor force. Little growth is anticipated in col lege and university teaching, the tra ditional em ployer o f m any highly qualified geographers; as a result, m any such geographers may seek nonacadem ic positions. Many oppor tunities are becoming available in the fields of health services planning and e n v iro n m e n ta l m a n a g e m e n t an d planning, including such areas as land and w ater resources planning and flood m anagem ent. Significant growth in the num ber of jobs requir ing know ledge of rem ote sensing, cartography, and climatology also is expected. The Federal Governm ent will n eed additional personnel to w ork in program s such as h ealth planning, regional developm ent, en vironm ental quality, and intelligence. Em ployment of geographers in State and local government is expected to expand, particularly in areas such as health planning, conservation, envi ronm ental quality, highway planning, and city, com m unity, and regional planning and developm ent. Private industry is expected to hire increas ing num bers of geographers for m ar ket research and location analysis. The em ploym ent outlook for geog raphers with the Ph. D. is expected to be favorable through the m id-1980’s for research and administrative posi tions in governm ent, industry, re search organizations, and consulting firms. Ph. D. ’s may face com petition fo r acad em ic po sitio n s, alth o u g h those graduating from high-ranking universities should have an advan tage. Those with the m aster’s degree are likely to face com petition for academ ic positions, but should have godd opportunites for planning and m arketing positions in governm ent and industry. G rad u ates with a b a c h e lo r’s d e gree in geography are expected to face com petition for jobs as geogra phers. Some may find jobs as cartog ra p h ers, clim ato lo g ists, o r in te lli gence analysts, while m any of these degree holders may find em ploym ent in governm ent and industry as m an agem ent trainees, research assistants, or adm inistrative assistants. O thers may obtain em ploym ent as research or teaching assistants in educational in stitu tio n s while studying for ad vanced degrees. Some b ach elo r’s d e gree holders teach at the high school level, although in som e States the m aster’s degree is becom ing essential for high school teaching positions. O thers earn library science degrees and becom e m ap librarians. $9,303 or $11,523 a year in 1977, depending on their college achieve m ent. Those with a m aster’s degree started at $14,097 a year, and those with the Ph. D. at $17,056. G eogra phers and cartographers in the F ed eral G overnm ent averaged around $21,100 in 1977. G eographers som etimes m ust do field work in primitive regions o f the world, requiring an ability to adapt to different social and cultural environ ments. Earnings and Working Conditions Association of American Geographers, 1710 16th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20009. A ccording to the 1975-76 College Placem ent Council Salary Survey, bach elo r’s degree candidates in the social sciences received offers aver aging around $10,000 a year; m as te r’s degree candidates in the social sciences, around $12,000. A ccording to an Association of A m erican G eographers survey, Ph. D .’s with no teaching experience earned starting salaries betw een $12,000 and $14,000 for the ac a dem ic year 1975-76, while the aver age salary o f geographers em ployed in c o lle g e s an d u n iv e rs itie s was $19,000. Salaries o f geographers in planning positions in business and in dustry are com parable to those in the Federal G overnm ent. G eographers in educational insti tutions usually have an opportunity to earn incom e from other sources, such as consulting w ork, special re search, and publication of books and articles. In general, salaries of experi enced geographers are higher than the average for all nonsupervisory w orkers in private industry, except farming. The Civil Service Com mission rec ognizes education and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions in the Federal G overnm ent. In general, geographers in the F eder al G overnm ent with the bachelor’s degree and no experience started at Sources of Additional Information For additional inform ation on c a reers and job openings for geogra phers, and on schools offering var ious program s in geography, contact: G E O LO G ISTS (D.O.T. 024.081) Nature of the Work G e o lo g ists study th e s tru c tu re , c o m p o sitio n , an d h isto ry o f th e ea rth ’s crust. By examining surface rocks and drilling to recover rock cores, they determ ine the types and d istrib u tio n o f rocks b en e ath th e e a rth ’s surface. They also identify rocks and m inerals, conduct geologi cal surveys, draw maps, take m ea surem ents, and record data. Geologi cal research helps to determ ine the structure and history o f the earth and may result in significant advances such as the ability to predict ea rth quakes. An im portant application o f geologists’ work is locating oil and other minerals. Geologists use many tools and in strum ents such'as ham m ers, chisels, levels, transits (m ounted telescopes used to m easure angles), gravity m e ters, cam eras, compasses, and seis m ographs (instrum ents that record the intensity and duration of ea rth q u ak es and ea rth tre m o rs). T hey may evaluate inform ation from p h o tographs taken from aircraft and sat ellites and use com puters to record and analyze data. Geologists also examine chemical and physical properties of specimens in laboratories under controlled tem p e ra tu re and pressure. They may study fossil remains of animal and vegetable life or experim ent with the flow o f w ater and oil through rocks. L aboratory equipm ent used by ge ologists in clu d es com plex in s tru m ents such as the X-ray diffractom eter, which determ ines the structure of minerals, and the petrographic mi cro sco p e, used for close study of rock formations. B esides lo catin g re so u rces an d working in laboratories, geologists also are called on to advise construc tio n com panies and governm ental agencies on the suitability o f certain locations for constructing buildings, dams, or highways. Some geologists adm inister and manage research and exploration programs. Others teach and work on research projects in col leges and universities. Geologists usually specialize in one or a com bination of three general a re a s—ea rth m aterials, earth p ro cesses, and earth history. Economic geologists locate earth m aterials such as minerals and solid fuels. Petroleum geologists search for and recover oil and natural gas. Some petroleum geologists work near drilling sites and others co rre late petroleum related geologic infor mation for entire regions. Engineer ing geologists determ ine suitable sites for the construction of roads, air fields, tunnels, dams, and other struc tu res. T hey d ec id e , for exam ple, whether underground rocks will bear the weight of a building or whether a p ro p o se d stru ctu re may be in an e a rth q u a k e -p ro n e a re a . M in era l ogists analyze and classify minerals and p re cio u s stones according to c o m p o sitio n and stru c tu re . G eo chemists study the chem ical com po sition and changes in minerals and rocks to understand the distribution and m igration o f elem ents in the ea rth ’s crust. Geologists concerned with earth processes study land forms and their rock masses, sedim entary deposits (m atter deposited by w ater or wind) 121 thirds w ork in five States: Texas, California, Louisiana, C olorado, and O klahom a. Some are employed by A m erican firms overseas for varying periods of time. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement and eru p tiv e forces such as volca noes. Volcanologists study active and inactive volcanoes, and lava flows and o th er eruptive activity. Geomor phologists exam ine landform s and those forces, such as erosion and gla ciation, which cause them to change. O th er geologists are prim arily con cerned with earth history. Paleontolo gists study plant and anim al fossils to trace the evolution and developm ent o f past life. Geochronologists d eter mine the age o f rocks and land forms by the radioactive decay o f their ele ments. Stratigraphers study the distri bution and arrangem ent of sedim en tary rock layers by examining their fossil and m ineral content. M any geologists specialize in new fields th at require knowledge of an oth er science as well. Astrogeologists study geological conditions on other plan ets. Geological oceanographers study the sedim entary and other rock on the ocean floor and continental shelf. (See statem ents on oceanogra phers and mining elsew here in the Handbook.) 122 Places of Employment M ore than 34,000 people worked as geologists in 1976. M ore than three-fifths o f all geologists work in private industry. M ost industrial ge ologists work for petroleum com pa nies. Geologists also work for mining and quarrying com panies. (See state m ents on the mining and petroleum industries elsew here in the H and book.) Some are em ployed by co n struction firms. O thers are indepen d e n t c o n su lta n ts to in d u stry an d governm ent. The Federal G overnm ent employs over 2,000 geologists. Two-thirds work for the D epartm ent of the Inte rior in the U.S. Geological Survey, the Bureau of Mines, and the Bureau of Reclam ation. State agencies also employ geologists, some working on surveys in cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey. Colleges and universities employ about 9,500 geologists. Some work for nonprofit research institutions and museums. Em ploym ent of geologists is co n centrated in those States with large oil and m ineral deposits. Almost two- A bachelor’s degree in geology or a related field is adequate for entry into some geology jobs. An advanced degree is helpful for prom otion in most types of work, and is essential for college teaching and many re search positions. About 300 colleges and universi ties offer a bachelor’s degree in geol ogy. U ndergraduate students devote about one-fourth of their time to ge ology courses, including physical, stru c tu ra l and h isto rical geology, m ineralogy, petrology, and inverte brate paleontology, about one-third of their time taking m athem atics, re lated sciences—such as physics and chem istry—and engineering; and the rem ainder on general academic sub jects. M ore than 160 universities award advanced degrees in geology. G radu ate students take advanced courses in geology and specialize in one branch o f the science. Students planning careers in explo ration geology should like the o u t doors, and must have physical stam ina. Geologists usually begin their ca reers in field exploration or as re se a rc h assistan ts in la b o ra to rie s. With experience, they can be p ro m oted to project leader, program m anager, or other m anagem ent and research positions. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities in geol ogy are expected to be good for those with degrees in geology or in a relat ed science with courses in geology. The em ploym ent of geologists is ex pected to grow faster than the aver age for all occupations through the mid-1980’s. This growth will create many new openings each year. Many additional openings will be created each year by geologists who retire, die, or leave the occupation. Increased prices for petroleum and the necessity to locate new sources of other m inerals as older sources be com e exhausted will stim ulate d o mestic exploration activities and re q u ire m any ad d itio n al geologists. A d d itio n al geologists also will be n eeded to discover new resources and their potential uses. For exam ple, geologists will help determ ine the feasibility o f using geotherm al energy (steam from the e a rth ’s interi o r) to generate electricity. Geologists are needed to devise techniques for exploring deeper within the ea rth ’s crust and to develop m ore efficient m ethods o f mining resources. They also are needed to develop adequate w ater supplies and w aste disposal m ethods, and to do site evaluation for construction activities. Sources of Additional information G eneral inform ation on training and career opportunities for geolo gists is available from: American Geological Institute, 5205 Leesburg Pike, Falls Church, Va. 22041. For inform ation on Federal Gov ernm ent careers, contact: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Exam iners for Washington, D.C., 1900 E St. N W , Washington, D.C. 20415. G EO P H Y S IC IS TS (D.O.T. 024.081) Nature of the Work Earnings and Working Conditions Geologists have relatively high salaries, with average earnings over twice those of nonsupervisory work ers in private industry, except farm ing. According to a survey done by the College Placem ent Council, in early 1977 graduates with bach elo r’s de grees in oth er physical and earth sci ences received average starting of fers o f $13,300 a year. G raduates with m aster’s degrees in geology and related geological sciences received average starting offers of $14,900 per year. In the Federal G overnm ent in 1977, geologists having a bachelor’s degree could begin at $9,303 or $1 1,523 a year, depending on their college records. Those having a m as te r’s degree could start at $ 11,523 or $14,097 a year; those having the Ph. D. degree at $17,056 or $20,442. In 1977, the average salary for geolo gists em ployed in the Federal Gov ernm ent was over $25,000 a year. C onditions of work vary. Explora tion geologists often work overseas. Geologists travel to rem ote sites by helicopter and jeep, and cover large a re a s by fo o t, o fte n w o rk in g in team s. Geologists in m ining som e times work underground. W hen not working outdoors, they are in com fortable, well-lighted, well-ventilated offices and laboratories. Geophysicists study the com posi tion and physical aspects of the earth and its electric, m agnetic, and gravi ta tio n a l fields. G eo p h y sicists use highly com plex instrum ents such as the m agnetom eter which m easures variations in the e a rth ’s m agnetic field, and the gravim eter which m ea sures m inute variations in gravita tional attraction. They often use sat ellites to conduct tests from outer space and com puters to collect and analyze data. Geophysicists usually specialize in 1 of 3 general phases of the science— solid earth, fluid earth, and upper atm osphere. Some may also study other planets. Solid earth geophysicists search for oil and m ineral deposits, map the e a r th ’s su rfa ce, and study e a r th quakes. Exploration geophysicists use seismic prospecting techniques to lo cate oil and m ineral deposits. They send sound waves into the earth and record the echoes bouncing off the rock layers below to determ ine if conditions are favorable for the a c cum ulation of oil. Seismologists study the ea rth ’s in terior and earth vibrations caused by ea rth q u ak es and m anm ade explo sions. They explore for oil and m iner als, study underground detection of nuclear explosions, and provide in form ation for use in co n stru ctin g bridges, dams, and buildings. For ex ample, in constructing a dam, seis mologists determ ine where bedrock (so lid ro c k b e n e a th th e so il) is closest to the surface so the best dam site can be selected. They use explo sives o r o th e r m ethods to c reate sound waves that reflect off bedrock; the time it takes for the shock wave to return to the surface indicates the depth of bedrock. Seismologists also seek to u n derstand the causes of earth q u ak es so th at one day they might be predicted. Geodesists study the size, shape, and gravitational field of the earth and o th er planets. T heir principal task is precise m easurem ent of the ea rth ’s surface. With the aid of satel lites, geodesists determ ine the posi tions, elevations, and distances be tw ee n p o in ts on th e e a rth , an d measure the intensity and direction of gravitational attraction. Hydrologists are concerned with the fluid earth. They may study the distribution, circulation, and physical properties of underground and sur face waters, including glaciers, snow, and perm afrost. They also may study rainfall and its rate of infiltration into soil. Some are concerned with water supplies, irrigation, flood control, and soil erosion. (See statem ent on oceanographers, som etim es classi fied as geophysical scientists, else where in the Handbook.) Geophysicists also study the atm o sphere, investigate the earth ’s mag netic and electric fields, and com pare its outer atm osphere with those of o th e r planets. Geomagneticians study th e e a rth ’s m agnetic field. Paleomagneticians learn about past m agnetic fields from rocks or lava flows. Planetologists study the com p o sitio n and a tm o sp h e re o f th e moon, planets, and other bodies in the solar system. They gather data from geophysical instrum ents placed on interplanetary space probes or from equipm ent used by astronauts during the Apollb missions. Meteo rologists sometimes are classified as geophysical scientists. (See s ta te m ent on m eteorologists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Places of Employment About 12,000 people worked as geophysicists in 1976. Most work in 123 ics, physics, geology, m athem atics, chemistry, and engineering. Geophysicists doing research or supervising exploration activities should have graduate training in geo physics or a related science. Those planning to teach in colleges or do basic research should acquire a Ph. D. degree. About 50 colleges and universities award the bachelor’s degree in geo physics. O th e r program s offering training for beginning geophysicists include geophysical technology, geo physical engineering, engineering ge ology, petroleum geology, and geod esy. More than 60 universities grant the m aster’s and Ph. D. degree in geo physics. C andidates with a bachelor’s degree which includes courses in ge ology, m athem atics, physics, engi neering, or a com bination of these subjects can be adm itted. Geophysicists often work as part of a team. They should be curious, an a lytical, and able to com m unicate ef fectively. Most new geophysicists begin their careers doing field m apping or explo ration. Some assist senior geophysi cists in research laboratories. With ex p e rien ce , geophysicists can a d vance to jobs such as project leader or program m anager, or other m an agement and research jobs. Some geophysicists work in research laboratories. private industry, chiefly for petrole um and natural gas com panies. (See statem ent on the mining and p etrole um industry elsewhere in the Hand book.) O thers are in mining com pa n ies, e x p lo ra tio n an d co n su ltin g firms, and research institutes. A few are in d e p e n d e n t c o n s u lta n ts and some do geophysical prospecting on a fee or co n tract basis. Geophysicists are em ployed in many southw estern and western States, and in those on the G ulf Coast, w here large oil and natural gas fields are located. Som e geophysi cists are em p lo y ed by A m erican firms overseas for varying periods of time. A lm ost 2,300 geophysicists, ge odesists, and hydrologists worked for 124 F e d e ra l G o v e rn m e n t ag en cies in 1976, m ainly the U.S. G eological Survey; the N ational O ceanic and A tm o s p h e ric A d m in is tra tio n (N O A A ); and the Defense D epart ment. O ther geophysicists work for colleges and universities, State gov ernm ents, and nonprofit research in stitutions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in geophysics or a geophysical specialty is suffi cient for most beginning jobs in geo physics. A bachelor’s degree in a re lated field of science or engineering also is adequate preparation, provid ed the person has courses in geophys Employment Outlook Em ployment opportunities are ex pected to be very good for graduates with a degree in geophysics or a re lated field, though few openings are expected. Nevertheless, the num ber of people qualified to enter the field may fall short of requirem ents if p re sent trends in the num ber obtaining geophysics training continue. Employment of geophysicists is ex pected to grow faster than the aver age for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. As known deposits of petroleum and other minerals are de pleted, petroleum and mining com panies over the next decade will need increasing num bers of geophysicists who can use sophisticated electronic techniques to find less acessible fuel and m ineral deposits. In addition, geophysicists with ad vanced training will be needed to do research on radioactivity and cosmic and solar radiation and to investigate the use of geotherm al pow er (steam from the e a rth ’s interior) as a source of energy to generate electricity. Federal agencies are expected to hire m ore geophysicists for new and expanding programs. Through the m id-1980’s, jobs will depend heavily on funds for research and develop m ent in earth sciences as the G overn m ent su p p o rts energy research in b o th e s ta b lis h e d an d a lte rn a tiv e sources. T he G overnm ent also may fund research to locate m ore natural resources and to p rev en t environ m ental dam age through better land use. Earnings and Working Conditions Geophysicists have relatively high salaries, with average earnings more than twice those of nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. According to a survey done by the College Placem ent C ouncil, in early 1977 graduates with bachelor’s d e grees in oth er physical and earth sci ences received average starting of fers o f $13,300 a year. G raduates with m aster’s degrees in geology and related geological sciences received average starting offers of $14,900 per year. In the Federal G overnm ent in 1977, geophysicists having a bache lo r’s degree could begin at $9,303 or $1 1,523 a year, depending on their college records. Geophysicists hav ing a m aster’s degree could start at $1 1,523 o r $14,841 a year; those having a Ph. D. degree, at $17,056 or $20,442. In 1977, the average salary for geophysicists em ployed by the F e d e ra l G o v e rn m e n t w as a b o u t $24,500 a year. Many geophysicists work outdoors and m ust be willing to travel for extended periods of time. Some work at research stations in rem ote areas, or aboard ships and aircraft equipped with sophisticated geophysical equip ment. W hen not in the field, geo physicists w ork in m o d e rn , wellequipped, well-lighted laboratories and offices. Sources of Additional information G eneral inform ation on career o p portunities, training, and earnings for geophysicists is available from: American Geophysical Union, 1909 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Society of Exploration Geophysicists, P.O. Box 3098, Tulsa, Okla. 74101. For inform ation on Federal Gov ernm ent careers, contact: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Exam iners for Washington, D.C., 1900 E St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. HEALTH A ND REGULATORY IN SPEC TO R S (G O V E R N M E N T) (D.O.T. 168.168, and .287) Nature of the Work Protecting the public from health and safety hazards, prohibiting unfair trade and em ploym ent practices, and raising revenue are included in the wide range of responsibilities of gov ernm ent. Health and regulatory in spectors help insure observance of the laws and regulations that govern these responsibilities. For discussion of a third type of inspector, see the statem ent on construction inspectors (G o v e rn m e n t) e lse w h e re in th e Handbook. The duties, titles, and responsibil ities of F ed eral, S tate, and local health and regulatory inspectors vary widely. Som e types o f in sp ecto rs work only for the Federal G overn m ent while others also are employed by S tate and local g o v ern m en ts. Many other workers employed as a c countants, agricultural cooperative extension service workers, and other agricultural professionals also have inspection duties. Health Inspectors. Health inspectors work with engineers, chemists, m i crobiologists, and health workers to insure com pliance with public health and safety re g u la tio n s g o v erning food, drugs, and various other co n sum er products. They also adminis ter regulations that govern the quar a n tin e o f p e rso n s an d p ro d u c ts entering the United States from for eign countries. The major types of health in sp ecto rs are: Food and drug, m eat and poultry, and agricul tural quarantine inspectors. In addi tion, some inspectors work in a field that is closely related to food inspec tio n —agricultural com m odity grad ing. Most food and drug inspectors spe cialize in one area of inspection such as food, feeds and pesticides, weights and measures, or drugs and cosm et ics. Some, especially those who work for the Federal Governm ent, may be proficient in several of these areas. W orking individually or in teams un der the direction of a senior or super visory inspector, they travel through out a geographical area to check periodically firms that produce, han dle, store, and m arket food, drugs, and cosm etics. They look for evi dence of inaccurate product labeling, decomposition, chemical or bacteri ological contam ination, and oth er factors that could result in a product b e c o m in g h arm fu l to c o n s u m e r health. They assemble evidence of vio latio n s, using p o rta b le scales, cam eras, ultraviolet lights, container sam pling devices, th erm o m eters, chemical testing kits, and other types of equipm ent. Product samples collected as part of their examinations are sent to laboratories for analysis. After com pleting their inspection, inspectors discuss their observations with the m anagem ent of the plant and point out any areas where corrective m ea sures are needed. They prepare writ ten rep o rts of their findings, and, when necessary, com pile evidence that may be used in court if legal actions m ust be taken to effect com pliance with the law. Federal and State laws empower meat and poultry inspectors to inspect m eat, poultry, and their byproducts to insure that they are wholesome and safe for public consum ption. Working as part of a constant onsite team under the general supervision of a veterinarian, they inspect m eat and poultry slaughtering, processing, and packaging operations. They also 125 check to see th at products are la beled correctly and that proper sani tation is m aintained in slaughtering and processing operations. Agricultural quarantine inspectors p rotect A m erican agricultural prod u c ts fro m th e in tr o d u c tio n an d spread o f foreign plant pests and ani mal diseases. To safeguard crops, fo rests, an d gardens, they inspect ships, aircraft, railroad cars, and m o to r v eh icle s e n te rin g th e U n ited States for the presence of restricted or prohibited plant or anim al m ateri als. Environmental health inspectors, or sanitarians, work prim arily for State and local g o v ern m ents. T hese in spectors perform a variety of inspec tion duties to help insure that the fo o d p e o p le e a t, th e w a te r theydrink, and the air they breathe m eet governm ent standards. They check the cleanliness and safety of food and beverages produced in dairies and processing plants, or served in res taurants, hospitals, and other institu tions. They often exam ine the han dling, processing, and serving of food for com pliance with sanitation rules and regulations. Environm ental health inspectors concerned with waste control over see the tre a tm e n t and disposal of sewage, refuse, and garbage. They examine places where pollution is a danger, perform tests to detect pollu tants, and collect air or w ater sam ples for analysis. They determ ine the n ature and cause o f the pollution, then initiate action to stop it. In large local and State health or ag ric u ltu re d e p a rtm e n ts, en v iro n m ental h ealth inspectors may spe cialize in areas of work such as milk and dairy products, food sanitation, waste control, air pollution, institu tional sanitation, and occupational health. In rural areas and small cities, they may be responsible for a wide range o f environm ental health activi ties. Agricultural com modity graders ap ply quality standards to various com modities to insure th at retailers and consum ers receive good and reliable products. They generally specialize in an area such as eggs and egg prod ucts, processed or fresh fruits and vegetables, grain, or dairy products. 126 Most health and regulatory inspectors are employed by the Federal Government 1976 em ploym ent (in thousands) 10 20 30 40 50 60 Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics They inspect samples of a particular product to determ ine its quality and grade, and issue official grading ce r tificates. G raders also may inspect the plant and equipm ent to insure th at adequate sanitation standards are m aintained. Regulatory Inspectors. R egulatory inspectors insure com pliance with various laws and regulations that p ro te c t the public welfare. Im portant types o f regulatory inspectors are: Immigration; customs; aviation safe ty; mine; wage-hour com pliance; al cohol, tobacco, and firearm s; and occupational safety inspectors. Im m igration inspectors interview and examine people seeking adm is sion, readmission, or the privileges o f passing through or residing in the United States. They inspect the pass ports of those seeking to enter the United States to determ ine w hether they are legally eligible to enter and to verify their citizenship, status, and identity. Immigration inspectors also prepare reports, m aintain records, and process applications and p eti tions by aliens for privileges such as immigrating to or living tem porarily in the United States. C ustom s inspectors en fo rce th e laws governing U.S. imports and ex ports. Stationed at airports, seaports, and b o rd e r crossing points, they count, weigh, gauge, m easure, and sample com m ercial cargoes entering and leaving the United States to de term ine the am ount o f tax that must be paid. They also inspect baggage and articles worn or carried by the passengers and crew of ships, air craft, and m otor vehicles to insure that all m erchandise being brought through ports of entry is declared and the proper taxes paid. Aviation safety officers insure that Federal Aviation Administration (FA A ) regulations that govern the quality and safety of aircraft equip m ent and personnel are maintained. Aviation safety officers may inspect a ir c r a f t m a n u fa c tu rin g , m a in te n an c e, or op eratio n s p ro ced u res. They usually specialize in inspecting eith er com m ercial or general avi ation aircraft. They are responsible for the inspection of aircraft m anu facturing and of major repairs. They a lso c e rtify a ir c r a f t p ilo ts a n d schools, pilot exam iners, flight in structors, and instructional materials. Mine inspectors work to insure the health and safety of miners and to prom ote good mining practices. To insure com pliance with safety laws and regulations, mine inspectors visit mines and related facilities to obtain inform ation on health and safety conditions. Mine inspectors discuss their find ings w ith the m anagem ent of the mine, prepare written reports that in c o rp o rate th eir findings and d eci sions, and issue notices of findings th at describe violations and hazards th at m ust be corrected. They also in v estig ate an d p re p a re re p o rts on mine accidents and d irect rescue and firefighting operations when fires or explosions occur. Wage-hour compliance officers in spect the em ployer’s tim e, payroll, and personnel records to insure com pliance with the provisions o f various F ed eral laws on m inim um wages, overtim e, pay, em ploym ent o f mi nors, and equal em ploym ent oppor tunity. They often interview em ploy ees to verify the em ployer’s records and to check for any com plaints. Alcohol, tobacco, and firearm s in spectors insure th a t th e industries which m an u factu re these products comply with the provisions of rev enue laws and o ther regulations on operating procedures, unfair com pe titio n , an d tra d e p ra c tic e s. T hey spend m ost of their tim e inspecting distilleries, wineries, and breweries; cigar and cig arette m anufacturing plants; wholesale liquor dealers and im porters; firearm s and explosives m an u factu rers, dealers, and users; and oth er regulated facilities. They p erio d ically au d it th ese estab lish m ents to determ ine th at appropriate taxes are correctly determ ined and paid. Places of Employment A bout 115,000 persons worked as health and regulatory inspectors in 1976. Nearly two-thirds of all health and regulatory inspectors work for the F ederal G overnm ent, although State and local governm ents also em ploy large num bers. The largest sin gle em ployer o f food and drug in spectors is the U.S. Food and Drug A d m in is tra tio n , b u t th e m ajority work for State governm ents. M eat and poultry inspectors and com m od ity graders who work in processing plants are employed mainly by the U.S. D epartm ent o f A griculture. Ag ricultural quarantine inspectors work either for the U.S. Public Health Ser vice or the U.S. D epartm ent o f Agri cu ltu re . E n v iro n m en tal health in spectors work primarily for State and local governments. Regulatory inspectors work for various agencies within the Federal G overnm ent, mainly in regional and district offices throughout the U nited States. Aviation safety officers work for the Federal Aviation A dm inistra tion; wage-hour com pliance officers, for the D epartm ent o f Labor; mine inspectors, the D epartm ent o f the In terior; and alcohol, tobacco, and fire arm s inspectors, the T reasury D e partm ent. Im m igration, custom s, and a g ric u ltu ra l q u a ra n tin e in sp ecto rs work at U.S. airports, seaports, b o r d er crossing points, and at foreign airports and seaports. They are em ployed by the Justice and Treasury D epartm ents. Training, Advancement, and Other Qualifications Because inspectors perform such a wide range of duties, qualifications for em ploym ent in these positions vary greatly. The F ederal G overn m ent requires a passing score on the Professional and Adm inistrative C a reer Exam ination (PA C E) for sever al inspector occupations, including im m ig ra tio n ; cu sto m s; w age and hour com pliance; alcohol, tobacco, and firearm s; occu p atio n al safety; an d c o n s u m e r sa fe ty (fo o d an d drug). To take this exam ination, a bachelor’s degree or 3 years of re sponsible work experience, o r a com bination of the two, are required. In some cases, agencies will give prefer ence to an applicant whose course work or work experience is related to the field o f em ploym ent. O ther Federal inspectors m ust pass an exam ination based on specialized knowledge, in addition to having work experience in related fields. These include com m odity inspectors such as those in m eat, poultry, live stock, and egg products. Air safety inspectors m ust have considerable experience in aviation m aintenance, and an FAA Air Fram e and Power Plant certificate. In addi tion, various pilot certificates and considerable flight experience are re quired, with the type dependent on the inspection duties. Many air safety inspectors receive both their flight training and m echanical training in the Arm ed Forces. No written exam i nation is required. Applicants for mine safety inspec to r positions generally m ust have specialized work experience in mine m anagem ent or supervision, or pos sess a skill such as electrical engi neering (for mine electrical inspec to r s ) . In som e c a se s, a g e n e ra l aptitude test may be required. Some Civil Service registers, in cluding those for agricultural quaran tine inspectors and fruit and vegeta ble graders, rate applicants solely on their experience and education and require no written examination. Qualifications for inspectors at the State and local level usually are simi lar to those for Federal employees. However, this may vary among gov ernm ent em ployers, particularly at the local level. Environm ental health inspectors, called sanitarians in many States, m ust have a bachelor’s degree in environm ental health or the phys ical or biological sciences. In 35 States, they are licensed and their qualifications regulated by examin ing boards. All inspectors are trained in the laws and inspection procedures relat ed to their specific field through a com bination of classroom and onthe-job training. In general, people who w an t to becom e h ea lth and regulatory inspectors should be able to accept responsibility and like de tailed work. They should be neat and personable and able to express them selves well orally and in writing. All F ederal G overnm ent inspec tors are prom oted on a Civil Service “ career ladder.” This means that, as suming satisfactory work perform ance, w orkers will advance autom ati cally, usually at 1-year intervals, to a specified maximum level. Above this level (usually supervisory positions), advancem ent is com petitive, based on needs of the agency and individ ual m erit. Employment Outlook * Em ployment of health and regula tory inspectors as a group is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the mid1980’s. The growth in em ploym ent of health inspectors is expected to be m ore rapid than that of regulatory inspectors. In addition to job oppor127 requiring additional inspectors to in sure com pliance. A v ia tio n in d u stry g ro w th , in creased international travel, and in creases in the volume of U.S. imports and exports should continue to cre ate new openings for aviation safety officers, quarantine and immigration inspectors, and custom s inspectors. Increasing coal mining activity and concern over mine safety should cre ate additional mine inspector jobs. C ontinued public pressure for equal em ploym ent rights should cause a growing need for wage-hour com pli ance officers. Earnings and Working Conditions Public concern for improved quality and safety of consumer products will require additional inspectors to insure compliance. tunities stem m ing from growth, many inspectors will be needed each year to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to oth er occupations. Increased food consum ption caused by population growth and greater public concern over potential 128 health hazards should create addi tional jobs for food and drug, m eat and poultry, and other com m odity inspectors and graders. Public co n cern for im proved quality and safety of consum er products also should re sult in new legislation in these areas, With the exception o f mine inspec tors and aviation safety officers, the Federal Governm ent paid health and reg u lato ry inspectors and graders starting salaries of $9,303 or $ 11,523 a year in 1977, depending on the type of position and the qualifica tions of the applicant. Aviation safety officers and mining inspectors usual ly re c e iv e d s ta rtin g s a la rie s o f $14,097. Salaries of experienced m eat and poultry inspectors, egg product in spectors, agricultural quarantine in spectors, alcohol, tobacco, and fire arm s inspectors, and custom s and im m igration inspectors were over $14,000 a year in 1977. Experienced food and drug inspectors (consum er safety officers), mine inspectors, and wage-hour com pliance officers usu ally r e c e iv e d s a la r ie s o f a b o u t $20,000 from the Federal G overn m ent in 1977. Experienced aviation s a f e ty o f f ic e r s a v e r a g e d o v e r $24,000 a year. Nonsupervisory environm ental health inspectors working for select ed U.S. cities and counties received a v e ra g e s ta r tin g s a la r ie s a b o u t $11,000 in 1976; those working for State governments started at about $1,000 less. Experienced environ mental health inspectors working for State governm ents earned betw een $11,500 and $15,200, but those in top supervisory and adm inistrative p o s itio n s h a d s a la r ie s b e tw e e n $15,500 and $20,500 in 1976. Most health and regulatory inspec tors live an active life, m eeting many people and working in a variety of environm ents. Many travel frequent ly and are usually furnished with an autom obile or reim bursed for travel expenses. At tim es inspectors m ust work un der unfavorable working conditions. For exam ple, m eat and poultry, and alcohol, to b acco , and firearm s in spectors frequently com e in contact with strong, unpleasant odors; mine inspectors often spend a great deal of time in mines where they are exposed to the same hazards as miners. Many inspectors work long and often ir regular hours. Sources of Additional Information For facts about inspector careers in the Federal G overnm ent, contact: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Exam iners for Washington, D.C., 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. M ore detailed inform ation on qualifications for Federal jobs is available from local Civil Service Commission offices or from individ ual Federal agencies. Inform ation about career opportu nities as inspectors in State and local governm ents is available from State civil service commissions, usually lo cated in each State capital, or from local governm ent offices. staff o f assistant adm inistrators in larger organizations. Health adm inis trators m ake m anagem ent decisions on m atters such as the need for addi tional personnel and equipm ent, c u r rent and future space requirem ents, and the budget. Some health services adm inistra tors, including those who m anage hospitals or nursing hom es, oversee nursing, food services, and in-service training programs. Assistant adm inis trators usually direct the daily o p era tions of these departm ents; however, the chief executive keeps inform ed through formal and informal m eet ings with the assistants, the m edical staff, and others. In addition to these m anagem ent activities, many health a d m in istra to rs help to c a rry o u t fundraising drives and prom ote pub lic participation in health program s. This phase of the adm inistrator’s jo b often includes speaking before civic groups, arranging publicity, and c o ordinating the activities of the o r ganization with those o f governm ent or com m unity agencies. Places of Employment About 160,000 persons worked as health services adm inistrators in 1976. M ost adm inistrators work in health facilities, including hospitals (which em ployed about half of all adm inistrators), nursing and person al care homes, and health m anage m ent firms that provide adm inistra tive services to health facilities at a specified contract price. Some health adm inistrators work for governm ent agencies, including State and local health departm ents and the U.S. Public Health Service. In addition, the Federal Governm ent hires adm inistrators in Veterans A d m inistration and Armed Forces hos pitals and clinics. O thers work for voluntary health agencies that con duct research and provide care and treatm ent for victims of particular diseases or physical impairments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational requirem ents for health services adm inistrators vary HEALTH SER VIC ES A D M IN IS T R A T O R S (D.O.T. 169.168, 187.118, and 187.168) Nature of the Work M edical and health care is provid ed by organizations th at vary from larg e te a c h in g h o sp itals to sm all w alk-in clinics. E ach o f these re quires effective m anagem ent to func tion properly. Health adm inistrators, u n d e r th e g en eral su p erv isio n o f boards o f directors or other govern ing bodies, provide this m anagem ent. Adm inistrators coordinate the var ious fu n c tio n s and activ ities th a t m ake a h ealth o rganization work. They may do this personally, where the organization is small, or direct a Administrators coordinate the various activities of a health organization. 129 according to the position’s level of responsibility and the size o f the o r ganization. Generally, larger organi zations with m ore com plicated ad m inistrative structures require higher credentials than sm aller ones. A pplicants with m aster’s degrees in health o r hospital adm inistration may be hired as associate or assistant adm inistrators in hospitals, while those with m aster’s degrees in public health often find work as program analysts or program representatives in public health departm ents. Very few m aster’s degree recipients take entry positions in nursing or personal care hom es, although many nursing hom e adm inistrators pursue graduate education while em ployed. B achelor’s degree recipients usual ly begin their careers as adm inistra tive assistants or dep artm ent heads in hospitals, o r as assistant adm inistra tors in nursing hom es. G raduates of 2-year, asso ciate d egree program s generally are hired as unit directors or assistant d epartm ent heads in hos pitals, o r as assistants to program representatives in public health d e p artm en ts. Some associate degree holders find assistant adm inistrator jobs in small nursing hom es. T he Ph. D. degree usually is re quired for positions in teaching or research, and is an asset for those seeking adm in istrative jobs in the larger, m ore prestigious health or ganizations. A lthough some public health departm ents still require chief adm inistrators to be physicians, the trend is away from this. A dm inistrators in A rm ed Forces hospitals usually are career military personnel. In 1976, over 40 bachelor and associate degree program s in health se rv ic e s a d m in is tra tio n w ere o f fered—the majority w ere 4-year curriculum s. In ad d itio n , th ere w ere ab o u t 52 program s in hospital or health services adm inistration th at led to the m aster’s degree, and 19 schools o f public health offered p ro grams leading to a m aster’s degree in public health. To en ter graduate program s, appli cants m ust have a b ach elo r’s degree, with courses in natural sciences, psy ch o lo g y , so ciology, sta tistic s, a c counting, and econom ics. C om peti tion for entry to these program s is 130 keen, and applicants need above av erage grades to gain admission. The program s generally last about 2 years and may include some supervised ad m inistrative experience in hospitals, clinics, or health agencies. Programs may include courses such as hospital organization and m anagem ent, a c counting and budget control, person nel adm inistration, public health ad m inistration, and the econom ics o f health care. All States and the D istrict of C o lum bia require that the adm inistrator of a nursing or personal care hom e be licensed. R equirem ents are not uniform, but they generally specify a level of education, such as a b ache lo r’s degree, plus some am ount of experience in the field. Personal qualifications needed for success as a health adm inistrator in clude initiative and an interest in h elp in g th e sick. A d m in istra to rs should be able to work with and m o tivate people, and organize and di rect large-scale activities. They also should enjoy public speaking. Health adm inistrators advance in the profession by taking increasingly m ore responsible positions. For ex am ple, some hospital adm inistrators begin their careers in small hospitals in positions with broad responsibil ities, such as assistant adm inistrator. They advance by moving to jobs as associate or chief adm inistrator in larger hospitals. M ore com m only, they start in a large institution in a position th at is som ewhat narrow in scope—for example, as departm ent head in charge o f purchasing. R e gardless o f the path of advancem ent chosen, the ultim ate occupational goal in hospitals and nursing homes is the job of chief executive or chief adm inistrative officer. Employment Outlook The num ber of graduate program s in h e a lth a d m in is tra tio n has in creased rapidly in recent years and administative specialists with gradu ate degrees in other fields also have entered the profession. C onsequent ly, it may becom e m ore difficult for those with less than graduate educa tion to enter health adm inistration in top m anagem ent positions. In addi tion, som e adm inistrative jobs will continue to be filled by registered nurses, physicians, and members of religious communities. Em ployment of health services ad m in istra to rs is ex p e cted to grow m uch faster than the average for all occupations to 1985 as the quantity o f p a tie n t services increases and h e a lth serv ic es m an ag e m en t b e com es m ore complex. The dem and for adm inistrators will be stimulated by th e fo rm a tio n o f m ore g roup medical practices and health m ainte nance organizations (facilities th at offer subscribers a broad range of medical services for a monthly fee paid in ad v a n ce). A d m in istrato rs also will be needed in nursing and convalescent homes to handle the in creasing am ount o f adm inistrative work expected as these facilities ex pand in size. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of hospital adm inistrators depend on factors such as the level of job responsibility; the size, type, and location of the hospital; and the size of its administrative staff and budget. Chief adm inistrators in hospitals with up to 199 beds earned an aver age of $25,500 a year in 1976. Some, in la rg e r h o sp ita ls, e a rn e d o v er $45,000. R ecent recipients of m as te r’s degrees in health administration starting work in V eterans Adminis t r a t i o n (V A ) h o s p ita ls e a r n e d $14,097 a year in 1977. The average salary paid adm inistrators of Federal hospitals was $26,700. Commissioned officers in the Armed Forces who work as hospital adm inistrators hold ranks ranging from second lieutenant to colonel or from ensign to captain. Commanding officers of large Armed Forces hospi tals are generally physicians, who may hold higher ranks. Hospital ad m inistrators in the U.S. Public Health Service are com m issioned officers holding ranks ranging from lieuten ant (junior grade) to captain in the Navy. Adm inistrators of nursing and p e r sonal care hom es usually earn lower salaries than those paid hospital ad m inistrators in facilities having simi lar num bers of beds. Most adminis trators em ployed by voluntary health agencies earn ed betw een $15,000 and $30,000 a year in 1976. H ealth adm inistrators often work long hours. Because health facilities such as nursing hom es and hospitals operate around the clock, adminis trators in these institutions may be called at all hours to settle em ergen cy problem s. Also, som e travel may be required to attend m eetings or, in the case o f regional, State or local public health d epartm ent and volun tary health agency adm inistrators, to inspect facilities in the field. Sources of Additional Information Inform ation about health adminis tration and the academ ic program s in this field offered by universities, col leges, and com m unity colleges is available from: American College of Hospital Administration, 840 North Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60611. Association of University Programs in Health Administration, One Dupont Circle, NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. American Public Health Association, Division of Program Services, 1015 18th St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. National Health Council, Health Careers Pro gram, 1740 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10019. American College of Nursing Home Adminis trators, 4650 East-West Hwy., Washing ton, D.C. 20014. H IS TO R IA N S (D .O .T. 052.038 and .088) Nature of the Work History is the record o f past events, institutions, ideas, and peo ple. Historians describe and analyze the past through writing, teaching, and re s e a rc h . T h ey re la te th e ir know ledge o f the p ast to cu rren t events in an effort to explain the pre sent. Historians may specialize in the history of a specific country or area, or era—ancient, m edieval, or m od ern. They also may specialize in the history of a field, such as economics, Some historians are adm inistrators in governm ent or researchers who p re pare studies, articles, and books on their findings. Places of Employment Colleges and universities employ about 70 percent of all historians. m edicine and disease, philosophy, re ligion, science, culture, military af fairs, the labor m ovem ent, art, or a r c h ite c tu re . O th e r sp e c ia ltie s a re concerned with historic preservation, women, business, archives, quantita tive analysis, and the relationship b e tw een technological and o th er as pects of historical developm ent. In this country, many historians specialize in the social or political history of either the United States o r m odem Europe; however, a growing num ber are specializing in African, Latin Am erican, Asian, or N ear East ern history. Some historians special ize in phases of a larger historical field, such as the A m erican Civil War. M ost historians work in colleges and universities and are prim arily concerned with teaching. They often lecture, write, and do research o u t side the academ ic setting. O ther his torians em ployed in colleges and uni versities are involved in research and d ev elo p m en t, ad m in istratio n , and other non-teaching activities. Some specialists, called archivists, work for museums, special libraries, historical societies, and o th er organizations. They co llect historical docum ents and objects, prepare historical exhib its, and edit and classify historical m aterials for use in research and o th er activities. A growing num ber of historians are concerned with the in terpretation and preservation of his to ric b u ild in g s, tre a s u re s , d o c u ments, and other items. A few serve as consultants to editors, publishers, and producers of m aterials for radio, te le v is io n , an d m o tio n p ic tu re s . An estim ated 22,500 persons worked as professional historians in 1976, excluding those teaching in secondary schools. Colleges and uni versities employ about seventy p er cent of all historians. Historians also work in archives, libraries, museums, research organizations, historical so cieties, publishing firms, large corpo rations, and governm ent agencies. Historians employed in the Federal Governm ent work principally in the National Archives, Smithsonian In stitution, or in the Departm ents of Defense, Interior, and State. O ther Federal agencies that employ histori ans include the National Aeronautics and Space A dm inistration, Central Intelligence Agency, National Secu rity Agency, and the Departm ents of Agriculture, Com merce, Transporta tion, and Health, Education and W el fare. A small but growing num ber w ork fo r S tate and local govern ments. Historians are employed in virtual ly all U.S. institutions of higher edu cation. M ost historians who work for th e F e d e ra l G o v e rn m e n t are in W ashington, D.C. Historians in o th er types of employment usually work in localities having museums or li braries with collections adequate for historical research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement G raduate education usually is n ec essary for em ploym ent as a historian. A m aster’s degree in history is the minimum requirem ent for the posi tion of college instructor. A Ph. D. degree usually is required for a p ro fessorship and for administrative po sitions, and almost always is neces sary to gain tenure. W hile historians in the F ederal G overnm ent generally must have 24 sem ester hours in history, require ments may vary for certain specialists such as archivists, who usually must have 30 hours of graduate work in history. Most historians in the F eder a l al G overnm ent and in nonprofit o r ganizations have Ph. D. degrees, or their equivalent in training and expe rience. A lthough a bach elor’s degree with a m ajor in history is sufficient train ing for som e beginning jobs in gov ernm ent— either Federal, State, or lo cal— advan cem en t opportunities may be lim ited for persons w ithout at least a m aster’s and preferably a Ph. D. degree in history. Since beginning jobs are likely to be concerned with collection and p reservation of his torical data, a knowledge of archival work is helpful. Training for historians is available in many colleges and universities. Over 1,250 schools offer program s for the b ach elo r’s degree; about 440, the m aster’s; and about 145, d o cto r ates. H istory cu rricu lu m s in the N a tio n ’s colleges and universities are varied; however, each basically pro vides training in research m ethods, writing, and speaking. These are the basic skills essential for historians in all positions. Q uantitative m ethods o f analysis, including statistical and com puter techniques, are increasing ly im portant for historians; many col lege program s include them . M ost d o c to ra l c a n d id a te s m u st ex h ib it com petence in a foreign language. Historians spend a great deal of time studying, doing research, w rit ing p apers and reports, and giving lectures and presentations. T here fore, they m ust possess analytical skills and the ability to com m unicate their ideas effectively, orally and in writing. T he ability to work both independently and as p art of a group also is essential. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent o f historians is ex pected to grow more slowly than the av£ age for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. Job openings will re sult chiefly from deaths, retirem ents, and other separations from the labor force. Only a small num ber of historians will be needed to fill positions in colleges and universities, junior col leges, libraries, archives, museums, secondary schools, research organi zations, publishing firms, and govern 132 m ent agencies. Persons with training in historical specialties such as his toric preservation and business histo ry, in addition to those well-trained in quantitative m ethods in historical research are expected to have the m ost fav o rab le jo b o p p o rtu n ities. Those who are able to teach several areas of history should have the best opportunities for jobs in colleges and universities. Although inform ation is limited on patterns o f entry to the field, it is clear th at the num ber of persons seeking to enter the occupation will greatly exceed available positions. As a result, historians with a Ph. D. are expected to face keen com peti tion for positions through the mid1980’s. Those graduating from pres tigious universities should have some advantage in this highly com petitive situation. Since academ ic institutions a re th e tra d itio n a l em p lo y ers o f many highly qualified historians and com petition for these jobs is expect ed to be particularly keen, many Ph. D .’s are expected to accep t p arttim e, tem porary assignm ents as in structors with little o r no hope o f gaining tenure. Persons with the m as te r’s degree in history will encounter very keen com petition for jobs as his torians. However, some of them will find teaching positions in com m unity and junior colleges or high schools; such jobs may have State certifica tion requirem ents. People with a bachelor’s degree in history are likely to find very limited opportunities for em ploym ent as p ro fessional historians. However, an u n d erg rad u ate m ajor in history p ro vides an excellent background for some jobs in international relations, journalism , and other areas, and for continuing education in law, business a d m in stra tio n , and re la te d d isc i plines. Many graduates will find jobs in secondary schools or in govern m ent, business, and industry as m an agem ent or sales trainees, or as re search or adm inistrative assistants. Earnings A ccording to the 1975-76 College P lacem ent C ouncil Survey, b ac h e lo r’s degree candidates in the social sciences received offers averaging around $10,000 a year; m aster’s d e gree candidates in the social scienc es, around $12,000. According to inform ation from the A m erican Historical Association, large public colleges and universities offered starting salaries ranging from about $13-$ 15,000 for academ ic year 1975-76. Smaller public and pri vate academ ic institutions generally offered lower salaries. Full professors and top ad m in istrato rs may earn $25-$30,000 a year or more. In gen eral, salaries of experienced histori ans are higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. The Civil Service Commission rec ognizes education and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions in the Federal Governm ent. In general, historians having a bache lor’s degree could start at $9,303 or $11,523 a year in 1977, depending upon the applicant’s academ ic rec ord. Starting salaries for those having a m aster’s degree were $14,097 a year, and for those having a Ph. D., $17,056. Historians and archivists in the F ederal G overnm ent averaged around $22,400 a year in 1977. Many historians, particularly those in college teaching, supplem ent their income by teaching summer classes, writing books or articles, or giving lectures. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on careers and job openings for historians, and on schools offering various programs in history, is available from: American Historical Association, 400 A St. SE., Washington, D.C. 20003. For inform ation on careers and schools offering programs in historic preservation, contact: National Trust for Historic Preservation, 740 Jackson Place, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006. A dditional inform ation on n o n teaching opportunities for historians is available from: Organization of American Historians, Indiana University, 112 North Bryan St., Bloom ington, Ind. 47401. H O M E EC O N O M IS TS (D.O.T. 096.128) Nature of the Work Hom e econom ists w ork to improve products, services, and practices that affect the com fort and well-being of the family. Some specialize in specif ic areas, such as consum er econom ics, h o u sin g , h om e m an ag e m en t, hom e fu rn ish in g s and eq u ip m en t, food and nutrition, clothing and tex tiles, an d child d e v e lo p m e n t and family relations. O thers have a broad knowledge of the whole professional field. M ost hom e econom ists teach. Those in high schools teach students about foods and nutrition; clothing selection, construction and care; child developm ent; consum er educa tion; housing and hom e furnishings; family relations; and o th er subjects related to family living and hom e making. They also perform the regu lar duties o f other high school teach e r s t h a t a r e d e s c r i b e d in th e s ta te m e n t on s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l teachers elsew here in the Handbook. T eachers in adult education pro grams help men and wom en to in crease their understanding of family relations and to im prove their hom e m aking skills. T hey also co n d u c t tra in in g p ro g ra m s on se c o n d a ry , postsecondary, and adult levels for jobs related to hom e econom ics. Spe cial em phasis is given to teaching those w ho are d isad v an tag ed and handicapped. College teachers may com bine teaching and research and often specialize in a particular area of hom e econom ics. Hom e econom ists em ployed by private business firms and trade asso ciations prom ote the developm ent, use, and care o f specific hom e prod ucts. T hey m ay do re searc h , test p ro d u c ts , an d p re p a re a d v e rtise m ents and in stru ctio n al m aterials. They also may prepare and present program s for radio and television; serve as consultants; give lectures and dem onstrations before the pub lic; and conduct classes for sales per sons and appliance service workers. Some hom e econom ists study con sum er needs and help m anufacturers tra n s la te th ese n eed s in to useful products. Some hom e econom ists conduct research for the F ed eral G o v ern m ent, State agricultural experim ent stations, colleges, universities, and private organizations. The U.S. D e partm ent o f Agriculture employs the largest group o f researchers to do work such as study the buying and spending habits o f families in all so cio ec o n o m ic g roups and d evelop budget guides. Home econom ists who work for the C ooperative Extension Service conduct adult education program s and 4-H Club and other youth p ro grams in areas such as hom e m anage m ent, consum er education, family relations, and nutrition. Extension Service hom e econom ists also train and supervise volunteer leaders and paid aides w ho te a c h ad u lts and youth. (See statem ent on C oopera tive Extension Service workers else where in the Handbook.) Federal, State, and local govern m ents and private agencies employ hom e econom ists in social welfare program s to advise and counsel cli ents on the practical knowledge and skills needed for effective everyday family living. They also may help handicapped hom em akers and their families adjust to physical as well as social and em otional limitations by changing the arrangem ents in the home; finding efficient ways to m an age activities of daily living; aiding in the design, selection, and arrange m ent o f equipm ent; and creating o th er m ethods and devices to enable dis abled people to function at th eir highest possible level. O ther hom e econom ists in welfare agencies su pervise o r train workers who provide te m p o ra ry o r p a rt-tim e h elp to households disrupted by illness. Home economists in health serv ices provide special help and guid ance in home m anagem ent, consum er education, and family econom ics as these relate to family health and well-being. Activities of hom e econo mists working in health programs in clude the following: collaboration and consultation with other profes sionals on economic and home m an agem ent needs of patients and their families; d irect service to patients through hom e visits; clinic dem on strations and classes in homemaking skills and child care; counseling in the m anagem ent of time and resourc es, including financial aspects; assist ing socially and m entally h a n d i capped parents in developing their p o ten tial skills for child care and Some home economists work with children. 133 hom e m an ag em en t; w orking w ith agencies and com m unity resources; and supervising hom em aker aides. Places of Employment A bout 141,000 people w orked in h o m e e c o n o m ic s p ro f e s s io n s in 1976. This figure includes 45,000 di etitians and 5,600 C ooperative Ex tension Service w orkers who are dis c u s s e d in s e p a r a t e s t a t e m e n t s elsew here in the Handbook. A bout 75,000 hom e econom ists are teach ers, ab out 50,000 in sec ondary schools and 7,000 in colleges and universities. M ore than 15,000 are adult education instructors, some of whom teach p art tim e in second ary schools. O thers teach in com m u nity co lleg es, e lem e n ta ry schools, kindergartens, nursery schools, and recreation centers. M ore th an 5,000 hom e econom ists work in private business firms and associations. Several thousand are in re s e a rc h an d so cial w elfare p ro grams. A few are self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bout 350 colleges and universi ties offer a b ach elo r’s degree in hom e econom ics, which qualifies graduates for m ost entry positions in the field. A m aster’s o r d o c to r’s degree is re quired for college teaching, for cer tain research and supervisory posi tio n s , fo r w o rk as an e x te n sio n specialist, and for m ost jobs in nutri tion. Hom e econom ics m ajors study sci ences and liberal arts—particularly social sciences—as well as special ized hom e econom ics courses. They may co n centrate in a particular area o f hom e econom ics o r in w hat is called general hom e econom ics. A d vanced courses in chem istry and nu tritio n are im p o rtan t for w ork in foods and nutrition; science and sta tistics for research work; and journal ism for advertising, public relations work, and all other work in the com m u nications field. To teach hom e econom ics in high school, students m ust com plete the courses required for a te a c h e r’s certificate. Scholarships, fellowships, and assistantships are available for under 134 g ra d u a te and g ra d u ate study. A l though colleges and universities offer m ost o f these financial grants, gov ernm ent agencies, research founda tions, businesses, and the A m erican Hom e Econom ics Association F oun dation provide additional funds for graduate study. Hom e econom ists m ust be able to work with people of various incom es and cultural backgrounds and should have a capacity for leadership. Poise and an interest in people also are essential for those who deal with the public. The ability to write and speak well is im portant. Am ong the sub jects recom m ended for high school students interested in careers in this field are hom e econom ics, speech, English, health, m athem atics, chem istry, and the social sciences. Employment Outlook Home economists, especially those wishing to teach in high schools, will face keen com petition for jobs through the m id-1980’s. O ther areas of hom e econom ics also will experi ence com petitive job m arket condi tions as those unable to find teaching jobs look for other positions. How ever, for those willing to continue their education toward an advanced d eg ree, em p lo y m en t p ro sp ects in college and university teaching are expected to be good. Although little change is expected in the em ploym ent of hom e econo mists, many jobs will becom e avail able each year to replace those who die, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. The growth that is expected to occur will result from increasing awareness of the contributions th at can be m ade by hom e economists in child care, nutrition, housing and fur nishings design, clothing and textiles, consum er education, and ecology. They also will be needed to prom ote home products, to act as consultants to consum ers, and to do research for im provem ent of hom e products and services. Earnings and Working Conditions Home econom ics teachers in p u b lic schools generally receive the same salaries as other teachers. In 1976, the average annual salary for public s e c o n d a ry s c h o o l te a c h e r s w as $12,395, according to the National E d u c a tio n A sso ciatio n . T ea ch ers with a bachelor’s degree in school systems with enrollm ents of 6,000 or m ore received starting salaries aver aging $8,233 per year in the 1974-75 school year. Beginning teachers with a m aster’s degree started at $9,159 a year. Annual salaries for teachers at the college and university level in 1975-76 ranged from an average minimum of $7,272 for instructors in private 2 -year institutions to an aver age maximum of $25,387 for profes sors at 4-year public institutions. The Federal Governm ent paid hom e econom ists with bachelor’s de grees starting salaries of $9,300 and $11,500 in 1977, depending on their scholastic record. Those with addi tional education and experience gen e ra lly e a r n e d fro m $1 1 ,5 0 0 to $20,400 or more, depending on the type of position and level of responsi bility. In 1977, the Federal G overn m ent paid experienced home econo mists average salaries of $20,500 a year. Cooperative Extension Service workers on the county level averaged $14,000 per year in 1976; those on the State level received substantially higher salaries. In general, hom e econom ists earn about 1 1 /2 times as m uch as the average for all nonsupervisory w orkers in private industry, except farming. Home economists usually work a 40-hour week. Those in teaching and extension service positions, however, freq u en tly work longer hours b e cause they are expected to be avail able for evening lectures, dem onstra tions, and other work. Most hom e econom ists receive fringe benefits, such as paid vacation, sick leave, re tirem ent pay, and insurance benefits. Sources of Additional Information A list of schools granting degrees in home economics and additional inform ation about hom e economics careers and graduate scholarships are available from: American Home Economics Association, 2010 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036 HOTEL M A N A G ER S A ND A SS IS TA N TS (D .O .T. 163.118 and 187.118, .168) Nature of the Work Hotel m anagers are responsible for operating their establishm ents profit ably and satisfying guests. They d e term ine room rates and credit policy, direct the operation o f the kitchen and dining rooms, and m anage the housekeeping, accounting, and m ain ten an ce d ep artm en ts o f the hotel. Handling problem s and coping with the unexpected is an im portant part o f the job. M anagers who work in small hotels may do m uch o f the front office clerical w ork, such as taking room reservations and assigning rooms. In some small hotels and m any m otels, the m anager is also the owner and may be responsible for all aspects of the business. G eneral m anagers o f large hotels usually have several assistants who m anage various parts o f the opera tion. B ecause the h otel restau ran t and cocktail lounge are im portant to the success o f the entire establish m ent, they alm ost always are operat ed by m anagers with experience in the restaurant field. O ther areas that usually are handled separately are advertising, ren tal o f b an q u et and m eeting facilities, personnel, and ac counting. Large hotel and m otel chains often centralize some activities, such as General managers of large hotels usually have several assistants who manage var ious parts of the operation. purchasing and advertising, so that individual hotels in the chain may not n ee d m an ag ers for th ese d e p a rt m e n ts. M a n a g e rs w ho w o rk fo r chains may be assigned to organize a newly built or purchased hotel or to reorganize an existing hotel or m otel that is not operating successfully. A bout 137,000 hotel and m otel m anagers worked in 1976. M ore than a third were self-employed. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Experience generally is the m ost im portant consideration in selecting managers. However, employers in creasingly are em phasizing college education. A b a c h e lo r’s degree in hotel and restaurant adm inistration provides particularly strong prepara tion for a career in hotel m anage ment. In 1976, about 30 colleges and universities offered 4-year program s in this field. However, applicants to these program s may face increasing com petition in the coming years. T he courses in hotel work that are avail able in m any ju n io r colleges and technical institutes and through the Am erican Hotel and M otel Associ atio n also p ro v id e a good b a c k ground. A college program in hotel m an agem ent usually includes courses in h o tel a d m in istra tio n , ac co u n tin g , econom ics, d a ta processing, food service m anagem ent and catering, and hotel m aintenance engineering. Students are encouraged to work in hotels or restaurants during sum m er v acations because the ex perience gained and the contacts m ade with employers may help them to get b e t ter hotel jobs after graduation. M anagers should have initiative, self-discipline, and the ability to o r ganize work and direct the work o f others. They m ust be able to concen trate on details and solve problem s. Some large hotels have special onth e-jo b m an ag em en t train e e p ro grams in which trainees rotate am ong various d ep a rtm en ts to acquire a thorough knowledge o f the h o tel’s o p eratio n . O utstanding em ployees who have not had college training may receive financial assistance to help them acquire a degree. Most hotels prom ote employees with proven ability, usually front of fice clerks, to assistant m anager and eventually to general manager. New ly built hotels, p articu larly those w ithout well-established on-the-job training programs, often prefer expe rienced personnel for managerial po sitions. Hotel chains may offer better opportunites for advancem ent than independent hotels, because employ ees can transfer to another hotel in the chain or to the central office if an opening occurs. Employment Outlook Employment of hotel m anagers is expected to grow m ore slowly than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. Some job openings will occur as additional ho tels and motels are built and chain and fran ch ise o p e ra tio n s spread . However, most openings will occur as experienced managers die, retire, or leave the occupation. Applicants having college degrees in hotel ad m inistration will have an advantage in seeking entry positions and later advancem ent. See the statem ent on the Hotel Industry elsewhere in the Handbook for inform ation on earnings and working conditions, sources of addi tional inform ation, and more infor mation on em ploym ent outlook. IN D U S TR IA L DESIG NERS (D.O.T. 142.081) Nature of the Work W hen people buy a product, whether it’s a home appliance, a new car, or a ball point pen, they want it to be as attractive, safe, and easy to use as possible. Industrial designers com bine artistic talent with knowl edge o f m arketing, m aterials, and m ethods o f production to improve the appearance and functional design of products so that they com pete fa vorably with similar goods on the market. As the first step in their work, in dustrial designers com pare the prod135 Places of Employment A bout 12,000 persons were em ployed as in d u strial designers in 1976. Most worked for large m anu facturing com panies designing either consum er or industrial products or for design consulting firms. Others did freelance work, or were on the staffs of architectural and interior de sign firms. A few taught industrial design in colleges, universities, and art schools. Industrial design consultants work mainly in large cities such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. Industrial designers with industrial firms usually work in or near the m anufacturing plants of their com panies, which often are located in small and medium-sized cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement u c t with com peting p roducts, and gather inform ation about such things as the needs of the user of the prod uct, fashion trends, and effects of the p ro d u ct on its environm ent. A fter the initial research, industrial design ers sketch different designs and con sult with engineers, production su p e rv is o rs , and sales and m a rk e t research personnel about the practi cability and sales appeal of each idea. Team w ork is im p o rtant to get the best inform ation ab out specialized areas o f concern, such as engineering problem s o r new production or m ar keting m ethods. A fter com pany officials select the most suitable design, the industrial designer or a professional m odeler makes a m odel, often of clay so that it can be easily changed. After any necessary revisions, a final or w ork ing m odel is m ade, usually of the m a terial to be used in the finished prod uct. The approved m odel then is put into production. Although most industrial designers are pro d u ct designers, many others 136 employed by business organizations are involved in different facets of d e sign. Some industrial designers seek to create favorable public images for com panies and for governm ent serv ices such as transportation by devel oping tradem arks or symbols that app e a r o n t h e f i r m ’s p r o d u c t , advertising, brochures, and statio nery. Some design containers and packages that both protect and p ro mote their contents. O thers prepare small display exhibits or the entire layout for industrial fairs. Some d e sign the interior layout of special p u r pose com m ercial buildings such as restaurants and superm arkets. C orporate designers em ployed by a m anufacturing com pany usually work only on the products made by their employer. This may involve fill ing day-to-day design needs of the com pany or long-range planning o f new products. C onsultant designers who serve more than one industrial firm often plan and design a great variety of products. Com pleting a course of study in industrial design in an art school, in the design or art departm ent o f a university, or in a technical college is the usual requirem ent for entering this field of work. Persons majoring in engineering, architecture, and fine arts may qualify as industrial design ers if they have appropriate experi ence and artistic talent. Most large m anufacturing firms hire only indus trial designers who have a bachelor’s degree in the field. In 1976, 33 colleges and art schools offered programs in industri al design that were either accredited by th e N a tio n a l A sso c ia tio n o f Schools of A rt or recognized by the In d u s tria l D e sig n e rs S o ciety o f America. Industrial design programs may take either 4 or 5 years, and lead to a bachelor’s degree in industrial design or fine arts. Some schools require applicants to submit sketches and other examples of their artistic ability for prior approval. Some schools also award a m aster’s degree in industrial design. Industrial design programs differ considerably among schools. M ost college and university programs maintain a balance between science, hum anities, and art; art schools gen erally stress a strong foundation in art. In m ost program s, students spend m uch tim e in the lab designing ob jects in three dim ensions. In studio courses, students m ake m odels with clay, w ood, plaster, and other easily w orked m aterials. In schools th at have the necessary m achinery, stu dents m ake m odels o f their designs while learning to use m etalworking and w oodw orking m achinery. Stu dents also take courses in drawing, drafting, and other visual com m uni cations skills. M any industrial design program s, particularly those th at are part o f a liberal arts college or university, also include courses in basic engineering, in the physical and natural sciences, in the behavioral sciences, and in m arketing and business adm inistra tion. Industrial designers m ust have cre ative talent, drawing skills, and the ability to see familiar objects in new ways. T h ey m ust u n d e rsta n d and m eet the needs and tastes o f the pub lic, ra th e r than design only to suit their own artistic sensitivity. Design ers should not be discouraged when th eir ideas are re je c te d —often de signs m u st be re s u b m itte d m any times before one is accepted. Since industrial designers m ust cooperate with engineers and o th er staff m em bers, the ability to work and com m u nicate with others is im portant. A sound understanding o f m arketing, sales w ork, and oth er business prac tices is im portant for design consul tants. A pplicants for jobs should assem ble a “ p o rtfo lio ” o f draw ings and sketches to dem o n strate th eir cre ativity and ability to com m unicate ideas. New graduates o f industrial design program s frequently do simple as signments for experienced designers. As they gain experience, they may becom e supervisors w ith m ajor re sponsibility for the design o f a prod u ct or a group o f products. Those who have an established reputation and the necessary funds may start their own consulting firms. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent in this relatively small occupation is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations. In recent years, the trend has been away from frequent redesign o f household products, au tom obiles, and industrial equipm ent. However, continued em phasis on is sues such as ecology and p ro d u c t safety should increase dem and for in dustrial designers. D em and for industrial designers may fluctuate over short-run periods. During econom ic dow nturns when the m arket for new products is dam p ened, the need for these workers also tends to decline. Em ploym ent opportunities are ex pected to be best for college gradu ates with degrees in industrial design. In a d d itio n to openings re su ltin g from growth, some em ploym ent o p portunities will arise each year as d e signers die, retire, or transfer to other fields. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries for inexperienced industri al designers with a bachelor’s degree gen erally ra n g ed from $ 9 ,0 0 0 to $12,000 a year in 1976, according to limited data. A fter several years’ ex p e r ie n c e , it is p o ssib le to e a rn $14,000 to $18,000 a year. Salaries o f those with many years of experi ence averaged m ore than $25,000 a year in 1976, but varied according to individual talen t and the size and type of firm. Earnings of industrial designers who own their consulting firms fluc tuate greatly, but in general tend to be higher than the average earnings of corporate industrial designers. Industrial designers generally work a 5-day, 35-40 hour week, with occa sional overtim e necessary to m eet prod u ctio n deadlines. Independent consultants, who often are paid by th e assignm ent, may w ork lo n g er hours. Sources of Additional Information A brochure about careers and a list o f schools offering courses and d e grees in industrial design are avail able for 50 cents from: Industrial Designers Society of America, 1750 Old Meadow Rd., McLean, Va. 22101. IN D U S T R IA L TR AFFIC M ANAG ERS (D.O.T. 184.168) Nature of the Work Industrial firms want to receive raw m aterials and deliver custom ers’ goods prom ptly, safely, and with minimum cost. Arranging for the transportation of m aterials and fin ished products is the job of an indus trial traffic manager. Industrial traf fic m a n a g e r s a n a ly z e v a r io u s tr a n s p o r ta t io n p o s s ib ilitie s an d choose the m ost efficient type for th e ir c o m p a n ie s’ n e e d s—rail, air, road, w ater, pipeline, o r some com bi nation. T hen they select the route and the particular carrier. To m ake their decision, traffic managers con sider factors such as freight classifi c a tio n s a n d re g u la tio n s , fre ig h t charges, time schedules, size o f ship ments, and loss and damage ratios. (This statem ent does not cover traf fic m anagers who sell transportation services for railroads, airlines, tru ck ing firms, and other freight carriers.) Activities of industrial traffic m an agers range from checking freight bills to deciding whether the com pa ny should buy its own fleet of rail cars or trucks or contract for servic es. They route and trace shipments, arrange with carriers for transporta tion services, prepare bills of lading and other shipping docum ents, and handle claim s for lost or dam aged goods. Traffic m anagers keep re c ords of shipm ents, freight rates, com modity classifications, and applicable governm ent regulations. They also must stay inform ed about changing transportation technology. Traffic managers often consult with other company officials about the firm ’s transportation needs. They may, for example, work with produc tion departm ent personnel to plan shipping schedules, or with mem bers o f the purchasing departm ent to de term ine what quantities of goods can be transported most economically. Since many aspects of transporta tion are subject to Federal, State, and local governm ent regulations, traffic m anagers must know about these and any other legal m atters that apply to 137 Industrial traffic managers arrange the transportation of materials and finished products. th e ir c o m p a n ie s ’ sh ip p in g o p e r a tions. High level traffic m anagers re p re s e n t th e ir co m p an ie s b efo re ra te m ak in g and re g u lato ry bodies such as th e In te rsta te C om m erce Com mission, State commissions, and local traffic bureaus. Places of Employment M ore than 21,000 persons were involved in industrial traffic m anage m ent in 1976. A lthough m ost jobs are found in m an ufacturing firm s, som e tra ffic m a n a g e rs w ork fo r wholesalers or for large retail stores. Some traffic m anagers work for con sulting firms th at handle transporta tion problem s for clients; a few run their own consulting businesses. 138 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A lthough high school graduates with ex p erien ce in traffic d e p a rt ments som etim es are hired as traffic managers, a college education is in creasingly im portant in this field. F or some kinds o f work, college training is required. To argue cases before th e In terstate C om m erce C om m ission, for exam ple, a traffic m anager m ust m eet standards that include at least 2 years o f college. Som e em ployers p refer g ra d u ates o f technical an d trade school program s in traffic m an agem ent. O thers seek college and university graduates who have either m ajored, or taken courses, in tran s portation, logistics, physical distribu tion, m anagem ent, econom ics, statis tics, m arketing, com puter science, and com m ercial law. Industrial traffic training is avail able through colleges and universi ties, technical and trade schools, and sem inars sponsored by professional associations. M ore than 100 colleges and universities offer program s or courses in traffic m anagem ent. C ol lege courses in this field often are offered as part o f a m ajor program in business adm inistration. In some col leges and universities, however, traf fic m anagem ent is taught in d ep art m ents o f logistics, transportation, or m arketing and distribution. In addi tion to degree program s at the asso ciate, b ac calau reate, and graduate levels, a num ber of colleges and uni versities offer workshops, seminars, and o th e r short-term program s in tran sp o rtatio n and traffic m anage ment. Industrial traffic m anagers should be able to analyze num erical and technical data such as freight rates and classifications to solve transpor tatio n problem s. T he jo b also re quires th e ability to work indepen d e n tly an d to p re s e n t fa c ts an d figures in a convincing m anner. Newly hired traffic specialists of ten co m p lete shipping docu m en ts and calculate freight charges. A fter gaining experience, they do m ore tec h n ic a l w ork such as analyzing tran sp o rtatio n statistics. A com pe tent w orker may advance to a super visory jo b such as supervisor o f rates and routes; a few are prom oted to assistant traffic m anager and eventu ally to traffic m anager. Industrial traffic m anagers can sometimes help th eir chances for advancem ent by participating in com pany-sponsored tra in in g p ro g ra m s o r ta k in g a d vanced courses in traffic m anage ment. A growing num ber are certi fied by th e A m erican Society o f Traffic and Transportation, Inc. Employment Outlook Industrial traffic m anagem ent is a relatively small occupation and is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. Openings will occur each year as new jobs are created, and as traffic m anagers die, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. C ol lege graduates with a m ajor in traffic m anagem ent or tran sp o rtatio n can ex p e ct first co n sid eratio n for the available jobs. Grow th in the occupation will stem from an increasing em phasis on re ducing the cost o f receiving raw m a terials and distributing finished prod u c ts . A s th e d i s ta n c e b e tw e e n m arkets becom es g reater and rate schedules and regulations governing transportation m ore com plex, m anu facturers increasingly will require the expertise o f the traffic m anager. American Trucking Associations, Inc., 1616 P St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. F or in fo rm atio n on p ro p rie ta ry schools that offer program s in traffic m anagem ent, contact: National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, 2021 L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. IN S U R A N C E A G EN TS A ND BROKERS Earnings and Working Conditions (D.O.T. 250.258) Industrial traffic specialists’ sala ries started at about $ 11,000 a year in 1976, according to the limited in form ation available. A lthough earn ings o f experienced traffic m anagers vary, in general they are m uch higher than the average for all nonsupervisory w orkers in private industry, ex cept farm ing. Some traffic executives earned $50,000 a year o r more. A lthough industrial traffic m anag ers usually have a standard w ork week, some of them have to spend time outside regular working hours p reparing rep o rts, attending m eet ings, and traveling to hearings before State and Federal regulatory agen cies. Nature of the Work Sources of Additional Information Insurance agents and brokers sell policies th at protect individuals and businesses against future losses and financial pressures. They may help plan financial protection to m eet the special needs of a custom er’s family; advise about insurance protection for an autom obile, hom e, business, or other property; or help a policyhold er obtain settlem ent o f an insurance claim. Agents and brokers usually sell one or m ore of the three basic types of insurance: life, property-liability (casu alty ), and health. Life in su r ance agents, som etim es called life underw riters, offer policies that pay survivors when a policyholder dies. Depending on the policyholder’s in dividual circum stances, a life policy can be designed to provide retire m ent incom e, funds for the educa tion o f children, or other benefits. Casualty insurance agents sell poli cies th a t p ro te c t in d iv id u al p o l icyholders from financial losses as a result o f autom obile accidents, fire or theft, or other losses. They also sell industrial or com m ercial lines, su ch as w o rk e rs ’ c o m p e n s a tio n , product liability, or medical m alprac tice insurance. Health insurance poli cies offer protection against the costs o f hospital and medical care or loss of incom e due to illness or injury, and many life and casualty agents of fer health insurance in addition to other lines. Many agents also offer securities, such as m utual fund shares or variable annuities. An insurance agent may be either an insurance com pany employee or an independent business person au thorized to represent one insurance com pany or more. Brokers are not under exclusive co n tract with any single com pany; instead, they place policies directly with the com pany that best m eets a client’s needs. O th erwise, agents and brokers do much the same kind of work. They spend most of their time dis cussing insurance needs with p ro sp ec tiv e and existing cu sto m ers. Some time must be spent in office work to prepare reports, m aintain Answers to specific questions about a career in traffic m anagem ent are available from: American Society of Traffic and Transporta tion, Inc., 547 West Jackson Blvd., Chica go, 111. 60606. For a list o f colleges, universities, and technical institutes that offer in struction in transportation and relat ed areas, see: Directory o f Transpor tation Education, published in 1976 by the U.S. D epartm ent of Transpor tation (W ashington, D.C., U.S. Gov ernm ent Printing O ffice). The direc tory is available in m any school and public libraries. For a copy of the A m erican T ruck ing A ssociation’s Directory o f Trans portation Education in U.S. Colleges and Universities, write: Insurance agents plan insurance programs that are tailored to prospects’ needs. 139 re c o rd s, p lan in su ran ce program s th at are tailored to prospects’ needs, and draw up lists o f prospective cus tom ers. Specialists in group policies may help an em ployer’s accountants set up a system o f payroll deductions for em ployees covered by the policy. Places of Employment A bout 465,000 agents and brokers sold insurance full tim e in 1976. In addition, thousands o f others w orked part time. A bout half o f the agents and brokers specialized in life insur ance; the rest, in some type of property/liability insurance. A growing num ber o f agents (called m ulti-line agents) offer both life and propertyliability policies to th eir custom ers. Agents and brokers are em ployed in cities and towns throughout the country, b u t m ost work near large population centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A lthough many em ployers prefer college graduates for jobs selling in surance, m ost will hire high school graduates with p otential or proven sales ability. C ollege training may help the agent grasp the fundam en tals and procedures o f insurance sell ing m o re quickly. C ourses in a c c o u n t i n g , e c o n o m ic s , f in a n c e , business law, and insurance subjects are helpful. All agents and m ost brokers m ust obtain a license in the State where they plan to sell insurance. In m ost States, licenses are issued only to applicants who pass w ritten exam ina tions covering insurance fundam en tals and the State insurance laws. Agents who plan to sell m utual fund shares and other securities also m ust be licensed by the State. New agents usually receive training at the agen cies where they will work and fre quently also at the insurance com pa n y ’s h o m e o f f i c e . B e g i n n e r s so m etim es a tte n d c o m p a n y -sp o n sored classes to prepare for exam ina tions. O thers study on their own and accom pany experienced sales w ork ers when they call on prospective cli ents. 140 Agents and brokers can broaden their knowledge of the insurance business by taking courses at colleges and universities and attending insti tu te s, c o n fe re n c e s, and sem in ars sp o n so red by in su ran ce o rg an iza tions. The Life U nderw riter Training Council (LU TC ) awards a diplom a in life insurance m arketing to agents who successfully com plete the C oun c il’s 2-year life program . T here is also a course in health insurance. As agents o r brokers gain experience and knowledge, they can qualify for th e C h a r te r e d L ife U n d e rw rite r (C LU ) designation by passing a se ries o f exam inations given by the A m erican College of Bryn Mawr, Pa. In m uch the same way, a propertyliability agent can qualify for th e C hartered Property Casualty U nder w riter (C PC U ) designation by pass ing a series of exam inations given by the A m erican Institute for Property and Liability Underwriters. The CLU and CPCU designations are recog nized m arks o f achievem ent in their respective fields. Agents and brokers should be en thusiastic, self-confident, and able to com m unicate effectively. B ecause agents usually work w ithout supervi sion, they need initiative to locate new prospects. For this reason, many em ployers seek peo p le who have been successful in other jobs. Insurance agents who show unusu al sales ability and leadership may becom e a sales m anager in a local office or assume a m anagerial job in a hom e office. A few agents may ad vance to top positions as agency su perintendents or com pany vice-presi dents. M any who have built up a good clientele prefer to rem ain in saleswork. Some, particularly in the property-liability field, eventually es tablish their own independent agen cies or brokerage firms. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent of insurance agents and brokers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s as the volume of insurance" sales co n tinues to expand. M any additional jobs will open as agents and brokers die, retire, or leave their jobs to seek other work. Due to the highly com petitive nature o f insurance selling, many beginners leave the field be cause they are unable to establish a sufficiently large clientele. T h ere fore, opportunities should be quite favorable for am bitious people who enjoy saleswork. Future dem and for agents and brokers depends on the volume of insurance sales. Volume should in crease rapidly over the next decade as a larger proportion of the popula tion enters the period o f peak earn ings and family responsibilities. Life insurance sales should grow as m ore families select policies designed to provide educational funds for their children and retirem ent income. Ris ing incom es also may stimulate the sales of equity products such as m u tual funds, variable annuities, and other investments. Sales of propertyliability in su ran ce should rise as m ore co nsum er purchases are in sured and as complex types of com mercial coverage, such as product li ability and w orkers’com pensation, are expanded. However, em ploym ent of agents and brokers will not keep pace with the rising level of insurance sales because more policies will be sold to groups and by mail. In addition, each agent should be able to handle m ore business as com puters take over some of the time-consuming clerical tasks. The trend toward multi-line agents also will cause em ploym ent to rise m ore slowly than the volume of insurance sales. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginners in this occupation often are guaranteed a m oderate salary while they are learning the business and building a clientele. In many large com panies, new agents receive about $800 a month during this train ing period, which can last up to 6 months or longer. Thereafter, m ost agents are paid on a commission ba sis. The size of the commission de pends on the type and am ount of in s u ra n c e so ld , an d w h e th e r th e transaction is a new policy or a re newal. A fter a few years, an agent’s commissions on new policies and re- sion. Starting salaries can range from the m inim um wage plus a small com mission to a fixed salary o f $140 a week o r higher. Firms in large m etro politan areas usually pay the highest salaries. Some experienced interior design ers are paid straight salaries, some receiv e salarie s plus com m issions based on the value o f th eir sales, while o th ers work entirely on com missions. Incom es of experienced designers vary greatly. M any persons earn from $6,000 to $12,000 a year, and highly successful designers can earn m uch m ore. A small num ber o f nationally recognized professionals earn well over $50,000 annually. The earnings of self-em ployed d e signers vary widely, depending on the volume o f business, th eir profession al reputation, the econom ic level of their clients, and their own business com petence. D esigners’ work hours are som e tim es long and irregular. Designers usually adjust their workday to suit the needs o f their clients, m eeting with them during the evenings or on w eekends when necessary. Sources of Additional Information For inform ation about careers in interior design and a list o f schools offering program s in this field, con tact: American Society of Interior Design, 730 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10019. IN TE R P R E TE R S (D .O .T. 137.268) Nature of the Work Interpreters help people o f differ en t natio n s and d iffe ren t cultures overcom e language barriers by trans lating what has been said by one per son into a language th a t can be un derstood by others. T here are two basic types o f oral translation or interpretation: simul taneous and consecutive. In sim ulta neous interpretation, the interpreter translates w hat is being said in one language as the speaker continues to talk in another. This technique re quires speed and fluency in the for eign language on the p art o f the in terp reter and it is m ade possible by th e use o f e le c tro n ic eq u ip m en t, which allows for the transm ission o f the sim ultaneous speeches. C onfer ence in te rp re te rs often w ork in a g lass-e n clo sed b o o th from w hich they can see the speaker. W hile lis tening through earphones to w hat is being said, they sim ultaneously give the translation by speaking into a m i crophone. People attending the co n ference who do not understand the language being spoken may listen to an in terp reter’s rendition by simply pushing a button or turning a dial to get the translation in the language they know. Sim ultaneous interpreta tion generally is preferred for confer ences, and the developm ent o f p o rta ble equipm ent has extended its use to other large-scale situations. Consecutive interpretation also in volves oral translation. However, the sp e a k e r an d th e in te rp re te r ta k e turns speaking. A consecutive in ter preter m ust have a good m em ory and generally needs to take notes in o rder to give a com plete and exact transla tion. The chief draw back of consecu tive interpretation is th at the process is tim e c o n su m in g , b e c a u se th e speaker m ust wait for the translation before proceeding. Since interpreters are needed w henever people find language a b a r rier, the work involves a variety o f topics and situations. In terp reters may be needed, for example, to ex plain various aspects of A m erican life to a group of foreign visitors, o r they may be required to in terp re t highly technical speeches and discus sions for m edical or scientific gather ings. They may work at the U nited N a tio n s, o r find th em selv es in a courtroom or escorting foreign lead ers or business people visiting the United States. Places of Employment An estim ated 175 persons w orked full time as interpreters in the U nited States in 1976. The largest single concentration of interpreters was at the U nited Nations in New Y ork where about 90 people held full-time posts. V arious other international o r g a n iz a tio n s, lo c a te d p rim arily in W ashington, D .C ., also em ployed reg u lar staff in te rp re te rs. A m ong these are the Organization of A m eri can States, the International M one tary Fund, the Pan Am erican Health Organization, and the W orld Bank. W ithin the Federal Governm ent, the D ep artm en ts o f S tate and Ju stice w ere th e m ajor em ployers o f full time interpreters. An estim ated 500 persons worked as freelance interpreters. Freelance interpreters may work for various em p lo y ers u n d er sh o rt-term c o n tracts. A bout four-fifths were under contract on a tem porary basis to the D epartm ent of State and the Agency for In tern atio n al D evelopm en t to serve as escort interpreters for fo r eign visitors to the U nited States. Some o f these interpreters worked a g re a t p o rtio n o f th e year; o th ers worked for only a few days. The re m ainder of the freelance interpreters worked in the freelance conference field. These interpreters provided for both the supplem entary needs o f the international and Federal agencies an d fo r th e p e rio d ic , sh o rt-te rm needs o f various international co n ferences that are held in this country. The Organization of A m erican States employs many people in this area. Besides persons who work strictly as in terpreters, many others do some interpretation work in the course of their jobs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A com plete com m and of two lan guages o r m ore is the usual require m ent for becoming an interpreter. In terpreters m ust instantaneously call to mind words or idioms correspond ing to the foreign ones. An extensive working vocabulary and ease in m ak ing the transition from one language structure to another are necessary. Students who want to becom e in terpreters should becom e fluent in several languages. Interpreters who work at the United Nations, for ex ample, m ust know at least three of the six official U.N. languages: A ra bic, Chinese, English, French, R us sian, and Spanish. Portuguese and, to 143 ory, students m ust pass a qualifying M o st o p p o r t u n i t ie s , t h e r e f o r e , exam ination in o rd e r to en ter the should result from the need to re tra n sla tio n o r in te rp re ta tio n p ro p lace w orkers who die, retire, or gram . T his qualifying exam ination leave their jobs for other reasons. Ex usually takes place after two sem es perience has shown that any slight or sporadic increase in the dem and for ters o f work at the Institute. M any individuals may qualify as interpreters can be m et by the exist interpreters on the basis o f their for ing pool of freelance workers. Only eign back g ro u n d s fo r positions in highly qualified applicants will find w hich extensive experience and a jobs. Qualified interpreters also may broad education are not as crucial as for other types o f interpretation. F or find work abroad. The dem and for exam ple, co n secu tiv e in te rp re te rs interpreters in Europe, where so em ployed by the Im m igration and many different languages are spoken, N aturalization Service o f the U.S. is far greater than in the United D epartm ent o f Justice serve prim ar States. People who have linguistic abilities ily in interpreting legal proceedings, also may find some em ploym ent op such as hearings for aliens. Interpreters must instantaneously call to B esides being p ro fic ie n t in la n p o rtu n itie s as translators. In fact, mind words or idioms corresponding to guages, interpreters are expected to many interpreters find the ability to foreign ones. be g en e rally w ell in fo rm ed on a do translation work, if not requisite, broad range o f subjects, often includ an occupational asset. Foreign lan som e extent, Japanese and G erm an ing technical subjects such as m edi guage com petence also is im portant are also valuable to interpreters in cine or scientific or industrial tech for careers in the fields of foreign the U nited States. nology. W ork as a tran slato r m ay service, international business, and Two schools in the U nited States serve as a useful background in m ain language education. offer special program s for interpreter taining an up-to-date vocabulary in training. B oth req u ire foreign lan v a rio u s s p e c ia liz e d o r te c h n ic a l Earnings and Working guage proficiency upon entry. The a re a s . T h e e x p e rie n c e o f living Conditions G e o rg eto w n U n iv ersity S chool o f abroad also is very im portant for an Languages and Linguistics in W ash interpreter. Salaries of interpreters depend in g to n , D .C ., has a 1- o r 2 -y e ar Although there is no standard re upon the type of interpreting done as course o f study leading to a C ertifi quirem ent for entry into the profes well as the ability and perform ance cate o f Proficiency as a conference sion, a university education usually is of the individual. The tax-free annual in terp reter. The certificate is recog considered essential. starting salary for conference inter nized by th e In tern atio n al A ssoci People interested in becom ing in preters at the U nited Nations was atio n o f C o n fe re n c e In te rp re te rs.4 terpreters should be articulate speak $14,300 in 1976. Outstanding U.N. A pplicants to G eorgetow n University ers and have good hearing. The ex interpreters could expect to earn al m ust qualify on the basis of an en a c tin g n a tu re o f th is p ro fe ssio n m ost $30,000. trance test and a m inim um o f previ requires quickness, alertness, and a Beginning salaries for interpreters ous studies at the university level; c o n s ta n t a tte n tio n to a c c u ra c y . in various other international organi successful candidates usually hold a W orking with all types o f people re zations were over $15,000 a year, b ac h elo r’s degree, o ften a m aster’s quires good sense, tact, and the em o according to the limited inform ation degree. T h e M o nterey Institute o f tional stam ina to deal with the te n available. In addition, international Foreign Studies in M onterey, Calif., sions o f the job. It is essential th at organizations often paid supplem en through its D epartm ent o f T ransla interpreters m aintain confidentiality tary living and family allowances. tion and Interp retation, offers a 2- in their work and th at they give hon Junior interpreters who worked for year graduate program leading to a est interpretations. the U.S. D ep artm en t of State re A dvancem ent in the interpreting ceived $ 17,056 a year in 1977. Start m a s t e r ’s d e g re e in I n te r c u ltu r a l C om m unication and a graduate c e r field generally is based on satisfac ing salaries were som ewhat lower for tificate in either translation, transla- tory service. T here is some advance interpreters in other Federal agen tion/interpretation, o r in conference m ent from escort level interpreting cies. in terp re tatio n . A pplications to the to conference level work. In the freelance field, interpreters are paid on a daily basis. C onference Institute m ust have a b ach elo r’s d e interpreter salaries ranged from gree and pass an aptitude test. They Employment Outlook about $125 to $160 a day in 1976. m ust be fluent in English, plus one Interpreters traditionally face very The U.S. D epartm ent of State paid a o th er language if studying tran sla tion, o r in two o th er languages if stiff com petition for the limited num daily salary of $125. F reelance escort interpreters re wishing to en ter the interpretation ber of openings. Little change is ex field. A fter taking the basic courses pected in the num ber of full-time in ceived salaries ranging from about in translation and interpretation th e te rp reters through the m id-1980’s. $40 to over $80 a day, based on the 144 individual’s skill and prior perform ance. Interpreters on assignm ent usu ally could expect to be paid for a 7day week. Interpreters are paid trans portation expenses by the employing agency and also receive an allowance to co v er th e co st o f acco m m o d a tions, m eals, and oth er expenses inci dental to their assignments. The conditions under which inter preters w ork vary widely. In freelanc ing, th ere is little jo b security be cause of dem and fluctuations, and the duration o f various freelance as signments ranges from a few days for a typical conference to several weeks fo r som e e sc o rt assignm ents. A l though the hours interpreters work are not necessarily long, they are of ten irregular. In some instances, es pecially for escort freelance workers, a great deal of travel to a wide variety o f locations is required. and com m ercial zones. Landscape architects design these areas to satis fy functional needs as well as p eo p le’s aesthetic sense. Landscape architects assist many types of organizations in planning and designing a project, from a real estate firm starting a new suburban developm ent to a city constructing an airport or park. They may plan and arrange trees, shrubbery, w alk ways, open spaces, and o th er fe a tures as well as supervise the neces sary g ra d in g , c o n s tru c tio n , an d planting. Landscape architects first consider the nature and purpose of the proj ect, the funds available, and the p ro posed buildings in planning a site. Next, they study the site and map features such as the slope of the land and the position o f existing buildings, roads, walkways, and trees. They also observe the sunny parts of the site at different times o f the day, soil tex ture, existing utilities, and many oth- Sources of Additional Information Inform ation on the interpreting profession is available from: The American Association of Language Spe cialists, 1000 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 9, Washington, D.C. 20036. For inform ation on entry require m ents and courses o f study at the two sch o o ls o fferin g sp e c ia liz e d p ro grams for interpreters, contact: Division of Interpretation and Translation, School of Languages and Linguistics, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. 20057. Department of Translation and Interpretation, Monterey Institute of Foreign Studies, P.O. Box 1978, Monterey, Calif. 93940. In fo rm a tio n a b o u t em p lo y m en t opportunities is available from: Language Services Division, U.S. Department of State, Washington, D.C. 20520. Secretariat Recruitment Service, United Na tions, New York, N.Y. 10017. LA N DSC A PE A R C H ITEC TS (D.O.T. 019.081) Nature of the Work E veryone enjoys attractively d e signed residential areas, public parks, Persons planning careers in landscape architecture should be interested In art and nature. 145 er lan d scap e features. T hen, after consulting with the project architect or engineer, they draw up plans to develop the site. If the plans are ap proved, landscape architects prepare working drawings showing all exist ing an d p ro p o se d featu res. L an d scape architects outline in detail the m ethods o f constructing features and draw up lists o f building m aterials. They then may invite landscape co n tractors to bid for the work. A lthough landscape architects help design and supervise a wide variety o f projects, some specialize in certain types o f projects such as parks and playgrounds, hotels and resorts, shopping centers, or public housing. Still o th e rs specialize in services such as regional planning and resource m anagem ent, feasibility and cost studies, or site construction. Places of Employment A bout 13,000 persons worked as landscape architects in 1976. M ost were self-em ployed or w orked for ar chitectural, landscape architectural, o r en g ineering firm s. G overnm ent agencies concerned with forest m an agem ent, w ater storage, public hous ing, city planning, urb an renew al, highways, parks, and recreation also em p lo y ed m any la n d sc a p e a r c h i tects. T he Federal G overnm ent em ployed o v er 550 landscape a rc h i tects, m ainly in the D epartm ents of A griculture, D efense, and Interior. Some landscape architects were em ployed by landscape contractors, and a few taught in colleges and universi ties. Em ploym ent o f landscape archi tects is co n cen trated around large m etropolitan areas, prim arily on the East and W est Coasts. However, em ploym ent opportunities have recen t ly been growing in the Southwest. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A b ach elo r’s degree in landscape architecture which takes 4 or 5 years is usually the minimum educational requirem ent for entering the profes sion. The A m erican Society o f L and scape A rchitects accredits about 40 colleges and universities th at offer 146 su ch p ro g ra m s. A b o u t 60 o th e r sc h o o ls a lso o ff e r p ro g ra m s o r courses in landscape architecture. A person interested in landscape architecture should take high school courses in m echanical or geom etrical drawing, art, botany, and m ore m athem atics than the minimum re quired for college entrance. A good background in English gram m ar also is im portant, since landscape archi tects m ust be able to express their ideas verbally as well as graphically. College courses include technical subjects such as surveying, landscape construction, sketching, design com m unications, and city planning. O th er courses include horticulture and botany as well as English, science, and m athem atics. M ost college p ro grams also include field trips to view and study examples o f landscape a r chitecture. T h irty -eig h t S tates require a li cense, based on the results of a uni form national licensing exam ination, for in d ep en d e n t p ra ctice of lan d scape architecture. Admission to the licensing ex a m in a tio n usually r e quires a degree from an accredited school of landscape architecture plus 2 to 4 years o f experience. Lengthy apprenticeship training (6-8 years) under an experienced landscape a r chitect som etimes may be substituted for college training. Persons planning careers in land scape architecture should have c re ative im agination, draw ing talen t, and an appreciation for nature. Selfem ployed landscape architects also m ust understand business practices. W orking for landscape architects o r landscape contractors during sum m er vacations helps a person un d er stand the practical problem s of the profession, and may be helpful in o b taining em ploym ent after graduation. New graduates usually begin as junior drafters, tracing drawings and doing other simple drafting work. After gaining experience, they help prepare specifications and construc tion details and handle other aspects of project design. A fter 2 or 3 years th ey can u su ally c a rry a d esig n through all stages of developm ent. Highly qualified landscape architects may becom e associates in p rivate firms; landscape architects who p ro gress this far, however, often open their own office. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent of landscape archi tects is expected to grow faster than th e a v e ra g e fo r all o c c u p a tio n s through the m id-1980’s. Additional ly, new entrants will be needed as replacem ents for landscape arch i tects who retire or die. A nticipated rapid growth in new construction is expected to play a m ajor role in increasing dem and for landscape architects. However, d u r ing slow periods the dem and could be limited. A nother factor underlying the in creased dem and for landscape archi tects is the growing interest in city and regional environm ental p lan ning. M etropolitan areas will require landscape architects to plan efficient and safe land use for growing popula tions. Legislation to prom ote envi ronm ental protection could also spur dem and for landscape architects to participate in planning and designing transportation systems, outdoor rec reation areas, and land reclam ation projects, as well as to ensure safe industrial growth. Earnings and Working Conditions Newly graduated landscape archi tects generally earned from $10,500 to $12,500 a year in 1976. Most ex p e r ie n c e d la n d s c a p e a r c h ite c ts e a r n e d b e tw e e n $ 1 5 ,0 0 0 a n d $20,000 a year, although some highly skilled persons earned salaries of over $30,000 a year. Salaries of selfe m p lo y e d la n d s c a p e a r c h i t e c t s ranged from $10,000 a year to well over $25,000 a year, depending on the individual’s educational b a c k ground, experience, and geographic location. The Federal Governm ent, in 1977, paid new graduates with a bachelor’s degree annual salaries of $9,300 or $11,500 depending on their qualifi cations. Those with an advanced de gree had a starting salary of $14,100 a year. Landscape architects in the F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t a v e ra g e d $22,500 a year. Salaried em ployees both in gov ernm ent and in landscape architec tu ra l firm s usu ally w ork re g u la r hours, although em ployees in private firms may also work overtim e during seasonal rush periods o r to m eet a deadline. Self-employed persons of ten work long hours. Sources of Additional Information A dditional inform ation, including a list of colleges and universities of fering accredited courses of study in landscape architecture, is available from: American Society of Landscape Architecture, Inc., 1750 Old Meadow Rd., McLean, Va. 22101 . For inform ation on a career as a lan d sca p e a rc h ite c t in the F o rest Service, write to: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Serv ice, Washington, D.C. 20250. LAW YERS (D .O .T. 110.108, .118, and 119.168) Laws perm eate every aspect o f our so ciety . T h ey re g u la te the en tire spectrum o f relationships am ong in dividuals, groups, businesses, and governm ents. They define rights as well as restrictions, covering such di verse hum an activities as judging and punishing crim inals, granting p a t ents, drawing up business contracts, paying taxes, settling labor disputes, constructing buildings, and adminis tering wills. Because social needs and attitudes are continually changing, the legal system th at regulates o u r social, po litical, and econom ic relationships also is subject to change. The task of keeping the law responsive to hum an needs is the work o f lawyers. Also called attorneys, lawyers are the link between the legal system and society. To perform this role, they m ust un derstand the world around them and be sensitive to the num erous aspects of society th at are touched by the law. They m ust com prehend not only the words o f a particular statute, but the hum an circum stances it address es as well. As our body of laws grows m ore volum inous and com plex, as the legal system takes on new regulatory tasks in social welfare, racial integration, energy conservation, and other areas, the work of lawyers takes on wider significance. Nature of the Work Lawyers perform a wide variety o f tasks, but certain basic activities are com m on to nearly every attorney’s work. Probably the m ost fundam ent al of all is interpretation of the law. Every attorney, w hether representing the defendant in a m urder trial or the plaintiff (suing party) in a lawsuit, com bines an understanding o f the relevant laws with knowledge o f the facts in the particular case in order to determ ine how the first affects the second. Based on this determ ination, the attorney decides what courses o f action would best serve the interests o f the party he o r she represents. In order to interpret the law knowledgeably, lawyers do research. They m ust stay abreast of their field, in both legal and nonlegal m atters. An attorney representing electronics m anufacturers, for example, m ust follow trade journals as well as the latest Federal regulations affecting his or her clients. Attorneys in the State D epartm ent m ust remain wellversed in current events and interna tio n al law, while divorce law yers spend a certain portion of their tim e reading about the changing role o f the family in m odern society. R e sea rch also in clu d es specific, indepth reading on the legal questions or substantive m atters of an individ ual case. In any event, the o v e r whelming volume of literature to be digested requires a lawyer to conduct research efficiently, quickly picking out and evaluating the substance of a particular article or court case. Usually a law yer’s work also in volves co n tact with people. A tto r neys consult with their clients to d e term ine the details of their specific problem s, advise them o f the law, and suggest actions th at m ight o r m ust be taken. To be effective, a law yer learns to deal with people in a courteous, efficient fashion. Finally, most lawyers must do some writing in the course of their work. This may take the form of reports, legal briefs, or adm inistra tive paperwork. In all cases, the at torney calls upon his or her ability to com m unicate clearly and precisely. The m ore detailed aspects of the legal profession depend upon the lawyer’s individual field and position. Most lawyers are engaged in general practice and handle all kinds of legal work for clients. They counsel the individual who wants to buy proper ty, make a will, sign a contract, or settle an estate. These lawyers p er form whatever tasks are necessary to help their client comply with the law. A significant num ber specialize in one branch of law, such as corporate, criminal, labor, patent, real estate, tax, or international law. Com m uni cations lawyers, for example, may rep resen t radio and television sta tions in their dealings with the Feder al C o m m u n ic a tio n s C om m ission (F C C ). They help established sta tions prepare and file license renewal applications, em ploym ent reports, and other docum ents required by the FCC on a regular basis. They also keep their clients informed of chang es in FCC regulations. Com m unica tions lawyers give similar assistance to individuals or corporations wish ing to buy or sell a station or establish a new one. O ther lawyers specialize in repre senting public utilities before the Federal Power Commission (FPC ) and o th er regulatory agencies. For example, they handle m atters involv ing th e re a so n a b le n e ss o f u tility rates. They help a firm develop its case, assist in preparing strategy, ar guments, and testimony, prepare the case for presentation at a trial or ad ministrative hearing, and argue the case. These lawyers also keep clients inform ed about changes in regula tions and advise them as to the legal ity of their actions. Private practitioners specialize in other areas, too. Some draw up wills, trusts, contracts, mortgages, and o th er legal documents; conduct out-ofcourt negotiations; and do investiga tive and other legal work to prepare for trials. Some may act as trustees by managing a person’s property and 147 m aining 116,000, about one-third were em ployed as house counsel by various business firm s; one-fourth worked in the Federal Governm ent; the rem ainder held positions in State and local government. In addition, about 8,000 lawyers taught full or part time in law schools. Some sala ried lawyers also have independent practices; others do legal work part time while in another occupation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement funds, o r as executors by seeing that the provisions of their client’s will are carried out. A small num ber of law yers d ev o te them selves entirely to courtroom work. An increasing num ber handle only so-called public in terest cases. These cases, either civil or crim inal, have a potential im pact extending well beyond the individual clien t. A tto rn ey s who tak e these cases hope to use them as a vehicle for legal and social reform . Some lawyers are em ployed full tim e by a single client. Known as house counsel, these lawyers usually work for a corporate firm, advising and acting on legal questions th at arise from the co m p any’s business activities. These questions may in volve patents for new productions, FTC regulations, a business contract with an o th er com pany, or a collec tive b arg ain in g ag re e m e n t w ith a union. A ttorneys em ployed at the various levels of governm ent constitute still another category. Crim inal lawyers may work in the office of a State attorney general; they also may be 148 em ployed by a prosecutor’s or public defender’s office, or by the court itself. At the Federal level, attorneys perform investigations for the Justice D epartm ent and regulatory agencies. Lawyers at every level of governm ent also help develop laws and program s; they prepare drafts of proposed legis latio n , establish law e n fo rc e m e n t procedures, and argue cases. Many people who have legal train ing do not work as lawyers but use their knowledge of law in other o ccu pations. They may, for example, be journalists, m anagem ent consultants, financial analysts, insurance claim adjusters, tax collectors, probation officers, and credit investigators. A legal background also is an asset to those seeking or holding public o f fice. Places of Employment About 396,000 persons worked as lawyers in 1976. Almost threefourths of them , 280,000, practiced privately, with about 40 percent in solo practice and the other 60 p e r cent working in law firms. O f the re In o rder to practice law in the courts o f any State, a person must be adm itted to its bar. Applicants for admission to the bar must pass a written examination; however, a few States drop this requirem ent for graduates of their own law schools. Lawyers who have been adm itted to the bar in one State occasionally may be adm itted in another without tak ing an exam ination provided they m eet th at S tate’s standards of good moral character and have a specified period o f legal experience. Each Fed eral c o u rt or agency sets its own qualifications for those practicing be fore it. To qualify for the bar examination in most States, an applicant must have com pleted 3 years of college and have graduated from a law school approved by the American Bar Association (ABA) or the proper State authorities. (ABA approval sig nifies th at the law school meets the minimum standards necessary to al low its graduates to take the bar exam and practice law in any State. G raduates of nonapproved schools are restricted to the State in which the school is located.) A few States accept the study of law wholly in a law office or in com bination with study in a law school; only California accepts the study of law by co rre spondence as qualification for taking the bar exam. Several States require registration and approval of students by the State Board o f Examiners, ei ther before they enter law school or during the early years of legal study. In a few States, candidates must com plete clerkships before they are ad m itted to the bar. Although there is no nationwide bar exam, m ost States and the Dis trict o f C olum bia participate in the M ultistate Bar Exam ination (M BE). The MBE, covering issues o f broad interest, is given in addition to the State b ar exam; how the MBE score is treated varies from State to State. T he required college and law school education usually takes 7 years o f full-time study after high school—4 years o f undergraduate study followed by 3 years in law school. Although a num ber o f law schools accep t students after 3 years of college, an increasing num ber re quire applicants to have a b ach elo r’s degree. To m eet the needs o f stu dents who can attend only p art time, a num ber o f law schools have night or part-tim e divisions which usually require 4 years o f study. In 1976, ab o u t one-fifth o f all graduates of A B A -approved schools w ere parttime students. C om petition for adm ission to law school has becom e intense in the last few years. Enrollm ents rose very rap idly betw een 1969 and 1972, and, according to one estim ate, applica tions ou tn u m b ered available open ings by alm ost 10 to 1 in the mid1970’s. Although the increase in en rollm ents is expected to slow by the 1980’s, law school adm ission will re main the first o f several hurdles for prospective lawyers. P reparation for a career as a law yer really begins in college. Although there is no such thing as a “ prelaw m ajor,” the undergraduate program alm ost always m akes a difference. C ertain courses and activities are de sirable because they give the student the skills needed to succeed both in law school and in the profession. Es sential skills—the ability to write, to read and analyse, to think conceptu ally and logically, and to com m uni cate v erb ally —are le a rn e d during high school and college. The best un dergraduate program is one th at cul tivates these skills while at the same time broadening the stu d en t’s view of the world. M ajors in the social sci ences, natural sciences, and hum an ities all fill the bill, as long as the student does not specialize too nar rowly. Students interested in a particular aspect o f the law may find it helpful to take related courses; for example, engineering and science courses for the prospective p atent attorney, and accounting for the future tax lawyer. In addition, typing is advisable simply for convenience in law school. A cceptance by m ost law schools depends on the applicant’s ability to dem onstrate an aptitude for the study o f law, usually through good grades and the Law School Adm is sion Test (LSA T), adm inistered by the Educational Testing Service. In 1976, 163 law schools had A m erican Bar Association approval. O thers— c h ie fly n ig h t s c h o o ls —w e re a p proved by State authorities only. The first year or year and a half o f law school generally is devoted to fundam ental courses such as consti tutional law, contracts, property law, and ju d icial p ro ced u re. In the re maining tim e, students may elect spe cialized courses in fields such as tax, labor, or corporation law. Practical experience often is acquired by p a r ticipation in school-sponsored legal aid activities, in the school’s practice court where students conduct trials under the supervision o f experienced lawyers, and through writing on legal issues for the school’s law journal. G raduates receive the degree o f juris doctor (J.D .) from m ost schools as th e first professional d egree. A d vanced study often is desirable for those planning to specialize, do re search, o r teach in law schools. The practice of law involves a great deal of responsibility. Persons planning careers in law should like to work with people and ideas, and be able to win the confidence of their clients. M ost beginning lawyers start in salaried positions, although some go into independent practice im m edi ately after passing the bar exam ina tion. Newly hired salaried attorneys usually act as research assistants (law clerks) to ex perienced law yers o r judges. A fter several years of p ro gressively responsible salaried em p lo y m e n t, m any law yers go in to practice for themselves. Some law yers, after years of practice, becom e judges. Employment Outlook A rapid increase in the num ber o f law school graduates has created keen com petition for the available jobs. In the years ahead, the num ber of graduates is expected to increase further and intensify this com peti tion. Em ployers will be selective in hir ing new lawyers. G raduates of wellknown law schools and those who rank high in their classes should find salaried positions with law firms, on the legal staffs o f corporations and g o v ern m en t agencies, and as law clerks for judges. G raduates of less p ro m in en t schools and those with lower scholastic ratings will experi ence some difficulty in finding sala ried jobs. However, many will find opportunities in fields where legal training is an asset but not normally a requirem ent. The em ploym ent of lawyers is ex pected to grow faster than the aver age for other occupations through the m id-1980’s as increased business activity and population create a de m and for attorneys to deal with a growing num ber of legal questions. Suprem e C ourt decisions extending the right to counsel for persons ac cused of lesser crimes, the growth of legal action in the areas of consum er p ro te c tio n , the enviro n m en t, and safety, and an expected increase in the use of legal services by middleincome groups through prepaid legal service program s also should provide em p lo y m en t o p p o rtu n itie s. O th er jobs will be created by the need to replace lawyers who die, retire, or leave the occupation for other rea sons. Prospects for establishing a new practice probably will continue to be best in small towns and expanding suburban areas, as long as there al ready exists an active m arket for le gal services in which the new lawyer can find clients. In such comm unities com petition is likely to be less than in big cities and new lawyers may find it easier to becom e known to potential clients; also, rent and other business costs are somewhat lower. N everthe less, starting a new practice will re main an expensive and risky proposit i o n t h a t s h o u ld b e w e ig h e d carefully. Salaried positions will be limited largely to urban areas where the chief employers of legal talen t— governm ent agencies, law firms, and big corporations—are concentrated. 149 Earnings and Working Conditions Lawyers entering practice in 1976 earned a wide range o f starting sala ries—from about $ 10,000 to $23,000 a year. M ost fell in the $15,000 to $18,000 range. Factors affecting the salaries offered to new graduates in clude: th eir academ ic records; type, size, and location o f th eir em ployers; and w hether the new lawyer has any specialized educational background th at the em ployer requires. The field o f law m akes a difference, too. P at e n t law yers, fo r ex am ple, ten d to earn m ore th an general corporate a t to rn e y s . L aw y ers w ith a t le a st a y ear’s experience working in m anu facturing and business firms earned ab out $18,000 a year; those with a few y e a rs o f e x p e rie n c e e a rn e d $ 3 0 ,0 0 0 o r m ore annually. In the Federal G overnm ent, annual starting salaries for attorneys in 1977 were $ 14,097 o r $ 17,05 6, depending upon ac a d e m ic an d p e rs o n a l q u a lific a tions. F ed eral attorneys with some experience earned $24,308 or m ore a year. Beginning lawyers engaged in le gal-aid w ork usually receive the low est s ta rtin g salaries. N ew law yers starting th eir own practices may earn little m ore than expenses during the first few years and may need to work p art tim e in o th er occupations. L a w y e rs o n sa la ry re c e iv e in creases as they assum e g reater re sponsibility. Incom es o f lawyers in private p ractice usually grow as their practices develop. Private practition ers who are partners in law firms gen erally e a rn m ore th a n those who practice alone. Lawyers often work long hours and are under considerable pressure when a case is being tried. In addi tion, they m ust keep abreast o f the latest laws and co u rt decisions. How ever, since lawyers in private p rac tice can determ ine th eir own hours and w orkload, many stay in practice well past th e usual retirem ent age. Sources of Additional information Persons considering law as a ca re e r will find in fo rm atio n on law schools and prelaw study in the Pre 150 law Handbook, published annually ( P rin ceto n ^N .J.: Educational T est ing Service). Copies may be available in public o r school libraries. In addi tion, many colleges and universities have a prelaw advisor who counsels un d erg rad u ates ab o u t their u n d er graduate course work, the LSAT, law school applications, and other m at ters. Inform ation on law schools and law as a career is available from: Information Services, The American Bar As sociation, 1155 East 60th St., Chicago, 111. 60637. (There may be a slight charge for publications.) Inform ation on law school accredi tation is available from: Association of American Law Schools, Suite 370, 1 Dupont Circle NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. For advice on financial aid, co n tact a law school financial aid officer. The specific requirem ents for ad m ission to the bar in a p articu lar State may be obtained at the State capital from the clerk o f the Suprem e C ourt or the secretary of the Board o f Bar Examiners. LIB R A R IA N S (D .O .T. 100.118 through .388) Nature of the Work Librarians m ake inform ation avail able to people. They serve as a link betw een the public and the millions o f sources o f inform ation by select ing and organizing m aterials, making them accessible, and assisting in their use. Library work is divided into two areas: user services and technical services. L ib rarian s in u ser se rv ic e s—fo r exam ple, re fe re n c e an d ch ild ren ’s librarians—work directly with the public helping them find the inform ation they need. Librarians in technical services—such as acquisi tion lib rarian s—are prim arily c o n cerned with preparing m aterials for use and do not frequently deal with the public. They order, classify, and catalog all types of materials. The size of the library usually d e term ines the scope o f a librarian’s job. In small libraries, the jo b may include both user and technical serv ices. The librarian may select and o r ganize m aterials, publicize services, do research, and give reference help to groups and individuals. In large libraries, librarians usually specialize in either user or technical services and specialize further in certain sub je c t areas, such as science, business, the arts, or medicine. A librarian in technical services who specializes in engineering, for exam ple, may re view books or write sum m aries o f ar ticles on new engineering develop ments. Regardless of the nature of their work, librarians generally are classi fied according to the type of library in which they work: public libraries, school m edia centers, college and university libraries, and special li braries. Public librarians serve all kinds of people—children, students, research w orkers, teach ers, and others. In creasingly, public librarians provide special m aterials and services to cul turally and educationally deprived persons, and to persons who, because o f physical handicaps, cannot use conventional print. The professional staff of a large public library system may include the chief librarian, an assistant chief, and several division heads who plan and coordinate the work of the entire library system. The system also may include librarians who supervise branch libraries and specialists in certain areas of library work. T he duties of some of these specialists are described briefly in the following paragraphs. Acquisition librarians purchase books and other m aterials to m ain ta in a w e ll-b a lan ce d library th a t m eets the needs and interests of the public. Catalogers classify these m a terials by subject and otherwise de scribe them to help users find w hat they are looking for. Reference librar ians answ er specific questions and suggest sources of inform ation. Some librarians work with specific groups o f readers. Children's librar ians serve the special needs of young people by finding books they will en joy and showing them how to use the library. They may plan and conduct School librarian showing students how to use the library. special program s such as story hours or film program s. T heir work in serv ing children often includes working with school and com m unity organi zations. Adult services librarians sug gest m aterials suited to the needs and interests o f adults. They may cooper ate in planning and conducting edu cation program s, such as com m unity developm ent, public affairs, creative arts, p ro b lem s o f th e aging, and home and family. Young adult servic es librarians help ju n io r and senior high school students select and use books and oth er m aterials. They may o rg a n iz e p ro g ram s o f in te re st to young adults, such as book or film discussions or concerts o f recorded music. They also may coordinate the library’s work with school programs. E x te n sio n or o u trea ch librarians working in bookmobiles offer library services to people n o t adequately served by a public library such as those in inner city neighborhoods, m igrant cam ps, rural com m unities, and institutions, including hospitals and hom es for the aged. School librarians instruct students in the use of the school library and help them choose from the m edia ce n te r’s collection of print and non print m aterials items that are related to their interests and to classroom subjects. W orking with teachers and supervisors, school librarians famil iarize students with the library’s re sources. They prepare lists of m ateri als on certain subjects and help select m aterials for school programs. They also select, order, and organize the library’s m aterials. Increasingly, the school library is viewed as part of the en tire in stru ctio n al system ra th e r than a resource that students use l o r 2 hours a week. As a result, the scope of the duties of many school librar ians’ has widened. In some schools, librarians work with teachers to d e velop units of study o r independent study program s, and also may partici pate in team teaching. Very large high schools may em ploy several school librarians, each responsible for a particular function o f the library program or for a special subject area. Media specialists, for ex am ple, d evelop audio-visual p ro grams to be included in or to supple m ent the curriculum . They also may develop m aterials and w ork w ith teachers on curriculum . College and university librarians serve students, faculty members, and research workers in institutions of higher education. They may provide general reference service or may work in a particular subject field, such as law, medicine, economics, or music. Those working on university research projects operate docum en tation centers that use com puters to record, store, and retrieve special ized information. College and univer sity librarians may teach classes in the use o f the library. Special librarians work in libraries m aintained by governm ent agencies and by commercial and industrial firms, such as pharm aceutical com panies, banks, advertising agencies, and research laboratories. They p ro vide m aterials and services covering subjects of special interest to the o r ganization. They build and arrange the o rg an izatio n ’s inform ation re sources to suit the needs of the li brary users. Special librarians assist users an d may co n d u c t lite ratu re sea rch e s, com pile b ib lio g rap h ies, and in o th er ways provide inform a tion on a particular subject. O thers called information science specialists, like special librarians, work in technical libraries or infor m ation centers of com m ercial and industrial firms, governm ent agen cies, and research centers. Although they perform many duties of special librarians, they must possess a more extensive tech n ic al and scientific background and a knowledge of new techniques for handling information. Inform ation science specialists ab stract com plicated information into condensed, readable form, and inter pret and analyze data for a highly specialized clientele. Among oth er duties, they develop classification system s, prep are coding and p ro gramming techniques for com puter ized inform ation storage and retriev a l al s y s te m s , d e s ig n in f o r m a tio n n etw o rk s, and d ev elop m icrofilm technology. Inform ation on library technicians and assistants is found in a separate statem ent in the Handbook. Places of Employment An estim ated 128,000 professional librarians w ere em ployed in 1976. School librarians accounted for m ore than two-fifths o f the total, and pub lic libraries and colleges and univer sities each em ployed about one-fifth. The rem ainder w orked in special li braries, including those in govern m ent agencies, or in institutions such as correctional facilities and hospi tals. A small num ber served as con sultants, as State and Federal Gov e r n m e n t a d m in is tr a to r s , an d as faculty in schools o f library science. In late 1975, the F ederal G overn m ent em ployed about 3,300 profes sional librarians. M ost librarians work in cities and towns. Those attached to bookm o bile u n its serve w idely sc a tte re d population groups. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A professional librarian ordinarily m ust com plete a 1-year m aster’s d e gree program in library science. A Ph. D. d eg ree is an advantage to those who plan a teaching career in library schools or who aspire to a top adm inistrative post, particularly in a college o r university library or in a large library system. For those who are interested in the special libraries field, a m aster’s degree or doctorate in the subject of the library’s special ization is highly desirable. In 1976, 58 library schools in the United States were accredited by the Am erican Library Association and offered a m aster’s degree in library science (M .L.S.). In addition, many o th er colleges offer graduate p ro grams or courses within 4-year un dergraduate programs. M ost graduate schools o f library science require graduation from an accredited 4-year college or universi ty, a good undergraduate record, and a reading knowledge o f at least one foreign language. Some schools also 152 require introductory undergraduate courses in library science. Most p re fer a liberal arts background with a m ajor in an area such as the social sciences, the arts, or literature. Some schools require en tran ce exam ina tions. L ibrary science students usually specialize in the area in which they plan to work. An aspiring inform a tion science specialist, for example, takes courses on data processing fun dam entals and com puter languages in addition to the required library science courses. A student wishing to becom e a m edia specialist concen trates on courses in the use and d e velopm ent o f audio-visual materials. Special librarians and inform ation science specialists m ust have exten sive knowledge of their subject m at ter as well as training in library sci ence. They usually earn a bachelor’s or higher degree in chemistry, for ex ample, plus a m aster’s or Ph. D. in library or inform ation science. M ost States require that public school librarians be certified and trained both as teachers and librar ians. They also may require that m e dia specialists, for example, have spe cialized in m edia within the M.L.S. program. Some States require certifi cation of public librarians em ployed in areas such as municipal, county, o r regional library systems. The specific education and experience necessary for certification vary according to State and the school district. The lo cal superintendent of schools and the State departm ent o f education can provide inform ation about specific requirem ents in an area. In the Federal G overnm ent, begin ning positions require com pletion o f a 4-year college course and a m as te r ’s degree in library science, o r dem onstration o f the equivalent in experience and education by a pass ing grade on an examination. Many students attend library schools under cooperative workstudy program s that com bine the academ ic program with practical work experience in a library. Schol arships for training in library science are available under certain State and Federal program s and from library schools, as well as from a num ber of the large libraries and library associ ations. Loans, assistantships, and fi nancial aid also are available. E x p erien ced librarians may ad vance to administrative positions or to specialized work. Prom otion to these positions, however, is limited primarily to those who have com plet ed g ra d u a te train in g in a library school, o r to those who have special ized training. Employment Outlook The em ploym ent outlook for li brarians is expected to be somewhat com petitive through the m id-1980’s. Although em ploym ent in the field is expected to grow over the period, the supply o f persons qualified for librarianship is likely to expand as an in creasing num ber of new graduates and labor force reentrants seek jobs as librarians. Em ployment prospects are expect ed to be best in public libraries. The growth o f a better educated popula tion coupled with greater emphasis on adult and community education program s will require additional li brarians. The educationally disad vantaged, the handicapped, and var ious minority groups also will need qualified librarians to provide special services. Also, the expanding use of com puters to store and retrieve in form ation will contribute to the in creased dem and for information spe c ia lis ts a n d lib ra ry a u to m a tio n specialists in all types of libraries. The dem and for school librarians on the other hand, will not increase significantly. Enrollments in higher education, however, are expected to rise until the m id-1980’s, resulting in a greater num ber of librarians in post-high school institutions. In addition to openings from growth, replacem ents will be needed each year for librarians who retire, die, transfer to other types of work, or leave the labor force. Em ploym ent opportunities will vary not only by type of library but also by the librarian’s educational qualifications and area of specializa tion. A lthough the overall em ploy m ent outlook is com petitive, persons who are willing to work in libraries located away from the large East or W est C oast cities will have better op portunities. New graduates having m ore re cen t training m ay have an em ploym ent advantage over re e n tra n ts, d elayed e n tra n ts, o r those who transfer into the profession. This is especially true for those wanting positions as inform ation specialists where knowledge o f the latest com p uter technologies is im portant. New g rad u ates usually com m and low er b e g in n in g s a la rie s , c o m p a re d to m ore experienced w orkers, and this also may be an em ploym ent advan tage. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries o f librarians vary by type of library, the individual’s qualifica tions, and the size and geographical location o f the library. Starting salaries o f graduates of library school m aster’s degree p ro grams accredited by the Am erican Library Association average $10,594 a year in 1975, ranging from $9,692 in p u b lic lib rarie s to $ 1 0 ,9 0 0 in school libraries. Average salaries for librarians in college and university libraries ranged from $ 11,400 a year for those with less than 5 years of experience to over $20,000 for direc tors o f libraries. In general, librarians earned ab out 1 1 /2 tim es as m uch as the average for all nonsupervisory w orkers in private industry, except farming. In the Federal G overnm ent, the entrance salary for librarians with a m aster’s degree in library science was $14,097 a year in 1977. The average salary for all librarians in the Federal G overnm ent was about $ 20 , 000 . T he typical workw eek for librar ians is 5 days, ranging from 35 to 40 hours. T he work schedule of public and college librarians may include som e w eekend and evening work. School librarians generally have the same workday schedule as classroom teac h ers. A 4 0 -h o u r w eek during norm al business hours is com m on for governm ent and other special librar ians. The usual paid vacation after a year’s service is 3 to 4 weeks. V aca tions may be longer in school librar ies, and som ewhat shorter in those operated by business and industry. Many librarians are covered by sick leave; life, health, and accident insur ance; and pension plans. Sources of Additional information A dditional inform ation, particular ly on accredited program s and schol arships or loans, may be obtained from: American Library Association, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, 111. 60611. For inform ation on requirem ents for special librarians, write to: Special Libraries Association, 235 Park Ave., South, New York, N.Y. 10003. Inform ation on Federal assistance for graduate school library training under the Higher Education A ct o f 1965 is available from: Office of Libraries and Learning Resources, Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Wash ington, D.C. 20202. T hose in tere ste d in a ca ree r in Federal libraries should write to: Secretariat, Federal Library Committee, Room 310, Library of Congress, Wash ington, D.C. 20540. M aterial on inform ation science specialists may be obtained from: American Society for Information Science, 1140 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. Individual State library agencies can furnish inform ation on scholar ships available through their offices, on re q u irem en ts for ce rtificatio n , and general inform ation about career p ro sp e c ts in th e ir regions. S ta te boards of education can furnish in form ation on certification req u ire m en ts an d jo b o p p o rtu n itie s fo r school librarians. LIFE S C IE N TIS TS (D.O.T. 040.081, 041.081, 041.168, 041.181, 041.281) Nature of the Work Life scientists, who study all as pects of living organisms, emphasize the relationship of animals and plants to their environm ent. About one-third of all life scien tists are prim arily involved in re search and development. Many con duct basic research to increase our knowledge of living organisms which can be applied in m edicine, in in creasing crop yields, and in improv ing the natural environm ent. W hen working in laboratories, life scientists must be familiar with research tech n iq u e s an d c o m p le x la b o ra to ry equipm ent such as electron m icro scopes. Knowledge of com puters also is useful in conducting experiments. N ot all research, how ever, is p e r formed in laboratories. For example, a botanist who explores the volcanic Alaskan valleys to see what plants grow there also is doing research. About one-third of all life scien tists teach in colleges or universities; many also do independent research. A lm ost one-fifth work in m anage m ent or adm inistration ranging from planning and administering programs for testing foods and drugs to direct ing activities at zoos or botanical gar dens. Some life scientists work as consultants to business firms or to governm ent in their areas of special ization. O thers write for technical p u b lic a tio n s o r te s t and in sp e c t foods, drugs, and o th er products. Some work in technical sales and ser vices jobs for industrial com panies w here, for exam ple, they dem o n strate the proper use of new chem i cals or technical products. Scientists in many life science areas often call themselves biologists. However, the majority are classified by the type of organism they study or by the specific activity they perform. Botanists deal primarily with plants and their environm ent. Some study all aspects of plant life, while others work in specific areas such as identi fying and classifying plants or study ing the structure of plants and plant cells. O ther botanists concentrate on causes and cures of plant diseases. Agronomists, who are concerned with the mass developm ent of plants, improve the quality and yield of crops, such as com , wheat, and co t ton, by developing new growth m eth ods or by controlling diseases, pests, and weeds. They also analyze soils to determ ine ways of increasing acreage yields and decreasing soil erosion. 153 H orticulturists w ork w ith o rc h ard and garden plants such as fruit and n u t trees, vegetables, and flowers. They seek to improve plant culture m eth o d s fo r th e b ea u tific atio n o f com m unities, homes, parks, and o th er areas as well as for increasing crop quality and yields. Zoologists study various aspects of animal life—its origin, behavior, and life processes. Some conduct experi m ental studies with live animals in co n tro lled or n atu ral surroundings while others dissect anim als to study the structure o f their parts. Zoolo gists are usually identified by the ani m al g ro u p stu d ie d —o rn ith o lo g ists (birds), entom ologists (insects), and m am m alogists (m am m als). Animal husbandry specialists do re search on the breeding, feeding, and diseases o f dom estic farm animals. Veterinarians study diseases and ab norm al functioning in animals. (See statem ent on veterinarians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Anatomists study the structure of organisms, from cell structure to the form ation of tissues and organs. M any specialize in hum an anatomy. R esearch m ethods may entail dissec tions or the use o f electron m icro scopes. Some life scientists apply their spe cialized knowledge across a num ber of areas, and may be classified by the functions perform ed. Ecologists, for example, study the relationship b e tween organism s and their environ m ents, particularly the effects o f en v iro n m e n ta l in flu e n c e s su c h as rainfall, tem perature, and altitude on organism s. For exam ple, ecologists extract samples of plankton (m icro scopic plants and anim als) from bod ies of w ater to determ ine the effects of pollution, and m easure the radio active co n ten t of fish. Embryologists study the develop m ent o f an animal from a fertilized egg through the hatching process or g estation p erio d . T hey investigate the causes of healthy and abnorm al developm ent in animals. Microbiologists are life scientists who investigate the growth and char acteristics o f m icroscopic organisms such as bacteria, viruses, and molds. They isolate and grow organisms for close ex am in atio n u n d er a m icro 154 Life scientists study living organisms and their life processes. scope. Medical microbiologists are concerned with the relationship b e tween bacteria and disease or the ef fect o f antibiotics on bacteria. O ther microbiologists may specialize in soil bacteriology (effect o f m icroorga nisms on soil fertility), virology (vi ruses), or immunology (m echanism s that fight infections). N utritionists exam ine the bodily processes through which food is uti lized and transform ed into energy. They learn how vitamins, m inerals, proteins, and o th er nutrients build and repair tissues. Pharmacologists conduct tests on animals such as rats, guinea pigs, and monkeys to determ ine the effects of drugs, gases, poisons, dusts, and o th er substances on the functioning of tissues and organs. They may devel op new or improved drugs and m edi cines. Pathologists specialize in the ef fects of diseases, parasites, and in sects on hum an cells, tissues, and o r gans. O thers may investigate genetic variations caused by drugs. Biochemists and biological oceanog raphers, who are also life scientists, are included in separate statem ents elsewhere in the Handbook. Places of Employment An estim ated 205,000 persons worked as life scientists in 1976. Al most 40,000 were agricultural scien tists, about 100,000 were biological scientists, and about 65,000 were medical scientists. Colleges and universities employ nearly three-fifths of all life scien tists, in both teaching and research jobs. M edical schools and hospitals also employ large num bers of m edi cal investigators. Sizable numbers of specialists in agronomy, horticulture, animal husbandry, entomology, and related areas work for State agricul tural colleges and agricultural experi m ent stations. About 18,000 life scientists worked for the Federal G overnm ent in 1976. O f these, over half worked for the D epartm ent of Agriculture, with large num bers also in the D e partm ent of the Interior, and in the N ational Institutes of Health. State and local governm ents com bined em ployed ab o u t 22,000 life scien tists. A pproxim ately 40,000 life scien tists w o rk e d in p riv a te in d u stry , mostly in the pharm aceutical, indus trial chem ical, and food processing in d u s trie s in J 9 7 6 . A b o u t 6 ,0 0 0 w orked fo r n o n p ro fit research o r ganizations and foundations; a few were self-employed. Life scientists are distributed fairly evenly throughout the U nited States, but em ploym ent is cencentrated in some m etropolitan areas—for exam ple, nearly 6 percen t o f all agricultur al and biological scientists work in the W ashington, D.C., m etropolitan area. Life science teachers are con centrated in com m unities with large universities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Persons seeking a career in the life sciences should plan to obtain an advanced degree. The Ph. D. degree generally is required for college teaching, for independent research, and for many adm inistrative jobs. A m aster’s degree is sufficient for some jobs in applied research and college teaching. A health science degree is necessary for some jobs in m edical research (See section on health occupations elsew here in the Hand book. ) The b ach elo r’s degree is adequate preparation for some beginning jobs, but prom otions often are limited for those who hold no higher degree. New graduates with a b ach elo r’s d e gree can start their careers in testing and inspecting jobs, or becom e tech nical sales and service re p resen ta tives. T hey also m ay becom e a d vanced tech n ician s, particularly in . m edical research or, with courses in e d u c a tio n , a high sch o o l biology teacher. (See statem ent on second ary school teachers elsew here in the Handbook.) M ost colleges and universities of fer life science curriculum s. How ever, different schools may em pha size only certain areas o f life science. F o r ex am ple, liberal arts colleges may em phasize the biological scienc es, while many State universities and land-grant colleges offer program s in agricultural science. Students seeking careers in the life sciences should obtain the broadest possible undergraduate background in biology and other sciences. C ourses taken should include biol ogy, chem istry, physics, and m athe matics. Many colleges and universities confer advanced degrees in the life sciences. R equirem ents for advanced degrees usually include field work and laboratory research as well as classroom studies and preparation o f a thesis. Prospective life scientists should be able to work independently or as part o f a team and m ust be able to com m unicate their findings in clear and concise language, both orally and in writing. Some life scientists, such as those conducting field re search in rem ote areas, m ust have good physical stam ina. Life scientists who have advanced degrees usually begin in research or teaching jobs. W ith experience, they may advance to jobs such as supervi sors of research programs. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent opportunities for life scientists are expected to be good for those with advanced degrees through the m id-1980’s, but those with lesser degrees may experience com petition for available jobs. However, a life science degree also is useful for entry to occupations related to life science such as laboratory technology and the health care occupations. Em ploy m ent in the life sciences is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations over this period. In addition, some openings will occur as life scientists retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Em ploym ent in the life sciences will grow as a result of increased interest in preserving the natural e n vironm ent and a continuing interest in m edical research . E m ploym ent opportunities in industry and govern m ent should grow as environm ental research and developm ent increases and new laws and standards p ro tec t ing the environm ent are enacted. A d ditional life science teachers will be needed if college and university e n rollm ents increase as expected. Earnings and Working Conditions Life scientists receive relatively high salaries; their average earnings are m ore than twice those of nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Beginning salary offers in private industry in 1976 averaged $10,900 a year for bachelor’s degree recipients in agricultural science and $10,200 a year for bachelor’s degree recipients in biological science. In the Federal G overnm ent in 1977, life scientists having a bache lo r’s degree could begin at $9,303 or $11,523 a year, depending on their college records. Life scientists having the m aster’s degree could start at $11,523 or $14,097, depending on their academ ic records or work expe rience. Those having the Ph. D. d e g re e c o u ld begin a t $ 1 7 ,0 5 6 o r $20,442 a year. Agricultural and bio logical scientists in the Federal Gov ernm ent averaged $21,600 a year. Earnings of all life scientists aver aged about $20,300 a year in 1976, according to the limited data avail able. Life scientists who have the M .D. degree generally earn m ore than other life scientists but less than physicians in private practice. Most life scientists work in welllighted, well-ventilated, and clean laboratories. Some jobs, however, re quire w orking outdoors under ex tre m e w e a th e r co n d itio n s, doing strenuous physical labor. Sources of Additional Information G eneral inform ation on careers in the life sciences is available from: American Institute of Biological Sciences, 1401 Wilson Boulevard, Arlington, Va. 22209. American Society for Horticultural Science, National Center for American Horticul ture, Mt. Vernon, Va. 22121. American Physiological Society, Education Office, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md. 20014. Special inform ation on Federal G overnm ent careers is available from: U.S. Civil Service Commission, Washington Area Office, 1900 E St. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20415. 155 with wholesalers and other custom credit ratings. In addition, they must ers. plan their work schedules, draw up Sales w orkers who deal in highly lists o f p ro sp e cts, m ake a p p o in t technical products, such as electron m ents, handle some correspondence, ic equipm ent, often are called sales and study literature relating to their (D .O .T. 260. through 298.458) engineers or industrial sales workers. products. In a d d itio n to having a th o ro u g h Places of Employment knowledge o f their firm s’ products, Nature of the Work they m ust be able to help prospective Over 360,000 people were m anu buyers with technical problem s. For fa c tu re r s ’ sales w orkers in 1976. Practically all m anufacturers— w hether they m ake com puters or can exam ple, they may try to determ ine A bout 15,000 were sales engineers. the proper m aterials and equipm ent Some work out of their com pany’s openers—em ploy sales workers. M an u factu rers’ sales w orkers sell for a firm ’s m anufacturing process. hom e office, often located at a m anu m ainly to o th e r businesses—fa cto They then present this inform ation to facturing plant. The m ajority, how ries, railro ad s, banks, w holesalers, com pany officials and try to negoti ever, work out of branch offices, usu and retailers. They also sell to hospi ate a sale, w hich m ay tak e m any ally in big cities n ea r prospective tals, schools, libraries, and o th er in m onths. O ften, sales engineers work custom ers. with the research-and-developm ent M ore sales workers are em ployed stitutions. M ost m an u factu rers’ sales w orkers departm ents o f their own com panies by com panies that produce food sell n o n te c h n ic a l p ro d u c ts. T hey to devise ways to adapt products to a products than by any other industry. m ust be well inform ed about their cu sto m er’s specialized needs. Sales Large num bers also work in the firm s’ pro d u cts and also about the w orkers who handle technical p ro d printing and publishing, chemical, special requirem ents o f their custom ucts som etim es train their custom ers’ fabricated m etal products, and elec ers. W hen sales w orkers visit firms in e m p lo y e e s in th e o p e ra tio n an d trical and o th er m achinery indus their territory, they use an approach m aintenance o f new equipm ent, and tries. M ost sales engineers <bvork for adapted to the p articular line o f m er m ake frequent return visits to be c e r com panies that produce heavy m a chandise. A sales w orker who han tain th at it is giving the desired ser chinery, transportation equipm ent, fabricated metal products, and p ro dles crack ers o r cookies, for exam vice. Although m anufacturers’ sales fessional and scientific instrum ents. ple, em phasizes the w holesom eness, attractive packaging, and variety of w orkers spend m ost of their tim e Training, Other Qualifications, th e s e p ro d u c ts . S o m e tim e s sales visiting prospective custom ers, they and Advancement w orkers prom ote th eir products by also do paperw ork, including reports displays in hotels and conferences on sales prospects or custom ers’ A lthough a college degree is in creasingly desirable, the type and level o f education a sales w orker needs depend largely on the product and its m arket. M anufacturers of nontechnical products often hire college graduates who have a degree in liberal arts or business adm inistration. Some posi tions, how ever, require specialized training. D rug sales w orkers, also known as pharm aceutical detailers, usually need training at a college of pharm acy. M anufacturers of electri cal equipm ent, heavy machinery, and some types o f chem icals prefer to hire people who have studied engi neering or chemistry. (Inform ation on chem ists, engineers, and others with the technical training suitable fo r w ork as m a n u fa c tu re rs ’ sales w orkers is given elsew here in the Handbook.) Beginning sales workers may take specialized training before they start on the job. Some com panies, espe cially those that m anufacture com Manufacturer’s sales worker takes order for camera equipment from department store plex technical products, have formal photo supplies buyer. M A N U F A C T U R E R S ’ SALES W O RK ER S 156 training program s th at last 2 years or longer. In some of these program s, trainees rotate am ong jobs in several departm ents of the plant and office to learn all phases o f production, in stallatio n , and d istrib u tio n o f the product. O ther trainees take form al class in stru ctio n a t the plant, fol low ed by on -th e-jo b training in a branch office under the supervision a field sales m anager. A pleasant personality and appear ance, and the ability to m eet and get along well with many types of people are im portant. Because sales workers may have to walk or stand for long p eriods o r carry p ro d u c t sam ples, some physical stam ina is necessary. As in m ost selling jobs, arithm etic skills are an asset. Sales representatives who have good sales records and leadership ability may advance to sales supervi sors, b ra n ch m an ag ers, or district m an ag ers. T hose w ith m anagerial ability eventually may advance to sales m anager o r oth er executive po sitions; m any top executive jobs in industry are filled by people who started as sales workers. Because o f frequent contact with business people in other firms, sales workers often are able to transfer to other jobs. Some go into business for them selves as independent represen ta tiv e s . O th e r e x p e rie n c e d sales w orkers find opportunities in adver tising and m arketing research. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent in this field is expect ed to grow about as fast as the aver age for all occupations. Grow th will occur because o f the rising dem and for technical products and the result ing need for trained sales workers. In a d d itio n , in d u s tria l firm s, c h a in stores, and institutions th at purchase large quantities o f goods at one time fre q u e n tly buy d ire c tly from the m an u fa ctu rer. T he n ee d for sales workers will increase as m anufactur ers em phasize sales activities to com pete for the growing num ber o f these valuable accounts. Earnings and Working Conditions According to the limited inform a tion available, salaries for inexperi en ced sales w orkers ranged from $6,000 to over $24,000 a year in 1976, exclusive o f commissions and bonuses. The highest starting salaries generally were paid by m anufactur ers o f e le c tric a l eq u ip m en t, food products, and rubber goods. The av e ra g e e x p e rie n c e d sales w o rk e r e a r n e d b e t w e e n $ 1 7 ,0 0 0 a n d $30,000 in 1976, depending upon the firm and its product. The highest paid sales workers som etim es earned upwards o f $40,000 and $50,000. Some m anufacturing concerns pay experienced sales w orkers a straight commission, based on their dollar am ount o f sales (as in the case o f independent representatives); others pay a fixed salary. The m ajority, however, use a com bination o f salary and commission, salary and bonus, or salary, commission, and bonus. C om missions vary according to the sales w orkers’ efforts and ability, the com m ission rate, the location o f their sales territory, and the type of p ro d uct sold. Bonus paym ents may d e pend on individual perform ance, on perform ance of all sales workers in the group or district, or on the com pany’s sales. Some firms pay annual bonuses; others offer bonuses as in centive paym ents on a quarterly or m onthly basis. Some m anufacturers’ sales w ork ers have large territories and do co n siderable traveling. O thers usually work in the neighborhood of their “ hom e b a s e .” W hen on business trips, sales w orkers are reim bursed for expenses such as transportation and hotels. Some com panies provide a car or pay a mileage allowance to sales workers who use their own cars. M anufacturers’ sales workers call at the time m ost convenient to cus tom ers and may have to travel at night or on w eekends. Frequently, they spend evenings writing reports. However, some plan their schedules for time off when they want it. M ost sales w orkers who are not paid a straight com m ission receive 2 to 4 w eeks’ paid vacation, depending on their length of service. They usually share in com pany benefits, including life insurance, pensions, and hospital, surgical, and m edical benefits. Sources of Additional Information For m ore inform ation on the occu pation o f m anufacturers’ sales w ork er, write: Sales and Marketing Executives International, Career Education Division, 380 Lexing ton Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. Manufacturer’s Agents National Association, P.O. Box 16878, Irvine, Cal. 92713. M A R K ETIN G RESEARCH W ORKERS (D.O.T. 050.088) Nature of the Work Businesses require a great deal of inform ation to make sound decisions on how to m arket their products. M arketing research workers provide m uch of this information by analyz ing available data on products and sales. If additional information is re quired but not available, they con d u ct m arketing surveys, by in te r view ing th o se likely to have the needed data. They also prepare sales fo recasts and m ake recom m enda tions on product design and advertis ing. Most m arketing research starts with the collection of facts from sources such as com pany records, published materials, and experts on the subject under investigation. For exam ple, m arketing research w ork ers making sales forecasts may begin by studying the growth of sales vol ume in several different cities. This growth may then be traced to in creases in population, size of the com pany’s sales force, or am ount of m oney spent on advertising. O ther m a rk e tin g re se a rc h w orkers m ay study changes in the quantity of com pany goods on store shelves or m ake door-to-door surveys to get inform a tion on company products. M arketing research workers often are concerned with custom ers’ opin ions and tastes. For example, to help decide on the design and price o f a new line of television sets, m arketing 157 Market research workers often test reactions to a company’s product. research w orkers may survey co n sum ers to find o u t w hat styles and price ranges are m ost popular. This type o f survey usually is supervised by m arketing researchers who spe cialize in consum er goods; th at is, m erchandise sold to the general pub lic. They may be helped by statisti cians who select a group (o r sam ple) to be interview ed and “ m otivational re s e a r c h ” sp ec ia lists w ho p h ra se questions to produce reliable infor m ation. O nce the investigation is un derw ay, th e m ark etin g re searc h er may supervise the interview ers as well as direct the office workers who tabulate and analyze the inform ation collected. M arketing surveys on products used by business and industrial firms may be conducted differently from surveys for consum er goods. M arket ing researchers often conduct the in terviews them selves to gather opin ions o f the product. They also may speak to co m p an y officials about new uses for it. They m ust therefore have specialized knowledge o f both m arketing techniques and the indus trial uses o f the product. Places of Employment A bout 25,000 full-time m arketing research workers were em ployed in 158 1976. M ost jobs for m arketing re search workers are found in m anu fa c tu rin g c o m p a n ie s, ad v e rtisin g agencies, and independent research organizations. L arge num bers are employed by stores, radio and televi sion firms, and new spapers; others work for university research centers and governm ent agencies. M arketing research organizations range in size from one-person enterprises to firms with a hundred em ployees or m ore. New York City has a large num ber of m arketing research workers. Many m ajor advertising agencies, in dependent m arketing organizations, and central offices of large m anufac tu rers are lo cated there. A n o th er large co n c en tratio n is in Chicago. However, m arketing research w ork ers are em ployed in many other cities as well—w herever there are central offices o f large m anufacturing and sales organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although a bachelor’s degree usu ally is sufficient for trainees, gradu ate education is necessary for many specialized positions in m arketing re search. G raduate study usually is re quired for advancem ent, and a siz able num ber of m arket researchers have a m aster’s degree in business adm inistration or other graduate de gree as well as a bachelor’s degree in m arketing. Some people qualify for jobs through previous experience in o th er types o f research; university teachers o f m arketing or statistics, for example, may be hired to head m arketing research departm ents in business firms or advertising agen cies. B achelor’s program s in m arketing and related fields, including courses in statistics, English com position, speech, psychology, and economics, are valuable preparation for work in m arketing research. Some m arketing research positions require special ized skills such as engineering, or substantial sales experience and a thorough knowledge of the com pa n y ’s products. Knowledge of d ata processing is helpful because of the increasing use of com puters in sales forecasting, d istribution, and cost analysis. College graduates may find their first job in any of a num ber of places: in the m arket research departm ent of a large company, with a research firm, in a governm ent planning agency, or even in a university m ar keting departm ent. Trainees usually start as research assistants or junior analysts. At first, they may do considerable clerical work, such as copying data from pub lished sources, editing and coding questionnaires, and tabulating survey returns. They also learn to conduct interviews and write reports on sur vey findings. As they gain experi ence, assistants and junior analysts may assume responsibility for specif ic m arketing research projects, or ad vance to supervisory positions. An exceptionally able w orker may be come m arketing research director or vice p re sid e n t for m arketin g and sales. Either alone or as part of a team , m arketing research workers must be able to analyze problem s objectively and apply various techniques to their solution. As advisers to m anagem ent, they should be able to write clear reports informing com pany officials of their findings. Employment Outlook O pportunities should be best for applicants with graduate training in m arketing research or statistics. The growing complexity o f m arketing re search techniques also may expand o p p o rtu n ities in this field for psy chologists, econom ists, and other so cial scientists. M arketing research em ploym ent rises as new products and services are developed, particularly when business activity and personal in com es are expanding rapidly. In p e riods o f slow econom ic growth, how e v e r , th e r e d u c e d d e m a n d fo r m arketing services may limit the hir ing o f research workers. O ver the long run, population growth and the increased variety of goods and services th at businesses and individuals will require are ex pected to stimulate a high level of m arketing activity. As a result, em p lo y m e n t o f m a rk e tin g re se a rc h w orkers is expected to grow m uch fa ste r th a n the av erage for o th e r occupations through the m id-1980’s. C om petition am ong m anufactur ers o f both consum er and industrial products will m ake the appraising of m arketing situations increasingly im portant. As techniques improve and statistical d ata accum ulate, com pany officials are likely to turn more often to m arketing research workers for in form ation and advice. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries for m arketing research trainees were about $ 11,000 a year in 1976, according to the limited inform ation available. Persons with m aster’s degrees in business adm inis tra tio n an d re la ted fields usually started with salaries around $15,000 a year. Starting salaries varied ac cording to the type, size, and location of the firm as well as the exact nature o f the position. G enerally, though, starting salaries were som ewhat high er and prom otion som ew hat slower than in oth er occupations requiring similar training. Experienced w orkers such as sen ior analysts received salaries over $19,000 a year. Earnings were high est, however, for w orkers in m anage m ent positions of great responsibil ity. D irectors of m arketing research earned well over $25,000 a year in 1976. M arketing research workers usual ly work in m odem , centrally located offices. Some, especially those em p lo y e d by in d e p e n d e n t re s e a rc h firm s, m ay trav el fo r th e ir w ork. Also, they may frequently work u n der pressure and for long hours to m eet deadlines. Sources of Additional Information A pam phlet, “ C areers in M arket ing” (M onograph Series No. 4), may be purchased for $1.50 from: American Marketing Association, 222 South Riverside Plaza, Chicago, 111. 60606. M A TH E M A TIC IA N S (D.O.T. 020.088) Nature of the Work M athem aticians work with one o f the oldest and m ost vital of all scienc es. M athem aticians today are e n gaged in a wide variety of activities, ranging from the creatio n o f new theories to the translation of scientif ic and m an ag erial p ro b lem s in to m athem atical terms. M athem atical work falls into two broad classes: theoretical (pure) m athem atics; and applied m athem at ics. However, these classes are not sharply defined and often overlap. T h e o re tic a l m athem aticians a d vance m athem atical science by d e veloping new principles and new rela tio n s h ip s b e tw e e n e x is tin g principles of m athem atics. Although they seek to increase basic know l edge w ithout necessarily considering its practical use, this pure and ab stra c t know ledge has been in stru m ental in producing many scientific and engineering achievem ents. For example, in 1854 Bernard Riem ann in v en ted a seem ingly im p rac tica l non-Euclidian geom etry that was to becom e part of A lbert Einstein’s th e ory o f relativity. Years later, this th e ory contributed to the creation o f atom ic power. M athem aticians in applied work use m athem atics to develop theories, techniques, and approaches to solve practical problem s in business, gov ernm ent, engineering, and the natu ral and social sciences. Their work ranges from analysis of the m athe m atical aspects of launching earth satellites to studies of the effects of new drugs on disease. M uch work in applied m athem at ics, however, is carried on by persons other than m athem aticians. In fact, the num ber of workers who depend upon m athem atical expertise is many times greater than the num ber actu ally designated as mathem aticians. Places of Employment About 38,000 persons worked as m athem aticians in 1976. Roughly three-fourths of all m athem aticians worked in colleges and universities. Most were teachers; some worked mainly in research and developm ent with few or no teaching duties. Most other m athem aticians worked in private industry and gov ernm ent. In the private sector, m ajor employers were the aerospace, com m unications, machinery, and electri cal equipm ent industries. The D e p a r t m e n t o f D e fe n s e a n d th e N ational Aeronautics and Space A d m inistration em ployed most of the m athem aticians working in the Fed eral Governm ent. M athem aticians work in all States, but are concentrated in those with large industrial areas and large col lege a n d u n iv ersity en ro llm e n ts. Nearly half of the total are employed in seven S ta te s—C alifo rn ia, New Y ork, M assachusetts, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Maryland, and New Jersey. O f the total, one-fourth live in three m etropolitan areas—New York City; W ashington, D.C.; and Los AngelesLong Beach, California. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement An advanced degree is the basic requirem ent for beginning teaching jobs, as well as for most research positions. In most colleges and uni159 r e s e a r c h a n d ta k in g a d v a n c e d courses. For work in applied m athem atics, training in the field in which the m athem atics will be used is very im p o rta n t. Fields in w hich applied m athem atics is used extensively in clude physics, engineering, and op erations research; of increasing im portance are business and industrial m anagem ent, econom ics, statistics, chem istry and life sciences, and the behavioral sciences. M athem aticians should have a good know ledge o f com puter p ro g ra m m in g s in c e m o s t c o m p le x m athem atical com putation is done by com puter. M athem aticians need good reason ing ability, persistence, and the abil ity to apply basic principles to new types of problem s. They must be able to com m unicate well with others since th ey often m ust listen to a nonm athem atician describe a p ro b lem in general term s, and check and recheck to m ake sure they un d er stand the m athem atical solution that is needed. Employment Outlook Mathematicians should have a good knowledge of computer programming since most com plex m ath e m a tic a l com putation is done by com puter. versities, the Ph. D. degree is neces sary for full faculty status. Although the bachelor’s degree may be adequate preparation for some jobs in private industry and governm ent, em ployers usually re quire an ad v an ced degree. Those bachelor’s degree holders who find jobs usually assist senior m athem ati cians by perform ing com putations and solving less advanced problem s in applied m athem atics. H owever, a d v a n c e m e n t o fte n d e p e n d s on achieving an advanced degree. O ther b achelor’s degree holders work as re search or teaching assistants in col leges and universities while studying for an advanced degree. The b ach elo r’s degree in m athe m atics is offered by m ost colleges 160 a n d u n iv e r s itie s . M a th e m a tic s courses usually required for a degree are analytical geom etry, calculus, d iffe ren tial eq u a tio n s, probability and statistics, m athem atical analysis, and m odern algebra. A prospective college m athem atics student should take as many m athem atics courses as possible while still enrolled in high school. M ore than 400 colleges and uni versities have program s leading to the m aster’s degree in m athem atics; about 150 also offer the Ph. D. In graduate school, students build upon the basic knowledge acquired in e a r lier studies. They usually concen trate on a specific field of m athem at ics, such as algebra, m athem atical analysis, or geom etry, by conducting Em ployment of m athem aticians is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. Although the num ber of degrees granted in m athem atics each year is expected to decline, the num ber o f people seek ing em ploym ent is expected to ex ceed job openings. As a result, p er s o n s s e e k i n g e m p l o y m e n t as m athem aticians are likely to face keen com petition throughout the pe riod. Theoretical mathem aticians, who have traditionally found jobs in col leges and universities, are expected to experience the most difficulty in finding em ploym ent because colleges and universities are not expected to increase their employm ent of m athe maticians much, if any, beyond p re sent levels. Holders of advanced degrees in applied m athem atics should have the least difficulty in finding satisfactory employm ent. Although some limited opportunities may be available to th eo retical m athem aticians in nonacadem ic areas, m ost em ployers will seek applied m athem aticians who are c a p a b le o f applying th e ir special m athem atical skills to practical p ro b lems. P rivate industry and govern m ental agencies will n eed applied m athem aticians for w ork in opera tions research , n u m erical analysis, com puter systems program m ing, ap plied m athem atical physics, m arket re searc h an d co m m ercial surveys, and as consultants in industrial labo ratories. W ork in applied m athem at ics requires both a high degree of m a th e m a tic a l c o m p e te n c e an d a knowledge o f the field o f application. A lthough m athem atician jobs may be difficult to obtain, college gradu ates w ith d eg rees in m ath em atics should find their background helpful for careers in oth er areas. Many jobs rely heavily on th e application of m athem atical theories and m ethods. M athem atics m ajors are likely to find openings in statistics, actuarial work, c o m p u te r p ro g ra m m in g , system s an alysis, ec o n o m ic s, en g in ee rin g , and physical and life sciences. Em p lo y m e n t o p p o rtu n itie s in th e se fields will probably be best for those who com bine a m ajor in m athem atics with a m inor in one o f these subjects. New graduates may also find open ings as h ig h sch o o l m a th e m a tic s teachers after com pleting profession al ed u cation courses and o th er re quirem ents for a State teaching cer tificate. (See statem ent on secondary sch o o l te a c h e rs elsew h ere in the Handbook.) Earnings and Working Conditions In 1976, m athem aticians earned average salaries over twice as high as the average for nonsupervisory w ork ers in private industry, except farm ing. Starting salaries for m athem ati c ia n s w ith a b a c h e l o r ’s d e g re e a v e ra g e d a b o u t $ 1 1 ,5 0 0 a y ea r. Those with a m aster’s degree could s ta rt a t a b o u t $ 1 4 ,3 0 0 annually. Salaries for new graduates having the Ph. D., m ost of whom had some ex perience, averaged over $20,000. In the Federal G overnm ent in 1977, m athem aticians having the bachelor’s degree and no experience could start at either $9,303 or $11,523 a year, depending on their college records. Those with the m as te r ’s degree could start at $14,097 o r $17,056; and persons having the Ph. D. d e g re e co u ld b eg in a t e ith e r $ 17,056 or $20,442. T he average sal ary for all m athem aticians in the F ed eral G overnm ent was about $23,100 in 1977. Salaries paid to college and univer sity m athem atics teachers are com parab le to those for o th er faculty m em bers. (See statem ent on college and university teachers elsew here in the Handbook.) Sources of Additional Information Several brochures are available th at give facts about the field o f m athem atics, including c a ree r o p p o rtu n itie s, p ro fessio n al train in g , and colleges and universities with d e gree program s. Seeking Em ploym ent in the M athe matical Sciences is available for 50 cents from: American Mathematical Society, P.O. Box 6248, Providence, R.I. 02940. P r o fe s s io n a l O p p o r tu n itie s in M athem atics (50 cents) and Guide Book to Departments in the M athe matical Sciences ($3.00) are provid ed by: Mathematical Association of America, 1225 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. F or specific inform ation on c a reers in applied m athem atics, co n tact: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathemat ics, 33 S. 17th St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19103. F or F ed eral G overnm ent c a re e r inform ation, contact any regional of fice o f the U.S. Civil Service C om mission or: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Exam iners, 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. M E D IC A L LABORATORY W O RKERS (D.O.T. 078.128, .168, .281, and .381) Nature of the Work Laboratory tests play an im portant part in the detection, diagnosis, and treatm ent o f many diseases. Medical la b o ra to ry w o rk e rs, o fte n ca lle d clinical laboratory workers, include three levels: m edical technologists, technicians, and assistants. They p er form tests under the general direc tion of pathologists (physicians who diagnose the causes and nature of disease) and other physicians, or sci e n tists w ho specialize in clin ical chem istry, microbiology, or the other biological sciences. M edical labora tory w orkers analyze the blood, tis sues, and fluids in the hum an body by using precision instrum ents such as m icroscopes and autom atic analyz ers. Medical technologists, who require 4 years of postsecondary training, perform com plicated chemical, mi croscopic, and bacteriological tests. These may include chem ical tests to determ ine, for exam ple, the blood cholesterol level, or m icroscopic ex am ination of the blood to detect the presence of diseases such as leuke mia. Technologists m icroscopically examine other body fluids; m ake cul tures of body fluid or tissue samples to determ ine the presence of b acte ria, parasites, or o th er m icroorga nisms; and analyze the samples for chem ical content or reaction. They also may type and cross-m atch blood samples. Technologists in small laboratories often perform many types of tests. Those in large laboratories usually specialize in areas such as m icrobiol ogy, p a ra s ito lo g y , b io c h e m is try , b lo o d b a n k in g , h em ato lo g y (th e study o f blood cells), and nuclear medical technology (the use of radio active isotopes to help detect diseas es). M ost m edical technologists co n duct tests related to the examination and trea tm e n t of patients and are called on to display in d e p e n d e n t judgm ent. Some do research, devel161 op laboratory techniques, teach, or perform adm inistrative duties. Medical laboratory technicians, who generally require 2 years of postsecondary training, perform a wide range of tests and laboratory procedures th at require a high level o f skill b u t not the in-depth know l edge o f highly trained technologists. Like technologists, they may w ork in several areas o r specialize in one field. Medical laboratory assistants, who generally have a year o f form al train ing, assist m edical technologists and technicians in routine tests and relat ed work th a t can be learned in a rela tively sh o rt time. In large laborato ries, they m ay c o n c e n tra te in one area o f w ork. F or exam ple, they may id en tify ab n o rm a l b lo o d cells on slides. In addition to perform ing ro u tine tests, assistants m ay store and label plasm a; clean and sterilize labo ratory equipm ent, glassware, and in strum ents; prepare solutions follow ing standard laboratory form ulas and p ro ced u res; keep re co rd s o f tests; and identify specim ens. Places of Employment A bout 240,000 persons worked as m edical laboratory w orkers in 1976. M ost m edical laboratory personnel work in hospital laboratories. O thers work in independent laboratories, physicians’ offices, clinics, public health agencies, pharm aceutical firms, and research institutions. These places are concentrated in larger cities and populous States. In 1976, V eterans A dm inistration hospitals and laboratories em ployed about 2,400 m edical technologists and about 2,000 m edical laboratory technicians and assistants. O thers w orked for the A rm ed Forces and the U.S. Public H ealth Service. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minim um educational require m ent for a beginning jo b as a m edical technologist usually is 4 years of col lege training including com pletion o f a sp ecialized train in g program in m edical technology. Most medical laboratory personnel work in hospitals. 162 U ndergraduate work includes courses in chemistry, biological sci ences, and m athem atics. These stud ies give the technologist a broad un d e r s ta n d in g o f th e s c ie n tif ic p rin c ip le s u n d e rly in g la b o ra to ry work. Specialized training usually re quires 12 m onths o f study and in cludes extensive laboratory work. In 1 9 7 6 , a b o u t 7 0 0 h o s p ita ls a n d schools offered program s accredited by the A m erican M edical A ssoci ation. These program s were affiliated w ith c o lleg e s and u n iv ersities; a bachelor’s degree usually is aw arded upon com pletion. A few program s require a bachelor’s degree for entry. M any universities also offer ad vanced degrees in medical technol ogy and related subjects for tech nologists who plan to specialize in a certain area o f laboratory work o r in te a c h in g , a d m in is tra tio n , o r r e search. M edical laboratory technicians em ployed in 1976 got their training in a variety of educational settings. Many attended junior or 4-year col leges and universities for 2 years. Som e w ere train ed in the A rm ed Forces. M any technicians received training in private or nonprofit voca tional and technical schools. In 1976 the A m erican M edical Association accredited 38 of these program s and the Accrediting Bureau of M edical Laboratory Schools accredited 36. Most medical laboratory assistants em ployed in 1976 were trained on the job. In recent years, however, an increasing num ber have studied in 1year training program s conducted by hospitals, junior colleges in coopera tion w ith hospitals, or vocatio n al sc h o o ls. In 1976, th e A m eric an M edical Association accredited 153 training program s for medical labo ratory assistants. Applicants to these p ro g ra m s sh o u ld be high sch o o l graduates or have an equivalency di plom a with courses in science and m athem atics. The program s include classroom instruction and practical training in the laboratory. They often begin with a general orientation to the clinical laboratory followed by courses in bacteriology, serology, p arasito lo g y , hem atology, clinical chem istry, blood banking, and uri nalysis. A fter the successful com pletion of the appropriate exam inations, m edi cal technologists may be certified as M edical Technologists, M T (A SC P), by th e B o ard o f R eg istry o f the A m erican Society o f C linical P a thologists; M edical T echnologists, MT, by the A m erican M edical T ech n o lo g ists; o r R e g iste re d M edical Technologists, RM T, by the Interna tional Society o f Clinical Laboratory T e c h n o lo g y . T h ese o rg a n iz a tio n s also certify technicians. Laboratory assistants are certified by the A m eri can Society of Clinical Pathologists. M edical technologists and techni cians m ust be licensed in Alabam a, California, Florida, G eorgia, Hawaii, Illinois, Nevada, Pennsylvania, T en nessee, New York City, and Puerto Rico. R equirem ents for licensure in clude a w ritten exam ination in some States. A ccuracy, dependability, and the ability to work under pressure are im portant personal characteristics for a m edical laboratory worker. M anual dexterity and norm al color vision are highly desirable. Persons interested in m edical labo ratory careers should use consider able care in selecting a training pro gram. They should get inform ation about the kinds o f jobs obtained by graduates, educational costs, the ac creditation of the school, the length o f tim e th e train in g program has been in operation, instructional fa cilities, and faculty qualifications. Technologists may advance to su pervisory positions in certain areas of lab o ra to ry w ork, or, afte r several years’ experience, to adm inistrative m edical technologist in a large hospi tal. G raduate education in one of the biological sciences, chem istry, m an a g e m e n t, an d e d u c a tio n u su ally speeds a d v a n cem en t. T echnicians can advance to technologists by get ting additional education and experi ence. Sim ilarly, assistants can be com e technicians by acquiring m ore education and experience. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent opportunities for medical laboratory w orkers are ex pected to be favorable through the m id -1 9 8 0 ’s. E m ploym ent o f these w orkers is expected to expand faster than the average for all occupations as physicians m ake wider use of labo r a to r y te s ts in ro u tin e p h y sic a l checkups and in the diagnosis and treatm ent of disease. Indirectly influ encing growth in the field are popula tio n g ro w th , g re a te r h e a lth c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a n d e x p a n s io n o f prep ay m en t program s for m edical care th at m ake it easier for people to pay for services. The use of autom ated laboratory test equipm ent is expected to lead to an increase in the num ber o f m edical laboratory technicians and assistants relative to technologists. Through technological advances, technicians and assistants can operate equipm ent to perform tests which previously re quired the skill o f a technologist. Technologists will be needed to fill supervisory positions in all laborato ries. Also, some will be needed in laboratories where they are required by S ta te licen sin g a u th o ritie s o r third-party health insurance regula tions, and in laboratories not using the new autom ated equipm ent. In addition to openings resulting from growth, many jobs will becom e available each year because o f the need to replace m edical laboratory workers who die, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of m edical laboratory workers vary depending on the em ployer and geographic location. In general, m edical laboratory workers em ployed on the W est Coast and in large cities received the highest sala ries. Starting salaries for medical tech nologists in hospitals and m edical centers averaged about $10,600 a year in 1976, according to a survey conducted by the University of Texas M edical Branch. Beginning salaries for laboratory technicians averaged about $8,700 a year in 1976; for as sistants, about $7,600. The Federal G overnm ent paid newly graduated m edical technolo gists with bachelor’s degrees starting salaries o f $9,303 a year in 1977. Those having experience, superior academ ic achievem ent, or a year of graduate study entered at $11,523. The Federal Governm ent paid m edi cal laboratory assistants and techni cians starting salaries ranging from $5,810 to $9,303 a year in 1977, de pending on the am ount and type of education and experience. Medical technologists in the Federal G overn m ent averaged $13,600 a year and medical technicians $ 11,800 a year, in 1977. M edical laboratory personnel gen erally work a 40-hour week. In hospi tals, they can expect some night and w eekend duty. H ospitals norm ally p ro v id e v ac atio n an d sick leav e benefits; some have retirem ent plans. Laboratories generally are welllighted and clean. Although unpleas ant odors and specim ens o f many kinds of diseased tissue often are p re sen t, few h azards exist if p ro p e r m ethods o f sterilization and handling of specimens, m aterials, and equip m ent are used. Sources of Additional Information Inform ation about education and training for medical technologists, technicians, and laboratory assistants meeting standards recognized by the A m erican Medical Association, the U.S. Office of Education, or both, as well as career information on these fields of work, is available from: American Society of Clinical Pathologists, Board of Registry, P.O. Box 4872, Chica go, 111. 60680. American Society for Medical Technology, 5555 W. Loop South, Bellaire, Tex. 77401. American Medical Technologists, 710 Higgins Rd., Park Ridge, 111. 60068. Accrediting Bureau of Medical Laboratory Schools, Oak Manor Office, 29089 U.S. 20 West, Elkhart, Ind. 46514. For inform ation about other tech nician training programs, contact: International Society for Clinical Laboratory Technology, 805 Ambassador Building, 411 N . Seventh St., St. Louis, Mo. 63101. For a list of training programs for m edical technologists, technicians, and assistants that are approved by the A m erican M edical Association, write: 163 Department of Allied Health Evaluation, American Medical Association, 535 North Dearborn St., Chicago, 111. 60610. For a list o f training program s for m edical lab oratory technicians ac credited by the A ccrediting B ureau o f M e d ic a l L a b o ra to ry S c h o o ls, write: Secretary-ABMLS, 29089 U.S. 20 West, Elk hart, Ind. 46514. In fo rm a tio n a b o u t e m p lo y m en t opportunities in V eterans Adm inis tration hospitals is available from the Office o f Personnel (0 5 4 E ), V eter ans A d m in is tra tio n , W a sh in g to n , D.C. 20420. Inform ation about clinical and re se a rc h em p lo y m en t o p p o rtu n itie s with the N ational Institutes o f H ealth is available from the Clinical C enter, N ational Institutes o f H ealth, Bethesda, M aryland 20014. M E D IC A L RECO RD A D M IN IS T R A T O R S (D .O .T. 100.388) Nature of the Work All h ealth care institutions keep records th a t contain m edical infor m ation on each p atien t, including case histories o f illnesses or injuries, reports on physical exam inations, Xrays and laboratory tests, doctors’ o r ders and notes, and n u rses’ notes. These records are necessary for cor rect and prom pt diagnosis and trea t m ent o f illnesses and injuries. They also are used for research, insurance claim s, legal actions, evaluation o f tr e a tm e n t a n d m e d ic a tio n s p r e scribed, and in the training o f m edi cal personnel. M edical inform ation in hospitals also is used to evaluate patient care provided in the hospital and as a basis for health care plan ning for the community. M edical record adm inistrators di rect the activities o f the medical rec ord departm ent and develop systems fo r d o cu m en tin g , storing, and re trieving m edical inform ation. They supervise the m edical record staff, w hich processes and analyzes re c ords and reports on p atien ts’ illnesses 164 Medical record administrators develop systems for documenting, storing, and retriev ing medical information. and treatm ent. They train m em bers o f the m edical record staff for spe cialized jobs, com pile m edical statis tics re q u ired by S tate o r national health agencies, and assist the m edi cal staff in evaluations of patient care or research studies. M edical record adm inistrators serving as departm ent heads are a part o f the hospital m an agem ent staff and participate fully in m anagem ent activities. As the a d m in is tra to r s re s p o n sib le fo r th e m edical in fo rm atio n system , they may be required to testify in court ab o u t re c o rd s an d re c o rd p ro c e dures. The size and type o f institution af fect the duties and am ount o f respon sibility assigned to m edical reco rd ad m in istrato rs. In large hospitals, chief m edical record adm inistrators supervise other m edical record ad m inistrators, technicians, and clerks. Smaller hospitals may employ only two or three persons in the m edical record departm ent; in nursing hom es usually one person keeps the m edical records. In these cases a consulting medical record adm inistrator usually advises technical and clerical person nel perform ing m edical record func tions. Places of Employment Most o f the 12,300 medical record adm inistrators employed in 1976 worked in hospitals. The rem ainder worked in clinics, nursing hom es, State and local public health d ep art ments, and medical research centers. Some h ea lth insurance com panies also em ploy medical record adminis trators to help determ ine liability for p ay m en t o f th e ir clie n ts’ m edical fees. Some medical record adminis trators w ork for firms that m anufac tu re equipm ent for recording and processing medical d ata and develop and print health insurance and m edi cal form s. M any small health care facilities hire m edical record adm in istrators as consultants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement P reparation for a career as a m edi cal record adm inistrator is offered in specialized programs in colleges and universities. M ost program s last 4 years and lead to a bachelor’s degree in m edical reco rd adm inistration. However, concentration in m edical record adm inistration begins in the third or fourth year o f study, making transfer from a junior college possi ble. O ne-year certificate program s also are available for those who al ready have a bach elor’s degree and required courses in the liberal arts and b io lo g ical scien ces. In 1977, there were 41 program s in m edical record adm inistration approved by the C ouncil on M edical E ducation of the A m erican M edical A ssociation and the A m erican M edical Record A ssociation (A M R A ). High school c o u r s e s t h a t a re u se fu l in c lu d e h e a lth , b u s in e s s a d m in is tr a tio n , m athem atics, and biology. T raining for m edical record ad m inistrators includes both classroom instruction and practical experience. Anatom y, physiology, fundam entals o f m edical science, m edical term i nology, and medical record science are am ong the req u ired scientific co u rses. In ad dition, m anagem ent courses such as hospital organization and adm inistration, health law, statis tics, d ata processing, and com puter science are part o f the curriculum . Experience in the m edical record d e partm ents o f hospitals provides stu dents with a practical background in applying standardized m edical rec ord p ractices, com piling statistical reports, analyzing data, and organiz ing m edical record systems. G raduates o f approved schools in m edical record adm inistration are eligible for the national registration exam ination given by AMRA. Pass ing this exam ination gives profession al recognition as a R egistered R ecord A d m inistrato r (R R A ). T here were a b o u t 5 ,0 0 0 e m p lo y ed R R A ’s in 1976, according to AMRA. M edical record adm inistrators must be accurate and interested in detail. They also m ust be able to com m unicate clearly in speech and writing. Because m edical records are confidential, m edical record adm in istrators m ust be discreet in process ing and releasing inform ation. Super visors m ust be able to organize and an aly ze w o rk p ro c e d u re s and to work effectively with o th er hospital personnel. M edical record adm inistrators with some experience in smaller health facilities may advance to posi tions as d epartm ent heads in large hospitals or to higher level positions in hospital adm inistration. Some co ordinate the medical record d epart m ents of several small hospitals. O th e rs m ove on to m e d ic a l re c o rd positions in health agencies. Many teach in the expanding program s for m edical record personnel in 2- and 4year colleges and universities. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent opportunities for graduates o f approved medical re c ord adm inistrator program s are ex pected to be good through the mid1980’s. Em ploym ent is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations, with the increasing use o f health facilities as m ore and m ore people are covered by health insur ance. The detailed inform ation re quired by third-party payers such as insurance com panies and M edicare also will cause growth in the occupa tion. M ore consultants will be need ed to standardize health records in outpatient clinics, com m unity health centers, nursing hom es, and hom e care program s. The im portance of medical records in research and the growing use o f com puters to store and re trie v e m edical in fo rm atio n also should increase the dem and for qualified m edical record adm inistra tors to develop new m edical inform a tion systems. Part-tim e em ploym ent opportunities also should be avail able in teaching, in research, and in consulting work for health care fa cilities. Earnings and Working Conditions The salaries of medical record ad m inistrators are influenced by the lo cation, size, and type of employing institution, as well as by the duties and responsibilities of the position. The average starting salary for m edi cal record adm inistrators in 1976 was $12,312 a year, according to a national survey con d u cted by th e University of Texas M edical Branch at Galveston. Top salaries averaged $14,916 a year, with some earning as much as $27,612. Newly graduated medical record adm inistrators em ployed by the F ed eral G overnm ent generally started at $9,303 a year in 1977; those having b a c h e lo r’s degrees and good a c a demic records were eligible to begin at $11,523. In 1977, the F ederal G overnm ent paid experienced m edi cal re co rd adm inistrators average salaries of $15,700 a year. M edical record adm inistrators usually work a regular 36- to 40-hour week and receive paid holidays and vacations. Sources of Additional Information Inform ation about approved schools and employm ent opportuni ties is available from: American Medical Record Association, John Hancock Center, Suite 1850, 875 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. M ER CH A NT M A RINE OFFICERS Nature of the Work Every ship has jobs of such im por tance to its safe operation that the persons doing them are identified as having special responsibilities. These persons are the ships officers. In com m and of every oceangoing vessel is the captain or master (D.O.T. 197.168) who is the ship ow ner’s sole representative. The cap tain has com plete authority and re sponsibility for the ship’s operation and the safety of the crew, passen gers, cargo, and vessel. In addition, while in port, the cap tain may serve as the shipow ner’s agent in conferring with custom offi cials, and in some case may act as paym aster for the ship. Although not technically members of a specific de partm ent, captains generally are as sociated with the deck departm ent, from whose ranks they have been prom oted. Deck Department. Deck officers or “ m ates,” as they are traditionally called, direct m ovem ent of the ship and m aintenance of the deck and hull. They maintain the authorized speed and course; plot the vessel’s position; post lookouts for other 165 The captain has complete authority and responsibility for the ship’s operation. ships; record inform ation in the “ log” of the voyage; and immediately notify the captain of any unusual occurrences. To com ply with coast guard regulations for ensuring the safe and efficient operation of ships, deck officers must be familiar with m odern navigational equipm ent, such as sonar, radar, and radio direc tional finders. The ch ief mate (D.O.T. 197.133), also known as the first m ate or chief officer, is the cap tain’s key assistant in assigning duties to the deck crew and m aintaining order and discipline. The chief m ate also plans and super vises the loading and unloading of cargo, and assists the captain in tak ing the ship in and out of port. On some ships, the chief m ate also may be in charge of first-aid treatm ent. 166 By tradition, the second mate (D.O.T. 197.133) is the navigation officer. The second m ate sees that the ship is provided with the neces sary navigation charts and that navi g a tio n e q u ip m e n t is m a in ta in e d properly. Third mates (D.O.T. 197.133), the most junior-rated deck officers act as signal officers and are in charge of all signaling equipm ent. They also assist in the supervision of cargo loading and unloading. The third m ate fre quently in sp ects lifesaving e q u ip m ent to be sure it is ready for use in fire, shipw reck, or other em ergen cies. Engine Department. M arine en g i neers operate and m aintain all e n gines and m achinery aboard ship. The chief engineer (D.O.T. 197.130) supervises the engine departm ent, and is responsible for the efficient operation of engines and other m e chanical equipm ent. The chief engi neer oversees the operation of the main pow erplant and auxiliary equip m ent while the vessel is underway and keeps records of equipm ent p er form ance and fuel consumption. The first assistant engineer (D.O.T. 197.130) supervises engineroom p er sonnel and directs operations such as starting, stopping, and controlling the speed of the main engines. The first assistant engineer also oversees and inspects the lubrication of en gines, pum ps, generators, and other m achinery and, with the chief engi neer, directs all types of repairs. The second assistant engineer (D.O.T. 197.130) has charge of the boiler and associated equipm ent such as the water-feed system and pumps. The second assistant engi neer also makes sure proper steam pressure and oil and water tem pera tures are maintained and supervises the cleaning of boilers. The third assistant engineer (D.O.T. 197.130) supervises the op eration and m aintenance of the lubri cation system and a variety of other engineroom equipm ent. Some third assistant engineers are responsible for the electrical and refrigeration systems aboard ships. Other officers. A ship keeps con tact with the shore and other vessels th ro u g h its radio officer (D .O .T . 193.282), who also maintains radio equipm ent. These officers send and receive messages by voice or Morse code. They periodically receive and record time signals, w eather reports, position reports, and other inform a tion. Radio officers also may m ain tain depth recording equipm ent and electronic navigation equipment. Some freighters and all passenger vessels carry pursers (D.O.T. 197.168). The purser or staff officer does the extensive paperwork th at is required before a ship enters or leaves a port. They prepare payrolls and assist passengers as required. In recent years, the Staff Officers Asso ciation has established a program to train pursers to act also as physician’s assistan ts. This in stru ctio n is de- signed to improve the m edical care aboard freighters and tankers and fa cilitate U.S. Public H ealth Service clearance when a ship arrives in port. All passen g er ships m ust carry li censed doctors and nurses. Places of Employment A bout 13,300 officers were em ployed aboard U.S. oceangoing ves sels during 1976. Deck officers and engineering officers accounted for m ore than four-fifths of the total, and radio officers made up most of the rem ain d er. Due to long vacations and other breaks in service such as those resulting from illness there are about two officers em ployed for ev ery job on a ship. A bout two-thirds o f the officers were aboard freighters and m ost of the rem ainder were aboard tankers. Only a small percentage were on passenger vessels. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A pplicants for an officer’s license in the deck or engineering d ep art m ents o f oceangoing vessels m ust m eet c e rta in legal re q u ire m e n ts. C aptains, ch ief and second m ates, and chief and first assistant engineers must be at least 21 years old. The minimum age for third m ates, third assistant engineers, and radio opera to rs is 19. In ad d itio n , applicants must present pro o f of U.S. citizen ship and obtain a U.S. Public Health Service certificate attesting to their vision, color perception, and general physical condition. Besides legal and m edical require ments, candidates m ust also have at least 3 years of appropriate sea expe rience or be a grad uate of an ap proved training program . Deck offi c e r c a n d id a te s m u st pass C o a st G uard exam inations th at require ex tensive knowledge o f navigation, car go handling, and deck departm ent operations. M arine engineering offi cer candidates m ust dem onstrate indepth knowledge o f propulsion sys tems, electricity, plum bing and steam fitting, m etal shaping and assembly, and ship structure. To advance to higher ratings, officers m ust pass pro gressively m ore difficult exam ina tions. For a C oast G uard license as a radio officer, applicants must have a first or second-class radiotelegraph o p erato r’s license issued by the F ed eral C om m unications Com mission. For a license to serve as the sole ra dio operator aboard a cargo vessel, th e C o ast G uard also re q u ire s 6 m onths of radio experience at sea. Unlike most professions, no educa tion requirem ents have been estab lished for officers. A sailor with 3 years’ experience in the deck or e n gine departm ent may apply for either a third m ate’s license or for a third assistant e n g in e e r’s license. H ow ever, because of the com plex m a chinery, and navigational and elec tronic equipm ent on m odern ships, formal training usually is needed to pass the C oast G uard’s exam ination for these licenses. The fastest and surest way to b e c o m e a w e ll- tr a in e d o f f ic e r is through an established training p ro gram. Such program s are available at the U.S. M erchant M arine Academ y at Kings Point, N.Y., and at six State m erchant marine academies: C ali fornia M aritim e Academ y, Vallejo, Calif.; G reat Lakes M aritina A cad emy Traverse City, Michigan; M aine M aritime Academ y, Castine, Maine; M assachusetts M aritim e A cadem y, H y an n is, M ass.; T exas M aritim e Academ y, Galveston, Tex.; and State U niversity o f New Y ork M aritim e College, Fort Schuyler, New Y ork, N.Y. A bout 500 students graduate each year from these schools; about one-half are trained as deck officers and on e-h alf as m arine engineers. Admission to the U.S. M erchant M a rine Academ y is through nom ination by a m em ber of Congress, w hereas entrance to the other academ ies is m ade through written application di rectly to the school. Most of the academ ies offer 4-year program s in nautical science or m a rin e e n g in e e rin g , w hich in c lu d e courses such as navigation, m athe m atics, electronics, propulsion sys tem s, electrical engineering, naval architecture, languages, history, and shipping m an ag e m en t, as well as p ractical experience at sea. A fter C o a s t G u a rd e x a m in a tio n s a r e passed, licenses are issued for either third m ate or third assistant engineer. In addition, graduates may receive commissions as ensigns in the U.S. Naval Reserve. Because o f their thorough ground ing in theory and its practical appli cation, academ y graduates are in the best position to move up to m aster and c h ie f en gineer ratings. T h eir w ell-rounded education also helps qualify them for shoreside jobs such as m arine superintendent, operating m anager, design engineers, naval ar chitects, or shipping executive. The U.S. M erchant Marine A cad emy now selects about 15 percent of the approxim ately 250 persons who enter the academy each year to be train ed as “ o m n ico m p eten t” offi cers. They are taught both naviga tional and technical skills so they can work in either the deck or engine departm ent. G raduates of the U.S. M erchant M arine Academy have an obligation to serve a minimum o f 3 years as officers in the m erchant m a rine or in the military service of the United States. A num ber of trade unions in the maritime industry provide officer training. These unions include the International O rganization of M as ters, M ates and Pilots; the Seafarers’ International Union of North A m er ica; the Brotherhood of Marine Offi cers; and the National Marine Engi n e e r s ’ B e n e f ic ia l A s s o c ia tio n (M EBA). However due to a crowded job m arket in recent years, all but the M EBA-operated Calhoon Engineer ing School in Baltimore, Md., have restricted training program s to up grading of officers already licensed. The Calhoon School, which produc es about 90 graduates every year, of fers a third assistant engineer’s li cense. The program consists of both classroom instruction and sea experi ence and provides free room , board, medical care, and text books in addi tion to a m onthly grant. T rainees must agree to serve at least 3 years in the m erchant marine after the 3-year training period. A dvancem ent for deck and engine officers is along well-defined lines and depends primarily upon speci fied sea experience, passing a C oast G uard exam ination, and leadership 167 ability. D eck officers start as third m ates. A fter 1 y ear’s sea service they are eligible to take a second m ate exam ination. A second m ate may ap ply for a ch ief m ate’s license after 1 year o f sea service. Officers in the en g in e d e p a rtm e n t s ta r t as th ird assistant engineers. A fter 1 year o f service, they may apply for a second assistant’s license and finally a chief en gineer’s license. Employment Outlook than in the near future as the balance betw een the supply and dem and for officers becom es m ore favorable. Since m aritim e unions control a m ajority o f jobs, graduates from union training program s have the best opportunities to obtain jobs ab o ard ocean-going vessels. H ow ever, graduates o f m erchant m arine academ ies who cannot find jobs on m erchant ships generally have little trouble finding jobs in related fields. F o r exam ple, tra in e d officers are needed on oceanographic research vessels, on vessels that carry supplies to offshore oil drilling rigs, and on dredges operated by the Army C orps o f Engineers. O thers find jobs with the m aritim e industry. E m ploym ent o f sh ip ’s officers is e x p e c te d to in crease m ore slowly th an th e average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. Since W orld W ar II, th e num ber o f vessels in o u r m erch ant m arine has Earnings and Working d eclin ed steadily as th e ow ners o f Conditions A m erican ships have registered them ou tsid e th e co u n try . T h e transfers Earnings o f officers depend upon occu rred because ships registered in their rank and the type of ship. th e U n ite d S ta te s m u s t e m p lo y W ages are highest on large ships. T he tabulation shows A m e ric a n crew s a n d , b ec au se o f accom panying th eir higher wages, cost about twice m onthly base wages for officers as m uch to o p erate as ships regis aboard an average freighter in 1976. tered abro ad and m anned with for Additional paym ents for overtim e o r eign crews. T he incentive o f obtain for assuming extra responsibilities in g g r e a t e r p r o f its b y lo w e rin g generally average about 50 percent operating costs pro m pted m any own o f base pay. For exam ple, a second ers to register their ships outside the m ate with a m onthly base pay o f $1,278 may regularly earn about U S. L ittle fu rth er decline in the num $ 1,917 each m onth. Officers and their dependents e n b er o f ships is ex p ected, how ever, because the Federal G overnm ent has joy substantial pension and welfare taken steps to insure th a t ships regis benefits. V acations range from 90 to tered in th e U.S. and operated by 180 days a year. O fficers with 20 A m e ric a n crew s are av a ila b le to years o f service have the option o f a transport essential cargo. T o m ain monthly pension o f $325 o r 37 1/2 tain this capability, the G overnm ent percent o f their m onthly rate o f pay. pays the difference in wages if U.S. Those who have 25 years o f service crews are used, and helps pay for the are eligible for $425 a m onth or 50 c o n s tru c tio n o r p u rc h a se o f new percent o f their m onthly rate. Offi ships. Some jo b openings will occur cers forced to retire prem aturely due as a result o f the need to replace ex perienced workers who retire, die or Base ta k e s h o re sid e e m p lo y m e n t. R e pay 1 placem ent needs are relatively high Captain................................................ $3,717 because ships’ officers are som ewhat Chief engineer.................................... 3,158 older, on the average, than w orkers First assistant engineer..................... 1,888 in oth er occupations and the liberal First mate........................................... 1,802 pension plans offered by the m er Radio officer...................................... 1,604 Second assistant engineer................ 1,338 c h a n t m arin e in d u stry en c o u rag e Second mate....................................... 1,278 early retirem ent. Also, some officers Third assistant engineer................... 1,202 find they prefer the stability o f shore- Third m ate......................................... 1,147 side em ploym ent. Purser.................................................. 1,055 Job opportunities are expected to 1 East Coast wages in June 1976 aboard a becom e m ore favorable in the 1980’s 12,000-17,000 power ton single screw ship. 168 to a perm anent disability receive p ar tial pensions. Com prehensive m edi cal care and hospitalization are p ro vided for officers and their families th ro u g h e m p lo y er o r unio n p ro grams. The workw eek aboard ship is con siderably different from the w ork week on shore. A t sea, m ost officers are required to work 7 days a week. G e n erally , they w ork tw o 4 -h o u r w atches (sh ifts) d uring every 24hour period and have 8 hours off b e tw een ea ch w atch. Som e o fficers work 8 hours a day, M onday through Friday. All officers are paid overtim e fo r w o rk o v er 40 h o u rs a w eek. W hen th e ship is in port, the basic w o r k w e e k is 4 0 h o u r s f o r a ll crewm em bers. The duties aboard ship are hazard ous com pared to other industries. At sea, there is always the possibility of injuries from falls o r the danger of fire, collision, o r sinking. A lm ost 90 percent of all officers belong to maritim e unions. The two largest are the International O rgani zation o f Masters, M ates and Pilots, representing deck officers, and the N ational M arine Engineers’ Benefi cial A ssociation, representing engi neering officers. The Brotherhood of M arine Officers represents deck and engine officers on some ships. T he Staff O fficers A ssociation and the M arine S taff O fficers A ssociation re p re se n ts pursers aboard c e rtain freighters. Radio officers are rep re sented by the Am erican Radio Asso c ia tio n an d th e R a d io O ffic e rs Union. In addition, a num ber o f in dependent unions organize officers on tankers. Officers’ unions may re q u ire in itia tio n fe e s as h ig h as $4,000. Sources of Additional Information For general inform ation about m erchant marine officer’s jobs, write to: Office of Maritime Manpower, Maritime Ad ministration, U.S. Department of Com merce, Washington, D.C. 20235. Inform ation about job openings, qualifications for em ploym ent, wage scales, and other particulars is avail able from local m aritim e officers’ unions. If no m aritim e union is listed in the local telephone directory, con tact: International Organization of Masters, Mates and Pilots, 39 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10006. National Marine Engineers’ Beneficial Associ ation, 17 Battery PI., New York, N.Y. 10004. M E TE O R O LO G IS TS (D.O.T. 025.088) Nature of the Work M eteorology is the study o f the a t m osphere, which is the air th at sur rounds the earth. M eteorologists d e scrib e an d try to u n d e rsta n d the a tm o sp h e re ’s physical ch a rac te ris tics, m otions, and processes, and d e term ine the way the behavior o f the atm osphere affects the rest o f our p h y s ic a l e n v iro n m e n t. T h e b e st known application o f this knowledge is in understanding and forecasting th e w e a th e r. M e te o ro lo g ic a l r e search is also applied in many other areas n o t directly related to w eather fo recastin g such as u n d erstanding and solving air pollution problem s and studying trends in the ea rth ’s cli m ate. M eteorologists who specialize in forecasting the w eather, known pro fessionally as synoptic meteorologists, are the largest group o f specialists. They study current w eather inform a tion, such as air pressure, tem pera ture, hum idity, and wind velocity, in order to m ake short-range and longrange predictions. T heir data come from w eather satellites and observers in many parts o f the world. Although som e fo recasters still p rep are and analyze w e ath er m aps, m ost d ata now are p lo tte d and analyzed by com puters. Some m eteorologists are engaged in basic and applied research. For e x a m p le , p h y sic a l m eteo ro lo g ists study th e chem ical an d electrical properties o f the atm osphere. They do research on the effect o f the at m osphere on transm ission o f light, sound, and radio waves, as well as study factors affecting form ation o f clouds, rain, snow, and other w eather phenom ena. O th er m eteorologists, know n as climatologists, study cli m atic trends and analyze past re c ords on wind, rainfall, sunshine, and tem perature to determ ine the gener al pattern o f w eather that m akes up an area’s clim ate. These studies are useful in planning heating and cool ing systems, designing buildings, and aiding in effective land utilization. O ther m eteorologists apply their knowledge in the study o f the rela tionship betw een w eather and specif ic hum an activities, biological p ro c esses, and agricultural and industrial operations. For example, they may m ake w eather forecasts for individ ual com panies, or may work on p ro b lems such as smoke control and air pollution abatem ent. A bout one-third of all civilian m et eorologists work prim arily in w eather forecasting, and an o th er one-third work in research and developm ent. Almost one-fifth of all civilian m e teorologists are in administrative or m anagem ent positions. Some meteorologists teach or do r e s e a r c h —fr e q u e n tly c o m b in in g both activities—in colleges and uni versities. In colleges w ithout separate d ep artm en ts o f m eteorology, they may teach geography, m athem atics, physics, chem istry, o r geology, as well as meteorology. Places of Employment About 5,500 persons worked as m eteorologists in 1976. In addition to these civilian m eteorologists, th o u sands o f m em bers o f the A rm ed Forces did forecasting and other m e teorological work. The largest em ployer of civilian m eteorologists was the National O ce anic and A tm ospheric A dm inistra tio n (N O A A ), w here over 1,800 worked at stations in all parts of the United States and in a small num ber of foreign areas. The D epartm ent of Defense employed over 200 civilian m eteorologists. 169 A lm ost 2,000 m eteorologists w orked for private industry. C om m ercial airlin es em ployed several h undred to forecast w eather along flight ro u tes and to b rief pilots on a tm o s p h e r ic c o n d itio n s . O th e rs w orked for private w eather consult ing firms, for com panies that design and m anufacture m eteorological in stru m en ts, and fo r firm s in a e ro space, insurance, engineering, utili ties, radio and television, and other industries. C o lle g e s an d u n iv e rs itie s e m ployed over 1,300 m eteorologists in research and teaching. A few worked for State and local governm ents and for nonprofit organizations. Although m eteorologists work in all parts o f the country, nearly onefifth live in just two States—C alifor nia and M aryland. A lm ost one-tenth o f all m eteo ro lo g ists w ork in the W ashington, D.C. area. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A b ach elo r’s degree with a m ajor in m eteorology is the usual minimum requirem ent for beginning jobs in w eather forecasting. However, a b ach elo r’s degree in a related science or engineering, along with some courses in m eteorology, is acceptable for some jobs. For exam ple, the Fed eral G overnm ent’s minim um require m ent for beginning jobs is a bache lo r’s degree with at least 20 sem ester hours o f study in m eteorology and courses in physics and m athem atics, in clu d in g calculus. H ow ever, em ployers prefer to hire those with an advanced degree, and an advanced degree is increasingly necessary for advancem ent. For research and college teaching and for many top-level positions in o ther m eteorological activities, an advanced degree, preferably in m ete orology, is essential. However, p eo ple with graduate degrees in other sciences also may qualify if they have ad v an ced co urses in m eteorology, physics, m athem atics, and chemistry. In 1976, 44 colleges and universi ties offered a b ac h elo r’s degree in m eteorology or atm ospheric science; 59 schools offered advanced degrees. Many o th er institutions offered some courses in m eteorology. 170 The Arm ed Services give and sup p o rt m eteorological training, b oth undergraduate education for enlisted personnel and advanced study for o f ficers. NOAA has a program under which some o f its m eteorologists attend col lege fo r ad v a n ced o r sp ec ia liz ed training. College students can obtain sum m er jobs with this agency or en roll in its cooperative education p ro gram in which they work at NOAA p art of the year and attend school part of the year. In addition to help ing students finance their education, this program gives them experience valuable for finding a job when they graduate. Beginning m eteorologists often start in jobs involving routine d ata collection, com putation, or analysis. Experienced m eteorologists may ad vance in academ ic rank or to various supervisory or adm inistrative jobs. A few very well qualified m eteorolo gists with a background in science, engineering, and business adm inis tr a tio n m ay e s ta b lis h th e ir ow n w eather consulting services. Employment Outlook Job opportunities for m eteorolo gists should be favorable through the m id-1980’s. Although the num ber o f openings created by growth in the occupation and replacem ent needs is not expected to be large, the num ber o f persons obtaining degrees in m ete orology also is small. If trends in the num ber o f degrees granted continue, the num ber of people seeking entry to the field will about equal require ments. Em ploym ent in the field, as a whole, is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupa tions. Em ploym ent of m eteorologists in industry and in w eather consulting firms is expected to grow as private industry realizes the im portance o f m eteorology to understanding and preventing air pollution. Many com panies are also recognizing the value of having their own w eather forecast ing an d m e te o ro lo g ic a l se rv ic e s w hich can be tailo red to fit th eir needs. T here also should be som e openings in radio and television as stations increasingly rely on th eir own m eteorologists to prepare and deliver their w eather reports. Colleg es and universities will offer some job oppo rtu n ities, especially for those with advanced degrees. The em ploy m ent o f civilian m eteorologists by the Federal G overnm ent is not ex p e c te d to grow significantly , a l though there will be openings creat ed by replacem ent needs. Earnings and Working Conditions M eteorologists have relatively high earnings; their salaries are about twice the average for nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In 1977, meteorologists in the Fed eral G overnm ent with a bachelor’s degree and no experience received starting salaries of $9,303 or $11,523 a year, depending on their college grades. Those with a m aster’s degree could start at $11,523 or $14,097, and those with the Ph. D. degree at $17,056 or $20,442. The average sal ary for meteorologists employed by th e F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t w as $24,500 in 1977. Airline m eteorologists’ salaries ranged from about $16,000 to $24,000 a year in 1976, depending on experience. (See Statem ent on O ccupations in Civil Aviation else where in the Handbook.) Jobs in w eather stations, which are operated around the clock 7 days a week, often involve nightwork and rotating shifts. Most stations are at airports or in or near cities; some are in isolated and rem ote areas. M eteo rologists in smaller w eather stations generally work alone; in larger ones, they work as part of a team. Sources of Additional Information G eneral inform ation on career op portunities in meteorology is avail able from: American Meteorological Society, 45 Beacon St., Boston, Mass. 02108. American Geophysical Union, 1909 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. For facts about job opportunities with the NOAA N ational W eather Service and its student cooperative education program , contact: Personnel Operations Branch, AD 41, Nation al Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra tion, 6001 Executive Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20852. M U S IC IA N S (D .O .T. 152.028 and .048) Nature of the Work T he im portant role that music plays in m ost people’s lives m akes it difficult to imagine a world without musicians. Professional musicians are those whose livelihoods depend upon perform ing for th e enjoym ent o f others. These professionals— w hether they play in a symphony orchestra, dance band, rock group, o r jazz com bo—generally have be hind them many years of formal or inform al study and practice. As a rule, m usicians specialize in either popular or classical music; only a few play both types professionally. M usicians who specialize in popu lar music usually play the trum pet, trom bone, clarinet, saxophone, o r gan, or one o f the “ rhythm ” instru m ents—the piano, string bass, drum s, o r guitar. D ance bands play in night clubs, restaurants, and at special p a r ties. T he b est know n bands, jazz groups, rock groups, and solo p e r form ers som etimes perform on tele vision. C lassical m usicians play in sym phonies, opera, ballet and theater o r chestras, and for o th er groups th at require orchestral accom panim ents. These m usicians play string, brass, woodwind or percussion instrum ents. Some form small groups—usually a string quartet or a trio —to give co n certs o f cham ber music. Many pia nists accom pany vocal or instrum en tal soloists, choral groups, or provide background music in restaurants o r other places. M ost organists play in churches; often they direct the choir. A few exceptional musicians give their own concerts and appear as soloists with symphony orchestras. Both classical and popular musicians m ake individual and group record ings. In addition to perform ing, many musicians teach instrum ental and vo cal music in schools and colleges, o r give private lessons in their own stu dios or in pupils’ homes. Others com bine careers as perform ers with work as arrangers and composers. Since a high quality of performance requires constant study and practice, self-discipline is vital. A few musicians specialize in li brary science or psychology for work in music libraries or in the field of m usic therapy in hospitals. O thers w ork as o rc h e stra co n d u c to rs or band directors. Places of Employment About 127,000 persons worked as perform ing musicians in 1976. M any thousands m ore taught in elem entary and secondary schools and in colleg es and universities. (See the state m ents on teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Almost every town and city has at least one private music teacher. Most performing musicians work in cities where entertainm ent and recording activities are concentrat ed, such as New Y ork, Chicago, Los A ngeles, Nashville, M iami B each, and N ew O rleans. M any p erform with one of the 31 m ajor symphony groups, the 76 m etropolitan orches tras, or the hundreds of community orchestras. Many communities have orchestras and dance bands which offer at least part-tim e work. T he v a rio u s b ra n c h e s o f th e A rm e d Forces also offer career opportuni ties in a num ber o f different musical organizations. Training and Other Qualifications Most people who becom e profes sional musicians begin studying an instrum ent at an early age. To ac quire great technical skill, a thorough knowledge of music, and the ability to in te rp re t m usic, young p eo p le need intensive training through pri vate study with an accomplished m u sician, in a college o r university which has a strong music program , or in a conservatory of music. For ad vanced study in one of these institu tions, an audition frequently is neces sary. M any teachers in these schools are accom plished artists who will train only prom ising young m usi cians. Alm ost 500 colleges, universities, and music conservatories offer bachelor’s and/or higher degrees in instrum ental or vocal music. These program s provide training in musical 171 perform ance, com position, and th e o ry , an d a lso o ffe r lib e ra l a r ts courses. In addition, about 750 con servatories and colleges and universi ties offer a b ac h elo r’s degree p ro gram in music education to qualify graduates for the State certificate for elem e n ta ry and sec o n d ary school teaching positions. College teaching positions usually require advanced degrees, b u t exceptions may be m ade for well-qualified artists. M usicians who play popular music m ust have an understanding o f and feeling for th at style o f music, but classical training may expand their em ploym ent opportunities. As a rule, they take lessons with private teach ers when young, and seize every op portunity to play in am ateur or p ro fessional perform ances. Establishing a reputation with other musicians is very im portant in getting started in a career in popular music. Some young people form small dance bands or rock groups. As they gain experience and becom e known, they may audi tion for oth er local bands, and still later, for th e better know n bands and orchestras. Y oung persons who consider ca reers in music should have m usical ta le n t, versatility, creativ e ability, and poise and stage presence to face large audiences. Since quality o f p er fo rm a n ce re q u ires c o n sta n t study and practice, self-discipline is vital. M oreover, m usicians who do concert an d n ig h tc lu b en g a g em en ts m ust have physical stam ina because o f fre q u en t traveling and schedules th at often include night perform ances. Employment Outlook E m ploym ent o f m usicians is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average through the m id-1980’s, but com petition for jobs will be keen. O pportunities for concerts and recit als are not num erous enough to pro vide adequate em ploym ent for all the pianists, violinists, and other instru m entalists qualified as concert art ists. C om petition usually is keen for positions th at offer stable em ploy m ent, such as jobs with m ajor orches tras, with the Arm ed Forces, and in teaching positions. B ecause o f the ease with which a m usician can enter 172 private music teaching, the num ber o f m usic te a c h e rs has been m ore than sufficient and probably will co n tinue to be. Although many opportu nities are expected fo r single and s h o rt-te rm e n g a g e m e n ts, playing popular music in night clubs and th e aters, the supply o f qualified m usi cians who seek such jobs is likely to exceed dem and. On the other hand, first-class, experienced accom panists and outstanding players of stringed instrum ents are likely to remain rela tively scarce. Earnings and Working Conditions T he am ount received for a p e r form ance by either classical or popu lar musicians depends on their geo graphic location as well as on their professional re p u ta tio n . M inim um salaries for musicians in the 31 m ajor symphony orchestras in the U nited States in 1976 ranged from $200 to $ 4 0 0 a w e e k , a c c o rd in g to th e A m e ric a n S y m p h o n y O r c h e s tr a League. M inimum wages for m usi cians in m etropolitan symphony o r chestras were generally betw een $20 and $40 p er concert. Some musicians earned substantially m ore than the minimums, however. The m ajor symphony orchestras have seasons ranging from 45 to 52 weeks. A bout half o f them have 50to 52-week seasons. Few o f the m et ropolitan or com m unity orchestras have seasons o f 50 to 52 weeks, how ever. Musicians in large m etropolitan areas who played at dances, club dates, variety shows, ballets, musical comedies, concerts, and industrial shows generally earned minimums ranging from $40 to $53 for 3 hours of work. Musicians in these areas who had steady engagem ent c o n tracts earned betw een $6 and $8 p er hour for a 5-day week. Wages for the same types of engagem ents tended to be less in smaller cities and towns. Musicians em ployed in m otion pic ture recording earned a minimum o f $93 for a 3-hour session; those em ployed in telev isio n co m m ercials earned a minimum of $48 for a 1hour session. M usicians em ployed by m a n u fa ctu rers o f p h o n o g rap h r e cordings were paid a minimum of $110 for a 3-hour session. Music teachers in public schools earn salaries com parable to those of other teachers. (See statem ents on elem entary and secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Many teachers give private music lessons to supplem ent their earnings. However, earnings often are uncer tain and vary according to the musi c ia n ’s re p u ta tio n , th e n u m b er of teachers and students in the locality, and the econom ic status o f the com munity. M usicians custom arily work at night and on weekends, and they m ust spend considerable time in practice and in rehearsal. Performing engagem ents usually require some travel. Many musicians, primarily those em ployed by symphony orchestras, work under m aster wage agreem ents, which guarantee a season’s work up to 52 weeks. Musicians in other areas, however, may face relatively long periods of unem ploym ent b e tween jobs. Thus, their earnings gen erally are lower than those o f many other occupations. M oreover, since they may not work steadily for one em ployer, some perform ers cannot qualify for unem ploym ent com pen sation, and few have either sick leave or vacations with pay. For these rea sons, m any m usicians tak e o th e r types o f jobs to supplem ent th eir earnings as musicians. M ost professional m usicians b e long to the Am erican Federation of M usicians ( AFL-CIO). C oncert solo ists also belong to the A m erican Guild of Musical Artists, Inc. (AFLCIO). Sources of Additional Information For information about wages, hours o f work, and working condi tions for professional musicians, co n tact: American Federation of Musicians (AFLCIO), 1500 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10036. In fo rm atio n ab o u t the re q u ire m ents for certification of organists and choir m asters is available from: American Guild of Organists, 630 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10020. A list o f accredited schools o f m u sic and degree program s offered is available from: National Association of Schools of Music, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Reston, Va. 22090. F urth er inform ation about careers in music is available from: Music Educators National Conference, 1902 Association Dr., Reston, Va. 22091. A book entitled Careers in Music can be obtained for $1 from: American Music Conference, 150 E. Huron, Chicago, 111. 60611. N EW SPA PER REPORTERS (D.O.T. 132.268) Nature of the Work N ew spaper reporters gather infor m ation on current events and use it to write stories for publication in dai ly or weekly new spapers. In covering events, they may interview people, review public records, attend news events, and do research. As a rule, reporters take notes or use tape re corders while collecting facts, and write their stories upon return to the office. Som etim es, to m eet deadlines, they telephone their inform ation or stories to rew riters who write or tran scribe the stories for them . L arg e d ailies fre q u e n tly assign some reporters to “ b eats,” such as police stations o r the courts, to gath er news originating in these places. G eneral assignm ent reporters handle various types o f local news, such as a story about a lost child o r an obituary of a com m unity leader. Specialized reporters with a background in a par ticular subject in terp ret and analyze the news in fields such as m edicine, politics, science, education, business, labor, and religion. R eporters on small new spapers may cover not only all aspects of local news, but also may take photo graphs, write headlines, lay out pag es, and w rite edito rials. On som e small weeklies, they also may solicit ad v ertisem en ts, sell subscriptions, and perform general office work. Reporters gathering news information. Places of Employment M ore than 40,000 persons worked as new spaper reporters in 1976. The majority of reporters work for urban daily newspapers; others work for suburban, com m unity, or small town weekly papers and press services. R eporters work in cities and towns of all sizes. O f the 1,762 daily and 7,579 weekly newspapers, the great majority are in medium-sized towns. However, m ost reporters work in cities, since big city dailies employ m any re p o rte rs , w h ereas a sm all town paper generally employs only a few. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most new spapers consider only ap plicants who have a college educa tion. G raduate work is increasingly im p o rta n t. M any e d ito rs p re fe r graduates who have a degree in jo u r nalism, which usually includes train ing in the liberal arts along with p ro fessional journalism training. Some editors consider a liberal arts degree sufficient. O thers prefer applicants who have a liberal arts bachelor’s de gree and a m aster’s degree in jo u rn al ism. High school courses th at are useful include English, journalism , social science, and typing. 173 B achelor’s degree program s in journalism are available in alm ost 250 colleges. A bout three-fourths of the courses in a typical undergrad uate journalism curriculum are in lib eral arts. Journalism courses include reporting, copyreading, editing, fea tu re w riting, history o f journalism , law, and the relation o f the press to society. M ore th an 500 ju n io r colleges of fer journalism program s. Twelve to fifte e n h o u rs o f c r e d it e a rn e d is transferable to m ost 4-year college program s in journalism . A few junior colleges also offer program s especial ly designed to p rep are the student directly for em ploym ent as a general assignm ent rep o rter on a weekly or small daily new spaper. The A rm ed Forces also provide som e training in journalism . A m aster’s degree in journalism was offered by m ore th an 90 schools in 1976; ab o u t 20 schools offered the Ph. D. degree. Some graduate pro gram s are intended prim arily as p rep aration for news careers, while others co n cen trate on preparing journalism teach ers, researchers and theorists, and advertising and public relations workers. Persons who wish to prepare for new spaper work through a liberal arts curriculum should take English courses th a t include writing, as well as subjects such as sociology, politi cal science, econom ics, history, psy c h o lo g y , c o m p u te r s c ie n c e , an d speech. Ability to read and speak a foreign language is desirable. Those who look forw ard to becom ing re porters in a specialized field such as s c ie n c e s h o u ld c o n c e n t r a t e on course w ork in their subject m atter areas. Skill in typing is essential b e cause rep o rters type their own news stories. O n small papers, knowledge o f news photography also is valuable. The N ew spaper Fund and individ ual new spapers offer sum m er intern ships th a t provide college students with an opportunity to practice the rudim ents o f reporting o r editing. In addition, m ore than 2,700 journalism scholarships, fellowships, and assistantships w ere aw arded to college journalism students by universities, new spapers, and professional organi zations in 1976. 174 News reporting involves a great deal o f responsibility, since w hat a reporter writes frequently influences the opinion of the reading public. R eporters should be dedicated to serving the public’s need for accurate and im partial news. Although re p o rt ers work as part of a team , they have an opportunity for self-expression. Im p o rtan t personal ch a rac te ristic s include a “ nose for new s,” curiosity, persistence, initiative, resourceful ness, an accurate m em ory, and the physical stam ina necessary for an a c tive and often fast-paced life. Some who com pete for full-time reporter jobs find it is helpful to have had experience as a new spaper “ stringer” —a part-tim e reporter who covers the news in a particular area of the com m unity and is paid on the basis o f the stories printed. High school and college new spapers, and church o r com m unity new sletters, also provide writing and editing ex perience th at may be helpful in get ting a job. M ost beginners start on weekly o r on small daily new spapers as general assignm ent reporters or copy editors. A few outstanding journalism gradu ates are hired by large city papers, but this is the exception rather than the rule. Large dailies generally re quire several years o f reporting expe rience, which usually is acquired on smaller newspapers. Beginning reporters are assigned duties such as reporting on civic and club meetings, summarizing speeches, writing obituaries, in ter view ing im p o rta n t visitors to the c o m m u n ity , and co v e rin g p o lice court proceedings. As they gain ex perience, they may report more im p o rta n t events, cover an assigned “ b eat,” or specialize in a particular field. New spaper reporters may advance to reporting for larger papers or press services. Some experienced reporters becom e columnists, correspondents, editorial writers, editors, or top ex ecutives; these positions rep resen t the top o f the field and com petition for them is keen. O th er rep o rters transfer to related fields such as pub lic relations, writing for magazines, or preparing copy for radio and tele vision news programs. Employment Outlook C om petition for new spaper rep o rt ing jo b s is ex p e cted to co n tin u e through the m id-1980’s. If en ro ll m ents continue at record levels as they have in the past few years, re c ord num bers of journalism graduates will be looking for jobs. However, em ploym ent in the com m unications field is not expected to expand suffi ciently to absorb all those seeking jobs, and a sizable num ber of journal- ism graduates will have to launch ca reers in o ther fields. N ew spaper reporters in particular face heightened jo b com petition. Al though the com m unications field is expected to expand through the mid19 8 0 ’s, new spapers are not expected to share fully in this growth. As a result, em ploym ent of reporters will increase m ore slowly than the aver age for all o ccu p ations. M ost job openings will arise from the need to replace reporters who are prom oted to editorial or adm inistrative posi tions, transfer to oth er fields o f work, retire, o r leave the profession for oth er reasons. Bright, energetic persons with ex ceptional writing ability will have the best opportunities for beginning jobs as n ew sp a p er re p o rte rs. T alen ted writers who are able to handle news about highly specialized scientific or technical subjects will also be at an ad v an tag e in th e co m p etitiv e jo b m arket. W eekly or daily new spapers locat ed in small towns and suburban areas are ex p ected to co n tin u e to offer m ost o f the opportunities for begin ners en terin g new spaper reporting. Openings arise on these papers as re porters gain experience and move up to o ther editorial positions or trans fer to reporting jobs on larger news papers or to o ther types of work. Be ginning reporters able to help with p h o tography and o th er specialized aspects o f new spaper work and who are acquainted with the com m unity are likely to be given preference in em ploym ent on small papers. M ost big city dailies require expe rience and do not ordinarily hire new graduates. Sometim es, however, new graduates find newsroom jobs on m a jo r m etropolitan dailies because of outstanding credentials in an area for which a particular paper has a press ing need. Occasionally, the experi ence and contacts gained through an internship program lead to a report ing job directly after graduation. In addition to new spaper report ing, college graduates who have m a jored in journalism have the back ground for jobs in related fields such as advertising, public relations, trade and technical publishing, radio and television, and law. Because contin Inform ation on union wage rates is available from: ued high enrollm ent is foreseen in journalism education program s, o p portunities to teach journalism are expected to be good. College teach ing jobs currently require profession al experience and at least a m aster’s degree. For general inform ation about ca reers in journalism contact: Earnings and Working Conditions American Council on Education for Journal ism, School of Journalism, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. 65201. R eporters working for daily news papers having contracts negotiated by The Newspaper Guild had aver age starting salaries o f $10,600 in late 1976. In general, earnings o f new spaper reporters in 1976 were above average earnings received by nonsupervisory workers in private in dustry, except farming. Minimum salaries o f reporters hav ing 4 or 5 years of experience who w orked for daily new spapers with Guild contracts averaged $16,700 in 1976. The m inim um s ranged from $9,960, paid by the smallest dailies, to m ore than $26,000 paid by the largest. M any re p o rters, how ever, were paid salaries higher than these m inim um s. R ep o rters w orking for national wire services received annu al salaries of at least $19,000. Most new spaper reporters general ly w ork a 5-day, 35- o r 4 0 -h o u r week. R eporters working for m orn ing papers usually start work in the late aftern oon and finish at about midnight. M ost reporters also receive b e n e fits such as p aid v a c a tio n s, group insurance, and pension plans. Sources of Additional Information Inform ation about opportunities for reporters with daily newspapers is available from: American Newspaper Publishers Association Foundation, P.O. Box 17407, Dulles In ternational Airport, Washington, D.C. 20041. For inform ation on opportunities in the new spaper field and starting salaries o f journalism graduates, as well as a list of journalism scholar ships, fellowships, assistantships, and loans available at colleges and uni versities, write to: The Newspaper Fund, Inc., Box 300, Prince ton, N.J. 08540. The Newspaper Guild, Research and Informa tion Department, 1125 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Association For Education in Journalism, 102 Reavis Hall, Northern Illinois University, Dekalb, 111. 60115. The Society of Professional Journalists, Sigma Delta Chi, 35 East Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60601. Inform ation on opportunities for women in newspaper reporting and other com m unications fields is avail able from: Women In Communications, Inc., P.O. Box 9561, Austin, Tex. 78766. Names and locations of daily news papers and a list of schools and de p artm e n ts o f journalism are p u b lished in the Editor and Publisher International Year Book, available in m ost public libraries and large news paper offices. O C C U PA TIO N A L THERAPISTS (D.O.T. 079.128) Nature of the Work O ccupational therapists plan and direct educational, vocational, and recreational activities designed to help m entally and physically disabled patients becom e self-sufficient. They evaluate the capacities and skills of clients, set goals, and plan a therapy program together with the client and m em bers of a m edical team which m ay in clu d e physicians, physical th e ra p ists, v o catio n al counselo rs, nurses, social workers, and other spe cialists. About two therapists out of five work with emotionally handicapped patients, and the rest work with physically disabled persons. These clients represent all age groups and degrees of disability. Patients partici pate in occupational therapy to de175 Occupational therapists help handicapped people prepare for employment. term ine the extent o f abilities and limitations; to regain physical, m en tal, or em otional stability; to relearn daily routines such as eating, dress ing, writing, and using a telephone; and, eventually, to prepare for em ploym ent. O c c u p a tio n a l th e ra p is ts te a c h m anual and creative skills such as weaving and leath er w orking, and business and industrial skills such as typing and the use of power tools. These skills are taught to restore m o bility and coordination and to help the patient regain physical and em o tional stability. T herapists also plan and direct games and o th er activities, especially for children. They may de sign and m ake special equipm ent or splints to help disabled patients. Besides working with patients, occupational therapists supervise student therapists, occupational th e r apy assistants, volunteers, and auxil iary nursing workers. The chief occu pational therap ist in hospitals may teach m edical and nursing students the principles o f occupational th er apy. M any therapists supervise occu 176 pational therapy departm ents, coor d in a te p a tie n t a c tiv itie s , o r a re consultants to local and State health departm ents and m ental health agen cies. Some teach in colleges and uni versities. Places of Employment A bout 10,600 occupational th era pists were em ployed in 1976. A bout 4 out of 10 occupational therapists work in hospitals. Rehabilitation cen ters, nursing homes, schools, o u tp a tie n t c lin ic s, c o m m u n ity m e n ta l health centers, and research centers em ploy m ost o f the others. Some work in special sanitarium s or cam ps for handicapped children, others in State health departm ents. Still others work in hom e-care program s for p a tien ts unable to a tte n d clinics o r workshops. Some are m em bers of the Arm ed Forces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A degree or certification in o ccu pational therapy is required to enter the profession. In 1976, 49 colleges and universities offered programs in occupational therapy which were ac credited by the Am erican M edical Association and the Am erican O ccu pational Therapy Association. All of these schools offer bachelor’s degree program s. Some have 2-year p ro grams and accept students who have com pleted 2 years of college. Some also offer shorter program s, leading to a certificate or a m aster’s degree in occupational therapy for students who have a bachelor’s degree in an other field. A graduate degree often is required for teaching, research, or adm inistrative work. Course work in occupational th er apy program s includes physical, bio logical, and behavioral sciences and the application o f occupational th er apy th eo ry and skills. These p ro grams also require students to work for 6 to 9 m onths in hospitals or health agencies to gain experience in clinical practice. G raduates of ac credited educational program s are eligible to take the Am erican O ccu pational Therapy Association certifi cation exam ination to become a reg is te re d o c c u p a tio n a l th e ra p is t (O TR). O ccupational therapy assis tants who are certified by the associ ation (C O T A ’s) and have 4 years of approved work experience also are eligible to take the examination to b e c o m e re g is te re d o c c u p a tio n a l therapists. Those C O TA ’s consider ing this path of entry to the occupa tion should contact the Director of Certification of the Am erican O ccu p a tio n a l T h erap y A sso cia tio n to identify the types of experience re quired to qualify for the examination and to determ ine the availability of suitable work settings. Entry to educational program s is keenly com petitive and applicants are screened carefully for previous academ ic perform ance to select those m ost likely to com plete their studies successfully. Persons consid e rin g th is p ro fe ssio n , th e re fo re , should have above average academ ic perform ance and consistent grades of “ B” o r better in science courses, in clu d in g biology and chem istry . College students who consider trans ferring from another academ ic disci pline to an occupational therapy p ro gram in th eir sophom ore or junior year need superior grades because c o m p e titio n fo r e n tra n c e to p ro grams is m ore intense after the fresh man year. Personal qualifications needed in the profession include a sym pathetic but objective approach to illness and disability, m aturity, patience, imagi nation, m anual skills, and the ability to teach. In addition to biology and chem istry, high school students inter e ste d in c a re e rs as o c c u p a tio n a l therapists are advised to take courses in health, crafts, and the social sci ences. Newly graduated occupational therapists generally begin as staff therapists. A dvancem ent is chiefly to supervisory or adm inistrative posi tions; som e th era p ists p ursue ad vanced education and teach or do research. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent in this occupation is expected to grow m uch faster than the average for all occupations due to public interest in the rehabilitation o f disabled persons and the success o f established occupational therapy program s. M any th erapists will be needed to staff hospital rehabilitation departm ents, com m unity health cen ters, extended care facilities, psychi atric c e n te rs, schools for children with developm ental and learning dis a b ilitie s , an d c o m m u n ity h o m e health program s. H ow ever, the increasing num ber o f graduates from occupational th er apy program s may exceed the num ber o f openings th at will occur each year due to growth in the occupation and replacem ent of those who will die or retire. As a result, new gradu ates may face com petition in some geographic areas through the mid1980’s. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning salaries for new gradu ates o f o ccu p atio n al th erap y p ro grams working in hospitals averaged about $12,000 a year in 1976, ac cording to a national survey conduct ed by the University of Texas M edi c a l S c h o o l. S o m e e x p e r ie n c e d t h e r a p i s t s e a r n e d as m u c h as $17,000, and some adm inistrators as m uch as $ 2 5 ,0 0 0 to $30,000. In 1976, the average salary o f experi enced occupational therapists was 1 1/2 times the average earnings for all nonsupervisory w orkers in private in dustry, except farming. In 1977, beginning therapists em ployed by the V eterans A dm inistra tion (V A ) earned starting salaries o f $10,370 a year. The average salary paid occupational therapists working for the VA was about $ 16,000 at th at time. Many part-tim e positions are avail ab le fo r o c c u p a tio n a l th e ra p ists. Many therapists work for m ore than one em ployer and m ust travel b e tween job locations. Sources of Additional Information For m ore inform ation on occupa tional therapy as a career, write to: American Occupational Therapy Association, 6000 Executive Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20852. Those C O T A ’s interested in quali fying for the exam ination to becom e a registered occupational therapist (O T R ) through acquired work expe rience should contact the D irector o f Certification at the above address. O C C U P A TIO N A L SAFETY A ND HEALTH W O RKERS (D.O.T. 010.081; 012.081 and .188; 079.188; 168.168, .268, and .284; 379.387; 821.387; and 909.128) Nature of the Work People in the occupational safety and health field have the challenging job o f insuring a safe and healthful environm ent for w orkers and safe products for consum ers. Safety and health w orkers in a num ber of differ e n t o c c u p a tio n s strive to c o n tro l occupational accidents and diseases, property losses, and injuries from u n safe products. This statem en t dis cusses occupations in private indus try ; fo r a d isc u ssio n o f re la te d occupations in governm ent, see the statem ent on health and regulatory inspectors elsew here in the Hand book. The largest group of safety work ers is safety engineers. Although all of them are concerned with preventing accidents, their specific tasks depend on where they work. For example, the safety engineer working in a large m a n u f a c t u r i n g p l a n t ( D .O .T . 012.081) may develop a com prehen sive safety program covering several thousand employees. This usually en tails detailed analysis of each job in the plant to identify potential hazards so that preventive m easures can be tak en . W hen accidents do o ccu r, safety engineers in m anufacturing plants investigate to determ ine the cause. If poor design, im proper m ain tenance, or m echanical failure is in volved, they use their technical skills to correct the situation and prevent its recurrence. W hen hum an error is the cause of an accident, safety engi neers may establish training courses for plantworkers and supervisors or reem phasize existing ones. Safety engineers who w ork for t r u c k i n g c o m p a n i e s ( D .O .T . 909.128) study schedules, ro u tes, loads, and speeds to determ ine their in flu e n c e on tru c k in g ac cid en ts. They also inspect heavy rigs, such as trucks and trailers, to suggest ways of safer operation. In the mining indus t r y , s a f e ty e n g in e e r s ( D .O .T . 010.081) may inspect underground or open-pit areas to insure com pli ance with State and Federal laws, de sign protective equipm ent and safety devices for mine machinery, or lead rescue activities during emergencies. Many safety engineers are directly concerned with the safety of their com pany’s product. They work closely with design engineers to de velop m odels th at m eet all safety sta n d a rd s, and they m o n ito r the m anufacturing process to insure the safety of the finished product. Safeguarding life and property against loss from fire, explosion, and related hazards is the job of the fire p r o t e c t i o n e n g i n e e r (D .O .T . 012.188). Those who specialize in research investigate problem s such as fires in high-rise buildings or the m anufacture, handling, and storage of flammable materials. Fire protec177 Safety engineers inspecting plant machinery for potential hazards. tion engineers in the field use these research findings to identify hazards and devise ways to co rrect them . For exam ple, new findings concerning fla s h p o in ts (th e te m p e ra tu re s a t which different m aterials will ignite) are valuable to the engineer design ing storage facilities in a chem ical plant. Like safety engineers, fire p ro tec tion engineers may have different job d u tie s d e p e n d in g on w here they w ork. O ne who w orks for a fire equipm ent m anufacturing com pany may design new fire protection de vices, while engineers in consulting firms work with architects and others 178 to insure that fire safety is built into new structures. In contrast, fire p ro tection engineers working for insur ance rating bureaus (organizations th at calculate basic costs o f insur ance coverage in particular areas) in spect private, com m ercial, and in dustrial p roperties to evaluate the adequacy of fire protection for the entire area. Many fire protection en gineers have special expertise in one area or m ore of fire protection, such as sprinkler or fire detection systems. Losses in the workplace cannot be reduced without m easures to elim i nate hazards to w orkers’ health. D e signing and m aintaining a healthful work environm ent is the job of the i n d u s t r i a l h y g i e n i s t (D .O .T . 079.188). These health professionals are concerned with how noise, dust, vapors, and other hazards com m on to the industrial setting affect work ers’ health. After a problem is detect ed, perhaps by analyzing employee m edical records, the industrial hy gienist a t the jobsite may take air sam ples, m onitor noise levels, or m easure radioactivity levels in the areas under investigation. O ther industrial hygienists work in private laboratories or in those m ain tained by large insurance com panies or industrial firms. Laboratory hy gienists analyze air samples, do re search on the reliability o f health equipm ent such as respirators, or in vestigate the effects of exposure to chem icals or radiation. Some hygien ists specialize in problem s of air and w ater pollution. For example, these health professionals may work with governm ent officials, environm ental g ro u p s, la b o r o rg a n iz atio n s, an d plant m anagem ent to develop a sys tem to screen harmful substances b e fore they enter and pollute a river. L oss co n tro l an d occu p a tio n a l health consultants (D.O.T. 168.168) in property-liability insurance com panies perform many services for their clients. These range from co r recting a single hazard in a small business to devising a program to elim inate or reduce all losses arising out of a large firm ’s operation. W hen dealing with a new account, the co n sultant m akes a thorough inspection of the plant and then confers with m anagem ent to formulate a program that m eets the com pany’s needs. The consultant may, for example, help set up plant health program s and m edi cal services, assist plant personnel to insure th at a new facility m eets all safety requirem ents, or train plant safety people. Safety and health co n sultants also help their com pany’s underw riters determ ine w hether a risk is acceptable and the am ount of premium to charge. Places of Employment An estim ated 28,000 persons were engaged in occupational safety and h ealth w ork in 1976. A bout onequarter of these carried the profes sional designations, C ertified Safety Professional; C ertified Industrial Hy gienist; o r M em ber, Society o f Fire P rotectio n Engineers. M any others who are n o t certified perform ed p ro fessional level work, while a relative ly small num ber were em ployed in the occupational safety and health field as technicians and inspectors. Property and liability insurance com panies em ploy m any o ccu p atio n al safety and health w orkers to provide engineering, consulting, and inspec tion services to their clients. O thers w orked for a variety o f industrial, m anufacturing, and com m ercial con cerns. These w orkers are needed w herev er large num bers o f people are con c e n tra te d and in d u strial d ev e lo p m ent occurs. Insurance consultants generally have their headquarters in a region’s m ajor city and travel to and from the sites they visit. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Entry level safety and health p ro fessionals generally need at least a b achelor’s degree in engineering or science. A m ore specialized degree, such as one in safety m anagem ent, industrial safety, o r fire protection engineering, often is helpful in get ting a good job. M any em ployers p re fer applicants with a graduate degree in areas such as industrial hygiene, safety engineering, or occupational safety an d h e a lth engineering, or those with prior industrial work ex perience. Some em ployers will hire graduates o f 2-year college curriculums as technicians, particularly if they have work experience related to the job. C ontinuing education is necessary to stay abreast o f changing technol o g ies, n ew id e a s , a n d e m e rg in g trends. M any insurance com panies offer training sem inars and c o rre spondence courses for th eir staffs. The O ccupational Safety and Health A d m in istratio n (O S H A ) co n d u cts courses for safety and health workers on topics such as occupational injury investigation and radiological health hazards. T he recognized m arks of achievem ent in the field are the des ignations C ertified Safety Profession al; C ertified Industrial Hygienist; and M em ber, Society o f Fire P rotection Engineers. C ertification is conferred by the Board o f C ertified Safety P ro fessionals, the A m erican Board of In dustrial Hygiene, or the Society o f Fire P rotection Engineers after the candidate com pletes the required ex perience and passes an exam ination. In addition to possessing technical com petence, safety and health w ork ers m ust be able to com m unicate w ell an d m o tiv a te o th e rs . T h ey should be able to adapt quickly to different situations, being equally at ease with a representative o f a local union, a supervisor in the welding shop, or a corporate executive. B e cause physical activity is basic to th e job, good physical condition is neces sary. In the insurance industry, safety and health w orkers can be prom oted to departm ent m anager in a small branch office, move up to larger branch offices, and finally take an executive position in the hom e o f fice. In industrial firms, they can ad vance to plant safety and health m an ag e r o r c o r p o ra te m a n a g e r o v e r several plants. A lthough extensive experience is required, technicians can advance to professional safety and health positions. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent o f safety and health workers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s as growing concern for occupational safety and health and consum er safety contin ues to generate program s and jobs. Many openings will arise also to re p lace w orkers w ho die, re tire , o r leave their jobs for o th er reasons. M uch o f the em ploym ent growth is expected to occur in industrial and m anufacturing firms. Many firms now w ithout a safety and health p ro gram are expected to establish one, and others will upgrade and expand existing program s in response to gov ernm ent requirem ents, union in ter est, and rising insurance costs. T he num ber o f safety and health w orkers in casualty insurance com panies also will increase as m ore small em ploy ers request the services o f their insur e r ’s engineering o r loss control d e partm ent. Prospects should be best for graduates o f occupational safety or health curriculums. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries o f safety and health w ork ers vary widely according to ed u ca tion, experience, and specialty. In m anufacturing firms, persons with a bachelor’s degree generally started at between $ 12,000 and $ 15,000 a year in 1976, according to the lim ited d ata available. Those with a graduate degree usually received higher start ing salaries, and technicians som e what low er ones. Safety and health workers with several years’ experi ence averaged $18,000 to $22,000, and co rp o rate m anagers well over $25,000 a year. The am ount o f travel required d e pends upon job specialty and geo graphic location. F or example, the plant safety engineer may travel only to sem inars and conferences, while the insurance consultant may spend about h alf the tim e traveling betw een worksites. Usually, a car is furnished or w orkers are reim bursed for the expenses o f using their own vehicles. Sources of Additional Information F o r g e n e ra l in fo rm atio n a b o u t safety careers, write to: American Society of Safety Engineers, 850 Busse Highway, Park Ridge, 111. 60068. Also available from the Society is a booklet th at lists colleges and univer sities offering degree program s in the occupational safety and health field. Inform ation concerning a career in industrial hygiene is available from: American Industrial Hygiene Association, 66 S. Miller Rd., Akron, Ohio 44313. C a re e r in fo rm a tio n co n c ern in g fire protection engineering may be obtained from: Society of Fire Protection Engineers, 60 Batterymarch St., Boston, Mass. 02110. C areer inform ation on insurance loss control consulting is available from the hom e offices of many p ro p erty-liability insurance com panies. The National Institute for O ccupa tional Safety and H ealth of the U.S. Public H ealth Service provides gen 179 eral inform ation on requirem ents for various careers in the occupational safety and health field, as well as lists o f college and universities th at aw ard degrees in the various occupational safety and health disciplines. This in form ation is available from: Division of Training and Manpower Develop ment, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Robert A. Taft Labo ratories, 4676 Columbia Parkway, Cin cinnati, Ohio 45226. OCEANOGRAPHERS theories about the ocean. For exam ple, they may study and test the th e ory o f continental drift, which states th at the continents w ere once joined together, have drifted to new posi tions, and continue to drift, causing the sea floor to spread in places. T o present the results o f their studies, oceanographers p rep are charts, ta bulations, and reports, and write p a pers for scientific journals. O ceanographers explore and study the ocean with surface ships, aircraft, and various types o f underw ater craft. T hey use specialized in stru m ents to m easure an d re co rd th e findings o f th eir explorations an d studies. Special cam eras equipped with strong lights are used to ph o to g ra p h m arin e life an d th e o ce an floor. Sounding devices are used to m easure, m ap, and locate ocean m a terials. M ost oceanographers specialize in one branch o f the science. Biological oceanographers (m arine biologists) study plant and anim al life in the o cean . T h e biological o ce a n o g ra p h e r’s research has practical applica tions in im proving and controlling com m ercial and sport fishing and in determ ining the effects of pollution (D .O .T. 024.081 and 041.081) Nature of the Work O c e a n s c o v e r m o re th a n tw othirds o f the e a rth ’s surface and are a source o f valuable foods, fossil fuels, and m inerals. They also influence the w eather, serve as a “ highw ay” for transportation, and offer many kinds o f re cre atio n . O ceanographers use th e p rin c ip le s a n d te c h n iq u e s o f n a tu ra l scien ce, m athem atics, and engineering to study o ceans—their m ovem ents, physical properties, and plant and anim al life. T heir research n o t o nly e x te n d s b a sic scien tific know ledge, b u t also helps develop p ra c tic a l m eth o d s fo r fo reca stin g w eather, developing fisheries, m ining ocean resources, and im proving n a tional defense. M ost oceanographers test their ideas ab o u t the ocean by m aking observations and conducting experi m ents a t sea. They m ay study and collect d ata on ocean tides, currents, an d o th e r p h en o m en a. T hey m ay study undersea m ountain ranges and valleys, oceanic interactions with the atm osphere, and layers o f sedim ent on and beneath the o cean floor. M any o cean o g rap h ers w ork p ri marily in laboratories on land w here, for exam ple, they m easure, dissect, and photograph fish. T hey also study sea specim ens and p lankton (floating m icro sco p ic p lan ts a n d anim als). M uch o f th eir work entails identify ing, cataloging, and analyzing differ ent kinds o f sea life and minerals. A t o th er lab o rato ries, oceanographers plot m aps o r use com puters to test 180 Four out of 10 oceanographers work in just three States—California, Maryland, and Virginia. on m arine life. Physical oceanogra phers (physicists and geophysicists) study the physical properties o f the ocean. T heir research on the rela tionships betw een the sea and the at m osphere may lead to m ore accurate prediction o f the w eather. Geological oceanographers (m arine geologists) study the o ce an ’s underw ater m oun tain ranges, rocks, and sedim ents. Locating regions where minerals, oil, and gas m ight be found under the ocean floor is an application of their work. Chemical oceanographers in vestigate the chem ical com position of ocean w ater and sedim ents as well as ch e m ic al re a c tio n s in th e sea. Oceanographic engineers and elec tronic specialists design and build in s tru m e n ts fo r o c e a n o g ra p h ic r e search and operations. They also lay ca b le s an d su p erv ise u n d e rw a te r construction. M any o th er scientists also work on problem s related to oceans, but are counted in oth er scientific fields such as biology, chem istry, or geology. Places of Employment A bout 2,700 persons w orked as oceanographers in 1976. A bout onehalf w orked in colleges and universi ties, and m ore than one-fourth for th e F ed eral G o v ern m en t. F ed eral agencies em ploying substantial num bers of oceanographers include the Navy and the National O ceanic and A tm o s p h e ric A d m in is tr a tio n (N O A A ). S om e o c e a n o g ra p h e rs work in private industry; a few work for fishery laboratories o f State and local governm ents. M ost oceanographers work in States th at border on the ocean, al though th ere are som e oceanogra p h e rs e m p lo y ed in a lm o st every State. Four out of 10 oceanographers work in ju st three S tates—California, M aryland, and Virginia. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum requirem ent for b e ginning professional jobs in oceanog raphy is a b achelor’s degree with a m ajo r in o c e a n o g ra p h y , biology, earth or physical sciences, m athe m atics, o r en g in eerin g . H ow ever, m ost jobs in research, teaching, and high-level positions in m ost o th e r types of oceanographic work require graduate training in oceanography or a basic science, and a doctoral d e gree is often preferred or required for many oceanography positions. A bout 35 colleges and universities offered undergraduate degrees in oceanography or m arine sciences in 1976. However, undergraduate train ing in a basic science and a strong interest in oceanography may be ad e quate preparation for some begin ning jobs and is the preferred b ack g ro u n d fo r g ra d u a te tra in in g in oceanography. College courses needed to prepare for graduate study in oceanography include m athem atics, physics, chem istry, geophysics, geology, m eteorol ogy, and biology. In general, students should specialize in the p articu lar science that is closest to their area o f oceanographic interest. For example, s tu d e n ts in te r e s te d in c h e m ic a l oceanography could obtain a degree in chemistry. In 1976, about 65 colleges offered advanced degrees in oceanography and m arine sciences. In graduate schools, students take advanced courses in oceanography and in basic sciences. G raduate students usually work part of the time aboard ship, where they do oceanographic research and becom e familiar with the sea and with techniques used to obtain oceanographic inform ation. U niver sities having oceanographic research facilities along our coasts offer sum m er courses for both graduate and undergraduate students. O ceanogra phers should have the curiosity need ed to do research and the patience to c o lle c t d a ta and co n d u c t e x p e ri ments. Beginning oceanographers with the bachelor’s degree usually start as research or laboratory assistants, or in jobs involving routine data collec tion, com putation, or analysis. M ost beginning o cean o g rap h ers receive on-the-job training. The extent of the training varies with the background and needs of the individual. Experienced oceanographers often direct surveys and research program s or advance to adm inistrative or su pervisory jobs in research laborato ries. Employment Outlook Persons seeking jobs in oceanogra phy may face com petition through the m id-1980’s. Those with a Ph. D. degree should have more favorable em ploym ent opportunities than o th ers, while those with less education may find o p p o rtu n ities lim ited to routine analytical work as research assistants or technicians. P ersons who com bine knowledge o f other sci en tific o r engineering fields w ith oceanographic studies should have b etter em ploym ent prospects than others whose knowledge is limited to oceanography. Employment of oceanographers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. This growth will result from increased awareness of the need for ocean re search for understanding and co n trolling pollution, for recovering off shore oil and other natural resources, and for national defense. However, growth in employm ent may not be rapid enough to create enough open ings for all those expected to seek entry into this relatively small field. Since the F ederal G overnm ent fi n a n c e s m o st o c e a n o g ra p h ic r e search, a large increase in Federal spending in oceanography could im prove em ploym ent prospects. Earnings and Working Conditions O ceanographers have relatively high earnings. Their average salaries were m ore than twice the average received by nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In 1977, oceanographers in the Federal G overnm ent with a bache lo r’s degree received starting salaries of $9,303 or $ 11,523 a year, depend ing on their college grades. Those with a m aster’s degree could start at $11,523 or $14,097; and those with a Ph. D. degree at $17,056 or $20,442. The average salary for experienced oceanographers in the Federal G ov ernm ent in 1977 was about $23,800 a year. O ceanographers in educational in stitutions generally receive the same salaries as other faculty m em bers. 181 (See statem ent on College and U ni versity T each ers elsew here in the H andbook.) In ad d ition to regular salaries, m any earn ex tra incom e from consulting, lecturing, and w rit ing. O c e a n o g ra p h e rs engaged in r e search th at requires sea voyages are fre q u e n tly aw ay fro m h om e fo r weeks or m onths at a time. Som e times they live and work in cram ped quarters. People who like the sea and ocean o g rap h ic research often find these voyages satisfying and do not consider the time spent at sea a dis advantage of their work. Sources of Additional Information For inform ation about careers in oceanography, contact: Dr. C. Schelske, Secretary, American Society of Limnology and Oceanography, Great Lakes Research Division, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. 48109. Federal G overnm ent career infor m ation is available from any regional office of the U.S. Civil Service C om mission or from: U.S. Civil Service Commission, Washington Area Office, 1900 E St. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20415. The booklet, Training and Careers in Marine Science, is available for fif ty cents from: International Oceanographic Foundation, 3979 Rickenbacker Causeway, Virginia Key, Miami, Fla. 33149. S om e in fo rm a tio n on o c e a n o graphic specialties is available from p ro fe ssio n a l so cieties listed e lse where in the Handbook. (See state ments on Geologists, Geophysicists, Life Scientists, M eteorologists, and Chem ists.) O P TO M E TR IS TS (D.O.T. 079.108) Nature of the Work About one out of every two p er sons in the United States wears co r rective lenses. O ptom etrists provide most of this care. They examine p eo 182 About 1 out of every 2 persons in the United States wears corrective lenses. p le’s eyes for vision problems, dis ease, and other abnorm al conditions, and test for proper depth and color perception and the ability to focus and coordinate the eyes. W hen n ec essary, they p re scrib e lenses and treatm ent. W here evidence of dis ease is present, the optom etrist refers the patient to the appropriate m edi cal practitioner. M ost optom etrists supply the prescribed eyeglasses and fit and adjust contact lenses. O ptom etrists also prescribe corrective eye exercises or other treatm ent not re quiring drugs or surgery. Although most optom etrists are in general practice, some specialize in work with the aged or with children. Others work only with persons hav ing partial sight who can be helped w ith m ic ro s c o p ic o r te le s c o p ic lenses. Still others are concerned with the visual safety of industrial workers. A few optom etrists teach or do research. O ptom etrists should not be co n fused with either ophthalm ologists, sometimes referred to as oculists, or with dispensing opticians. O phthal mologists are physicians who special ize in m edical eye care, eye diseases and injuries, perform eye surgery, and p rescrib e drugs or o th er eye treatm ent, as well as lenses. Dispens ing opticians fit and adjust eyeglasses according to prescriptions written by ophthalm ologists or o ptom etrists; they do not examine eyes or p re scribe treatm ent. (See statem ent on dispensing opticians.) Places of Employment In 1976, there were about 19,700 practicing optom etrists. The majority of optom etrists are in solo practice. Others are in partnership or group practice with other optom etrists or doctors as part of a professional health care team. Some optom etrists work in special ized hospitals and eye clinics or teach in schools o f op to m etry . O thers work for the V eterans A dm inistra tion, public and private health agen cies, and industrial health insurance com panies. A bout 500 optom etrists serve as com m issioned officers in the Arm ed Forces. O ptom etrists also act as consultants to engineers specializ ing in safety or lighting, consultants to educators in rem edial reading, or participants on health advisory com m ittees to Federal, State, and local governm ents. A bout two optom etrists out o f five practice in towns o f under 25,000 inhabitants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the D istrict of C o lum bia require th at optom etrists be licensed. A pplicants for a license m ust have a D o cto r o f O ptom etry degree from an accredited optom etric school and pass a State board ex am ination. In som e States, appli cants are perm itted to substitute the National Board of O ptom etry exam i nation, given in the third and fourth year o f optom etric school, for part or all o f the w ritten State examination. Several States allow applicants to be licensed w ithout lengthy examination if th ey have a license in an o th er State. The D octor of O ptom etry degree requires a minimum o f 6 years of college consisting of a 4-year profes sional degree program preceded by at least 2 years o f p re o p to m e tric study at an accredited university, col lege, o r ju n io r college. In 1976, there were 12 schools and colleges of optom etry approved by the Council on O p to m e tric E d u c a tio n o f the A m erican O ptom etric A ssociation. One new school was seeking accredi tation. R equirem ents for admission to th e se sch o o ls u su ally in clu d e c o u rses in E nglish, m a th e m a tic s, physics, chem istry, and biology, or zoology. Some schools also require courses in psychology, social studies, literatu re, philosophy, and foreign languages. Admission to optom etry schools is com petitive. Each year, qualified applicants exceed available places, so serious applicants need su perior grades in their preoptom etric co lleg e co u rses to e n h a n c e th e ir chances for acceptance. Because m ost optom etrists are self-employed, business ability, selfdiscipline, and the ability to deal with patients tactfully are necessary for success. Many beginning optom etrists enter into associate practice with an o p tom etrist or other health profession al. O thers purchase an established practice or set up a new practice. Some take salaried positions to o b tain experience and the necessary funds to enter their own practice. O ptom etrists wishing to advance in a specialized field may study for a M aster’s o r D octor of Philosophy d e gree in physiological optics, neuro physiology, public health adm inistra tio n , h e a lth in fo rm a tio n an d com m unication, or health education. Optom etrists who enter the Arm ed Forces as career officers have the o p p o rtu n ity to w ork to w ard a d vanced degrees and to do vision re search. Employment Outlook Em ployment opportunities for o p tom etrists are expected to be favor able through the m id-1980’s. The n u m b e r o f new g ra d u a te s fro m schools of optom etry is expected to be adequate to fill the positions m ade available by em ploym ent growth and the need to replace optom etrists who die and retire. Em ploym ent of optom etrists is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations. An in crease in the total population, espe cially in the group m ost likely to need glasses—o ld er p e o p le —is a m ajor factor contributing to the expected growth in the occupation. G reater re co g n itio n o f th e im p o rtan ce o f good vision and the possibility th at m ore persons will have health insur ance to cover optom etric services, also should increase the dem and for optom etric services. enced optom etrists averaged about $ 3 3 ,0 0 0 a n n u a lly . O p to m e tris ts working for the Federal Governm ent earned an average of $19,300 a year in 1977. Incomes vary greatly, de pending upon location, specializa tion, and other factors. However, af te r several years, o p to m etrists in associateship or partnership practice may ea rn substantially m ore than their solo practitioner counterparts. Independent practitioners can set their own work schedule. Some work over 40 hours a week, including Sat urday. B ecause the w ork is not physically strenuous, optom etrists of ten can continue to practice after the normal retirem ent age. Sources of Additional Information Inform ation on optom etry as a ca reer and a list of scholarships and loan funds offered by various State associations, societies, and institu tions are available from: American Optometric Association, 7000 Chippewa St., St. Louis, Mo. 63119. Federal Health Professions Loans are available for optom etric students who m eet certain financial needs re quirem ents. For inform ation on this financial aid, on the availability of F ed eral sch o larsh ip s, and on re quired preoptom etry courses, co n ta c t individual optom etry schools. The Board of Optom etry in the capi tal of each State can supply a list of optom etry schools approved by that State, as well as licensing require ments. OSTEOPATHIC P H YSIC IA N S (D.O.T. 071.108) Earnings and Working Conditions Nature of the Work In 1976, net earnings of new o p tom etry graduates averaged about $15,500, but som e graduates who started work in the optom etry d e p a r tm e n t o f c h a in re ta il s to re s earned considerably m ore. E xperi O steopathic physicians diagnose and treat diseases or maladies of the hum an body. They are particularly concerned about problems involving the muscles or bones. One of the ba sic treatm ents or therapies used by 183 Training and Other Qualifications Osteopathic physicians are particularly concerned about problems involving the muscles or bones. o steo p ath ic physicians cen ters on m anipulating these systems with the hands. O steopathic physicians also use surgery, drugs, and all other ac cepted m ethods of m edical care. M ost o steopathic physicians are “ family docto rs” who engage in gen eral practice. These physicians usual ly see patients in their offices, m ake house calls, and treat patients in os teopathic and o ther private and pub lic hospitals. Some doctors o f osteop athy teach, do research, or write and edit scientific books and journals. In recent years, specialization has increased. In 1976, about 25 percent o f all osteopathic physicians were practicing in specialties, including in ternal m edicine, neurology and psy chiatry, ophthalm ology, pediatrics, an esth esio lo g y , physical m edicine and rehabilitation, derm atology, ob stetrics and gynecology, pathology, proctology, radiology, and surgery. 184 Places of Employment A bout 15,000 osteopathic physi cians practiced in the United States in 1976. Almost 85 percent of the active osteopathic physicians were in private practice. A small num ber had full-time salaried positions in osteo pathic hospitals and colleges, private industry, o r governm ent agencies. O steopathic physicians are located chiefly in those States that have os teopathic hospital facilities. In 1976, three-fifths o f all osteopathic physi cians w ere in F lo rid a, M ichigan, P en n sy lv an ia, New Jersey , O hio, T exas, and M issouri. T w enty-one States and the D istrict o f C olum bia each had fewer than 50 osteopathic physicians. M ore than half of all gen e ra l p ra c titio n e rs a re lo c a te d in towns and cities having fewer than 50,000 people; specialists, however, practice mainly in large cities. All 50 States and the District of C olum bia require a license to prac tice osteopathic medicine. To obtain a licen se, a can d id a te m ust be a graduate o f an approved school of o s te o p a th ic m ed icin e and pass a S ta te b o a r d e x a m in a tio n In six States, candidates m ust pass an ex am ination in the basic sciences be fore they are eligible to take the p ro fessional examination; 37 States and the District o f C olum bia also require a period o f internship in an approved hospital after graduation from an oste o p a th ic sch o o l. T h e N a tio n a l Board o f Osteopathic Examiners also gives an exam ination which is ac cepted by most States as a substitute for State examination. All States ex cept A laska and Florida grant licens es w ithout fu rth e r exam ination to properly qualified osteopathic physi cians already licensed by an o th er State. The m inimum educational require m ent for entry to one o f the schools o f osteopathic medicine is 3 years of college work, but in practice alm ost all o s te o p a th ic s tu d e n ts h av e a b a c h e lo r’s degree. P reo steo p ath ic education m ust include courses in chemistry, physics, biology, and Eng lish. O steo p ath ic colleges req u ire successful com pletion of 3 to 4 years of professional study for the degree o f D o c to r o f O steo p ath y (D .O .). During the first half of professional training, emphasis is placed on basic sciences, such as anatom y, physiol ogy, and pathology, and on the prin ciples o f osteopathy; the rem ainder o f the tim e is devoted largely to clini cal experience with patients in hospi tals and clinics. After graduation, nearly all d o c tors of osteopathic medicine serve a 12-month internship at 1 of the 79 osteopathic hospitals approved by the A m erican O steopathic Associ ation fo r in tern a n d /o r residency training. Those who wish to becom e specialists must have 2 to 5 years of additional training. The osteopathic physician’s train ing is very costly because of the length o f time it takes to earn the D.O. degree. However, Federal and private funds are available for loans for stu d en ts, and scholarships are available to those who qualify and agree to a m inimum o f 2 years’ Fed eral service. In 1977, there were 12 schools of osteopathic m edicine. Schools adm it students on the basis o f grades re ceived in college, scores on the re quired New M edical College Admis sions T est, and reco m m en d atio n s from prem edical college counselors. The ap p lican t’s desire to serve as an osteopathic physician rath er than as a d o cto r train ed in o th er fields of m edicine is a very im portant qualifi cation. T he colleges also give consid erable weight to a favorable recom m e n d a t i o n by a n o s t e o p a t h i c physician fam iliar w ith th e ap p li c a n t’s background. Newly qualified doctors o f osteo p a th ic m e d icin e u sually establish their own practice, although a grow ing num ber are entering group prac tice. Some work as assistants to expe r i e n c e d p h y s ic ia n s o r b e c o m e associated with osteopathic and allo pathic (M .D .) hospitals. In view of the variation in State laws, persons w ho wish to b eco m e o ste o p a th ic physicians should study carefully the professional and legal requirem ents of the S tate in which they plan to practice. T he availability o f osteo pathic hospitals and clinical facilities also should be considered. Persons who wish to becom e os te o p a th ic physicians m ust have a strong desire to pursue this career above all others. They m ust be will ing to study a great deal throughout their career to keep up with the latest advances in o steo p ath ic m edicine. They should exhibit leadership, em o tional stabiliy, and self-confidence. A pleasant personality, friendliness, p a tience, and the ability to deal with people also are im portant. The greatest dem and probably will continue to be in States where osteo pathic m edicine is a widely known and accepted m ethod o f treatm ent, such as Pennsylvania, Florida, and a num ber of M idwestern States. G en erally, prospects for beginning a suc cessful practice are likely to be best in rural areas, small towns, and city suburbs, where young doctors o f os teopathy may establish their profes sional reputations m ore easily than in the centers of large cities. The osteopathic profession is ex pected to grow faster than the aver age for all occupations through the m id -1 9 8 0 ’s because o f po p u latio n grow th, the establishm ent o f addi tional osteopathic hospital facilities, and th e ex ten sio n o f p re p ay m en t p ro g ram s fo r h o sp ita liz a tio n an d m edical care including M edicare and M edicaid. Earnings and Working Conditions In osteopathic m edicine, as in many of the other health professions, incom es usually rise m arkedly after the first few years of practice. E arn ings of individual practitioners are determ ined mainly by ability, experi ence, geographic location, and the in c o m e lev el o f th e c o m m u n ity served. In 1974, the average incom e o f general practitioners after busi ness expenses was about $31,000, a c cording to the limited data available. This incom e is very high in com pari son with o ther professions. Special ists usually had higher incomes than general practitioners. Many osteopathic physicians work m ore than 50 or 60 hours a week. Those in general practice work longer and m ore irregular hours than specialists. Sources of Additional Information Employment Outlook O pportunities for osteopathic phy sicians are expected to be very good through 1985. M any localities are without m edical practitioners o f any kind; many more have few or no os te o p a th ic physicians. In addition, many new osteopaths will be needed to replace those who retire or die. People who wish to practice in a given State should find out about the requirem ents for licensure directly from the board of exam iners of th at State. Inform ation on Federal schol arships and loans is available from the D irector o f Student Financial Aid at the individual schools o f osteop athy. For a list o f State boards, as well as general inform ation on oste opathy as a career, contact: American Osteopathic Association, Depart ment of Public Relations, 212 East Ohio St., Chicago, 111. 60611. American Association of Colleges of Osteo pathic M edicine, 4720 Montgomery Lane, Washington, D.C. 20014. PARK, RECR EA TIO N, A ND LEISUR E SER VIC E W O RKERS (D.O.T. 079.128, 159.228, 187.118, 195.168, 195.228) Nature of the Work Participation in organized recre ation is m ore im portant today than ever before as many Americans find the am ount of leisure time in their lives increasing. P ark, re cre atio n , and leisure service workers plan, or ganize, and d irec t individual and group activities that help people en joy their leisure hours. They work with people of various ages and so cio eco n o m ic groups; the easy-toreach, and those who have tuned out society; the sick and the well; the em otionally and physically h andi capped. Employment settings range from the wilderness to rural to subur ban and urban, including the inner city. Jobs can be found in municipal, county, special district, State and Federal tax-supported agencies; vol untary youth service organizations; com m ercial enterprises; and colleges and universities. The park, recreation, and leisure service field provides career oppor tunities in two m ajor areas which, despite some overlap, involve dis tinctive characteristics and training requirem ents. Activity with and for people is the chief characteristic of Recreation Program Services. Exam ples of recreation program jobs in clude playground leaders; program specialists in dance, dram a, karate, tennis, the arts, and other physical activity; recreation center directors; th e ra p e u tic re c re a tio n specialists; cam p c o u n se lo rs an d w ild ern e ss leaders; senior citizen program lead 185 ers; civilian special services directors in the A rm ed Forces; and industrial recreation directors. Participants en gage in re c re a tio n a l activity as a m eans o f achieving personal satisfac tion and oth er goals. Skilled leader ship is required. The o th er m ajor ca reer area is Park M anagem ent and Natural Resources, w hich focuses on activities in natural and constructed areas, facilities, and environm ents. Job exam ples include outdoor re cre ation planners and p ark m anagers. T hese personnel w ork closely with others including grounds and facili ties m a in te n a n c e p e rso n n e l; p ark rangers; landscape architects; forest ers; and soil, range and wildlife con servationists. An u n d erstan d in g of th e n a tu ra l e n v iro n m e n t, physical planning, and m aintenance and o p e ra tio n a re essen tial jo b re q u ire ments. (S eparate statem ents on for esters, range m an ag ers, landscape architects, soil conservationists, life scientists, and oth er closely related occupations are found elsew here in the Handbook). Park, recreatio n , and leisure serv ice w orkers in full-tim e, year-round jobs occupy a variety o f positions at different levels o f responsibility. Rec reation program leaders and park technicians and aides provide face-toface leadership, give instruction in crafts, gam es, and sports, keep re c ords, m aintain recreatio n facilities, assist p ark rangers, and staff visitor centers. Specialists include those trained in dance, dram a, and the arts, in land scape arch itectu re, horticulture, for estry, biology, and a variety o f other fields. T hese specialists are em ployed by many park and recreation agen cies and often are involved in p ro gram developm ent, planning, im ple m entation, and m anagem ent. Supervisors plan program s; super vise recreation leaders or park p e r sonnel; m anage recreation facilities; provide direction in areas o f special ization such as arts and crafts, music, dram a, dance, and sports; or super vise leadership personnel over an en tire region. Administrators include directors of p ark s and re c re a tio n , su p e rin te n dents of parks and/or recreation, and various division heads. These individ 186 uals have overall responsibility for ad m in istratio n , budget, personnel, program m ing and/or park m anage ment. Educators teach p ark and re c re ation courses, supervise field work students, do research, and provide public service expertise. Places of Employment A bout 85,000 persons were p ri marily em ployed year round as park, recreation, and leisure service w ork ers in 1976. The m ajority worked in public, tax -su p p o rted agencies in cluding 2,018 m unicipal park and r e c r e a t i o n d e p a r t m e n t s , 1, 211 county park and recreation agencies, 345 special districts, and the State park systems. In addition to these public agencies, a num ber of other em ploym ent settings provide yearround jobs for park, recreation, and leisure service workers. Several thousand persons work for the F ederal G overnm ent as re c re ation specialists (sports, art, music, theatre, therapeutic), outdoor recre ation planners, park m anagers and technicians, and recreation assistants and aides. They work primarily for the Forest Service and Soil C onser vation Service of the D epartm ent of Agriculture; the Corps of Engineers and A rm ed Forces R ecreation of the D epartm ent of Defense; the V eter ans Adm inistration; and the National Park Service, Bureau o f Land M an agem ent, Bureau o f O utdoor R ecre atio n , and U.S. Fish and W ildlife Service o f the D epartm ent of Interi or. P eac e C o rp s an d V ista em ploy park and recreation personnel in 68 foreign countries and in the United States to plan and supervise recrea tional activities for deprived persons. Boys’ and G irls’ Clubs provide a variety o f recreational, guidance, and instructional activities to help young sters grow and work together, to dis cover their needs, understand them s e lv e s , a n d a c h ie v e a se n se o f responsibility. Senior centers and retirem ent com m unities offer older people a range o f recreation and leisure activi ties, and often employ trained staff to supervise and coordinate the assist ance provided by volunteers. T herapeutic recreation is a rapidly growing specialized field which p ro vides services to help an individual recover or adjust to illness, disability, or a specific social problem . Places w here recreatio n al therapists work include hospitals, correctional insti tu tio n s, h e a lth an d re h a b ilita tio n centers, nursing hom es, and private schools and cam ps for the m entally retarded, em otionally disturbed, and physically handicapped. Therapeutic recreatio n w orkers, in conjunction with physicians, prescribe activities on a one-to-one basis. M any jobs for park, recreation, and leisure service w orkers are found in p riv ate and co m m ercial re c re atio n —including am usem ent parks, sports an d e n te rta in m e n t cen ters, wilderness and survival enterprises, tou rist attractio n s, vacation excur sions, resorts and cam ps, health spas, clu b s, a p a rtm e n t co m p lex es, and other settings. The park, recreation, and leisure service field is characterized by an unusually large num ber o f part-tim e, seasonal, and volunteer jobs. V olun teers represent perhaps three out of every fo u r individuals perform ing service in public park and recreation agencies. Some serve on local park and recreation boards and com m is sions. The vast m ajority serve as vol unteer activity leaders a t local play grounds, or in youth organizations, nursing hom es, hospitals, senior cen ters, and other settings. Many park and re c re a tio n professionals have found that volunteer experience, as well as part-tim e work during school, can lead directly to a full-time job. A m ajority o f all paid em ployees in the park, recreation, and leisure service field are part-tim e or seasonal w ork ers. T ypical jo b s include sum m er cam p co u n se lo rs and p lay g ro u n d leaders, lifeguards, craft specialists, after school and w eekend recreation program leaders, park rangers, m ain tenance personnel, and others. Many o f these jobs are filled by teachers and college students. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A college degree with a m ajor in parks and recreation is increasingly im portant for those seeking full-time career positions in the park, recre ation, and leisure service field. G en erally, an applicant’s level of form al education and training determ ine the type of job he or she can get. A num ber of aide, recreation p ro gram leader, and park technician p o sitions currently are filled by high school grad u ates. H ow ever, those seeking career potential should o b tain a minimum o f an associate d e gree. Some jobs at the re creatio n leader level require specialized train ing in a particular field, such as art, music, dram a, or athletics. Positions as specialists norm ally require a minimum o f a baccalaure ate degree. However, the degree usu ally is in the area of specialization, such as forestry or biology, rath er than in parks and recreation. M ost supervisors have a baccalau reate degree plus experience. A d e gree in parks and recreation may imp ro v e c h a n c e s fo r c a re e r advancem ent. A baccalaureate degree and expe rience are considered minimum re quirem ents for adm inistrators. H ow e v e r, in c re a s in g n u m b e rs a re obtaining m aster’s degrees in parks and recreation as well as in related disciplines. Many persons with b ack grounds in other disciplines including social work, forestry, and resource m an ag em en t pu rsu e g rad u ate d e grees in recreation. In 1975, over 1,200 educators taught parks and recreation in junior and com m unity colleges and senior colleges and universities. On the ju nior college level, 90 percent of the faculty had a m aster’s degree or less while on the senior college level, one-half had a m aster’s degree and the other half had a doctorate. In 1975, about 165 2-year com m u nity colleges offered associate degree recreation leadership and park tech nician programs; 180 4-year colleges and universities offered park and rec re a tio n cu rricu lu m s. In ad d itio n , over 80 m aster’s degree program s and a b o u t 25 d o c to ra l program s were offered. Programs in therapeu tic recreation were offered by about 45 com m unity and ju n io r colleges and 95 4 -year colleges and universi ties. A num ber of graduate programs were taught. The N ational Recreation and Park Association (N R PA ) is beginning a process o f accrediting park and rec reation curriculums. Students in ac credited baccalaureate degree p ro grams will devote about one-half of th e ir tim e to g e n e ra l e d u c a tio n co u rses in w hich th ey m ay gain knowledge of the natural and social sciences including an understanding of hum an growth and developm ent and of people as individuals and as social beings; history and apprecia tion of hum an cultural, social, intel l e c t u a l , s p i r i t u a l , a n d a r ti s t i c achievem ents; and other areas of in terest. A nother one-fourth of their time will involve exposure to profes sional park and recreation education including history, theory, and p h i losophy; com m unity organization; recreation and park services; leader ship supervision and administration; understanding of special populations such as the elderly or handicapped; and field work experience. Students may spend the rem ainder of their tim e develo p in g c o m p ete n cies in specialized professional areas such as th era p eu tic recreation (courses in psychology, health, education, and sociology are recom m ended), park m an ag em en t, o u td o o r re c re a tio n , park and recreation adm inistration, industrial or com m ercial recreation (courses in business adm inistration 187 are reco m m en d ed ), cam p m anage m ent, and oth er areas. Persons planning park, recreation, and leisure service careers m ust be good at m otivating people and sensi tive to their needs. G ood health and physical stam ina are required. A c tivity planning calls for creativity and resourcefulness. W illingness to ac cept responsibility and the ability to ex e rc ise ju d g m e n t a re im p o rta n t qualities since park and recreation personnel often work alone. To in crease their leadership skills and un derstanding o f people, students are advised to obtain related work expe rience in high school and college. O pportunities for part-tim e, sum m er, or after-school em ploym ent, or for volunteer w ork, may be available in local p a rk and re c re a tio n d e p a rt m ents, youth service agencies, reli gious o r w elfare agencies, nursing hom es, cam ps, parks, or nature cen ters. Such experience may help stu dents decide w hether their interests really point to a hum an service ca reer. Students also should talk to lo cal park and recreation profession als, school guidance counselors, and others. A fter a few years o f experience, aides o r recreation program leaders may becom e supervisors. However, additional education may be desired. A lthough prom otion to adm inistra tive positions may be easier for p er sons with graduate training, advance m ent usually is possible through a com bination of education and expe rience. An effort currently is underway to establish professional status and rec ognition for the field o f parks and recreation (accreditation of curriculums is discussed earlier in the state m ent). T here currently is no licens ing re q u ir e m e n t fo r in d iv id u a ls em ployed in public park and recre ation agencies. However, NRPA has d ev e lo p e d n a tio n a l sta n d a rd s fo r professional and technical personnel, including both education and experi ence requirem ents. N RPA expects many States to adopt these standards in the com ing years. Some therapeu tic recreation w orkers are subject to m andatory requirem ents that denote com petence to practice their profes sion. T h o se w orking in long-term 188 care facilities m ust be registered by th e N R P A , N atio n al T h e ra p e u tic R ecreation Society’s Board of Regis tration, or by the State in which they work. Employment Outlook The need for trained park, recre ation, and leisure service workers is expected to grow as physical fitness and recreation becom e increasingly im portant to millions o f Am ericans; as the num ber o f older people using senior centers and nursing hom es in creases; as the d em and for cam p sites, lakes, stream s, trails, and picnic areas increases; as correctional insti tutions recognize the need for such personnel; as the need develops for creative expression in the arts and hum anities; and as the citizen’s un derstanding of the use of our leisure an d n a tu ra l re s o u rc e s in c re a se s. However, because o f financial u ncer tainty in both the public and private sectors, this need for trained person nel may not necessarily result in ac tu a l e m p lo y m e n t g ro w th . M any openings, nevertheless, will arise an nually from deaths, retirem ents, and o th e r se p a ra tio n s from th e la b o r force. A 1976 National R ecreation and Park Association study indicates th at com petition is keen for many jobs in m unicipal, county, special district, and State park systems. C ontributing to the com petitive job situation are recent sizable increases in the num ber o f park and recreation graduates and the austerity budgets adopted by many local governm ents and m unici palities since the early 1970’s. The long-term em ploym ent o u t look is difficult to assess, largely b e cause o f un certain ty ab o u t fu tu re funding levels for these and o th er public services. F u rth erm o re, p e r sons with a wide variety of experi ence and education may seek to b e com e park, recreation, and leisure service w orkers. However, persons with form al training and experience in parks and recreation are expected to have the best job opportunities in this field; those with graduate d e grees should have the best opportuni ties for supervisory and adm inistra tive positions. If the num ber of park and recreation curriculum s contin ues to grow, m aster’s and Ph. D. de g ree h o ld e rs m ay find fav o rab le teaching opportunities. Additional job opportunities are expected in therapeutic recreation, private and com m ercial recreation, and—to a lesser extent—in senior centers and youth organizations. O p p o rtu n itie s fo r sp ec ia lly tra in e d therapeutic recreation workers are likely to be favorable, in line with the anticipated need for additional staff in many health-related occupations. By contrast, com petition for jobs as cam p directors is expected to be very keen. Job experience prior to graduation will greatly help a graduate find a position. Although com petition is ex pected to be keen, many opportuni ties for part-tim e and summer em p lo y m e n t w ill b e a v a ila b le fo r recreation program leaders and aides in local governm ent recreation p ro grams. M any of the sum m er jobs will be for counselors and craft and ath letic specialists in camps. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries in State and local governments for recreation program leaders with a bachelor’s degree av eraged about $9,300 in 1976, ac cording to a survey by the Interna tio n a l P e rs o n n e l M a n a g e m e n t Association. There was a wide salary range am ong em ployers—in general, salaries were highest in the West and lowest in the South. Average earn ings for park and recreation workers are higher than those for nonsupervisory workers in private industry, ex cept farming. A ccording to NRPA, 2-year asso ciate degree graduates received start ing salaries ranging from $6,500 to $9,500 in 1976. Individuals with b ac c a la u re a te degrees obtained p ark and recreation positions with annual salaries that were in the $7,200 to $12,000 range. Persons with gradu ate degrees generally received higher salaries. All salaries varied widely de pending on the size and type of em ploying agency and geographic area. Supervisors’ salaries ranged from $10,000 to $20,000. Salaries for spe cialists varied greatly, but generally were equivalent to those of supervi sory personnel. The average salary fo r c h ie f ad m in istrato rs in public p ark and re cre atio n agencies was ab o u t $20 ,0 0 0 , and ranged up to $45,000. The average annual starting salary for recreational therapists (positions requiring a college degree in recrea tional therapy or a related field) in hospitals and m edical centers was about $10,200 in 1976, according to a survey conducted by the University of Texas M edical School. Top sala ries fo r e x p e rie n c e d re c re a tio n a l therapists in these settings averaged $12,200, and some were as high as $17,800. Starting salaries for recreation and park professionals in the Federal G overnm ent in 1977 were $9,303 for applicants with a bachelor’s degree; $11,523 for those with a bachelor’s degrees plus 1 year o f experience; $14,097 for those with a bachelor’s plus 2 y ears’ experience or a m aster’s degree; and $17,056 for those with a bach elo r’s plus 3 y ears’ experience or a Ph. D. R ecreation and park assistants, aides, and technicians earn considerably less than these professionals. The average week for recreation and park personnel is 35-40 hours. Many cam p recreation workers live at the cam ps where they work, and their room and board are included in their salaries. M ost public and pri vate recreation agencies provide va cation and oth er fringe benefits such as sick leave and hospital insurance. People entering the park, recre ation, and leisure service field should expect som e night work and irregular ho urs. In ad d itio n , w o rk ers often spend m uch o f their tim e outdoors when the w eather permits. Sources of Additional Information In fo rm atio n ab o u t parks, re c re ation, and leisure services as a ca reer, em ploym ent o p p o rtu n ities in the field, colleges and universities of fering park and recreation curricula, accred itatio n , and registration and certificatio n standards is available from: National Recreation and Park Association, Di vision o f Professional Services, 1601 North Kent St., Arlington, Va. 22209. For inform ation on careers in in dustrial recreation, contact: National Industrial Recreation Association, 20 North Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60606. F o r in fo rm a tio n on c a re e rs in cam ping and job referrals, send post paid return envelope to: American Camping Association, Bradford Woods, Martinsville, Ind. 46151. PE R S O N N E L A N D LABOR R ELA TIO N S W O RKERS (D.O.T. 166.088 through .268; 169.118) Nature of the Work A ttracting the best em ployees available and m atching them to the jobs they can do best is im portant for the success of any organization. T o day, most businesses are m uch too large for close contact between ow n ers and their employees. Instead, p er sonnel and labor relations w orkers provide the link betw een m anage m ent and em ployees—assisting m an agem ent to m ake effective use o f em p lo y e e s ’ s k ills , a n d h e lp in g employees to find satisfaction in their jo b s and w orking conditions. A l though some jobs in this field require only limited contact with people o u t side the office, m ost involve frequent contact with other people. Dealing with people is an essential part of the job. Personnel workers and labor rela tions workers concentrate on differ en t aspects of em ployer-em ployee relations. Personnel w orkers in ter view, select, and recom m end appli cants to fill job openings. They h an dle wage and salary adm inistration, train in g and c a re e r developm ent, and employee benefits. “ Labor rela tions” usually m eans union-m anage m ent relations, and people who spe cialize in this field work for the m ost part in unionized business firms and governm ent agencies. They help offi cials prepare for collective bargain ing sessions, participate in contract negotiations with the union, and h an dle labor relations m atters that com e up every day. In a small company, personnel work consists mostly of interviewing and hiring, and one person usually can handle it all. By contrast, a large organization needs an entire staff, which m ight include recruiters, inter view ers, counselors, jo b analysts, wage and salary analysts, education and training specialists, and labor re lations specialists, as well as techni cal and clerical workers. Personnel work often begins with the personnel recruiter or employment interviewer (D.O.T. 166.268), who works on a person-to-person basis with p re sen t and prospective em ployees. Recruiters travel around the country, often to college campuses, in the search for promising job appli cants. Interviewers talk to applicants, and selec t and recom m end those who appear qualified to fill vacan cies. They often administer tests to applicants and interpret the results. H iring and p la c e m e n t specialists need to be thoroughly familiar with the organization and its personnel policies, for they must be prepared to discuss wages, working conditions, and prom otional opportunities with prospective and newly hired employ ees. They also need to keep informed about equal employm ent opportunity and affirm ative action guidelines. Equal em ploym ent opportunity is a complex and sensitive area of p er sonnel work which in some large or ganizations is handled by special EEO counselors or coordinators. The w ork o f em p lo y m en t co u n selo rs, which is similar in a num ber of ways, is described in a separate statem ent elsewhere in the Handbook. Job analysts (D.O.T. 166.068) and salary and wage administrators (D.O.T. 169.118) do very exacting work. Job analysts collect and ana lyze detailed inform ation on jobs, job qualifications, and worker character istics in order to prepare job descrip tions, sometimes called position clas sifications, that tell exactly what the duties o f a job are and what training and skills it requires. W henever a governm ent agency or large business firm introduces a new job or evalu ates existing ones, it calls upon the expert knowledge of the job analyst. A ccurate information about job du ties also is required when a firm evaluates its pay system and consid 189 ers changes in wages and salaries. Es tablishing and m aintaining pay sys tem s is th e p rincipal jo b o f wage adm inistrators. They devise ways of making sure th at pay rates within the firm are fair and equitable, and con duct surveys to see how their pay rates com pare with those elsewhere. Being sure th at the firm ’s pay system complies with laws and regulations is another p art of the job, one th at re quires know ledge o f com pensation structures and labor law. Training specialists supervise or conduct training sessions, prepare m anuals and oth er m aterials for these courses, and look into new m ethods o f training. They also coun sel em ployees on training opportuni ties, which may include on-the-job, apprentice, supervisory, or m anage m ent training. Em ployee-benefits supervisors and other personnel specialists handle the em ployer’s benefits program , w hich often includes health insur ance, life insurance, disability insur ance, and pension plans. These w ork ers also coordinate a wide range of em ployee services, including cafete rias and snack bars, health room s, re c re a tio n a l facilities, new sletters and com m unications, and counseling for w ork-related personal problem s. Counseling em ployees who are ap proaching retirem ent age is a partic ularly im portant p art o f the job of these workers. O ccupational safety and health program s are handled in various ways. Q uite often, in small com pa nies especially, accident prevention and industrial safety are the responsi bility of the personnel departm ent— or o f the labor relations specialist, if the union has a safety representative. In creasin g ly , h o w ev er, th e re is a separate safety d epartm ent under the direction o f a safety and health p ro fessional, generally a safety engineer or industrial hygienist. (The work of occupational safety and health work ers is d iscussed elsew h ere in the Handbook.) Labor relations specialists (D.O.T. 169.118) advise m anagem ent on all aspects of union-m anagem ent rela tions. W hen the co n tract is up for n e g o tia tio n , th e y p ro v id e b a c k ground in fo rm atio n and technical support, a jo b that requires extensive 190 knowledge o f econom ics, labor law, in re c e n t years, as union strength and collective bargaining trends. A c am ong g o v e rn m e n t w o rk e rs has tual negotiation o f the agreem ent is grown. This has created a need for conducted at the top level, with the m ore and better trained workers to director o f labor relations or other handle negotiations, grievances, and top-ranking official serving as the arbitration cases on behalf of Feder em ployer’s representative, but m em al, State, and local governm ent agen bers o f the com pany’s labor relations cies. staff play an im portant role through out the negotiations. Places of Employment M uch o f the everyday work of the labor relations staff concerns inter In 1976, about 335,000 people pretation and adm inistration o f the were personnel and labor relations contract, the grievance procedures in workers. Nearly 3 out of 4 worked in particular. M em bers o f the labor re private industry, for m anufacturers, lations staff m ight w ork with th e banks, insurance com panies, airlines, union on seniority rights under the departm ent stores, and other busi layoff procedure set forth in the co n ness concerns. Some worked for pri tract, for example. L ater in the day, vate em ploym ent agencies, including they might m eet with the union stew executive job-search agencies, “ of ard a b o u t a w o rk e r’s g riev a n ce. fice tem poraries” agencies, and o th Doing the jo b well m eans staying ers. abreast of current developm ents in A large num ber of personnel and labor law, including arbitration deci labor relations workers, over 90,000 sions, and m aintaining continuing li in 1976, worked for Federal, State, aison with union officials. and local government agencies. Most Personnel workers in governm ent of these were in personnel adminis agencies generally do the same kind tration; they handled recruitm ent, in o f work as those in large business terviewing, testing, job classification, firms. There are some differences, training, and other personnel m atters however. Public personnel w orkers for the N ation’s 15 million public deal with employees whose jobs are employees. Some were on the staff of governed by civil service regulations. the U.S. Em ploym ent Service and Civil service jobs are strictly classi State em ploym ent agencies. Still o th fied as to duties, training, and pay. ers worked for agencies that oversee This requires a great deal of em pha com pliance with labor laws. Some, sis on job analysis and wage and sal for example, were wage-hour com pli ary classification; m any people in ance officers; their work is described public personnel work spend th eir in another part of the Handbook, in time classifying and evaluating jobs, the statem ent on health and regula or devising, administering, and scor tory inspectors (G overnm ent). O ther ing com petitive examinations given public employees in this field carried to job applicants. out research in economics, labor law, Knowledge o f rules and reg u la personnel practices, and related sub tions pertaining to affirmative action jects, and sought new ways of ensur and equal opportunity program s is ing that w orkers’ rights under the law im portant in public personnel work. are understood and protected. In 1972, the U.S. Civil Service C om In com parison with private indus mission established a specialization try, labor unions do not employ a for Federal personnel workers co n la rg e n u m b e r o f p ro fe s s io n a lly cerned with prom oting equal oppor trained labor relations workers. An tunity in hiring, training, and a d elected union official generally han v a n c e m e n t. S im ilar a tte n tio n to dles labor relations m atters at the equal em ploym ent opportunity, a c com pany level. At national and inter com panied by a need for qualified national union headquarters, how staff, is evident in State and local ever, th e research and edu catio n governm ent agencies. staff usually includes specialists with Labor relations is an increasingly a degree in industrial and labor rela im portant specialty in public person tions, econom ics, or law. A few personnel and labor rela nel adm inistration. Labor relations in this field have changed considerably tions w o rk ers are in business for them selves as m anagem ent consul tants o r labor-m anagem ent relations experts. In addition, som e people in the field teach college or university courses in personnel adm inistration, industrial relations, and related sub jects. M ost jo b s for personnel and labor relations w orkers are located in the highly industrialized sections o f the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many em ployers seek to fill begin ning positions in personnel and labor re la tio n s w ith co lleg e g ra d u a te s. Some em ployers look for graduates who have m ajored in personnel ad m inistration or industrial and labor relations, while others prefer college g ra d u ates with a g eneral business back g ro u n d . Still o th e r em ployers feel th at a well-rounded liberal arts education is the best preparation for personnel work. A college m ajor in p erso n n el ad m in istratio n , political science, or public adm inistration can be an asset in looking for a job with a governm ent agency. At least 200 colleges and universi ties have program s leading to a de gree in the field o f personnel and labor relations. (W hile personnel ad m in istra tio n is w idely tau g h t, the num ber o f program s th a t focus pri m arily on lab o r re la tio n s is quite small.) In addition, m any schools of fer course w ork in closely related fields. A n in te rd isc ip lin a ry b a c k ground is appropriate for work in this area, and a com bination of courses in the social sciences, behavioral sci ences, business, and econom ics is useful. Prospective personnel workers might include courses in personnel m an ag em en t, business ad m in istra tion, public adm inistration, psychol ogy, sociology, political science, eco nom ics, an d statistics. C ourses in labor law, collective bargaining, la bor econom ics, labor history, and in dustrial psychology provide valuable backgound for the prospective labor relations worker. G raduate study in industrial or la bor relations is often required for work in labor relations. While a law degree seldom is required for jobs at the entry level, m ost o f the people with responsibility for contract nego tiations are lawyers, and a com bina tion o f industrial relations courses and a law degree is becom ing highly desirable. A college education is im portant, but it is not the only way to enter personnel work. Some people en ter the field at the clerical level, and advance to professional positions on the basis of experience. They often find it helpful to take college courses part tim e, however. New personnel w orkers usually e n ter formal or on-the-job training p ro grams to learn how to classify jobs, interview applicants, or adm inister em ployee benefits. A fter the training period, new workers are assigned to specific areas in the com pany’s em ployee relations departm ent. A fter gaining experience, they usually can advance within their own com pany or transfer to another employer. A t this point, some people move from personnel to labor relations work. A growing num ber of people enter the labor relations field directly, as trainees. They usually are graduates of m aster’s degree program s in indus trial relations, or may have a law d e gree. Quite a few people, however, begin in personnel work, gain experi ence in that area, and subsequently move into a labor relations job. W orkers in the middle ranks of a large organization often transfer to a top job in a sm aller one. Em ployees with exceptional ability may be p ro m oted to executive positions, such as director o f personnel or director o f labor relations. Personnel and labor relations workers should speak and write ef fectively and be able to work with people of all levels of education and experience. They also m ust be able to see both the em ployee’s and the em ployer’s points of view. In addi tion, they should be able to work as part o f a team . They need superviso ry abilities and must be able to a c cept responsibility. Integrity and fairm indedness are im portant qualities for people in personnel and labor re lations work. A persuasive, congenial personality can be a great asset. Employment Outlook The num ber o f personnel and la bor relations workers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through 1985, as em ployers, increasingly aw are o f the benefits to be derived from good la bor-m anagem ent relations, continue to su p p o rt sound, capably staffed em ployee relations programs. In ad dition to new jobs created by growth o f the occupation, m any openings will becom e available each year be cause o f the need to replace workers who die, retire, or leave their jobs for other reasons. Legislation setting standards for em ploym ent practices in the areas of occupational safety and health, equal em ploym ent opportunity, and p en sions has stimulated dem and for p er sonnel and labor relations workers. C ontinued growth is foreseen, as em ployers throughout the country re view existing program s in each of these areas and, in many cases, estab lish entirely new ones. This has creat ed job opportunities for people with appropriate expertise. The effort to e n d d is c rim in a to ry e m p lo y m e n t p ractices, for exam ple, has led to scrutiny o f the testing, selectio n , p lacem en t, and prom otion p ro c e dures in many com panies and gov ernm ent agencies. The findings are causing a ^num ber o f employers to modify these procedures, and to take steps to raise the level of profession alism in their personnel departm ents. Substantial em ploym ent growth is foreseen in the area of public person nel a d m in istratio n . O p p o rtu n ities probably will be best in State and local governm ent, areas that are ex pected to experience strong em ploy m ent growth over the next decade. By c o n tra st, F ed eral em ploym ent will grow slowly. M oreover, as union stren g th am ong public em ployees continues to grow, State and local agencies will need many more w ork ers qualified to deal with labor rela tions. E nactm ent of collective b a r gaining legislation for State and local governm ent employees could greatly stim ulate dem and for labor relations workers knowledgeable about public sector negotiations. Although the num ber of jobs in both personnel and labor relations is 191 projected to increase over the next decade, com petition for these jobs also is increasing. Particularly keen com petition is anticipated for jobs in labor relations. A small field, labor relations traditionally has been diffi cult to b reak into, and opportunities are best fo r applicants with a m as te r’s degree o r a strong undergrad u ate m ajo r in in d u strial relations, econom ics, o r business. A law degree is an asset. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning jo b analysts in private industry started at $ 11,200 a year in 1976, according to a Bureau o f L a b o r S tatistics survey. E xperienced jo b analysts earned $19,200 a year, about twice the average for all nonsupervisory w orkers in private indus try, except farming. W age and salary adm inistrators earned about $19,800 an d p erso n n el m an agers averaged $21,100, according to a survey con ducted by the Adm inistrative M an agem ent Society. T op personnel and lab o r relatio n s executives in large c o rp o ra tio n s e a rn e d co n sid erab ly more. A verage salaries for personnel spe cialists em ployed by S tate govern m e n ts r a n g e d fr o m $ 9 ,9 0 0 to $13,000 a year in 1976, according to a survey co n ducted by th e U.S. Civil Service Com mission. Personnel spe cialists who had supervisory respon sibilities averaged from $14,800 to $19,500 and State directors o f p e r sonnel earn ed average salaries rang ing from $27,400 to $31,900 a year. In the Federal G overnm ent, new graduates with a b ach elo r’s degree generally started a t $9,300 a year in 1977. T hose with a m aster’s degree started a t ab out $14,100 a year. Av erage salaries o f F ederal employees in several different areas o f person nel w ork ranged from about $19,300 to $24,500 in 1977, as follows: Federal em ployees in the field o f labor relations had generally com pa rab le salaries. L ab o r-m an ag em en t and em ployee relations specialists and labor-m anagem ent relations offi ce rs av e rag e d $ 2 1 ,8 0 0 a y ea r in 1977. F e d e ra l m e d ia to rs ’ salaries were higher, about $30,800 a year, on the average. Em ployees in personnel offices generally w ork 35 to 40 hours a week. As a rule, they are paid for holidays and vacations, and share in retirem ent plans, life and health in su ran ce plans, and o th e r benefits available to all professional w orkers in their organizations. Sources of Additional Information For general inform ation on careers in personnel and labor relations work, write to: American Society for Personnel Administra tion, 19 Church St., Berea, Ohio 44017. For inform ation concerning a c a reer in em ployee training and devel opm ent, contact: American Society for Training and Develop ment, P.O. Box 5307, Madison, Wis. 53705. Inform ation about careers in p u b lic personnel adm inistration is avail able from: International Personnel Management Associ ation, 1313 E. 60th St., Chicago, 111. 60637. A brochure describing a career in la b o r-m a n a g e m e n t re la tio n s as a field exam iner is available from: Director of Personnel, National Labor Rela tions Board, 1717 Pennsylvania Ave. N W , Washington, D.C., 20570. P H A R M A C IS TS (D.O.T. 074.181) Nature of the Work Staffing specialists.......................... Position classifiers.......................... Personnel management specialists.. Employee development specialists..................................... Salary and wage administrators.... Occupational analysts.................... Mediators.......................................... 192 $19,300 21,100 21,800 21,800 21.800 24,500 30,800 Pharm acists dispense drugs and medicines prescribed by medical and dental practitioners and supply and advise people on the use of m any medicines that can be obtained w ith and w ithout prescriptions. P harm a cists m ust understand the use, com position, and effect o f drugs and of ten test them for purity and strength. They may m aintain patient m edica tion profiles and advise physicians on the p roper selection and use o f m edi c in e s. C o m p o u n d in g —th e a c tu a l mixing o f ingredients to form pow ders, tab lets, capsules, ointm ents, and solutions—is now only a small part of pharm acists’ practice, since m ost m ed icin es a re p ro d u c ed by m anufacturers in the form used by the patient. M any p h arm acists em ployed in com m unity p h arm acies also have o th e r d u tie s . B esides d isp en sin g m ed icin es, som e pharm acists buy and sell n o n p h a rm a c e u tic a l m e r chandise, hire and supervise person nel, and oversee the general o p era tio n o f th e p h a rm a c y . O th e r pharm acists, however, operate p re scription pharm acies th at dispense only m edicines, m edical supplies, and health accessories. Pharm acists in hospitals and clin ics dispense prescriptions and advise the m edical staff on the selection and effects o f drugs; they also m ake ster ile solutions, buy m edical supplies, teach in schools o f nursing and allied health professions, and perform ad m inistrative duties. A n increasing num ber o f pharm acists work as co n sultants to the medical team in m at ters related to daily patient care in hospitals, nursing hom es, and oth er health care facilities. T heir role is crucial to safe, efficient, and proper therapeutic care. Some pharm acists, employed as sales or m edical service representa tives or pharm aceutical detailers by drug m anufacturers and wholesalers, sell m edicines to retail pharm acies and to hospitals, and inform health personnel about new drugs. O thers teach in colleges of pharm acy, super vise the m anufacture of pharm aceu ticals, or are involved in research and the developm ent of new medicines. Some pharm acists edit or write tech n ical a rtic le s fo r p h a rm a c e u tic a l journals, or do administrative work. Some com bine pharm aceutical and legal training in jobs as patent law yers or consultants on pharm aceuti cal and drug laws. Places of Employment A bout 120,000 persons worked as licensed pharm acists in 1976. Over 90,000 pharm acists w orked in com m unity pharm acies. O f these, more th a n tw o -fifth s o w ned th e ir own pharm acies; the others were salaried em ployees. M ost o f the rem aining salaried pharm acists worked for hos pitals, p h arm aceutical m anufactur ers, and w holesalers. Q uite a few com m unity and hospital pharm acists did c o n s u ltin g w o rk fo r n u rsin g homes and other health facilities in addition to their prim ary jobs. As a rule, pharm acy services in nursing hom es are provided by consultants rather than by salaried em ployees. Some pharm acists were civilian em ployees of the F ederal G overn m ent, w orking chiefly in hospitals and clinics of the V eterans Adminis tration and the U.S. Public Health Service. A dditional Federal agencies em ploying pharm acists include the D epartm ent o f D efense, the Food and Drug A dm inistration and other b ra n c h e s o f th e D e p a rtm e n t o f Health, Education, and W elfare, and the Drug E nforcem ent A dm inistra tion. O ther pharm acists served in the Arm ed Forces or taught in colleges of pharm acy. State and local health agencies, and p h arm aceu tical and other professional associations, also employ pharmacists. Most towns have at least one p h ar macy with one pharm acist or m ore in attendance. M ost pharm acists, how ever, practice in or near cities, and in those S tates th at have the largest populations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license to practice pharm acy is required in all States and the District of Columbia. To obtain a license, one m ust be a graduate of an accredited pharm acy college, pass a State board exam ination and—in nearly all States—have a specified am ount of practical experience or internship under the supervision of a registered pharm acist. Internships generally are served in a community or hospital pharm acy. In 1976, all States except California, Florida, and Hawaii granted a license w ithout reexam ina tion to qualified pharm acists already licensed by a n o th e r S tate. M any pharm acists are licensed to practice in more than one State. At least 5 years of study beyond high school are required to graduate from one of the degree program s accredited by the Am erican Council on Pharm aceutical Education in the 72 colleges of pharmacy. M ost graduates receive a Bachelor of Sci ence (B.S.) or a Bachelor of Pharm a cy (B. Pharm .) degree. About onethird of the colleges of pharm acy also offer advanced professional degree p rogram s leading to a D o cto r o f Pharm acy (Pharm . D.) degree; three of the schools offer only the Pharm. D. degree. The Pharm. D. degree as well as the B.S. or B. Pharm. degrees may serve as the entry degree for purposes of licensure as a pharm a cist. T he profession is considering standardizing requirem ents and of fering only one professional degree instead o f two. Admission requirem ents vary. A few colleges admit students directly from high school. M ost colleges of pharm acy, however, require entrants to have com pleted 1 or 2 years of prepharm acy education in an accred ited junior college, college, or uni versity. A prepharm acy curriculum usually emphasizes m athem atics and basic sciences, such as chemistry, bi ology, and physics, but also includes courses in the hum anities and social sc ie n c e s. B ecause en try re q u ire m ents vary among colleges of p h ar macy, prepharm acy students should inquire about and follow the curricu lum required by colleges they plan to attend. The bachelor’s degree in pharm a cy is the minimum educational quali fication for most positions in the p ro fession. An increasing num ber of students are enrolled in advanced professional programs leading to the Pharm. D. degree. A m aster’s or Ph. 193 D. degree in pharm acy or a related field usually is required for research work and a Pharm . D., m aster’s, or Ph. D. usually is necessary for adm in istrative w ork or college teaching. While a num ber o f pharm acy gradu ates in tere ste d in fu rth e r training pursue a Pharm . D. or a m aster’s or Ph. D. in pharm acy, th ere are other options. Some en ter m edical, dental, o r law sch o o l, and o th e rs pursue graduate degrees in science or engi neering. Areas o f special study include pharm aceutics and pharm aceutical chem istry (study o f physical and chem ical properties o f drugs an dos age form s), pharm acology (study of the effects of drugs on the body), pharm acognosy (study o f the drugs d e r iv e d fr o m p l a n t o r a n im a l sources), hospital pharm acy, clinical pharm acy, and pharm acy adm inistra tion (study of the social and econom ic factors related to pharm acy p rac t i c e ) . C lin ic a l p h a rm a c y is th e synthesis o f the basic science educa tio n a n d th e a p p lic a tio n o f th is k n o w le d g e to d ru g m a n a g e m e n t p ro b lem s in th e ca re o f p atien ts. C ourses in pharm acy adm inistration are particularly helpful to pharm a cists who en ter executive or m anage rial positions. All colleges of pharm acy offer courses in pharm acy p ractice, d e signed to ed u c ate stu d en ts in the skilled processes required for com pounding and dispensing p rescrip tions, and to give students an appre ciatio n fo r th e p ro fession and an understanding o f the responsibilities pharm acists have in th eir relation ships with physicians and patients. Many colleges of pharm acy increas ingly are emphasizing direct patient care as well as consultative services to oth er health professionals in their academ ic program s. A limited num ber o f Federal schol arships and loans are available for students studying full tim e tow ard a degree in pharm acy. A num ber of scholarships also are aw arded annu ally by drug m an u facturers, chain drugstores, corporations, State and national pharm acy associations, col leges o f pharm acy, and other organi zations. 194 Since many pharm acists are self- the elderly; availability o f a wider em ployed, prospective pharm acists range of drug products for preventive with interest in this type of practice an d th e ra p e u tic uses; th e rising should have some business ability, as sta n d a rd o f health care; and the well as an interest in m edical science growth o f public and private health and the ability to gain the confidence insurance programs that provide pay o f their clients. Honesty, integrity, m ent for prescription drugs. Em ployment of pharmacists in and orderliness are im portant attri butes for the profession. In addition, hospitals, nursing homes, and other accuracy is needed to com pound and health facilities is expected to rise dispense m edicines as well as keep faster than in other work settings. records required by law. Pharm acists increasingly provide di P harm acists often begin as e m re ct p atien t care and consultative ployees in com m unity pharm acies. services to physicians and other p ro A fter they gain experience and o b fessionals in these health facilities. tain the necessary funds they may Because drug m anufacturers are ex becom e ow ners o r part-ow ners o f periencing lower rates of return on pharm acies. A pharm acist who gains investm ent in research and develop experience in a chain drugstore may m ent due to increasing government advance to a m anagerial position, regulation, pharmacists may face de and later to a higher executive posi creasing opportunities in production, tion w ithin the com pany. H ospital re se a rc h , d istrib u tio n , and sales. pharm acists who have the necessary Pharm acists with advanced training training and experience may advance will be needed for college teaching to director of pharm acy service or to and top administrative posts. other adm inistrative positions. P har macists in industry often have oppor Earnings and Working tunities for advancem ent in m anage Conditions m ent, sales, research, quality control, advertising, production, packaging, Based on limited information, the and other areas. starting salary for pharmacists gener ally ranges from $14,000 to $17,000 a year. E xperienced pharm acists, Employment Outlook particularly owners or managers of The em ploym ent outlook for p h ar pharm acies, often earn considerably macists is expected to be favorable more. In general, salaries of experi through the m id-1980’s. However, if enced pharm acists are higher than th e n u m b e r o f p h arm a cy college the average for all nonsupervisory graduates continues to rise as rapidly workers in private industry, except as it has in recent years, the job m ar farming. The minimum entrance salary in ket may change; graduates may begin to experience com petition for jobs. the Federal G overnm ent for a new Grow th is expected to be about as graduate with a bachelor’s degree fast as the average for all occupa from an approved college of pharm a tions. M ost openings, however, will cy was $ 1 1,523 a year in 1977. How result from deaths, retirem ents, and ever, m ost graduates qualified for a o th e r se p a ra tio n s from the lab o r beginning salary of $14,097 a year; force. those with 2 years of graduate work, Em ploym ent will grow as new $ 17,056 a year. Pharm acists with ad pharm acies are established, in large ditional years of experience may start residential areas as well as in small at a higher salary. The average salary towns and rural locations. Many for all federally em ployed pharm a com m unity pharm acies, also, are ex cists was about $18,600. The average annual starting salary pected to hire additional pharm acists because o f a trend towards shorter for pharm acists in hospitals and working hours. D em and for pharm a medical centers was about $14,600 cists also will be generated by such in 1976, according to a survey con fa c to rs as p o p u latio n grow th; in ducted by the University of Texas creased life expectancy; greater d e Medical School. Top salaries for ex m and for drugs, particularly am ong perienced pharm acists in these set tings averaged $18,300, and some were as high as $26,200. Pharm acists who do consulting work in addition to their prim ary jo b m ay have total earnings considerably higher than this. A ccording to a survey conducted by the Am erican Association of Col leges o f Pharm acy, average annual salaries o f full-time personnel in col leges o f pharm acy during 1977 were as follow s: deans, ab o u t $36,000; assistant and associate deans, about $ 2 5 ,0 0 0 ; fu ll p ro fe sso rs, aro u n d $ 3 0 ,0 0 0 ; a s s o c ia te p r o f e s s o r s , around $23,000; and assistant pro fessors, about $20,000. B ased o n th e la te s t P h arm ac y M anpow er Inform ation Project initi ated by the Am erican Association of Colleges o f Pharm acy, pharm acists average 44 hours a week in their pri m ary w ork setting. M any pharm a cists w ork in a secondary setting where they average 15 hours a week. P harm acists in com m unity settings generally w ork lo nger hours than those em ployed in institutional set tings. Pharm acies often are open in the evenings and on weekends, and all States require a registered phar m acist to be in attendance during store hours. Self-employed pharm a cists often w ork m ore hours than those in salaried positions. Sources of Additional information A dditional inform ation on p h ar m acy as a ca ree r, preprofessional and professional requirem ents, pro grams offered by colleges o f pharm a cy, and student financial aid is avail able from: American Association of Colleges of Pharma cy, Office of Student Affairs, 4630 Mont gomery Ave., Suite 201, Bethesda, Md. 20014. G eneral inform ation on pharm acy is available from: American Pharmaceutical Association, 2215 Constitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20037. In fo rm a tio n a b o u t c h a in d ru g stores is available from: National Association of Chain Drug Stores, 1911 Jefferson Highway, Arlington, Va. 22202. G e n e ra l in fo rm a tio n on re ta il pharm acies is available from: National Association of Retail Druggists, 1750 K St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. For a list o f accredited colleges o f pharm acy, contact: American Council on Pharmaceutical Educa tion, One East Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60601. Inform ation on requirem ents for licensure in a particular State is avail able from the Board o f Pharm acy o f th at State or from: National Association of Boards of Pharmacy, One East Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60601. Inform ation on college entrance requirem ents, curriculum s, and fi nancial aid is available from the dean o f any college o f pharmacy. PHOTOGRAPHERS (D.O.T. 143.062, .282, and .382) Nature of the Work Photographers use their cam eras and film to portray people, places, and events m uch as a writer uses words. Those who are skillful can capture the personality of individuals or the m ood o f scenes which they photograph. Some photographers specialize in scientific, m edical, o r engineering photography, and their pictures enable thousands of persons to see a world normally hidden from view. Although their subject m atter var ies widely, all photographers use the same basic equipm ent. The m ost im portant piece, o f course, is the cam era, and m ost p h o tographers own several. U nlike snapshot cam eras, which have a lens perm anently a t tached to the cam era body, profes sional cam eras are constructed to use a variety o f lenses designed for closeup, medium -range, or distance p h o tography. Besides cam eras and lenses, p h o tographers use a variety o f film and colored filters to obtain the desired effect under different lighting condi tions. W hen taking pictures indoors or after dark, they use electronic flash units, floodlights, reflectors, and other special lighting equipm ent. Some photographers develop and print their own photographs in the darkroom and may enlarge or oth er wise a lte r th e basic image. M any p h o tographers send th eir work to photographic laboratories for p ro cessing. Because the procedures involved in still photography are quite differ en t from those in m otion p ictu re photography, many photograp h ers specialize in one or the other. How ever, there is a growing dem and for photographers who have training in both areas. In addition to knowing how to use their equipm ent and m aterials, p h o tographers must be capable of com posing the subjects o f their photo graphs and recognizing a potentially good photograph. Many photographers specialize in a p artic u la r type o f photography, such as portrait, com m ercial, or in dustrial work. Portrait photographers take pictures o f individuals or groups o f persons and often work in their own studios. For special events, such as w eddings or christenings, how e v e r, th e y ta k e p h o to g ra p h s in churches and homes. Portrait pho tographers in small studios frequent ly do all the operations, including scheduling appointm ents and setting up and adjusting equipm ent before Com mercial photographers must be imaginative and original. 195 taking the pictures, as well as devel oping and retouching negatives, d e veloping proofs, and m ounting and framing pictures. They also may be the ones to co llect paym ents and keep records, and therefore m ust be good business persons. C om m ercial photographers photo graph a wide range o f subjects in cluding livestock, m anufactured arti cles, buildings, and large groups of people. They frequently do photog raphy for catalogs. Those in advertis ing take pictures to prom ote such items as clothing, furniture, autom o biles, and food, and may specialize in one such area. Advertising photogra phers m ust know how to use many different photographic techniques. The work of industrial photogra phers is used in com pany publica tions to report to stockholders or to advertise com pany products or ser vices. Industrial photographers also photograph groups of people for em ployee news magazines or may take m otion pictures of w orkers operating equipm ent and m achinery for m an agem ent’s use in analyzing produc tion or work m ethods. They may also use special photographic techniques as research tools. For exam ple, m edi cal researchers often use ultraviolet and in frared photography, fluores cence, and X-rays to obtain inform a tion not visible under norm al condi tio n s . T im e la p s e p h o to g r a p h y (w h ere tim e is stre tc h e d o r c o n densed), photom icrography (w here the subject of the photography may be m ag n ified 50 o r 70 tim es o r m o re), and p h o to g ram m etry (su r veying an area using aerial photogra phy) are o th er special techniques. O ther photographic specialties in clude photojournalism , o r press pho tography, which com bines a “ nose for new s” with photographic ability; and educational photography (p re paring slides, filmstrips, and movies for use in the classroom ). Places of Employment A bout 85,000 photographers were employed in 1976. The greatest p ro portion worked in com m ercial stu dios; many others worked for news papers and magazines. G overnm ent agencies, pho to g rap hic equipm ent 196 suppliers and dealers, and industrial firms also em ployed large num bers o f p h o to g rap h e rs. In ad d itio n , som e photographers taught in colleges and universities, or m ade films. Still o th ers worked freelance, taking pictures to sell to advertisers, magazines, and other custom ers. A bout one-third o f all p h o to g ra p h e rs w ere se lf-e m ployed. Jobs for photographers are found in all parts of the country—both small towns and large cities—but are concentrated in the m ore populated areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Photographic training is available in colleges, universities, junior col leges, and art schools. Over 75 col leges and universities offer 4-year curriculum s leading to a bachelor’s degree in photography. Some colleg es and universities grant m aster’s d e grees in specialized areas, such as photojournalism . In addition, some colleges have 2-year cu rricu lu m s leading to a certificate or an asso ciate degree in photography. A for mal education in photography gives a solid fundam ental background in a variety of equipm ent, processes, and techniques. A rt schools offer useful training in design and com position, but not the technical training needed for professional photographic work. (See the statem ent on com m ercial artists elsewhere in the Handbook.) The A rm ed Forces also train many young people in photographic skills. Although a high school education is desirable, the photography profes sion has no set entry requirem ents with regard to formal education or training. However, the training a p ro spective p h o to g ra p h e r has d e te r mines the type o f work for which he or she qualifies. People may prepare for work as photographers in a com m ercial stu dio through 2 or 3 years of on-the-job training as a photographer’s assist ant. Trainees generally start in the darkroom where they learn to mix c h e m ic a ls, d ev elo p film , and do photoprinting and enlarging. L ater they may set up lights and cam eras or help an experienced photographer take pictures. A m ateur experience is helpful in getting an entry job with a com m er cial studio, but post-high school edu cation and training usually are need ed fo r in d u s t r i a l o r s c ie n tif ic photography. Here success in pho to g rap h y depends on being m ore than ju st a com petent photographer, and adequate career preparation re quires some knowledge of the field in which the photography is used. For example, work in scientific, medical, and engineering research, such as p h o to g rap h in g m icro sco p ic o rg a nisms, requires a background in the p a rtic u la r science o r engin eerin g specialty as well as skill in photogra phy. Photographers m ust have good eyesight and color vision, artistic ability, and manual dexterity. They also should be patient and accurate and enjoy working with detail. Some knowledge of m athem atics, physics, and chemistry is helpful for under standing the use o f various lenses, films, light sources, and developm ent processes. Some photographic specialties re quire additional qualities. C om m er cial or freelance photographers must be imaginative and original in their thinking. Those who specialize in photographing news stories must be able to recognize a potentially good photograph and act quickly, for o th erwise an opportunity to capture an im portant event on film may be lost. Photographers who specialize in p o r trait photography need the ability to help people relax in front of the cam era. Newly hired photographers are given relatively routine assignments that do not require split-second cam era adjustm ents or decisions on what subject m atter to photograph. News photographers, for example, may be assigned to cover civic meetings or photograph snow storms. After gain ing experience they advance to m ore dem anding assignm ents, and some may move to staff positions on na tional new s m agazines. P h o to g ra phers with exceptional ability may gain national recognition for their work and exhibit their photographs in art and photographic galleries, or publish them in books. A few indus trial or scientific photographers may be p ro m o ted to su pervisory posi tions. Magazine and news photogra phers may eventually becom e heads o f graphic arts departm ents or pho tography editors. Employment Outlook E m ploym ent of photographers is expected to grow m ore slowly than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s. In addition to openings resulting from growth, others will occur each year as work ers die, retire, or transfer to other occupations. G row th o f em ploym ent in business and industry is occurring as greater im portance is placed upon visual aids for use in meetings, stockholders’ reports, sales campaigns, and public relations work. Video and m otion picture photography are becom ing increasingly im portant in industry. Photography also is becom ing an in creasingly im portant p a rt o f law en forcem ent work, as well as scientific and m edical research, where oppor tunities are expected to be good for those possessing a highly specialized background. The em ploym ent of portrait and com m erical photographers is expect ed to grow slowly, and com petition fo r jo b s as p o r t r a it an d com m ercial photographers and pho tographers’ assistants is expected to be keen. These fields are relatively crowded since photographers can go into business for them selves with a m odest financial investm ent, or work part time while holding another job. The increased use o f self-processing cam eras in com m ercial photography also has contributed to the crowding in this field, since little photographic training is required for such work. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning photographers who worked for new spapers that have contracts with The N ew spaper Guild had weekly earnings betw een $128 and $432 in 1976, with the majority earning betw een $175 and $225. Newspaper photographers with some experience (usually 4 or 5 years) averaged about $320 a week in 1976. Alm ost all experienced new spaper photographers earned over $225; the top salary was nearly $505 a week. Photographers in the Federal G ov e r n m e n t e a r n e d an a v e ra g e o f $14,900 a year in 1976. D epending on their level o f experience, newly hired photographers in the Federal G overnm ent earned from $8,320 to $11, 520 a year. M ost experienced p h o t o g r a p h e r s e a r n e d b e tw e e n $11,520 and about $18,460 a year. Experienced photographers gener ally earn salaries th at are above the average for nonsupervisory w orkers in private industry, except farming. A lthough self-em ployed and fre e lance photographers often earn m ore than salaried workers, their earnings are affected greatly by general busi ness conditons and the type and size of their com m unity and clientele. Photographers who have salaried jobs usually work a 5-day, 35-40 hour week and receive benefits such as paid holidays, vacations, and sick leave. Those in business for them selves usually w ork longer hours. F ree la n ce, press, and com m ercial photographers travel frequently and may have to work in uncom fortable surroundings. Som etim es the work can be d a n g e ro u s, especially fo r news photographers assigned to cov er stories on natural disasters or mili tary conflicts. Sources of Additional Information C areer inform ation on photogra phy is available from: Photographic Art & Science Foundation, 111 Stratford Rd., Des Plaines, 111. 60016. Professional Photographers of America, Inc. 1090 Executive Way, Des Plaines, 111. 60018. PH YSIC A L TH ER A PISTS (D.O.T. 079.378) Nature of the Work Physical therapists help persons with muscle, nerve, joint, and bone diseases o r injuries to overcom e their disabilities. Their patients include a c cident victims, crippled children, and d isa b le d o ld e r p erso n s. P hysical therapists perform and interpret tests a n d m e a s u r e m e n ts fo r m u s c le strength, m otor developm ent, func tional capacity, and respiratory and circulatory efficiency to develop p ro grams for treatm ent in cooperation with the p a tie n t’s physician. They ev a lu a te th e effectiv en ess o f the treatm ent and discuss the patients’ progress with physicians, psycholo gists, o ccupational therapists, and o th e r specialists. W hen advisable, physical therapists revise the th era peutic procedures and treatm en ts. They help disabled persons to accept their physical handicaps and adjust to them. They show m em bers o f the p a tien ts’ families how to continue treatm ents at home. T h erap eu tic p ro ced u res include exercises for increasing strength, en durance, coordination, and range of motion; electrical stimuli to activate paralyzed muscles; instruction in c a r rying out everyday activities and in the use o f helping devices; and the ap p lica tio n o f m assage, h ea t and cold, light, w ater, o r electricity to relieve pain or improve the condition o f muscles and skin. Most physical therapists provide direct care to patients as staff m em bers, supervisors, or self-employed practitioners. Physical therapists usu ally perform their own evaluations of patients; in large hospitals and nurs ing hom es, however, the director or assistan t d ire c to r o f the physical therapy departm ent may handle this work, which requires extensive train ing and experience. Therapists may treat patients with a wide variety of problem s, or they may specialize in pediatrics, geriatrics, am putations, arthritis, or paralysis. Others teach or are consultants. Places of Employment About 25,000 persons worked as licensed physical therapists in 1976. The largest num ber work in hospi tals. Nursing homes employ a grow ing num ber o f physical therapists, and also contract for the services of se lf-em p lo y ed th e ra p ists . O th e rs w ork in re h a b ilita tio n ce n te rs or 197 Physical therapists develop programs for treatment of disabled persons of all ages. schools for crippled children. Some who work for public health agencies trea t chronically sick patients in their own hom es. Still others work in phy sicians' offices or clinics, teach in physical th era p y ed u c atio n al p ro grams, or work for research organi zations. A few serve as consultants in governm ent and voluntary agencies o r a re m e m b e rs o f th e A rm e d Forces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the D istrict of C o lum bia require a license to practice physical therapy. A pplicants for a li cense m ust have a degree or certifi c a te from an a c c re d ite d physical therapy educational program and to 198 qualify m ust pass a State board ex am ination. Applicants may prepare for State board exam inations in phys ical th erap y through one o f th ree types of program s, depending upon p re v io u s a c a d e m ic stu d y . H igh school graduates can earn a 4-year bachelor’s degree in physical therapy at a college or university. Students who already hold a bachelor’s degree in another field, such as biology o r physical education, can earn a sec ond bachelor’s degree or a certifica tion in physical therapy through spe c ia l p ro g ra m s la s tin g 12 to 16 months. These applicants also have the option of working for a m aster’s degree in physical therapy. In 1976, 11 certificate program s, 76 bach elo r’s degree program s and 5 m aster’s degree program s were a c credited by the A m erican Physical Therapy Association and the Am eri can M edical Association to provide entry level training. There were also 17 o th er m aster’s degree programs th at provided advanced training to those already in the field. One of the c e rtific a te program s is sponsored jointly by the U.S. Army and Baylor U niversity; graduates are com m is sioned as officers in the Army. The physical therapy curriculum includes science courses such as anatom y, physiology, neuroanatom y, and neurophysiology; it also includes specialized courses such as biom e chanics o f m otion, hum an grow th and developm ent, and m anifestations of disease and traum a. Besides re ceiving classroom instruction, stu dents get supervised clinical experi ence adm inistering physical therapy to patients in a hospital or treatm ent center. C om petition for entry to all phys ical therapy program s is keen. Insti tutions offering a physical therapy program each year receive m any m ore applications than the num ber of existing places. Consequently, stu dents seriously interested in atten d ing a physical therapy program m ust attain superior grades in their earlier studies, especially in science courses. Personal traits that physical th era pists need include patience, tact, re sourcefulness, and em otional stabil ity to help patients and their families understand the treatm ents and adjust to their handicaps. Physical th era pists also should have manual dexter ity and physical stamina. Many p er sons who want to determ ine whether they h av e th e p e rso n a l q u alitie s needed for this occupation volunteer for sum m er or part-tim e work in the physical therapy d ep a rtm en t o f a h o s p ita l o r c lin ic . H igh s c h o o l c o u rs e s th a t are u se fu l in c lu d e h e a lth , b io lo g y , so c ia l s c ie n c e , m athem atics, and physical ed u c a tion. A graduate degree com bined with clinical experience increases oppor tunities for advancem ent, especially to teaching, research, and adminis trative positions. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent of physical therapists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the m id-1980’s because o f increased public recognition o f the im portance of rehabilitation. As program s to aid crippled children and o th er rehabili ta tio n a c tiv itie s e x p a n d , an d as growth takes place in nursing homes and o th er facilities for the elderly, m any new p o sitio n s fo r physical therapists are likely to be created. Many part-tim e positions should con tinue to be available. H o w e v e r, th e ra p id ly grow ing num ber o f new graduates is expected to exceed the num ber of openings th a t will o c c u r each year due to grow th in the o cc u p atio n and re placem ent of those who will die or retire. As a result, new graduates are expected to face some com petition th ro u g h th e m id -1 9 8 0 ’s. E m ploy m ent o p p o rtu n ities will be best in surburban and rural areas. P H Y S IC IA N S (D.O.T. 070.101 and .108) Nature of the Work Physicians perform m edical exam i nations, diagnose diseases, and treat people who are suffering from injury or disease. They also try to prevent illness by advising patients on selfcare related to d iet and exercise. P hysicians generally exam ine and treat patients in their own offices and in hospitals, but they also may visit patients at home. A decreasing percentage of the physicians who provide patient care are general practitioners (about 15 percent in 1976); most specialize in one of the 34 fields for which there is graduate training. The largest spe cialties are internal medicine, gener al surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, p s y c h ia try , p e d ia tric s , radiology, anesthesiology, ophthal mology, pathology, and orthopedic surgery. The m ost rapidly growing Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for new physical therapy graduates averaged about $11,200 a year in 1976, according to a national survey conducted by the University o f Texas M edical School. Earnings o f experienced physical therapists averaged about $14,000, about one and a half tim es as much as average earnings for all nonsupervisory w orkers in private industry, except farming. Beginning therapists em ployed by the V eterans A dm inistration (V A ) earned starting salaries o f $10,473 a year in 1977. The average salary paid therapists em ployed by the VA in 1977 was $15,700 annually; supervi s o ry t h e r a p i s t s m ay e a rn o v e r Almost two-thirds of all physicians practice in the seven largest specialties Num ber of physicians, 1975 (in thousands) $ 20 , 000 . Sources of Additional Information A dditional inform ation on a career as a physical therapist and a list of accredited educational program s in physical therapy are available from: American Physical Therapy Association, 1156 15th St. N W , Washington, D.C. 20005. Source: American Medical Association 199 specialty is family practice which em phasizes general m edicine. S om e p h y s ic ia n s c o m b in e th e practice of m edicine with research or teaching in medical schools. O thers hold full-tim e research or teaching positions o r perform adm inistrative work in hospitals, professional asso ciations, and oth er organizations. A few are prim arily engaged in writing and editing m edical books and m aga zines. Places of Employment A bout 360,000 physicians were professionally active in the U nited States in 1976—alm ost 9 out of 10 providing patient care services. Nearly 215,000 o f these had office practices; m ore than 94,000 others worked as residents or full-time staff in hospitals. T he rem aining physi cians—ab out 28,000—taught or p er fo rm ed ad m in istrative or research duties. In 1975, 19,000 graduates of for eign m edical schools served as hospi tal residents in this country. To be appointed to approved residencies in U.S. hospitals, these graduates, ex cept in special instances, m ust obtain a certificate after passing an exam i n a tio n given by th e E d u c a tio n a l C o m m issio n fo r F o reig n M edical G raduates. The N ortheastern States have the highest ratio of physicians to popula tion and the Southern States the low est. Because physicians have tended to locate in urban areas, close to hos pital and educational centers, many rural areas have been underserved by m edical personnel. C urrently, m ore m edical students are being exposed to practice in rural com m unities with the d ire c t su p p o rt o f ed u c atio n al centers and hospitals in more popu lous areas. In addition, some rural areas o ffer physicians g u aran teed minimum incom es to offset the rela tively low earnings typical in rural medical practice. Training and Other Qualifications All States, the D istrict of C olum bia, and P uerto Rico require a li cense to practice m edicine. R equire m e n ts fo r l ic e n s u r e in c lu d e Digitized for 200FRASER Competition for entry into medical school is intense even though the number of schools has increased. graduation from an accredited m edi cal school, successful com pletion o f a licensing exam ination, and, in m ost States, a period of 1 o r 2 years in an accredited graduate m edical educa tion program (resid en cy ). The li censing exam ination taken by m ost graduates o f U.S. m edical schools is the National Board of Medical Ex am iners (NBM E) test. Licensure ap p lican ts who have n o t ta k e n th e NBME test m ust be sponsored by a State in order to sit for the F eder a tio n L ic e n s u re E x a m in a tio n (FLEX ) th at is accepted by all juris d ic tio n s. A lth o u g h p h y sician s li censed in one State usually can get a license to practice in another w ithout fu rth e r ex a m in atio n , som e S tates limit this reciprocity. In 1976, there were 116 accredited schools in the United States in which students could begin the study of m edicine. Of these, 114 awarded the d e g r e e o f D o c to r o f M e d ic in e (M .D .); two schools offered a 2-year program in the basic medical scienc es to students who could then trans fer to regular medical schools for the last sem esters of study. The minimum educational require m ent for entry to a medical school is 3 years of college; some schools re quire 4 years. A few medical schools allow selected students who have ex ceptional qualifications to begin their professional study after 2 years of college. M ost students who e n te r m edical schools have a b ach elo r’s degree. R e q u ire d p re m e d ic a l stu d y in a specialty spend from 2 to 4 years— cludes undergraduate work in Eng depending on the specialty—in ad lish, physics, biology, and inorganic vanced residency training, followed an d o rg a n ic ch e m istry . S tu d e n ts by 2 years of practice or m ore in the should take courses in the hum an specialty. Then they must pass the ities, m athem atics, and the social sci specialty board examinations. Some ences to acquire a broad general edu physicians who want to teach or do cation. research take graduate work leading M edicine is a popular field of to a m aster’s or Ph. D. degree in a study, and com petition for entry to field such as biochem istry or m icro m edical school is intense. In 1976, biology. there were about 42,000 applicants M edical training is very costly b e for only 15,613 positions. Alm ost all cause of the long tim e required to o f those accepted had prem edical earn the m edical degree. However, college grades averaging ‘B‘ or bet financial assistance in the form o f te r. O th e r fa c to rs c o n sid e re d by loans and scholarships is available m edical schools in adm itting students primarily from the Federal G overn in clu d e th e ir sco res on th e New m ent, and to a lesser extent from M ed ical C ollege A dm ission T est, State and local governm ent and pri which is taken by alm ost all appli vate sources. Some o f this aid re cants. C onsideration also is given to quires the student to com m it a m ini the app lican t’s character, personal m um o f 2 y e a rs’ tim e to F ederal ity , an d le a d e rs h ip q u a litie s , as service upon graduation and/or to es shown by personal interviews, letters tablish financial need. o f recom m endation, and ex tracu r Persons who wish to becom e phy ricu lar activities in college. Many sicians m ust have a strong desire to State-supported m edical schools give serve the sick and injured. They m ust preference to residents of their par be willing to study a great deal to ticular States and, som etimes, those keep up with the latest advances in m ed ical scien ce. S in cerity and a o f nearby States. M ost m edical students take 4 years pleasant personality are assets that to com plete the curriculum for the help physicians gain the confidence M .D. degree. M any schools, how o f patients. Prospective physicians ever, allow students who have dem should be em otionally stable and onstrated outstanding ability to fol able to m ake decisions in em ergen lo w a s h o r t e n e d c u r r i c u l u m , cies. The majority of newly qualified g en e ra lly lastin g 3 y ears. A few schools offer the M.D. degree within physicians open their own offices or join associate or group practices. 6 years of high school graduation. The first sem esters of medical Those who have com pleted 1 year o f school training are spent primarily in graduate medical education (a 1laboratories and classroom s, learning year residency) and enter active mili basic m edical sciences such as anat tary duty initially serve as captains in omy, biochem istry, physiology, phar- the Army or Air Force or as lieuten am acology, m icrobiology, and p a ants in the Navy. G raduates of m edi thology. Additionally, many schools cal schools are eligible for com m is are integrating some clinical experi sions as senior assistant surgeons ence with patients into the first 2 (e q u iv a le n t to lie u te n a n ts in th e years of study. During the last sem es Navy) in the U.S. Public Health Ser ters, students spend the majority of vice, as well as for Federal Civil Ser their time in hospitals and clinics un vice professional medical positions. der the supervision o f experienced physicians. They learn to take case Employment Outlook histories, perform exam inations, and recognize diseases. The em ploym ent outlook for phy After graduating from medical sicians is expected to be very good school, alm ost all M .D .’s serve a 1- or through the m id-1980’s. However, 2-year residency. Those planning to anticipated increases in the num bers work in general practice often spend o f graduates of existing and develop an additional year in a hospital resi ing U.S. m edical schools, com bined dency. Those seeking certification in with foreign m edical graduate e n trants, point to a greatly improved supply situation. This may result in an increasing m ovem ent of physi cians into rural and other areas that have experienced shortages in the past. Also, some specialties will have sufficient num bers of practitioners by 1980 or 1985 so that new gradu ates will be encouraged to specialize in one o f the primary care areas such as family practice, pediatrics, or in ternal medicine. Growth in population will create m uch o f the need for m ore physi cians, and a larger percentage of the population will be in the age group over 65, which uses m ore physicians’ services. Also, the effective dem and for physicians’ care will increase be cause of greater ability to pay, result ing from extension o f prepaym ent p ro g ram s fo r h o sp italiz atio n and m edical care, including M edicare and M edicaid, and continued Feder al G overnm ent provision of medical ca re fo r m em bers o f the A rm ed Forces, their families, and veterans. M ore physicians will be needed, in a d d itio n , fo r m e d ic a l re s e a rc h , teaching in medical schools, and the continuing growth in the Fields of public health, rehabilitation, indus trial m edicine, and m ental health. To some extent, the rise in the dem and for physicians’ services will be offset by developments that will enable physicians to care for more patients. For example, increasing num bers of medical technicians are assisting physicians; new drugs and new medical techniques are shorten ing illnesses; and growing numbers of physicians are using their time more effectiv ely by engaging in group practice. The extent to which the develop ing health occupations, such as those of physicians’ assistants and nurse practitioners, will enable each physi cian to trea t more patients is still un known. It is possible that these new health personnel will increase physi cians’ productivity significantly. The n et effect of expected growth in requirem ents for physicians and of increases in their num ber and p ro ductivity is likely to be an improved availability of m edical care. New physicians will have little difficulty e sta b lish in g p ra c tic e s , h o w ev er. 201 Even in the unlikely event that some urban areas becom e overserved and need no additional doctors, many re m ote and rural areas are w ithout M .D .’s. If some proposed incentives are im plem ented, physicians may be able to practice in these underserved areas w ith o u t fo rfeitin g access to c o n s u lta tio n w ith sp e c ia lists and w ithout earning an incom e signifi cantly below th at of m ost colleagues located in cities. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries o f m edical school gradu ates serving as residents in hospitals vary according to the type of residen cy, geographic area, and size o f hos p ital, b u t earn in g s o f $12,000 to $13,000 a year are com m on. Many hospitals also provide full or partial room , board, and other m aintenance allowances to their residents. G raduates who have com pleted an approved 3-year residency but have no oth er experience could expect to start working at a V eterans Adminis tration hospital for an annual salary o f betw een $27,000 and $31,500 a year in 1977. In addition, those who work full tim e could expect another $5,500 to $5,800 in o th er cash bene fits or “ special” paym ents. Newly qualified physicians who es tablish their own practice m ust m ake a sizab le fin an c ial in v estm en t to equip a m odern office. During the first year or two of independent p rac tice, physicians probably earn little m ore than the minimum needed to pay expenses. As a rule, however, th eir earnings rise rapidly as their practice develops. Physicians have the highest aver age annual earnings o f any occupa tional group. The net incom e of phy sicians who provided p atient care services averaged alm ost $54,000 in 1976, according to the limited infor mation available. Earnings of physi cians depend on factors such as the region o f the country in which they practice; the p atients’ incom e levels; and the physician’s skill, personality, and professional reputation, as well as the length of experience. Self-em ployed physicians usually earn m ore than those in salaried positions, and 202 specialists usually earn considerably m o re th a n g en e ral p ra c titio n e rs. Many physicians have long working days and irregular hours. Most spe cialists work fewer hours each week than general practitioners. As doc tors grow older, they may ac cep t fewer new patients and tend to work shorter hours. However, many co n tin u e in p ra c tic e well beyond 70 years of age. Sources of Additional Information Persons who wish to practice in a given State should find out about the requirem ents for licensure directly from the board of medical examiners of that State. Inform ation on Federal scholarships and loans is available from the director o f student financial aid at the individual medical schools. For a list of approved medical schools, as well as general inform a tion on prem edical education, finan cial aid, and m edicine as a career, contact: Council on Medical Education, American Medical Association, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago, III. 60610. Association of American Medical Colleges, Suite 200, One Dupont Circle, NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. PH YSIC ISTS (D.O.T. 023.081 and.088) Nature of the Work The flight of astronauts through space, the probing of ocean depths, or even the safety of the family car depend on research by physicists. Through systematic observation and experim entation, physicists describe in m athem atical term s the structure of the universe and interaction o f m atter and energy. Physicists devel op theories that describe the funda m ental forces and laws o f nature. Determ ining such basic laws govern ing phenom ena such as gravity, elec trom agnetism , and nuclear interac tio n l e a d s to d i s c o v e r ie s a n d innovations. For instance, the devel opm ent of irradiation therapy equip m e n t w h ic h d e s t r o y s h a r m f u l growths in humans without damaging o th e r tissues re su lted from w hat physicists know about nuclear radi ation. Physicists have contributed to scientific progress in recent years in areas such as nuclear energy, elec tronics, com m unications, aerospace, and medical instrum entation. The majority of all physicists work in research and developm ent. Some do basic research to increase scientif ic knowledge. For example, they in vestigate the fundam entals of nuclear structure and the forces between nu cleons (n u c le a r dy n am ics). T he equipm ent that physicists design for their basic research can often be ap plied to other areas. For example, lasers (devices that amplify light and em it electrom agnetic waves in a n ar row, intense light beam ) are utilized in surgery; m icrow ave devices are used for ovens; and m easurem ent techniques and instrum ents devel oped by physicists can detect and measure the kind and num ber of cells in blood or the am ount of mercury or lead in foods. Some engineering-oriented physi cists do applied research and help develop new products. For instance, their knowledge of solid-state physics led to the developm ent of transistors and m icrocircuits used in electronic equipm ent that ranges from hearing aids to missile guidance systems. Many physicists teach and do re search in colleges and universities. A small num ber work in inspection, quality control, and other pro d u c tion-related jobs in industry. Some do consulting work. Most physicists specialize in one branch or more of the science—ele m en tary -p article physics; n u clea r physics; atom ic, electron, and m o lecular physics; physics of condensed m atter; optics, acoustics, and plasma physics; and the physics of fluids. Some specialize in a subdivision of one of these branches. For example, w ithin solid-state physics subdivi sions include ceramics, crystallogra phy, and sem iconductors. However, since all physics specialties rest on the same fundam ental principles, a physicist’s work usually overlaps sev eral specialties. Growing numbers of physicists are specializing in fields combining phys ics and a related science—such as Physicist developing a coating for optical fibers. astro p h y sics, biophysics, chem ical physics, and geophysics. F u rth er m ore, the practical applications of phy sicists’ work have increasingly m erged with engineering. three States—California, New Y ork, and M assachusetts. Places of Employment G raduate training in physics or a closely related field is almost essen tial for m ost entry level jobs in phys ics and for advancem ent in all types o f work. The doctorate usually is required for full faculty status at col leges and universities and for indus trial or governm ent jobs adm inister ing r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e lo p m e n t programs. Those having m aster’s degrees qualify for many research jobs in private industry and in the Federal G overnm ent. Some work in colleges and universities, instructing and as sisting in research while studying for their Ph. D. Those having bachelor’s degrees qualify for some applied research and developm ent jobs in private in dustry and in the Federal G overn m ent. Some are em ployed as re se a rc h a ssista n ts in colleges and universities while studying for a d vanced degrees. Many with a bach e lo r’s degree in physics apply th eir physics training prim arily in jobs in e n g in e e rin g an d o th e r s c ie n tific fields. (See statem ents on engineers, geophysicists, program m m ers, and A bout 48,000 people w orked as physicists in 1976. Private industry em ployed nearly one o u t o f three physicists, prim arily in com panies m anufacturing chem icals, electrical equipm ent, and aircraft and missiles. M any o th e rs w orked in hospitals, c o m m e rc ia l la b o ra to rie s , and in dependent research organizations. Nearly one-half o f all physicists taught or did research in colleges and universities; some did both. About 8,000 physicists were em ployed by the Federal G overnm ent in 1976, m ostly in th e D epartm ents o f D e fense and Com m erce. Although physicists are employed in all parts of the country, their em ploym ent is g reatest in areas th at have heavy industrial concentrations and large college and university en rollm ents. Nearly one-fourth of all physicists work in four m etropolitan a re a s—W ashington, D .C .; B oston, Mass.; New York, N.Y.; and Los An geles-Long Beach, Calif., and more than one-third are concentrated in Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement system s analysts elsew here in the Handbook.) Over 800 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in physics. In addition, many engineering schools offer a physics m ajor as part of the general curriculum . The un dergraduate program in physics p ro vides a broad background in the sci ence and serves as a base for later s p e c ia liz a tio n e ith e r in g ra d u a te school o r on the job. Some typical physics courses are m echanics, elec tricity and magnetism, optics, th er m odynam ics, and atom ic and m o lecular physics. Students also take courses in chem istry and re q u ire many courses in m athem atics. About 300 colleges and universi ties offer advanced degrees in phys ics. In graduate school, the student, with faculty guidance, usually works in a specific field. The graduate stu dent, especially the candidate for the Ph. D. degree, spends a large portion of his or her time in research. Students planning a career in phys ics should have an inquisitive mind, m athem atical ability, and im agina tion. They should be able to work on their own, since physicists, particu larly in basic research, often receive only limited supervision. Physicists often begin their careers doing routine laboratory tasks. After some experience, they are assigned m ore com plex tasks and may ad vance to work as project leaders or research directors. Some work in top m anagem ent jobs. Physicists who de velop new products frequently form th eir ow n com panies or join new firms to exploit their own ideas. Employment Outlook Em ploym ent opportunities in physics are expected to be favorable through the m id-1980’s for persons with graduate degrees in physics. Al though em ploym ent of physicists is expected to grow m ore slowly than the average for all occupations over the period, fewer physicists are ex pected to enter the labor force than in the past. The num ber of graduate degrees awarded annually in physics has been declining since 1970, and this tren d is expected to continue through the m id-1980’s. M ost job openings will arise as physicists re 203 tire, die, o r transfer to o th er occupa tions. M any physicists work in research and developm ent (R & D ). The antici pated rapid increase in R&D expen d itu r e s th ro u g h th e m id - 1 9 8 0 ’s should result in increased req u ire m ents for physicists. If actual R& D expenditure levels and patterns were to differ significantly from those as su m ed , ho w ev er, th e o u tlo o k fo r physicists would be altered. Some physicists with advanced d e grees will be needed to teach in col leges and universities, b u t com peti tion for these jobs is expected to be keen. T he num ber o f teaching jobs is expected to decline as th e num ber o f physics degrees aw arded falls over the 1976 to 1985 period. Persons with only a b ach elo r’s de gree in physics are expected to face keen com petition for physicist jobs through the m id-1980’s. Some new graduates will find em ploym ent as engineers o r technicians. O thers will find o p p o rtu n itie s as high school physics teachers after com pleting the required educational courses and ob taining a State teaching certificate. However, they are usually regarded as teachers rath er than as physicists. (See statem en t on secondary school teachers elsew here in the Handbook.) Earnings and Working Conditions Physicists have relatively high sala ries, with average earnings m ore than twice those o f nonsupervisory w ork ers in private industry, except farm ing. Starting salaries for physicists who had a b ach elo r’s degree aver aged ab o u t $12,600 a year in m anu facturing industries in 1976; a m as te r’s degree, $13,600; and a Ph. D., $19,000. D epending on th eir college re c ords, physicists with a b achelor’s d e gree could start in the Federal Gov ernm ent in 1977, at eith er $9,303 or $11,523 a year. Beginning physicists having a m aster’s degree could start at $11,523 o r $14 ,0 97, and those having the Ph. D. degree could begin a t $ 1 7 ,0 5 6 o r $ 2 0 ,4 4 2 . A verage earnings for all physicists in the F ed e ra l G o v e rn m e n t in 1977 w e re $23,850 a year. 204 Starting salaries on college and university faculties for physicists hav ing a m a s t e r ’s d e g re e a v e ra g e d $10,800 in 1976, and for those hav ing the Ph. D., $12,800. (See state m ent on college and university teac h ers e lsew h ere in th e H andbook.) Many faculty physicists supplem ent their regular incom es by working as consultants and taking on special re search projects. Sources of Additional Information G eneral inform ation on career o p p o rtu n itie s in physics is available from: American Institute of Physics, 335 East 45th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. F or inform ation on Federal G ov ernm ent careers, contact: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Exam iners for Washington, D.C., 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. P O D IA TR IS TS (D.O.T. 079.108) Nature of the Work Podiatrists diagnose and treat foot diseases and deform ities. They p e r form surgery, fit corrective devices, and prescribe drugs, physical th e r apy, and p roper shoes. To help in diagnoses, they take X-rays and p e r form o r prescribe blood and o th er pathological tests. Am ong the condi tions podiatrists treat are corns, b u n ions, calluses, ingrown toenails, skin and nail diseases, deform ed toes, and arch disabilities. They refer patients to m edical doctors w henever the feet show symptoms o f m edical disorders affecting other parts o f the body— such as arthritis, diabetes, o r heart disease—while continuing to tre a t for the foot problem . Some podiatrists specialize in foot surgery, orthopedics (bone, m uscle, and jo in t disorders), podopediatrics (children’s foot ailm ents), or podogeriatrics (foot problem s o f the e l derly). H ow ever, m ost provide all types of foot care. Places of Employment A bout 7,500 persons practiced po diatry in 1976, m ost o f them located in large cities. Those who had full tim e salaried positions worked m ain ly in hospitals, podiatric medical col leges, o r for other podiatrists. T he V eterans A dm inistration and public health d epartm ents em ploy p o d ia trists on either a full- or part-tim e basis. O thers serve as commissioned officers in the Arm ed Forces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the D istrict o f C o lum bia require a license for the p rac tice of podiatry. To qualify for a li cense, an applicant m ust graduate from an accredited college o f podia tric m edicine and pass a written and oral State board proficiency exam i nation. F our States—Georgia, M ichi gan, New Jersey, and Rhode Island— also require applicants to serve a 1year residency in a hospital or clinic afte r graduation. T hree-fourth s o f the States grant licenses w ithout fu r th e r exam ination to podiatrists li censed by another State. M inimum entrance requirem ents at the colleges o f podiatric m edicine include 3 years o f college work with courses in English, chemistry, biol ogy or zoology, physics, and m athe m atics. M ost en tra n ts to podiatry schools have com pleted at least 3 years o f college. C om petition for en try to these schools is strong, how ever, and m ost entrants surpass the m inimum requirem ents. M ore than 90 percent o f the entering class of 1976 held at least a bachelor’s de gree, and the average enrollee had an overall grade point average of ‘B‘ or better. All colleges o f podiatric m edi cine require applicants to take the New M edical C ollege A dm issions T est. O f th e 4 y ears in p o d iatry school, th e first 2 are spent in class room in s tru c tio n an d la b o ra to ry w o rk in a n a to m y , b a c te rio lo g y , ch em istry , pathology, physiology, pharm acology, and other basic sci ences. During the final 2 years, stu d e n ts o b ta in c lin ic a l e x p e rie n c e w hile c o n tin u in g th e ir ac a d e m ic studies. T he degree o f D o cto r of P o d ia tr ic M e d ic in e (D .P .M .) is also is expected to spur dem and for podiatric services. M ore podiatrists will be needed to work in hospitals, extended care facilities, and public health programs. Earnings and Working Conditions Newly licensed podiatrists build their practices over a num ber of years. Incom e during the first several years will be less than in later years. T he average incom e o f all p o d ia trists, after expenses but before tax es, was over $42,000 in 1976, ac cording to the lim ited inform ation available. The workweek o f podiatrists is generally 40 hours, and they may set their hours to suit their practice. Sources of Additional Information Inform ation on license re q u ire m ents in a particular State is avail able from that S tate’s board o f exam iners in the State capital. Inform ation on colleges of podia tric m e d ic in e , e n tra n c e re q u ir e ments, curriculum s, and student fi nancial aid is available from: American Association of Colleges of Podiatric Medicine, 20 Chevy Chase Circle, NW., Washington, D.C. 20015. For additional inform ation on po diatry as a career, contact: American Podiatry Association, 20 Chevy Chase Circle, NW., Washington, D.C. 20015. Podiatrists diagnose and treat foot problems. aw arded upon graduation. Addition al education and experience general ly are necessary to practice in a spe cialty. F ed eral, S tate, and private loans are available for needy students to pursue full-time study leading to a degree in podiatric m edicine. Persons planning a career in podia try should have scientific aptitude and m anual dexterity, and like d e tailed work. A good business sense and congeniality also are assets in the profession. M ost newly licensed podiatrists set up their own practices. Some pur chase established practices, or obtain salaried positions to gain the experi ence and m oney need ed to begin their own. PO LIC E OFFICERS Employment Outlook O pportunities for graduates to es tablish new practices, as well as to en ter salaried positions, should be fa vorable through the m id-1980’s. Em ploym ent o f podiatrists is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations as an ex panding population dem ands m ore health services. The growing num ber of older people who need foot care and those who are entitled to certain podiatrists’ services under M edicare, (D.O.T. 375.118 through .868, and 377.868) Nature of the Work The security of our N ation’s cities and tow ns greatly depends on the work o
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