The full text on this page is automatically extracted from the file linked above and may contain errors and inconsistencies.
OCCUPATIONS IN TRANSPORTATION ACTIVITIES Transportation offers a wide range of career opportunities. Jobs in air, rail, highway, and water transpor tation vary from those that require only a grade school education to technical positions that require at least a college degree. Although this field has many kinds of jobs, most employees drive trucks and buses, fly air liners, operate trains and ships, and keep this equipment in good working condition. Some examples of these workers are locomotive engineers, airplane pilots, and truck drivers; and track main tenance workers, aircraft mechanics, and truck mechanics. Employees who provide services for customers, such as flight attendants and reser vation agents, account for most of the remaining transportation jobs. As our economy expands and population grows, demand for freight and passenger service will rise, and more transportation workers will be hired. Employment trends, however, will vary by type of busi ness. Employment in most air and highway transportation jobs will increase, while employment in the merchant marine and many rail road jobs will decline. Even in declining occupations, however, new workers will be hired to re place those who retire, die, or transfer to other fields. The transportation occupations mentioned in this introduction, as well as many more, are described in detail in the sections which fol low. 285 AIR TRANSPORTATION OCCUPATIONS More than 500 thousand work ers helped operate the Nation’s fleet of civilian aircraft in 1972. Some, like pilots, flew on them as crewmembers, while mechanics made sure all equipment operated properly. Others took passenger reservations and sold tickets. Still others, like air traffic controllers, helped safeguard the planes. Air transportation offers excel lent opportunities for young per sons with varied types of skills and training. Working conditions are generally good and the pay is fairly high. Many employees will enjoy traveling and meeting new and interesting people. Through the mid-1980’s, em ployment in air transportation oc cupations as a whole is expected to grow as the number of planes flown increases. In addition to th o se e m p lo y e d b eca u se of this growth, many new employees will be hired to replace those who retire, die, or stop working for other reasons. The individual statements that follow cover pilots and copilots, flight engineers, aircraft mechanics, airline dispatchers, air traffic con trollers, ground radio operators and teletypists, and traffic agents. ordinate flights to prevent accidents and minimize delays in takeoffs and landings. Some regulate air port traffic; others regulate flights between airports. Airport traffic controllers work in a tower near the runway to keep track of planes that are on the ground and in the air nearby. They radio pilots to give them permis sion to taxi, take off, or land. To assure safe conditions, they must consider many factors including weather, and the number, size, and speed of the planes in the area. They also must keep track of posi tions of planes both on the ground and in the air to control several air craft simultaneously. After a plane takes off, airport controllers notify air route control lers to take charge. Route control lers communicate with pilots by radio and use radar and other elec tronic equipment to help keep planes on course. They also warn pilots about nearby planes and other possible hazards. Each route controller is assigned a certain amount of airspace. One, for ex ample, might be responsible for all planes that are 30 to 100 miles north of the airport and flying be tween 6,000 and 18,000 feet. As the flight progresses, one air route con troller after another takes charge until the planes have safely ar rived at their destinations and air port traffic controllers are again in charge. Places of Employment Almost all of the 20,000 air traf fic controllers who worked for the Federal Aviation Administration AIR TRAFFIC CONTROLLERS (D.O.T. 193.168) Nature of the Work Air traffic controllers are the guardians of the airways. They co 286 Traffic controllers identify airplanes by radar. AIR TRANSPORTATION OCCUPATIONS (FAA) in 1972 were men. Almost all worked at major airports and air route traffic control centers lo cated near large cities. A few were assigned to control towers and cen ters outside the United States. trollers is expected to increase rapidly through the mid-1980’s. In addition to jobs that result from growth, many openings will arise as experienced controllers retire, die or transfer to other jobs. As the number of aircraft in creases, the skyways will become Training, Other Qualifications, more congested. To prevent colli and Advancement sions, the FAA has created spaces, Air traffic controller trainees are near certain airports and above cer selected through the competitive tain altitudes which require all Federal Civil Service System. Ap pilots to receive directions from plicants must be less than 31 years air traffic controllers. If, as ex old and must pass a written test pected, the number and size of that measures their ability to learn these spaces are expanded, more and perform controller’s duties. In controllers will be needed despite addition, applicants must have 3 the greater use of new, automated years of progressively responsible control equipment. work experience that demonstrates Under the provisions of a new potential for learning and perform labor contract, controllers may ing air traffic control work, or four now retire with a pension after years of college or a combination working 20 years. Many eligible of both. Applicants must be in ex employees are expected to retire cellent health, have vision correc over the next few years and create table to 20/20, and must be able to an unusually large number of open speak clearly and precisely. ings. However, because the num Successful applicants receive a ber of applicants is large, compe combination of on-the-job and for tition is expected to be severe. mal training to learn the funda mentals of the airway system, Earnings and Working Conditions Federal aviation regulations, con In 1972, experienced air traffic troller equipment, and aircraft performance characteristics. All controllers earned between $14,000 receive intensive training in simu and $19,700 a year. Depending on lators at the FAA Academy in l e n g t h of s e r v i c e , they r e c e i v e 13 Oklahoma City. It usually takes to 26 days of paid vacation and 13 two to three years to become a days of paid sick leave each year, fully-qualified controller. Each l i f e insurance, health benefits, and year controllers must pass a phys a more liberal retirement program ical and twice a year must pass a than other Federal employees. Controllers work a basic 40job performance examination. Controllers can transfer to jobs hour week; however, they may at different locations and advance work additional hours, for which to the job of chief controller. Some they receive overtime pay or equal advance to more responsible man time off. Because control towers agement jobs in air traffic control and centers must be operated 24 and a few to top administrative hours a day, 7 days a week, con trollers are assigned to night shifts jobs in the FAA. on a rotating basis. Air traffic controllers work Employment Outlook under great stress. They must keep Employment of air traffic con track of several planes at the same 287 time and make certain all pilots re ceive correct instructions. Many controllers belong to the Professional Air Traffic Control lers Organization. Sources of Additional Information A pamphlet providing general information about controllers is available from any U.S. Civil Ser vice Commission office. Addresses of these offices are available at all post offices. Inquiries about job opportuni ties should be addressed to the per sonnel department of the nearest FAA regional office. Addresses of regional offices are available from: Personnel Operations Division, Fed eral Aviation Administration, 800 Independence Ave. SW., Washing ton, D.C. 20591. AIRCRAFT M ECHANICS (D.O.T. 621.281) Nature of the Work Aircraft mechanics keep compli cated jet airliners as well as small aircraft in good operating condi tion. These skilled craftsmen per form preventive maintenance and make repairs. They also make in spections required by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Many aircraft mechanics do routine preventive maintenance. They change engine oil, grease wheel bearings, replace sparkplugs, and make other minor adjust ments. Other mechanics specialize in engine work. Periodically, planes are brought to maintenance shops for major repairs and for in spections required by the FAA. Mechanics may take engines apart, check the pieces for wear, and re place bearings or other parts as needed. Some mechanics work on OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 288 Mechanic works on airplane engine. airframes. For example, they may measure the strength of control cables or check for cracks in the fuselage and wings. Still others spe cialize in maintaining aircraft in struments. Aircraft mechanics occasionally make emergency repairs. After ob taining a description of the prob lem from the pilot, they locate and correct the faulty equipment. They must work quickly so that the plane can be placed back in service. Mechanics use many different tools ranging from simple handtools such as screwdrivers and wrenches to power tools such as drills. They also use test equipment to locate flaws in parts, electrical shorts, and other problems. Federal government. Most of the rest worked in small independent repair shops. Most airline mechanics are em ployed in the larger cities on the main airline routes. Each airline usually has one main repair base near a large city for each type of airplane it operates. More than half of the airline mechanics work in New York, Miami, Chicago, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Dallas. Many other mechanics work in small repair shops located at airports throughout the country. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most mechanics learn their trade primarily through informal on-the-job training or through for Places of Employment mal apprenticeship programs. For About 123,000 aircraft mechanics aircraft mechanic trainee or ap were employed in 1972. Over 40 prentice jobs, employers prefer percent were employed by air high school or trade school gradu lines, and about 25 percent worked ates between 20 and 30 years of age in aircraft manufacturing plants. who are in good physical condition About 20 percent worked for the and who have had courses in math ematics, physics, chemistry, and machine shop. Experience in auto mobile repairs or other mechanical work also is helpful. The larger airlines train appren tices in carefully planned 3- or 4year programs of instruction and work experience. People who have aircraft mechanic experience in the Armed Forces usually are given credit towards the completion of apprenticeship. Many small shops do not have apprenticeship pro grams; new employees learn the trade by working with and observ ing experienced mechanics. Other mechanics prepare for the trade by graduating from an FAA approved mechanic school. Most of these schools have an 18- to 24-month program. Aircraft mechanics must be able to do detailed work. Average strength and agility are needed for reaching, and climbing, and lifting parts and tools. To complete inspections re quired by the FAA, a mechanic must be licensed by the FAA as an airframe mechanic, a powerplant mechanic, or both. Airframe me chanics are qualified to work on fuselages, wings and landing gear; powerplant mechanics are quali fied to work on engines. A me chanic licensed for both the air frame and the powerplant can work on any part of the plane. At least 18 months of work ex perience is required for an FAA airframe or powerplant license, and at least 30 months of experi ence working with both engines and airframes is required for an airframe and powerplant license. Applicants also must pass a writ ten test and give a practical dem onstration of their ability to do the work. Applicants who have gradu ated from a mechanic’s school ap proved by the FAA do not need mechanic work experience to take the test for a license. AIR TRANSPORTATION OCCUPATIONS As aircraft mechanics gain ex perience, they can advance to more responsible jobs. The line of ad vancement is usually mechanic, lead mechanic (or crew chief), in spector, chief inspector, shop fore man, and maintenance supervisor. In airline companies, a few ad vance to executive positions. With additional business training, some may open their own repair shops. Employment Outlook The number of aircraft mechan ics is expected to increase very rapidly through the mid-1980’s. In addition to job openings that result from employment growth, many openings will arise as experienced mechanics transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Employment is expected to grow as a result of a substantial increase in the number of aircraft in opera tion. Assuming no continued signifi cant fuel shortage, increases in population, personal income, and business activity will spur the de mand for more airliners and small planes used by businesses and individuals. Opportunities for air craft mechanics in the Federal government will fluctuate with changes in defense spending. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1972, the starting pay for air line mechanics trainees was $4.19 an hour, and could reach $6.55 an hour for experienced mechanics ac cording to union contracts. The hourly rate for experienced me chanics was about three-fourths higher than the average for nonsupervisory workers in all private industries, except farming. As a rule, airline mechanics and their immediate families are en titled to a limited amount of free or reduced fare transportation on their company’s flights. In addi 289 tion, they may fly on other air lines at greatly reduced rates. Mechanics usually receive from 2 to 4 weeks of vacation with pay, depending on their length of ser vice. They also receive paid sick leave, and retirement and medical benefits. Mechanics usually work in hangars or in other indoor areas. However, when repairs must be made quickly, they may work out doors. Mechanics sometimes must stand or lie in awkward positions when making repairs. Work areas are noisy when engines are being tested. Mechanics employed by most major airlines are covered by union agreements. The principal unions in this field are the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers and the Trans port Workers Union of America. Some mechanics are represented by the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Ware housemen and Helpers of America. Sources of Additional Information Information about jobs in a par ticular airline may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. Addresses of air line companies are available from the Air Transport Association of America, 1000 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. For information on jobs in a particular area, contact local em ployers or the local office of the State employment service. AIRLINE DISPATCHERS (D.O.T. 912.168) Nature of the Work and Places of Employment Dispatchers (sometimes called flight superintendents) are em ployed by the airlines to coordi nate airline flight schedules and to make sure that all regulations of the Federal Aviation Administra tion (FAA) and the airline com pany are observed. After checking on weather conditions, the dis patcher makes a preliminary decision as to whether a flight can leave safely and on time. If any change takes place from the sched uled departure time, the dispatcher must arrange for the passengers and crew to be notified. In preparing for the flight, the dispatcher confers with the captain about the quantity of fuel the plane needs, the best route and altitude for its flight, and the alternate air ports that may be used if bad weather prevents landing at the scheduled airport. The dispatcher and the captain must agree on all details of the flight before the plane is allowed to leave the airport. In some instances, the dispatcher also keeps records of matters involving the company, such as the avail ability of aircraft and equipment, the weight of cargo, the amount of time flown by each aircraft, and the number of hours flown by each crew member. In 1972, airlines employed about 800 dispatchers and assistants. Most of them worked at large airports near metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Dispatchers are selected from employees having 5 to 10 years general experience with the com pany. They are required to have an FAA dispatcher certificate. To qualify, an applicant has to work at least a year under the super vision of a certified dispatcher or complete an FAA-approved dis patcher’s course at a school or an airline training center. Applicants who do not have this schooling or OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 290 experience may qualify if they have spent 2 of the previous 3 years in air traffic control work, or in air line jobs such as dispatch clerk, assistant dispatcher, or radio oper ator, or in similar work in military service. Applicants for an FAA dis patcher certificate must pass a written examination on subjects such as Federal aviation regula tions, weather analysis, airnavigation facilities, radio pro cedures, and airport and airway traffic procedures. In an oral test, they also have to demonstrate ability to interpret weather maps and information, and familiarity with airline routes and naviga tional facilities. They must know all operating weight limitations, landing and cruising speeds, and other aircraft characteristics. Licensed dispatchers are checked periodically by their employers to make sure that they maintain the skills required by Federal regula tions and the company. Airlines give qualified dispatchers addi tional training to keep them up to date on new flight procedures and the characteristics of new aircraft. For assistant dispatcher jobs, which may not require certifica tion, airlines seek persons who have at least 2 years of college or who have worked an equivalent amount of time in some phase of air transportation, such as the dis patch clerks in ground operations. Preference is given to college grad uates who have had courses in mathematics, physics, and related subjects. Some experience in flying, meteorology, or business adminis tration also is helpful. Employment Outlook The number of workers in this very small occupation is not ex pected to change much through the mid-1980’s. Most openings for new workers will develop as exper ienced dispatchers and their assist ants retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. The need for some additional dispatchers will result from the in crease in air traffic, the addition and extension of routes, and the extra difficulties in launching jet aircraft. However, these factors will be largely offset by improved communication facilities and re lated computer technology which allow dispatchers at major termi nals to dispatch aircraft at other airports and over large geographic areas. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning dispatchers earned between $1,000 to $1,200 a month in 1972. As a rule, dispatchers and their immediate families are en titled to a limited amount of free transportation or reduced fares on their companies’ flights. In addi tion, they may fly at greatly re duced rates with other airlines. Dis patchers usually receive from 2 to 4 weeks of vacation with pay, de pending on length of service. They also receive paid sick leave, life and health insurance, and retirement benefits. Most dispatchers are represented by the Transport Workers Union of America and the International Association of Machinists and Aero space Workers. Sources of Additional Information Information about job oppor tunities in a particular airline and the qualifications required may be obtained by writing to the person nel manager of the company. Ad dresses of companies are available from: Air Transport Association of America, 1000 Connecticut Ave. NW ., Wash ington, D.C. 20036. FLIGHT ATTENDANTS (D.O.T. 352.878) Nature of the Work and Places of Employment Flight attendants (also called stewardesses and stewards) are aboard almost all commercial passenger planes to help make the passengers’ flights safe, comfort able, and enjoyable. Like other members of the flight crew, they are responsible to the captain. Before each flight, attendants find out how many passengers to expect and how long the trip will take. They then see that the pas senger cabin is in order, that sup plies and emergency equipment are aboard, and that food and bev erages are in the galley. As pas sengers come aboard, flight attend ants greet them, check their tickets, and assist them with their coats and small luggage. In addition, flight attendants use the public address system to in struct passengers in the use of emergency equipment and check to see that all passengers have their seat belts fastened. In the air, they answer questions about the flight and weather, distribute reading matter and pillows, and help care for small children. On many flights, they serve cocktails and precooked meals. Places of Employment About 39,000 flight attendants worked for the airlines in 1972. The vast majority were women, though men now receive equal con sideration for available jobs. Most flight attendants are stationed in major cities at the airlines’ main bases. A few who serve in inter national flights are based in for eign countries. Airlines generally carry 1 to 10 AIR TRANSPORTATION OCCUPATIONS 291 operate schools generally send new employees to the school of another airline. Before enrolling in a pri vate school, young people should check with the airline of their choice to make sure the school’s training is acceptable. After completing their training, flight attendants report for work at one of their airline’s main bases. New flight attendants usually fill in on extra flights or replace flight attendants who are sick or on vacation. Because assignments are based on seniority, experienced flight attendants usually get their choice of flights. Opportunities for advancement are limited; however, some flight attendants may advance to cus tomer service director, instructor, or recruiting representative. Employment Outlook flight attendants, depending on the size of the plane and the propor tion of economy to first-class pas sengers. Large aircraft like the Boeing 747 may have as many as 16 flight attendants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The airlines place great stress on the hiring of poised, tactful, and re sourceful young people. As a rule, applicants must be 19 years old and from 5 feet 2 inches to 6 feet tall, with weight in proportion to height. They must be in excellent health. They also must speak clearly and have good vision. Applicants must be high school graduates. Those having 2 years of college, nurses’ training, or ex perience in dealing with the public are preferred. Flight attendants who work for international airlines generally must be able to speak an appropriate foreign language fluent ly Most l a r g e a i r l i n e s g i v e n e w l y hired flight attendants about 5 weeks’ training in their own schools. Transportation to the training centers and an allowance while in training may be provided. Training includes classes in flight regulations and duties, company operations and policies, emergency procedures and first aid, and per sonal grooming. Additional courses in passport and customs regulations are given trainees for the inter national routes. Towards the end of their training students go on practice flights. The few airlines that do not Employment is expected to grow very rapidly through the mid-1980’s as a result of the need to provide services for more airline passengers. For passenger safety, the Federal Aviation Administration requires one flight attendant for every 50 seats on an airliner. More attendants will be needed as airlines increase the number and size of aircraft in operation. In addition, many openings will occur because of the need to replace experienced flight attendants who retire, die, or trans fer to other occupations. Continued fuel shortages, however, may ad versely affect employment growth. Earnings and Working Conditions An examination of union con tracts covering several large do mestic and international airlines indicates that earnings of beginning flight attendants ranged from $600 to $665 in 1972. Experienced flight attendants earned $875 to $925 a month. 292 Since airlines operate around the clock, 365 days a year, flight at tendants may work at night, on holidays, and on weekends. They usually fly no more than 80 hours a month but they may devote up to 35 hours a month to ground duties. As a result of variations in sched uling and limitations on flying time, some flight attendants may have 15 days or more off each month. Of course, some time off may occur between flights while away from home. Flight attendants may be away from their home bases about one-third of the time or more. When they are away from home, the airlines provide living accommodations and an allowance for expenses. As a rule, flight attendants and their immediate families are en titled to a limited amount of free or reduced-fare transportation on their airline. In addition, they may fly at greatly reduced rates on other airlines. Flight attendants usually receive 2 to 4 weeks’ vaca tion with pay. They also receive paid sick leave, life and health insurance, and retirement benefits. Flight attendants have the op portunity to meet interesting people and see new places. How ever, the work can be strenuous and trying. Flight attendants may stand during much of the flight. They must remain pleasant and ef ficient regardless of how tired they may be. Most flight attendants are mem bers of either the Air Line Stew ards and Stewardesses Association of the Transport Workers Union of America or the Stewards and Stewardesses Division of the Air Line Pilots Association, Interna tional. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK the qualifications required may be Places of Employment obtained by writing to the person About 7,000 flight engineers were nel manager of the company. employed in 1972. The Federal Avi Address of companies are avail able from the Air Transport Asso ation Administration requires flight ciation of America, 1000 Connecti engineers to be on most threecut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. and four-engine aircraft and some two-engine jet aircraft. As a result, 20036. most engineers work for airlines and are stationed in major cities at the airlines’ main bases. FLIGHT ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 621.281) Nature of the Work Flight engineers are members of flight crews who make sure the mechanical and electrical devices aboard airplanes work properly. After attending a general briefing with the pilot and copilot to obtain weather information and other de tails about the flight, they check maintenance records and may check the tires and other outside parts of the plane. If any faulty equipment is located, a mechanic is called to make repairs. From their station in the cockpit, flight engineers assist the pilot and copilot in making preflight checks of instruments and equipment. They make sure each fuel tank has been filled, adjust the electrical power, and check the engine instruments. After take off, flight engineers watch instruments and operate con trols to regulate the performance of the engines, air conditioning, and other equipment. They also keep records of engine performance and fuel consumption. They report any mechanical problems to the pilot, and if possible, make emer gency repairs in flight. At the few airports where there are no me chanics, flight engineers may make Sources of Additional Information minor repairs, and those employed Information about job oppor by smaller airlines may assist in tunities in a particular airline and refueling. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most scheduled airlines now re quire applicants for flight engineers positions to have a commercial pi lot’s license. This license requires skill, training and experience as a pilot. (See the statement on pilots and copilots elsewhere in the Hand book.) Before applicants can fly as crew members, they also must have a flight engineer’s license from the Federal Aviation Administration. They can qualify for a flight engi neer’s license if they have had 3 years of experience in repairing or overhauling aircraft and engines or experience as a pilot or flight engineer in the Armed Forces. In addition, applicants must pass a rigid physical examination and a written test on flight theory and engine operation. They also must pass a flight check of operating pro cedures for the type of plane they will be assigned. Completing a private course of ground and flight instruction which is approved by the Federal Aviation Administra tion is the most common method of qualifying for a license. Airlines generally prefer appli cants who are 21 or 35 years of age, from 5 feet 6 inches to 6 feet 4 inches tall, and in excellent physi cal condition. They must be able to cope with the pressures and respon sibilities that are part of the occu pation, and must be able to work as AIR TRANSPORTATION OCCUPATIONS 293 part of a team. Good eyesight, in cluding normal color vision, is essential. All airlines require a high school education, and they pre fer at least 2 years of college. Although airlines favor appli cants who already have a flight engineer’s license and a commercial pilot’s license, they may train those who have only the pilot’s license. Advancement opportunities usual ly depend on qualifications and seniority provisions established by union contracts. The flight engineer who has pilot qualifications, gen erally called the second officer, ad vances on the basis of seniority to copilot, and then follows the regu lar line of advancement open to other copilots. Flight engineers who do not have pilot qualifications can select more desirable routes and schedules as they gain seniority. As a rule, flight engineers and their immediate families are en titled to a limited amount of free or reduced fare transportation on their company’s flights. In addi tion, they may travel on other airlines at greatly reduced rates. Engineers may be away from their home bases about one-third of the time or more. When they are away from home, the airlines provide living accommodations and an al lowance for expenses. Airlines operate flights at all hours of the day and night, so engineers often have irregular work schedules. Flight engineers usually receive 2 to 4 weeks of vacation with pay. They also receive paid sick leave, life and health insurance, and retire ment benefits. Flight engineers who are qualified pilots (Second Officers) are repre sented by the Air Line Pilots Asso ciation, International. Most others belong to the Flight Engineers’ Inter Employment Outlook national Association or to the Inter national Brotherhood of Teamsters, Employment is expected to in crease rapidly through the mid- Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and 1980’s. In addition, several hun Helpers of America. dred openings will occur each year as experienced flight engineers trans Sources of Additional Information fer to jobs as copilots, retire, or Career information and a list of die. Assuming no significant con schools offering flight engineer train tinued fuel shortages, growth in airline traffic will create a need ing are available from: Flight Engineers’ International Associa for more airplanes and more engi tion, 905 16th St. NW., Washington, neers. D.C. 20006. Earnings and Working Conditions Monthly earnings of beginning flight engineers ranged from $650 to $690 in 1972, according to infor mation from several union contracts. Monthly earnings of experienced flight engineers ranged from $2,000 to $3,000. Earnings depend on size, speed, and type of plane; hours- and miles flown; length of service; and the type of flight (such as night or international). Information about job opportu nities in a particular airline and the qualifications required may be ob tained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. Addresses of airline companies and details on physical and educational qualifica tions for flight engineers may be obtained from: Air Line Pilots Association, International, 1625 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20036. GROUND RADIO OPERA TORS AND TELETYPISTS (D.O.T. 193.282 and 203.588) Nature of the Work Ground radio operators and tele typists transmit weather and flight information between ground station personnel and flight personnel. Radio operators use a radio-telephone to send and receive messages. Opera tors may occasionally make minor repairs on their equipment. Tele typists transmit written messages only between ground personnel. They operate a teletype machine which has a keyboard similar to that of a typewriter. Flight service station specialists employed by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) have jobs similar to those of radio operators and teletypists. They give pilots weather and navigational informa tion during flights, and relay mes sages from air-traffic control facilities. Places of Employment About 5,700 ground radio oper ators and teletypists were employed in air transportation in 1972. Flight service station specialists employed by the FAA made up about twothirds of this total, and airlines employed most of the remainder. The FAA’s specialists work at stations scattered along the major airline routes; some stations are in remote places. Ground radio opera tors and teletypists for airlines work mostly at airports in or near large cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for airline radio oper ator jobs usually must have at least a third-class Federal Communica tions Commission (FCC) radio OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 294 telephone or radio-telegraph oper ator’s permit. However, a secondclass operator’s permit is preferred. They also must be high school grad uates and have a good speaking voice, and a basic knowledge of the language used in weather reports. Teletypists must have training or experience in operating teletype equipment and must be able to type at least 40 words a minute. To qualify for entry positions as FAA flight service station special ists, applicants must pass a written test and meet certain experience requirements. Permanent appoint ments are made on the basis of Federal civil service examinations. Radio operators, teletypists, and FAA flight service station special ists serve probationary periods during which time they receive onthe-job training. Skill gained in communications is helpful experi ence for transferring into higher paying jobs such as airline dis patcher. Employment Outlook Employment in these occupa tions is expected to decrease slowly through the mid-1980’s. Employ ment will be limited by automatic centralized communication systems and improvements in two-way radios that permit direct communication between pilots and air-traffic con trollers. However, each year a few openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupations, re tire or die. Earnings and Working Conditions The beginning salary for airline radio operators ranged from $775 to $1,000 a month in 1972. The be ginning salary for teletypists was $540 a month and ranged up to $815 after 5 years. Beginning FAA flight service station specialists earned from $640 to $790 a month, and experienced specialists earned from $1,170 to $1,390. As a rule, airline radio operators and teletypists and their immediate families are entitled to a limited amount of free or reduced fare transportation on their companies’ flights. In addition, they may fly at greatly reduced rates with other air lines. Radio operators and tele typists usually receive 2 to 4 weeks of vacation with pay, depending on length of service. They also receive paid sick leave, life and health insurance, and retirement benefits. Flight service specialists for the Federal government receive 13 to 26 days of paid vacation and 13 days of sick leave a year, as well as retirement, life insurance, and health benefits. Radio operators and teletypists in a number of airlines are unionized. The major union for these occupa tions is the Communications Work ers of America. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportu nities in a particular airline and the qualifications required may be ob tained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. Addresses of companies are available from the Air Transport Association of Amer ica, 1000 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Inquiries about job opportunities with the FAA should be addressed to the Personnel Officer at FAA regional offices. Addresses of the regional offices are available from: Personnel Operations Division Federal Aviation Administration, 800 Inde pendence Ave. SW., Washington, D.C. 20591. PILOTS AND COPILOTS (D.O.T. 196.168, .228, .268, and .283) Nature of the Work Pilots and copilots are skilled, highly trained professionals who have been carefully selected for their ability to fly safely. They transport passengers and cargo and perform other tasks such as crop dusting and inspecting power lines. The pilot (called captain by the air lines) is in charge of the plane, and supervises all other crew members. The copilot assists the captain in air-to-ground communications, mon itoring flight and engine instruments, and in operating the plane’s controls. Both captain and copilot must do great deal of planning before taking off. They confer with the company weatherman and, in cooperation with the airline dispatcher, choose a route, speed, and altitude that will give a safe, smooth flight. The captain then coordinates the route with air traffic control personnel. Before takeoff, the captain and copilot “preflight” the airplane, checking the engines, controls, in struments, and other components to make sure everything is working properly. During the flight, they radio to ground control stations to report their plane’s altitude, air speed, weather conditions, and other flight details. The captain steers the plane to each point on the flight plan and changes altitude and speed as necessary. The captain and the copilot watch instruments that indi cate the amount of fuel and condi tion of the engines, and provide navigation information. If visibility is poor during the landing approach, they may rely on instruments such as the altimeter, and air speed and course indicators. After parking the plane, they go to the airline of fice and complete flight records required by the company. AIR TRANSPORTATION OCCUPATIONS Some specially trained airline pilots are evaluators. They fly with each pilot at least twice a year to make sure Federal Aviation Ad ministration (FAA) and company regulations are obeyed. Another group teaches pilots and copilots to fly new airplanes. Although pilots employed by businesses usually fly smaller planes than airline pilots, their preflight and flight duties are much alike. These pilots, however, usually are not assisted by flight crews, and may perform minor maintenance and repair work on their planes. Places of Employment About 54,000 civilian pilots and copilots worked full-time in 1972. About 50 percent worked for large airline companies and most were stationed near large cities where major airports are located. Most of the remainder trained student pilots or worked for large corporations that use their own airplanes to trans port company executives. Others performed a variety of services for many different employers through out the country. Some flew air taxis or crop dusting planes. A small number inspected pipelines or pro vided sightseeing trips. Federal, 295 State, and local governments also employed pilots and copilots. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Commercial pilots and copilots must be licensed by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). All must have a commercial airplane pilot’s license, and airline captains also must have an airline trans port pilot’s license. Ail pilots and copilots also must have a rating for the class of plane they can fly (single engine, multi-engine, or seaplane), and for the specific type of planes, such as DC-9 or Boeing 747. In addition, airline pilots and copilots and others who fly in bad weather must have an instrument rating. To qualify for the commercial pilot’s license, applicants must be at least 18 years old and have at least 200 hours of flight experience. For an instrument rating, appli cants must practice instrument fly ing for at least 40 hours. Applicants for an airline transport pilot’s li cense must be at least 23 years old and have a minimum of 1,500 hours of flight time during the previous 8 years, including night and instru ment flying. Before pilots may receive any li cense they must pass a strict physi cal examination and a written test covering subjects such as princi ples of safe flight, navigation tech niques, and FAA regulations. They also must submit proof that they have completed the minimum flight time requirements and, in a prac tical test, demonstrate their ability to fly a plane. The license remains in effect as long as the pilot can pass an annual physical examination and the periodic tests of flying skills required by Government regulation. However, pilots may not fly an air liner after age 60. A young person may learn to fly in the military or in civilian flying schools. Either kind of training satis fies the flight experience requirements for licensing. Graduates of private schools must pass a FAA flight check in a plane of their choice and a writ ten examination on FAA regulations. Applicants who have appropriate military training and experience are required only to pass a written examination and physical examina tion if they apply for a license within a year after leaving the serv ice. Those trained in the armed services have had the added oppor tunity to gain experience on large aircraft similar to airliners. As a rule, applicants for a co pilot job with the airlines must be between 20 and 35 years old. They must be 5 feet 6 inches to 6 feet 4 inches tall and weigh between 140 and 210 pounds. All applicants must be high school graduates; most airlines require 2 years of college and prefer to hire college graduates. Physical requirements for pilots, especially in scheduled airlines, are very high. They must have cor rected vision of 20/20, good hear ing, and no physical handicaps that prevent quick reactions. The air lines use psychological tests to determine an applicant’s ability to make quick decisions and accurate 296 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK judgements under pressure. Applicants hired by the scheduled airline companies usually start as flight engineers, although they may begin as copilots. An applicant for a job with an airline often must have more than the FAA minimum qualifications for a commercial pi lot’s license. For example, airlines generally require 500 to 1,000 hours of flight experience, whereas only 200 hours are needed for the com mercial license. All newly hired airline copilots go through company orientation courses. Trainees receive classroom instruction on subjects such as flight theory, and weather as well as FAA and company regulations. In addition, some airlines give be ginning copilots or flight engineers from 3 to 10 weeks of flight train ing in classrooms and simulators and on company planes before as signing them to a scheduled flight. Beginning copilots generally have limited responsibilities, such as operating the flight controls in good weather over a route that is easy to navigate. As they gain ex perience and skill, they handle pregressively more complex assign ments. Copilots who have enough skill and experience and have passed the test for an airline transport pilot’s license, can ad vance to captain. A minimum of 2 or 3 years’ service is required for promotion but, in actual practice, advancement to captain takes 5 to 10 years or longer. Employment Outlook A very rapid rise in the em ployment of pilots and copilots is expected through the mid-1980’s. In addition to jobs that result from employment growth, several thou sand openings will arise as experi enced pilots and copilots retire, die, or change occupations. Assuming no significant con tinued fuel shortage, growth in airline traffic will create a need for more airplanes and more pilots and copilots to fly them. Employ ment in business flying also is expected to increase as the Nation’s economy expands. Earnings and Working Conditions Pilots and copilots are among the highest wage earners in the Nation. In 1970, those who worked full time averaged $17,206 a year, more than double the average for male workers as a whole. Pilots and copilots for airlines earn more than those employed by business and government. In 1972, a union contract with a major airline in dicated that copilots earned from $17,500 to $40,000 a year, and pilots from $37,000 to $60,000. Earnings depend on factors such as the type, size, and speed of the planes, and the number of hours and miles flown. Airline-captains and copilots who have at least 1 year of service are guaranteed min imum monthly earnings which are about four-fifths as much as the maximum they could possibly earn. Extra pay is given for night and international flights. As a rule, airline pilots and their immediate families are entitled to a limited amount of free or reduced fare transportation on their com panies’ flights. In addition, they may travel at greatly reduced rates with other airlines. Airline pilots may be away from their home bases about one-third of the time or more. When they are away from home, the airlines provide living accom modations and an allowance for expenses. Airlines operate flights at all hours of the day and night so work schedules are often irregular. Under the Federal Aviation Act, airline pilots and copilots cannot fly more than 85 hours a month. Most actual ly fly only about 60 hours a month, but their total duty hours, including layovers before return flights, usual ly exceed 100 hours a month. Pilots and copilots employed by airlines usually receive 2 to 4 weeks of vacation with pay, depending on their length of service. They also receive paid sick leave, life and health insurance, and retirement benefits. Those who work for the Federal Government receive 13 to 26 days of paid vacation and 13 days of paid sick leave a year, as well as life and health insurance, and retirement benefits. Although flying does not involve much physical effort, the pilot often is subject to stress and must be con stantly alert and prepared to make decisions quickly. Most airline pilots are members of the Air Line Pilots Association, International. Those employed by one major airline are members of the Allied Pilots Association. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportu nities in a particular airline and the qualifications required may be ob tained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. Addresses of companies and details about physical and educational require ments for pilots may be obtained from: Air Line Pilots Association, 1625 Mass achusetts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Inquiries about jobs with the Federal Aviation Administration should be addressed to the person nel department at the nearest FAA regional office. Addresses of the regional offices are available from: Personnel Operations Division, Federal Aviation Administration, 800 Indepen dence Ave. SW., Washington, D.C. 20591. AIR TRANSPORTATION OCCUPATIONS TRAFFIC AGENTS AND CLERKS (D.O.T. 912.368, 919.368) Nature of the Work Traffic agents and clerks include ticket or reservation agents and clerks, operations or station agents, and traffic representatives. They sell flight tickets, reserve seats and cargo space, and supervise the load ing of planes. Reservation agents and clerks give customers information on flight schedules and fares over the tele phone. After making a reservation, they report it to a central computer or to clerks in other cities so that the same space will not be sold twice. On the larger airlines, com puters are used to keep track of flight space information so that per sonnel at all reservation offices know immediately if a plane has seats available. Ticket agents sell tickets and fill out ticket forms with informa tion such as the flight number and the passenger’s name and destina tion. They also check and weigh baggage, answer questions about schedules and fares, and keep rec ords of tickets sold. Operations or station agents super vise the loading and unloading of the aircraft and sometimes do this work themselves. They see that the weight carried by the planes is dis tributed properly, prepare a list of cargo, and keep records of the num ber of passengers carried. They also may make arrival and departure announcements. Traffic representa tives contact business customers to promote greater use of their air line’s freight and passenger service. Places of Employment About 60,000 traffic agents and 297 clerks were employed in 1972. Most worked in downtown ticket and reservation offices and at airports in or near large cities, where most airline passenger and cargo busi ness originates. Some are employed in smaller communities served by airlines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because traffic agents and clerks must deal directly with the public, airlines have strict hiring standards with respect to appearance, per sonality, and education. A good speaking voice is essential, because these employees frequently use the telephone or public address sys tems. High school graduation gen erally is required, and some col lege training is preferred. Traffic agents may advance to traffic representative and supervi sor. A few eventually become city and district managers. College courses in transportation, such as traffic management, improve the chances for advancement. Employment Outlook Employment of traffic agents and clerks is expected to increase very rapidly through the mid-1980’s. In addition to the jobs that result from employment growth, many openings will arise as experienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other jobs. Assuming no significant continued fuel shortages, more traffic agents and clerks will be needed because of the increase in passengers and cargo traffic. Although airlines are installing machines to process res ervations, keep records, and per form other routine tasks, machines cannot replace the personal contact that is an important part of a traf fic agent’s or clerk’s job. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning salaries for reservation and ticket agents ranged from $600 to $690 a month in 1972, based on information from union contracts covering several airlines. Beginning salaries for station and operations agents ranged from $625 to $700 a month. Traffic agents and clerks and their immediate families are en titled to a limited amount of free or reduced fare transportation on their company’s flights. In addition, they may fly on other airlines at greatly reduced rates. Traffic agents and clerks usually receive 2 to 4 weeks of vacation with pay. They also receive paid sick leave, health and life insurance, and retirement benefits. Many reservation and transpor tation agents belong to labor unions. Four unions cover most of the orga nized agents: the Air Line Em ployees Association International; the Transport Workers Union of America; the Brotherhood of Rail way and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express and Station Em ployees; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chaffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.) Sources of Additional Information Pamphlets describing the duties of traffic agents and clerks are available from: Air Line Employees Association 5600 S. Central Ave., Chicago, 111. 60638. Information about jobs in a par ticular airline may be obtained by writing to the personnel manager of the company. Addresses of com panies are available from: Air Transport Association of America, 1000 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. MERCHANT MARINE OCCUPATIONS The American merchant marine is a vital link in the Nation’s trans portation system. It transports America’s exports and, in turn, brings imports from the rest of the world. In time of military conflict, it carries troops, arms, and supplies to combat areas. Seafaring employ ment offers a variety of interesting and rewarding careers as well as travel and adventure. About 32,000 officers and seamen worked aboard U.S. oceangoing vessels in late 1972. The work aboard ships is divided among the deck, engine, and steward depart ments. The deck department is re sponsible for navigation, maintenance of the hull and deck equipment, and the supervision of loading, unload ing, and storing of cargo. Personnel in the engine department operate and maintain the machinery that propels the vessel. The steward’s de partment feeds the crew and main tains living and recreation areas. Although employment in mer chant marine occupations is ex pected to decline moderately through the mid-1980’s, some job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or quit the sea for other reasons. Competition for these openings, however, will be severe because the number of people seeking merchant marine jobs is expected to be much greater than the number of openings. Due to higher labor and shipbuild ing costs the U.S. merchant fleet finds it difficult to compete in the world shipping market. To insure that our country has a fleet operat ing in regular or essential trade routes, the Government subsidizes 298 many ships and in 1970 passed a law to subsidize the construction of 30 new ships annually over a 10 year period. The number of ships built, however, is expected to be about the same as the number of older ones taken out of service. Therefore, the size of the U.S. merchant fleet probably will not grow, and because newer ships are larger and faster and can be operated with smaller crews, fewer officers and seamen will be needed. MERCHANT MARINE OFFICERS Nature of the Work In command of every ocean going vessel is the captain (D.O.T. 197.168) or master who is the shipowner’s sole representative. He has complete authority and responsibility for ship operation, including discipline and order, and the safety of the crew, passengers, cargo, and vessel. While in port, the captain may serve as the shipowner’s agent in conferring with custom officials, and in some cases, act as paymaster for the ship. Although not technically a member of a specific department, he generally is associated with the deck department, from whose ranks he has been promoted. Deck Department. Deck officers or “ mates” as they are traditionally called direct the navigation of the ship and the maintenance of the deck and hull. They maintain the authorized speed and course; plot the vessel’s position at frequent in tervals; post lookouts when re quired; record information in the “log” of the voyage; and immediate ly notify the captain of any unusual occurences. Deck officers must be familiar with modern navigational devices, such as sonar and radio directional finders, to operate ships safely and efficiently. The chief mate (D.O.T. 197.133), also known as the first mate or chief officer, is the captain’s key assistant in assigning duties to the deck crew and maintaining order and discip line. He also plans and supervises the loading and unloading of cargo, and assists the captain in taking the ship in and out of port. On some ships the chief mate also may be in charge of first aid treatment. By tradition, the second mate (D.O.T. 197.133) is the navigation officer. He sees that the ship is pro vided with the necessary navigation charts and that navigating equip ment is maintained properly. The third mate (D.O.T. 197.133), the most junior-rated deck officer, is responsible for the care and the maintenance of the navigating bridge and the chartroom. He acts as the signal officer and is in charge of all signaling equipment. He also assists in the supervision of cargo loading and unloading. The third mate fre quently inspects lifesaving equip ment to be sure it is ready for use in fire, shipwreck, or other emer gencies. Engine Department. Marine en gineers operate and maintain all engines and machinery aboard ship. The chief engineer (D.O.T. 197.130) supervises the engine department, and is responsible for the efficient operation of engines and other me chanical equipment. He oversees the operation of the main power plant and auxiliary equipment while the vessel is underway and keeps record of equipment performance and fuel consumption. The first assistant engineer 299 MERCHANT MARINE OCCUPATIONS periodically receives and records time signals, weather reports, posi tion reports, and other information. The radio officer also may maintain depth recording equipment and elec tronic navigation equipment. Some freighters and all passenger vessels carry pursers (D.O.T. 197. 168). The purser or staff officer does the extensive paperwork re quired to enter and clear a ship in each port, prepares payrolls, and assists passengers as required. In recent years, the Staff Officers Asso ciation has established a program to train pursers to act also as phar macists’ mates. This instruction is designed to improve the medical care aboard freighters and tankers and facilitate Public Health clear ance when a ship arrives in port. All passenger ships must carry li censed doctors and nurses. Places of Employment Chief mate directs speed and course of cargo ship. (D .O .T . room 1 9 7 .1 3 0 ) p erson n el s u p e r v is e s and e n g in e d ir e c ts opera t io n s su c h a s s ta r tin g , s t o p p in g , a n d c o n t r o llin g e n g in e s . th e sp eed w ith g in e e r , of oversees lu b r ic a tio n g en era to rs, and th e He of and th e d ir e c ts a id a ll th e and e n g in e s , o th e r of p u m p s, m a c h in e r y , th e ty p e s m a in in s p e c t s c h ie f en o f r e p a ir s . The second assistant engineer (D.O.T. 197.130) has charge of the boiler and associated equipment such as the water-feed system and pumps. He makes sure proper steam pressure and oil and water tempera tures are maintained. He also super vises the cleaning of boilers. The th ird assistan t engineer (D.O.T. 197.130) supervises the operation and maintenance of the lubrication system and a variety of other engineroom equipment. Some third assistant engineers are respon sible for the electrical and refrigera tion systems aboard ships. Other officers. A ship keeps con tact with the shore and other vessels through its radio officer (D.O.T. 193.282), who also maintains radio equipment. A passenger ship carries three to six radio officers; the average cargo vessel employs one. The officer sends and receives mes sages by voice or Morse code. He Nearly 8,500 officers were em ployed aboard U.S. oceangoing ves sels in late 1972. Deck officers and engineering officers accounted for more than four-fifths of the total, and radio officers made up most of the remainder. About 65 percent of the officers were aboard freighters and 32 per cent were aboard tankers. The re maining 3 percent manned passenger vessels. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement People applying for an officer’s license in the deck and engineering departments of oceangoing vessels must meet certain legal require ments. Captains, chief and second mates, and chief and first assistant engineers must be at least 21 years old. The minimum age for third mates, third assistant engineers, and radio operators is 19. In addi tion, applicants must present proof 300 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK of U.S. citizenship and obtain a five State merchant marine acad U.S. Public Health Service certifi emies: California Maritime Acad cate attesting to their vision, color emy, Vallejo, Calif.; Maine Maritime perception, and general physical Academy, Castine, Maine; Massa condition. chusetts Maritime Academy, HyanIn addition to legal and medical nis, Mass.; Texas Maritime Academy, requirements, candidates must also Galveston, Tex.; and New York have at least 3 years of appropriate Maritime College, Fort Schuyler, sea experience or be a graduate of New York, N.Y. About 550 stu an approved training program. Deck dents graduate each year from these officer candidates must pass Coast schools; about one-half are trained Guard examinations that require as deck officers and one-half as extensive knowledge of seamanship, marine engineers. Entrance require navigation, cargo handling, and ments are very high. Admission to deck department operations. Marine the Federal academy is through engineering officer candidates must nomination by a member of Con demonstrate in-depth knowledge of gress, whereas entrance to the other propulsion systems, electricity, plumb academies is made through written ing and steam fitting, metal shaping application directly to the school. and assembly, and ship structure. Most of the academies offer 3To advance to higher ratings, of or 4-year courses in nautical science ficers must pass progressively more or marine engineering, as well as difficult examinations. practical experience at sea. Subjects For a Coast Guard license as a include navigation, mathematics, radio officer, applicants must have electronics, seamanship, propulsion a first or second-class radiotele systems, electrical engineering, lan graph operator’s license issued by guages, history, and shipping manthe Federal Communications Com aagement. After Coast Guard mission. For a license to serve as examinations are passed, licenses the sole radio operator aboard a are issued for either third mate or cargo vessel, the Coast Guard also third assistant engineer. In addition, requires 6 months of radio experi graduates may receive commissions ence at sea. as ensigns in the U.S. Naval Reserve. Unlike most professions, no edu Because of their thorough ground cation requirements have been es ing in theory and its • practical tablished for officers. A seaman application, academy graduates are with 3 year’s experience in the deck in the best position to move up to or engine department may apply for master and chief engineer ratings. either a third mate’s license or for Their well-rounded education also a third assistant engineer’s license. helps qualify them for shoreside However, because of the complex jobs such as marine superintendent, machinery, navigational, and elec operating manager, or shipping tronic equipment on modern ships, executive. formal training usually is needed A number of trade unions in the to pass the Coast Guard’s examina maritime industry provide officer tion for these licenses. training. These unions include the The fastest and surest way to be International Organization of Mas come a well-trained officer is ters, Mates and Pilots; the Seafarers’ through an established training pro International Union; the Brother gram. Such programs are available hood of Marine Officers; and the at the U.S. Merchant Marine Acad National Marine Engineers’ Bene emy at Kings Point, N.Y. and at ficial Association. Most union pro grams are designed to upgrade experienced seamen to officer rat ings, although some programs accept inexperienced young men. For ex ample, the National Marine En gineers’ Beneficial Association (MEBA) operates the Calhoon MEBA Engineering School in Balti more, Md., which offers high school graduates a 3-year apprenticeship training program in preparation for a third assistant engineer’s license. The program consists of both class room instruction and sea experience and provides free room, board, medical care, and text books in ad dition to a monthly grant. Trainees must agree to serve at least 3 years in the U.S. Merchant Marine after the 3-year training period. The U.S. Merchant Marine Academy now selects 10 percent of the approximately 300 men who enter the academy each year to be trained as “omnicompetent” of ficers. They are taught both naviga tional and technical skills so they can work in either the deck or engine department. Advancement for deck and en gine officer's is along well-defined lines and depends primarily upon specified sea experience, passing a Coast Guard examination, and lead ership ability. Deck officers start as third mates. After 1 year’s service they are eligible to take a second mate examination. A second mate may apply for a chief mate’s license after 1 year of service, and a chief mate may apply for a cap tain’s license after 1 year of service. An officer in the engine department starts as third assistant engineer. After 1 year of service, he may apply for a second assistant’s license and finally a chief engineer’s license. Employment Outlook Employment of ship’s officers is expected to decline moderately MERCHANT MARINE OCCUPATIONS through the mid-1980’s. Some job openings will arise each year, how ever, due to the need to replace experienced officers who retire, die, or take shoreside employment. The number of ships in our mer chant fleet is not expected to in crease in the years ahead (See introduction on merchant marine occupations). Older vessels will be replaced by larger, mechanized ships equipped with the latest laborsaving innovations. A central con sole in the newest ships, for example, controls engines, boilers, and related propulsion equipment, so the need for officers in charge of such equip ment is reduced. 371/2 percent of their monthly rate of pay. Those who have 25 years of service are eligible for $425 a month or 50 percent of their monthly rate. Officers forced to retire pre maturely due to a permanent dis ability receive partial pensions. Comprehensive medical care and hospitalization are provided for officers and their families through union programs. The workweek aboard ship is considerably different from the workweek on shore. At sea, most officers are required to stand watch. Watchstanders work 7 days a week. Generally, they work two 4-hour watches (shifts) during every 24hour period and have 8 hours off Earnings and Working Conditions between each watch. Some officers are day workers. They work 8 hours Earnings of officers depend upon a day, Monday through Friday. their rank and the type of ship. Both watchstanders and day work Wages are highest on large ships. ers are paid overtime for work over The accompanying tabulation shows 40 hours a week. When the ship is monthly base wages for officers in port, the basic workweek is 40 aboard an average freighter in 1972. hours for all crew members. Additional payments for overtime The duties aboard ship are haz and assuming extra responsibilities ardous compared to other industries. generally average about 50 percent At sea, there is always the possibility of base pay. For example, a second of injuries from falls or the danger mate with a monthly base pay of of fire, collision, or sinking. $955 may regularly earn about A number of labor organizations $1,433 each month. represent merchant marine officers. The two largest are the Inter B a se p a y l national Organization of Masters, C aptain.................................. $2,443 First m a te ..................... 1,347 Mates and Pilots representing deck Second m a te ................ 955 officers and the National Marine Third m a t e ................... 858 Engineers’ Beneficial Association Radio officer ........................ 1,056 representing engineering officers. P urser........................... 772 The Brotherhood of Marine Of Chief engineer ...................... 2,253 First assistant engineer . . . . 1,347 ficers represents deck and engine Second assistant engineer .. 955 officers on some ships. The Staff Third assistant engineer . . . 858 Officers Association represents pur 1 East Coast wages in June 1972 aboard a sers aboard certain freighters. Radio 12,000-17,000 power ton single screw ship. officers are represented by the Officers and their dependents en American Radio Association and joy substantial pension and welfare the Radio Officers Union. In addi benefits. Vacations range from 90 tion, a number of independent to 180 days a year. Officers with unions organize officers on tankers. 20 years of service have the option Officer’s unions may require initia of a monthly pension of $325 or tion fees as high as $1,000. 301 Sources of Additional Information General information about mer chant marine officer’s jobs may be obtained from: Office of Maritime Manpower, Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. 20235. Information about job openings, qualifications for employment, wage scales and other particulars can be obtained from local maritime of ficers’ unions. If no maritime union is listed in the local telephone directory, information may be ob tained from: International Organization of Masters, Mates and Pilots, 39 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10006. National Marine Engineers’ Beneficial Association, 17 Battery Place, New York, N.Y. 10004. MERCHANT SEAMEN Seamen make up most of a ship’s crew and do most of the manual labor. Employment is along craft lines with varying skill levels. Each worker is assigned to one of the following departments: deck, en gine, and steward’s. DECK DEPARTMENT. Ordi nary Seamen (D.O.T. 911.887), the entry rating in the deck department, scrub decks, coil and splice ropes, paint, clean personnel quarters, and do other general maintenance work. Ordinary seamen also may relieve able seamen who steer the ship and act as lookouts. All freighters and tankers customarily employ three ordinary seamen. Able Seamen (D.O.T. 911.884) represent about one-fifth of all sea men. They must have a thorough knowledge of all parts of the ship and be able to handle all gear and deck equipment. They act as helms 302 men or quartermasters to steer the ship. Usually, they each take 2-hour turns at the wheel, and as lookouts report sightings to deck officers. Freighters and tankers usually have six able seamen. Able seamen also are responsible for rigging, repairing, and stowing cargo-handling and other gear. They must be able to tie common knots and handle mooring lines when the ship is docking or depart ing. In addition to their more skilled tasks, they do general deck maintenance work similar to that done by ordinary seamen. Because of the ever-present dan ger of fire at sea, able seamen must be familiar with fire preven tion and control methods. They participate in periodic boat drills and are trained in all operations connected with launching lifeboats and life rafts. The boatswain (D.O.T. 911.131), or bosun, is the highest ranking able seaman. As foreman in charge of the deck crew he relays the deck officers’ orders and sees that these orders are carried out. The boat swain assists the chief mate in assigning work to crew members and directs general maintenance operations such as cleaning decks and polishing metalwork. When the ship docks or anchors, he super vises the deck crew in handling the lines used for mooring. Most cargo vessels carry one to three deck utilitymen (D.O.T. 911. 884), who maintain the deck depart ment under the supervision of the boatswain. They determine the con dition of bilges (compartments in the bottom of the hull) and do gen eral maintenance work. Some vessels carry a ship’s car penter (D.O.T. 860.281) who se cures cargo hatches and ports, and braces (shores) cargo. He may oper ate winches that hoist and drop the anchor and seal the hawsepipes OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK (steel pipes through which anchor chains pass) when anchor and chains are not in use. Because of mechani zation, newer ships are sailing with fewer carpenters and deck utilitymen. ENGINE DEPARTMENT. The engineering staff consists of a variety of occupational specialties requiring varying degrees of skill from the entry rating of wiper to specialized skilled jobs such as reefer engineer. Wipers (D.O.T. 699.887) keep the engine room and machinery clean. Most cargo vessels carry two or three wipers. Oilers (D.O.T. 911. 884) lubricate mechanical equip ment. They make regular rounds of ship machinery to check oil pressures and flow. Oilers also may help overhaul and repair machinery. Firemen/watertenders (D.O.T. 951. 885) check and regulate the amount of water in the boilers, inspect gauges, and regulate fuel flow to keep steam pressure constant. They also check the operation of evapora tors and condensers and test water for salt control; clean oil burning equipment; and clean strainers used to Filter dirt from oil. The ships’ electrician (D.O.T. 825.281) repairs and maintains elec trical equipment, such as generators and motors. He tests wiring for short circuits and removes and re places fuses and defective lights. Many vessels have two electricians. Automated ships carry deckengine mechanics who replace the oilers, Firemen/watertenders, and electricians on conventional vessels. Certain types of ships require workers who have special skills, such as refrigeration engineers (D.O.T. 950.782) who maintain proper temperatures in refrigerator compartments for perishable car goes such as meat and vegetables. STEW ARD ’S DEPARTMENT. The chief steward (D.O.T. 350.138) supervises the preparation and serv ing of meals and the upkeep of liv ing quarters aboard ship. The chief cook (D.O.T. 315.131) and assistant cooks prepare meals. The chief cook also supervises the other galley (ship’s kitchen) workers and is responsible for keeping the galley clean and orderly. Utilitymen (D.O.T. 318.887) and messmen (D.O.T. 350.878) complete the crew in the steward’s department. These beginning jobs require little skill. Utilitymen carry food supplies from the storeroom and iceboxes, pre pare vegetables, wash cooking uten sils and scour galley equipment. Messmen set tables, serve meals, clean tables, wash dishes, and care for living quarters. Places of Employment About 23,500 seamen were em ployed aboard U.S. oceangoing ves sels in late 1972. Nearly 64 percent were aboard freighters, and about 32 percent were aboard tankers. The remaining 4 percent manned passenger ships. MERCHANT MARINE OCCUPATIONS Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although not required, previous sea experience in the Coast Guard or Navy is a good background for entering the merchant marine. Ap plicants must have health certifi cates. In addition, they must obtain seaman’s papers from the U.S. Coast Guard. Seaman’s papers, however, do not guarantee a job. They merely qualify a person to be considered for a job when the sup ply of regular workers has been exhausted. To get a job, a person must be present at the hiring hall when the opening becomes avail able. In good shipping times, an opening may come within a week; in less prosperous times it may take much longer. Hiring halls are located in the chief ports of the country. They are operated by unions for commercial vessels and by the Navy’s Military Sealift Command (MSC) for gov ernment operated ships. In most ports along the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts and Great Lakes, the Na tional Maritime Union or Sea farers’ International Union operate hiring halls. The Sailors Union of the Pacific operates hiring halls in many ports of the West Coast. MSC employment offices are lo cated at Brooklyn, N.Y.; New Orleans, La.; and Oakland, Calif. The jobseeker is given a shipping card when he registers at the hiring hall. The shipping companies send job orders to the hiring hall, and the seaman who has been unem ployed the longest gets first prefer ence on any job for which he is qualified. The applicant must be present at the hall when the job is announced and he may lose his place if he is not present, or has turned down three job offers. A seaman advances in the deck and engine departments by serving a designated period in a rating, and 303 by successfully completing a Coast Guard examination that tests the seaman’s ability to use and main tain the equipment in his depart ment. For example, after serving a minimum of 1 year, an ordinary seaman may apply to the Coast Guard for limited endorsement as an able seaman. For full endorse ment, the applicant must be 19 years of age and pass an examination to test his knowledge of seamanship and ability to carry out all the duties required of an able seaman. Seamen who have the ability to supervise may advance to boatswain after years of service. Advancement to higher positions in the steward’s department is by recommendation of the chief stew ard to the captain. A messman or utilityman can advance to third cook, to cook/baker, to chief cook, and finally to chief steward. Most training programs in the in dustry are designed to help experi enced workers upgrade their ratings. However, the Seafarers’ Interna tional Union of North America operates the Harry Lundeberg School for seamanship at Piney Point, Md. that accepts and trains in general seamanship skills a limited number of young people who have no sea experience. Up grading courses for seamen are offered by the Seafarers’ Union; the National Maritime Union of America, and a number of other organizations. Employment Outlook Employment of seamen is ex pected to decline moderately through the mid-1980’s. Some job openings, however, will arise each year due to the need to replace experienced seamen who retire, die, or quit the sea for other reasons. The number of ships in our mer chant fleet is not expected to in crease in the years ahead (see introduction on merchant marine occupations). Older vessels will be replaced by larger ships equipped with features that reduce manpower requirements. The size of the deck crew, for example, is being reduced by technological improvements such as automatic tension mooring winches that assist in docking and undocking. Earnings and Working Conditions Crew members of American mer chant ships enjoy excellent pay and fringe benefits. Earnings depend on job assignments and type of vessel. Basic monthly pay for a cross sec tion of ratings on a typical freighter in 1972 is shown in the accompany ing tabulation: B ase p a y 1 Able seam an................................... $528 Ordinary seam an ............................... 413 Deck utilitym an............................ 590 C arpenter....................................... 639 Electrician ..................................... 817 Oiler ..................................................... 528 Fireman/watertender ....................... 528 Wiper ................................................... 491 Chief stew ard................................. 694 C oo k /b a k er........................................ 601 M essman/utilityman......................... 410 ' East Coast wages in June 1972 aboard a 12,000—17,000 power ton single screw ship. Monthly wages are supplemented by premium pay for overtime and other factors. On the average, pre mium earnings are equal to about 50 percent base wages. For example, an oiler with a monthly base pay of $528 regularly earns about $792 each month. Liberal employer-financed fringe benefits are provided. Vacations range from 90 to 180 days a year. Seamen may retire on pensions after 20 years of service. Seamen and their dependents are covered by comprehensive medical care and hospitalization programs. The workweek aboard ship is con siderably different from the work 304 week on shore. At sea, most seamen are required to stand watch. Watchstanders work 7 days a week. Generally, they work two 4-hour watches (shifts) during every 24hour period and have 8 hours off between each watch. Some seamen are day workers. They work 8 hours a day, Monday through Friday. Both watchstanders and day work ers are paid overtime for work over 40 hours a week. When the ship is in port, the basic workweek is 40 hours for all crew members. The duties aboard ship are haz ardous compared to other indus tries. At sea, there is always the possibility of injuries from falls or the danger of Fire, collision, or sinking. A person working in the engine OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK room must be able to withstand high temperatures. A deckworker must adapt to both the bitter cold and hot sun. Accommodations for seamen aboard U.S. vessels are generally good, but not luxurious. Meals are served in a mess hall, which often doubles as a recreation room where the crew can read, write letters, play cards, and socialize. Crewmen generally share quarters aboard older ships and have little privacy, but most new ships have single rooms. Seamen are represented by a number of labor organizations; the two largest are the National Mari time Union of America and the Seafarers’ International Union of North America. Sources of Additional Information General information about mer chant seamen jobs may be obtained from: Office of Maritime Manpower, Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. 20235. Information about job openings, qualifications for employment, wage scales and other particulars can be obtained from local mari time unions. If no maritime union is listed in the local telephone directory, information may be ob tained from: National Maritime Union of America, 36 Seventh Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10011. Seafarers’ International Union of North America, 675 Fourth Avenue, Brook lyn, N.Y . 11232. BRAKEMEN (D.O.T. 910.364 and .884) Nature of the Work RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS People, food, and industrial materials all move along the more than 200,000 miles of railroad tracks that crisscross the Nation; and the railroads, in 1972, provided jobs for about 575,000 people. Rail road jobs are found in all States ex cept Hawaii; the greatest number is at terminal points where the rail roads maintain control offices, freight yards, and maintenance and repair shops. Chicago, the hub of the Nation’s railroad system, has more railroad wokers than any other area. Large numbers of workers also are employed in New York, Los Angeles, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Cleveland, and St. Louis. Although railroads vary greatly in size from the large, well known roads to small terminal and switch ing companies, most are organized in the same way. They usually have three major divisions in both freight and passenger operations—transpor tation, maintenance and repair, and administration. In the transportation area are three groups of employees—operat ing workers, passenger attendants, and communications and some of fice workers. In 1972, about onefourth of railroad workers were oper ating employees, such as locomotive engineers, conductors, and brakemen. Communications and office workers, including station agents and telegraphers, towermen, and telephonemen, coordinate the move ment and direction of trains. They make up another fourth of all rail road workers. Railroads employed only a small number of porters, din ing car waiters, and other passenger service attendants. Equipment maintenance special ists, such as machinists, electrical workers, sheet-metal workers, car men, boilermakers and blacksmiths, repair locomotives and cars. Rightof-way maintenance employees build and repair tracks, signals, bridges, and other structures. To gether these maintenance workers accounted for more than one-third of railroad jobs. The remaining workers were in the administrative division. These professional and clerical people, in cluding clerks, accountants, and statisticians, handle ticket sales, freight receipts, personnel records, and other company records in sta tions and offices. Discussions of the work, training, outlook, and earnings for most ma jor occupations in railroads are pre sented in the statements that follow. Information on employment also is available in the statement on the rail road industry elsewhere in the Hand book. Details about specific jobs may be obtained from local railroad offices, and general information on the industry can be obtained from the Association of American Rail roads, American Railroads Build ing, 1920 L St. NW., Washington, D.C.20036. Brakemen work on passenger and freight trains and in railroad yards. Each train crew includes one brakeman stationed in the rear of the train who displays warning lights and signals to protect it while mov ing or stopped. For safety, all pas senger and many freight trains carry at the front of the train another brakeman, who sets out signals to protect the front at unexpected stops. Before departure, brakemen make sure that brake equipment is functioning properly and that tools, flares, and lanterns are in place. While under way, they regularly look for smoke, sparks, and other signs of sticking brakes, overheated axle bearings, and other faulty equip ment. They may couple and uncou ple cars and air hoses and help switch cars at sidings. In passenger service, brakemen (also known as trainmen) regulate car lighting and temperature; they may help the con ductor by collecting tickets and as sisting passengers. Yard brakemen (also known as switchmen or helpers) help assemble and disassem ble trains by throwing switches, cou pling and uncoupling cars, and oper ating car handbrakes. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Beginning brakemen make sever al trips with an experienced brakeman or conductor to become familiar with the job duties. New brakemen are then put on the extra board and given assignments to sub stitute for workers who are absent for vacations, illness, or other rea sons. Usually they work a year or so before they learn the job thorough305 306 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ly, and several more years before they gain enough seniority to get a regular assignment. Employers prefer applicants who are high school graduates or the equivalent. Good eyesight and hear ing are essential. Physical stamina is necessary for the standing, walking, climbing, and exposure to all kinds of weather. Mechanical aptitude is helpful. With sufficient seniority, brakemen may become conductors. These jobs are always filled by promoting experienced brakemen who have qualified by passing written and oral tests on signals, brake systems, time tables, operating rules, and other subjects. Since promotions are con trolled by seniority rules, brakemen may wait 10 years or more to be come conductors. Advancement is limited by the number of conductor jobs, and this number has been de clining for many years. Some brakemen in freight service may move to passenger service, usually considered more desirable because it is less strenuous. Some brakemen take positions as baggage men, who tend baggage cars on pas senger trains. Employment Outlook Employment of brakemen—who numbered nearly 73,000 in 1972—is expected to decline slowly through the mid-1980’s. Some opportunities for new workers, however, will de velop as experienced brakemen re tire, die, advance to jobs as conduc tors, or transfer to other work. Employment will continue to de cline along with overall railroad em ployment. Employment will also be affected by increasing mechaniza tion, as in automatic switches and automatic car identification systems using special labels that are read by wayside scanners. Changes in the size of train crews, eliminating one brakeman where there are now two, may further reduce job opportuni ties. The employment decline, how ever, may be less than antici pated if fuel shortages continue. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1972, brakemen had average monthly earnings of $940 in yard service, $1,190 in freight road ser vice, and $1,190 in passenger road service. These earnings were about twice as much as the average for nonsupervisory workers in all private in dustries, except farming. Brakemen usually work a 40-hour week, and receive premium pay for overtime. They often work nights, weekends, and holidays. Brakemen assigned to extra board work have less steady work, more irregular hours, and lower earnings than brakemen with regular assignments. Yard and freight service brakemen face greater accident risks than most other railroad workers. Most brakemen are members of the United Transportation Union. BRIDGE AND BUILDING WORKERS Nature of the Work Bridge and building workers con struct and repair the tunnels, bridges, stations, shops, and other structures owned by the railroads. Included are carpenters, masons, bricklayers, plasterers, plumbers, painters, and ironworkers. (Details about the na ture of work for these craftsmen can be found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement New employees usually begin as helpers. As openings occur in skilled jobs, qualified helpers who have the necessary seniority are promoted. Skilled bridge and build ing workers may advance to fore men, inspectors, or bridge and building supervisors. Employment Outlook Employment of bridge and build ing workers—who numbered about 10,500 in 1972—is expected to de crease slowly through the mid1980’s because of the continued decline in railroad employment. Additionally, productivity of work ers will increase through the use of improved building materials that need less maintenance and of power tools and other laborsaving equip ment. A small number of job open ings will arise each year for new workers to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1972, railroad carpenters in bridge and building work averaged $4.50 an hour. Masons, bricklayers, plasterers, and plumbers averaged $4.75; iron-workers, $4.82; painters, $4.52; helpers, $4.14; and foremen, $5.02 an hour. Bridge and building workers work a 5-day, 40 hour week and receive premium pay for overtime. When they are on jobs away from home, they usually live in camp cars supplied by the railroads. Most of these jobs are active and strenuous and involve stooping, climbing, and lifting. On most railroads, the Brother hood of Maintenance of Way Em ployees represents bridge and build ing workers. 307 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS CLERKS Nature of the Work Railroad clerks handle paper work to keep track of the company’s cars and business with shippers and the traveling public. Clerks work in railroad stations, freight houses, yards, terminals, and company offices and make up the largest single group of railroad employees. Most railroad clerks handle busi ness transactions, such as collecting bills, adjusting claims, and tracing shipments. They use computers and other business machines in much of this work. In small offices and sta tions, a clerk may have many duties, but in large offices they tend to specialize in a few. Other clerks are secretaries, ste nographers, typists, and operators of calculating, bookkeeping, and other office machines. Their work is similar to the same occupations in other industries. (Information about these clerical occupations may be found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Railroad clerks in higher grade jobs do more responsible or techni cal work. Some prepare statistics on employment, traffic, and other matters relating to railroad opera tions. Cashiers deal with customers on matters such as uncollected freight bills. Still others account for their company’s use of jointlyowned terminals and other facilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most railroads require applicants for clerical jobs to have a high school education. They sometimes give clerical aptitude tests. Appli cants who have training or experi ence in working with figures are preferred. In some clerical positions —yard clerk for instance—begin ners may be assigned to extra board work until regular assign ments become available. Extra board workers substitute for regular clerks who are absent because of vacations, illness, or other reasons. In many offices, a railroad clerk may advance to assistant chief clerk or to a higher administrative posi tion. In others, a clerk may move to jobs requiring special knowledge, such as accounting or statistics, and many eventually become an auditor or statistician. Some clerks are promoted to traffic agent, buyer, storekeeper, ticket agent, or station agent. Employment Outlook Employment of railroad clerks— who numbered nearly 83,000 in 1972—is expected to decline moder ately through the mid-1980’s, as railroad employment continues to decline. Computers and other laborsaving office equipment will in crease the productivity of railroad clerks, and enable fewer clerks to do as much or more work than in the past. However, some job open ings will arise as experienced clerks retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1972, hourly earnings for rail road clerks who handled business transactions averaged $4.63, about one-fourth more than the average for nonsupervisory workers in all private industries, except farming. Secretaries, stenographers, typists, and office machine operators aver aged $4.59 an hour; senior clerks and specialists averagqd $5.32 an hour; and supervisory and chief clerks, $6.23 an hour. Railroad clerks usually work a 40-hour week, and receive premium pay for over time. Most railroad clerks are mem bers of the Brotherhood of Railway, Airline and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express and Sta tion Employees. CONDUCTORS (D.O.T. 198.168) Nature of the Work Conductors are in charge of train crews and are responsible for the safety of passengers and cargoes. Before the train leaves the ter minal, the conductor gets train orders from the dispatcher and makes sure that the crew under stands them. During runs, conduc tors periodically inspect each car. If problems occur, they arrange either for repairs while under way or for removal of the defective cars at the nearest siding. At stops, they signal engineers when to depart. On passenger trains, conductors collect tickets and provide informa tion to passengers. On freight trains, they keep records of each car’s con tents and destination and see that cars are added and removed at the proper points along the route. Yard conductors, or yard fore men, supervise the crews that as semble and disassemble trains. In many yards, they electrically con trol the track switches that are used to automatically classify cars on sidings. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Experienced brakemen who have passed tests covering signals, time tables, operating rules, and related subjects are made temporary con ductors until a regular opening occurs. Those who have the great- RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS 308 est seniority become conductors. The availability of these positions limits promotion. Most railroads maintain separate seniority lists for road service and yard service conductors and con ductors usually remain in one type of service for their entire careers. On some roads, however, conduc tors start in the yards, then move to freight service, and finally to passenger service. Conductors who have direct con tact with the public must serve effectively as the railroad’s repre sentative. Those who show special abilities in this area may advance to managerial positions, such as trainmaster. Employment Outlook Employment of conductors— who numbered about 38,000 in 1972—is expected to decline slowly through the mid-1980’s. Some brakemen, however, will be pro moted to replace conductors who retire or die. Employment of conductors will continue to decline in line with de1creased industry employment, par ticularly as a result of reduced passenger traffic. Although some additional conductors will be needed watch track signals that indicate for increased freight service, the track obstructions, speed limits, and number for yard service will decline special instructions. Engineers must because of widespread use of electric have a thorough knowledge of the and electronic car classification sys signal systems, yards, and terminals tems and communications equip along their routes, and must be con ment. The employment decline, how stantly alert to insure safe, efficient ever, may be less than anticipated operation of trains. Before and after each passenger if fuel shortages continue. and freight run, engineers check locomotives for mechanical prob Earnings and Working Conditions lems. Minor adjustments are made In 1972, conductors had average on the spot, but major defects are monthly earnings of $1,120 in yard reported to the engine shop fore service, $1,350 in freight road ser man. Engineers must follow time vice, and $1,337 in passenger road table schedules and consider service. These earnings were more passenger comfort and safety. than double the average for nonTraining, Other Qualifications, supervisory workers in all private and Advancement industries, except farming. Conductors usually work a 40Openings in engineer jobs are hour week and receive premium usually filled by training and pro pay for overtime. They often work moting firemen according to sen nights, weekends, and holidays. iority rules. Firemen qualify for Temporary conductors frequently promotion by demonstrating their work irregular hours totaling less ability to operate locomotives and than 40 a week and, therefore, earn by passing written and oral tests on less. mechanical and electrical equip Many conductors are members of ment, fuel economy, safety, time the United Transportation Union. tables, train orders, and other oper ating rules. A few railroads train brakemen and inexperienced work ers for engineer jobs. New engineers start as extra LOCOMOTIVE board workers and temporarily re ENGINEERS place regular engineers who are (D.O.T. 910.383) absent because of vacation, illness, or other reasons. Extra board en gineers frequently wait many years Nature of the Work before earning enough seniority to Engineers operate locomotives in get a regular assignment. Seniority passenger, freight, and yard serv rules also may determine the en ices according to train orders or gineers’ type of service; for instance, other instructions. Most run diesel from a first regular assignment in locomotives; a few run electrics. yard service, they may move to To start the locomotive, they release freight service, and finally to pas the air brakes and pull the throttle. senger service. During the trip, they may operate Engineers take periodic physical other controls, such as light switches examinations to determine fitness to and windshield wipers, and watch operate locomotives. They must gages and meters that measure fuel, have keen eyesight and hearing. electricity, and air pressure. They Those who fail to meet the physical RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS 309 reach the limit are replaced by extra board engineers for the rest of the month. Extra board engineers may work irregular hours since they may be called at any time. They are likely to have less work and, therefore, lower earnings than engineers on regular assignments. Most engineers are members of the Brotherhood of Locomotive En gineers; some are members of the United Transportation Union. LOCOMOTIVE FIREMEN (D.O.T. 910.383) Nature of the Work Locomotive firemen work with and under engineers in both yard and road services. Before each run, Engineer checks track conditions by radio. they check the locomotive’s working condition and supply of fuel, sand, standards are restricted to freight Earnings and Working Conditions and water. They may also have to or yard service or transferred to make sure that emergency signaling other jobs with lower physical tools and equipment, such as flares standards. The earnings of engineers depend and lanterns, are ready to use. During the train run, firemen on the kind of locomotive and type of service. In 1972, monthly earn watch for track obstructions and Employment Outlook ings of engineers averaged $1,321 observe trackside signals that in Employment of locomotive en in yard service, $1,635 in freight dicate speed limits, obstructions, gineers—who numbered about 35,000 road service, and $1,540 in pas and emergencies. As the train rounds in 1972—is expected to show little senger service. Engineers earned curves, they look back for smoke, or no change through the mid- two to three times as much as the sparks, fire, and other signs of 1980’s. Nevertheless, some openings average for nonsupervisory workers defective equipment, which they re will arise from the need to replace in all private industries, except port to the engineer. They also farming. make minor electrical and mechani engineers who retire or die. Yard engineers work 5 or more cal adjustments in the locomotive The number of engineers has been declining for many years owing to days a week, depending on the rail and operate the equipment that reduced passenger service and tech road. They receive premium pay heats the passenger cars. nological developments, with more for working more than 8 hours in powerful locomotives pulling longer any day. Road service engineers often work trains. These developments, how Training, Other Qualifications, ever, appear to have about run their nights, weekends, and holidays at and Advancement course and will affect employment regular pay. On many railroads, less in the future. Employment also their earnings are limited by the Firemen are trained on the job may be favorably affected if fuel maximum number of miles they by experienced engineers. During shortages continue. can cover per month. Those who the training period, firemen make a 310 series of trips to learn their duties —who numbered about 14,900 in and railroad rules and regulations. 1972—is expected to decline rapidly The training lasts from one to six through the mid-1980’s. Some open weeks and includes orientation ses ings, however, will develop as sions. After passing tests as required experienced firemen retire, die, or by individual railroads, they are are promoted to engineer positions. assigned as firemen on regular jobs. Employment of firemen will If no regular job is available, they decline faster than railroad em may be assigned as extra board ployment as a whole. Although workers to substitute for firemen the outlook for this occupation who are absent because of vacations, has been uncertain, recent laborillness or other reasons. management agreements provide For firemen positions, railroads procedures for hiring, training, and prefer applicants between age 21 advancing firemen to locomotive and 35 years, who have a high school engineer positions. As of July 1972, education. Applicants must have each railroad, depending on its good hearing, eyesight, and color number of engineers and miles vision. Good eye-hand coordination, covered, must have a minimum manual dexterity, and mechanical number of firemen available at all aptitude are also required. times. New Firemen may have to be Firemen are placed in engineer hired to meet these minimums. training programs within one year following their initial hiring date. They must then successfully com Earnings and Working Conditions plete an engineer training course of Earnings of Firemen depend on six months composed, in the most the kind of locomotive and type part, of classroom and on-the-job of service. In 1972, for example, training in locomotive operation. monthly earnings of Firemen aver They then become eligible for pro aged $960 in yard service, $1,262 in motion to engineer in a maximum freight road service, and $1,292 in of 18 months after their first hiring passenger road service. Firemen as firemen. They take qualifying earned about twice as much as the tests covering locomotive equip average for nonsupervisory workers ment, air brake systems, fuel econ in all private industries, except omy, timetables, and operating rules farming. and regulations. As engineers are Yard Firemen work a 40-hour needed, qualified Firemen who have week and receive premium pay for the longest seniority are placed on overtime. The earnings of Firemen the engineers’ extra board. Extra in road service are limited by the board engineers who do not have maximum number of miles they regular assignments substitute for are allowed to cover per month. regular engineers who are absent Those who reach the limit are re because of vacation, illness, or other placed by extra board Firemen for reasons. Obtaining a regular posi the rest of the month. tion as an engineer may take Because trains run at all times, several years depending on avail firemen often work nights, week ability of jobs. ends, and holidays. Road service keeps them away from home for varying periods of time. Extra board Firemen are likely to have less work Employment Outlook and, therefore, lower earnings than Employment of locomotive firemen firemen on regular assignments. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Many Firemen belong to the United Transportation Union. Others are members of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers (Ind.). SHOP TRADES Nature of the Work The skilled workers who build, maintain, and repair railroad cars and other equipment may be classi fied in six main shop trades: carmen, machinists, electrical workers, sheetmetal workers, boilermakers, and blacksmiths. Carmen (D.O.T. 622.381) build and repair freight and passenger cars, tank cars, and locomotives. They remove and inspect locomotive or car parts, such as wheels, brake assemblies, and air cylinders. They may also repair car interiors. Car men use both power and handtools. Many carmen inspect cars for defects that might lead to accidents or delays. Machinists (D.O.T. 600.280) service and overhaul locomotives and other equipment. Electrical workers (D.O.T. 721.381) install and maintain wiring and electrical equipment in locomotives, cars, and railroad buildings. Some lay and maintain power and communi cations lines. Sheet-metal workers (D.O.T. 804.281) install and main tain sheet-metal parts on loco motives and other equipment. Boilermakers (D.O.T. 805.281) service and repair stationary boil ers, tanks, and other parts made of steel plates. Blacksmiths (D.O.T. 610.381) repair metal parts and tools. Other craftsmen include molders and oilers. (More informa tion about most of these shop trades can be found elsewhere in the Handbook.) RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS 311 Shop workers repair locomotive engine block. chinists, $5.04 for electrical work ers, $5 for sneet-metal workers, $5.05 for boilermakers, and $4.98 for blacksmiths. Most shop workers have a 40-hour work-week, and receive premium pay for overtime. Most shop work is done indoors. Some minor adjustments, inspec tions, and emergency repairs are done outdoors. Shop work is active and strenuous, involving stooping, climbing, and lifting. Most shop workers are union members. Among the unions in this field are: Brotherhood of Rail way Carmen of the United States and Canada; International Asso ciation of Machinists and Aero space Workers; International Brotherhood of Electrical Work ers; Sheet Metal Workers’ Interna tional Association; International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, For gers and Helpers; and the Inter national Brotherhood of Firemen and Oilers. These unions usually negotiate labor-management agree ments through the Railway Em ployees’ Department of the AFLC IO . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although apprenticeship train ing is the most common way to en ter shop trades, some helpers and laborers are upgraded to these jobs. Apprenticeships last 3 to 4 years, depending on how much previous work experience the apprentice has. Most apprentices are between 16 and 21 years of age, although some are older at the start of their train ing. On some roads, apprentice ap plicants must pass mathematical and mechanical aptitude tests. Some workers in the shop trades advance to positions as foremen in shops, engine houses, and powerplants. Employment Outlook Employment of journeymen shop trades workers—which in 1972 included about 42,000 car men, 17,000 machinists, 11,000 electrical workers, 5,000 sheetmetal workers, 1,500 boilermakers, and 1,900 other craftsmen—is ex pected to decline slightly through the mid-1980’s. Job openings, how ever, will develop for new appren tices or helpers as experienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1972, hourly earnings aver aged $4.96 for carmen, $5 for ma SIGNAL DEPARTMENT WORKERS (D.O.T. 822.281 and .884) Nature of the Work Railroad signal workers install and repair the communication and signaling systems that control train movement and assure safety. Sig nalmen construct and install new signals. They travel with work crews all over the railroad, wher ever construction is underway. In erecting signals, these crews make forms and mix and pour concrete, weld metal, and do electrical work. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 312 ment workers—who numbered about 11,000 in 1972—is expected to decline slightly through the mid1980’s. Improved signaling and communications systems that re quire less maintenance and repair will increase the productivity of signal department workers. Never theless, some job openings for new workers will arise as experienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other fields. Earnings and Working Conditions Signal workers must have good knowledge of electricity to keep signals working properly. Signal maintainers keep wires, lights, switches, and other control devices in good operating condi tion. They must have a thorough knowledge of electricity and elec tronics. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement New employees are assigned as helpers to experienced workers. After about 60 to 90 days of train ing, helpers may advance to assist ants. After another 2 to 4 years, qualified assistants may be pro moted to signalmen and signal maintainers. Seniority rules con trol these promotions. When hiring helpers, railroads prefer young applicants who are high school graduates or the equi valent. Applicants should have me chanical skill and a knowledge of electricity. Both signalmen and signal main tainers may be promoted to signal inspectors or testmen, gang fore men, and higher supervisory posi tions. A few eventually become sig nal engineers. Employment Outlook Employment of signal depart In 1972, signalmen and signal maintainers averaged $5.06 an hour, about one-third more than average for nonsupervisory work ers in all private industries, except farming. Assistants averaged $4.25 an hour and helpers $4.13 an hour. Most signal workers have a 40hour week, and receive premium pay for overtime. Signal maintainers must make repairs regardless of weather con ditions or time of day. Both signal men and signal maintainers often climb poles and work near highvoltage wires. On construction and installation jobs, signalmen and other crew members usually work away from home, and frequently live in camp cars provided by the railroads. Sig nal maintainers usually live at home, and service signals over a limited stretch of track. Most signalmen and signal in stallers are members of the Broth erhood of Railroad Signalmen. at railroad stations. Most agents work at small stations and sell tickets, check baggage, and com pute freight and express charges. They also may telephone or tele graph train orders and other mes sages to train crews. At larger sta tions, many of these tasks may be done by clerks, telegraphers, and others who work under the agent’s supervision. At major freight and passenger stations the agent’s duties are primarily administra tive and supervisory. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Station agents rise from the ranks of other railroad occupa tions. With sufficient seniority and ability, telephoners, telegraphers, towermen, and clerks may advance to agents in small stations or assist ant agents in larger ones. Agents may be promoted from small to larger stations. They also may be promoted to supervisory positions such as station master or inspector. Employment Outlook Employment of station agents— who numbered about 8,700 in 1972—is expected to decline mod erately through the mid-1980’s as more passenger stations are closed. Nevertheless, a limited number of jobs will arise to replace experienced agents who retire, die, or stop work ing for other reasons. The employ ment decline may be less than antici pated if gasoline shortages continue and passenger travel by rail in creases. Earnings and Working Conditions STATION AGENTS (D.O.T. 211.468 and 910.138) Nature of the Work Station agents serve the public The earnings of station agents vary. In 1972, agents who also served as telegraphers and tele phoners averaged $4.70 an hour, about one-fourth more than the average for nonsupervisory work- RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS 313 pass them on to train crews. Towermen operate controls that throw track switches and signals to route traffic. To some extent, the three jobs are interchangeable. For example, many towermen also transmit orders or operate signals. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Station agent checks list of train’s cargo. ers in all private industries, ex cept farming. Agents in small sta tions who were not telegraphers averaged $4.98 an hour. Agents in major stations averaged $5.83 an hour. A 40-hour workweek is standard, and time and one-half is paid for overtime. Station agents, except for some supervisory agents, are members of the Brotherhood of Railway, Airline and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express and Sta tion Employees. TELEGRAPHERS, TELEPHONERS, AND TOWERMEN (D.O.T. 236.588 and 910.782) New telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen get on-the-job train ing that covers operating rules, train orders, and station opera tions. On most roads, trainees must pass examinations on train oper ating rules and demonstrate ability to use the equipment before they can qualify. Newly qualified work ers usually are assigned to the extra board to work as substitutes for telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen who are absent for vaca tions, illness, or other reasons. After gaining enough seniority, they generally can bid for regular assignments. Most railroads prefer applicants who are high school graduates or the equivalent. Good hearing and eyesight, including normal color vision, are required. Applicants should be responsible, alert, and capable of organizing thoughts and actions in emergency or pressure situations. They must be able to work in confined areas. Some telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen may advance to positions such as station agent or train dispatcher. Nature of the Work Employment Outlook Telegraphers, telephoners, and Employment of telegraphers, towermen control movement of trains according to instructions telephoners, and towermen—who given by train dispatchers. They numbered about 11,000 in 1972—is work in towers located in yards, expected to decline rapidly through terminals, and other important the mid-1980’s. Nevertheless, some junction points. new workers will be hired to re Telegraphers and telephoners place experienced workers who re get orders from dispatchers and tire, die or change occupations. Employment in these fields will continue to decline as technologi cal developments increase worker productivity. The wider use of mechanized yard operations, cen tralized traffic control, and other automatic signaling systems will continue to reduce employment. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1972, hourly earnings for telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen averaged $4.64, about one-fourth more than the average for nonsupervisory workers in all private industries, except farming. A 40-hour week is standard, and time and one-half is paid for over time. Under Federal law, railroad telegraphers generally cannot work more than 9 hours in any one day, except in emergencies. Most telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen are members of the Brotherhood of Railway, Airline and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express and Station Em ployees. TRACK WORKERS (D.O.T. 182.168, 859.883, 869.887, 910.782, and 919.887) Nature of the Work Trackmen construct, service, and repair railroad tracks and roadways. Many work in section crews that patrol and maintain a limited section of the railroad’s right-of-way. Others in more mech anized crews cover longer stretches of the right-of-way. Extra crew members hired in the summer re place rails, and do other work that is difficult to do in winter. Track workers regularly inspect the right-of-way, and look , for cracked rails, weak ties, washed OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 314 Employment Outlook Employment of track workers— who numbered about 53,000 in 1972—is expected to decline slowly through the mid-1980’s along with overall industry employment. Pro ductivity of track workers will in crease as machines do more and more of the work. Although several thousand workers will be hired each summer to do maintenance jobs that cannot be done during winter, few people will be hired for year-round jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions Track maintenance worker drives spikes with pneumatic hammer. out places, and other track and roadway defects. When laying, re pairing, or replacing track, they operate small equipment, such as spike-driving machines, and use power tools as well as the familiar hand picks and shovels. Some operate large machines, such as cranes and bulldozers. Welders also are employed on track work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most track workers learn their skills through on-the-job training that lasts about 2 years. Machineoperating jobs are assigned to qualified trackmen by seniority. Railroads prefer applicants be tween the ages of 21 and 45, who can read, write, and do heavy work. Applicants may be required to pass physical examinations. Some trackmen who have the necessary seniority and other quali fications may advance to gang or assistant foremen, then to positions such as track supervisor. In 1972, track workers averaged $4.17 an hour, about one-seventh more than the average for nonsupervisory workers in all private industries, except farming. Equip ment operators and helpers aver aged $4.54 and crew foremen aver aged $4.69 an hour. A 40-hour workweek is standard, and premium rates are paid for over time. Most track workers live at home. However, some crews travel from place to place, and live in camp cars or trailers provided by the railroads. Track workers have strenuous and active jobs. Much of the time they use moderately heavy tools and work in bent and stooped positions. Most track workers are mem bers of the Brotherhood of Main tenance of Way Employees. INTERCITY BUSDRIVERS (D.O.T. 913.363 and 913.463) Nature of the Work DRIVING OCCUPATIONS Nearly 2.8 million truck, bus, and taxi drivers moved passengers and goods over highways and city streets in 1972. Some drivers are behind the wheel practically all their working time. Others spend part of the time loading and unloading goods, making pick-ups and deliv eries, and collecting money. Still others, like the routeman, are com bination drivers-salesmen. (Routemen are discussed in the chapter on Sales occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) The individual statements that follow cover long distance and local truck drivers, intercity and local bus drivers, parking attendants, and taxi drivers, They do not cover school bus drivers, chauffeurs, ambulance driv ers, or employees whose driving is incidental to their regular duties. Through the mid-1980’s, employ ment of long-distance and local truck drivers is expected to expand as more and more freight is moved by trucks. Employment in other driving occupations is not expected to change much, but many new em ployees will be hired to replace those who retire, die, or stop work ing for other reasons. Driving jobs offer excellent op portunities for young persons who are not planning to attend college. The pay for most drivers is relative ly high, and working conditions are fairly good. Many young persons also will enjoy the freedom from close supervision and the frequent contacts with people, which are characteristic of most driving jobs. M o re Than H alf of the 2 .8 M illion Drivers Are Local Truckdrivers___________ 16 W ORKERS 1972 (in hundreds of thousands) 0 8 16 24 32 Intercity bus drivers Other drivers Total drivers i Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. In many smaller towns and cities, buses provide the only public trans portation to other communities. In large cities, they are an alternative to railroad and airline transporta tion and in many cases, provide more frequent service. Drivers’ duties generally begin when they report to the terminal for their assignment. Before begin ning their trips, they inspect the buses carefully. They make sure the brakes, steering mechanism, wind shield wipers, lights and mirrors work properly. They also check the fuel, oil, water, and tires, and make certain that the buses are carrying safety equipment, such as fire ex tinguishers, first-aid kits, and emer gency reflectors. Drivers also pick up tickets, change, report blanks, and other items needed for their trips. For scheduled service, drivers move the buses from terminals or garages to the loading platforms, where they take on passengers. They collect fares—tickets usually—from the passengers as they board the buses and announce destination, route, time of arrival, and other information concerning the trips. Drivers may also either load or supervise the loading of baggage and freight. If safety permits, drivers operate buses at speeds which will enable them to arrive at stations on time. At some stations, they stop only if they see passengers waiting or if they have been told to load or un load freight. They announce major stops and rest or lunch stops. Drivers also regulate lighting, heating, and air-conditioning equip ment for the passengers’ comfort. 315 316 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK In an emergency, they sometimes are required to make minor repairs such as changing tires. Upon arriving at their final desti nations, drivers may unload or su pervise the unloading of baggage and freight. They prepare reports for their employers on mileage, time, and fares, as required by com pany rules. They also keep a log of work hours as required by the U.S. Department of Transporta tion. If an accident or unusual de lay occurs, drivers must make a complete report. At times drivers operate char tered buses. In these cases, they pick up a group of people, take them to the group’s destination, and re main with them until they are ready to return. These trips frequently require drivers to remain away from home one or more nights. Places of Employment Approximately 25,000 intercity busdrivers were employed by about 1,000 bus companies in 1972. Few were women. Intercity busdrivers are employed throughout the Na tion. Some work out of terminals in the many small communities served by bus, but most report for work at the major terminals in large cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All intercity busdrivers are re quired to meet minimum age, health, and experience qualifica tions established by the U.S. De partment of Transportation. The minimum age requirement is 21 years. Applicants must be ablebodied and have good hearing and at least 20/40 eyesight, without glasses, corrected to 20/20 with glasses. One large company re quires 20/30 vision corrected to 20/20 with glasses. Applicants can not be hired who have serious heart trouble or other physical problems that could endanger passengers. Drivers must be able to read and speak English. Many intercity bus companies, however, have considerably higher requirements. Most prefer appli cants to be at least 24 years of age and to have a high school educa tion or its equivalent. Applicants often must pass comprehensive ex aminations to determine their driv ing skill in the type of bus they will operate. An even temperament and emo tional stability are important quali fications because busdrivers work under considerable tension when they operate large vehicles in heavy and fast moving traffic. Since they represent their companies in deal ing with passengers, busdrivers also must be courteous and tactful. Although previous experience in driving a truck or bus is not re quired, it is preferred by some em ployers. In many States, the trainee for a busdriver’s job must have or obtain a chauffeur’s license, which is a commercial driving permit. Most intercity bus companies conduct training programs for new drivers. These programs, which usu ally last from 2 to 6 weeks but can extend to 3 months, include both classroom and driving instruction. In the classroom, trainees learn about the company and U.S. De partment of Transportation rules, State and municipal regulations, safe driving practices, ticket prices, timetables, and conduct in dealing with the public. They also learn how to keep records, inspect the bus, and make minor repairs. After completing classroom work, trainees ride with regular drivers to observe safe driving practices and other aspects of the job. They also make trial runs, without pas DRIVING OCCUPATIONS sengers, to improve their driving skill. After completing the training, which includes final driving and written examinations, new drivers begin a “break-in” period. During this period, working under strict supervision, they make regularly scheduled trips with passengers. New workers start out on the “extra board,” which is a list of drivers who are given temporary assignments. While on this list, they may substitute for regular drivers who are ill or on vacation, or drive chartered buses. Extra drivers may have to wait several years before they have enough sen iority to get a regular assignment. In almost all companies, beginners must serve a probationary period that lasts from 30 to 90 days. Opportunities for promotion generally are limited, particularly in small companies. Experienced drivers may be promoted to jobs as dispatchers, supervisors, or ter minal managers. For most drivers, advancement consists of receiving better assignments with higher earnings as their seniority in creases. 317 Earnings and Working Conditions Drivers employed by large inter city bus companies had estimated annual average earnings of $12,500 in 1972, or about two-thirds more than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. The wages of inter city busdrivers typically are com puted on a mileage basis but short runs may be on an hourly rate. Mileage rates ranged from 16 to 18 cents a mile in 1972. Most regular drivers are guaranteed a minimum number of miles or hours per pay period. For work on other than regu lar assignments they receive addi tional pay, customarily at premium rates. Extra drivers usually are paid by the hour when they are on call but not driving, and are paid the regu lar mileage or trip rate when actu ally driving. They generally earn slightly less than regular drivers but, if enough work is available, they may earn as much or more. Extra drivers usually receive a weekly or biweekly guarantee either in minimum hours, mileage, or earnings. Most drivers who work for the large companies average less than Employment Outlook 39 hours of work a week. Driving Little or no change in the num schedules may range from 6 to 10 ber of intercity busdrivers is ex hours a day and from Vh to 6 days pected through the mid-1980’s. a week. U.S. Department of Trans Several hundred job openings, portation regulations specify that however, will become available intercity drivers may drive no more each year because of the need to than 10 hours without having at replace experienced drivers who re least 8 hours off. Most intercity busdrivers belong tire or die. Additional openings will arise as some drivers trans to the Amalgamated Transit Union. The Brotherhood of Rail fer to other occupations. Because of competition from air road Trainmen, and the Interna lines and private automobiles, tional Brotherhood of Teamsters, intercity bus travel is not expected Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and to grow significantly. Moreover, Helpers of America (Ind.) also new and improved highways make have organized these workers in it possible for drivers to make runs some areas of the country. Union contracts covering many in less time, thus reducing the need intercity busdrivers provide for for additional drivers. health and life insurance paid by the employer; pension plans under such agreements are usually fi nanced jointly by the workers and their employers. Drivers receive paid vacations ranging from 1 to 5 weeks, depend ing on the company for which they work and their length of service. Many also receive a minimum of 8 paid holidays annually. When away from home overnight, drivers receive pay for food and lodging, or accommodations may be pro vided. Driving an intercity bus usually is not physically difficult, but it is tiring and requires steady nerves. The busdriver is given a great deal of independence in his job, and is solely responsible for the safety of the passengers and bus. Many drivers like working without direct supervision and take pride in as suming these responsibilities. Some also enjoy the opportunity to travel and to meet the public. Among the less desirable aspects of this job are weekend and holiday work and the need for being away from home for varying periods. Also, extra drivers are on call at all hours and may be required to report for work on very short notice. Sources of Additional Information For further information on job opportunities in this field, contact intercity bus companies or the local office of the State employment service. LOCAL TRANSIT BUSDRIVERS (D.O.T. 913.363 and 913.463) Nature of the Work Local transit busdrivers transport 318 millions of Americans to and from places of work and various other destinations every day. These drivers follow definite time schedules and routes over city and suburban streets to get passengers to their destina tions on time. The workday for local busdrivers begins when they report to the terminal or garage. There, they receive assignments, transfer and refund forms and obtain their buses. Drivers check tires, brakes, wind shield wipers, and lights before starting their runs. Those who work for small bus companies also may check the water, oil, and fuel. On most runs, drivers make regular stops every block or two. As the passengers board the bus, they make sure the correct cash fare, token or ticket is placed in the fare box. They also collect or issue transfers. Drivers often answer questions about schedules, routes, and transfer points, and sometimes call out the name of the street at some are employed in almost every each bus stop. city in the Nation. At the end of the day, busdrivers turn in trip sheets which usually Training, Other Qualifications, include a record of fares received, and Advancement trips made, and any delays in schedule. In cases of an accident or Applicants for busdriver positions unusual delay, drivers must make should be between the ages of 21 out a report on its nature and and 40, be of average height and cause. weight, and have good eyesight— with or without glasses. Applicants must be in good health and must Places off Employment pass the written and physical ex aminations given by most em About 68,000 local busdrivers ployers. Because drivers often work were employed in 1972; a small under pressure and deal with many proportion were women. More than different personalities, emotional one-half of the total worked for stability is important. Although publicly owned transit systems and educational requirements are not most of the remainder worked for high, many employers prefer appli privately owned bus lines. A small cants who have a high school number worked for sightseeing education or its equivalent. companies. A motor vehicle operator’s li Although many drivers are em cense, and generally, 1 or 2 years ployed in large metropolitan areas, of driving experience on some type such as New York and Chicago, of motor vehicle are basic require OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ments. A good driving record is essential because the busdriver is responsible for passenger safety. Most States require busdrivers to have a chauffeur’s license. Most local transit companies con duct training courses which may last several weeks and include both classroom and driving instructions. In the classroom, the trainees learn company rules, safety regulations, and safe driving practices. They also learn how to keep records and how to deal tactfully and courteously with passengers. Driving instruction consists of supervised trips both with and without passengers. At the end of the course, trainees may have to pass a written examination and a driving examination. After passing the examinations, new drivers are often placed on an “extra” list to substitute for regular drivers who are ill or on vacation and to make extia trips during DRIVING OCCUPATIONS morning and evening rush hours. They also may drive charter or sightseeing runs and other extra runs such as special buses for taking passengers to sporting events. They remain on the extra list until they have enough seniority to get a regular run, which may take several months or more than a year. Opportunities for promotions generally are limited, although ex perienced drivers may advance to jobs such as instructor, dispatcher, and sometimes bus company execu tive. Promotion in city owned bus systems is usually by examination. Employment Outlook Employment of local busdrivers is expected to increase slowly through the mid-1980’s. Most job openings, however, will result from the need to replace drivers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. The increased use of privately owned automobiles in cities and the population shift to the suburbs where most people drive their own cars has caused a decline in bus passengers and driver employment. However, in urban areas the auto mobile is now recognized as the main source of air pollution and traffic congestion. To reduce the number of cars used by commuters, local bus service is being improved in many cities. Express lanes re served for buses on city streets, more convenient routes and more comfortable buses reflect the im pact of Federal, State and local government interest and expendi tures in providing better bus service. As service improves, bus passengers and driver employment are both expected to increase. Earnings and Working Conditions According to a survey of union contracts in 65 large cities, local 319 busdrivers averaged $4.62 an hour employment, and work without in 1972, about one-fourth more than close supervision. the average for all nonsupervisory Most local busdrivers are mem workers in private industry, except bers of the Amalgamated Transit farming. Hourly wages were highest Union. Drivers in New York City in the larger cities. Wage scales for and several other large cities belong beginning drivers were generally 5 to the Transport Workers Union to 15 cents an hour less. of America. The Brotherhood of Most local busdrivers have a Railroad Trainmen and the Inter standard work schedule of 8 hours national Brotherhood of Teamsters, a day, 40 hours a week. For addi Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and tional work, drivers usually receive Helpers of America (Ind.) also have 1V times their hourly rates. In many organized some local busdrivers. i companies, drivers often work over time, thereby increasing their week Sources of Additional Information ly earnings. Drivers on the extra For further information on em list generally are guaranteed a ployment opportunities, contact a minimum weekly salary. The workweek for regular drivers local bus company or the local usually consists of any 5 consecutive office of the State employment days; Saturdays and Sundays are service. counted as regular workdays. Some drivers have to work at night. To accommodate the demands of LOCAL TRUCK DRIVERS commuter travel, many local busdrivers have to work “split shifts.” (D.O.T. 900.883, 902.883, 903.883, For example, a driver may work 906.883, and 909.883) from 6:00 a.m. to 10:00 a.m., go home and then return to work from Nature of the Work 3:00 p.m. to 7:00 p.m. Drivers may Local truck drivers move goods receive extra pay for split shifts. from terminals and warehouses to Other assignments are “ straight runs” which are unbroken except wholesalers, retailers, and con for meai periods. Some union con sumers in the area. They must be tracts require 50 to 60 percent of skilled drivers who can maneuver all assignments to be straight runs. trucks into tight parking spaces, through narrow alleys, and up to Nearly all local transit bus- loading platforms. drivers are covered by laborWhen local truck drivers report management contracts that provide to work at a terminal or warehouse, for life and health insurance and they receive assignments to make pension plans. Also, drivers are deliveries, pickups, or both. They given vacations with pay ranging also receive delivery forms and from 1 to 5 weeks or more, depend check the condition of their trucks. ing on their length of service, and Platform men generally load trucks usually 6 or 7 paid holidays a year. and arrange the items in the proper Driving a bus is not physically delivery sequence for minimum strenuous, but busdrivers may suffer handling. At customer’s places of nervous strain from maneuvering a business, drivers generally load and large vehicle through heavy traffic unload the merchandise. If there while dealing with passengers. Local are heavy loads such as machinery, busdrivers enjoy steady year-round or if there are many deliveries to 320 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK make during the day, a driver may have a helper. Drivers of moving vans usually have crews of helpers to assist in loading and unloading household or office furniture. At the delivery points, drivers get customers to sign receipts and freight bills, and may receive money for the material delivered. At the end of the day, they turn in receipts and monies and records of the deliveries made. They also report whatever maintenance or repair is needed before their trucks are used again. Some of these workers drive special types of trucks, such as dump or oil trucks, which require the operation of mechanical levers, pedals, or other equipment. If they haul large or heavy items, they operate mechanical hoists to load and unload the trucks. Places of Employment 1.0 million worKers were employed as local truck drivers in 1972, mostly in and around large metropolitan areas. However, they work in all localities. Most local drivers work for busi nesses which deliver their own products and goods—such as de partm ent stores, meatpackers, wholesale distributors, and con struction companies. Many others are employed by local for-hire operators—trucking companies that serve the general public or specific companies under contract. Some are employed by the Federal Govern ment, the Postal Service, and by States and municipalities. A large number of local truck drivers are self-employed. Drivers who own one or two trucks account for a sizeable proportion of the local for-hire trucking business. A doui Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Qualifications for local truck drivers vary considerably, depending upon the type of truck and tne nature of the employer’s business. Some employers prefer those who have completed 2 to 4 years of high school. Applicants must be able to lift heavy objects and otherwise be in good health. They should be 21 years of age and have good hearing and at least 20/40 vision, with or without glasses. Since a driver often deals directly with the public, the ability to get along well with people also is important. An applicant must have a chauf feur’s license, which is a commercial driving permit. Familiarity with traffic laws and safety measures is necessary, and some previous experi ence in driving a truck is helpful. Young people may obtain such ex perience by working as a truck driver’s helper. Employers also give consideration to driving experience gained in the Armed Forces. An applicant may nave to pass a general physical examination, a written examination of driving reg ulations, and a driving test. Em ployers generally check applicants for traffic and police records. Training given to new drivers is often informal, and may consist only of riding with and observing an experienced driver. Additional training may be given if they are to drive a special type of truck. Some companies give a 1 to 2 days’ in doctrination course which covers general duties, the efficient opera tion and loading of a truck, com pany policies, and the preparation of delivery forms and company records. Although most new employees are assigned immediately to regular driving jobs, some start as extra drivers, covering the routes of regular drivers who are ill or on vacation, or making extra trips when necessary. They receive regu lar assignments when openings occur. Local truck drivers may advance DRIVING OCCUPATIONS As a rule, local truck drivers are paid by the hour and receive extra pay for working overtime, usually after 40 hours. Some drivers are guaranteed minimum daily or week ly earnings. Local truck drivers frequently work 48 hours or more a week. Night or early morning work is sometimes necessary, par ticularly for drivers handling food stuffs for chain grocery stores, produce markets, or bakeries. Most drivers deliver over regular routes, although some may be assigned dif ferent routes each day. Employment Outlook Local truck drivers generally have A moderate increase in the em paid vacations of 1 or 2 weeks ployment of local truck drivers is after a year of service, and of up anticipated through the mid-1980’s. to 4 weeks after 15 years. In addi In addition to the job openings tion, they usually receive pay for from growth, many openings will seven or more holidays annually. result from the need to replace ex Among unions organizing local perienced drivers who transfer to truck drivers are the International other occupations, retire, or die. Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf The rise in total business activity feurs, Warehousemen and Helpers anticipated in the years ahead will of America (Ind.). Some local truck increase the amount of freight. drivers employed by private carriers Since trucks carry virtually all local are members of unions that repre freight, employment of drivers will sent the plant workers of their grow but not as fast as the increase employers. in freight. In many cases, trucks Practically all unionized local are not fully loaded when they make truck drivers and their helpers are deliveries; thus, more goods can be covered by life and health insurance handled without increasing the num and pension plans provided by the ber of trucks or drivers. In addition, union from employer contributions. the trend to large shopping centers When uniforms are required, the rather than many small stores will cost usually is paid for entirely reduce the number of deliveries re or partly by the employer, who also quired. The use of radio telephones may provide for their upkeep. to instruct drivers enroute will also Local truck drivers, because they reduce the time needed for deliveries. drive in heavy traffic, are subject to nervous strain. Truck driving has become less physically demand Earnings and Working Conditions ing because of power steering, more On the average, hourly union comfortable seating, and other im wage scales were $5.49 for local provements. However, when local truck drivers and $4.90 for helpers drivers make many deliveries dur in 1972 according to a survey in 68 ing a day, their work can be large cities. This is about one-half exhausting. Some drivers may devel more than the average for all non- op physical disorders, such as back supervisory workers in private in strain and hernia. Local truck drivers, however, do have certain dustry, except farming. to supervisor, dispatcher, manager, or to traffic work—for example, in planning delivery schedules. How ever, these jobs are relatively few. For the most part, a local truck driver may advance by driving heavy or special types of trucks or by transferring to long distance truck driving. Experienced truck drivers who have business ability can start their own trucking companies when they have enough money. 321 work advantages. Employment is steady and, unlike long distance drivers, they usually work during the day and return home in the evening. Sources of Additional Information Information on career opportuni ties may be obtained from: American Trucking Association, 1616 P St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. For details on truck driver em ployment opportunities, contact local trucking companies, or the local office of the State employment service. LONG-DISTANCE TRUCK DRIVERS (D.O.T. 903.883, 904.883, 905.883, and 909.883) The drivers of the big trucks on highways and turnpikes are skilled and experienced professionals. They operate large tractor-trailers that carry goods hundreds or even thou sands of miles. Typically, long-distance truck drivers report to the terminal early in the evening and receive assign ments to take a truck to a terminal in a city hundreds of miles away. Night travel is preferred because the roads are less crowded and trips take less time. The truck trailer al ready has been loaded and the trac tor serviced with fuel and oil. Before moving from the terminal, drivers inspect the trucks to make sure they will operate safely and that they contain a fire extinguish er, flares, and other safety equip ment. They also make sure the cargo has been loaded safely and will not shift while trucks are moving. 322 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Drivers must be careful when going through narrow spaces to al low enough room in turns for the long trailers. Since truck seats are higher than seats in most cars, drivers can see far down the road. They seek traffic lanes that allow trucks to move at a steady speed, and when going downhill they may increase speed slightly to gain momentum for a hill ahead. Enroute, drivers may stop to as sist motorists who are involved in accidents or who have car trouble. They frequently put flares along the road to warn other drivers of danger. After several hours, drivers may stop for fuel or for rest and conversation with others. In the early morning when drivers have reached their destination and parked at the unloading platform, they complete trip logs and reports on the condition of the truck. Both are required by the U.S. Department of Transportation. When drivers have an accident, a detailed re port is required. Drivers are general ly off-duty the evening before they pick up another truck to drive back to their home city, or in some cases, to another city. Long-distance truck drivers spend most of their working time behind the wheel, although some also han dle freight. For example, a driver may have to unload a store’s cargo at night when receiving crews are not available. Helpers assist drivers of long-distance moving vans in loading and unloading furniture. The majority of long-distance truck drivers work for large com mon carriers—trucking companies that serve the general public. Most others work for trucking firms that haul goods under contract or for private carriers, such as steel com panies, which use their own trucks. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The U.S. Department of Transpor tation establishes minimum qualifica tions for long-distance truck drivers engaged in interstate commerce. A driver must be 21 years old and pass a physical examination which the employer usually pays for. Good hearing, 20/40 vision with or with out glasses, normal use of arms and legs (unless a waiver is ob tained), and normal blood pressure are the main physical requirements. Drivers must be able to read, speak, and write English well enough to make required entries on reports and records. They must have a good driving record. Before being hired, drivers must pass a road test to show they can operate a vehicle of the type and size they will drive in regular service. In addition, they must pass a written examination on the Motor Carrier Safety Regulations of the U.S. Department of Transportation. In most States, truck drivers also must have a chauffeur’s license from the State Motor Vehicle De partment. Many fleet operators have higher hiring standards than those de scribed. Many firms will not hire Places of Employment An estimated 570,000 long distance drivers were employed in 1972. Very few were women. Most live near cities and manufacturing centers which have many truck ter minals. Drivers who specialize in transporting agricultural products or minerals may live in rural areas. Driver ties down cargo. DRIVING OCCUPATIONS drivers under 25 years old; some specify height and weight limita tions; many require at least a high school education; and others re quire 2 years of high school. Some companies employ only applicants who have had several years’ experi ence driving long-distance trucks. Young persons may begin as helpers to local truck drivers, assist in loading and unloading, and occa sionally do some relief driving. Most drivers have had experience in local trucking before attempting long-haul driving which is a senior driving job. Then, after gaining ex perience, they drive larger and more complicated trucks. Driver training is a common method of preparing for truck driv ing jobs. Most training authorities and employers recommend high school driver-training courses. If such courses are not available, driv ing schools in most large cities are recommended. A high school course in automotive mechanics helps the driver to make minor roadside re pairs and to know when a truck is not operating properly. A small number of private technical-vocational schools and some State and community col leges offer truck driving courses which emphasize safe-driving practices. In these courses, stu dents learn to care for equip ment and freight, to drive large vehicles in small spaces and in highway traffic, and to comply with Federal, State, and local regu lations. All employers are interested in obtaining good, safe, reliable driv ers but the method of selection varies. Some use aptitude tests; others hire on the basis of personal interviews. New drivers are usually given a brief indoctrination course covering company policy and the preparation of various forms used on the job. They then make one or 323 more training trips under the super vision of an instructor or an experi enced driver. Drivers employed by common carriers frequently start on the “extra board,” bidding for regular runs on the basis of seniority as vacancies occur. (The extra board is a list of drivers, assigned in ro tation, who substitute for regular drivers or who make extra trips when necessary.) Drivers for pri vate carriers are more likely to begin with assigned regular routes. Opportunities for promotion in this occupation are limited. A few drivers may advance to jobs as safe ty supervisors, driver supervisors, and dispatchers. However, such jobs are often unattractive to long distance truck drivers, since the starting pay is usually less than the pay for driving jobs. Most drivers can only expect to advance to driv ing runs that provide increased earnings or preferred schedules and working conditions. Employment Outlook Employment of long-distance truck drivers is expected to increase moderately through the mid-1980’s as the volume of intercity freight grows. In addition to jobs from employment growth a large number of openings will be created as ex perienced drivers retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. The general economic growth of the Nation is expected to increase the amount of freight carried long distances by truck. In addition, many new factories, warehouses, and stores are being located in sub urban or semirural areas where rail facilities are nonexistent or ex tremely limited. Earnings and Working Conditions Drivers employed by large com mon carriers of general freight had estimated annual average earnings of $15,800 in 1972, about double the average of all nonsupervisory workers in pri vate industry, except farming. Pay rates are fairly uniform because this field is highly union ized, and union contracts are gen erally master agreements covering all employers within a multi-State region. The earnings of anindividual driver are affected by mileage driven, number of hours worked, type of truck and the weight of loads. Earnings also are affected by the nature of the cargo; premium rates are paid for flammable or otherwise hazardous commodities. Some private carriers pay drivers on the same basis as other employ ees—a monthly, weekly, or daily wage. Generally, such a wage is for a specified number of hours, and, if the driver works additional hours, he receives extra pay. Motor carriers engaged in inter state commerce are subject to the U.S. Department of Transportation rules governing hours of work and other matters. These regulations limit the hours intercity drivers may work and assure a reasonable amount of time for rest. For ex ample, no driver may be on duty for more than 60 hours in any 7-day period, and no driver may drive more than 10 hours without being off-duty at least 8 hours. Many drivers, particularly on very long runs, work fairly close to the maxi mum hours permitted. A workweek of at least 50 hours is very common. Most drivers receive 8 or more paid holidays each year, and 1 to 4 weeks of vacation with pay depend ing on their length of service. Most employers contribute to employee health insurance and pension plans. Long-distance truck drivers often must spend time away from home. 324 In such instances, the company pro vides lodging either in a company dormitory or a hotel. Some com panies use two drivers on very long runs. One drives while the other sleeps in a berth behind the cab. Although earnings on sleeper runs are the highest in the field, few drivers stay with this type of run very long. The work is very tiring and requires being away from fami lies and friends for days and even weeks. The earnings of drivers of long distance moving vans are quite high, but their hours are long and the work is strenuous. They drive more miles than the average long-distance driver and also work more hours in loading and unloading goods. The physical strain of intercity truck driving has been reduced by more comfortable seating, better highways, and more stringent safety regulations. Sitting in one place for hours at a time, however, is tiring and the nervous strain of sustained driving is fatiguing. Intercity trucking has a lower accident rate than in other forms of motor transportation largely be cause of intensive safety programs and skilled drivers. Most long-distance drivers are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf feurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Some drivers of private carriers belong to the unions that represent plant employees of the companies for which they work. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK PARKING ATTENDANTS (D.O.T. 915.878) Nature of the Work Parking attendants move cars in and out of parking spaces at com mercial and private parking facili ties. At commercial lots, the attendent meets incoming cars, records the time of arrival on a numbered claim ticket, gives the driver part of the ticket, and puts the other part in some clearly visible place on the car. Some establishments use a three-part claim ticket. In such cases, the attendant notes the car’s parking space on the third part which is filed in the office. This procedure eliminates the attendant’s looking for the car when the cus tomer returns. Still other facilities use a “time plan” for handling cars. Under this system, customers are asked the time they expect to re turn, and parking spaces are allo cated to reduce the number of cars that must be moved when the cus tomer returns. In both commercial and private lots, the attendant drives the car to a vacant space or tells the driver where to park. At multilevel park ing garages, some attendants may drive cars up and down the ramps; others park and retrieve cars on a particular floor. In a single level parking lot or garage, the attendant walks back to the entrance after he has parked the car. However, in many multilevel garages a moving manlift belt transports him to and from any floor. In some commercial lots and ga rages, the attendant meets return ing customers, tallies the parking charge, collects the fee, and re trieves the car. In large establish ments, however, customers usually pay a cashier. The cashier gives the claim ticket to an attendant, who then retrieves the car. Slack periods are common at most facilities. Some car parkers, therefore, may be expected to take on routine maintenance jobs around Sources of Additional Information Information on career opportu nities may be obtained from: American Trucking Association, 1616 P St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Additional details on truck driv er employment opportunities may be obtained from local trucking companies or local offices of the State employment service. Attendant explains fees. 325 DRIVING OCCUPATIONS the lot or garage, or to wash and wax cars. Places of Employment In 1972, approximately 33,000 parking attendants worked full time; thousands more were em ployed part time. Many part-time attendants are students. Parking attendants work at fa cilities that vary from small outdoor lots to vast multilevel parking ga rages. Most parking establishments are commercial, but some private facilities are maintained by restau rants, hotels, airports, or stores. Others are municipally owned and operated. Training, Other Qualifications and Advancement Although there are no specific educational requirements for park ing attendants, employers prefer high school graduates. Parking attendants must have a valid driv er’s license and be skillful in han dling all types of cars. Clerical and arithmetic skills are helpful for attendants who keep records of claim tickets, compute parking charges, and make change. Attendants also should be in good physical condition because the work involves long periods of standing and can be tiring during busy times. Parking attendants should be neat, tactful, and cour teous when dealing with the pub lic. Many organizations have onthe-job training programs that im prove the attendant’s car handling ability and familiarize him with good customer relations, company policy, and record keeping proce dures. Car parkers have limited oppor tunities for advancement, although they may become managers or supervisors of a parking facility. Frequently, attendants use their driving skill to switch to related jobs such as truck driver, chauf feur, or routeman. Employment Outlook Employment of parking atten dants is expected to grow slowly through the mid-1980’s as most new facilities use the self-parking system. Commercial parking own ers prefer the less costly self-park method and many customers prefer to park their own cars. Traffic flows faster in a self-park lot be cause attendants do not have to handle incoming and outgoing cars. Despite the anticipated slow growth in the occupation, some openings are expected each year, chiefly to replace those who die, retire or transfer to other jobs. Most opportunities will be in large commercial parking facilities in the downtown areas of big cities. Earnings and Working Conditions Although they usually are not covered by minimum wage provi sions, in 1972 most inexperienced parking attendants had hourly earn ings near the $1.60 minimum re quired by State and Federal laws. Some attendants who worked in large urban areas earned between $3 and $3.60 an hour. According to the limited data available, in 1972 most experienced parking attendants had earnings that were below the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private in dustry, except farming. Tips, which are common in this occupation, can boost regular earnings substantially. Many car parkers receive fringe benefits such as life, health, and disability insurance; paid vacations; a Christmas bonus; and profit shar ing. Some companies furnish uni forms. On the other hand, attendants often work long hours. A 10-hour day and work at nights, on week ends, and on holidays are not un usual. In addition, many car park ers spend much time outdoors in all kinds of weather and constantly breathe automobile exhaust fumes. In some places, attendants are re sponsible for any damage they do to customers’ cars. Sources of Additional Information For general information about the parking industry write: National Parking Association, 1101 17th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. TAXI DRIVERS (D.O.T. 913.363) Nature of the Work In practically all communities, taxicabs are an essential part of the public transportation system. They offer individualized service not otherwise available, since they op erate without fixed routes or sched ules. Many taxicab companies have cabs with two-way radios so dis patchers can tell drivers where to pick up passengers who call for service. Also, drivers may wait at cabstands for telephone calls from the dispatching office. In suburbs and small cities, drivers usually work from a central station and re turn to it after each trip unless they are called by the dispatcher or are hailed by passengers along the way. Drivers in large cities may drive around busy areas and watch for potential customers or may wait at hotels, bus terminals, and other places where business will be good. Smart drivers keep informed on 326 where crowds are likely to gather in the city (for example, at conven tions), so that they can be on hand to pick up passengers when they leave. Occasionally, taxicab drivers may assist passengers in and out of the cab and may handle their luggage. In some communities, drivers regu larly transport crippled children to and from school. Cab drivers also may provide sightseeing tours for out-of-town visitors and also may pick up and deliver packages. Drivers have to keep records of such basic facts as the date, time, and place passengers were picked up, and their destination, time of arrival, and amount of fare. Selfemployed drivers and those who work for small companies usually must clean their cabs. In large com panies, this job may be done by other workers. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Places of Employment In 1972, about 92,000 taxi driv ers, including a small number of women, were employed full time in the taxicab industry. Many others worked part time. Although taxicab drivers are employed in all but the smallest cities, employment is con centrated in large metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To become a taxi driver in most cities, it is necessary to have a Stateissued chauffeur’s license and a special taxicab operator’s license issued by the local police, safety de partment, or Public Utilities Com mission. Although licensing require ments vary considerably among cities, in general, applicants must be over 21 years old and in good health, have a good driving record, and not have been convicted of a serious crime. A driver’s record usually is checked for arrests, both locally and through the FBI. Most large communities require an applicant for a taxi driver’s li cense to pass a written examination on taxicab and traffice regulations. The examination may include ques tions on street locations, insurance regulations, accident reports, lost articles, and zoning or meter rules. In some cities, the cab company will teach the driver-applicant taxi cab regulations and the location of streets and important buildings. In other cities, the driver must prepare himself for the examination. Although formal education is sel dom required, many companies prefer applicants to have at least an eighth-grade education. Drivers must be able to deal tactfully and courteously with all types of people. Opportunities for advancement are limited by the small number of supervisory positions. Promotion to the job of dispatcher is often the only possibility. Some drivers, how ever, have become road supervisors, garage superintendents, or claims agents. A few develop administra tive skills and advance to manage rial positions in the company. To increase their income, many drivers try to buy and operate their own cabs. Employment Outlook The number of taxi drivers de clined slowly during the last decade, and this trend is expected to con tinue through the mid-1980’s. The decline in taxicab driver employ ment is expected to result from the increased use of private and rented cars. Competition from improved local bus and subway systems may contribute to the decline. However, DRIVING OCCUPATIONS there will be many opportunities fare. In 1972, one large company for new drivers, primarily because estimated its drivers averaged $3 an of the high turnover in this occu hour, not including tips. Some taxi pation. Because they work long drivers covered by union-employer hours and have irregular incomes, contracts have guaranteed minimany taxi drivers leave to take jobs mums up to $80 a week. in other occupations. There will con Many drivers rent their cabs tinue to be many part-time jobs from the company by the day for a available in nearly every community. set price. Any receipts above the cab rental and other operating exoenses are retained by the drivers. Earnings and Working Conditions Many full-time drivers start Most taxi drivers are paid a per work between 6 a.m. and 8 a.m. to centage—usually between 40 and 50 be available for passengers going to percent—of the total fare. Drivers work and quit after the evening also frequently receive tips, rang rush of passengers returning home. ing from 10 to 20 percent of the During the day they may rest for 327 several hours. Drivers do not re ceive overtime pay. Other drivers work nights, starting between 3 p.m. and 5 p.m. and some on Sundays and holidays. Full-time drivers receive fringe benefits such as paid holidays, vacations and sick pay. Sources of Additional Information For further information on job opportunities in this field, contact local cab companies or the local office of the State employment service. SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL OCCUPATIONS Progress in every facet of Amer ican life depends to some degree on our scientific and technical work force. An increased standard of living, greater defense capabilities, exploration of outer space, and advancement in atomic energy, health, and communications are just some of the results of the work done by scientists, engineers, and technicians. About 2.7 million people or nearly one quarter of all profes sional workers were engineers, sci entists, and technicians in 1972. (See charts 17 and 18.) Employment of scientists, engineers, and tech nicians increased much more rapid ly than did total employment over the past two decades; the number of scientists and engineers, for example, almost tripled, while the total number of workers in the United States grew by slightly over one-third. The growth of our sci Almost One-Quarter of All Professional Workers Are in Scientific and Technical Jobs 2 3 .5 % Engineers, scientists, and technicians 2 0 .0 % Elementary and secondary teachers 16.5% Professional health workers 4 0 .0 % Other professional w orkers Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. entific and technical work force re sulted from many factors, including overall economic growth, increased research and development (R&D) expenditures; growth of college and university faculties; the race to put Both Engineers and Technicians Outnumber Scientists about 2 to 1_________________________ 18 ESTIMATED EMPLOYMENT 1972 (in hundreds of thousands) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Technicians Engineering and science Draftsmen Surveyors Engineers Electrical__________ M echanical Civil________________ Industrial Other engineers Scientists ____________ Life scientists ; Chemists ____________H E Mathematicians Other scientists__________| H Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. 17 9 10 1 1 a man on the moon; and the de velopment of sophisticated defense systems. Many technological in novations, such as the widespread use of computers, also contributes to the growth. Engineers Engineers play a prominent role in bringing scientific progress into our everyday lives. They convert raw materials and sources of power into products by applying basic scientific principles. Most engineers work in private industry—primarily industries manufacturing machin ery, electrical equipment, and air craft, and firms providing engineering and architectural services. Engineers usually specialize in one of several branches. Electrical and mechanical engineering are the largest specialties. Many engineers further specialize within an indus329 330 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK try such as aerospace, or in a particular field of technology. Engineers perform many func tions in their work. They design, develop, and test equipment; sell technical products; and provide technical assistance to customers. Some supervisory and management jobs require a basic knowledge of engineering. Scientists Scientists help man acquire knowledge about himself and animal and vegetable life. They study the earth and other planets to better understand our environment and to help man obtain the earth’s re sources. The largest group of natural scientists deal with the laws of the physical world; this group includes chemists, physicists, and environ mental scientists. Chemists total more than half of all physical scientists. They usually work in private industry; almost half are in chemical manufacturing. A fifth of all physical scientists are physi microbes. The majority teach or do research in colleges and uni versities. Biological scientists are the largest group of life scientists. Medical scientists have been the fastest growing of all the scientists over the past two decades. Mathematicians, employed in every industry, have grown nearly as fast as medical scientists, and work in a wide variety of activities, ranging from the development of new theories to the translation of scientific and managerial problems into mathematical terms. Scientists have a wide range of jobs. Many work in research, but the specific job varies. Entomolo gists, for example, experiment with ways to encourage production of honeybees. Physiologists study re production of plant and animal cells. Nutritionists discover the amounts and kinds of food ele ments essential to animals. Other scientists research inanimate mat ter. Chemists, for example, deter mine the chemical composition of substances, and physicists may ex periment with lasers. Other oppor tunities in government and private industry include testing and in specting, production oriented jobs, management and administration, and consulting. (58,000) are surveyors. Engineering and science techni cian jobs are more practical and limited in scope than those of engineers and scientists. The more highly skilled jobs require the ability to analyze and solve engi neering and science problems and to prepare reports on tests and experiments. Technicians in research and de velopment set up complex labora tory equipment and help design scientific instruments. In produc tion, they may help test and inspect products or act as a liasion be tween engineering and production departments. Others sell technical products, install complex equip ment, and provide technical serv ices to customers. Training Training for scientific and tech nical work depends on the specific job. Scientists and engineers need at least a bachelor’s degree for entry level jobs. However, increas ing emphasis is being placed on advanced degrees, especially in c i s t s . M o s t w o r k in c o l l e g e s a n d mathematics, physics, and the life universities, teaching or doing re sciences. Some scientific occupa search and development or in pri tions, such as astronomers and vate industry—mostly in companies oceanographers, require a doctor manufacturing aerospace and de ate for full professional status. Technicians fense related products. Most engineers can still enter Environmental scientists (geolo Technicians directly or indirectly their profession with only a bache gists, geophysicists, meteorologists support scientists and engineers in lor’s degree. and oceanographers) are becoming every phase of work, including the Undergraduate training for sci more important as man realizes designing of equipment, the devel entists and engineers includes that the raw materials and sources opment of new products and proces courses in their field and related of energy in the earth are limited. ses, the production of goods, and science fields, including mathema Most of the largest group, geolo the maintenance of machines and tics. Courses in statistics and com gists and geophysicists, work in materials. puter programming analysis are petroleum extraction industries or Nearly two-thirds assist engi becoming more important. Liberal teach and do research in colleges neers and scientists in research and arts requirements include English and universities. development, and in production and a foreign language. Life scientists study all living and quality control jobs in indus In graduate school, students usu organisms and life processes from try. One third of all technicians are ally take several courses in their the largest animals to the smallest draftsmen, and a small percent major area of study. Requirements 331 SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL OCCUPATIONS for the master’s or doctor’s degree vary by institution, but usually in clude a thesis based on independent research. Students who want to specialize in a particular occupa tion should select their schools carefully. For example, biomedical engineers and biochemists working in medicine should study at a university affiliated with a hospital. Agricultural scientists can get the most practical training at State universities that have agricultural experiment stations. Technicians acquire training in many ways. Some complete on-thejob training programs, take formal courses part-time while gaining work experience, or obtain train ing in the Armed Forces. However, many employers seek graduates of specialized training programs. One to four year training programs are offered in post-secondary schools— technical institutes, technical voca tional high schools, junior and community colleges, area vocation al technical schools, and extension divisions of colleges and universities. Outlook Opportunities in scientific and technical occupations are expected to expand through the mid-1980’s. Growth in opportunities assumes that additional numbers of engi neers, scientists, and technicians will be needed to carry out re search and development (R&D) work. In the past, growth in these occupations has been related to increased R&D expenditures, es pecially by the Federal Government. R&D expenditures of government and industry are expected to in crease through the mid-1980’s, al though more slowly than during the 1960’s. If actual R&D levels and patterns differ significantly from those assumed, the outlook in many occupations would be altered. Despite expected growth in all scientific and technical occupations through the mid-1980’s, employ ment and advancement opportuni ties will vary by occupation because of future supply. For example, very rapid growth in employment of mathematicians is anticipated between now and the mid-1980’s. However, because of the sharp in crease projected in the number of people graduating each year with degrees in mathematics, new en trants with the bachelor’s degree may face competition for entry jobs. Scientists, engineers, and techni cians will be needed to develop new technologies and better prod ucts for a larger population and for competition in world markets. Many new interdisciplinary areas also will require technically-trained people to generate and transmit solar energy; solve air, water, and noise pollution problems; create a robot mining system; and control possible earthquakes. The following sections of the handbook provide detailed informa tion for 4 conservation occupations, 11 engineering specialties, 13 sci entific occupations including life, physical, environmental and mathe matical scientists, and 5 technician occupations. CONSERVATION OCCUPATIONS Forests, rangelands, wildlife, soil, and water are important natural resources. Conservationists protect, develop, and manage these re sources to assure that future needs will be met. A young person interested in a career in conservation must have specialized training or experience. Foresters, range managers, and soil conservationists generally need bachelor’s degrees in their fields. Short-term or on-the-job training is usually required for positions such as forestry technicians and aides. In addition to technical knowl edge and skills, conservationists must have a sincere interest in the environment and the desire to pro tect it. They should enjoy dealing with others and like public service, since they often work with people in the community. Flexibility also is important, since a conservationist may work in a remote camping area one week, speak to a com munity group the next, and fight a forest or brush fire the next. This section describes four con servation occupations—forester, forestry technician and aide range manager, and soil conservationist. FORESTERS (D.O.T. 040.081) Nature of the Work Forests are a vital resource. They can be used repeatedly without being destroyed—if properly man 332 aged. The condition of our environ ment has become a major national concern, and foresters play a great role in protecting that environment by insuring that our forests are properly used. They manage, de velop, and protect these lands and their resources—timber, water, wildlife, forage, and recreational areas. Foresters estimate the amount and value of forest resources. They plan and supervise the cutting and planting of trees; the sale of trees and timber; and the processing, marketing, and use of forest prod ucts. Foresters also determine the location and type of recreation that can be allowed in the forest. They protect the forests and their re sources from fire, harmful animals and insects, and diseases. Other duties include wildlife protection, erosion control, and the super vision of camps, parks, and grazing lands. Foresters also do research, pro vide forestry information to forest owners and to the general public (called extension work), and teach at colleges and universities. Foresters usually specialize in one area of work, such as timber management, outdoor recreation, or forest economics. Some of these areas are recognized as distinct professions. Places of Employment About 22,000 persons—most of them men—worked as foresters in 1972. One-third worked in private industry, mainly for pulp and paper, lumber, logging, and milling companies. About one-fourth worked for the Federal Government, pri marily in the Forest Service of the Department of Agriculture, although some worked for the Departments of Interior and Defense. The re mainder worked for State and local governments, colleges and univer sities, consulting firms, or were self-employed, either as consultants or forest owners. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in forestry is the minimum educa tional requirement for those de siring professional careers in forestry. An advanced degree is usually required for teaching and research positions. Education in forestry leading to a bachelor’s or higher degree was offered in 1972 by 51 colleges and universities, of which 39 were ac credited by the Society of American Foresters. Curriculums stress the liberal arts as well as technical forestry subjects, since communi cations skills and the appreciation of American culture are important CONSERVATION OCCUPATIONS to the forester. Specialized forestry courses range from forest ecology (structure of, and interrelationships in the forest community) to forest administration. Many colleges re quire students to spend one sum mer in a field camp operated by the college and encourage summer jobs that give firsthand experience in forest or conservation work. Forestry graduates often work under the supervision of experi enced foresters before advancing to more responsible positions in forest management or research. Foresters must have enthusiasm for outdoor work, and be physically hardy and willing to work in re mote areas. Forestry work makes both intellectual and physical demands. Employment Outlook Requirements for foresters are expected to increase moderately through the mid-1980’s. However, the number of new graduates with degrees in forestry could exceed job openings if current trends in forestry education continue, result ing in keen job competition. The demand for foresters is ex pected to rise as the country’s growing population and rising liv ing standards increase the demand for forest products and the use of forests for recreational purposes. Employment also may increase as we become more aware of the need to conserve and replenish our forest resources, and to improve environ mental quality. Private owners of timberland are expected to employ more foresters as they recognize the need for and the higher profitability of improved forestry and logging practices. The forest products industries also will require additional foresters to ap ply new techniques for using the 333 entire forest crop, to develop meth ods of growing superior trees in a shorter period of time, and to do research in the fields of plant genetics and fertilization. Employment opportunities for foresters in the Federal Govern ment probably will not increase significantly because of the chang ing nature of the forester’s duties. Specialized scientists—hydrologists, landscape architects, civil engineers, etc.—will increasingly perform the more scientific work formerly done by the forester. Aides and techni cians increasingly may perform some of the routine tasks pre viously done by foresters, who will be more concerned with the overall administration and coordination of work done by specialists and aides. On the other hand, State Gov ernment agencies will probably continue to hire foresters. Forest fire control, insect and disease protection, technical assistance to owners of forest lands and other Federal-State cooperative programs are usually channeled through State forestry organizations. Growing de mand for recreation in forest lands may result in the expansion of State parks and other recreational areas. College teaching and research in areas such as forest genetics and forest disease also may pro vide employment opportunities for foresters with graduate degrees. Earnings and Working Conditions Foresters earn high salaries com pared to the average for nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In the Federal Government in early 1973, begin ning foresters with a bachelor’s degree could start at either $7,694 or $9,520 a year, depending on their academic record. Those hav ing 1 or 2 years of graduate work could begin at $9,520 or $11,614, persons having the Ph.D. could start at either $13,996 or $16,682 a year. District rangers employed by the Federal Government in 1972 generally earned between $11,614 and $16,682 a year. Foresters in top level positions earned consider ably more. Beginning salaries of foresters employed by State governments vary widely, but, with a few excep tions, tend to be lower than Federal salaries. Entrance salaries in pri vate industry, according to limited data, are comparable to Federal salary levels. Forestry teachers are paid the same as other faculty members. (See statement on College and University Teachers.) Forestry pro fessors may add to their regular salaries with income from parttime consulting and lecturing and the writing of books and articles. The forester—especially in be ginning jobs—spends considerable time outdoors in all kinds of weather. Foresters may also work extra hours on emergency duty, such as Fire-fighting. Sources of Additional Information General information about the forestry profession, lists of reading materials and lists of schools of fering education in forestry are available from: Society of American Foresters, 1010 16th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. General information is also avail able from: American Forest Institute, 1619 Massachusettes Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. American Forestry Association, 1319 18th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Information on forestry careers 334 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK in the Forest Service is available from: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, D.C. 20250. FORESTRY AIDES AND TECHNICIANS (D.O.T. 441.137 through 441.887) Nature of the Work Forestry aides, and technicians at higher career levels, help for esters care for and manage forest lands and their resources. (See statement on Foresters earlier in this chapter.) Aides help estimate present and potential timber production in a certain area and measure logs to find out how much lumber they will yield. If new roads are needed to make the timber accessible for cutting, aides may work as part of road building or surveying crews. Aides inspect trees for diseases and other problems, and keep rec ords of their findings. On simple watershed improvement projects, they install, maintain, and collect records from rain gauges, streamflow recorders, and instruments that measure soil moisture. Forestry aides also help to pre vent and control fires. They give fire prevention information to people using the forest and lead fire-fighting crews if a fire occurs. After putting out the fire, they take inventory of burned areas and plant new trees and shrubs to restore the forest. Some forestry technicians super vise timber sales and road building crews or determine recreation-area use. Others work on research proj ects which make use of their practical skills and experience. Forestry aides inspect trees for diseases and other problems. Technicians also explain forest reg ulations and policies to those using the forest and enforce these rules. Places of Employment About 14,500 persons worked as forestry aides and technicians in 1972. Some of these were sea sonal employees. Almost half the total worked for the Federal Gov ernment, primarily in the Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Another 2,300 worked for State Governments. About 5,000 worked in private industry, mainly for logging, lumber, and paper companies. Forestry aides also work in tree nurseries and on forestation projects of mining, oil, and railroad companies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Young persons qualify for be ginning jobs as forestry aides or technicians by completing a special ized 1- or 2-year post secondary school, or through work experience or a government sponsored train ing program. In 1972, about 90 technical institutes, junior or com munity colleges, and universities offered forest technician training, of which 46 are recognized by the Society of American Foresters. Specialized courses include land surveying, tree identifications, and aerial photograph interpretation. To gain experience, students may spend time working in a forest or camp operated by the school. Young people also may qualify for beginning forestry aide jobs by completing programs sponsored under the Manpower Development and Training Act. These programs are presently available in 20 states, over half of the trainees work in Washington, Colorado, and Florida. Persons who have not had speci fic training usually must have ex perience in forest work, such as planting trees or fighting fires, to qualify for beginning forestry aide jobs. The Federal Government re quires that applicants for techni cian jobs have 2 years of related work experience, such as in agricul ture, although technical training in forestry may be substituted for this experience. Enthusiasm for outdoor work, physical stamina, and the ability to carry out tasks without direct supervision are essential for success in this field. The aide should be able to work with survey crews, users of the forest lands, forest owners, and professional foresters. Many jobs also require a willing ness to live and work in remote areas. Well trained technicians need to understand the basic principles of math and science. They must ex press their ideas clearly when talking to others. Besides having specialized knowledge of their own 335 CONSERVATION OCCUPATIONS work, they should be aware of the other materials and techniques used in forestry. Forest technicians generally be gin work as trainees or in relatively routine positions under the direct supervision of an experienced tech nician, scientist, or professional forester. As they gain experience, they are given more responsibility, and often move into supervisory positions. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for forestry aides are expected to in crease very rapidly through the mid1980’s. Job opportunities will be especially good for those with specialized post-high school technial training in forestry. As the employment of foresters continues to grow, increasing num bers of forestry aides and techni cians will be needed to assist them. In addition, aides and technicians increasingly will perform many of the more routine jobs now being done by foresters. Another impor tant factor leading to increased demand for forest technicians is the technological growth in the forest industry. Trained technicians will be required to help profes sional foresters use specialized and efficient laborsaving machines and to apply sophisticated scientific development methods to forest management. The Federal Government is also likely to offer increasing employ ment opportunities through the mid-1980’s, mainly in the Forest Service of the Department of Agricul ture. Similarly, State governments will probably increase their em ployment of forestry aides. Growth in government employment will stem from factors such as increas ing demand for recreational areas and the trend toward more scienti fic management of forest land and water supplies. RANGE MANAGERS Earnings and Working Conditions Nature of Work Annual earnings of forestry aides and technicians range from about $5,000 to almost $16,000; those having high earnings usually have had many years of experience. For estry aides have average salaries that are higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In the Federal Government, be ginning forestry aides and techni cians earned between $5,432 and $7,694 a year in early 1973, de pending on the applicant’s educa tion and experience. Beginning salaries in private industry were slightly higher, according to the limited data available. Forestry aides spend consider able time outdoors in all weather conditions. In emergencies, such as fighting fires and controlling floods, forestry aides work many extra hours. Climate conditions in some areas limit year-round field work, and some jobs, such as fire fighting, are seasonal in nature. Rangelands cover more than 1 billion acres of the United States, mostly in the Western States and Alaska. They contain many natural resources: grass and shrubs for animal grazing, habitats for live stock and wildlife, facilities for water sports and other kinds of recreation, and areas for scientific study of the environment. These renewable resources can yield their full potential only if properly managed. Range managers, sometimes called range conservationists, range sci entists, or range ecologists, manage improve, and protect range resources. They decide, for example, the num ber and kind of animals to be grazed and the best season for graz ing; and thus how to yield a high production of livestock while con serving soil and vegetation for other uses such as wildlife grazing, outdoor recreation, watersheds, and growing timber. Range managers also restore or improve rangelands through techniques such as con trolled burning, reseeding, and the biological, chemical, or mechanical control of undesirable plants. For example, rangelands with natural sagebrush vegetation may be plowed up and reseeded with a more pro ductive grass. They also determine and carry out range conservation and development needs such as pro viding for animal watering facili ties, erosion control, and fire pre vention. Because of the multiple use of rangelands, range managers often work in such closely related fields as wildlife and watershed manage ment, forest management, and rec reation. They also may teach, write reports, conduct research in range Sources of Additional Information I n fo r m a tio n about a career in the Federal Government as a for estry aide is available from: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, D.C. 20250. For a list of schools recognized by the Society of American For esters offering training in the field write to: Society of American Foresters, 1010 16th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. (D.O.T. 040.081) 336 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK agencies or for foreign govern ments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Range managers study terrain to decide the num ber and kinds of anim als to be grazed. management and improvement, and give technical assistance to hold ers of privately owned grazing lands and to foreign countries. Places of Employment About 4,000 persons—most of them men—worked as range man agers in 1972. Additional numbers were employed in range manage ment activities but not necessarily as range managers. The majority worked for Federal, State, and local government agencies. In the Fed eral Government, most worked in Forest Service and the Soil Con servation Service of the Depart ment of Agriculture and the Bureau of Land Management of the Department of the Interior. Range managers in State govern ments are employed in game and fish departments, State land agencies, and extension services. Some range managers work for privately-owned range livestock ranches and consulting firms, and some manage their own land. A few are self-employed consultants. Others work for manufacturing, sales, and service companies, and as rangeland appraisers for banks and real estate firms. A few range managers also teach and do research at colleges and universities, or work overseas with United States or United Nations A bachelor’s degree with a major in range management or range con servation is the usual background for range managers. In the Federal Government, a- degree in a closely related field, such as agronomy or forestry, including courses in range management and range conserva tion, also may be accepted. Grad uate degrees are generally required for teaching and research, and may be helpful for advancement in most jobs. In 1972, 14 colleges and univer sities had programs leading to a de gree in range management or range science. Ten schools had programs in related fields such as forestry, botany, or agronomy, with an option in range management. Fourteen schools offered a masters degree in range management or range science, and 12 schools offered a Ph.D degree in range science or a related field with a range major. A degree in range management requires a basic knowledge of biol ogy, chemistry, physics, mathemat ics, and communication skills. Ad vanced courses combine plant, animal, and soil sciences with principles of ecology and resource management. Desirable electives include econom ics, computer science, forestry, wild life, and recreation. Federal Government agencies, primarily the Forest Service, the Soil Conservation Service, and the Bureau of Land Management, hire some college juniors and seniors for summer jobs in range manage ment. This experience may help them qualify for jobs when they graduate. Many jobs require vigorous physical activity and a willingness 337 CONSERVATION OCCUPATIONS to work in arid and sparsely popu lated areas. Besides having a love for the outdoors, range managers should be able to write and speak effectively and work with others. Employment Outlook Earnings and Working Conditions Range managers have high earn ings compared with average earn ings for a nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In the Federal Government, range managers with the bachelor’s de gree start at either $7,694 or $9,520 a year, depending on their college grades. Those having 1 or 2 years of graduate work begin at $9,520 or $11,614; persons with Ph.D. degrees start at either $13,996 or $16,682 a year. Starting salaries for range man agers who work for State govern ments are about the same as those paid by the Federal Government. According to limited data, those who work on private ranches earn somewhat lower salaries than per sons who work for government agencies. In colleges and univer sities, starting salaries are generally the same as those paid other faculty members. (See statement on College and University Teachers.) Range managers in educational institu tions sometimes add to their regu lar salaries with income from parttime consulting and lecturing and from writing books and articles. Range managers may spend con siderable time away from home working outdoors in remote parts of the range. Employment opportunities for range managers are expected to in crease slowly through the mid 1980’s. Public concern about the environment, however, could lead to greater opportunities for all types of conservationists, including range managers. Actual hiring needs, though, are heavily depen dent on specialized legislation. In the Federal Government, for ex ample, the Wild Horse and Burro Act passed in December 1971 cre ate requirements for range man agers to administer the program for protection, control, and manage ment of these animals. Population growth and increas ing consumption of meat and other rangeland animal products should contribute to increasing require ments for range managers. Since the amount of rangeland is general ly fixed, range managers will be needed to increase the output of rangelands while protecting their ecological balance. Also, the use of rangelands for other purposes besides livestock grazing such as wildlife protection and recreation could create additional needs for Sources of Additional Information range managers. If private ranch owners decide Information about a career as a to live away from their ranches, range manager as well as a list of these absentee owners may hire pro schools offering training is avail fessional range managers to operate able from: their ranches. A few openings for Society for Range Management, 2120 South Birch St., Denver, Colo. 80222. technical assistants are expected in developing countries of the Middle For information about career East, Africa, and South America. opportunities in the Federal Govern In addition to new jobs, some ment, contact: openings will arise from the need Bureau of Land Management, Denver to replace those who die, retire, or Service Center, Federal Center Building 50, Denver, Col. 80255. transfer to other occupations. or Portland Service Center, 710 N E. Holladay St., Portland, Oreg. 97208. Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agri culture, 1621 North Kent Street Arling ton, Va. 20415. Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250. SOIL CONSERVATIONISTS (D.O.T. 040.081) Nature of the Work Soil conservationists supply farm ers, ranchers, and others with tech nical assistance for conservation of soil and water. Farmers and other land managers use this technical assistance in adjusting land use, protecting land against future soil deterioration, rebuilding eroded and depleted soils, and stabilizing run off and sediment-producing areas. They also help improve cover on lands devoted to raising crops, and maintaining forest, pasture, and range land, and the wildlife they support. They help plan water hand ling, conserving water for farm and ranch use, reducing damage from flood water and sediment, and draining or irrigating farms or ranches as needed. The types of technical services provided by soil conservationists are many. Maps present inventories of soil, water, vegetation, and other details essential in conservation planning and application. They de velop information, for proper land utilization and treatment suitable to planned use of the land, varying from field or partial farm or ranch through groups of farms or ranches to entire watersheds. Relative cost and expected returns help to deter mine various alternatives of land use and treatment. 338 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK to higher salaried technical admini strative jobs. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for well-trained soil conservationists are good. Opportunities in the profes sion will expand because govern ment agencies, public utility com panies, banks, and other organiza tions are becoming interested in conservation and are adding conser vationists to their staffs. Other new openings will occur in college teaching, particularly at the under graduate level. In addition, some openings will result because of the normal turnover in personnel. Earnings Soil conservationists provide farmers with technical assistance. After the landowner or operator decides upon the conservation pro gram to use the conservationist rec ords the relevant facts as part of a plan. This, together with the maps and other supplemental information, constitutes a plan of action for con servation farming or ranching. The soil conservationist then gives the land manager technical guidance in applying and maintaining these con servation practices. Conservation Service and by the Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Indian Affairs. Some are employed by colleges and State and local governments, and others by banks and public utili ties. Training and Advancement A Bachelor of Science degree with a major in soil conservation or one of the closely related natural science or agricultural fields, with Where Employed 30 semester hours in these Fields An estimated 12,000 soil con including a 3-semester-hour course servationists were employed in in soils, constitute the minimum 1972. Most soil conservationists requirement for soil conservationists. are employed by Federal Govern Those who have unusual aptitude ment, mainly by the U.S. De in the various phases of the work partment of Agriculture’s Soil have good chances of advancement Soil conservationists having a bachelor’s degree and employed by the Federal Government received $7,694 a year in early 1973. Advance ment to $9,520 could be expected after 1 year of satisfactory service. Further advancement depends upon the individual’s ability to accept greater responsibility. Earnings of well-qualified Federal soil conser vationists with several years’ experi ence range from $13,996 to $23,088 a year. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on em ployment as a soil conservationist may be obtained from the U.S. Civil Service Commission, Wash ington, D.C. 20415; Employment Division, Office of Personnel, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Wash ington, D.C. 20250; or any office of the Department’s Soil Conserva tion Service. ENGINEERS “One small step for man, one giant leap for mankind,” were man’s first words as he stepped on the surface of the moon. Exploring the moon had been an idea or dream for centuries, and this is one ex ample of what engineering is about, changing ideas into reality. The emphasis on applying scientific prin ciples, rather than on their dis covery, is a main factor that dis tinguishes engineers from scientists. With over 1 million members engineering is the second largest professional occupation, exceeded only by teachers. For men it is the largest profession. Most engineers specialize in one of the many branches of the profession. More than 25 engineering specialties are recognized by professional societies. Besides the major branches, engi neering has over 85 subdivisions. Structural, sanitary, hydraulic, and highway engineering, for example, are subdivisions of civil engineering. Engineers may also specialize in the engineering problems of one in dustry, or in particular field of technology such as propulsion or guidance systems. Since basic knowledge is required for all areas of engineering, it is possible for engineers to shift from one field of specialization to another, particu larly early in their careers. Besides these common areas of basic knowl edge and methods, inter-disciplinary programs both within engineering science and other specialities are increasing in popularity. Therefore, persons considering engineering as a career should become familiar with the general nature of engi neering as well as with its various branches. This section which contains an overall discussion of engineering, is followed by separate statements on 11 branches of the profession— aerospace, agricultural, biomedical, ceramic, chemical, civil, electrical, industrial, mechanical, metallurgi cal, and mining engineering. Nature of the Work Engineers contribute in count less ways to the welfare, techno logical progress and defense of the Nation by developing methods for making natures raw materials and power sources into useful products at a reasonable cost. They develop electric power, water supply, and waste disposal systems to meet the problems of urban living. They de sign industrial machinery and equip ment needed to manufacture goods; and heating, air-conditioning, and ventilation equipment for more comfortable living. Engineers also develop scientific equipment to probe outer space and the ocean depths, and design, plan, and super vise the construction of buildings, highways and rapid transit systems. They also, design and develop con sumer products such as automobiles, television sets, and refrigerators, and systems for control and auto mation of manufacturing, business, and management process. Engineers must consider many factors in developing a new prod uct. In designing a space capsule, for example, they calculate the amount of heat, radiation, and pressure the capsule must with stand for the safety of the occu pants and the proper working of its instruments. Experiments are con ducted that relate these factors to various materials, as well as to many capsule sizes, shapes, and weights. Equally important are the human needs and limitations of the people who operate the equipment. Engineers also consider the cost of the materials and time needed to complete the product. Similar factors are applicable to most prod ucts ranging from artificial hearts to electronic computers and indus trial machinery. In addition to design and devel opment, engineers work in inspec tion, quality control, and many other activities related to manu facturing, mining, and agriculture. Some are in administrative and management jobs where an engi neering background is necessary. Many are employed in sales where they must discuss the technical aspects of a product and assist in planning its installation or use. (See statement on Manufacturers’ Sales men elsewhere in the Handbook). Some conduct research to supply the technological data needed for the design and production of new or improved products. Other engi neers with considerable experience work as consultants. Another group, especially at the Ph.D. level, teach in the engineering and technical schools of colleges and universities. Engineers within each of the branches may apply their special ized knowledge to many fields. Elec trical engineers, for example, may work in medicine, computers, mis sile guidance, or electric power dis tribution. Because engineering prob lems are usually complex, the work in some fields cuts across the tradi tional branches. Using a team ap proach to solve problems, engineers in one field often work closely with 339 340 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK specialists in other scientific, engi neering, and business occupations. Places of Employment About 1 million people worked as engineers in 1972, about 1 per cent were women. More than half work in manufacturing—mostly in electrical equipment, aircraft and parts, machinery, chemicals, ord nance, instruments, primary metals, fabricated metal products, and motor vehicles industries. Over 325,000 were employed in non manufacturing industries in 1972, primarily construction, public utilities, engineering and architec tural services, and business and management consulting services. Federal, State, and local govern ments employed more than 150,000 engineers. Over half worked for the Federal Government. Many engi neers were employed by the Depart ments of Defense, Interior, Agri culture, Transportation, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Most engineers in State and local government agencies worked in highway and public works departments. Colleges and universities em ployed almost 45,000 engineers in research and teaching jobs, and a small number worked for non profit research organizations. Engineers are employed in every State, in small and large cities and in rural areas. However, about two-thirds of all engineers in pri vate industry are employed in 10 States, and of these almost onethird are in California, New York, and Pennsylvania. Some branches of engineering are concentrated in particular industries, as shown in the statements later in this chapter. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in engineer ing is the generally accepted educa tional requirement for beginning engineering jobs. College graduates trained in one of the natural sci ences or mathematics also may qualify for some beginning jobs. Technicians with exceptional abil ity, experience, and some engineer ing education are sometimes able to advance to engineering jobs. Graduate training is being em phasized for an increasing number of jobs; it is essential for most be ginning teaching and research posi tions, and desirable for advance ment. Some specialties, such as nuclear engineering, generally are taught only at the graduate level. About 280 colleges, universities, and engineering schools offer a bachelor’s degree in engineering. Although most schools offer the larger branches of engineering, some specialties are taught in very few institutions. Students desiring specialized training should be familiar with various curriculums before selecting a college. Under graduate engineering schools re quire high school courses in mathe matics and the physical sciences and the quality of the student’s high school work is important in gaining admission. In a typical 4-year curriculum, the first 2 years are spent on basic science—mathematics, phys ics, and chemistry—and the hu manities, social sciences, and Eng lish. The last 2 years are devoted to engineering with emphasis on a specialty. Some programs offer a general engineering education and the student chooses a specialty in graduate school or acquires one on the job. Some engineering curriculums require more than 4 years to com plete. Although, the number of col leges and universities having 5year programs that lead to the bachelor’s degree is decreasing, several now offer 5 year master’s degree programs. In addition, sev eral engineering schools now have formal arrangements with liberal arts colleges whereby a student spends 3 years in liberal arts and 2 years in engineering and receives a bachelor’s degree from each. These programs offer students di versification in their studies. Some schools have 5- or even 6year cooperative plans where the student alternates between school and work. Most plans coordinate classroom study and practical ex perience. In addition to gaining ex perience students may finance part of their education. All 50 States and the District of Columbia require licensing for en gineers whose work may affect life, health, or property, or who offer their services to the public. In 1972, about 325,000 engineers were reg istered under these laws. Generally, registration requirements include graduation from an accredited en gineering school plus 4 years of ex perience and passing a State exami nation. Engineers should be able to work as part of a team, be creative, have initiative, an analytical mind, a capacity for detail, and the ability to make decisions. They should be able to express their ideas to spe cialists in other areas such as marketing and production plan ning. Because of rapidly changing technologies, engineers must be willing to continue their education throughout their career. Engineering graduates usually begin work as assistants to experi enced engineers. Many companies have special programs to acquaint new engineers with special indus trial practices and to determine the specialties for which they are best suited. Experienced engineers may advance to positions of greater re sponsibility; those with proven 341 ENGINEERS ability often become administra tors; increasingly large numbers are being promoted to top execu tive jobs. Some engineers obtain graduate degrees in business ad ministration to improve their ad vancement opportunities; others obtain law degrees and become patent attorneys. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for engineers are expected to be favor able through the mid-1980’s. En gineering has been one of the fastest-growing occupations over the past two decades, and oppor tunities for engineers are expected to increase very rapidly through the mid-1980’s though at a slower rate than during the past. Demand probably will be strong for new graduates with knowledge of recent techniques, including computer ap plications, and for engineers who can apply engineering principles to medical, biological, and other sciences. Opportunities for engineers are related to population growth and industrial expansion to meet the demand for more goods and serv ices. In addition, more engineering time is required to develop complex industrial products and processes and to increase industrial automa tion. Public emphasis on solving domestic problems such as environ mental pollution, urban redevelop ment, and new sources of power should also create additional job opportunities. Some of the past increases in en gineering employment resulted from increases in Federal research and development (R&D) expendi tures for space- and defense-related programs. Through the mid-1980’s R&D expenditures of Government and industry are expected to con tinue to increase, but at a slower rate than during the 1960’s. The slowdown in Federal R&D spend ing in the late 1960’s and early 1970’s basically reflects reductions in the relative importance of the space and defense components of R&D expenditures. Opportunities for engineers are also affected by defense spending, since a large number of engineers work in defense related activities. The long range outlook for engi neers assumes that defense spend ing in the mid 1980’s will be some what lower than the peak Vietnam levels. If defense activity should differ substantially from that level, the demand for engineers will be affected. In addition to the level of defense spending, general business condi tions, shifting National priorities, and non-defense-related Federal programs and policies also influ ence the demand for engineers. Thus, opportunities for engineers fluctuate periodically. In the shortrun, the available engineering jobs can either exceed or fall short of the number of persons looking for jobs, but over the long run, engi neers can look forward to favor able job opportunities. Besides filling new jobs, thou sands of engineers will have to be trained to replace those who trans fer to other occupations, retire, or die. (The outlook for various branches are discussed in the separate statements later in this section.) Earnings and Working Conditions New engineering graduates with a bachelor’s degree and no experi ence had average starting salaries of $10,700 a year in private indus try in 1972 according to the College Placement Council. Master’s degree graduates with no experi ence averaged almost $12,300 a year; Ph.D. graduates averaged about $16,400. Starting salaries for those with the bachelor’s degree vary by branch as shown in accom panying table. Starting salaries for engineers, by branch, 1971-72 Branch A verage starting salaries Aeronautical engineering .. Chemical engineering ......... Civil engineering .................. Electrical engineering ......... Industrial engineering............ Mechanical engineering . . . Metallurgical engineering .. $10,600 11,100 10,400 10,700 10,500 10,700 10,600 In the Federal Government in early 1973, engineers with a bache lor’s degree and no experience could start at $7,694 or $9,520 a year, depending on their college records. Beginning engineers with a bache lor’s degree and 1 or 2 years of graduate work could start at $9,520 or $11,614. Those having a Ph.D. degree could begin at $13,996 or $16,682. In colleges and universities, en gineers with a Ph.D. degree started in 1972 at about $12,500 a year as assistant professors for a 9-10 month academic year. (See state ment on College and University Teachers elsewhere in the Hand book.) Most engineers can expect an increase in earnings as they gain experience. Average salaries of ex perienced engineers are about twice those of nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. According to an Engineering Manpower Commission Survey, the average salary for engineers with 21 to 23 years of experience was $19,600 in 1972. Some in top-level executive positions had much higher earnings. Engineers generally work under quiet conditions in modern offices and research laboratories. Some, however, may be involved in more active work—in a mine, at a con OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 342 struction or missile site, or some other outdoor location. Sources of Additional Information General information on engineer ing careers—including student se lection and guidance, professional training, salaries, and other eco nomic aspects of engineering—is available from: Some engineers are members of labor unions. Information on en gineering unions is available from: International Federation of Professional and Technical Engineers, 1126 16th St. NW ., Washington, D.C. 20036. Employment Outlook AEROSPACE ENGINEERS Engineers’ Council for Professional De velopment, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. (D.O.T. 002.081) Engineering Manpower Commission, En gineers Joint Council, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Nature of the Work National Society of Professional En gineers, 2029 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Information on engineering schools, curriculums, training, and other qualifications needed for entrance into the profession also may be obtained from the Engineers Coun cil for Professional Development. Information on registration of en gineers may be obtained from: National Council of Engineering Ex aminers, P.O. Box 752, Clemson, S.C. 29613. For information about graduate study contact: The American Society of Engineering Education, One Dupont Circle, Suite 400, Washington, D.C. 20036. Engineering societies represent ing the individual branches of the engineering profession are listed later in this chapter. Each can pro vide information about careers in the particular branch. Many other engineering organizations are listed in the following publications avail able in most libraries or from the publisher. Engineering Societies Directory, pub lished by Engineers Joint Council, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Scientific and Technical Societies of the United States and Canada, pub lished by the National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council. agencies, primarily the National Aeronautics and Space Administra tion and the Department of Defense. A few worked for commercial air lines, consulting firms, and colleges and universities. Aerospace engineers play a vital role in America’s space activities. They work on all types of aircraft and spacecraft including missiles, rockets, and propeller-driven and jetpowered planes. They develop aero space products from the initial plan ning and design to the final assembly and testing. Aerospace engineers generally spe cialize in an area of work like structural design, navigational guid ance and control, instrumentation and communication, or production methods. They also may specialize in one type of aerospace products such as passenger planes, launch vehicles, satellites, manned space capsules, or landing modules. Engineers working in the aircraft field are usually called aeronautical engineers. Those in the field of mis siles, rockets, and spacecraft often are referred to as astronautical engi neers. However, engineers with de grees in aeronautics and astronautics are usually called aerospace en gineers. Places of Employment About 60,000 aerospace engineers— many with degrees in mechanical, electrical or industrial engineering— were employed in 1972, mainly in the aircraft and parts industry. Some worked for Federal Government Job opportunities for aerospace engineers are expected to grow moderately through the mid-1980’s. Development of vertical and short take-off and landing (V/STOL) air craft and the quiet short-haul air transportation system (QSATS), as well as the space shuttle, should pro vide job opportunities. Research with lasers and advancement in missiles and space exploration fol lowed by unmanned flights to other planets will require aerospace en gineers. As the demand for high speed ground transportation in creases, engineers familiar with aero space techniques could be needed for their development. With the end of the Vietnam con flict and priorities now aimed at health and environmental control, and the encouragement of industry to expand the peaceful uses of atomic energy, aerospace engineers with diversified training such as bioengineering and radiation pro tection will be needed. Additional openings for aerospace engineers will arise from the need to replace those who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Aerospace engineers are particu larly sensitive to changes in defense spending. Those who are not well grounded in engineering funda mentals and whose specialization is very narrow could be affected adversely by changes in defense activities and rapidly changing tech nology. Therefore employment op portunities fluctuate, and the de mand can fall short of the supply in any year. Employment oppor 343 ENGINEERS tunities however, are expected to increase over the long run. This outlook assumes that defense spend ing will be somewhat lower than the peak Vietnam levels. If de fense activities should differ sub stantially from that level, the demand for aerospace engineers will be affected. (See introductory sec tion of this chapter for discussion of training requirements and earn ings. See also statement on Aircraft, Missile, and Spacecraft Manufactur ing elsewhere in the Handbook.) Sources of Additional Information American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y . 10019. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 013.081) Nature of the Work engineers employed in 1972 worked for manufacturers of farm and household equipment, electric serv ice companies, and distributors of farm equipment and supplies. Some worked for engineering consultants who supply services to farmers and farm related industries; others are independent consultants. The Federal Government employs about 600 agricultural engineers in the Soil Conservation Service and Agricultural Research Service of the Department of Agriculture. Some are employed by colleges and uni versities, and a few are employed by State and local governments. Employment Outlook Job opportunities for agricultural engineers are expected to grow rapidly through the mid-1980’s. The modernization of farm operations, increasing emphasis on conservation of resources, and the use of agri cultural products and wastes as industrial raw materials should pro vide increasing opportunities for agricultural engineers. The increas ing use of energy and power on farms also should provide oppor tunities for additional engineers. (See introductory part of this sec tion for information on training requirements and earnings. See also statement on Agriculture elsewhere in the Handbook.) Agricultural engineers develop machinery, equipment, and methods to improve the efficiency and econ omy of the production, processing, and distribution of food and other agricultural products. They design farm machinery, equipment, and structures, and develop methods for utilizing electrical energy on farms and in food and feed proces sing plants. Agricultural engineers Sources of Additional Information also are concerned with the con American Society of Agricultural servation and management of soil Engineers, 2950 Niles Rd., St. and water resources, and with the Joseph, Mich. 49085. design and operation of processing equipment to prepare agricultural products for market. They general ly specialize in research and devel opment, design, testing, production, sales, or management. Places of Employment Most of the 12,000 agricultural BIOM EDICAL ENGINEERS Nature of the Work Biomedical engineers use engi neering principles to solve medical and health related problems. Many in research, working with life scien tists, chemists, and members of the medical profession study the engi neering aspects of the biological systems of man and animals. Some design and develop medical instru ments and devices including artificial hearts and kidneys. Biomedical en gineers have helped develop lasers for surgery and cardiac pacemakers that regulate the heartbeat. Other biomedical engineers adapt com puters to medical science by mon itoring patients and processing electrocardiograph data. Some de sign and build systems to modernize laboratory, hospital and clinical pro cedures. A few sell medical instru ments and equipment to physicians, research centers, and hospitals. Places of Employment There were 3,000 biomedical engi neers in 1972; most members of this branch of engineering teach and do research in colleges and universities. Some work for the Federal Govern ment, primarily in the National Aeronautics and Space Administra tion. Others work in State agencies, and an increasing number work in private industry or hospitals, devel oping new devices, techniques, and systems for improving health care. Some work in sales positions. Employment Outlook Job opportunities for biomedical engineers are expected to be very favorable through the mid-1980’s. Biomedical engineering is a small field and has few openings in a year compared with larger branches 344 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK of ceramic products. These range from glassware, cement, bricks, coatings, and heat resisting mate rials for missile nose cones to electronic components and mate rials used as body sensors and monitors. They also design and supervise the construction of plants and equipment to manufacture these products. Many are engaged in re search and development. Some work in administration, production, and sales; others work as consultants or teach in colleges and universities. Ceramic engineers generally spe cialize in one or more products— for example, products of refractories (fire-and heat-resistant materials such as firebrick); whitewares (porcelain and china dinnerware or high voltage electrical insulators); structural materials (such as brick tile, and terra cotta); electronic ceramics (ferrites for memory sys tems and microwave devices); pro tective and refractory coatings for metals; glass; abrasives; or fuel elements for atomic energy. Most biomedical engineers do research. Places of Employment of engineering, but the number of graduates is small. Those who have master’s and doctor’s degrees will be in strong demand to teach and fill jobs result ing from increased expenditures for research and to develop more artificial devices. Research could create new positions in instrumenta tion and systems for the delivery of health services. (See introductory part of this chapter for informa tion on training requirements and earnings.) Biomedical Engineering Society P.O. Box 1600, Evanston, 111. 60204. Foundation for Medical Technology Mt. Sinai Medical Center, 100 Street, 5th Ave., New York, N.Y. 10029. CERAMIC ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 006.081) Nature of the Work Sources of Additional Information Alliance for Engineering in Medicine and Biology, 3900 Wisconsin Ave. NW., Suite 300, Washington, D.C. 20016. About 12,000 ceramic engineers were employed in 1972, mostly in the stone, clay, and glass industries. Others work in industries that pro duce or use ceramic products such as iron and steel, electrical equip ment, aerospace, and chemicals. Some are in the educational field, independent research organizations, and the Federal Government. Ceramic engineers work with one of the world’s oldest and yet newest technologies. They develop methods for processing clay and other nonmetallic minerals into a wide variety Employment Outlook Job opportunities for ceramic engineers are expected to be very good through the mid-1980’s. Al though ceramic engineering is a small field, and has few openings in a year compared with large branches of engineering, the number of graduates is small. ENGINEERS Programs related to nuclear energy, electronics, space explora tion, and medical science will pro vide many opportunities for ceramic engineers. Ceramic materials, which are corrosion-resistant and able to withstand radiation and extremely high temperatures, are becoming increasingly important in the de velopment of nuclear reactors and space vehicles. The use of more traditional ceramic products, such as whitewares and abrasives, for consumer and industrial use will require additional ceramic engineers to improve and adapt these products to new uses. The use of structural clay and tile products in construc tion also will add to employment opportunities. The development of filters and catalytic surfaces to reduce pollution and the expanding use of glass in the construction and container fields should create addi tional openings for ceramic engi neers. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) 345 diversified and complex that chem ical engineers frequently specialize in a particular operation such as oxidation or polymerization. Others specialize in a particular area such as environmental control or in the production of a specific product like plastics or rubber. Chemical engineers may work in research and development, production, plant op erations, design, sales, management or teaching. ments and earnings. See also the statement on Chemists and the In dustrial Chemical Industry else where in the Handbook.) Places of Employment CIVIL ENGINEERS Most of the 50,000 chemical engineers working in 1972 were in manufacturing industries, primarily those producing chemicals, petro leum, and related products. Some were employed by government agencies and by colleges and uni versities. A small number worked for independent research institutes and engineering consulting firms, or as independent consulting engineers. (D.O.T. 005.081) Employment Outlook Sources of Additional Information American Ceramic Society, 65 Ce ramic Dr., Columbus, Ohio 43214. CHEM IC A L ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 008.081) Nature of the Work Chemical engineers design chem ical plants and equipment, and de termine the most efficient process to manufacture chemicals and chem ical products. This requires a knowl edge of chemistry, physics, and mechanical and electrical engineer ing. They often design and operate pilot plants to test their work. This branch of engineering is so Opportunities for chemical en gineers are expected to increase moderately through the mid-1980’s. A major factor underlying this growth is industry expansion—the chemicals industry in particular. The growing complexity and automation of chemical processes will require additional chemical engineers to design, build, and maintain the necessary plants and equipment. Chemical engineers also will be needed in many new areas of work, such as environmental control, synthetic food processing, and in the design and development of nuclear reactors. In addition, new chemicals used to manufacture consumer goods, such as plastics and manmade fibers, probably will create additional openings. (See in troductory part of this section for information on training require Sources of Additional Information American Institute of Chemical En gineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Nature of the Work Civil engineering is one of the oldest branches of the profession. These engineers design and super vise the construction of roads, har bors, airfields, tunnels, bridges, water supply and sewage systems, and buildings. Major specialties within civil engineering are struc tural, hydraulic, environmental, sanitary, transportation (including highways and railways), and soil mechanics. Many civil engineers are in supervisory or administrative posi tions ranging from site supervisor of a construction project or city engineer to top-level executive. Some are engaged in design, plan ning, research, and inspection. Others teach in colleges and uni versities or work as consultants. Places of Employment About 180,000 civil engineers were employed in 1972. Most work for Federal, State, and local gov ernment agencies and in the con struction industry. Many work for consulting engineering and archi tectural firms or as independent consulting engineers. Others work for public utilities, railroads, edu- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 346 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 003.081,.151, an d .187) Nature of the Work Engineers supervise construction cational institutions, and in the iron and steel and other major manu facturing industries. Civil engineers work in all parts of the country, usually in or near major industrial and commercial centers. They are often called upon to work at construction sites, and are sometimes stationed in remote areas or in foreign countries. In some jobs, they must often move from place to place to work on different projects. Employment Outlook Opportunities for civil engineers should increase rapidly through the mid-1980’s. Job opportunities will result from the growing needs for housing, industrial buildings, and Electrical engineers design, devel op, and supervise the manufacture of electrical and electronic equipment. These include electric motors and generators; communications equip ment; electronic equipment such as heart pacemakers, pollution meas uring instrumentation, radar, com puters, lasers, and missile guidance systems; and electrical appliances of all kinds. They also design and assist in operating facilities for gen erating and distributing electrical power. Electrical engineers generally spe cialize in a major area of work such as electronics, electrical equipment manufacturing, communications, or power. Others specialize in sub divisions of these broad areas like computers or missile guidance and tracking systems. Many are engaged in research, development, and de of buildings and other projects. sign activities. Some are in ad ministrative and management jobs; others work in various manufactur highway transportation systems ing operations or in technical sales created by an increasing population or teaching jobs. and expanding economy. Work re lated to problems of urban environ Places of Employment ment, such as water and sewage Electrical engineering is the larg systems, air and water pollution, urban redevelopment, and rapid est branch of the profession. More transit systems may require addi than 230,000 electrical engineers tional civil engineers. were employed in 1972, mainly by Large numbers of civil engineers manufacturers of electrical and elec also will be needed each year to tronic equipment, aircraft and parts, replace those who retire or die. business machines, and professional (See introductory part of this sec and scientific equipment. Many tion for information on training work for telephone, telegraph, and requirements and earnings.) electric light and power companies. Large numbers are employed by government agencies and by col Sources of Additional Information leges and universities. Others work American Society of Civil Engineers for construction firms, for engineer 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. ing consultants, or as independent 10017. consulting engineers. ENGINEERS 347 requirements and earnings. See also statement on Electronics Manufac turing elsewhere in the Handbook.) Sources of Additional Information Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y . 10017. INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 012.081,.168, an d .188) Nature of the Work Electrical engineers work with lasers. Employment Outlook Job opportunities for electrical engineers are expected to increase very rapidly through the mid-1980’s. Increased demand for electrical equipment to automatically control production processes, using such items as computers and sensing devices, is expected to be among the major factors contributing to this growth. The demand for elec trical and electronic consumer goods along with increased research and development in nuclear power gen Industrial engineers determine the most effective methods of using the basic factors of production— manpower, machines, and materi als. They are more concerned with people and “things,” in contrast to engineers in other specialties who generally are concerned more with developmental work in their fields, such as power and mechanics. They design systems for data processing and apply operations research techniques to organiza tional, production, and related problems. Industrial engineers also develop management control sys tems to aid in financial planning and cost analysis. They design production planning and control systems to coordinate activities and control product quality, and may design and improve systems for the physical distribution of goods and services. Other activities include plant location surveys, where they must consider sources of raw ma terials, the work force, financing, taxes, and the development of wage and salary administration and job evaluation programs. eration should create job openings for electrical engineers. Many elec trical engineers also will be needed to replace personnel who retire or die. The long range outlook for elec trical engineers assumes that defense spending in the mid-1980’s will be somewhat lower than the peak Vietnam levels. If defense activity should differ substantially from that level, the demand for electrical Places of Employment engineers will be affected. (See introductory part of this sec About 125,000 industrial engi tion for information on training neers were employed in 1972; more 348 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK MECHANICAL ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 007.081, .151, .168, .181, and .187; 011.081, and 019.187) Nature of the Work with industry growth, are factors contributing to increased require ments for these engineers. Increased recognition of the importance of scientific management and safety engineering in reducing costs and increasing productivity, and newer areas of work such as noise, air, and water pollution control should create additional opportunities. Additional numbers of industrial engineers will be required each year to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other occupa tions. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings.) Mechanical engineers are con cerned with the production, trans mission, and use of power. They design and develop machines that produce power, such as internal combustion engines, steam and gas turbines, jet and rocket engines, and nuclear reactors. They also design and develop a great variety of machines that use power— refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment, elevators, machine tools, printing presses, steel rolling mills, and many others. Many specialized areas of work have developed within this field and, since mechanical engineers are employed in nearly all indus tries, their work varies with the industry and the function per formed. Among these specialties are motor vehicles, marine equip ment, steampower, heating, venti lating and air-conditioning, instru mentation, and machines for specialized industries, such as petroleum, rubber and plastics, and construction. Large numbers of mechanical engineers do research, development, test, and design work. Many work in administrative and management activities. Others work in mainte nance, marketing and sales, and activities related to production and operations in manufacturing. Some teach in colleges and universities or work as consultants. Sources of Additional Information Places of Employment American Institute of Industrial Engi neers, Inc., 25 Technology Park/ Atlanta, Norcross, Ga. 30071. About 210,000 mechanical en gineers were employed in 1972. Almost three-fourths were employed in manufacturing—mainly in the Industrial engineer tapes operation to check for problems. than two-thirds worked in manu facturing industries. They are more widely distributed among manu facturing industries than are those in other branches of engineering. Some work for insurance com panies, banks, construction and mining firms, and public utilities. Hospitals, retail organizations, and other large business firms employ industrial engineers to improve op erating efficiency. Still others work for government agencies and educa tional institutions. A few are in dependent consulting engineers. Employment Outlook Opportunities for industrial en gineers are expected to grow very rapidly through the mid-1980’s. The increasing complexity of in dustrial operations and the expan sion of automated processes, along ENGINEERS 349 primary and fabricated metals, machinery, transportation equip ment, and electrical equipment industries. Others work for govern ment agencies, educational institu tions, and consulting engineering firms. Employment Outlook Opportunities for mechanical en gineers are expected to grow rapid ly through the mid-1980’s. The expansion of industry along with the demand for industrial ma chinery and machine tools and the increasing complexity of industrial machinery and processes will be major factors supporting increased employment opportunities. Expend itures for research and development also will be a factor in the growth. Newer areas of work, such as atomic energy and environmental control, will provide additional openings. Large numbers of mechanical engineers also will be required each year to replace those who re tire or die. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings. See also statement on Occupations the Atomic Energy Field elsewhere in the Handbook.) Sources of Additional Information The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. METALLURGICAL ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 011.081) Nature of the Work Metallurgical engineers develop Metallurgical engineers use scientific equipment to study the structural make-up of materials. methods to process and convert metals into useful products. These engineers generally work in one of the three main branches of metallurgy—extractive or chemi cal, physical, and mechanical. Ex tractive metallurgy involves the extraction of metals from ores and refining and alloying them to ob tain pure metal. Physical metallurgy deals with the nature, structure and physical properties of metals and their alloys, and with methods of converting refined metals into final products. Mechanical metal lurgy involves the working and shaping of metals by casting, forging, rolling and drawing. Sci entists working in this field are known as metallurgists but the distinction between scientists and engineers is small. People working in the field of metallurgy are in creasingly being referred to as either materials scientists or ma terials engineers. Places of Employment The metalworking industries— primarily the iron and steel and nonferrous metals industries— employed over one-half of the estimated 10,000 metallurgical en gineers in 1972. Many metallurgical engineers work in industries that manufacture machinery, electrical equipment, and aircraft and parts. Others work in the mining industry. Some work for government agen cies, consulting firms, independent research organizations, and colleges and universities. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for 350 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK metallurgical engineers are ex pected to grow very rapidly through the mid-1980’s. An increasing num ber of these engineers will be needed by the metalworking indus tries to develop new metals and alloys as well as to adapt current ones to new needs. For example, the development of such products as supersonic jet aircrafts, missiles, satellites, spacecrafts, and com puters has brought about a need for lightweight metals of high purity, able to withstand both ex tremely high and low temperatures. Metallurgical engineers also will be needed to solve metallurgical problems associated with the effi cient use of nuclear energy. As the supply of high-grade ores dimin ishes, more metallurgical engineers will be required to find new ways of recycling solid waste materials in addition to processing low-grade ores now regarded as unprofitable to mine. They also will be needed to solve problems connected with air and water pollution control, noise abatement, urban renewal, public transportation, and biomedi cal devices. (See introductory part of this section for information on training requirements and earnings. Also see statement on the Iron and Steel Industry elsewhere in the Handbook.) MINING ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 010.081 an d .187) Nature of the Work Mining engineers find, extract, and prepare minerals for manu facturing industries to use. They design the layouts of mines, super vise the construction of mine shafts and tunnels in underground opera tions, and devise methods for trans porting minerals to processing plants. Mining engineers are re sponsible for the efficient operation of mines and mine safety, including ventilation, water supply, power, communications, and equipment maintenance. Some mining engi neers work with geologists and metallurgical engineers to locate and appraise new ore deposits. Others develop new mining equip ment and devise improved methods to process extracted minerals. With increased emphasis on the environ ment, many mining engineers have been working to solve problems related to mined-land reclamation and water and air pollution control. Mining engineers frequently spe cialize in the extraction of specific metal ores, coal, and other nonmetallic minerals. Engineers who specialize in the extraction of petroleum and natural gas are usually considered members of a separate branch of the engineering profession—Petroleum Engineering. Sources of Additional Information The Metallurgical Society of the Ameri can Institute of Mining, Metal lurgical, and Petroleum Engineers 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. American Society of Metals, Park, Ohio 44073. Metals Mining engineers are concerned with mine safety. 351 ENGINEERS Places of Employment About 5,000 mining engineers were employed in 1972. Most work in the mining industry. Some work in colleges and universities, for government agencies, or as inde pendent consultants. Others work for firms that produce equipment for the mining industry. Mining engineers are usually em ployed at the location of mineral deposits, often near small commun ities. However, those in research, teaching, management, consulting, or sales are often located in large metropolitan areas. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for mining engineers are expected to be favorable through the mid1980’s. The number of new gradu ates in mining engineering is expected to be fewer than the number needed to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other fields of work. Exploration for minerals is in creasing, both in the United States and in other parts of the world. Easily mined deposits are being depleted, creating a growing need for engineers to mine newly dis covered mineral deposits and to devise more efficient methods for mining low-grade ores. Additional employment opportunities for min ing engineers will arise as new alloys and new uses for metals increase the demand for less widely used ores. Recovery of metals from the sea and the development of recently discovered oil shale deposits could present major chal lenges to the mining engineer. (See introductory part of this sec tion for information on training requirements and earnings. See also statement on Mining elsewhere in the Handbook.) Sources of Additional Information The Society American lurgical, 345 East 10017. of Mining Engineers of the Institute of Mining, Metal and Petroleum Engineers 47th St., New York, N.Y. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTISTS Environmental scientists help us live within our physical environ ment. They play an important role in solving environmental pollution problems. These scientists, some times known as earth scientists, are concerned with the history, composition, and characteristics of the earth’s surface, interior, and atmosphere. Some do basic re search to increase scientific knowl edge. Others solve practical prob lems. Geologists, for example, ex plore for new sources of oil, other fuels, and ores. Still others do applied research and use knowledge gained from basic research to help answer important questions. Mete orologists, for example, use scientif ic knowledge to forecast the weather. Many environmental scientists teach in colleges and universities. Others administer scientific programs and operations. Many environmental scientists specialize in one particular branch of their broad occupational field. This chapter discusses the special ties and the employment outlook for four environmental science oc cupations—geologists, geophysi cists, meteorologists, and ocean ographers. GEOLOGISTS (D.O.T. 024.081) Nature of the Work Geologists study the structure, composition, and history of the 352 earth’s crust in order to locate natural resources, give warnings of natural disasters, and help see that buildings are put on firm foundations. By examining rocks and drilling to recover rock cores, they determine their distribution, thickness, and slope beneath the earth’s surface. They also identify rocks and minerals, conduct geo logical surveys, draw maps, take measurements, and record data. Geologists use many tools and instruments such as hammers, chis els, levels, transits (mounted tele scopes used to measure angles), gravity meters, cameras, compasses, and seismographs (instruments that record the intensity and duration of earthquakes and earth tremors). They also evaluate information from photographs taken from air craft and satellites and use com puters to record and analyze data. Geologists also work in labora tories where they examine the chemical and physical properties of specimens under controlled tem perature and pressure. They may study fossil remains of animal and vegetable life or experiment with the flow of water and oil through rocks. Laboratory equipment used by geologists includes complex in struments such as the X-ray dif fractometer, which determines the structure of minerals, and the petrographic microscope for close study of rock formations. Geologists do other things be sides locating resources and work ing in laboratories. They advise construction companies, and Fed eral, State, and local governments on the suitability of certain loca tions for constructing buildings, dams, or highways. Some geologists administer and manage research and exploration programs. Others teach and work on research projects in colleges and universities. Geologists usually specialize in one or a combination of three general areas—earth materials, earth processes, and earth history. Economic geologists locate earth materials such as minerals and solid fuels. Petroleum geologists search for and recover liquid fuels— oil and natural gas. Some petroleum geologists work near drilling sites and others correlate petroleumrelated geologic knowledge for en tire regions. Engineering geologists determine suitable sites for the construction of roads, airfields, tun nels, dams, and other structures. They decide, for example, whether underground rocks will bear the weight of a building or whether a structure may be in an earthquake prone area. Mineralogists analyze and classify minerals and precious stones according to composition and structure. Geochemists study the chemical composition and changes in minerals and rocks to understand the distribution and migration of elements in the earth’s crust. Geologists concerned with earth processes study landforms and their rock masses, sedimentary (matter deposited by water or wind) de posits and eruptive forces such as volcanoes. Volcanologists study active and inactive volcanoes, lava flows, and other eruptive activity. G eo m o rp h o lo g ists examine land- forms and forces such as erosion and glaciation which cause them to change. Other geologists are most con cerned with earth history. Paleon tologists study plant and animal fossils to trace the evolution and development of past life. Geo- ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTISTS chronologists determine the age of geologists in 1972, over half in rocks and landforms by the radio private industry. Most industrial active decay of its elements. Strati- geologists work for petroleum pro graphers study the distribution and ducers, many for American com arrangement of sedimentary rock panies exploring in foreign nations. layers by examining their fossil and Geologists also work for mining mineral content. and quarrying companies. Some Many geologists specialize in are employed by construction firms new fields that require knowledge and others are independent con of another science. Astrogeologists sultants to industry and government. study geological conditions on The Federal Government em other planets. Geological oceano ploys over 1,600 geologists. Twographers study the sedimentary and thirds work for the Department of other rock on the ocean floor and the Interior in the U.S. Geological continental shelf. (See statements Survey, the Bureau of Mines, and on Oceanographers and Mining the Bureau of Reclamation. State elsewhere in the Handbook.) agencies also employ geologists, some working on surveys in co operation with the U.S. Geological Survey. Places of Employment Colleges and universities employ About 23,000 people worked as almost 7,500 geologists. Some work Geologists should like outdoor work. 353 for nonprofit research institutions and museums Training, Qualifications, and Advancement Students seeking professional careers as geologists should earn an advanced degree. The master’s degree is required for beginning research and teaching and most exploration jobs. Advancement in college teaching and high-level re search and administrative posts usually require the Ph.D. The bachelor’s degree is adequate train ing for some entry jobs in explora tion work. About 300 colleges and universi ties offer a bachelor’s degree in geology. Undergraduate students devote about one-fourth of their time to geology courses, including historical geology, structural geol ogy, mineralogy, petrology, and invertebrate paleontology. Students spend about a third of their time taking mathematics, related sci ences—such as physics and chemistry —and engineering; the remainder is general academic subjects. Statis tics and computer courses are especially recommended. More than 160 universities award advanced degrees in geology. Graduate students take advanced courses in geology and specialize in one branch of the science. Students planning careers in ex ploration geology should like the outdoors, and have physical stam ina. They should be able to adapt to changes brought about by travel to distant countries. Geologists often travel to remote sites by helicopter and jeep and cover large areas by foot. Generally, they work in teams. Geologists need curious and analytical minds to solve complex geological problems. Geologists with advanced degrees OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 354 usually begin their careers in field exploration or as research assistants in laboratories. After suitable ex perience, they may be promoted to project leaders, program mana gers, or other management and re search positions. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for geologists with advanced degrees are expected to be favorable through the mid-1980’s. Hundreds of op portunities should open up each year because of the expected growth in the field and to replace geo logists who are promoted to man agerial positions, transfer to other fields, die, or retire. Those with bachelor’s degrees may face com petition for entry jobs and some may have to work as technicians or surveyors. For those with only bachelor’s degrees, opportunities will be more favorable with some train ing in geophysical exploration tech niques. Demand for geologists will con tinue in Federal agencies, particu larly the U.S. Geological Survey. College and university employment probably will rise, mainly for those having Ph.D. degrees. Geologists may want to consider related employment activities out side the field. For instance, geo logists may take training to qualify as science teachers in secondary schools. Consumer and industrial demand for petroleum and minerals will continue to rise, and geologists with advanced degrees will be re quired to locate and recover new deposits to fill increased demand and replenish old supplies. How ever, indications are that employ ment of geologists with advanced degrees in petroleum and mineral extraction will be more limited in the near future than in the past. Additional geologists will be needed to discover new resources and their potential uses. For example, geo logists will help determine the feasibility of using geothermal energy (steam from the earth’s interior) to generate electricity. Geologists also are needed to de vise techniques for exploring deeper within the earth’s crust and to develop more efficient methods of mining resources. Geologists also are needed to develop adequate water supplies, waste disposal methods, and building materials and site evaluation for construction activities. Increased emphasis on the environment by urban societies also should affect requirements for geologists. For example, pollution control, better land use and recla mation programs, and highway con struction activities require the talents of geologists. degree could begin at $13,996 or $16,682. Geologists often work outdoors in many different climates and geographical areas. Field work re quires hard physical labor and long hours with limited companionship. Geologists in mining may be re quired to work underground. When not working outdoors, they are in comfortable, well-lighted, wellventillated offices and laboratories. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportunities, training, and earn ings for geologists is available from: American Geological Institute, 2201 M St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20037. For information on Federal Gov ernment careers contact: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Washington, D.C. 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. Earnings and Working Conditions Geologists have relatively high salaries, with average earnings over twice those received by nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Starting salaries for new gradu ates averaged $9,000 a year in 1972 for those having a bachelor’s degree, $11,000 for those having a master’s degree, and $13,000 for those having a doctorate, accord ing to the American Geological Institute’s annual survey. In the Federal Government in early 1973, geologists having a bachelor’s degree could begin at $7,694 or $9,520 a year, depending on their college records. Beginning geologists having the master’s de gree could start at $9,520 or $11,614, depending on their aca demic records or previous work experience. Those having the Ph.D. GEOPHYSICISTS (D.O.T. 024.081) Nature of the Work Geophysicists study the composi tion and physical aspects of the earth and other planets—their in teriors, surfaces, and atmospheres. They investigate the earth’s phy sical characteristics, such as its electric, magnetic, and gravitational ‘fields. Geophysicists use highly com plex instruments such as the mag netometer which measures variations in the earth’s magnetic field, and •the gravimeter which measures ♦minute variations in gravitational attraction. They may use satellites ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTISTS to conduct tests in outer space and use computers to collect and analyze data. Geophysicists usually specialize in one of three general phases of the science—solid earth, fluid earth, and upper atmosphere. Solid earth geophysicists search for oil and mineral deposits, map the earth’s surface, and are con cerned with earthquakes. Explora tion geophysicists use seismic prospecting techniques to locate oil and mineral deposits. They send sound waves into the earth and •record the echoes bouncing off the rock layers below to determine if they are favorable for the accumula tion of oil. Seismologists study the earth’s interior and earth vibrations caused by earthquakes and manmade ex plosions. They explore for oil and minerals, study underground detec 355 tion of nuclear explosions, and provide information for use in con structing bridges, dams, and build ings. For example, in constructing a dam, seismologists determine inhere bedrock (solid rock beneath the soil) is closest to the surface so the best dam site can be selected. They use explosives to create sound waves which reflect off bedrock; the time it takes for the shock wave to return to the surface indi cates the depth of bedrock. Geodesists study the size, shape, and gravitational Field of the earth and other planets. Their principal lask is mapping the earth’s surface. With the aid of satellites, geodesists determine the positions, elevations, and distances between points on the earth, and measure the intensity and direction of gravitational attraction. , Hydrologists are concerned with the fluid earth. They study the distribution, circulation, and phy sical properties of underground and surface waters, including glaciers, snow, and permafrost. They also study rainfall and its rate of infiltra tion into soil. Some are concerned with water supplies, irrigation, flood control, and soil erosion. (See state ment on Oceanographers, sometimes classified as geophysical scientists, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Geophysicists involved in the at mosphere investigate the earth’s magnetic and electric fields and compare its outer atmosphere with those of other planets. Geomagneticians study the earth’s magnetic field. Paleomagneticians learn about p^ist magnetic fields from rocks or lava flows. Planetologists study the composition and atmosphere of the moon, planets, and other bodies in the solar system. They gather data from geophysical instruments placed on inter-planetary space probes or equipment used by astronauts during the Apollo missions. Meteorologists are sometimes classified as geo physical scientists. (See statements on Meteorologists and Mining else where in the Handbook.) Places of Employment Geophysicists measure solar radiation. More than 8,000 people worked as geophysicists in 1972. Most work in private industry, chiefly for petro leum and natural gas companies. Other geophysicists are in mining companies, exploration and consult ing firms, and research institutes. A few are independent consultants and some do geophysical pros pecting on a fee or contract basis. Geophysicists are employed in many southwestern and western States, including the Gulf Coast, where large oil and natural gas fields are located. Some geophysicists are employed by American firms over seas for varying periods of time. Over 2,000 geophysicists, geod 356 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK subjects can be admitted to these graduate schools. Geophysicists should be in good health since they often have to work outdoors, and must be willing to travel, sometimes for extended peri ods of time. Geophysicists generally work as part of a team. They should have curious and analytical minds for solving complex geophysical problems and be able to express themselves both orally and in writ ing. Most new geophysicists begin their Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement careers doing field mapping or other exploration activities. Some A person with a bachelor’s de assist senior geophysicists in re gree in geophysics or a geophysical search laboratories. With suitable specialty qualifies for most begin experience, geophysicists advance to ning jobs in exploration geophysics. project leader, program manager, or A bachelor’s degree in a related field other management and administra of science or engineering also is tive jobs. adequate preparation, provided the person has courses in geophysics, physics, geology, mathematics, chem Employment Outlook istry, and engineering. A geophy New graduates in geophysics sicist with a background in electronic data processing can increase his should have good employment op employment opportunities in indus portunities through the mid-1980’s. try and government. In addition to opportunities resulting Geophysicists doing research or from the very rapid growth ex supervising exploration activities pected in this field, a few hundred should have graduate training in geophysicists will be needed each geophysics or a related science. year to replace those who transfer Those planning to teach in colleges to other fields of work, retire, or or do basic research should acquire die. Although the number of job a Ph.D. degree in geophysics or a re openings for geophysicists is not lated science with advanced courses expected to be large in any one year, in geophysics. the number of new geophysics grad About 50 colleges and universities uates is not expected to meet award the bachelor’s degree in geo requirements. Federal Government agencies physics. Other programs offering training for beginning geophysicists may need geophysicists for new or include geophysical technology, geo expanding programs. Jobs for geo physical engineering, engineering physicists in the Federal Govern geology, petroleum geology, and ment are heavily dependent on funds geodesy. for research and development in •More than 60 universities grant the earth sciences, which are ex th*e master’s and Ph.D. degree in pected to increase through the mid geophysics. People who have a 1980’s but at a slower rate than bachelor’s degree and courses in during the 1960’s. The Government geology, mathematics, physics, en is expected to support additional gineering or a combination of these research to develop “natural disaster esists, and hydrologists worked for Federal Government agencies in 1972, mainly the U.S. Geological Survey; the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA); the Army Map Service; and the Naval Oceanographic Of fice. Other geophysicists work for colleges and universities, State gov ernments, and nonprofit research institutions. technology” to improve capabilities to control, predict, or reduce de struction from fires, earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, and severe storms. The Government also may support research to locate more natural re sources, prevent environmental deg radation through better land use, and improve municipal services such as water and sewage disposal. Petroleum and mining companies will need geophysicists for explora tion activities, which are expected to expand through the mid-1980’s. As the need for more fuel and minerals grows and costs of explora tion increase, more geophysicists will be needed to operate sophis ticated electronic equipment to find the more concealed fuel and mineral deposits. In addition, geophysicists with advanced training will be needed to do research into radioactivity and cosmic and solar radiation, in vestigate the use of geothermal power (steam from the earth’s in terior) as a source of energy to generate electricity, and contribute to exploration of outer space. Geo physicists also will be needed to develop better geophysical instru ments, and to establish information storage and retrieval systems for geophysical libraries. Earnings and Working Conditions Geophysicists have relatively high salaries, with average earnings more than twice those received by nonsupervisory workers in private in dustry, except farming. Starting salaries in 1972 for geo physics graduates averaged $9,000 a year for those having a bachelor’s degree, $11,000 for those having a master’s degree and $13,000 for those having a doctorate, according to the American Geological Insti tute’s annual survey. In the Federal Government in ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTISTS 357 early 1973, geophysicists having a helps solve many practical problems bachelor’s degree could begin at in agriculture, transportation, com $7,694 or $9,520 a year, depending munications, health, defense, and on their college records. Beginning business. Meteorologists usually specialize geophysicists having a master’s de gree could start at $9,520 or $11,614 in one branch of the science. depending on their academic record Weather forecasters, known pro or previous work experience. Those fessionally as synoptic meteorolo having a Ph.D. degree could begin gists, are the largest group of specialists. They study current at $13,996 or $16,682. Geophysicists work outdoors for weather information, such as air extended periods of time with lim pressure, temperature, humidity, and ited companionship. Some of them wind velocity in order to make work in remote areas, involving short- and long-range predictions. much traveling and living under Their data come from weather satel primitive conditions. Geophysicists lites and observers in many parts also work in modern, well-equipped, of the world. Although some fore well-lighted laboratories and offices. casters still prepare and analyze weather maps, most data now *are plotted by computers. Sources of Additional Information Some meteorologists are engaged General information on career in basic and applied scientific re opportunities, training, and earn search. For example, physical ings for geophysicists is available meteorologists study the chemical and electrical properties of the at from: mosphere. They do research on the American Geophysical Union, 1707 L St. NW „ Washington, D.C. 20036. effect of the atmosphere on trans mission of light, sound, and radio waves, as well as factors affecting formation of clouds, rain, snow, and other weather conditions. Other meteorologists, known as clima tologists, study historical climate conditions and analyze past records on wind, rainfall, sunshine, and temperature to determine the gen eral pattern of weather that makes up an area’s climate. These studies are useful in planning heating and cooling systems, designing buildings, and aiding in effective land util ization. Meteorological instrumentation specialists develop the devices that measure, record, and evaluate data on atmospheric processes. For ex ample, some of these instruments are used to measure the size and number of droplets in a cloud, structure of winds, and pressure, humidity, and temperature miles above the earth. Specialists in applied method ology, sometimes called industrial Society of Exploration Geophysicists, P.O. Box 3098, Tulsa, Okla. 74101. For information on Federal Gov ernment careers contact: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Serv ice Examiners for Washington, D.C., 1900 E St., NW„ Washington, D.C. 20415. METEOROLOGISTS (D.O.T. 025.088) Nature of the Work Meteorology is the study of the atmospheres—the gases that sur round the earth and other celestial bodies. Meteorologists describe and try to understand the atmospheres’ physical composition, motions, and processes, and determine the way these elements affect the rest of our physical environment. This study Meteorologist checks the position of a major storm from weather satellite photographs. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 358 meteorologists, study the relation ship between weather and specific human activities, biological proc esses, and agricultural and industrial operations. For example, they make weather forecasts for individual companies, attempt to induce rain or snow in a given area, and work on problems such as smoke control and air pollution abatement. About one-third of all civilian meteorologists work primarily in weather forecasting, and another one-fourth manage or administer forecasting and research programs. Almost one-fourth work in research and development. For example, they devise mathematical models of at mospheric motion to understand and predict changing weather con ditions, or carry out experiments in changing the amount of rain in an area. Some meteorologists teach or do research—frequently combining both activities—in colleges and uni versities. In colleges without sepa rate departments of meteorology, they may teach geography, math ematics, physics, chemistry, or geol ogy, as well as meteorology. Places of Employment About 5,000 persons—10 percent of them women—worked as meteor ologists in 1972. In addition tc these civilian meteorologists, more than 2,000 officers and 7,000 en listed members of the Armed Forces did forecasting and other meteor ological work. The largest employer of civilians was the National Oceanic and At mospheric Administration (NOAA), where nearly 2,000 meteorologists worked at 300 stations in. all parts of the United States, and in a small number of foreign areas. The Department of Defense employed over 300 civilian meteorologists. More than 1,000 meteorologists worked for private industry. Com mercial airlines employed several hundred to forecast weather along flight routes and to brief pilots on atmospheric conditions. Others worked for private weather consult ing firms, for companies that design and manufacture meteorological in struments, for radio and television stations, and for large firms in aerospace, insurance, utilities, and other industries. Colleges and universities em ployed almost 1,000 meteorologists in research and teaching. A few worked for State and local govern ments and for nonprofit organ izations. Although meteorologists work in all States, nearly two-fifths live in just two States—California and Maryland. More than one-tenth of all meteorologists worked in the Washington, D.C. area. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in meteorology is the usual mini mum requirement for beginning jobs in weather forecasting. However, a bachelor’s degree in a related science or engineering, along with some courses in meteorology, is acceptable for some jobs. For example, the Federal Government’s minimum re quirement for beginning jobs is a bachelor’s degree with at least 20 semester hours of study in mete orology and additional training in physics and mathematics, including calculus. For research and college teach ing and for many top-level positions in other meteorological activities, an advanced degree is essential, preferably in meteorology. However, people with graduate degrees in other sciences also may qualify if they have advanced courses in mete orology, physics, mathematics, and chemistry. In 1972, 42 colleges and uni versities offered a bachelor’s degree in meteorology; 53 schools offered advanced degrees in atmospheric science. Many other institutions of fered some courses in meteorology. The Armed Services give and sup port meteorological training, both of enlisted personnel for under graduate education and of officers for advanced study. NOAA has a program under which some of its meteorologists may attend college for advanced or specialized training. College students can obtain summer jobs with this agency or enroll in its cooperative education program in which they work at NOAA part of the year and attend school part of the year. In addition to helping students finance their education this program gives them valuable experience for find ing a job when they graduate. Meteorologists in the Federal Government usually start in 2-year training positions at weather sta tions. They observe weather condi tions, receive training in forecasting, and release weather information to the public, agriculture industry, air lines, and other specialized users. Advancement is to assistant fore caster and forecaster. Airline meteorologists have some what limited opportunities for advancement. However, after con siderable work experience, they may advance to flight dispatcher or to various supervisory or administra tive jobs. A few very well qualified meteorologists with a background in science, engineering, and business administration may establish their own weather consulting services. Employment Outlook Employment of meteorologists is expected to grow moderately through the mid-1980’s. In addition to openings resulting from growth, ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTISTS some meteorologists will be needed each year to replace those who re tire, die, or transfer to other fields. Employment opportunities should be favorable during this period, es pecially for those with advanced degrees who will find jobs in re search, teaching in colleges and universities, as well as in manage ment and consulting work. The use of weather satellites, manned spacecraft, world-circling weather balloons, and electronic computers has expanded the work of meteorologists. These advances have made possible the study of weather and climate on a global scale. Meteorologists also will find jobs developing and improving in struments for collecting and proc essing weather data. Job opportunities for mete orologists with commercial airlines, weather consulting services, and other private companies are expected to increase as the value of weather information to all segments of our economy receives further recogni tion. For example, the atmosphere is an important part of our environ ment, and increasing public concern about ecology could create job open ings with private research organ izations, in colleges and universities, and in State and local governments. The n e e d will c o n t i n u e for m e t e orologists to work in existing programs, such as weather meas urements and forecasts and do re search on problems of severe storms, turbulance, and air pollution. Earnings and Working Conditions Meteorologists have relatively high earnings, salaries were about twice the average received by nonsupervisory workers in private in dustry, except farming. In early 1973, meteorologists in the Federal Government with a bachelor’s degree and no experience 359 received starting salaries of $7,619 or $9,520 a year, depending on their college grades. Those with a master’s degree could start at $11,614 or $13,996, and those with the Ph.D. degree at $13,996 or $16,682. Salaries were higher for those who worked outside the United States. Airline meteorologists had aver age starting salaries of $12,000 a year, according to the Air Traffic Conference. They generally receive the same benefits as other airline employees. (See Statement on Occu pations in Civil Aviation elsewhere in the Handbook.) Those teaching in colleges and universities earned salaries equivalent to those received by other faculty members. (See Statement on College and University Teachers.) Jobs in weather stations, which are operated on a 24-hour, 7-day week basis, often involve nightwork and rotating shifts. Most stations are at airports or at places in or near cities; some are in isolated and remote areas. Meteorologists generally work alone in smaller weather stations, and as part of a team in larger ones. Sources of Additional information G eneral in fo r m a tio n on career opportunities and schools offering education in meteorology is avail able from: American Meteorology Society, 45 Beacon St., Boston, Mass. 02108. American Geophysical Union, 2100 Pennsylvania Ave., NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20037. For facts about job opportunities with the NOAA National Weather Service and on its student coop erative education program, contact: Personnel Division AD 41, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis tration, 6010 Executive Blvd., Rock ville, Md. 20852. Details about Air Force mete orological training programs are available from any Air Force recruit ing office or from: Air Weather Service/D.O.T., Stop 400 Scott Air Force Base, 111. 62225. OCEANOGRAPHERS (D.O.T. 024.081 and 041.081) Nature of the Work Oceans cover more than twothirds of the earth’s surface and provide people with valuable foods, fossil fuels, and minerals. They also influence the weather, serve as a “highway” for transportation, and offer many kinds of recreation. Oceanographers use the principles and techniques of natural science, mathematics, and engineering to study oceans—their movements, physical properties, and plant and animal life. Their research not only extends basic scientific knowledge, but also helps develop practical methods for forecasting weather, developing fisheries, mining ocean resources, and improving National defense. Some oceanographers make tests and observations, and conduct ex periments from ships or stationary platforms in the sea. They may study and collect data on ocean tides, currents, and other phenom ena. Some study undersea moun tain ranges and valleys, oceanic interaction with the atmosphere, and layers of sediment on and beneath the ocean floor. Oceanographers also work in laboratories on land where, for example, they measure, dissect, and photograph fish. They also study exotic sea specimens and plankton (floating microscopic plants and animals). Much of their work en tails identifying, cataloguing, and 360 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK analyzing different kinds of sea life and minerals. At other labora tories, oceanographers plot maps or feed data to computers to test theories about the ocean. For ex ample, they may study and test the theory of continental drift, which states that the continents were once joined together, have drifted apart, and continue to drift apart causing the sea floor to spread. To present the results of their studies, oceanographers pre pare charts, tabulations, reports and manuals, and write papers for scientific journals. Oceanographers explore and study the ocean with low-flying aircraft as well as surface ships. They use specialized instruments to measure and record the findings of their explorations and studies. Special cameras equipped with strong lights photograph marine life and the ocean floor. Sounding devices are vital to the oceanographer for communicating with teammates above the water and for measuring, mapping, and locating ocean ma terials. Most oceanographers specialize in one branch of the science. Bio logical oceanographers (marine bio logists) study plant and animal life in the ocean. They search for ways to extract drugs from sea weeds or sponges, investigate life processes of marine animals, and determine the effects of radio activity and pollution on the growth of fish. Physical oceanographers (physicists and geophysicists) study the physical properties of the ocean. Their research on the relationships between the sea and the atmosphere may lead to control over the weather. Geological oceanographers (marine geologists) study the ocean’s mountain ranges, rocks, and sediments. Locating deposits of minerals, oil, and gas on the ocean floor is an application of their work. Chemical oceanogra phers investigate the chemical com position of ocean water and sediments as well as chemical re actions in the sea. One practical area of their study is the removal of salt from sea water. Oceano graphic engineers and electronic specialists design and build instru ments for oceanographic research and operations. They also lay cables, supervise underwater con struction, and locate sunken ships to recover their cargos. Almost two of every three ocean ographers perform or administer research and development activities. Many teach in colleges and univer sities. A few are engaged in techni cal writing, in consulting, and in administering activities other than research. Places of Employment Oceanographers get ready to lower test instrument. About 4,500 people—about 5 percent of them women—worked as oceanographers in 1972. About one-third worked in colleges and universities, one-third in private industry, and one-fourth for the Federal Government. Federal agen ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTISTS 361 portance of the oceans to the basic science. Graduate students usually work Nation’s welfare and security has part of the time aboard ship, doing heightened interest in oceanography oceanographic research and becom and has opened new fields for spe ing familiar with the sea and with cialists. More oceanographers will techniques used to obtain ocean be needed to improve methods of ographic information. Universities taking foods and drugs from the at the various stations along our oceans, manage fisheries, and de coasts offer summer courses for velop economical means to harness both graduates and undergraduate the ocean for energy and provide students, which are especially bene fresh water from the sea. Some will ficial for students from inland be needed to develop new technol universities. Oceanographers should ogies for discovering and mining have the curiosity needed to do new the fuel and mineral resources of Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement research and the patience to collect the ocean’s floor and to protect data and conduct experiments. water from pollution and shoreline The minimum requirement for Beginning oceanographers with from damage by waves and tides. beginning professional jobs in oceanography is a bachelor’s de the bachelor’s degree usually start Still others will be needed for gree with a major in oceanography, as research or laboratory assistants, weather and iceberg forecasting biology, earth or physical sciences, or in jobs involving routine data and to study air-sea interaction for mathematics, or engineering. Pro collection, analysis, or computa long-range weather forecasts. The fessional jobs in research, teaching, tions. Most beginning oceanogra Federal Government finances most and high-level positions in most phers receive on-the-job training oceanographic research and devel other types of work require graduate related to the specific work at opment; employment opportunities training in oceanography or a basic hand. The extent of the training could be affected by changes in varies with the background and Federal spending priorities. science. In the years ahead, improving Only 46 colleges and universities needs of the individual. Experienced oceanographers may the Nation’s defenses against sub offered undergraduate degrees in oceanography or marine sciences direct surveys and research pro marines and surface vessels will re in 1972. However, since ocean grams or advance to administrative quire oceanographic research into ography is an interdisciplinary sci or supervisory jobs in research underwater sound, surface and subsurface currents, and the shape ence, training in a basic science and laboratories. of the ocean floor. New super a strong interest in oceanography tankers will require the building may be adequate preparation for Employment Outlook of new large ports and will create some beginning jobs or for entry jobs for oceanographers who spe Job opportunities for oceanogra to graduate school. Important college courses for phers with a Ph.D. are expected cialize in ocean engineering. Teaching opportunities in col oceanographers include mathema to be favorable through the midleges and universities may expand tics, physics, chemistry, geophysics, 1980’s, especially for those who geology, meteorology and biology. specialize in ocean engineering. as interest in oceanography grows. In general, students should special People with less education may ize in the particular science that is face competition for beginning jobs Earnings and Working Conditions closest to their area of ocean and find other opportunities lim Oceanographers have relatively ographic interest. For example, stu ited to doing routine analytical dents interested in chemical ocean work as research assistants. high earnings; average salaries were In addition to openings from about twice the average received ography could obtain a degree in the rapid growth expected in this by nonsupervisory workers in pri chemistry. In 1972 about 85 colleges offered field, some oceanographers will be vate industry, except farming. advanced degrees in oceanography needed each year to replace those In early 1973, oceanographers and marine sciences. In graduate who die, retire, or transfer to in the Federal Government with schools, students take advanced other fields. the bachelor’s degree received start Growing recognition of the im ing salaries of $7,619 or $9,520 a courses in oceanography and in a cies employing substantial numbers of oceanographers include the Naval Oceanographic Office, and the National Oceanic and Atmos pheric Administration (NOAA). Some oceanographers work for firms designing and developing instruments and vehicles for ocean ographic research. A few work for fishery laboratories of State and local governments. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 362 year, depending on their college grades. Those with the master’s degree could start at $11,614 or $13,996; and those with the Ph.D. degree at $13,996 or $16,682. In private industry in 1972, new graduates with the bachelor’s degree received average starting salaries of $9,000 a year, accord ing to the American Geological Institute. Those with the master’s degree could start at $11,000; and those with the Ph.D. at $13,000. Beginning oceanographers in edu cational institutions generally re ceive the same salaries as other faculty members. (See statement on College and University Teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) In addition to regular salaries, many experienced oceanographers earn extra income from consulting, lec turing, and writing. Oceanographers engaged in re search that requires sea voyages are frequently away from home for weeks or months at a time. Sometimes they live and work in cramped quarters. People who like the sea, however, may find these voyages satisfying. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in oceanography and about colleges and universities that offer training in marine science, contact: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 6001 Executive Boule vard, Rockville. Maryland 20852. Attention: AD 411 Federal Government career in formation is available from any regional office of the U.S. Civil Service Commission or from: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Washington, D.C., 1900 E. Street, NW., Washington, D.C. 20390. The booklet, Training and Careers in Marine Science, is avail able for 50 cents from: International Oceanographic Founda tion, 10 Rickenbacker Causeway, Virginia Key, Miami, Fla. 33149. A booklet, Oceanography In formation Sources ’73, lists the names and addresses of industrial organizations involved in oceanog raphy and publishers of oceano graphic educational materials, journals, and periodicals. Copies may be purchased for $2.50 from: Printing and Publishing Office, N a tional Academy of Sciences, 2101 Constitution Ave., NW., Washington, D.C. 20418. Some information on Oceano graphic specialities is available from professional societies listed else where in the Handbook. (See state ments on Geologists, Geophysi cists, Life Scientists, Meteorolo gists, and Chemists elsewhere in the Handbook.) harvests they may develop pestcontrol agents or fertilizers. More than 3 out of 4 biochemists work in basic and applied research activities. The distinction between LIFE SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS basic and applied research is often one of degree and biochemists may do both types. Most, however, are Life scientists study living organ life processes to learning how living in basic research. The few doing isms and their life processes. They things react to space travel. strictly applied research use the Biochemists study the chemical are concerned with the origin and results of basic research for prac preservation of life, from the largest composition of organisms and the tical uses. For example, the knowl animal to the smallest living cell. changes caused by genetic and envi edge of how an organism forms a The number and variety of plants ronmental factors. They analyze hormone is used to develop a proc and animals are so vast, and their the chemical processes related to ess for synthesizing the hormone processes so varied and complex, biological functions, such as muscu and producing it on a mass scale. that life scientists usually work in lar contraction, reproduction, and Laboratory research involves one of the three broad areas—agri metabolism. Biochemists also in weighing, filtering, distilling, dry culture, biology, or medicine. vestigate the effects on organisms ing, and culturing (growing micro Life scientists perform research of substances such as foods, hor organisms) ingredients. Some experi to expand knowledge, teach, or mones, and drugs. ments also require sophisticated tasks apply scientific theories to the solu The methods and techniques of such as designing and constructing tion of practical problems. New biochemistry are applied to areas chemical apparatus or performing drugs, special varieties of plants, such as medicine or agriculture. tests using radioactive tracers. Bio and a cleaner environment can re For instance, biochemists may chemists use a variety of instruments sult from the work of life scientists. develop diagnostic procedures or including electron microscopes, and This chapter discusses life scien Find cures for diseases or identify may devise new instruments and tech tists as a group, since they receive the nutrients necessary to maintain niques as needed. They usually report comparable basic training and have good health. To improve agricultural the results of their research in sci roughly similar employment and entific journals or before scientific earning prospects. Brief descrip groups. tions are provided about the nature Some biochemists combine research of the work of a number of life with teaching in colleges and univer scientists—including botanists, zool sities. A few work in industrial pro ogists, and microbiologists. This duction and testing activities. section also contains separate state ments on biochemists and soil sci entists. Places of Employment BIOCHEM ISTS (D.O.T. 041.081) Nature of the Work Biochemists play an important role in the search for the basis of life and what sustains it. Their pro fessional interests range from de termining the effects of heredity on Biochemists determine how living things react to space travel. About 12,500 biochemists were employed in the United States in 1972. Although the exact number of women working in the profession is not known, nearly one-fourth of those receiving advanced degrees in biochemistry in recent years have been women. More than half of all biochemists are employed in colleges and uni versities, and most do basic and applied research and development in university-operated laboratories and hospitals. Nonprofit research 363 364 cialize should select their schools carefully. Graduate training requires actual research in addition to ad vanced science courses. For the doc toral degree, the student specializes in one field of biochemistry by doing intensive research and writing a thesis. Young people planning careers as biochemists should be able to work independently or as part of a team. Precision, keen powers of observation, and mechanical aptitude also are important. Biochemists should have analytical abilities and curious Training, Other Qualifications, minds, as well as the patience and Advancement and perseverance needed to com The minimum educational re plete the hundreds of experiments quirement for many beginning jobs that may be necessary to solve one as a professional biochemist, problem. Graduates with advanced degrees especially in research or teaching, may begin their careers as teachers is an advanced degree. Graduate training is necessary for advance or researchers in colleges or univer ment to many management or sities. In private industry, most administrative jobs. A bachelor’s begin in research jobs and with degree with a major in biochemistry experience may advance to admini or chemistry, or with a major in strative positions. New graduates with a bachelor’s biology and a minor in chemistry, degree usually start work as re may qualify some persons for entry jobs as research assistants or tech search assistants or technicians. These jobs in private industry often nicians. More than 40 schools award the involve testing and analysis. In the bachelor’s degree in biochemistry, drug industry, for example, research and nearly all colleges and univer assistants analyze the ingredients sities offer a major in biology or of a product to verify and maintain chemistry. Regardless of their col its purity or quality. lege major, future biochemists should take undergraduate courses Employment Outlook in chemistry, biology, biochemistry, Job opportunities for biochemists mathematics, and physics. About 200 colleges and univer with advanced degrees should be sities offer graduate degrees in bio favorable through the mid-1980’s. chemistry. Graduate students gen In addition to opportunities result erally are required to have a ing from the rapid growth expected bachelor’s degree in biochemistry, in this field, hundreds of openings biology, or chemistry. These stu will become available each year to dents take advanced courses in bio replace those who die, retire, or chemistry or a specialty of the transfer to other occupations. Increased research and develop field. For example, a university affiliated with a medical school ment expenditures in the life or hospital may have facilities to sciences, primarily by the Federal study the biochemistry of diseases. Government, are major factors con Therefore, students wishing to spe tributing to the anticipated growth institutes and foundations employ some biochemists. Many biochemists work in private industry, primarily in companies manufacturing drugs, insecticides, and cosmetics. Bio chemists also work in Federal, State, and local government agen cies. Most do research for Federal agencies concerned with health and agricultural problems. A few are self-employed consultants to indus try and government. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK in this field. For example, the great urgency to find cures for cancer, heart disease, muscular dystrophy, and other illnesses should stimulate requirements for biochemists. Addi tional biochemists will find jobs in hospitals and health centers using automated biochemical tests for diagnoses. An increasing number also will be needed to implement stricter drug standards established by Federal regulatory agencies. Bio chemistry also is important in other areas of public concern such as environmental protection. Growing college enrollments in chemistry and the life sciences will add to the demand for biochemists to teach in colleges and univer sities. Earnings and Working Conditions Biochemists have relatively high salaries; average earnings were about twice the average received by all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Accord ing to a 1972 survey of the Ameri can Chemical Society, salaries for biochemists with 2 to 4 years of experienced averaged $8,800 for those with a bachelor’s degree; $10,800 for those with a master’s degree; and $12,500 for those with a Ph.D. Biochemists also can look forward to higher salaries as they gain experience. Those who had 10 to 14 years of experience aver aged $13,500 with a bachelor’s de gree, $15,000 with a master’s degree, and $19,200 with a Ph.D. degree. Starting salaries paid to bio chemists employed by colleges and universities are comparable to those for other professional faculty mem bers. Biochemists in educational institutions often supplement their incomes by engaging in outside re search or consulting work. 365 LIFE SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS Sources off Additional Information General information on careers in biochemistry may be obtained from: American Society of Biological Chem ists, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md. 20014. LIFE SCIENTISTS (D.O.T. 040.081, 041.081, 041.168, 041.181, 041.281) Nature of the Work Life scientists study all aspects of living organisms, emphasizing the relationship between animals, plants, and microorganisms, and their environments. Almost two-fifths of all life sci entists are in research and develop ment. Many work in laboratories conducting basic research aimed at adding to our knowledge of living organisms. Knowledge gained from this research frequently is applied to—and has resulted in the development of—insecticides, diseaseresistant crops, and medicines. When working in laboratories, life sci entists must be familiar with re search techniques and complex laboratory equipment such as elec tron microscopes. Knowledge of computers also is useful in con ducting some experiments. Not all research, however, is performed in laboratories. For example, a bot anist who explores the volcanic Alaskan valleys, to see what plants grow there, also is doing research. Teaching in a college or univer sity is the major area of work for more than one-fourth of all life scientists, many of whom also do independent research. Another fourth are in some type of management and administrative work that ranges from planning and administering programs for testing foods and drugs to directing activities at zoos or botanical gardens. Some life scientists work as consultants to business firms or government in their specialty areas. Others write for technical publications or test and inspect foods, drugs, and other products. Some work in technical sales and services jobs for industrial companies where, for example, they demonstrate the proper use of new chemicals or technical products. Scientists working in many areas of the life sciences often call them selves biologists. However, the ma jority are classified by the type of organism they study or by the specific activity performed. Life scientists dealing primarily with plants are botanists. Some study all aspects of plant life, while others work in defined areas such as identifying and classifying plants or studying the structure of plants and plant cells. Some bota nists concentrate on the cause and cure of plant diseases. Some life scientists are con cerned with the mass development of plants. For example, agronomists improve the quality and yield of crops by developing new growth methods or by controlling disease, pests, and weeds. They also analyze soils to determine ways of increas ing acreage yields and decreasing soil erosion. Horticulturists work with orchard and garden plants such as fruits, nuts, vegetables, and flowers. They develop new or im proved plant varieties, and better methods of growing, harvesting, and transporting crops. Life scientists must be familiar with fundamental research techniques. 366 Zoologists concentrate on animal life—its origin, behavior, and life processes. Some conduct experi mental studies with live animals and others examine dissected ani mals in laboratories. Zoologists are usually identified by the animal group studied—ornithologists (birds), herpetologists (reptiles and amphi bians), and mammalogists (mam mals). Animal husbandry specialists do research on the breeding, feeding, and diseases of domestic farm ani mals. Veterinarians study diseases and abnormal functioning in ani mals. (See statement on Veterinar ians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Life scientists who investigate the growth and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as bac teria, viruses, and molds are called microbiologists. They isolate or ganisms and make cultures for close examination under a microscope. Medical microbiologists are con cerned with problems such as the relationship between bacteria and disease or the effect of antibiotics on bacteria. Others specialize in soil bacteriology (effect of micro organisms on soil fertility), virology (viruses), or immunology (mech anisms that fight infections). Anatomists study the composi tion of organisms, from cell struc ture to the formation of tissues and organs. Many specialize in human anatomy. Examination may entail dissections or involve the use of electron microscopes for organisms of submicroscopic size. Some life scientists apply their specialized knowledge across dif ferent areas, and may be classified by the functions performed. Ecol ogists, for example, study the mutual relationship among organ isms and their environments. They are interested in the effects of environmental influences such as rainfall, temperature, and altitude OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK on organisms. For example, ecol ogists extract samples of phy toplankton (microscopic plants that produce oxygen) from bodies of water to determine the effects of pollution, and measure the radio active content of fish by tracing tagged elements as they pass through their systems. Embryologists study the develop ment of an organism from a fertilized egg through the hatching process or gestation period. They investigate the cause of healthy and abnormal development in organisms. Nutritionists examine the bodily processes through which food is utilized and transformed into en ergy. They learn how vitamins, minerals, proteins, and other nu trients build and repair tissues. Pharmacologists conduct tests on animals such as rats, guinea pigs, and monkeys to determine the effects of drugs, gases, poisons, dusts, and other substances on the functioning of tissues and organs. They may develop new or improved chemical compounds for use in drugs and medicines. Pathologists specialize in the ef fects of diseases, parasites, and insects on human cells, tissues, and organs. Others may investigate genetic variations caused by drugs. Biochemists and Biological Ocean ographers, which are also life scientists, are included in separate statements elsewhere in the Hand book. Places of Employment More than 180,000 persons worked as life scientists in 1972. Almost 55,000 worked as agricultural sci entists, about 75,000 as biological scientists, and more than 55,000 Life scientist induces sea urchin to shed “eggs” for experiment in outer space. 367 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTISTS obtain an advanced degree, prefer ably a Ph.D., in their Field of interest. The Ph.D. degree gen erally is required for college teach ing and for independent research. It is also necessary for many jobs administering research programs. New graduates who have master’s degrees may qualify for some beginning jobs in applied research and college teaching. The bachelor’s degree may be adequate preparation for some be ginning jobs, but promotions often are limited to intermediate level positions. New graduates with a bachelor’s degree can start their careers in testing and inspecting jobs, or become technical sales and service representatives. They also may become advanced technicians, particularly in medical research or, with courses in education, a high school biology teacher. (See state ment on Secondary School Teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Most colleges and universities offer life science curriculums. How ever, courses differ from one col lege to another. For example, liberal arts colleges and universi ties emphasize the biological sci ences and medical research. The agricultural sciences are stressed at State universities and landgrant colleges because of the op portunities for training and re search provided by agricultural experiment stations. Young people seeking careers in the life sciences should obtain the broadest possible undergraduate background in biology and other sciences. Courses taken should in clude biochemistry, organic and inorganic chemistry, physics, and mathematics. Statistics, calculus, biometrics, and computer program Training, Other Qualifications, ming courses also are useful. and Advancement Large numbers of colleges and Young people seeking a career universities confer advanced de in the life sciences should plan to grees in the life sciences. Require worked on problems related to medical science. Over one-third of all biologists and about eight per cent of all agricultural scientists are women. Colleges and universities employ nearly three-fifths of all life sci entists in both teaching and re search jobs. Medical schools and hospitals also employ large num bers of medical investigators. Sizable numbers of agronomists, horticulturists, animal husbandry specialists, entomologists, and other agriculture-related specialists work for State agricultural colleges and agricultural experiment stations. More than half of the 26,000 life scientists working for the Federal Government in 1972 were in the Department of Agriculture. The Department of the Interior employs most of the fish and wild life biologists working for the Federal Government. Other large numbers of life scientists work for the Department of the Army and the National Institutes of Health. State and local governments com bined employ 9,000 biologists— mostly Fish and wildlife specialists, microbiologists, and entomologists— to detect and control diseases and to work in conservation. Approximately 25,000 life sci entists work in private industry, mostly in pharmaceuticals, indus trial chemicals, and food processing industries. A few are self-employed and more than 4,000 work for nonprofit research organizations and foundations. More than one-third of all life scientists live in six States— California, New York, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Florida, and Mary land. ments for advanced degrees usually include Field work and laboratory research, as well as classroom studies and preparation of a thesis. Young people planning careers as life scientists should be able to work independently, or as part of a team. Physical stamina and an inquiring mind are necessary for those interested in research in remote places. Life scientists must be able to express ideas both orally and in writing. Life scientists who have ad vanced degrees usually begin in research or teaching jobs. With experience, they may advance to jobs such as supervising research programs, or become full profes sors in colleges and universities. Employment Outlook Employment in the life sciences is expected to increase rapidly through the mid-1980’s. Thousands of jobs for life scientists will open because of this growth and the need to replace those who transfer to other fields of work, die, or retire. Nevertheless, new graduates may face competition since the number of life science graduates may grow more rapidly than employment opportunities. Under these condi tions, those holding advanced de grees, especially the Ph.D., should face less competition for jobs than those who have bachelor’s degrees. Opportunities for those with only an undergraduate degree may be limited to research assistant or technician jobs. Continued growth in research and development, particularly med ical research programs sponsored by the Federal Government and voluntary health agencies, is a major reason for the expected in crease in the employment of life scientists. For example, the Feder- 368 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Life scientists conduct experimental studies with animals. al Government is expected to allo cate substantial expenditures for cancer research during the next few years. Other areas of con centrated medical study include heart disease and birth defects. Research in such relatively new areas as space biology, radiation biology, environmental health, and genetic regulation will probably increase also. In addition, industry is expected to increase its research and development spending in the biological sciences. Stringent Federal health regula tions are likely to require additional life scientists in industry to test new drugs, chemicals, or foods, and to change processing methods. The large college and university enrollments expected in the life sciences through the mid-1980’s should increase the demand for Ph.D.’s as teachers. It also should result in openings for qualified persons with master’s degrees, es pecially in community colleges. Earnings and Working Conditions Agricultural and biological sci entists both command relatively high salaries. Their average earn ings are more than twice those received by nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In the Federal Government in early 1973, life scientists having a bachelor’s degree could begin at $7,694 or $9,520 a year, depending on their college records. Begin ning life scientists having the master’s degree could start at $9,520 or $11,614, depending on their academic records or previous work experience. Those having the Ph.D. degree could begin at $13,996 or $16,682. Salaries for 9 months of teach ing in 4-year colleges averaged about $9,300 for instructors, and $11,500 for assistant professors. More experienced personnel earned between $14,000 (associate profes sors) and $18,000 (professors) a year. (See statement on College and University Teachers.) Life sci entists in educational institutions sometimes supplement their regular salaries with income from writing, consulting, and special research projects. Beginning salary offers in 1972 for agricultural scientists averaged approximately $8,300 a year for those having bachelor’s degrees, and $10,600 for those having a graduate degree. According to the College Placement Council, agri cultural scientists averaged $8,700 a year to start in the chemical industry, the largest employer of life scientists in private industry. Another large employer of life scientists, the food industry, paid agricultural scientists beginning salaries of $8,500 in 1972. During 1972, life scientists in research and development in all sectors earned average monthly salaries of $1,023 at the bachelor’s degree level, $1,215 at the master’s level, and $1,533 at the Ph.D. level, according to one national survey. Most life scientists work in welllighted, well-ventilated, and clean laboratories. Some jobs require working outdoors under extreme weather conditions and doing stren uous physical work for long periods of time. Some jobs require living in remote areas without modern conveniences 369 LIFE SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS Sources of Additional Information General information on careers in the life sciences is available from: American Institute of Biological Sci ences, 3900 Wisconsin Ave., NW., Washington, D.C. 20016. American Society of Horticultural Sci ence, 914 Main St., P.O. Box 109, St. Joseph, Mich. 49085. American Physiological Society, Depart ment of Botany, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N.C. 27514. Ecological Society of America, Depart ment of Botany, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N.C. 27514. Special information on Federal Government careers is available from: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners for Washington, D.C., 1900 E St., NW ., Washington, D.C. 20415. boundaries, roads, and other con spicuous features. Soil scientists also conduct re search to determine the physical and chemical properties of soils in order to understand their behavior and origin. They predict the yields of cultivated crops, grasses, and trees, under alternative combina tions of management practices. Soils science offers opportunities for those who wish to specialize in soil classification and mapping, soil geography, soil chemistry, soil physics, soil microbiology, and soil management. Training and experi ence in soil science also will pre pare persons for positions as farm managers, land appraisers, and many other professional positions. An estimated 5,000 soil scientists were employed in 1972. Most soil scientists are employed by agencies of the Federal Government, State equipment stations, and colleges of agriculture. However, many are employed in a wide range of other public and private institutions, in cluding fertilizer companies, pri vate research laboratories, insur ance companies, banks and other lending agencies, real estate firms, land appraisal boards, State high way departments, State conservation departments, and farm management agencies. A few are independent consultants, and others work for consulting firms. An increasing number are employed in foreign countries as research leaders, con sultants, and agricultural managers. qualification for entrance is a B.S. degree with a major in Soil Science or in a closely related field of study, and with 30 semester hours of course work in the bio logical, physical, and earth sciences, including a minimum of 15 semester hours in soils. Those having gradu ate training—especially those with the doctorate—can be expected to advance rapidly into a responsible and .high-paying position. This is particularly true in soil research, including the more responsible positions in soil classification and in teaching. Soil scientists who are qualified for work with both field and laboratory data have a special advantage. Many colleges and universities offer fellowships and assistantships for graduate training, or em ploy graduate students for parttime teaching or research. Training and Advancement Employment Outlook Training in a college or uni versity of recognized standing is important in obtaining employ ment as a soil scientist. For Fed eral employment, the minimum The demand is increasing for soil scientists to help complete the scientific classification and evalua tion of the soil resources in the United States. One of the major Places of Employment SOIL SC IEN TISTS (D.O.T. 040.081) Nature of the Work Soil scientists study the physical, chemical, and biological character istics and behavior of soils. They in vestigate the soils both in the field and in the laboratory and grade them according to a national sys tem of soil classification. From their research, scientists can classify soil in order to respond to management questions concerning its capability to produce crops, grasses, and trees, and concerning the soil’s engineering utility in re lation to foundations for buildings and other structures. Soil scientists prepare maps, usually based on aerial photographs, on which they plot the individual kinds of soil and other landscape features significant to soil use and management in rela tion to land ownership lines, field Soil scientists test soils in the laboratory. 370 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK program objectives of the Soil Conservation Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture is to complete the soil survey of all rural lands in the United States. This program includes research, soil classification, interpretation of results for use by agriculturists and engineers, and training of other workers to use these results. Also, demand is increasing for both basic and applied research to increase the efficiency of soil use. sional experience, and individual abilities. The entrance salary in the Federal service for graduates having a B.S. degree was $7,694 in early 1973. They may expect ad vancement to $9,520 after 1 year of satisfactory performance. Fur ther promotion depends upon the individual’s ability to do highquality work and to accept respon sibility. Earnings of well-qualified Federal soil scientists with several years experience range from $13,996 to $23,088 a year. Earnings The incomes of soil scientists de pend upon their education, profes Sources of Additional Information Additional information may be obtained from the U.S. Civil Service Commission, Washington, D.C. 20415; Office of Personnel, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Wash ington, D.C. 20250; or any office of the Department’s Soil Conserva tion Service. See also statements on Chemists and Life Scientists. M ATHEM ATICS OCCUPATIONS Mathematics is both a science and a tool essential for many kinds of work. As a tool, mathematics is necessary to understanding and ex pressing ideas in science, engi neering, and, increasingly, in human a f f a i r s . The a p p l i c a t i o n of mathematical techniques in these fields has increased greatly because of the widespread use of computers, which enable mathematicians to do complex problems rapidly and ef ficiently. As a result, employment ,opportunities for persons trained in mathematics have expanded rapidly in recent years. Young people considering careers in mathematics should be able to concentrate for long periods of time. They should enjoy working in dependently with ideas and solving problems, and must be able to pre sent their findings in written reports. This section describes two oc cupations—mathematician and statistician. A statement on actu aries, a closely related mathematical occupation, is discussed in the sec tion on Insurance Occupations. En trance into any of these fields re q u i r e s c o l l e g e t r a i n i n g in mathematics. For many types of work, gr aduat e educat i on is necessary. M ATHEM ATICIANS (D.O.T. 020.088) Nature of the Work Mathematics, one of the oldest and most basic sciences, is also one of the most rapidly growing profes sions. Mathematicians today are engaged in a wide variety of activi ties, ranging from the creation of new theories to the translation of scientific and managerial problems into mathematical terms. There are two broad classes of mathematical work: pure or theo retical mathematics; and applied mathematics, which includes solv ing numerical problems. Theo retical mathematicians further mathematical science by discover ing new principles and new rela tionships between existing princi ples of mathematics. They seek to increase basic knowledge without necessarily considering its practical use. Yet, this pure and abstract knowledge has been instrumental in many scientific and engineer ing achievements. For example, in 1854 Bernard Riemann in vented a seemingly impractical nonEuclidian geometry that became part of the theory of relativity Many other workers in the natural developed by Albert Einstein more and social sciences and in data proc than a half-century later. Mathematicians in applied work essing use mathematics extensively, although they are not primarily develop theories, techniques, and mathematicians. These occupations approaches to solve problems in are discussed elsewhere n the Hand natural science, social science, man book, as are jobs for high school agement, and engineering. They mathematics teachers, covered in analyze how problems can be ex the statement on Secondary School pressed in mathematical terms, and use mathematics to help solve these Teachers. problems. Their work ranges from the analysis of vibrations and the stability of rockets to studies of the effects of new drugs on disease. Some applied mathematicians, in the field of operations research for ex ample, study problems ranging from finding the way to make the largest profit with the least risk in managing a business, to the timing of traffic lights for optimum use in our high way systems. Some mathematicians (or mathe matical statisticians—as they are often called) use mathematical theory to design and improve statistical methods for collecting and analyzing numerical information, and esti mating unknown quantities. They develop statistical tools and fre quently work with statisticians to plan and design surveys in fields such as agriculture, biology, economics, psychology, sociology, and industrial quality control. In applied mathematics, mathe matical knowledge and modern com puting equipment are used to get numerical answers to specific prob lems. Some work in this area re quires a very high level of mathemati cal knowledge, skill, and ingenuity. However, much of this work may re quire training somewhat different from that of the mathematician. (See statements on Programers and Sys tems Analysts elsewhere in the Hand book. Almost one-fourth of all mathe maticians work in research and development, extending basic knowl edge and finding new uses for existing knowledge. Nearly onethird are primarily college teachers, many of whom do some research. A little less than one-third are in management and administration— about two-fifths of whom manage and administer research and devel opment programs. Most of the re mainder- are concerned chiefly with operations research or production 371 372 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Mathematicians use modern computing equipment. and inspection (quality control) of manufactured products. Places off Employment Federal Government, primarily in the Department of Defense. A few worked for nonprofit organizations and State and local governments. Mathematicians work in all States, but are concentrated in those with large industrial areas and large college and university enrollments. Nearly half of the total were in seven States—Cali fornia, New York, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Maryland, and New Jersey. One-fifth live in three metropolitan areas—New York; Washington, D.C.; and Los Angeles-Long Beach. About 76,000 persons worked as mathematicians in 1972; almost 15 percent were women. More than one-half worked in private in dustry, primarily in independent research and development firms, and in the ordnance, aircraft, machinery, and electrical equip ment industries. Other mathema ticians were employed as consult ants. More than one-third of all mathematicians worked for col Training, Other Qualifications, leges and universities. Some of and Advancement these persons are teachers, others work mainly in research and devel The minimum educational re opment and have few or no teach quirement for a beginning job in ing duties. Others worked for the mathematics outside of college teaching is the bachelor’s degree with a major in mathematics, or with a major in an applied field— such as physics or engineering— and a minor in mathematics. For many beginning jobs, particularly in research or college teaching, an advanced degree is required. Graduate study is also valuable for advancement to more responsible positions in all types of work. The bachelor’s degree in mathe matics is offered by most colleges and universities throughout the country. Mathematics courses usually required for a degree are analytical geometry, calculus, dif ferential equations, probability and statistics, mathematical analysis, and modern algebra. A person plan ning to study this field in college should take as many mathematics courses as possible while still in high school. More than 350 colleges and uni versities have programs leading to the master’s degree in mathe matics; about 150 also offer the Ph.D. In graduate school, students build upon the basic knowledge ac quired in earlier studies. They usually concentrate on a specific field of mathematics, such as algebra, mathematical analysis, or statistics, by conducting intensive research and taking advanced courses. The bachelor’s degree is ade quate preparation for many posi tions in private industry and the Federal Government, particularly those connected with computer work. Some new graduates having the bachelor’s degree assist senior mathematicians by performing computations and solving less ad vanced mathematical problems in applied research. Others work as graduate research or teaching as sistants in colleges and universi ties while working toward an ad vanced degree. MATHEMATICS OCCUPATIONS Advanced degrees are required have less difficulty finding jobs for an increasing number of jobs than persons with less education, in industry and government—in but they may face competition for research and in many areas of entry level jobs, especially in col applied mathematics. The Ph.D. lege and university teaching. Many degree is necessary for full faculty graduates with the Ph.D. look for status at most colleges and univer jobs with colleges and universities sities, as well as for advanced re where there will be increasing search positions. numbers of students taking mathe For work in applied mathe matics courses. However, some matics, training in the field in may have to accept jobs that do not which the mathematics will be used fully utilize their training, espe is very important. Fields in which cially those who have specialized applied mathematics is used exten in pure or theoretical mathematics. sively include physics, engineering, There is a need for more mathe and operations research; other maticians to solve an increasingly fields are business and industrial wide variety of complex research management, economics, statistics, and development problems. In chemistry and life sciences, and the engineering, for example, applica behavioral sciences. Training in nu tions of mathematical techniques merical analysis and programming and principles will be needed in is especially desirable for mathe the design of equipment, from maticians working with computers. simple devices to airplanes, ships, Mathematicians need good rea and missiles, in order to get the soning ability, persistence, and the most reliable performance for the ability to apply basic principles to least cost. In addition, mathemati new types of problems. They must cians will be increasingly needed in be able to communicate well with research in the natural and social others since they often must listen sciences, military sciences, opera to a non-mathematician describe a tions research, and business man problem in general terms, and agement. This work requires both a check and recheck to make sure high degree of mathematical com they understand the mathematical petence and a knowledge of the solution that is needed. field of specialization. Expendi tures to support these research and development activities in Employment Outlook creased steadily through most of Persons seeking beginning jobs the 1960’s, and then fell slightly as mathematicians are likely to in the early 1970’s; they are ex face competition through the pected to rise again through the mid-1980’s. Employment of math mid-1980’s, although more slowly ematicians is expected to increase than in the past. College graduates with degrees rapidly in this period, and several thousand mathematicians will be in mathematics will be able to find needed each year to replace those jobs in many other fields, because who die, retire, or transfer to other the education necessary for a occupations. However, the number degree in mathematics is also an of persons trained in mathematics excellent background for other jobs and looking for jobs in the field is that rely heavily on the application likely to increase even more of mathematical theories and rapidly. methods. Thus, many mathematics Those with the Ph.D. degree may majors may find jobs in high school 373 teaching, statistics, actuarial work, computer programming, systems analysis, economics, engineering, physical science, and life science. Employment opportunities in these related fields will probably be best for those who combine a major in mathematics with a minor in one of these subjects. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1972, mathematicians earned average salaries over twice as high as the average for nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Starting salaries for mathematicians and mathematical statisticians averaged $9,500 a year according to the limited data avail able. Those with a master’s degree could start at about $11,000 an nually. Yearly salaries for new graduates having the Ph.D., most of whom had some experience, averaged over $16,000. In the Federal Government in early 1973, mathematicians having the bachelor’s degree and no ex perience could start at either $7,694 or $9,520 a year, depending on their college records. Those with the master’s degree could start at $11,614 or $13,996; and persons having the Ph.D. degree could begin at either $13,996 or $16,682. Salaries paid to college and uni versity teachers vary greatly de pending both on the quality and location of the school and the ability and experience of the in dividual. According to the Ameri can Mathematical Society, college and university teachers earned from as low as $8,000 a year (instructors) to $25,000 a year (professors). Some were paid over $30,000 annually. Mathematicians in colleges and universities often supplement their regular salaries with income from summer teaching, special research projects, consulting, and writing. 374 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Sources of Additional Information STATISTICIANS (D.O.T. 020.188) There are several brochures that give facts about the field of mathe matics, including career opportuni Nature of the Work ties, professional training, and col leges and universities with degree Statistics are numbers that help programs. describe the characteristics of the Professional Training in Mathe world and its inhabitants. Statis matics is available for 25j£ from: ticians collect, analyze, and inter American Mathematical Society, P.O. pret numerical data based on their Box 6248, Providence, R.I. 02904. knowledge of statistical methods Professional Opportunities in and of a particular subject, such Mathematics (35j£) and Guide Book as economics, human behavior, or to Departments in the Mathemat engineering. They may use statisti ical Sciences ($1.35) are provided cal techniques to predict popula by: tion growth or economic condi Mathematical Association of America tions, develop quality control tests 1225 Connecticut Ave. NW ., Wash for manufactured products, or help ington, D.C. 20036. business managers and government For specific information on officials make decisions and evalu careers in applied mathematics and ate the results of new programs. electronic computer work, contact: Many statisticians plan surveys, Association for Computing Machinery design experiments, or analyze 1133 Avenue of the Americas, New data. For most surveys, the statis York, N.Y. 10036. tician must select a sample; for example, television rating services ask only a few thousand families, rather than all viewers, what pro grams they watch. Statisticians decide where to get the data, deter mine the type and size of the sample group, and develop the sur vey questionnaire or reporting form. They also prepare the in structions for workers who will tab ulate the returns. Statisticians who design experiments prepare mathe matical models to test a particular theory. Those in analytical work interpret collected data and sum marize their findings in tables, charts, and written reports. Some statisticians direct statis tical programs. A few combine re search with teaching. The rest work in quality control, operations re search, production and sales fore casting, and market research. Because statistics has such a Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 33 S. 17th St., Phila delphia, Pa. 19103. Facts matical from: on careers in mathe statistics are available Institute of Mathematical Statistics Department of Statistics, California State College at Hayward, Hayward, Cal. 94542. For Federal Government career information, contact any regional office of the U.S. Civil Service Commission, or: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Service Examiners, 1900 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20415. Other sections of the Handbook discuss related occupations, such as statisticians, actuaries, program mers, and systems analysts. Statisticians use statistical techniques to predict economic conditions. MATHEMATICS OCCUPATIONS wide use, it is sometimes difficult vey work usually requires graduate to distinguish statisticians from training. Fewer than 80 colleges and uni specialists in other fields who use statistics. For example, a statis versities offered a bachelor’s degree tician working with data on econ in statistics in 1972. However, most omic conditions may have the title schools offer either a degree in of economist. Statisticians some mathematics or a sufficient num times work closely with mathe ber of courses in statistics to qualify maticians and mathematical statis graduates for beginning positions. ticians. (See statement on mathe Required subjects include mathe maticians elsewhere in this section.) matics through differential and in tegral calculus, statistical methods, and probability theory. Courses in Places of Employment computer uses and techniques are useful for many jobs. For quality Approximately 23,000 persons— control positions, training in engi over one-third of them women— neering or a physical or biological worked as statisticians in 1972. science and in the application of About 2 out of 3 statisticians are in statistical methods to manufacturing private industry, primarily in manu processes is desirable. For many facturing, public utility, finance, market research, business analysis, and insurance companies. More and forecasting jobs, courses in than one-fifth worked for the Fed economics, business administration, eral Government, primarily in the or a related field are helpful. Departments of Commerce; Agri About 100 colleges and univer culture; Defense; and Health, Edu sities offered graduate degrees in cation, and Welfare. Others worked statistics in 1972, and many other in State and local government or schools offered one or two gradu colleges and universities. ate level statistics courses. The Although statisticians work in usual requirement for entering a all States, most are in metropolitan graduate program is a bachelor’s areas, and about one-fourth lived degree with a good background in in three areas—New York; Wash mathematics. Students should at ington, D.C.; and Los Angeles-Long tend schools where they can do Beach. research in a subject-matter field, as well as take advanced courses in statistics. Training, Other Qualifications, Beginning statisticians who have and Advancement only the bachelor’s degree often A bachelor’s degree with a major spend much of their time performing in statistics or mathematics is the routine statistical work. Through ex minimum educational requirement perience, they may advance to for many beginning jobs in statistics. positions of greater technical and For other beginning statistical jobs, supervisory responsibility. Those however, a bachelor’s degree with a who have exceptional ability and major in economics or another ap interest may rise to top manage plied field and a minor in statistics ment positions. is preferable. A graduate degree in mathematics or statistics is essential for college and university teaching Employment Outlook and helpful for promotion to top Employment opportunities for administrative and consulting jobs. Advancement in analytical and sur well-qualified persons who can com 375 bine training in statistics with knowl edge of a field of application are expected to be favorable through the mid-1980’s. In addition to job openings resulting from the rapid growth expected in the profession, hundreds of statisticians will be needed each year to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Private industry will require in creasing numbers of statisticians for quality control in manufacturing. Statisticians with a knowledge of engineering and the physical sciences will find jobs working with scien tists and engineers in research and development. Business firms will rely more heavily on statisticians to forecast sales, analyze business conditions, modernize accounting procedures, and help solve man agement problems. Government agencies will need statisticians for existing and new programs in fields such as social security, health, education, and eco nomics. Colleges and universities will employ others to teach a grow ing number of students, as the broader use of statistical methods makes such courses increasingly important to persons majoring in fields other than mathematics and statistics. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1972, statisticians earned aver age salaries almost three times as high as the average for nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. New college gradu ates averaged about $9,300 a year, according to the limited informa tion available. Those with the master’s degree could start at about $11,000 a year. In the Federal Government in early 1973, statisticians who had the bachelor’s degree and no experi ence could start at either $7,649 376 or $9,520 a year, depending on their college grades. Beginning statisti cians with the master’s degree could start at $11,614 or $13,996. Those with the Ph.D. could begin at $13,996 or $16,682. Statisticians employed by colleges and universities generally receive salaries comparable to those paid other faculty members. (See state ment on College and University Teachers.) In addition to their regu OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK lar salaries, statisticians in educa tional institutions sometimes earn extra income from outside research projects, consulting, and writing. Sources of Additional Information Facts on Federal Government jobs are available from: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Serv ice Examiners for Washington, D.C., 1900 E St., NW ., Washington, D.C. 20414. For information about career opportunities in statistics, contact: For a list of reading materials on career opportunities in data processing, contact: American Statistical Association, 806 15th St., NW „ Washington, D.C. 20005. Association for Computing Machinery, 1133 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10036. PHYSICAL SCIENTISTS Physical scientists deal with the basic laws of the physical world. Many, especially physicists and asstronomers, do basic research to increase man’s knowledge of the properties of matter and energy. Others, particularly chemists and food scientists, do basic and applied research, and develop new products and processes. For example, chem ists in applied research use their knowledge of the interactions of various chemicals to improve the quality of products. Besides re search and development, many chemists, food scientists, and some physicists work in production and sales-related activities in industry. This section describes four phy sical science occupations—those of chemists, physicists, astronomers, and food scientists. Engineers, life scientists, and environmental scien tists also require a background in the physical sciences; these occupa tions are described in separate sec tions elsewhere in the Handbook. ASTRONOMERS (D.O.T. 021.088) Nature of the Work How was our solar system cre ated? Why do the stars shine? What do cosmic rays tell us about the ori gin of our universe? Astronomers— sometimes called astrophysicists— consider questions like these and, using the principles of physics and mathematics, study the structure and evolution of the universe. They collect and analyze data on the sun, moon, planets, and stars to deter mine the size, shape, xtemperature, chemical composition, and motion of these bodies. They also study the gases and dusts in space. One use of this data is to determine the age and size of the stars and how they were formed. Astronomers compute the posi tions of the planets; calculate the orbits of comets, asteroids, and artificial satellites; and study the origin and nature of cosmic radia tion. They also study the size and shape of the earth and the prop erties of its atmosphere. To make observations of outer space, astronomers use complex photographic techniques, light measuring instruments, and other optical devices. They use, for ex ample, the spectroscope, a telescope with a prism attached, to separate light into its component colors and identify chemical elements in the universe. Yet astronomers actually spend a limited amount of time at the telescope. They also use other specialized devices for making ob servations of radio waves, X-rays, gamma rays, and cosmic rays. These instruments often are carried by balloons, rockets, and satellites. Electronic computers are useful for processing astronomical data to cal culate orbits of asteroids or comets, guide spacecraft, and work out tables for navigational handbooks. Astronomers usually specialize in one of the many branches of the science. Some areas of specializa tion are instruments and techniques, the sun, the solar system, and the evolution and interiors of stars. Astronomers who work on ob servational programs begin their studies by deciding what stars or other objects to observe and what methods and instruments to use. They may need to design optical measuring devices to attach to the telescope to make the required meas urements. These devices may be made in the observatory shop. After these astronomers complete their observations, they analyze the re sults, present them in precise nu merical form, and try to explain them on the basis of some theory. Other astronomers concentrate on theoretical problems. They may formulate theories or mathematical models to explain observations made earlier by another astronomer. These astronomers develop mathematical equations from the laws of physics to compute, for example, theoret ical models of how stars change as their nuclear energy sources become exhausted. More than 85 percent of all astronomers teach or do research; some do both in colleges and uni versities. In some schools that do not have separate departments of astronomy or only small enroll ments in the subject, astronomers may teach courses in mathematics or physics as well as astronomy. Other astronomers administer re search programs, develop and de sign astronomical instruments, and do consulting work. Places of Employment Astronomy is one of the small est of the physical sciences; about 2,000 persons worked as astron omers in 1972. Most astronomers work in colleges and universities. Some of these work in universityoperated observatories, where they usually devote most of their time to research. Other astronomers work 377 378 for observatories financed by non with the doctorate. In 1972, only 52 colleges and profit organizations. universities had programs leading The Federal Government em ployed over 100 astronomers in to the bachelor’s degree in as 1972. Most worked for the Depart tronomy. However, students with a ment of Defense, mainly at the U.S. bachelor’s degree in physics or Naval Observatory and the U.S. mathematics with a physics minor Naval Research Laboratory. Others can usually qualify for graduate worked for the National Aeronautics programs in astronomy. Students and Space Administration or the planning to become astronomers National Science Foundation. A few usually study subjects that include astronomers worked for firms in physics, mathematics, and chem the aerospace field, or in museums istry. Courses in statistics, computer science, and electronics also are and planetariums. useful. In schools with astronomy departments, students also take in Training, Other Qualifications, troductory courses in astronomy and Advancement and astrophysics, and in astronom ical techniques and instruments. The usual requirement for a job About 55 colleges and universities in astronomy is a Ph.D. degree. in various sections of the country Although persons with less educa offer the Ph.D. degree in astronomy. tion may qualify for some beginning The graduate student takes advanced jobs, high-level positions in teaching courses primarily in astronomy, and research and advancement in physics, and mathematics. Some most areas are open only to those schools require that graduate stu OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK dents spend several months working at an observatory. In most institu tions the work program leading to the doctorate is flexible and allows students to take courses in their own particular area of interest. Young people planning on careers in astronomy should have inquisitive minds and imagination. Persever ance and the ability to concentrate on detail and work independently also are important. New graduates with a bachelor’s or master’s degree in astronomy usually begin as assistants in ob servatories, planetariums, large de partments of astronomy in colleges and universities, Government agencies, or industry. Some work as research assistants while studying toward advanced degrees; others, particu larly in the Federal Government, receive on-the-job training in the application of astronomical prin ciples. New graduates with the doctorate can qualify for teaching and research jobs in colleges and universities and for research jobs in Government and industry. Employment Outlook Future opportunities for astron omers are heavily dependent on the amount of funds spent by the Federal Government for basic research in astronomy. These funds are expected to continue to increase through the mid-1980’s, but at a slower rate than during the 1960’s. Although relatively few college students are expected to receive the Ph.D. in astronomy in any one year, the num ber of job openings in any year may be even lower. Thus, competi tion may develop for beginning jobs. People without the Ph.D. are not usually considered professional as tronomers, but may find jobs as research and technical assistants. Requirements for astronomers are affected to some extent by the needs 379 PHYSICAL SCIENTISTS of the space program—rockets, mis siles, manmade earth satellites, and space exploration. Astronomers an alyze the data collected by rockets and spacecraft, and give direction to the astronomical observations that can only be carried out by means of equipment placed in space vehicles. Earnings and Working Conditions Astronomers have relatively high salaries, with average earnings al most three times as high as the average for non-supervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In the Federal Government in early 1973, astronomers holding the Ph.D. degree could begin at $13,996 or $16,682, depending on their col lege record. Those having the bach elor’s degree could start at $7,619 or $9,520; with the master’s degree at $11,614 or $13,996. In private industry, starting sal aries averaged $8,700 a year for those having the bachelor’s degree, $11,000 for those having the master’s degree, and $12,000 for those having the Ph.D. degree, according to the limited data available. Astronomers teaching in colleges and universities received salaries equivalent to those of other faculty members. (See statement on College and Univer sity Teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Although most modern astron omers do not make direct ob servations but analyze data from satellites and radio telescopes, some still do nightwork. These people make visual photographic or photo electric observations involving ex posure to the outside air through the open dome of the observatory, sometimes on cold winter nights. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in astronomy and on schools offering training in the field, contact: American Astronomical Society, 211 FitzRandolph Rd., Princeton, N.J. 08540. Facts on Federal Government careers are available from any regional office of the U.S. Civil Service Commission or from: Interagency Board of Civil Service Examiners for Washington, D.C. 1900 E St. NW „ Washington, D.C. 20415. CHEM ISTS (D.O.T. 022.081, .168, .181, and .281) Nature of the Work The clothes we wear, the foods we eat, the houses in which we live— in fact most things that help make our lives better, from medical care to a cleaner environment—result, in part, from the work done by chemists. Chemists investigate the proper ties and composition of matter and the laws that govern the combina tion of elements. They search for and try to put into practical use new knowledge about substances. They apply scientific principles and techniques and use many specialized instruments to measure, identify, and evaluate changes in matter. Chemists maintain accurate records of their work and prepare reports showing results of tests or experi ments. Chemists may develop new sub stances, such as rocket fuel, or in spect and test final products to make sure they meet industry and government standards. The mate rials with which chemists work vary by industry. For example, in the health field, chemists may develop vaccines, but in the food industry, they may develop food additives. (See statements on Biochemists and Food Scientists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Nearly two-fifths of all chemists work in research and development. In basic research, chemists try to extend scientific knowledge rather than solve practical problems. Basic research results, however, have prac tical uses. For example, research on how and why small molecules unite to form larger ones (poly merization) has been used to make synthetic rubber and plastics. Chem ists in research and development often create new products. Top management, for example, may give the chemists a description of a needed item. If similar products exist, chemists test samples to de termine their ingredients. If similar products are not available, chem ists experiment with various sub stances to obtain a product with the required specifications. Over one-fourth of all chemists administer and manage programs, especially those related to research and development. Nearly one-fifth of all chemists work in production and inspection activities. In produc tion operations, chemists prepare instructions (batch sheets) for plant workers and specify the kind and amount of ingredients to use and the exact mixing time for each stage in the process. At each step, chem ists test samples for quality control to insure that they meet industry and government standards. Chemists in these areas also are concerned with improving products and processes. Others work as marketing or sales representatives when the job re quires a technical knowledge of the various products. More than onetenth of all chemists teach in col leges and universities where they may do some research. Some chem ists are consultants to private indus try firms and government agencies. 380 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Places of Employment Nearly 134,000 persons worked as chemists in 1972; about 10 percent were women. More than two-thirds of all chemists work in private in dustry; half are in the chemicals manufacturing industry. Most of the remainder work for companies manufacturing food, scientific in struments, petroleum, paper, and electrical equipment. Colleges and universities em ployed more than 25,000 chemists. A smaller number worked for non profit research organizations. A number of chemists are employed by Federal Government agencies, chiefly the Departments of Defense; Health, Education, and Welfare; Agriculture; and Interior. Small numbers work for State and local governments, primarily in agencies concerned with health or agriculture. Chemists are employed in all States, but usually are concentrated in large industrial areas. Nearly one-fifth of all chemists were located in four metropolitan areas—New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Newark. About half of the total worked in six States—New York, New Jersey, California, Pennsyl vania, Ohio, and Illinois. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in chemistry is usually the minimum requirement for starting a career as a chemist. Graduate training is es sential for many positions, par ticularly in research and college teaching. Over 1,000 colleges and univer sities offer a bachelor’s degree in chemistry. In addition to the re quired chemistry courses (analytical, inorganic, organic, and physical chemistry), undergraduates take courses in mathematics (especially geometry and calculus) and physics. Over 300 colleges and universities award advanced degrees in chem istry. In graduate school, students usually specialize in a particular field of chemistry. Requirements for the master’s or doctor’s degree vary, but usually include a thesis based on independent research. Students planning careers as chemists should enjoy studying science and mathematics, and ought to like working with their hands to build scientific apparatus and to perform experiments. Perseverance and the ability to concentrate on detail and work independently are essential. Other desirable assets in clude an inquisitive mind, a good memory, and imagination. Chem ists also should have good eyesight and good eye-hand coordination. New graduates with the bachelor’s degree generally begin their careers in government or industry by an alyzing or testing products, working in technical sales or service, or assisting senior chemists in research and development laboratories. Many employers have special training and orientation programs for new gradu ates. These programs are concerned with special techniques and help new graduates determine the types of work best suited to their interest and talents. Candidates for an ad vanced degree often teach or do research in colleges and universities while working toward advanced de grees. They also may qualify as secondary school teachers. Beginning chemists with the mas ter’s degree can usually go into applied research positions in gov ernment or private industry. They also may qualify for some teaching positions in colleges and univer sities and many positions in 2-year colleges. The Ph.D. generally is required for basic research, for teaching in colleges and universities, and for advancement to most administrative positions. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for new chemistry graduates are ex pected to be favorable through the mid-1980’s. In addition to oppor tunities resulting from the very rapid growth expected for this pro fession, thousands of new chemists will be needed each year to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. The favorable outlook for chem ists assumes that additional chemists will be needed for research and development work. Research and development expenditures of govern ment and industry are expected to increase through the mid-1980’s, although at a slower rate than during the 1960’s. The expected slowdown in Federal R&D spending basically reflects anticipated shifts in the relative importance of space and defense. However, if actual R&D expenditures levels and patterns differ significantly from those as sumed, the outlook for chemists would be altered. Growth in demand for industrial products, including plastics, man made fibers, drugs, and fertilizers will increase employment opportu nities for chemists. For example, chemists will be needed both by industrial companies and govern ment agencies to help solve pollution control problems, establish better health care programs, and do healthrelated research in hospitals. New and better solid and liquid fuels to stem fuel shortages could re quire more chemists. Some also will be needed to work in Federal, State, and local crime laboratories. Larger enrollments through the mid-1980’s will require more chem ists, especially Ph.D.’s, to teach in colleges and universities. Additional opportunities will become available in 2-year colleges. (See statements on colleges and universities else where in the Handbook.) PHYSICAL SCIENTISTS New graduates also will find openings in high school teaching after completing professional educa tion courses and other requirements for a State teaching certificate. How ever, they usually are regarded as teachers rather than as chem ists. (See statement on Secondary School Teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings and Working Conditions Chemists have relatively high salaries, with average earnings about twice those received by nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. According to the American Chemical Society, annual salaries for experienced chemists having a bachelor’s degree averaged $15,600 in 1972; for those with a master’s degree, $16,300; and for those with a Ph.D, $19,200. Private industry paid inexperi enced chemists with the bachelor’s degree starting salaries of $9,000 a year; those with the master’s degree $10,300; and those with the Ph.D. Chemist records results of experiments. 381 $15,600. In colleges and universi in the statement on Technician ties, those with the master’s degree Occupations. earned $8,100 and those with the Ph.D. averaged $10,920 to start. Many experienced chemists in edu cational institutions supplement FOOD SCIENTISTS their regular salaries with income from consulting, lecturing, and (D.O.T. 022.891,040.081,041.081) writing. Depending on college records, the Nature of the Work annual starting salary in the Fed eral Government in early 1973 for Someone has estimated that the an inexperienced chemist with a average family of four consumes bachelor’s degree was either $7,694 or $9,520. Beginning chemists who over 5,000 pounds of food a year. In had 1 year of graduate study could the past, housewives processed most start at $9,520 and those who food in the home, but today, indus had 2 years of graduate study, at try processes almost all foods. $11,614. Chemists having the Ph.D. People in many occupations are degree could start at $13,996 or involved with food processing. A key worker is the food scientist or $16,682. food technologist. Chemists work mostly in modern, Food scientists investigate the well-equipped, well-lighted labora chemical, physical, and biological tories, offices, or classrooms. Hazards involve handling poten nature of food and apply this knowl tially explosive or highly caustic edge to processing, preserving, pack chemicals. However, when safety aging, distributing, and storing an regulations are followed health haz adequate, nutritious, wholesome, and economical food supply. About ards are negligible. three-fifths of all scientists in food processing work in research and development. Others work in qual Sources of Additional Information ity assurance laboratories or in General information on career production or processing areas of opportunities and earnings for chem food plants. Some teach or do basic ists may be obtained from: research in colleges and universities. American Chemical Society, 1155 16th Food scientists in basic research St., NW ., Washington, D.C. 20036. study the structure and composi Manufacturing Chemists’ Association, tion of food and the changes it Inc., 1825 Connecticut Ave., NW ., undergoes in storage and processing. Washington, D.C. 20009. For example, they may develop Specific information on Federal new sources of proteins, study the Government careers may be ob effects of processing on micro tained from: organisms, or search for factors Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Serv that affect the flavor, texture, or ice Examiners for Washington, D.C., appearance of foods. Food scien 1900 E St., NW ., Washington, D.C. tists who work in applied research 20415. and development create new foods For additional sources of informa and develop new processing methods. tion, see statements on Biochemists, They also seek to improve existing Chemical Engineers, and Industrial foods by making them more nu Chemical Industry. Information on tritious and enhancing their flavor, chemical technicians may be found color, and texture. 382 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK disposal of wastes. To increase efficiency, they advise management on the purchase of equipment and recommend new sources of mate rials. Food scientists maintain records and reports that show results of tests or experiments. In addition, some food scientists work in market research, advertis ing, and technical sales. Others teach in colleges and universities. Places of Employment About 7,500 persons, almost 15 percent women, worked as food scientists in 1972. Food scientists work in all sectors of the food in dustry and in every state. The types of product on which they work may depend on where in the country they work: for example, in Maine and Ohio they work with potatoes; in New York and Pennsylvania, with flavor ingredients; in the Mid-west, with cereal products or meat pack ing; and in Florida and California, with orange juice. The greatest num Food scientists test food for color and flavor. ber work in California, Illinois, New York, Pennsylvania, Texas, Ohio, New Jersey, Wisconsin, Michigan, Food scientists insure that each ards. For example, scientists test and Iowa. new product will retain its char canned goods for sugar, starch, pro Some food scientists do research acteristics and nutritive value during tein, fat, vitamin, and mineral for Federal agencies such as the storage. They also may conduct content. In frozen food plants, they Food and Drug Administration and chemical and microbiological tests make sure that, after processing, the Departments of Agriculture and to see that products meet industry various enzymes are inactive so that Defense; others work in State regu and government standards. Others the food won’t spoil during storage. latory agencies. A few work for test additives for purity, investi Others are concerned with packag private consulting firms and inter gate changes that take place during ing materials that maintain shelf national organizations such as the processing, or develop mass-feeding life and product stability. They United Nations. Some teach or do methods for food service institutions. often supervise technicians who research in colleges and universities. In quality control laboratories, assist in product testing. (See state (See statement on College and Uni food scientists check raw ingredients ment on Food Processing Tech versity Teachers elsewhere in the for freshness, maturity, or suitability nicians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Handbook.) Food scientists in production for processing. They may use ma chines that test for tenderness by schedule processing operations, pre Training, Other Qualifications, finding the amount of force neces pare production specifications, main and Advancement sary to puncture the item. Period tain proper temperature and ically, they inspect processing line humidity in storage areas, and A bachelor’s degree with a major operations to insure conformance supervise sanitation operations, in in food science, or in one of the with government and industry stand cluding the efficient and economical physical or life sciences such as 383 PHYSICAL SCIENTISTS chemistry and biology, is the usual would begin their careers doing basic minimum requirement for beginning research or teaching. jobs in food science. An advanced degree is necessary for many jobs, Employment Outlook particularly research and college teaching, and for some management Employment of food scientists level jobs in industry. is expected to grow moderately Nearly 60 colleges and univer through the mid-1980’s. In addition sities offered programs leading to to openings resulting from this the bachelor’s degree in food science growth, some jobs will open each in 1972; the Institute of Food Tech year because of the need to replace nologists approved 30 of these. those who die, retire, or transfer Undergraduate students usually take to other fields. Employment is expected to grow courses in physics, chemistry, math ematics, biology, the social sciences as the food industry responds to and humanities, and business ad the need for a wholesome and ministration, as well as specialized economical food supply for an in creasing population. In addition, food science courses. Most of the colleges and univer both private households and food sities that provide undergraduate service institutions that supply out food programs also offer advanced lets such as airlines and restaurants degrees. Graduate students usually will demand a greater quantity of specialize in a particular area of quality convenience foods. An increasing number of food food science. Requirements for the scientists are expected to find jobs master’s or doctor’s degree vary by institution, but usually include lab in research and product develop ment. In recent years, expenditures oratory work and a thesis. Young people planning careers as for research and development in food scientists should have analytical the food industry have increased minds and like details and technical moderately and probably will con work. Food scientists must express tinue to rise. Research could pro their ideas to others and understand duce new foods from modifications other people’s ideas. Flexibility, of wheat, corn, rice, and soybeans. imagination, and creativity are im For example, food scientists may portant in meeting food needs for create “ meat” products from these vegetable proteins that resemble an expanding population. beef, pork, and chicken. There will A food scientist with a bachelor’s degree might start work as a quality be an increased need for food scien assurance chemist or as an assistant tists in quality control and produc production manager. After gaining tion because of the complexity of experience the food scientist can products and processes and the advance to more responsible man application of higher processing agement jobs. The scientist also standards and new government regu might begin as a junior food chemist lations. in a research and development lab Earnings and Working Conditions oratory of a food company, and be promoted to section head or another Food scientists had relatively high research management position. earnings in 1972, over twice as People who have master’s degrees much as the average for nonsupermay begin as senior food chemists visory workers in private industry, in a research and development. except farming. Those with a bach Those who have the Ph.D. probably elor’s degree and no experience had starting salaries of about $9,000 a year, according to the limited data available. Those with a master’s degree started at about $10,200, and those with the Ph.D. at about $14,250. In the Federal Government in early 1973, Food Scientists with a bachelor’s degree could start at $7,694 or $9,520 a year, depending on their college grades. Those with a master’s degree could start at $9,520 or $11,614, and those with the Ph.D. degree could begin at $13,996 or $16,682. Food scientists in colleges and universities earned the same salaries as other faculty members. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in food science and a list of schools offering programs in food science contact: The Institute of Food Technologists, Suite 2120, 221 North LaSalle St., Chicago, 111. 60601. PHYSICISTS (D.O.T. 023.081 and .088) Nature of the Work The flight of astronauts through space, the probing of ocean depths, or even the safety of the family car depend on research by phy sicists. Through systematic observa tion and experimentation, physicists describe in mathematical terms the structure and interactions between matter and energy. Physicists de velop theories and discover the fun damental laws that describe forces within the universe. Determining basic laws governing phenomena such as gravity, electromagnetism, and heat flow leads to discoveries OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 384 and innovations. For instance, the development of irradiation therapy equipment which destroys harmful growths in humans without damag ing other tissues resulted from what physicists know about radioactivity. Physicists have contributed to scien tific progress in recent years in areas such as nuclear energy, elec tronics, communications, and aero space. Over half of all physicists work in research and development. Some do basic research to increase scien tific knowledge. For example, they determine the relationships between the fundamentals of nuclear struc ture and the fundamental forces be tween nucleons (nuclear dynamics). The equipment that physicists de velop for their basic research can often be applied to other areas. For example, lasers (a device which amplifies light and emits electro magnetic waves in a narrow, intense light beam) are utilized in surgery; microwave devices are used for ovens; and measurement techniques and instruments developed by phy sicists can detect and measure the kind and number of cells in blood. Some engineering oriented phy sicists do applied research and help develop new products. For in stance, their knowledge of solidstate physics led to the development of transistors and micro-circuits used in electronic equipment that ranges from hearing aids to missile guidance systems. About one-fifth of all physicists teach in colleges and universities. Almost another fifth work in man agement and administration, espe cially research and development programs. A small number work in inspection, quality control, and other production related jobs in industry. Some do consulting work. Most physicists specialize in one or more branches of the science— elementary-particle physics; nuclear physics; atomic, electron, and mo lecular physics; physics of condensed matter; optics, acoustics, and plasma physics; and the physics of fluids. Some specialize in a subdivision of one of these branches. For ex ample, within solid-state physics concentration may include ceramics, crystallography, or semiconductors. However, since all physics specialties rest on the same fundamental prin ciples, a physicist’s work often overlaps many specialties. Growing numbers of physicists are specializing in Fields combining physics and a related science—such as astrophysics, biophysics, chemical physics, and geophysics. Further more, the practical applications of physicists’ work have increasingly merged with engineering. Places of Employment Physicists work with complex equipment such as atomic accelerators. About 49,000 people worked as physicists in 1972; nearly 4 percent were women. Private industry em ployed over 19,000; almost twofifths of these were in companies manufacturing chemicals, electrical equipment, and ordnance products. Commercial laboratories and inde pendent research organizations em ploy more than one-fourth of the physicists in private industry. More than 22,000 physicists either taught or did research in colleges and universities; some did both. Over 6,000 physicists were in the Federal Government in 1972, most PHYSICAL SCIENTISTS ly the Department of Defense. The Department of Commerce also em ploys large numbers of physicists. About 1,300 physicists worked in nonprofit organizations. Although physicists are employed in all States, their employment is greatest in areas that have heavy industrial concentrations and large college and university enrollments. Nearly one-fourth of all physicists work in four metropolitan areas— Washington, D.C.; Boston; New York; and Los Angeles-Long Beach, and more than one-third are con centrated in three states—California, New York, and Massachusetts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree in physics is the minimum requirement for young people beginning work as physicists. However, graduate train ing is increasingly the hallmark of full professional status and is es sential for many entry jobs and for advancement in all types of work. The doctorate is usually required for full faculty status at colleges and universities and for jobs admin istering research and development programs. Physicists who have master’s de grees qualify for many research jobs. Some instruct and conduct labora tory sessions in colleges and univer sities while working for their Ph.D. Physicists who have bachelor’s degrees qualify for many applied research and development jobs in private industry or the Federal Gov ernment. Some become research as sistants in colleges and universities while working toward advanced de grees. Many with a bachelor’s degree in physics enter nontechnical work, other science fields, or become en gineers. Almost 900 colleges and univer sities offer a bachelor’s degree in physics. In addition, many engineer 385 ing schools offer a physics major as part of the general curriculum. The undergraduate program in phy sics provides a broad background in the science and serves as a base for later specialization either in graduate school or on the job. Some typical physics courses are mechan ics, electricity, and magnetism, op tics, thermodynamics, and atomic and molecular physics. Students also take courses in chemistry and mathematics. More than 300 colleges and uni versities offer advanced degrees in physics. In graduate school, the student, with faculty guidance, usu ally works in a specific field. The graduate student, especially the can didate for the Ph.D. degree, spends a large portion of his time in re search. Students planning a career in physics should have an inquisitive mind, good memory, and imagina tion. They must distrust convention al assumptions about the universe and be eager to try a new approach to discovering truths. Physicists do ing basic research generally re ceive less supervision than those in mission-oriented applied research and development. Employment Outlook Physicists with advanced degrees should have favorable employment opportunities through the mid1980’s, primarily in applied research and development. In addition to opportunities resulting from the moderate growth expected in this field, physicists will be needed each Physicists develop equipment used in cancer research. 386 year to replace those who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Some of the past increases in em ployment of physicists resulted from increases in Federal research and development (R&D) expenditures, especially for space and defense related programs. Physicists will continue to be required to do com plex R&D in both defense and non defense related areas. Through the mid-1980’s, R&D expenditures of Government are expected to in crease, although at a slower rate than during the 1960’s. The anti cipated slowdown in the rate of growth basically reflects the declin ing priority given to space and de fense R&D programs. However, if actual R&D expenditure levels and patterns were to differ significantly from those assumed, the outlook for physicists would be altered. Some physicists with advanced degrees will be needed to teach in colleges and universities, primarily because of the growing need for physics training in all science and engineering programs. New graduates also will find op portunities in other occupations that utilize their training. For ex ample, they may become high school teachers after completing the re OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK quired educational courses and ob taining a State teaching certificate. However, they are usually regarded as teachers rather than as phy sicists. (See statement on Secondary School Teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings and Working Conditions Physicists have relatively high salaries, with average earnings more than twice those received by nonsupervisory workers in private in dustry, except farming. Starting salaries for physicists who have the bachelor’s degree averaged about $9,900 a year in manufacturing in dustries in 1972, those having mas ter’s degrees $11,800, and those having the Ph.D. $16,000. Depending on their college rec ords, physicists who have a bach elor’s degree and no experience could start work in the Federal Government in early 1973 at either $7,694 or $9,520. Beginning phy sicists completing all requirements for the master’s degree could start at $9,520 or $11,614. Physicists hav ing the Ph.D. degree could begin at $13,996 or $16,682. Starting salaries on college and university faculties for physicists with a master’s degree averaged $10,200 in 1972, and salaries for those having the Ph.D. averaged $11,800. (See statement on College and University Teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Many faculty physicists supplement their regular incomes by working as consultants and taking on special research projects. Young physicists may begin their careers doing routine laboratory tasks. After some experience, they are assigned more complex tasks and may advance to project leaders or research directors. Some work in top management jobs. Physicists who develop new products some times form their own companies or join new firms to exploit their ideas. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportunities in physics is available from: American Institute of Physics, 335 East 45th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. For information on Federal Gov ernment careers contact: Interagency Board of U.S. Civil Serv ice Examiners for Washington, D.C., 1900 E St., NW „ Washington, D.C. 20415. TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS Before World War II scientists and engineers worked directly with craftsmen and other skilled workers. For example, an engineer might de sign and develop a product or proc ess, while skilled workers would carry out the more routine parts of the plan. Because of rapid tech nological advances, however, it be came more difficult for skilled workers, who usually had a limited knowledge of science and mathe matics, to work directly with scien tists and engineers. A need developed for workers, called tech nicians, specifically trained to assist engineers and scientists, or in some cases to do work that otherwise would have to be done by engineers or scientists. Although technician occupations have grown rapidly, the term “tech nician” has no generally accepted definition. Employers use it to refer to workers in a variety of jobs requiring a wide range of education and training. The term is used to describe employees doing relatively routine work, persons performing work requiring technical but limited skills, and those doing highly tech nical work, including persons work ing closely with engineers and scientists. In this chapter, “technicians” refers to workers who use engineer ing, scientific, and mathematical theory; who have specialized educa tion and/or training in some aspect of technology or science; and who generally work directly with engi neers and scientists. This chapter contains statements on engineering and science technicians, food proc essing technicians, draftsmen, sur veyors, and broadcast technicians. Information on technical occupa tions in the health field—including dental laboratory technicians, radio logical technologists, and dental hygienists—is presented elsewhere in the Handbook..) BROADCAST TEC H N IC IA N S (D.O.T. 194,281, .282, and .782; 957.282; and 963.168 through .887) Nature of the Work Broadcast technicians operate and maintain the electronic equipment used to record or transmit radio and television programs. They work with microphones, sound recorders, light and sound effects, television cameras, video tape recorders, and other equipment. In the control room, broadcast technicians operate equipment that regulates the quality of sounds and pictures being recorded or broad cast. They also operate controls that switch broadcasts from one camera or studio to another, from film to live programming, or from network to local programs. By means of hand signals and, in television, by use of telephone headsets, they give tech nical directions to personnel in the studio. When events outside the studios are to be broadcast, technicians may go to the site and set up, test, and operate the necessary equipment. After the broadcast, they dismantle the equipment and return to the station. As a rule, broadcast technicians in small stations perform a variety of duties. In large stations and in networks, on the other hand, tech nicians are more specialized, al though specific job assignments may change from day to day. Transmitter technicians monitor and log out going signals and are responsible for transmitter operation. Mainte nance technicians set up, maintain, and repair electronic broadcasting equipment. Audio control techni cians regulate sound pickup, trans mission, and switching. Video control technicians regulate the qual ity, brightness, and contrast of television pictures. Lighting tech nicians direct lighting of television programs. Field technicians set up and operate broadcasting equipment for programs originating outside the studio. Recording technicians operate and maintain sound record ing equipment. Video recording tech nicians operate and maintain video tape recording equipment. Some times the term “engineer” is sub stituted for “technician” in the above titles. Places of Employment About 22,000 broadcast techni cians were employed in radio and television stations in 1972. Most radio stations employ fewer than four technicians, although a few large ones have more than 10. Nearly all television stations em ploy at least five broadcast tech nicians, and those in large metropolitan areas average about 30. In addition to the technicians, several thousand supervisory per sonnel, with job titles such as chief engineer and director of engineering, work in technical departments. Broadcast technicians are em ployed in every State, particularly in the larger cities. The highest 387 388 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Broadcast technician plays back tape. paying and most specialized jobs are concentrated in New York, Los Angeles, and Washington, D.C.— the originating centers for most of the network programs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A young person interested in becoming a broadcast technician should plan to get a Radiotelephone First Class Operator License from the Federal Communications Com mission (FCC). Federal law requires that anyone who operates or adjusts broadcast transmitters in television and radio stations must hold such a license. Some stations require all their broadcast technicians including those who do not operate transmit ters to have this license. Applicants for the license must pass a series of written examinations. These cover construction and operation of trans mission and receiving equipment; cially designed to prepare the stu dent for the FCC’s First-class license test. Having training at the level of technical school or college is an advantage for those who hope to advance to supervisory positions or to the more specialized jobs in large stations and in the networks. Young persons with FCC firstclass licenses who get entry jobs are instructed and advised by the chief engineer or by other experi enced technicians concerning the work procedures of the station. In small stations, they may start by operating the transmitter and han dling other technical duties, after a brief instruction period. As they acquire more experience and skill they are assigned to more respon sible jobs. Those who demonstrate above-average ability may move into top-level technical positions, such as supervisory technician and chief engineer. A college degree in engineering is becoming increasing ly important for advancement to supervisory and executive positions. characteristics of electromagnetic waves; and regulations and prac tices, both Federal government and international, governing broadcast Employment Outlook ing. Information about these exam The number of broadcast tech inations and guides to study for nicians is expected to increase slow them may be obtained from the Federal Communications Commis ly through the mid-1980’s. Most job openings will result from the sion, Washington, D.C. 20036. Among high school courses, alge need to replace experienced tech bra, trigonometry, and physics and nicians who retire, die, or transfer other sciences provide valuable to other occupations. Some new job opportunities for background for young persons anti technicians will be provided as new cipating careers in this occupation. In terms of practice, building and radio and television stations open. operating an amateur radio station However, labor-saving technical ad also is good training. Taking an vances, such as automatic program electronics course in a technical ming, automatic operation logging, school is still another good way to and remote control of transmitters acquire the knowledge for becoming will limit the demand for tech a broadcast technician. Some young nicians. persons gain work experience as temporary employees Filling in for Earnings and Working Conditions regular broadcast technicians while Salaries of beginning technicians they are on vacation. Many schools give courses espe in commercial radio and television 389 TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS ranged from about $100 to $170 a week in 1972 and those of experi enced technicians from about $130 to $320, according to the limited information available. As a rule, technicians’ wages are highest in large cities and in large stations. Technicians employed by television stations usually are paid more than those who work for radio stations because television work is generally more complex. Technicians em ployed by educational broadcasting stations generally earn less than those who work for commercial stations. Most technicians in large stations work a 40-hour week with over time pay for work beyond 40 hours. Many broadcast technicians in the larger cities work a 37-hour week. In small stations, many technicians work 2 to 8 hours of overtime each week. Evening, night, and weekend work frequently is necessary since many stations are on the air as many as 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Network technicians may occasion ally have to work continuously for many hours and under great pres sure in order to meet broadcast deadlines. Most technicians receive paid vacations. Typically, vacations range from 1 to 4 weeks, depending on length of service. Technicians generally work in doors in pleasant surroundings. The work is interesting, and the duties are varied. When remote pickups are made, however, technicians may work out of doors at some distance from the studios, under less favor able conditions. Corporation for Public Broadcasting, 888 16th St., NW ., Washington, D.C. 20006. DRAFTSMEN (D.O.T. 001.281, 002.281, 003.281, 005.281, 007.281, 010.281, 014.281, and 017.) Nature of the Work When making a space capsule, television set, building, or bridge, workers follow drawings that show the exact dimensions and specifica tions of the entire object and each of its parts. Workers who draw these plans are draftsmen. Draftsmen prepare detailea draw ings based on rough sketches, specifications, and calculations of engineers, architects, and designers. They also calculate the strength, quality, quantity, and cost of ma terials. Final drawings contain a detailed view of the object as well as specifications for materials to be used, procedures followed, and other information to carry out the job. In preparing drawings, draftsmen use compasses, dividers, protractors, triangles, and machines that com bine the functions of several devices. They also use engineering hand books, tables, and slide rules to help solve technical problems. Draftsmen are classified accord ing to the work they do or their level of responsibility. Senior drafts- Sources of Additional Information General information careers for broadcast technicians may be ob tained from: National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St., NW „ Washington, D.C. 20036. D raftsmen prepare design layouts. 390 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK men translate an engineer’s or architect’s preliminary plans into design “layouts” (scale drawings of the object to be built). Detailers draw each part shown on the layout, and give dimensions, materials, and other information to make the de tailed drawing clear and complete. Checkers carefully examine draw ings for errors in computing or recording dimensions and specifica tions. Under the supervision of draftsmen, tracers make minor cor rections and trace drawings for reproduction on transparent cloth, paper, or plastic film. Draftsmen may specialize in a particular field of work, such as mechanical, electrical, electronic, aeronautical, structural, or archi tectural drafting. Places of Employment About 327,000 people worked as draftsmen in 1972; almost 8 percent were women. About 9 out of 10 draftsmen work in private industry. Many work in industries making machinery, electrical equipment, and fabricated metal products. In the non-manufacturing sector, most draftsmen work for engineering and architectural consulting firms, con struction companies, and public util ities. Almost 20,000 draftsmen worked for Federal, State, and local gov ernments in 1972. Those in the Federal Government worked mostly for the Defense Department. Drafts men in State and local governments were mainly in highway and public works departments. Another several thousand draftsmen worked for col leges and universities and non-profit organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement training in technical institutes, junior and community colleges, extension divisions of universities, and voca tional and technical high schools. Others may qualify through on-thejob training programs combined with part-time schooling or 3- to 4-year apprenticeship programs. Training for a career in drafting, whether in a high school or posthigh school program, should include courses in mathematics, physical sciences, mechanical drawing, and drafting. Shop practices and shop skills also are helpful since many higher level drafting jobs require knowledge of manufacturing or con struction methods. Many technical schools offer courses in structural design, strength of materials, and metal technology. Those planning careers in draft ing should: be able to do detailed work requiring a high degree of accuracy; have good eyesight and eye-hand coordination because most of their work is done at the draw ing board; be able to function as part of a team since they work directly with engineers, architects, and skilled workers; and be able to do free-hand drawings of three dimensional objects. Although the occupation generally does not re quire such artistic ability, it may be helpful in some specialized fields. High school graduates usually start out as tracers. Those having post-high school technical training often can qualify as junior drafts men. After gaining experience, they may advance to checkers, detailers, senior draftsmen, or supervisors Some may become independent de signers. Courses in engineering and mathematics sometimes enable draftsmen to transfer to engineer ing positions. Employment Outlook Job opportunities are expected Persons interested in becoming draftsmen can acquire the necessary to be favorable through the mid- 1980’s because of the very rapid growth expected in the occupation and the need to replace those who retire, die, or move into other fields of work. Prospects will be best for those having post-high school draft ing training. Well-qualified high school graduates who have studied drafting, however, will find oppor tunities in some types of jobs. Employment of draftsmen is ex pected to rise rapidly as a result of the increasingly complex design problems of modern products and processes. In addition, as engineer ing and scientific occupations con tinue to grow, more draftsmen will be needed as supporting personnel. On the other hand, photoreproduc tion of drawings and expanding use of electronic drafting equipment and computers are eliminating many routine tasks. This development probably will reduce the need for less skilled draftsmen. Earnings In private industry, beginning draftsmen earned about $525 a month in 1972 according to a Bureau of Labor Statistics survey. As they gain experience, draftsmen may move to higher level positions with a substantial increase in earnings. For example, in 1972 senior draftsmen averaged $960 a month, about one and one-half times as much as the average earnings of nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Most draftsmen earned about $800 per month. In early 1973, the Federal Gov ernment paid high school graduates in trainee jobs about $450 a month. For those having post-high school education or some experience in drafting, starting salaries were high er. The majority of experienced draftsmen working for the Federal Government earned between $640 and $800 a month. TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS 391 Sources of Additional Information IS General information on careers for draftsmen may be obtained from: American Institute for Design and Drafting, 3119 Price Rd., Bartles ville, Okla. 74003. American Federation of Technical En gineers, 1126 16th St., NW „ Wash ington, D.C. 20036. See Sources of Additional In formation in the statement on Engi neering and Science Technicians elsewhere in the Handbook. ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE TEC H N IC IA N S (D.O.T. 002. through 029.) Nature of the Work Technicians’ knowledge of sci ence, mathematics, industrial ma chinery, and processes enables them to work in all phases of production, from research and design to manu facturing, sales, and customer service. Although their jobs are more limited and practically ori ented than those of engineers or scientists, technicians often do highly technical work that engi neers or scientists might otherwise have to do. Technicians frequently use complex electronic and me chanical instruments, experimental laboratory equipment, and draft ing instruments. Almost all techni cians described in this statement must be able to use engineering handbooks and computing devices such as slide rules and calculating machines. In research and development (R&D), one of the largest areas of employment, technicians set up, calibrate, and operate complex instruments; analyze computations; and conduct tests. They also assist engineers and scientists in devel Technician adjusts experimental antenna equipment. oping experimental equipment and models by making drawings and sketches; and under an engineer’s direction they frequently do routine design work. In production, technicians usu ally follow the plans and general directions of engineers and sci entists, but often without close supervision. They may prepare specifications for materials, devise tests to insure product quality, or study ways to improve the efficiency of an operation. They often super vise production workers to make sure they follow prescribed plans and procedures. As a product is built, technicians check to see that specifications are followed, keep engineers and scientists informed as to progress, and investigate production problems. As salesmen or field representa tives for manufacturers, technicians give advice on installation and maintenance problems of complex machinery, and may write specifi cations and technical manuals. (See statement on Technical Writers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Job titles of engineering and science technicians may describe the level (biological aid or bio logical technician), duties (quality 392 control technician or time study analyst), or area of work (mechani cal, electrical, or chemical). Aeronautical Technology. Techni cians in this area work with engi neers and scientists to design and produce aircraft, helicopters, rock ets, guided missiles, and spacecraft. Many aid engineers in preparing design layouts and models of struc tures, control systems, or equip ment installations by collecting information, making computations, and performing laboratory tests. For example, under the direction of an engineer, a technician might estimate weight factors, centers of gravity, and other items affecting load capacity of an airplane or missile. Other technicians prepare or check drawings for technical accuracy, practicability, and econ omy. Aeronautical technicians fre quently work as manufacturer’s field service representatives, serving as the link between their company and the military, commercial air lines, and other customers. Techni cians also prepare technical in formation for instruction manuals, bulletins, catalogs, and other litera ture. (See statements on Aerospace Engineers, Airplane Mechanics, and Occupations in Aircraft, Mis sile and Spacecraft Manufacturing elsewhere in the Handbook.) Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Technology. Air con ditioning, heating, and refrigera tion technicians design, manufacture, sell, and service equipment to regulate interior temperatures. Tech nicians in this field often specialize in one area, such as refrigeration, and sometimes in a particular type of activity, such as research and development. When working for firms that manufacture temperature control ling equipment, technicians generally OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK work in research and engineering departments, where they assist en gineers and scientists in the design and testing of new equipment or production methods. For example, a technician may construct an experimental model to test its durability and operational charac teristics. Technicians also work as field salesmen for equipment manu facturers or dealers, and must be able to supply engineering firms and other contractors that design and install systems with informa tion on installation, maintenance, operating costs, and the perform ance specifications of the equip ment. Other technicians work for contractors, where they help design and prepare installation instruc tions for air-conditioning, heating, or refrigeration systems. Still others work in customer service, and are responsible for supervising the installation and maintenance of equipment. (See statement on Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Mechanics elsewhere in the Hand book.) Chemical Technicians. These tech nicians work with chemists and chemical engineers to develop, sell, and utilize chemical and related products and equipment. Most chemical technicians do research and development, testing, or other laboratory work. They often set up and conduct tests on processes and products being devel oped or improved. For example, a technician may examine steel for carbon, phosphorous, and sulfur content or test a lubricating oil by subjecting it to changing tempera tures. The technician measures re actions, analyzes the results of experiments, and records data which will be the basis for decisions and future research. Chemical technicians in produc tion generally put into commercial operation those products or processes developed in research laboratories. They assist in making the final design, installing equipment, and training and supervising operators on the production line. Technicians in quality control test materials, production processes, and final products to insure that they meet the manufacturer’s specifications and quality standards. Many also work as technical salesmen of chemicals or chemical products. Many chemical technicians use computers and instruments, such as a dilatometer, to measure the expansion of a substance. Because the field of chemistry is so broad, chemical technicians frequently specialize in a particular industry such as food processing or phar maceuticals. (See statements on Chemists, Chemical Engineers, Food Processing Technicians, and Occu pations in the Industrial Chemical Industry elsewhere in the Hand book.) Civil Engineering Technology. Tech nicians in this area assist civil engineers in planning, designing, and constructing highways, bridges, dams, and other structures. During the planning stage, they may help estimate costs, prepare specifica tions for materials, or participate in surveying, drafting, or designing. Once construction begins, they may assist the contractor or super intendent in scheduling construc tion activities or inspecting the work to assure conformance to blueprints and specifications. (See statements on Civil Engineers, Draftsmen, and Surveyors else where in the Handbook.) Electronics Technology. Technicians in this field develop, manufacture, and service a wide range of elec tronic equipment and systems. They may work with radio, radar, sonar, television, and other communica tion equipment; industrial and medi 393 TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS cal measuring or control devices; navigational equipment; electronic computers, and many other types of electronic equipment. Because the field is so broad, technicians often specialize in one area such as automatic control devices or electronic amplifiers. Furthermore, technological advancement is con stantly opening up new areas of work. For example, the develop ment of printed circuits stimulated the growth of micro-miniaturized electronic systems. When working in design, pro duction, or customer service, elec tronic technicians use sophisticated measuring and diagnostic devices to analyze and test equipment. In many cases, they must understand the requirements of the field in which the electronic device is being used. In designing equipment for space exploration, for example, they must consider the need for minimum weight and volume and maximum resistance to shock, ex treme temperature, and pressure. Electronics technicians also do technical writing and work in technical sales. (See statements on Broadcast Technicians and Occu pations in Radio and Television Broadcasting elsewhere in the Handbook.) Industrial Production Technology. Technicians in this area, sometimes called industrial or production technicians, assist industrial engi neers on problems involving the efficient use of personnel, ma terials, and machines to produce goods and services. They prepare layouts of machinery and equip ment, plan the flow of work, make statistical studies, and analyze pro duction costs. Industrial techni cians also conduct time and motion studies (analyze the time and move ments a worker needs to accom plish a job task) to improve the efficiency of an operation. While working, many industrial technicians acquire experience which enables them to qualify for other jobs. For example, those specializ ing in machinery and production methods may move into industrial safety. Others, in job analysis, may set job standards and inter view, test, hire, and train person nel. Still others may move into production supervision. (See state ments on Personnel Workers and Industrial Engineers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Mechanical Technology. Mechani cal technology is a broad term which covers a large number of specialized fields including auto motive technology, diesel tech nology, tool design, machine de sign, and production technology. Technicians assist engineers in design and development work by making freehand sketches and rough layouts of proposed ma chinery and other equipment and parts. This work requires knowl edge of mechanical principles in volving tolerance, stress, strain, friction, and vibration factors. Technicians also analyze the costs and practical value of designs. In planning and testing experi mental machines and equipment for performance, durability, and efficiency, technicians record data, make computations, plot graphs, analyze results, and write reports. They sometimes recommend design changes to improve performance. Their job often requires skill in the use of instruments, test equip ment and gauges, as well as prepara tion and interpretation of drawings. When a product is ready for pro duction, technicians help prepare layouts and drawings of the assem bly process and parts to be manu factured. They frequently help esti mate labor costs, equipment life, and plant space. Some mechanical technicians test and inspect machines and equipment in manu facturing departments or work with engineers to eliminate pro duction problems. Others are tech nical salesmen. Tool designers are among the better known specialists in mech anical engineering technology. Tool designers design tools and devices for mass production, and frequently redesign existing tools to improve their efficiency. They prepare sketches of the designs for cutting tools, jigs, dies, special fix tures, and other attachments used in machine operations. They also may make or supervise others in making detailed drawings of tools and fixtures. Machine drafting, with some de signing, is another major area often grouped under mechanical tech nology and is described in the statement on draftsmen. (See state ments on Mechanical Engineers, Automobile Mechanics, Manufac turer’s Salesmen, and Diesel Mechanics elsewhere in the Hand book.) Instrumentation Technology. Auto mated manufacturing and indus trial processes, oceanographic and space exploration, weather fore casting, satellite communication systems, environmental control, and medical research have helped to make instrumentation tech nology a fast-growing field for technicians. They help develop and design complex measuring and control devices such as those in a spacecraft that sense and measure changes in heat or pressure, auto matically record data, and make necessary adjustments. These tech nicians have extensive knowledge of physical sciences as well as electrical-electronic and mechani cal engineering. (See statement on Instrument Workers elsewhere in the Handbook.) 394 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK In 1972, the Federal Government employed over 100,000 technicians chiefly as engineering aids and technicians, equipment specialists, biological technicians, cartographic technicians (map making), meteor ological technicians and physical science technicians. The largest number worked for the Department of Defense; most of the others worked for the Departments of Transportation, Agriculture, Inte rior, and Commerce. State Government agencies em ployed over 50,000 engineering and science technicians, and local governments about 11,000. The re mainder worked for colleges and universities and nonprofit organi zations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Men and women can qualify for technician jobs through many com binations of work experience and education because employers tradi tionally have been quite flexible in their hiring standards. However, most employers prefer applicants who have had some specialized technical training. Specialized training is available at technical institutes, junior and community colleges, area vocational-technical Technician uses optical tracking instrument to record data. schools, extension divisions of colleges and universities, and Places of Employment Technicians also specialize in technical-vocational high schools. other fields such as metallurgical Besides academic training, per Over 700,000 persons worked as (metal), electrical, and optical tech nology. In the atomic energy field, engineering and science technicians sons can qualify for technician jobs technicians work with scientists in 1972—12 percent were women. by less formal methods. Workers and engineers on problems of radia More than 475,000 (about 7 out of may learn through on-the-job tion safety, inspection, and decon 10) worked in private industry. The training programs or courses in tamination. (See statement on manufacturing industries employ post-secondary or correspondence Occupations in the Atomic Energy the largest numbers in the electrical schools. Some qualify from ex Field elsewhere in the Handbook.) equipment, chemicals, machinery, perience in technical jobs in the New areas of work include the en and aerospace industries. In non Armed Forces. Many engineering large numbers and science students who have not vironmental control field, where manufacturing, technicians study the problems of worked in wholesale and retail completed the bachelor’s degree and air and water pollution and indus trade, communications, and in en others who have degrees in science and mathematics are able to qual gineering and architectural firms. trial safety. TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS ify after additional technical train jobs in the local area. Most of these ing and experience. Post-secondary schools require a high school de training is increasingly necessary gree or its equivalent for admission. for the more responsible jobs and Other Training. Some large cor for advancement. porations conduct training pro Some of the types of post secondary and other schools which grams and operate private schools provide technical training are dis to meet their needs for technically cussed in the following paragraphs: trained personnel in specific jobs; such training rarely includes gen Technical Institutes. Technical in eral studies. Training for some stitutes offer training to qualify technician occupations, for in students for a job immediately after stance tool designers and elec graduation with only a minimum of tronic technicians, is available on-the-job training. In general, stu through formal 2-to-4 year appren dents receive intensive technical ticeship programs. The apprentice training but less theory and general gets on-the-job training under the education than in engineering close supervision of an experienced schools or liberal arts colleges. A technician and related technical few technical institutes and com knowledge in classes, usually after munity colleges offer cooperative working hours. programs; students spend part of The Armed Forces have trained the time in school and part in paid many technicians, especially in employment related to their electronics. However, military job studies. requirements are generally differ Some technical institutes operate ent from those in the civilian as regular or extension divisions economy. Thus, military technician of colleges and universities. Other training may not be adequate for institutions are operated by States civilian technician work, and addi and municipalities, or privately. tional training may be necessary for employment. Junior Colleges and Community Technician training also is avail Colleges. Curriculums in junior and able from many private technical community colleges which prepare students for technician occupations schools that specialize in a single field such as electronics. Some of are similar to those in the freshman these schools are owned and opera and sophomore years of 4-year col leges. After completing the 2-year ted by large corporations that have program graduates can transfer to the resources to provide very up4-year colleges or qualify for some to-date training in a technical field. Correspondence schools provide technician jobs. Most large com munity colleges offer 2-year tech technical training for those who nical programs, and many em wish to learn more about their job. Those interested in a career as a ployers prefer graduates having more specialized training. Junior technician should have an aptitude college courses in technical fields for mathematics and science, and often are planned around the em enjoy technical work. An ability to do detailed work with a high ployment needs of the local area. degree of accuracy is necessary; for Area Vocational-Technical Schools. design work, creative talent also These post-secondary public insti is desirable. Since technicians are tutions serve students from sur part of a scientific team, they some rounding areas and train them for times must work under the close 395 supervision of engineers and scien tists as well as with other tech nicians and skilled workers. Engineering and science tech nicians usually begin work as trainees in routine positions under the direct supervision of an experi enced technician, scientist, or en gineer. As they gain experience, they receive more responsibility and carry out a particular assign ment under only general super vision. Technicians may eventually move into supervisory positions. Those who have the ability and ob tain additional education are some times promoted to science or en gineering positions. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for engineering and science technicians are expected to be favorable through the mid-1980’s. Opportuni ties will be best for graduates of post-secondary school technician training programs. Besides the very rapid growth expected in this field, additional technicians will be needed to replace those who die, re tire, or leave the occupation. Industrial expansion and increas ing complexity of modern tech nology underlie the anticipated in crease in demand for technicians. Many will be needed to work with a growing number of engineers and scientists in developing, producing, and distributing new and tech nically advanced products. Auto mation of industrial processes and growth of new work areas such as atomic energy, environmental con trol, and urban development will add to the demand for technical personnel. The anticipated growth of re search and development (R&D) expenditures in industry and government should increase demand for . technicians. However, this 396 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK growth is expected to be slower than in the past because of the anti cipated slowdown of the space and defense components of Federal R&D expenditures. Because space and defense pro grams are major factors in the em ployment of technical personnel, expenditures in these areas affect the demand for technicians. The outlook for technicians is based on the assumption that defense spending will be slightly lower than the levels of the late 1960’s. If defense spending should differ sub stantially from this level, the de mand for technicians would be af fected accordingly. Earnings In general, technicians’ earn ings depend on their education, and technical specialty, as well as their ability and work experience. Other important factors influencing earn ings are the type of firm, specific duties, and geographic location. In early 1973, Federal Govern ment agencies paid beginning en gineering and science technicians with an associate degree $6,882; those with a bachelor’s degree had starting salaries of $7,694, or $9,520 depending on the type of job vacancy and the applicant’s educa tion and other qualifications. Some Federal Government agencies hire and train high school graduates for technician jobs. Beginning salaries for these jobs were $5,432 a year. Starting salaries in private in dustry in 1972 for technicians hold ing associate degrees averaged about $7,700 per year; those with a bachelor’s degree averaged al most $10,000 a year. Most technicians can look for ward to an increase in earnings as they move to higher positions. According to a Bureau of Labor Statistics survey, in 1972 annual salaries of workers in responsible technician positions in private in dustry averaged about $12,000— almost twice as much as the aver age earnings of nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Sources of Additional Information General information on careers for engineering and science tech nicians is available from: American Society for Engineering Edu cation, Suite 400, 1 Dupont Circle, Washington, D.C. 20036 Engineers Council for Professional Devel opment, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. National Council of Technical Schools, 1835 K St. NW „ Room 907, Wash ington, D.C. 20006. Information on schools offering technical programs is available from the Engineers Council for Pro fessional Development, a nationally recognized accrediting agency for engineering technology programs; the National Council of Technical Schools; and the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, Washington, D.C. 20202. State departments of education at each State capital also have in formation about approved tech nical institutes, junior colleges, and other educational institutions with in the State offering post-high school training for specific tech nical occupations. Other sources include: American Association of Junior Col leges, Suite 410, 1 Dupont Circle, Washington, D.C. 20036. National Home Study Council, 1601 18th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, 2021 L St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. FOOD PROCESSING TEC H N IC IA N S (D.O.T. 022.281,029.381) Nature of the Work Unlike man’s experience of the past, when food was processed and prepared in the home, much of the food we eat today is processed and prepared by industrial firms and sold at local supermarkets. A rela tively small but important number of technicians work for these indus trial firms in all areas of food technology, from the development of new products and processing techniques to production, food quality inspection, and marketing. Titles of technicians in the food processing industry vary from plant to plant, as do technicians’ respon sibilities. Food processing tech nicians are known as Laboratory or Quality Assurance Technicians, Physical Science Aides, Plant Facilities Technicians, Biological Aides, Laboratory Analysts, and Research and Development Tech nicians. In research and development, food processing technicians assist food scientists in improving exist ing food products, creating new food items, and developing and improv ing processes related to production. Duties may include separating and weighing the ingredients of a pro duct and conducting microbio logical and chemical analyses of these substances. Technicians also set up samples to test flavor, color, and textural characteristics of foods to insure that they will ap peal to consumers. Their work often involves operating and main taining laboratory equipment such as balances, microscopes, test tubes, and cryoscopes (instruments that determine the freezing point of liquids). Technicians frequently TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS 397 incoming raw materials to insure suitability for processing and storage under proper conditions. Technicians, working closely with plant managers, recommend meas ures to improve production methods, equipment performance, and product quality. They also suggest changes in working methods and use of equipment to increase processing efficiency. Some technicians supervise cook ing or packaging operations; others are concerned primarily with sani tation in all areas of a food proces sing plant. They help identify bac terial problems on the line or in the plant, recommend cleaning and san itizing solutions, and direct clean ing crews. Technicians in the food proces sing industry frequently work as manufacturers’ technical salesmen providing nutritional and cost in formation to prospective customers. Many others work as food buyers for supermarket chains where their knowledge of food technology is used to select the best packaged and fresh foods for their com panies. Places of Employment Food processing technicians help create new food items. write reports on experiments, tests, and other projects. In quality assurance laborato ries, technicians insure conformity with established industry and government standards by testing both raw ingredients and finished products bacteriologically, chem ically, and physically. They may test food samples taken from the production line for bacteria and other possible forms of contamina tion. Technicians may also ex amine samples for protein and vitamin content, as well as for color, flavor, and texture, to pro tect the quality of a product. This work involves the use of equipment such as incubators, color compari son charts, and pH meters (to deter mine the degree of acidity). Tech nicians record their findings and sometimes recommend changes in processing techniques. In production, food processing technicians help supervise proces sing of food products. They often work closely with fieldmen (com pany technicians who help farmers produce the best types of food) to insure a steady flow of products from farm to plant. They inspect About 4,500 food processing technicians worked in the food pro cessing industry in 1972. These technicians work for all major food processing firms. Food processing technicians are found in most States; however, the largest num bers are in those States having the heaviest concentration of food processing plants: California, Illi nois, Pennsylvania, Texas, Ohio, New Jersey, Wisconsin, Michigan, Iowa, and New York. Food technicians, in addition to being employed by food processors, may work for State and Federal food inspection agencies, food brokers, and supermarket chains. 398 (See statement on Health and Reg ulatory Inspectors elsewhere in the Handbook.) Others work in re lated fields where their special ized training can be utilized—in cluding food packaging companies, food warehousing and transporting companies, and manufacturers of food processing equipment. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Men and women who wish to prepare for careers as food pro cessing technicians can obtain the necessary training from a variety of educational institutions, or can qualify for their work on the job. Most employers, however, prefer to hire those who have had some form of specialized training. Formal training programs are offered in post-secondary schools, such as technical institutes, junior and community colleges, and technical divisions of four-year universities. Most schools offering post secondary technician training re quire a high school diploma for admittance. Some post-secondary schools admit students on the basis of successful work experience in the food industry and the recom mendation of their employer. Students preparing for careers as food processing technicians should take a year each of biology and chemistry, and two years of math ematics (algebra and geometry) while in high school. Statistics, English, and social science courses also are helpful. Schools specializing in post-high school technical training offer one, two, and in very few cases, three or four-year programs. The majority are two-year programs leading to an associate of applied science degree. Programs usually include courses in chemistry, microbiology, mathematics, and OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK specialized study of food proces sing, quality control, packaging, plant and environmental sanitation, and technical report writing. Schools also generally offer elec tive courses such as accounting, economics, and English. Curriculums may vary consider ably among the schools offering programs in food science tech nology. Some schools for example, have programs in food processing technology geared towards an individual food processing indus try, such as the dairy industry. Many two-year schools require work experience in some phase of the industry between the first and second year, and others suggest that their students obtain this kind of practical experience. The school’s placement bureau often assists students in finding this type of employment. Besides pro viding practical experience, this aids students in paying their tuition expenses and frequently leads to full-time jobs after graduation. Technicians also can qualify for jobs by completing on-the-job training programs, or through work experience and formal courses taken on a part-time basis. Also, many students from various science disciplines who have not completed all the requirements for a bachelor’s degree are able to qualify for technician jobs after obtaining some additional technical training and experience. Although there are many ways to qualify for food processing technician jobs, post-secondary training is increas ingly becoming a prerequisite for employment. In the dairy industry, laboratory technicians must meet licensing re quirements in most States. These requirements vary, but generally include a written test. Food processing technicians gen erally work as part of a team. Because the quality of processed food affects many people, the food technician must work to exact ing standards and be dependable. They are frequently required to make oral or written reports on the results of their work. Food processing technicians usu ally begin work as trainees under the direct supervision of an ex perienced food scientist, and are systematically assigned to jobs throughout the plant. Technicians may begin their careers at a lower level supervisory capacity and, depending on training, ability, and experience, may work up to the mid-management level. Food tech nicians working in laboratories receive more demanding assign ments as they gain experience, and may advance to other positions such as salesmen, purchasing agents or fieldmen. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for food processing technicians are ex pected to be favorable through the mid-1980’s. Many technicians will be needed because of the moderate growth expected in the field and because of the need to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other occupations. The demand will be strongest for graduates of post secondary technical training pro grams. The public’s desire for more con venience foods in the home, and the need for these products by food service institutions are factors underlying the expected increase in demand for food processing tech nicians. Also, the complexity of processes involved in developing and marketing new food products will create a need for more tech nicians. This need will be especially critical in quality assurance areas, as higher quality and safety stand TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS ards are set and as more technical formation about boundaries, land supervision in processing become features, and other physical char necessary. Many smaller processing acteristics of the construction site. firms, which currently operate with Surveyors measure construction out the aid of technicians, are ex sites, help establish official land pected to require them in the boundaries, assist in setting land valuations, and collect information future. for maps and charts. Surveyors (sometimes called par Earnings ty chiefs) are in charge of a field In general, technicians’ earn party that determines the precise ings depend on their education, measurements and locations of ele ability, and work experience. Other vations, points, lines, and contours important factors are the type of on the earth’s surface, and distances firms for which they work, their between points. Surveyors are di specific duties, and the geographic rectly responsible for the field location of their jobs. Beginning party’s activity and the accuracy food processing technicians had of their work. They plan the field average starting salaries of $7,300 work, select survey reference points, a year in 1972, according to limited and determine the precise location data. Most technicians can look of natural and man-made features forward to an increase in earn of the survey region. They record ings as they gain experience and the information disclosed by the survey, verify the accuracy of the advance to higher level positions. survey data, and prepare sketches, maps, and reports. Sources of Additional Information A typical field party is made up For further information regard of the surveyor and three to six ing careers as food processing tech other workers. Instrumentmen ad nicians, students should contact just and operate surveying instru their school counselors for help in ments such as the theodolite (used locating technical institutes, junior to measure horizontal and vertical and community colleges, and uni angles), and the altimeter (used to versities offering programs in food measure altitude). Chainmen use processing technology. (See Sources a steel tape or surveyor’s chain to of Additional Information in the measure distances between survey statement on Engineering and ing points. Generally chainmen Science Technicians elsewhere in work in pairs, one holding the head the Handbook.) end of the tape to establish the most advanced measuring point and the other holding the rear end of the tape at the last established point. Chainmen also may mark measured points with painted stakes. SURVEYORS Rodmen use a level rod, range (D.O.T. 018.188) pole, or other equipment to assist instrumentmen in determining ele vations, distances, and directions. Nature of the Work They hold and move the range pole Before engineers can plan a high according to hand or verbal signals way or other building projects, they of an instrumentman to help estab need complete and accurate in lish the exact point of measurement. 399 Rodmen also may clear brush from the survey line. Surveyors often specialize in a particular type of survey. Besides doing highway surveys, many per form land surveys and locate bound aries of a particular tract of land. They then prepare maps and legal descriptions for deeds, leases, and other documents. Surveyors doing topographic surveys determine ele vations, depressions, and contours of an area, and indicate the location of distinguishing surface features such as farms, buildings, forests, roads, and rivers. Several closely related occupa tions are geodesy and photogrammetry. Geodesists measure im mense areas of land, sea, or space by taking into account the earth’s curvature and its geophysical char acteristics. (See statement on Geo physicists elsewhere in the Hand book.) Photogrammetrists measure and interpret natural or man-made features of an area and make topo graphic maps by applying analytical processes and mathematical tech niques to photographs obtained from aerial or ground surveys. Places of Employment About 58,000 people worked as surveyors in 1972; less than 5 per cent were women. Federal, State, and local govern ment agencies employ almost onethird of all surveyors. Among the Federal Government agencies em ploying these workers are the U.S. Geological Survey, the Bureau of Land Management, the Army Corps of Engineers, and the Forest Service. Surveyors in State and local government agencies work mainly for highway departments and urban planning and redevelop ment agencies. A large number of surveyors work for construction companies 400 and for engineering and architec tural consulting firms. A sizable number either work for or own firms that conduct surveys for a fee. Significant numbers of sur veyors also work for crude-petroleum and natural gas companies, and for public utilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A combination of post-secondary school courses in surveying and extensive on-the-job training is the most common method of entering surveying work. Junior colleges, technical institutes, and vocational schools offer 1, 2, and 3-year pro grams in surveying. Most surveying programs admit only high school graduates, preferably those who studied algebra, geometry, trigo nometry, calculus, drafting, and mechanical drawing. With some post-secondary school courses in surveying, beginners generally start as instrumentmen. After gaining experience, they usually advance to party chief or surveyor. In many instances, promotions to higher level positions are based on written examinations as well as experience. High school graduates with no formal training in surveying usually start as rodmen. After several years of on-the-job experience and some formal training in surveying, it is possible to advance to chainman, instrumentman, and finally to sur veyor. For those interested in a profes sional career in photogrammetry, a bachelor’s degree in engineering or the physical sciences is usually needed. All 50 States require licensing or registration of land surveyors responsible for locating and de scribing land boundaries. In some of these States, applicants for li censes need to know other types OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK of surveying in addition to land surveying. Requirements vary among the States but in general include a combination of 4 to 8 years’ experi ence in surveying and passing an examination. Most States reduce the length of experience needed to take the licensing examination if the applicant has taken post secondary courses in surveying. In 1972, about 19,500 land sur veyors were registered. In addition, about 16,000 engineers were regis tered to do land surveying, primari ly as part of their civil engineering duties; however, these workers are considered engineers rather than surveyors. (See statement on Civil Engineers elsewhere in the Hand book.) Qualifications for success as a surveyor include an ability to visualize objects, distances, sizes, and other abstract forms and to make mathematical calculations quickly and accurately. Leadership qualities also are important as surveyors must supervise the work of others. Members of a survey party must be strong and healthy to work out doors and carry equipment over difficult terrain. They also need good eyesight, coordination, and hearing to communicate over great distances by hand signals or voice calls. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for surveyors are expected to be good through the mid-1980’s, especially for those with post-secondary school training. In addition to the open ings resulting from the very rapid Surveyors work in all types of terrain. TECHNICIAN OCCUPATIONS growth expected for the field, others will be needed to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other fields of work. The rapid development of urban areas and increased land values should create jobs for surveyors to locate boundaries for property records. Others will be needed to lay out streets, shopping centers, schools, and recreation areas. Con struction and improvement of the Nation’s roads and highways also will require many new surveyors. Earnings and Working Conditions In the Federal Government in early 1973, high school graduates with little or no training or experi ence started as rodmen or chainmen with an annual salary of $5,432, and $6,128 for those with one-year of related post-secondary training. Those with an associate degree and courses in surveying generally started as instrumentmen with an annual salary of $6,882. 401 Starting salaries for people who had enough experience and train ing to qualify as a party chief or surveyor ranged from $8,572 to $9,520 per year. The majority of party chiefs in the Federal Govern ment earned between $8,000 and $11,000 per year and some sur veyors in high level positions earned more than $14,000 per year. Although salaries vary by geo graphic area, limited data indicate that salaries in private industry are generally comparable to those in Federal service and above the average earnings of nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Surveyors in private prac tice averaged $12,000 a year in small limited practices and much greater amounts in large diversified practices. Surveyors usually work an 8hour, 5-day week. However, they sometimes work longer hours dur ing the summer months when weather conditions are most suit able for surveying. The work of surveyors is active and sometimes strenuous. They may stand for long periods and walk long distances or climb mountains with heavy packs of instruments and equipment. Be cause most work is out-of-doors, surveyors may be exposed to all types of weather. Some duties, such as planning surveys, preparing re ports and computations, and draw ing maps usually are done in an office. Sources of Additional Information Information about training and career opportunities in surveying is available from: American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, Woodward Building, 733 15th St. NW ., Washington, D.C. 20005. General information on careers in photogrammetry is available from: American Society of Photogrammetry 150 North Virginia Ave., Falls Church, Va. 22046. MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN technicians. Employment in some occupations, including those of vending machine mechanic, electric sign serviceman, and locksmith, was relatively small. In addition to the nearly 2.8 million mechanics and repairmen employed in 1972, about 600,000 people worked in three related occupations: maintenance electri cian, telephone craftsworker, and watch repairman. Altogether these 3.4 million maintenance and repair workers represented about 3 out of every 10 skilled workers. Nearly three-tenths of the me chanics and repairmen worked in manufacturing industries, and the majority of these were in plants that produce durable goods such as steel, automobiles, and aircraft. About one-fifth of the mechanics and repairmen worked in retail trade—mainly in firms that sell Mechanics and repairmen—the workers who keep our automobiles, airplanes, household appliances, and other machinery operating proper ly—make up one of the fastest growing groups of skilled workers in the Nation’s labor force. This occupational field offers many ca reer opportunities to young people who are mechanically inclined and are willing to invest a few years in learning a trade. Nearly 2.8 million people worked as mechanics and repairmen in 1972. More than one-third were automotive mechanics, such as automobile mechanics, truck or bus mechanics, and automobile body repairmen. Some other large occupations—each employing more than 100,000 workers—were appli ance servicemen, industrial machin ery repairmen, aircraft mechanics, and television and radio service Employment in Selected M aintenance and Rep air Occupations 19 W ORKERS 1972 (in hundreds of thousands) ' () ? 2 i t Automotive mechanics Industrial machinery repairmen Maintenance electricians Automobile body repairmen TV and radio service technicians Appliance servicemen Air conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics Aircraft mechanics Telephone and PBX installers and repairmen Instrument repairmen Millwrights Office machine servicemen Farm equipment mechanics Computer service technicians Vending machine mechanics Watch repairmen 1 Estimated. Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. l 3 4 5 6 7 and service automobiles, household appliances, farm implements, and other mechanical equipment. An other one-fifth worked in shops that service such equipment. Most of the remaining mechanics and repairmen worked for transporta tion, construction, and public utili ties industries, and the government at all levels. Mechanics and repairmen work in every section of the country. Most employment opportunities, however, are in the populous and industrialized States. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many mechanics and repairmen learn their skills on the job or through apprenticeship training. Some acquire basic training or in crease their skills in vocational and technical schools. Others take cor respondence courses. Training and experience in the Armed Forces also may help young people prepare for occupations such as aircraft mechanic and television and radio serviceman. Most employers consider a 3-to-4 year apprenticeship, supplemented each year by at least 144 hours of related classroom instruction, as the best way to learn skilled main tenance and repair work. Formal apprenticeship agreements are reg istered with a State apprenticeship agency or the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training. Employers look for applicants who have mechanical aptitude and 403 404 like to work with their hands. Many employers prefer people whose hob bies or interests include automo bile repair, model building, or radio and television repair. A high school education often is required, and employers prefer applicants who have had courses in mathe matics, chemistry, physics, blue print reading, and machine shop. Generally, trainees must be at least 18 years old. Physical requirements for work in this field vary greatly. For exam ple, telephone linemen should be strong and agile, to climb poles, lift heavy equipment, and work in awkward positions. On the other OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK hand, instrument and watch repair men need patience, finger dexterity, and good vision. Many maintenance and repair workers advance to foreman, main tenance, or service manager; others to sales, technician, or technical writing jobs. Many open their own businesses. Employment Outlook Employment in maintenance and repair occupations as a whole is expected to increase rapidly through the mid-1980’s. In addition to jobs created by employment growth, openings will arise as experienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other fields. Many factors are expected to con tribute to the growing need for mechanics and repairmen, includ ing increased demand for house hold appliances, automobiles, and other items, and repair of complex machinery in industry. Thischapter includes state ments on many maintenance and repair occupations. Other mainte nance and repair workers are dis cussed in other sections of the Handbook. For example; aircraft mechanics are discussed with Air Transportation Occupations and millwrights with Industrial Produc tion and Related Occupations. TELEPHONE CRAFT OCCUPATIONS About one out of every three em ployees in the telephone industry is a craft worker who installs, re pairs, and maintains phones, cables, and related equipment. This chap ter discusses the four groups of tele phone craft occupations: central office craft occupations, central office equipment installers, linemen and cable splicers, and telephone servicemen. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Telephone companies give class room instruction and on-the-job training to new central office craft employees. Trainee jobs are filled by employees already with the com pany, such as telephone operators, and by workers hired from outside. Usually, trainees are assigned to the starting job of frameman, take basic courses in telephone com munications, and gain practical experience by observing and help ing experienced framemen under the direction of supervisors. With additional training and experience, a frameman can advance to central office repairman or testboardman. At least 5 years usually are neces sary for an inexperienced worker to advance to the top pay rate in either of these two jobs. Young persons who are consider ing careers in central office crafts should have good eyesight—no color blindness. They also should be able to work closely with others because teamwork often is essen tial in solving complex maintenance problems. A basic knowledge of electricity and electronics and tele phone training in the armed services are helpful. Usually aptitude tests CENTRAL OFFICE CRAFT OCCUPATIONS Nature of Work Telephone companies employed about 105,000 craft workers in 1972 to maintain and repair the complex equipment in their central offices. Most worked as framemen, repairmen, and testboardmen. Framemen (D.O.T. 822.884) connect and disconnect wires that run from telephone lines and cables to equipment in central offices. They make these changes when new phones are installed, existing ones are removed, or numbers are changed. Central office repairmen (D.O.T. 822.281), often called switchmen, maintain the switching equipment that automatically connects lines when customers dial numbers. Test boardmen (D.O.T. 822.281) work at special switchboards to locate and analyze trouble spots reported on customers’ lines. They also work with other employees, such as cen tral office repairmen and cable splicers, who help find the cause of trouble and make repairs. Central office repair person checks and repairs switching equipment. 405 406 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK are given to prospective employees. Telephone companies give cen tral office craft employees contin ued training throughout their ca reers to keep them abreast of the latest developments. As new types of equipment and tools and new maintenance methods are intro duced, they are sent to schools for courses of varying duration. Central office craft workers who have managerial ability can ad vance to supervisory positions. Employment Outlook Employment in central office craft occupations is expected to in crease moderately through the mid1980’s, mainly to meet the grow ing demand for telephone service and data communication systems. In addition to employment growth, many job openings will arise to re place experienced workers who re tire, die, or transfer to other occu pations. Retirements and deaths alone may result in several thou sand openings each year. an hour after 4 years. Central office repairmen and testboardmen can earn a maximum of $5.88 an hour after 5 years. Employees in central offices work in clean and well-lighted surround ings. Since the telephone industry gives continuous service to its Earnings and Working Conditions customers, central offices operate In early 1972, average hourly 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Some rates in large telephone companies central office craft workers, there were $4.85 for testboardmen and fore, have work schedules for which $4.52 for central office repairmen. they receive extra pay. Central of The latter figure was nearly one- fice craft workers are covered by fourth higher than the average for the same provisions governing over nonsupervisory workers in all pri time pay, vacations, holidays, and other benefits that apply to tele vate industries, except farming. Earnings increase considerably phone workers generally. See the statement on the tele with length of service. According to a 1972 union contract in one of phone industry elsewhere in the the higher pay scale cities, frame- Handbook for sources of addi men start at $3.50 an hour and can tional information and for general on supplementary work up to a maximum of $4.91 information benefits. CENTRAL OFFICE EQUIPMENT INSTALLERS Nature of the Work Central office equipment instal lers set up complex switching and dialing equipment in central offices of telephone companies. They as semble, wire, adjust, and test this equipment to meet manufacturer’s standards for efficiency and de pendability. They may install equip ment in a new central office, add equipment in an expanding office, or replace outmoded equipment. About 30,000 installers were em ployed in 1972. Most work for manufacturers of central office equipment. Others work directly for telephone companies or for pri vate contractors who specialize in large-scale installations. Many central office equipment 407 TELEPHONE CRAFT OCCUPATIONS skilled installers. Training, how ever, continues even after they be come skilled. Additional courses are given from time to time to im prove their skills, and to teach new techniques in installing telephone equipment. Installers who have managerial ability can advance to supervisory positions. Employment Outlook Central office equipment installer wires switching equipment. installers are assigned to areas that include several States, and therefore, must travel frequently. When installing a switchboard in a small community, an installer may work with only one or two other installers. On large jobs, however, such as a long-distance toll center in a big city, hundreds of installers are required. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Individuals considering careers as central office equipment instal lers should have good eyesight— no color blindness. They should be able to work with others, for team work is often essential to solving a complex problem. Applicants usu ally must pass aptitude tests and a physical examination. New employees receive on-thejob training and classroom instruc tion. They attend classes the first few weeks to learn basic installa tion methods before starting onthe-job training. After several years of experience, they may qualify as Employment of central office equipment installers is expected to increase moderately through the mid-1980’s. In addition to the job openings that will result from em ployment growth, a few hundred openings will arise each year to replace experienced installers who transfer to other work, retire, or die. Employment will increase be cause of the need to install equip ment in thousands of new telephone central offices and to replace ob solete equipment. Employment may, however, fluctuate from year to year with changes in business conditions. When the business out look is depressed, there is less like lihood that new central offices will be built and existing offices en larged or modernized. When busi ness is prospering, installations and modifications of central offices may occur at an above-average pace. Earnings and Working Conditions According to a major union con tract in 1972 starting rates for in experienced installers ranged from $3.25 to $3.75 an hour. The con tract provided for periodic in creases, and employees could reach rates of $4.93 to $5.58 an hour after 5 years of experience. Travel and expense allowance also are provided. Time and a half is paid for work over 8 hours a day or 40 hours a week, and double time is paid for Sundays and two and one-half times for holidays. Depending on locality, installers receive 9 to 11 paid holidays a year. Length of service determines paid vacations. The Communications Workers of America represents most central office equipment installers, includ ing those with the Bell System. The International Brotherhood of Elec trical Workers represents some in stallers employed by the New Eng land Telephone and Telegraph Com pany, by manufacturers supplying the independent segment of the telephone industry, and by large installation contractors. LINEMEN AND CABLE SPLICERS Nature of the Work The vast network of wires and cables that connect telephone cen tral offices to each other and to customers’ telephones and switch boards is constructed and main tained by linemen and cable spli cers and their helpers. Telephone companies employed about 50,000 of these workers in early 1972; 15,000 linemen, 31,000 cable splic ers, and 4,000 helpers, laborers, and other workers. To construct new telephone lines, linemen (D.O.T. 822.381) place wires and cables that lead from the central office to customers’ prem ises. They use power-driven equip ment to dig holes and set in tele phone poles which support cables. Linemen climb the poles to attach the cables, usually leaving the ends free for cable splicers to connect later. In cities where telephone lines are below the streets, linemen place cables in underground conduits. Construction linemen usually work in crews of two or more persons. 408 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A foreman directs the work of sev eral crews. When wires or cables break or a pole is knocked down, linemen make emergency repairs. The line crew foreman keeps in close con tact with the central office, which directs the crew to problem loca tions on the lines. Some linemen periodically inspect sections of lines in rural areas and make minor repairs. After linemen place cables on poles or underground, cable splicers (D.O.T. 829.381) generally com plete the line connections. Splicers work on poles, aerial ladders and platforms, in manholes, or in base ments of large buildings. They con nect individual wires within the cable and rearrange wires when lines have to be changed. At each splice, they either wrap insulation around the wires and seal the joint with a lead sleeve, or cover the splice with some other type of closure. Sometimes, they fill the cable sheath ing with compressed air to keep out moisture. Splicers also maintain and repair cables. The preventive maintenance work that they do is extremely important, because a single defect in a cable may cause a serious interruption in service. Many trouble spots are located through air pressure or electric tests. Telephone companies hire inex perienced workers to train for jobs as linemen or cable splicers. Knowl edge of the basic principles of elec tricity and telephone training in the armed services are helpful. Apti tude tests usually are given to pros pective employees. Some line and cable work is strenuous, requiring workers to climb poles and lift lines and equipment. Applicants must be physically qualified for such work. The ability to distinguish color also is important because wires usually are coded by color. Telephone companies have train ing programs for linemen and cable splicers that include classroom in struction as well as on-the-job train ing. Classrooms are equipped with actual telephone apparatus, such as poles, cable supporting clamps, and other fixtures to simulate work ing conditions as closely as possible. Trainees learn to climb poles and are taught safe working practices to avoid falls and contact with pow er wires. After a short period of classroom training, some trainees are assigned to a crew to work with experienced linemen and cable splic ers under the supervision of a line foreman. Linemen and cable splicers con tinue to receive training through out their careers, to qualify for more difficult assignments and to keep up with technological changes. Those having the necessary quali fications find many additional ad vancement opportunities in the tele phone industry. For example, a lineman may be transferred to tele phone installer and later to tele phone repairman or other higher rated jobs. Employment Outlook Employment of cable splicers 409 TELEPHONE CRAFT OCCUPATIONS is expected to grow moderately through the mid-1980’s. Although technological developments such as the telephone splicing van which uses the power of the truck engine to heat and ventilate manholes and drive power tools and equipment will improve the efficiency of these workers, more will have to be hired to keep pace with the continued high levels of activity in cable installation and maintenance. In addition to the job openings from employment growth, many open ings will arise to replace experi enced cable splicers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Little or no change is expected in the number of linemen because the increasing use of mechanical improvements, such as plows that can dig a trench, lay cable, and cover it in a single operation, have elimi nated much of the heavier physical work of the line crews and have caused reductions in crew size. Some job openings will occur, how ever, as experienced linemen retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. days, and other benefits that apply to telephone workers generally. Linemen and cable splicers work outdoors. They must do consider able climbing, and often work in stooped and cramped positions. Safety standards, developed over the years by telephone companies with the cooperation of labor unions, have greatly reduced the hazards of these occupations. When severe weather damages telephone lines, linemen and cable splicers may be called upon to work long and irregular hours to restore service. Because of the physical de mands of the work, some linemen and cable splicers, by the time they reach their mid-fifties, transfer to other jobs such as telephone instal lers and repairmen or central office craft occupations. See the statement on the tele phone industry elsewhere in the Hand book for sources of additional in formation and for general informa tion on supplementary benefits. Earnings and Working Conditions In early 1972, cable splicers wage rates averaged $4.43 an hour and linemen’s averaged $3.88. By comparison, nonsupervisory work ers in all private industries, except farming, averaged $3.55 an hour. Pay rates for cable splicers and linemen depend to a considerable extent upon length of service and geographic location. For example, according to a 1972 union contract, new workers in line construction jobs in one of the higher pay scale cities began at $3.50 an hour. Line men could reach a maximum of $5.80 after 5 years of service. The maximum hourly rate for cable splicers was $5.88. Linemen and cable splicers are covered by the same contract provisions govern ing overtime pay, vacations, holi TELEPHONE SERVICEMEN Nature of the Work Telephone servicemen are the largest group of telephone craft workers; nearly 110,000 were em ployed in 1972. They install and service telephones and switchboard systems such as PBX and CEN TREX on the customers’ property and make necessary repairs on the equipment when trouble develops. These workers generally travel to customers’ homes and offices in trucks equipped with telephone tools and supplies. When customers move or request new types of serv ice, they relocate telephones or make changes on existing equip ment. For example, they may in stall a switchboard in an office, or change a two-party line to a single-party line in a residence. In stallers also may fill a customer’s request to add an extension in an other room, or to replace an old telephone with a new model. Al though some servicemen do a vari ety of work, most specialize in one or two jobs described below. Telephone installers (D.O.T. 822.381) install and remove tele phones in homes and business places. They connect telephones to outside service wires and some times must climb poles to make these connections. Telephone in stallers are sometimes called sta tion installers. PBX installers (D.O.T. 822.381) perform the same duties as tele phone installers, but they specialize in more complex telephone system installations. They connect wires from terminals to switchboards and make tests to check their installa tions. Some PBX installers also set up equipment for radio and tele vision broadcasts, mobile radiotele phones, and data equipment. Telephone repairmen (D.O.T. 822.281), with the assistance of testboardmen in the central office, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 410 locate trouble on customers’ equip ment and make repairs to restore service. PBX repairmen (D.O.T. 822.281), with the assistance of testboardmen, locate trouble on customers’ PBX, CENTREX or other complex tele phone systems and make the neces sary repairs. They also maintain associated equipment such as bat teries, relays, and power plants. Some PBX repairmen maintain and repair equipment for radio and television broadcasts, mobile radio telephones, and data equipment. poles, lines and cables, terminal boxes, and other equipment. They practice installing telephones and connecting wires just as they would in the field. After a few weeks in the classroom, trainees are assigned to the field for on-the-job training by experienced workers. Telephone service workers con tinue to receive training through out their careers, to qualify for more responsible assignments and to keep up with technical changes. Those who have managerial ability can advance to supervisory jobs. Employment Outlook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Telephone companies give new service workers classroom instruc tion and on-the-job training. They train inexperienced people as well as their own employees, such as telephone operators for telephone installation and repair jobs. Appli cants need good eyesight—no color blindness. Tests are given to help determine the applicant’s aptitude for the work. Companies train ex perienced employees, such as tele phone installers and repairmen and cable splicers, for PBX installa tion and repair work. Classroom training usually is de signed to simulate actual working conditions. For example, telephone installer trainees are instructed in classrooms equipped with telephone Employment of telephone ser vicemen is expected to increase moderately through the mid-1980’s. In addition to the jobs that will result from employment growth, many openings will arise to replace workers who retire, die, or trans fer to other occupations. Some of these openings may be Filled by workers from other telephone jobs, such as operators, service repre sentatives, linemen, or cable splic ers, but many will be available to new employees. Employment will increase due to the growing demand for telephones, and PBX and CENTREX systems. However, technological changes that have increased the efficiency of servicemen will limit the employ ment increase. Examples of such changes include improved designs for telephone instruments, wires, and cables and the development of removable components which can be returned to the factory or service shop for repair. Earnings and Working Conditions In early 1972, the average hourly rate for PBX repairmen was $4.66 and the average for telephone and PBX installers was $4.36. In com parison, nonsupervisory workers in all private industries, except farm ing, had average earnings of $3.55 an hour. Earnings increase considerably with length of service. According to a 1972 union contract in one of the higher pay scale cities, tele phone servicemen have a starting rate of $3.50 an hour, with periodic pay increases until a maximum of $5.80 an hour is reached after 5 years. Servicemen are covered by the same provisions governing over time pay, vacations, holidays, and other benefits that apply to tele phone workers generally. Telephone servicemen work in doors and outdoors in all kinds of weather. They may work extra hours when breakdowns occur in lines or equipment. (See the statement on the tele phone industry elsewhere in the Handbook for sources of additional information and for general infor mation on supplementary benefits.) OTHER M ECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN AIR-CONDITIONING, REFRIGERATION, AND HEATING MECHANICS (D.O.T. 637.281 and .381, 862.281 and .381, and 869.281) Nature of the Work Air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics work on cooling and heating equipment used in homes, offices, schools, and other buildings. Major occupations in these fields are those of airconditioning and refrigeration me chanic, furnace installer, oil burner mechanic, and gas burner me chanic. Many workers are skilled in more than one of these trades. Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics (D.O.T. 637.281 and .381) install and repair equipment ranging in size from small window units to large central air-conditioning or refrigeration systems. When in stalling new equipment, they put the motors, compressors, evapora tors, and other components in place, following blueprints and de sign specifications. They connect duct work, refrigerant lines, and other piping and then connect the equipment to an electrical power source. After completing the in stallation, they charge the system with refrigerant and check it for proper operation. When air-conditioning and refrig eration equipment breaks down, mechanics diagnose the cause and make necessary repairs. When looking for defects they inspect components such as relays and thermostats. Furnace installers (D.O.T. 862.381 and 869.281), also called heating equipment installers, follow blue prints or other specifications to install oil, gas, and electric heating units. After setting the heating unit in place, they install fuel supply lines, air ducts, pumps, and other components. They then connect electrical wiring and controls, and check the unit for proper operation. Oil burner mechanics (D.O.T. 862.281) keep oil-fueled heating systems in good operating condi tion. During the fall and winter, they service and adjust oil burners. Mechanics determine the reason a burner is not operating properly by checking the thermostat, burner nozzles, controls, and other parts. Mechanics carry replacement parts in their trucks to make repairs in the customer’s home or place of business. However, if major repairs are necessary, they usually com plete the repairs in the shop. Dur ing the summer, mechanics service heating units, replace oil and air filters, and vacuum-clean vents, ducts, and other parts of the heat ing system that accumulate soot and ash. Gas burner mechanics (D.O.T. 637.281), also called gas appliance servicemen, have duties similar to those of oil burner mechanics. They diagnose malfunctions in gas-fueled Refrigeration mechanic attempts to locate leak with gages and meters. 411 412 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK heating systems and make neces sary repairs and adjustments. They also repair cooking stoves, clothes dryers, and hot water heaters. During the summer, mechanics em ployed by gas utility companies may inspect and repair gas meters. Air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics use a va riety of tools, including hammers, wrenches, metal snips, electric drills, pipe cutters and benders, and acetylene torches. They also use volt meters, electronic circuit testers, and other testing devices. Cooling and heating systems sometimes are installed or repaired by other craftsmen. For example, on a large air-conditioning installa tion job, especially where workers are covered by union contracts, duct work might be done by sheetmetal workers; electrical work by electricians; and installation of pip ing, condensers, and other com ponents by pipefitters. Appliance servicemen often install and repair window air conditioners. Addi tional information about these oc cupations appears elsewhere in the Handbook. Places of Employment An estimated 135,000 air-condition ing, refrigeration, and heating me chanics were employed in 1972. These workers were employed primarily by cooling and heating dealers and contractors. Fuel oil dealers em ploy most oil burner mechanics, and gas utility companies employ most gas burner mechanics. Air-conditioning and refrigera tion mechanics and furnace in stallers work in all parts of the country. Generally, the geographic distribution of these workers is similar to that of our population. Oil burner mechanics are concen trated in States where oil is a major heating fuel. More than half of these workers are employed in New York, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Illinois. Similarly, gas burner mechanics are concentrated in States where gas is a major heating fuel. More than half of these workers are employed in California, Texas, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, Pennsyl vania, and New York Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most air-conditioning, refrigera tion, and heating mechanics start as helpers and acquire their skills by working for several years with experienced mechanics. Beginners perform simple tasks, such as in sulating refrigerant lines or clean ing furnaces. As helpers gain experience, they are given progres sively more complicated tasks, such as installing pumps and burners and checking circuits. Employers prefer high school graduates who have had courses in mathematics, physics, and blue print reading. Mechanical aptitude and an interest in electricity also are important qualifications. Good physical condition helps in lifting and moving heavy equipment. Many high school and voca tional schools cooperate with local employers and organizations such as the Air-Conditioning and Refrig eration Institute and the National Oil Fuel Institute in offering basic mechanics courses. These courses may last from 2 to 3 years and consist of on-the-job training and classroom instruction. In 1972, un employed and underemployed work ers were trained in programs lasting up to a year in many cities under the Manpower Development and Training Act. Additional on-thejob training and experience is needed to qualify these students as skilled mechanics. Employment Outlook Employment of air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics is expected to increase very rapidly through the mid-1980’s. In addition to jobs resulting from employment growth, many job openings will occur because of the need to replace experienced mechanics who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Most new openings will be for air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics. Increases in household formations and rising personal in comes should result in a very rapid increase in the number of airconditioned homes. Air-conditioning in offices, stores, hospitals, schools, and other buildings also is expected to increase. In addition, more refrigeration equipment will be neded in the production, storage, and marketing of food and other perishables. Employment of furnace installers and gas burner mechanics is ex pected to follow the rapid growth trends in the construction of homes and businesses. Employment of oil burner mechanics, on the other hand, is expected to remain fairly stable, since relatively few new homes are being built with oil heating systems. Earnings and Working Conditions Hourly rates for skilled airconditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics ranged from about $4 to $8.50 in 1972, according to the limited information available. Skilled mechanics generally earned between two and three times as much as did inexperienced helpers. Mechanics who worked on both air-conditioning and heating equip ment frequently had higher rates of pay than those who worked on only one type of equipment. Most mechanics work a 40-hour MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN week. However, during seasonal peaks they often work overtime or irregular hours. Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics are busiest during spring and summer, and heating mechanics are busiest during fall and winter. Most em ployers try to provide a full work week the year round, but they may temporarily reduce hours or lay off some mechanics when seasonal peaks end. However, employment in most shops that service both airconditioning and heating equip ment is fairly stable throughout the year. Mechanics sometimes are re quired to work at great heights when installing new equipment. They also may work in awkward or cramped positions. Hazards in this trade include electrical shock, torch burns, muscle strains, and other injuries that may result from handling heavy equipment. Sources of Additional Information For more information about em ployment opportunities, contact the local office of the State employ ment service or firms that employ air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics. The State em ployment service also may have information about opportunities available under the Manpower De velopment and Training Act, ap prenticeship and other training pro grams. Information about advanced train ing in air-conditioning and refrig eration may be obtained from the Refrigeration Service Engineers Society, 2720 DePlaines Ave., DePlaines, 1 1. 60018. 1 Information about training in oil heating systems may be obtained from the Education Department, National Oil Fuel Institute, 60 East 42nd St., New York, N.Y. 10017. General information about gas 413 burner mechanics may be obtained from the American Gas Associa tion, Inc., 605 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. APPLIANCE SERVICEMEN (D.O.T. 637.281, 723.381, and 827.281) Nature of the Work Appliance servicemen repair all kinds of household appliances— toasters, irons, refrigerators, and ranges, to name but a few. They often specialize in servicing either electric or gas appliances, and may specialize in particular items such as clothes washers and dryers or refrigerators and freezers. They also may install appliances, but in stallations often are done by other workers. To determine why an appliance is not operating properly, service men may ask the customer how it performed when last used. They may operate the appliance to detect unusual noises, overheating, or ex cess vibration. Servicemen also look for common sources of trouble such as faulty electrical connections. To check electric and gas systems, they use special tools and testing devices, including ammeters, voltmeters, and pressure gauges. A knowledge of electronics is necessary for many repair jobs. After locating the trouble, they make the necessary repairs or re placements. To remove old parts and install new ones, servicemen use common handtools, including screwdrivers and pliers, and special tools designed for particular ap pliances. Most refrigerators and other large appliances are repaired in customers’ homes. If major repairs are necessary, however, the appli ance may have to be taken to a repair shop. Servicemen answer cus tomers’ questions and complaints about appliances and frequently advise customers about their care and use. For example, they may demonstrate to housewives the prop er loading of automatic washing machines or how to arrange dishes in dishwashers. Appliance servicemen may give estimates to customers on the cost of repairs and keep records of parts used and hours worked on each job. Places of Employment About 130,000 people worked as appliance servicemen and instal lers in 1972, mostly in appliance stores and repair shops. Others worked for service centers operated by appliance manufacturers, whole salers, and gas and electric utility companies. Appliance serviceman repairs motor of automatic washer. 414 Appliance servicemen are em ployed in almost every community, but are concentrated in the more highly populated States and metro politan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most appliance servicemen start as helpers and acquire their skills through on-the-job training. In some companies they spend a few months helping to install appliances in homes. In other companies they begin learning basic skills by work ing in the shop where they rebuild used parts such as washing machine transmissions. Trainees gradually learn how motors, gears, and other parts work. They progress from simple repair jobs, such as replac ing a switch, to more difficult jobs such as adjusting washer controls. Trainees as well as experienced servicemen receive supplemental classroom instruction given periodi cally by appliance manufacturers and local distributors. Appliance servicemen need up to 3 years’ on-the-job experience to become fully qualified. Formal training in appliance repair and related subjects is available from some technical schools and commu nity colleges. A trainee with this type of background can become a qualified serviceman more quickly. Experienced servicemen continue to attend training classes periodi cally, and study service manuals to become familiar with new appli ances and the proper ways to repair them. Programs to train unemployed and underemployed workers for entry jobs in the appliance service field were operating in many cities in 1972, under the Manpower De velopment and Training Act and the JOBS (Job Opportunities in the Business Sector) Program. These OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK programs last from several weeks to a year. With additional training and experience, graduates of these programs can become skilled serv icemen. Employers prefer applicants who have good mechanical aptitude and are high school or trade school graduates who have had courses in electricity, mathematics, and science. Some employers cooperate with local high schools and trade schools to provide students with an opportunity to gain practical experience by working part time in appliance repair shops while attending school. Appliance servicemen who work in large repair shops or service cen ters may be promoted to foreman, assistant service manager, or serv ice manager. Preference is given to those who show ability to get along with co-workers and customers. Ex perienced servicemen who have suf ficient funds may open their own appliance stores or repair shops. Some servicemen become instruc tors who teach others to repair new models of appliances, or technical writers, who prepare service man uals. A few may advance to mana gerial positions such as regional service or parts manager. Employment Outlook Earnings and Working Conditions Hourly earnings of appliance servicemen ranged from $3.25 to $6.50 in 1972, based on the limited data available. Starting rates for inexperienced trainees ranged from $2.25 to $3 an hour. The wide varia tions in wages reflect differences in skill level, type of employer, geographical location, and type of equipment serviced. Many appliance servicemen work more than 8 hours a day and re ceive higher rates of pay for over time. Most appliance servicemen receive paid vacations, sick leave, health insurance, and other fringe benefits. Appliance repair shops are gener ally quiet, well lighted, and ade quately ventilated. Working con ditions outside the shop vary considerably. For example, service men sometimes work in narrow spaces and uncomfortable positions amidst dirt and dust. Servicemen who re pair appliances in homes may spend several hours a day driving. Appliance repair work generally is safe, although accidents are possible while the serviceman is handling electrical parts or lifting and moving large appliances. In experienced workers are shown how to use tools safely and how to avoid electric shock. Appliance servicemen usually work with little or no direct super vision. This feature of the job ap peals to many people. Employment of appliance serv icemen is expected to grow rapidly through the mid-1980’s. In addition to the jobs created by growth of this occupation, thousands of open ings will arise each year to replace Sources of Additional Information experienced servicemen who retire, For further information about die or transfer to other occupations. The demand for appliances is jobs in the appliance service field expected to increase very rapidly contact local appliance repair shops, as a result of increases in popula appliance dealers and utility com tion and income. Demand also will panies, or the local office of the be stimulated by the introduction State employment service. Local of new appliances and by improve offices of State employment serv ments that make existing appliances ices may provide information about more attractive or more convenient. the Manpower Development and 415 OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN Training Act and other programs that provide training opportunities. Local vocational schools that offer courses in appliance servicing, electricity, and electronics can also provide helpful information about training. Information about training pro grams or work opportunities also is available from: Association of Home Appliance Manu facturers, 20 North Wacker Drive, Chicago, 111. 60606. National Appliance and Radio-TV Dealers Association, 318 W. Randolph St., Chicago, 111. 60606. Gas Appliance Manufacturers ciation, 1901 North Fort Drive, Arlington, Va. 22209. Asso Myer AUTOMOBILE BODY REPAIRMEN (D.O.T. 807.381) Nature of the Work Automobile body repairmen are skilled craftsmen who repair dam aged motor vehicles by straighten ing bent frames, removing dents, welding torn metal, and replacing ruined parts. Body repairmen usu ally can repair all types of vehicles, but most work mainly on auto mobiles and small trucks. Some specialize in large trucks, buses, or truck trailers. Before making repairs, body re pairmen generally receive instruc tions from their supervisors, who determine which parts are to be restored or replaced, and estimate how much time the repairs should take. Automobile body repairmen use special machines to align damaged frames and body sections. They chain or clamp the machine to the damaged metal and apply hydraulic pressure to straighten it. They also may use special devices to align vehicles that have unit-bodies in stead of frames. Some repairmen specialize in straightening frames and unit-bodies. Body repairmen remove badly damaged sections of body panels with a pneumatic met alcutting gun or acetylene torch, and weld in new sections. They push large dents out with a hy draulic jack or hand prying bar, or knock them out with a hand tool or pneumatic hammer. They smooth small dents and creases by holding a small anvil against one side of the damaged area while hammer ing the opposite side. Very small pits and dimples are removed with pick hammers and punches. Body repairmen use plastic or solder to fill small dents that can not be worked out of the metal. The hardened filler is filed or ground to a smooth finish. After being restored to its orig inal shape, the repaired surface is sanded for painting. In most shops, automobile painters do the paint ing. (These workers are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Some smaller shops employ workers who are combination body repairmen and painters. Body repair work has variety— each damaged vehicle presents a different problem. Therefore, in addition to having a broad knowl edge of automobile construction and repair techniques, repairmen must develop appropriate methods for each job. Most of these skilled craftsmen find their work chal lenging and take pride in being able to restore automobiles. Body repairmen usually work by themselves with only general direc tions from foremen. In some shops, they may be assisted by helpers. 416 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Places of Employment year, stress the fundamentals of automobile body repair. Graduates About 160,000 persons worked need additional on-the-job or ap as automobile body repairmen in prenticeship training to qualify as 1972. Most worked for shops that skilled body repairmen. specialized in body repairs and Young persons who want to learn painting, and for automobile and this trade should be in good physi truck dealers. Other employers in cal condition and have good eyecluded organizations that maintain hand coordination. Courses in their own motor vehicles, such as automobile body repair, offered trucking companies and buslines. by high schools, vocational schools, Motor vehicle manufacturers em and private trade schools, provide ployed a small number of these helpful experience, as do courses workers. in automobile mechanics. Although Automobile body repairmen can completion of high school general find work in every section of the ly is not a requirement, many em country. Geographically, jobs are ployers believe graduation indicates distributed about the same as that a young person can “ finish a population. job.” Automobile body repairmen must buy handtools, but employers usu Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement ally furnish power tools. Trainees Most automobile body repair are expected to accumulate tools men learn the trade on the job. as they gain experience. Many Young persons usually start as repairmen have a few hundred helpers and pick up skills from ex dollars invested in tools. An experienced automobile body perienced workers. Helpers begin repairman with supervisory ability by assisting body repairmen in tasks such as removing damaged may advance to shop foreman. parts and installing repaired sur Many open their own shops. faces in preparation for painting. Employment Outlook They gradually learn to remove small dents and make other minor Employment of automobile body repairs, and progress to more dif repairmen is expected to increase ficult tasks. Generally, 3 to 4 years moderately through the mid-1980’s. of on-the-job training are needed In addition, more than a thousand to become a fully qualified body openings are expected each year repairman. Most training authori from the need to replace experi ties recommend a 3- or 4-year enced repairmen who retire or die. formal apprenticeship program as Job openings also will occur as the best way to learn the trade, some transfer to other occupations. but relatively few of these programs Employment is expected to in are available. Apprenticeship in crease as a result of the rising cludes both on-the-job and class number of motor vehicles damaged room instruction. in traffic. Accident losses are ex In 1972, body repair training pected to increase as the number programs to prepare unemployed of motor vehicles grows, even and underemployed workers for though better highways, driver entry jobs were in operation in training courses, and improved many cities under the Manpower bumpers and safety features on Development and Training Act. new vehicles may slow the rate of These programs, which last up to a increase. Earnings and Working Conditions Body repairmen employed by automobile dealers in 34 large cities had estimated average hourly earn ings of $6.52 in 1972, about threefourths more than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in pri vate industry, except farming. Skilled body repairmen usually earn between two and three times as much as inexperienced helpers and trainees. Many body repairmen employed by automobile dealers and repair shops are paid a commission, usu ally about half of the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, earnings depend on the amount of work assigned to the repairman and how fast he com pletes it. Employers frequently guarantee their commissioned re pairmen a minimum weekly salary. Helpers and trainees usually re ceive an hourly rate until they are skilled enough to work on commis sion. Body repairmen employed by trucking companies, buslines, and other organizations that main tain their own vehicles usually are paid by the hour. Most body re pairmen work 40 to 48 hours a week. Many employers of body repair men provide holiday and vacation pay, and additional benefits such as life, health, and accident insur ance. Some also contribute to re tirement plans. Some shops furnish laundered uniforms. Automobile body shops are noisy because of the banging of hammers against metal and the whir of power tools. Most shops are well ventilated, but often are dusty and have the odor of paint. Body repairmen often work in awkward or cramped positions, and most of their work is strenuous and dirty. Hazards include cuts from sharp metal edges, burns from torches and heated metal, and in OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN juries from power tools. Many automobile body repair men are members of unions, in cluding the International Associa tion of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Associa tion; and the International Brother hood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Most body repair men who are union members work for large automobile dealers, truck ing companies, and buslines. Sources of Additional information More details about work oppor tunities may be obtained from local employers, such as automobile body repair shops and automobile deal ers; locals of the unions previously mentioned; or the local office of the State employment service. The State employment service also may be a source of information about the Manpower Development and Training Act, apprenticeship, and other programs that provide train ing opportunities. General information about the work of automobile body repair men may be obtained from: Automotive Service Industry Associa tion, 230 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60601. Automotive Service Councils of America, Inc., 4001 Warren Blvd., Hillside, 111. 60162. 417 AUTOMOBILE M ECHANICS (D.O.T. 620.131 through .381, .782, and .885; 721.281 and 825.281) Nature of the Work .Automobile mechanics keep the Nation’s automobiles in good operating condition. They perform preventive maintenance, diagnose breakdowns, and make repairs. (Although truck mechanics, bus mechanics, and automobile body repairmen are sometimes called “automobile mechanics,’’ they are discussed separately in the Hand book.) Preventive maintenance is the periodic examination, and adjust ment, repair, or replacement of parts. This important responsibil ity of the mechanic is vital to safe and trouble-free driving. In preven tive maintenance, mechanics may follow a checklist to be sure they examine all important parts. They may, for example, examine and de cide whether to replace worn parts, such as distributor points; clean, adjust, or replace spark plugs; ad just the carburetor; and balance the wheels. When mechanical or electrical troubles occur, mechanics first get a description of the symptoms from the owner. If the cause of the trouble is hard to find, they may use testing equipment, such as motor analyzers, spark plug testers, compression gauges. The ability to make a quick and accurate diagno sis is one of the mechanic’s most valuable skills and requires ana lytical ability as well as a thorough knowledge of a car’s operations. Many mechanics consider diagno sing “hard to find’’ troubles one of their most challenging and satis fying duties. After locating the problem, mechanics make needed adjust ments and repairs, such as grinding valves or cleaning the carburetor. If a mechanic cannot fix a part, he replaces it. In addition to testing equipment, automobile mechanics use many other kinds of tools ranging from simple handtools (screwdrivers, wrenches, pliers), to complicated equipment, such as wheel alinement machines and headlight aimers. Mechanics also consult re pair manuals and parts catalogs, since various makes of automobiles require different parts and adjust ments. Most automobile mechanics per form a variety of repairs; others specialize. The types of work done by some mechanic specialists are described briefly: A utomatic transmission special ists work on gear trains, couplings, hydraulic pumps, and other parts of automatic transmissions. These are complex mechanisms; their repair requires considerable experience and training, including a knowledge of hydraulics. Tune-up men ad just the ignition timing and valves, and adjust or replace spark plugs, distributor points, and other parts to insure efficient engine perform ance. They often use scientific test equipment to locate malfunctions in fuel and ignition systems. Auto mobile air-conditioning specialists install air-conditioners and service components such as compressors and condensers. Front-end mechan ics align and balance wheels and repair steering mechanisms and suspension systems. They fre quently use special alignment equipment and wheel-balancing machines. Brake mechanics ad just brakes, replace brake linings, repair hydraulic cylinders, and make other repairs on brake sys tems. Those employed in repair shops that specialize in brake service also may replace shock ab OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 418 sorbers, springs, and mufflers. In some shops, combination front-end and brake mechanics are employed. Automobile-radiator mechanics clean radiators with caustic solu tions, locate and solder leaks, and install new radiator cores. They also may repair heaters and airconditioners, and solder leaks in gasoline tanks. Automobile-glass mechanics replace broken wind shield and window glass and repair window operating mechanisms. They install pre-formed glass to replace curved windows, and they use window patterns and glass cut ting tools to cut replacement glass from flat sheets. Places of Employment About 700,000 persons worked as automobile mechanics in 1972. Most worked for automobile deal ers, automobile repair shops, and gasoline service stations. Many others were employed by Federal, State, and local governments, taxi cab and automobile leasing com panies, and other organizations that repair their own automobiles. Some mechanics also were em ployed by automobile manufac turers to make Final adjust ments and repairs at the end of the assembly line. A small number of mechanics worked for depart ment stores that have automobile service facilities. Most automobile mechanics work in shops that employ from one to five mechanics, but some of the largest shops employ more than a hundred. Generally, auto mobile dealer shops are larger than independent repair shops. Automobile mechanics work in every section of the country. Geo graphically, employment is dis tributed about the same as popu lation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most automobile mechanics learn the trade on the job. Young persons usually start as helpers, lubrication men, or gasoline service station attendants, and gradually acquire skills by working with ex perienced mechanics. Although a beginner can make simple repairs after a few months’ experience, 3 to 4 years are required to become an all-round mechanic, and an additional year or two to learn a difficult specialty, such as auto matic transmission repair. In con trast, radiator mechanics, glass mechanics, and brake specialists, who do not need an all-round knowledge of automobile repair, may learn their jobs in about 2 years. Most training authorities recom mend a 3- or 4-year formal appren ticeship program as the best way to become an all-round mechanic. These programs include both onthe-job training and classroom in struction in nearly all phases of automobile repair. For entry jobs, employers look for young persons with mechanical aptitude and a knowledge of auto mobiles. Generally, a driver’s license is required. Practical ex perience in automobile repair gained from working as a gasoline service station attendant, training in the Armed Forces, or working on cars as a hobby is valuable. Completion of high school is an ad vantage in obtaining an entry job, because to most employers it indi cates that a young person can finish a job and has potential for advance ment. Courses in automobile repair offered by many high schools, voca tional schools, and private trade schools are helpful. Courses in science and mathematics help a person better understand how an automobile operates. Training programs for unem ployed and underemployed workers seeking entry jobs as automobile mechanics are in operation in a large number of cities under the Manpower Development and Train ing Act. These programs, which last up to a year, stress basic maintenance and repair work. Per sons who complete this training are able to make simple repairs, but they need additional on-thejob or apprenticeship training to qualify as skilled mechanics. Most mechanics must buy their handtools. Beginners are expected to accumulate tools as they gain experience. Many experienced mechanics have several hundred dollars invested in tools. Employers furnish power tools, engine analyz ers, and other test equipment. Employers sometimes send ex perienced mechanics to factory training centers to learn to repair OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN new car models or receive special creased mechanic specialization training in subjects such as auto and the growing use of test equip matic transmission or air- ment (such as dynamometers and conditioning repair. Manufac engine analyzers) should reduce the turers also send representatives time needed to diagnose malfunc to local shops to conduct short tions and check the quality of re training sessions. A relatively pairs. small number of young high school graduates are selected by automobile dealers to attend Earnings and Working Conditions factory-sponsored mechanic train Skilled automobile mechanics ing programs. employed by automobile dealers in Experienced mechanics in a 34 cities had estimated average large shop may advance to super hourly earnings of $6.15 in 1972, visory positions, such as repair about two-thirds more than the shop foreman or service manager. average for all nonsupervisory Mechanics who like to work workers in private industry, except with customers may transfer to farming. Skilled mechanics usually service advisors jobs. Many earn between two and three times mechanics open their own repair as much as inexperienced helpers shops or gasoline service stations. and trainees. Many experienced mechanics employed by automobile dealers Employment Outlook and independent repair shops are Employment of automobile paid a commission, usually about mechanics is expected to increase half the labor cost charged to the moderately through the mid-1980’s. customer. Under this method, In addition to the job openings weekly earnings depend on the from employment growth, several amount of work assigned and com thousand openings are expected pleted by the mechanic. Employers each year from the need to replace frequently guarantee commissioned experienced mechanics who retire mechanics a minimum weekly salary. or die. Job openings also will occur Helpers and trainees usually are as some mechanics transfer to other paid an hourly rate until they are sufficiently skilled to work on com occupations. Employment is expected to in mission. Some mechanics receive an crease because expansion of the hourly rate. Most mechanics work between driving age population, consumer purchasing power, and multicar 40 and 48 hours a week but many ownership will increase the number work even longer during busy of automobiles. Employment also periods. Mechanics paid by the is expected to grow because a hour frequently receive overtime greater number of automobiles will rates for hours over 40 a week. Many employers provide holiday be equipped with pollution control devices, air-conditioning, and other and vacation pay, and additional features that increase maintenance benefits such as life, health, and accident insurance. Some also con requirements. Primarily because of greater ef tribute to retirement plans. Laun ficiency in the shop, employment dered uniforms are furnished free of mechanics is not expected to of charge by some employers. Generally, a mechanic works in grow as rapidly as the number of automobiles. For example, in doors. Modern automobile repair 419 shops are well ventilated, lighted, and heated, but older shops may not have these advantages. Mechanics frequently work with dirty and greasy parts, and in awk ward positions. Sometimes they must lift heavy objects. Minor cuts and bruises are common, but serious accidents usually are avoided by observing safety prac tices. Some mechanics are members of labor unions. Among the unions organizing these workers are the International Association of Ma chinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Auto mobile, Aerospace and Agricul tural Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Associ ation; and the International Broth erhood of Teamsters, Chauffers, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportunities, contact local em ployers such as automobile dealers and repair shops; locals of the unions previously mentioned; or the local office of the State employment service. The State employment serv ice also may have information bout the Manpower Development and Training Act, apprenticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. General information about the work of automobile mechanics may be obtained from: Automotive Service Industry Associa tion, 230 North Michigan Ave., Chi cago, 111. 60601. Automotive Service Councils of America, Inc., 4001 Warren Blvd., Hillside, 111. 60162. National Automobile Dealers Associ ation, 2000 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. 420 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK BOAT MOTOR MECHANICS (D.O.T. 623.281 and 625.281) Nature of the Work Boat motors have many things in common with automobile motors, including unannounced breakdowns. A reliable motor is particularly essential in boating. Breakdowns far from shore can leave a boatman stranded for hours—a frustrating and potentially dangerous predica ment if the weather turns bad. To minimize the possibility of breakdowns, motor manufacturers recommend periodic inspections by qualified mechanics to have motors examined and repaired and worn or defective parts replaced. For example, they may replace ignition points, adjust valves, and clean the carburetor. After completing these tasks, they run the motor to check for other needed adjustments. Rou tine maintenance jobs normally make up most of the mechanic’s work load. When breakdowns occur, me chanics diagnose the cause and make the necessary repairs. A quick and accurate diagnosis—one of the mechanic’s most valuable skills— requires analytical ability as well as thorough knowledge of the motor’s operation. Some jobs re quire only the replacement of a single item, such as fuel pump, and may be completed in less than an hour. In contrast, tearing down and reassembling a motor to replace worn valves, bearings, or piston rings may take a day or more. Mechanics may specialize in either outboard or inboard motors, although many repair both. Most small boats have portable gasolinefueled outboard motors. Inboards are located inside the boat (much like the engine in a car) and are primarily in larger craft, such as cabin cruisers and commercial fish ing boats. Large inboard engines and automobile and truck engines are similar in design and operation. Some inboards burn diesel fuel rather than gasoline. In large shops, mechanics usu ally work only on motors and other running gear. In small shops, how ever, they may patch and paint hulls, and repair steering mechan isms, lights, and other boat equip ment. In addition, they may repair motorcycles, mini-bikes, snowmo biles, lawn mowers, and other machines which have small gaso line engines. Mechanics use common handtools such as screwdrivers and wrenches; power and machine tools including drills and grinders; and hoists to lift motors and boats. Motor analyzers, compression gauges, and other testing devices help mechanics locate faulty parts. Mechanics refer to service manuals for assistance in assembling and repairing motors. Places of Employment Most of the estimated 10,000 full-time boat-motor mechanics em ployed in 1972 worked in the shops of boat dealers and marinas. Others made final adjustments and repairs at the end of the assembly line for motor manufacturers. A small num ber of mechanics worked for boat rental firms. Marinas operated by Federal, State, and local govern ments also employed mechanics. Dealer and marina shops typical ly employ one to three mechanics; few employ more than 10. Small dealers and marinas send repair work to larger shops. Boat-motor mechanics work in every State, but employment is concentrated along coastal areas in New York, California, Texas, Florida, Washington, Massachu setts, and Louisiana, and near the numerous lakes and rivers in Michi gan, Illinois, Ohio, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, Missouri, and Indiana. Mechanics who specialize in out 421 OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN board motors work in all areas. Those who specialize in inboard motors work mostly near oceans, bays, and large lakes. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Boat-motor mechanics learn their skills primarily through on-the-job training. At first, trainees clean boats and motors and do other odd jobs. Under the guidance of me chanics they learn to remove and disassemble motors, replace igni tion points and spark plugs, and do other routine tasks. As trainees gain experience, they progress to more difficult tasks such as diag nosing the cause of breakdowns and overhauling motors. Generally, an inexperienced beginner needs 2 to 3 years on the job to become skilled in repairing both outboard and inboard gasoline motors. A capable mechanic can learn to re pair diesels in an additional year or two. Employers sometimes send train ees and mechanics to factorysponsored courses for 1 to 2 weeks. Trainees learn the fundamentals of motor repair. Mechanics up grade their skills and learn to repair new models. When hiring trainees, employers look for young persons who have mechanical aptitude, are in good physical condition, and have an interest in boating. High school graduates are preferred, but many employers will hire applicants with less education. High school courses in small engine repair, automobile mechanics, and machine shop are helpful, as are science and mathe matics. Before graduating, a person may be able to get a summer job as a mechanic trainee. In 1972, under provisions of the Manpower Development and Train ing Act (MDTA), the unemployed and underemployed were trained in a small number of cities for out board motor repair, and in many cities for small engine and auto mobile repair which can be applied to boat-motor repair. Mechanics usually are required to furnish their own handtools which cost several hundred dollars. Employers provide power tools and test equipment. Mechanics who have leadership ability can advance to supervisory positions such as shop foremen or service managers. Mechanics who have the necessary capital may es tablish their own dealerships or marinas. Most mechanics are paid an hourly rate or weekly salary. Others are paid a percentage—usually 50 percent of the labor charges for each repair job. If a mechanic is paid on a percentage basis, his weekly earnings depend on the amount of work he is assigned and the length of time he takes to complete it. Boating activity increases sharp ly as the weather grows warmer. Consequently, many mechanics work more than 40 hours a week in spring and summer. During winter, however, they may work less than 40 hours a week; a rela tively small number are laid off. In Northern States, some of the winter slack is taken up by repair Employment Outlook work on snowmobiles. Many employers provide holiday Employment in this relatively small occupation is expected to in and vacation pay and additional crease rapidly through the mid- benefits such as life, health, and 1980’s. In addition to tiie jobs accident insurance. Some also pro resulting from employment growth, vide paid sick leave, contribute to some openings will arise as ex retirement plans, and furnish laun perienced mechanics retire, die, or dered uniforms free of charge. A few have profit-sharing programs transfer to other occupations. Increases in population, personal for their mechanics. Boat-motor repair work is not income levels, and leisure time will create a demand for more motor- hazardous, but mechanics some boats and mechanics. A growing times suffer cuts, bruises, and other number of new boats will be minor injuries. Shop working con equipped with automatic tilts, ditions vary from clean and spa power-trim controls, and other con cious to dingy and cramped. All venience features—all of which in shops are noisy when engines are crease maintenance requirements. being tested. Mechanics occasion Moreover, growth in the number ally must work in awkward posi of mini-bikes and snowmobiles will tions to adjust or replace parts. add to the demand for mechanics. For many mechanics, however, these disadvantages are more than compensated for by the variety of Earnings work assignments and the satisfac tion which comes from solving In 1972, hourly earnings of ex problems. Moreover, mechanics perienced mechanics ranged from may enjoy working near water about $3 to $6.50 based on infor recreation areas. mation obtained from a limited number of boat dealers and marinas. Experienced mechanics generally Sources of Additional Information earned two to three times as much Details about training or work as trainees. 422 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK opportunities in this field may be obtained from local boat dealers and marinas or local State employ ment offices. B O W LING -PIN-M ACHINE MECHANICS (D.O.T. 639.381 and 829.281) Nature of the Work Bowling-pin-machine (or auto matic pinsetting machine) mechanics repair and maintain the tens of thousands of pinsetting machines in use today. These complex ma chines automatically return the ball to the bowler, clear fallen pins, and reset pins. Mechanics must have a thorough knowledge of the mechanism of pinsetting machines to keep them running properly. This knowledge is especially important when ma chines malfunction, because me chanics must quickly find the cause of the trouble and make repairs or adjustments so that bowlers will not be inconvenienced and annoyed. Mechanics spend much of their time doing work to prevent break downs and delays. They regularly inspect pinsetting machines and clean, lubricate, and adjust them. When delays do occur, mechanics repair or replace parts, such as broken chains, worn shock ab sorbers, and faulty electrical parts. Mechanics refer to troubleshooting manuals and diagrams of electrical circuits to guide their work. Mechanics use many different types of tools, such as wrenches, screwdrivers, hammers, portable hoists, and lubricating guns. They use ohmmeters, voltmeters, and other devices to test electrical circuits, relays, transformers, and motors. Often mechanics will buy Mechanic vacuum cleans bowling pin machine. their own sets of handtools but em ployers usually supply special tools. Mechanics may supervise one or more assistant mechanics or trainees. They teach trainees to locate and correct minor problems in pinset ting machines by demonstrating how the machines operate and by disassembling components and ex plaining their functions. Mechanics show trainees how to break minor pin-jams and recondition pins. Mechanics do some clerical work. They order replacement parts and keep inventory of parts in stock. They also may keep records of machine malfunctions and estimate maintenance costs. Places of Employment About 6,000 bowling-pin-machine mechanics were employed in 1972. Most worked in bowling centers. The remainder, about 5 percent, were employed by manufacturers of pinsetting machines to install and service the machines. Bowling-pin-machine mechanics are employed in every State, but employment is concentrated in heavily populated areas, where there are many bowling centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Pinsetting machine mechanics usually start out as trainees. Em ployers prefer to hire applicants who are high school graduates, although many have not completed high school. Courses in electricity, blueprint reading, and machine re pair are useful. Some mechanic trainees are sent to schools operated by bowling machine manufacturers. To attend a factory school, candidates must take written tests to determine 423 OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN their mechanical aptitude. Usually, they must be at least 16 years old. Trainees’ wages and expenses are paid by employers during the train ing period, which usually lasts 4 weeks. Trainees study the structure and operation of machines made by the firm operating the school, and learn to locate typical sources of trouble. They learn how to perform preventive maintenance, to read wiring diagrams and to use the tools of the trade. After attend ing factory schools, trainees usually need several months of on-the-job experience to qualify as mechanics. Trainees who do not attend fac tory schools learn their skills on the job by watching experienced mechanics at work and by receiving instruction in machine operation and maintenance. Usually, 1 to 2 years of on-the-job training and experience are needed to acquire mechanics’ skills. Young people planning careers as bowling-pin-machine mechanics should have good eyesight (includ ing normal color vision), eye-hand coordination, and average physical strength. They also should have mechanical ability and like to work with their hands. Because speed is usually required in repairing pin setting machines, ability to work under pressure also is important. A qualified mechanic trainee em ployed in a bowling center may be promoted to assistant mechanic and then to head mechanic. Some mechanics become managers or owners of bowling establishments. Those who work for manufacturers may advance to the position of service manager or instructor in a training school. Most job openings will arise because of the need to replace experienced mechanics who retire, die, or trans fer to other occupations. The demand for bowling facilities is likely to grow as population increases, incomes rise, and more time for recreation becomes avail able. Employment of mechanics, however, will be limited by im provements in pinsetting machines. Older machines are being replaced by improved models that need less maintenance; thus, mechanics are able to service a greater number of machines. Earnings and Working Conditions According to information from a limited number of union con tracts, mechanics earned from $3.01 to $4.16 an hour in 1972, and head mechanics from $3.80 to $4.79. Earnings of trainees ranged from $2.80 to $3.55 an hour. On the East Coast and in the Midwest most mechanics and trainees work a 48-hour, 5-day week. Nightwork and work on Sundays and holidays is common. Workers covered by union con tracts receive premium pay for overtime and get 9 to 11 paid holi days a years. They typically receive 2 weeks’ paid vacation after a year’s service, 3 weeks after 3 years’ service, and 4 weeks after 5 years’ service. Many contracts provide for health insurance and pension plans financed entirely by employers. Mechanics work in a long, rela tively narrow corridor at one end of a bowling establishment where the automatic machines are located. The work area includes space for a workbench and is usually well Employment Outlook lighted and well ventilated, but Employment of bowling-pin- quite noisy when the lanes are machine mechanics is expected to operating. When making repairs grow slowly through the mid-1980’s. and adjustments, mechanics fre quently have to climb and balance their bodies on the framework of the pinsetting machines, and to stoop, kneel, crouch, and crawl around the machines. Mechanics employed by manufacturers to in stall and service machines must do considerable traveling. Mechanics usually do not have to wear any special safety devices, such as goggles. Safety guards are provided on the pin-setting ma chines, but workers are subject to common shop hazards, such as electrical shock, cuts, falls, and bruises. Repairmen often wear coveralls to protect themselves from grease and dirt. Mechanics and trainees em ployed in large metropolitan areas generally are members of unions, usually the Service Employees’ International Union or the Inter national Brotherhood of Team sters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen, and Helpers of America (Ind.). Sources of Additional Information Young people who want further information about training or work opportunities in this trade should contact proprietors of bowling cen ters in their area, the local bowling proprietors’ association, or locals of the unions previously mentioned. The local office of the State em ployment service is another source of information about employment and training opportunities. BUSINESS M ACHINE SERVICEMEN (D.O.T. 633.281) Nature of the Work Business machine servicemen maintain and repair the machines 424 that are used to speed the paper work in business and government. These include typewriters, adding and calculating machines, cash reg isters, dictating machines, postage meters, and duplicating and copy ing equipment. (Servicemen who work on computers are discussed in a separate statement elsewhere in the Handbook.) Servicemen often work in offices where the machines are used. They may maintain equipment by reg ular, frequent visits to inspect, clean, and oil the machines, or to make minor repairs or adjustments. When machines break down, they diagnose and correct the cause of the trouble. Often servicemen locate the problem and make repairs on the spot. For major repairs, how ever, they usually take machines to the shop. Many servicemen re pair a variety of machines; others specialize in one or a few types. For example, specialists usually serv ice duplicators, copiers, postage meters, and mailing equipment. Servicemen use common handtools, such as screwdrivers and pliers, and test equipment, such as guages and meters. In large shops, they use drill presses, lathes, and other power equipment. Business machine servicing of fers considerable variety in work assignments. People who have ana lytical ability find considerable satisfaction in finding and correc ting the cause of trouble in a faulty machine. Some servicemen may also do sales work. Most commonly, they sell preventive maintenance con tracts for regular machine serv icing. Some also sell supplies, such as special paper, ink, ribbons, and stencils. 1972. A small number were women. About three-fourths of business machine servicemen worked mainly on t y p e w r i t e r s , c a l c u l a t o r s and add ing machines, and copiers and dup licators. Most of the rest serv iced accounting-bookkeeping ma chines, cash registers, and postage and mailing equipment. A small number repaired dictating machines. Most servicemen worked for busi ness machine manufacturers, deal ers, and repair shops. The remain der worked for Federal, State and local governments, and large organi zations that had enough machines to justify full-time servicemen. In a manufacturer’s branch of fice, servicemen usually work ex clusively on the manufacturer’s products. They specialize in one Places of Employment or two machines or service the full About 70,000 people worked as line of equipment. In a small city, business machine servicemen in specialization is impractical so most OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK servicemen repair and sell all kinds of equipment. Business machine servicemen w ork th r o u g h o u t th e c o u n tr y . E v e n relatively small communities usu ally have at least one or two repair shops. Most servicemen, however, work in large cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for entry jobs as busi ness machine servicemen usually need at least a high school educa tion. Some companies accept young people who have not completed high school. Employers like to employ veterans who have had electronics training in the Armed Forces. Ap plicants who are interested in work ing on electronic equipment must have 1 year or more of training or experience in electronics. 425 OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN Applicants for entry jobs may have to pass tests that measure mechanical aptitude, knowledge of electricity or electronics, manual dexterity, and general intelligence. Good eyesight, including color vi sion, is needed. Employers seek applicants who have a pleasant, cooperative man ner. Because most machine servic ing is done in customers’ offices, the ability to work without inter rupting the office routine is very important. A neat appearance and ability to converse effectively also are desirable. Some employers require that business machine servicemen be bonded. Applicants for these jobs must be honest and trustworthy since they are exposed to large sums of money and other valuables in banks and offices. Servicemen also may collect money from customers for services and supplies. Beginners generally acquire skills through on-the-job training, work experience, and instruction in manu facturers’ schools. Some vocational and private correspondence schools conduct courses in business ma chine maintenance for trainees and others. In addition, programs to train unemployed and underem ployed workers as office machine servicemen were operating in sev eral cities in 1972 under the provi sions of the Manpower Develop ment and Training Act. Business machine servicemen who work in a manufacturer’s branch office learn to repair only the company’s line of machines. Trainees usually attend company schools from a few weeks to sever al months, depending on the type of machine they will service. They then receive from 1 to 3 years of practical experience and on-the-job training before they become fully qualified servicemen. Occasionally, they may return to factory schools for special instruction in new busi ness machine developments. Serv icemen are encouraged to broaden their technical knowledge during nonworking hours. Many com panies pay the serviceman’s tuition for work-related courses in college and technical schools. Business machine servicemen may move into sales positions for greater earnings. Servicemen who show exceptional abilities also may advance to foreman, service man ager, or supervisor. Experienced servicemen sometimes open their own repair shops; those who work in manufacturers’ branch offices sometimes become independent deal ers or purchase sales franchises from the company. Employment Outlook Employment of business ma chine servicemen is expected to grow very rapidly through the mid1980’s. In addition to jobs from employment growth, many open ings will arise as experienced serv icemen retire, die, or change occu pations. Business and governments will buy more machines to handle the growing volume of paperwork and more servicemen will be needed to maintain and repair these ma chines. In recent years, many tech nical changes have occurred in longestablished types of business ma chines. For example, electronic cal culating machines have replaced mechanical models. Because of the greater use of such equipment, op portunities will be particularly favorable for servicemen who have training in electronics. Business machine servicemen work year-round and have steadier employment than many other skilled workers. Office machines must be maintained, even when business slackens, since records must be kept, correspondence carried on, and statistical reports prepared. Earnings and Working Conditions Information obtained from a limited number of employers in 1972 indicated that experienced service men generally earned from $150 to $250 a week. Wages depend on geographic location, machine serv iced, and the length of employment. Wages generally were lowest for workers who repair only type writers, adding machines, calcula tors, cash registers, or dictating machines. Rates usually were high est for servicemen of accounting bookkeeping machines, postage and mailing machines, and complex duplicating and copying equipment. New trainees earn from $110 to $160 a week. As they become more skilled, their pay increases. People who have previous electronics train ing in the Armed Forces or civil ian technical schools generally re ceive somewhat higher beginning wages. In addition to salaries, service men in some companies receive com missions for selling supplies or serv ice contracts. Many employers pay all or part of life and hospitaliza tion insurance and pension plans. Servicing business machines is cleaner and lighter than the work in most other mechanical trades. Servicemen generally wear busi ness suits and do most of their work in the offices which own the machines. Injuries are uncommon. Some positions involve consider able traveling within the area served by the employer. Servicemen who use their own cars for company business are reimbursed on a mile age basis. Employers usually pay for all tools. Sources of Additional Information For more details about job op 426 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK portunities contact local firms that repair business machines and the local office of the State employment service. The State employment serv ice also may have information about the Manpower Development and Training Act and other training programs. COMPUTER SERVICE TEC H N IC IA N S (D.O.T. 828.281) Nature of the Work Computer systems play a vital role in today’s way of life. They help us make telephone calls, re ceive paychecks on time, and re serve tickets for travel, hotels, and entertainment. In business and in dustry, computer systems perform a wide variety of complicated tasks— from keeping business records to controlling manufacturing processes. A computer system is the combi nation of a computer and computerrelated machines, such as magnetic t a p e r e a d e r s a n d h ig h s p e e d p r in te r s . Keeping this intricate set of ma chines in good working order is the job of a highly qualified computer service technician. At regular intervals, technicians (sometimes called field engineers or customer engineers) service ma chines or systems to keep them operating efficiently. They routine ly adjust, oil, and clean mechanical and electro-mechanical parts. They also check electronic equipment for loose connections and defective components or circuits. Despite this regular care, how ever, computer equipment some times breaks down. Technicians must then find the cause of the failure and make necessary repairs. For example, they may replace a faulty circuit board, resolder a bro ken connection, or repair a mechan ical part. They must complete the job as quickly as possible, because working time lost during a comput er breakdown may cost a customer several hundred or even thousands of dollars an hour. Computer technicians often help install new equipment. They lay cables, hook up electrical connec tions between machines, thoroughly test the new equipment, and correct any problems before the customer uses the machine. Some technicians specialize in maintaining a particular computer model or system, or in doing a cer tain type of repair. For example, some technicians are experts in cor recting problems caused by errors in the computer’s internal program ming. Specialists usually have ad vanced training and several years of experience. To diagnose electronic failures, technicians must use several kinds of test equipment, including volt meters, ohmmeters, and oscillo scopes. They also run special com puter programs that help pinpoint some kinds of malfunctions. Tech nicians also use a variety of handtools such as needle-nosed pliers, wirestrippers, and soldering equip ment. The employer supplies tools and test equipment, but techni cians may be responsible for keep ing the equipment in working order. Besides knowing how to use spe cialized tools and test equipment, computer technicians must be fa miliar with technical and repair manuals for each piece of equip ment. They must keep up too with the technical information and re vised maintenance procedures is sued periodically by computer manu facturers. Technicians keep a record of pre ventive maintenance and repairs on each machine they service. In addition, they fill out time and ex pense reports, keep parts inven tories, and order parts. Although technicians spend most of their time working on machines, they work with people also. They listen to the customer’s complaints, answer questions, and sometime offer technical advice on ways to keep equipment in good condition. Experienced technicians help train new technicians, and sometimes have supervisory duties. Places off Employment In 1972, nearly all of the 45,000 computer service technicians em ployed worked in service depart ments of computer manufacturing firms. A small number worked for companies that sell computer main tenance services and for the Federal Government and other organiza tions that have large computer in stallations. A few women work in this occupation. Computer technicians work in all parts of the country, usually in urban areas where most computer equipment is located. Some tech nicians work full-time at a single installation, such as a large com puter center operated by a bank or insurance company. Others travel from place to place to maintain several different systems or to make emergency repairs. A technician with special training or experience may travel hundreds of miles from the home office to handle difficult repair jobs. Technicians who work for a nationwide organization must sometimes transfer to another city or State. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers require appli cants for technician trainee jobs to have 1 to 2 years’ post-high school OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN 427 training in basic electronics or elec trical engineering. This training may be from a computer school, a technical institute, a college, or a junior college. Basic electronics training offered by the Armed Forces is excellent preparation for technician trainees. A high school student interested in becoming a computer service technician should take courses in mathematics and physics. High school courses in electronics and computer programming also are helpful. Young people can also gain valuable experience through hobbies which involve electronics, such as operating ham radios or building stereo equipment. Training programs in electronic mechanics for unemployed workers were operated in several cities in 1972 under the Manpower Devel opment and Training Act. Grad study of electronics. Classroom work is accompanied by practical training in operating computer equipment, doing basic mainte nance, and using test equipment. In addition to formal instruc tion, trainees must complete 1 to 2 years of on-the-job training. At First they work closely with experi enced technicians, learning to main tain card readers, printers, and other machines that are relatively simple, but that have the basic mechanical and electronic features of a large computer system. As they gain experience trainees work on more complex equipment and make emergency repairs. Because manufacturers continu ally redesign equipment and develop new uses for computers, experienced technicians frequently must attend training sessions to keep up with these changes and to broaden their technical skills. Many technicians take advanced training to specialize in a particular computer system or type of repair. Instruction also may include programming, systems analysis, and other subjects that improve the technician’s general knowledge of the computer field. Experienced technicians with ad vanced training may become tech nical specialists who help techni cians make difficult repairs and work with engineers in designing equipment and developing mainte nance procedures. Those with lead ership ability may become super visors or service managers. Although advancement depends mainly on ability and experience, chances are improved if the tech nician has a bachelor’s degree in electrical engineering. Many tech nicians get their degrees at com pany expense. Engineers interested in professional careers in computer service work often start out as technicians. Most computer equipment oper uates of these programs may qualify for computer service trainee jobs. Besides technical training, appli cants for trainee jobs must have good close vision and normal color perception to work with small parts and color-coded wiring. Normal hearing is needed since some break downs are diagnosed by sound. Be cause technicians usually handle jobs alone, they must have the ini tiative to work without close super vision. Also important are a pleasant personality and neat appearance, since the work involves frequent contact with customers. Applicants must pass a physical examination and, in some cases, get a security clearance. Trainees usually attend company training centers for 3 to 6 months to learn elementary computer theory, computer math, and cir cuitry theory and to further their 428 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ates on the same basic principles, but machines built by different com panies may be unique in design and construction. For this reason, tech nicians may find it difficult to trans fer from one company to another. Technicians who transfer may lose seniority and need some retraining. Training and experience in com puter maintenance may also qualify a technician for jobs in program ming, systems analysis, manage ment, and equipment sales. (See statements on programmers, sys tems analysts, and office machine and computer manufacturing else where in the Handbook.) Employment Outlook Employment of computer tech nicians is expected to grow very rapidly through the mid-1980’s. As the Nation’s economy expands, more computer equipment will be used and more technicians needed to install and maintain it. Business, govern ment, and other organizations will buy or lease additional equipment to manage vast amounts of infor mation, control manufacturing proc esses, and aid in scientific research. The development of new uses for computers also will spur demand. Although most job openings will result from employment growth, many also will occur as experienced technicians advance to more re sponsible jobs or move into other occupations. Because most techni cians are young, relatively few open ings will stem from deaths and retirements. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for computer service technician trainees ranged from about $140 to $150 a week in 1972, based on the limited in formation available. Salaries for experienced technicians ranged from about $210 to $315 a week. The normal workweek is 40 hours, but technicians often work overtime and on weekends to make emergency repairs. Many techni cians work rotating shifts—days one week, nights the next. Employers provide group life and health insurance, retirement plans, sick leave, and other benefits. Va cations range from 1 to 4 weeks a year. Employers also pay for travel and work-related education ex penses. Although some bending and lift ing is necessary, the computer technician’s job is not strenuous. Work hazards are limited mainly to burns and electrical shock, and can be avoided if safety prac tices are followed. Sources of Additional Information General information on careers in computer maintenance is avail able from: American Federation of Information Processing Societies, Inc., 210 Summit Ave., Montvale, N.J. 07645. Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. The p e r s o n n e l a n d s e r v i c e de partments of computer manufac turers and other firms employing computer technicians can provide details on training and job op portunities. The State department of educa tion at each State’s capital can furnish information about approved technical institutes, junior colleges, and other institutions offering posthigh school training in basic elec tronics. Information about these schools also is available from: American Association of Junior Col leges, Suite 410, 1 Dupont Circle, Washington, D.C. 20036. Details on training programs in electronic mechanics operated under the Manpower Development and Training Act may be available from the nearest local office of the State employment service. DIESEL M ECHANICS (D.O.T. 625.281) Nature of the Work Diesel mechanics repair and maintain diesel engines that power transportation equipment, such as heavy trucks, buses, boats, and locomotives; and construction equipment, such as bulldozers and cranes. They also service diesel farm tractors and a variety of other diesel-powered equipment, such as compressors and pumps used in oilwell drilling rigs and irrigation. Before making repairs, diesel mechanics inspect and test engine components to determine why an engine is not operating properly. After locating the trouble, they re pair or replace defective parts and make necessary adjustments. Pre ventive maintenance—avoiding trouble before it starts—is another major r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . F o r e x a m p l e , they may periodically inspect, test, and adjust engine components. Many mechanics make all types of diesel engine repairs. Others spe cialize, for example, in rebuilding engines or in repairing fuel injec tion systems, turbochargers, cyl inder heads, or starting systems. Some also repair large natural gas engines used to power generators and other industrial equipment. Diesel mechanics’ job titles often indicate the type of equipment they repair. For example, those who re pair diesel engines in trucks may be called diesel truck mechanics. Those who work on construction equipment, such as bulldozers and earthmovers, are usually called heavy diesel-equipment mechanics. 429 OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN In addition to maintaining and re pairing engines, the mechanics listed above may work on other parts of diesel-powered equipment, such as brakes and transmissions. (See statement on truck mechanics and bus mechanics elsewhere in the Handbook.) Diesel mechanics use pliers, wrenches, screwdrivers, and other common handtools as well as spe cial tools, such as valve refacers and piston pin-fitting machines. In addition, they may use complex testing equipment, such as a dyna mometer to measure engine power, and special fuel injection testing equipment. Mechanics may also use machine tools to make replace ment parts. They use powered hoists and other equipment for lift ing and moving heavy parts. Places of Employment About 90,000 persons worked as diesel mechanics in 1972. Many work for distributors and dealers that sell diesel engines, farm and construction equipment, and trucks. Others work for buslines, construc tion firms, and government agen cies such as State highway depart ments. Some mechanics work for diesel engine manufacturers and independent repair shops that spe cialize in diesels. Diesel mechanics work in all parts of the country. Large num bers, however, are employed in California, New York, Illinois, and Texas—States where high levels of construction, industrial, and farm ing activity have resulted in the use of large numbers of diesel-powered machines. Diesel mechanic uses black light to check for oil leaks. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Diesel mechanics learn their skills in several different ways. Most begin by repairing gasolinepowered automobiles, trucks, and buses. They usually start as helpers to experienced gasoline engine mechanics, becoming skilled in 3 or 4 years. When employed by firms that use or repair diesel equipment, they receive 6 to 18 months of additional training in servicing this equipment. While learning to fix engines, many find it helpful to take courses in diesel equipment maintenance offered by vocational, trade, and correspond ence schools. Some mechanics, such as those employed by engine manufacturers, learn their trade through formal apprenticeship programs. These programs, which generally last 4 years, give trainees a combina tion of classroom training and practical experience. Apprentices receive classroom instruction in blueprint reading, hydraulics, weld ing, and other subjects. In their practical training, they learn about valves, bearings, injection systems, starting systems, cooling systems, and other parts of diesel engines. Still another method of entry is through full-time attendance at trade or technical schools that offer comprehensive training in diesel engine maintenance and repair. These programs generally last from several months to 2 years and pro vide practical experience and re lated classroom instruction. Grad uates, however, usually need additional on-the-job training be fore they become skilled mechanics. Training programs for diesel mechanics and others in occupa tions that involve diesel engine re pair were in operation in several cities in 1972 under the provisions of the Manpower Development and 430 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Training Act. Unemployed and underemployed workers who meet certain minimum requirements are eligible to apply for this training, which usually lasts at least 36 weeks. Experienced mechanics employed by companies that sell dieselpowered equipment are sometimes sent to special training classes conducted by engine manufacturers. In these classes, mechanics learn to maintain and repair the latest engines, using the most modern equipment. Employers prefer trainees and ap prenticeship applicants who have a high school education and me chanical ability. Shop courses in automobile repair and machine shop work, offered by many high schools and vocational schools, are helpful, as are courses in science and mathematics. Young people interested in becoming diesel mechanics should be in good physical condition because the work often requires lifting heavy parts. Many diesel mechanics have to buy their own handtools. Beginners are expected to accumulate tools as they gain experience. Experienced mechanics usually have several hundred dollars invested in their tools. Mechanics who work for organi zations that operate or repair large numbers of diesel engines, such as buslines or diesel equipment dis tributors, may advance to leadman and to a supervisory position, such as shop foreman or service manager. Employment Outlook Employment of diesel mechanics is expected to increase rapidly through the mid-1980’s. In addition to the jobs arising from employ ment growth, many openings will result from the need to replace experienced mechanics who trans fer to other occupations, retire, or die. Increased employment of me chanics is expected mainly be cause most industries that use diesel engines are expected to ex pand their activities in the years ahead. In addition, diesel engines will continue to replace gasoline en gines. For example, small delivery trucks powered by diesel engines are expected to be used increasingly in the future. Diesel-powered farm equip ment also will become more common. Most new job openings in this field will be Filled by mechanics who have experience in repairing gasoline engines. Companies that replace gasoline engine equipment with diesel-powered equipment usu ally retain their experience mechan ics. Persons who have school train ing in diesel repair, but no prac tical experience, may be able to find jobs only as trainees. are at least partially paid by their employers. Most larger repair shops are pleasant places in which to work, but some small shops have poor lighting, heating, and ventilation. Diesel mechanics sometimes make repairs outdoors where the break downs occur. If proper safety pre cautions are not taken, there is danger of injury when repairing heavy parts supported on jacks or hoists. In most jobs, mechanics handle greasy tools and engine parts. When making repairs, they sometime must stand or lie in awkward positions for extended periods. Many diesel mechanics belong to labor unions, such as the Inter national Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Amal gamated Transit Union; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Asso ciation; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Earnings and Working Conditions According to a survey covering metropolitan areas in 1972, me chanics employed by trucking com panies, buslines, and other firms that maintain their own vehicles had average hourly earnings rang ing from $4.29 to $5.29. Diesel mechanics usually work 40 to 48 hours a week. Many work at night or on weekends, partic ularly if they work on buses, en gines used in powerplants, or other diesel equipment used in serving the public. Some are subject to call for emergencies at any time. Mechanics generally receive a highter rate of pay when they work overtime, eve nings, or weekends. Many diesel mechanics receive paid vacations and holidays. In addition, they may receive health and life insurance benefits, which Sources of Additional Information Additional information about work opportunities in this trade may be available from the local office of the State employment service. The State employment ser vice also may have information about the Manpower Development and Training Act, apprenticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. Other sources of information are firms that use or service diesel-powered equip ment, such as truck and bus lines, truck dealers, and construction and farm equipment dealers. Unions listed below may be contacted for information on work and training opportunities or for the names and addresses of local unions that can provide such information: OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers, 1300 Con necticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Sheet Metal Workers’ International Asso ciation, 1000 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. DISPENSING OPTICIANS AND OPTICAL MECHANICS (D.O.T. 713.251, .381,.884, and 299.884) Nature of the Work Dispensing opticians and optical mechanics (also called optical laboratory technicians) make and fit eyeglasses prescribed by phy sicians and optometrists. Dis pensing opticians adjust finished glasses to fit the customer. In some States, they also fit contact lenses. Optical mechanics grind and polish lenses according to prescriptions and assemble lenses in frames. Occasionally, the jobs of dispensing optician and optical mechanic are combined. Dispensing opticians determine where lenses should be placed in relation to the customer’s eyes by measuring the distance between the centers of the pupils. They also as sist the customer in selecting the proper eyeglass frame by measuring the customer’s facial features and showing the various styles and colors of frames. Dispensing opticians prepare work orders that give optical me chanics the information they need to interpret prescriptions properly, grind the lenses, and insert them in a frame. The work orders include lens prescriptions; information on lens size, tint (where appropriate), and optical centering; and frame size, color, and style. After glasses 431 are made, dispensing opticians ad just the frame to the contours of the customer’s face and head so that it fits properly and comfort ably. Adjustments are made with handtools, such as optical pliers, files, and screwdrivers. A special instrument is used to check the power and surface quality of the lenses. In some shops, dispensing opticians grind and finish lenses, and sell other optical goods such as binoculars and nonprescription sunglasses. In fitting contact lenses, dis pensing opticians follow physi cians’ or optometrists’ prescrip tions, measure the corneas of cus tomers’ eyes and then prepare specifications to be followed by the lens manufacturers. Contact lens fitting requires considerably more skill, care, and patience than con ventional eyeglass fitting. Dispen sing opticians tell customers how to insert, remove, and care for contact lenses during the initial adjustment period, which may last several weeks. Physicians or optometrists recheck their fit, as needed. Opticians may make minor adjust ments; lenses are returned to the manufacturer for major changes. Optical mechanics make pre scription glasses but not contact lenses. The two types of optical mechanics are surfacer (or lens grinder) and benchman (or finisher). Starting with standard size lens blanks, which large optical firms mass-produce, surfacers lay out the work and grind and polish the lens surfaces. Surfacers use precision instruments to measure the lenses and assure that they fit the pre scription. In small laboratories, one person may do these operations and benchwork too. In large labora tories, work is divided into separate operations which are performed mainly by workers who operate power grinding and polishing machines. Optician checks lenses. Benchmen mark and cut lenses and smooth their edges to fit frames. They then assemble the lenses and frame parts into finished glasses. In large laboratories, these duties are divided into several operations which are performed mainly by' semiskilled workers. Benchmen use special tools, such as lens cutters and glass drills, as well as small files, pliers, and other handtools. They also use automatic edging machines to shape lens edges, and precision instruments to detect imperfections. Places of Employment About 12,000 persons worked as dispensing opticians in 1972, and an additional 16,000 worked as optical mechanics. A few thousand women were in these trades—most as op ticians. Most dispensing opticians work for retail optical shops or depart ment stores and other retail stores that sell prescription lenses. Many 432 also work for eye physicians or optometrists who sell glasses directly to patients. A small num ber work in hospitals and in pre scription departments of wholesale optical laboratories. Most optical mechanics work in wholesale optical laboratories. The remainder work for the same types of employers as dispensing op ticians. Many dispensing opticians and mechanics are proprietors of retail optical shops. Jobs in these fields are found in every State. However, employment is concentrated in large cities and in populous States. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most optical mechanics and dis pensing opticians learn their skills on the job. On-the-job training in dispensing work may last several years and usually includes instruc tion in optical mathematics, optical physics, and the use of precision measuring instruments. Optical mechanic trainees do simple jobs such as processing lenses through a grinding machine. As they gain experience, they pro gress to other operations such as lens cutting and eyeglass assembly. When the trainees have acquired ex perience in all types of work, which usually takes about 3 years, they are considered all-round optical mechanics. Some mechanics spe cialize in one type of job, such as surfacing or bench work. The train ing time required to become a spe cialist is less than that needed to become an all-round mechanic. High school graduates also can prepare for both optical dispensing and mechanical work through 3- to 4-year formal apprenticeship pro grams. Apprentices with excep tional ability may complete their OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK training in a shorter period. Most training authorities agree that mechanics and opticians who learn as apprentices have more job oppor tunities and more opportunities for advancement than those without such training. Formal institutional training for the optician and optical mechanic is becoming more common. In 1972, seven schools offered 2-year full-time courses in optical fabri cating and dispensing work leading to an associate degree. In addition, a number of vocational schools offered 9-month full-time optical mechanic courses. Graduates from such schools often work for retail optical stores to receive additional on-the-job training. Large manu facturers of contact lenses offer nondegree courses in lens-fitting that usually last a few weeks. A small number of opticians and mechanics learn their trades in the Armed Forces. Employers prefer applicants for entry jobs as opticians and optical mechanics to be high school gradu ates who have had courses in the basic sciences. A knowledge of phy sics, algebra, geometry, and mechan ical drawing is particularly valuable. The interest and ability to do preci sion work are essential. Because op ticians deal directly with the public, They should be tactful and have pleasant personalities. The 1972, 17 States had licensing requirements governing dispensing opticians: Arizona, California, Con necticut, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii Kentucky, Massachusetts, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Rhode Island, South Caro lina, Tennessee, Virginia, and Washington. Some of these States also require licenses for optical me chanics in retail optical shops. Some States permit dispensing opticians to fit contact lenses. To obtain a license, the applicant generally must meet certain minimum standards of education and training, and must also pass either a written or prac tical examination, or both. For specific requirements, the licensing boards of individual States should be consulted. Optical mechanics can become supervisors, foremen, and managers. Many of them have become dis pensing opticians, although the trend is to train specifically for optician jobs. Workers in both occupations, especially those having all-round training in both shop and dispensing work, have opportunities to go into business. Opticians also may manage retail optical stores or sell eyeglasses or lenses for wholesalers or manufacturers. Employment Outlook Employment of dispensing op ticians and optical mechanics is ex pected to increase very rapidly through the mid-1980’s. In addition to job openings resulting from em ployment growth, some openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Demand for prescription lenses is expected to increase as a result of population growth, rising literacy and educational levels, and a large increase in the number of older persons (a group most likely to need glasses). State programs to pro vide eye care for low-income families, union health insurance plans, and medicare also will stimu late demand. Moreover, the grow ing variety of frame styles and colors may encourage individuals to buy more than one pair of glasses. Growth in the demand for pre scription lenses will increase em ployment opportunities both for dispensing opticians and op tical mechanics. However, due to more efficient methods of making OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN lenses, mechanic employment will not increase as rapidly as optician employment. Earnings and Working Conditions Hourly wage rates for optical mechanics ranged from $3.10 to $5.54 in 1972, based on information from a small number of union con tracts. Dispensing opticians gen erally earn about 15 to 25 percent more than mechanics. Apprentices start at about 60 percent of the skilled worker’s rate; their wages are increased periodi cally so that upon completion of the apprenticeship program, they receive the beginning rate for journeymen. Optical mechanics at wholesale establishments usually have a 5-day, 40-hour week. Dispensing opticians and mechanics at retail shops gen erally work a 5Vi- or 6-day week. Work surroundings of the optical mechanic are pleasant, well-lighted, and well-ventilated, but noisy be cause of the power-grinding and polishing machines. Physically handicapped persons who have full use of their eyes and hands can perform some of the more specialized jobs in the larger firms. Some optical mechanics and dis pensing opticians are members of unions. Most belong to the Inter national Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers (AFL-CIO). Sources of Additional Information A list of schools offering courses for people who wish to become dis pensing opticians or optical mechan ics may be obtained from: Associated Opticians of America, 1250 Connecticut Ave. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20036. General information about these occupations may be obtained from: 433 American Board of Opticianry, 821 Eggert Rd„ Buffalo, N.Y. 14226. International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Optical Wholesalers Association, 6935 Wisconsin Ave., Washington, D.C. 20015. ELECTRIC SIGN SERVICEMEN changing the color of tubing, or raising the height of a sign. Servicemen use handtools and power tools, such as screwdrivers and electric drills, and test devices such as voltmeters. Their trucks are equipped with ladders and boom cranes. Servicemen usually must fill out reports by noting the date, place, and nature of service calls. They also may estimate the cost of serv ice calls and sell maintenance con tracts to sign owners. (D.O.T. 824.281) Places of Employment Nature of the Work Electric sign servicemen main tain and repair hundreds of thou sands of neon and illuminated plas tic signs that advertise products and businesses. Some also assemble and install signs. Servicemen diagnose trouble in faulty signs. Minor repairs, such as burned out lamps, are made at sign locations; major overhaul of faulty components, such as a motor, are made in sign shops. In repairing neon signs, service men repaint portions of neon tubing to increase its readability, tighten or weld parts loosened by high winds or dented during erection, and re pair small cracks in the face of signs. They also paint beams, col umns, and other exterior frame work. When replacing burned out parts in illuminated plastic signs, servicemen may refer to wiring diagrams and charts. Electric sign servicemen also do preventive maintenance. They check signs and remove such things as birds’ nests and accumulated water. Also, motors, gears, bearings, and other parts of revolving signs may be checked, adjusted, and lubri cated. Servicemen sometimes sug gest ways to increase the attractive ness and visibility of signs, such as About 8,000 persons worked as electric sign servicemen in 1972, primarily in small shops that manu facture, install, and service elec tric signs. Some servicemen also worked for independent sign repair shops. Electric sign servicemen work in every State. However, employ ment is concentrated in large cities and in populous States. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most electric sign servicemen are hired as trainees and learn their trade informally on the job. They rotate through the various phases of signmaking to obtain a general knowledge of tasks—such as cutting and assembling metal and plastic signs; mounting neon tubing; wiring signs; and installing electrical parts. At least 3 years on the job are required to become a fully quali fied serviceman. Some servicemen learn their trade through electricians’ appren tice programs which last from 3 to 5 years and specialize in signmak ing and repairing. Included are onthe-job training and classroom in struction in fields such as electrical theory and blueprint reading. Ap- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 434 rapidly through the mid-1980’s. In addition to jobs from employment growth, some openings will arise as experienced servicemen retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. A rapid increase in the number of signs in use will spur demand for electric sign servicemen. More signs will be needed as new busi nesses open and old ones expand and modernize their facilities. Signs already in use also will continue to require maintenance. Employment, however, will not increase as rapidly as the number of signs in use. New equipment, such as more versatile boom and ladder trucks, will speed servicing. Pressure cleaning equip ment will be substituted for manual methods to increase efficiency. Earnings and Working Conditions Electric sign serviceman installs lamps in illuminated plastic sign. plicants generally must be be tween 18 and 25 and have mechan ical aptitude and an interest in electricity. Employers prefer to hire high school or vocational school grad uates, although many sign service men have less education. Mathe matics, science, electricity, and blueprint reading are helpful to young people who are interested in learning this trade. Servicemen need good color vi sion because electric wires are fre quently identified by color. They also need manual dexterity to handle tools and physical strength to lift transformers, and other heavy equipment. All electric sign servicemen must be familiar with the National Elec tric Codes; some also must know local electric codes. Many cities require servicemen to be licensed. Licenses can be obtained by pass ing an examination in electrical theory and its application. Electric sign servicemen generally purchase their own handtools which may cost up to $100, but employers usually furnish power tools. Highly skilled servicemen may become foremen. Because of their experience in servicing signs and dealing with customers, servicemen sometimes become sign salesmen. Also, servicemen with sufficient funds can open their own sign manu facturing or repair shops. Employment Outlook Employment of electric sign ser vicemen is expected to increase very The earnings of electric sign servicemen compare favorably with those of other skilled workers. Hourly wage rates of experienced electric sign servicemen ranged from $2.76 to $7.80 in 1972, according to a survey of union wages and fringe benefits covering 93 cities. In more than two-thirds of these cities, hourly rates ranged between $4.50 and $6.50. Apprentice rates usually start at about half the journeyman’s hourly wage rate and increase every 6 months, to about 90 percent of the journeyman’s rate during the final year of apprenticeship. Most electric sign servicemen work an 8-hour day, 5 days a week, and receive premium pay for over time. They also may receive extra pay for working at heights in excess of 30 feet. Typically, servicemen receive 1 or 2 weeks of vacation with pay, depending on the length of service, and from 6 to 9 paid holidays a year. In addition, many employers pay part or all of the cost of life, health, and accident insur ance; some also contribute to retire OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN 435 ment plans. When uniforms are re quired, the cost usually is partly or entirely paid for by the employer. Because most signs are out-ofdoors, servicemen are exposed to all kinds of weather. They make emergency repairs at night, on weekends, and on holidays. Some patrol areas at night for improperly operating signs. Hazards include electrical shock, burns, and falls from high places. Safety belts, train ing programs emphasizing safety, and baskets on boom trucks for easy access to signs have reduced the frequency of accidents. may specialize in repairing certain types of equipment such as hay balers. Some mechanics also repair plumbing, electrical, irrigation, and other equipment on farms. Mechanics use many simple handtools including wrenches, pliers, hammers, and micrometers. They also may use more complex testing equipment, such as a dynamometer to measure engine performance, or a compression tester to Find worn piston rings or leaking cylinder valves. They may use welding equip ment or power metalworking tools to repair broken parts. chinery for farm equipment dealers or wholesalers. Sometimes, they repair dented and torn sheet metal on farm equipment. Mechanics spend much of their time repairing and adjusting mal functioning diesel- and gas-powered tractors which have been brought to the shop. During planting or har vesting seasons, however, the me chanic may travel to the farm to make emergency repairs so that crops can be harvested before they spoil. Mechanics also perform preven tive maintenance. Periodically, they test and clean parts and tune en gines. In large shops, mechanics Sources of Additional Information may specialize in certain types of For further information on work work, such as engine overhaul or opportunities for electric sign serv clutch and brake repair. They also icemen contact local sign manu facturing shops, the local office of the State employment service, or locals of the International Brother hood of Electrical Workers. Additional information on job opportunities, wages, and the na ture of the work may be obtained from: Places of Employment Most of the estimated 47,000 farm equipment mechanics in 1972 National Electric Sign Association, 600 Hunter Dr., Oak Brook, 111. 60521. FARM EQUIPMENT MECHANICS (D.O.T. 624.281) Nature of the Work Farm equipment mechanics serv ice most of the equipment used to plant, cultivate, and harvest food. These craftsmen maintain all types of farm machinery, including trac tors, combines, hay balers, corn pickers, crop dryers, elevators, and conveyors. In addition, they may assemble new implements and ma Farm equipment mechanic assembles transmission shaft of tractor. 436 worked in service departments of farm equipment dealers. Other mechanics worked in independent repair shops, in shops on large farms, and in service departments of farm equipment wholesalers and manufacturers. Most farm equip ment repair shops employed fewer than five mechanics, although a few dealerships employed more than ten. Farm equipment mechanics work in all parts of the country. Most, however, are employed in states where agricultural activity is heaviest. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most farm equipment mechanics are hired as helpers, and learn the trade on the job by assisting quali fied mechanics. The length of train ing varies with the helper’s aptitude and prior experience. At least 3 years of on-the-job training usually are necessary in order to become a qualified mechanic. A few mechanics learn the trade by completing an apprenticeship program which lasts from 3 to 4 years and includes on-the-job, as well as classroom training in all phases of farm equipment mainte nance. Applicants for these pro grams usually are chosen from shop helpers. A small number of farm equip ment mechanics have received train ing in programs approved under the provisions of the Manpower Development and Training Act. Typically, these programs last from 29 to 56 weeks and include basic electricity, transmissions, welding, hydraulics, and diesel engines. Trainees who complete these pro grams make simple repairs and can qualify as skilled mechanics after some on-the-job experience. Some farm equipment mechanics and trainees receive refresher train OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ing in short-term programs con ducted by farm equipment manu facturers. These programs usually last several days. A company rep resentative explains the design and function of equipment, and teaches maintenance and repair on new models of farm equipment. Employers prefer applicants who have a farm background and an aptitude for mechanical work. Em ployers also prefer high school grad uates, but some will hire young persons who have less education. In general, employers stress pre vious experience or training in diesel and gasoline engines, hy draulics, and welding—subjects that may be learned in high schools and vocational schools. Young persons considering ca reers as farm equipment mechanics should have the strength and man ual dexterity to handle tools and equipment. They should also be able to work independently with mini mum supervision. Farm equipment mechanics may advance to shop foreman, partic ularly if they attend manufacturersponsored training sessions. Some open their own repair shops. Employment Outlook Employment of farm equipment mechanics is expected to increase slowly through the mid-1980’s. In addition to jobs from employment growth, several hundred openings will arise each year as experienced mechanics retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. An anticipated decline in the number of farms and the increas ing reliability of farm machinery are expected to limit the demand for farm equipment mechanics. These limiting factors will be par tially offset, however, by increases in farm mechanization, and the greater use of specialized farm equipment such as the tomato har vester. Futhermore, farm operators will find it more economical to have their machinery serviced on a reg ular basis as farms become larger. Earnings and Working Conditions Average hourly wages of farm equipment mechanics ranged from $3 to $4.50 in 1972, based on the limited information available. Farm equipment mechanics usu ally work a 44-hour week, which includes 4 hours on Saturday. Dur ing planting and harvesting seasons, however, they often work 6 to 7 days each week, 10 to 12 hours daily. In winter months, they may work fewer than 40 hours a week. Many mechanics receive from 1 to 2 weeks of paid vacation and 7 paid holidays each year. Large shops usually provide health plans and sometimes retirement plans. Mechanics often travel many miles to repair equipment in the field, and are exposed to all kinds of weather. They come in contact with grease, gasoline, rust, and dirt, and there is danger of injury when they repair heavy parts supported on jacks or by hoists. Engine burns and cuts from sharp edges of farm implements also are possible. Farm equipment mechanics, however, have the opportunity to live and work in rural areas. They also are able to gain satisfaction from see ing the results of their labor. The few farm equipment mechan ics who belong to labor unions are members of the International Asso ciation of Machinists and Aero space Workers. Sources of Additional Information Details about work opportunities may be obtained from local farm equipment dealers and local offices of the State employment service. OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN 437 The State employment service of fice also may have information about the Manpower Development and Training Act and other train ing programs. General information about the occupation can be ob tained from: Farm and Industrial Equipment Insti tute, 850 Wrigley Building N ., 410 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. National Farm and Power Equipment Dealers Association, 2340 Hampton Ave., St. Louis, Mo. 63139. INDUSTRIAL MACHINERY REPAIRMEN (D.O.T. 626. through 631.) Nature off the Work The great variety of machinery and equipment used throughout American industry is kept in good operating condition by industrial machinery repairmen—often called maintenance mechanics. These skilled workers maintain and repair ma chinery and other mechanical equip ment used in many kinds of fac tories. When breakdowns occur, repairmen must quickly find the causes of trouble and make repairs because delays can interrupt the factory’s production. Repairmen spend much time doing preventive maintenance. By regu larly inspecting the equipment, oil ing and greasing machines, and cleaning parts, they prevent trouble which could cause breakdowns later. They also may keep maintenance records of the equipment serviced. The types of machinery serv iced by repairmen depend on the industry. For example, in the ap parel industry, they may repair belts, adjust treadles, or replace motor bearings in industrial sewing machines. In printing plants, repair men maintain the presses. Repairmen often follow blue prints, lubrication charts, and en gineering specifications in main taining and repairing equipment. They also may use catalogs to order replacements for broken or defec tive parts. When parts are not readily available, or when a ma chine must be quickly returned to production, repairmen may sketch a part that can be fabricated by the plant’s machine shop. Industrial machinery repairmen use wrenches, screwdrivers, pliers, and other handtools, as well as portable power tools. They also may use welding equipment in re pairing broken metal parts. amounts of machinery. However, many of the 430,000 repairmen em ployed in 1972 worked in the fol lowing industries: food products, primary metals, machinery, chem icals, fabricated metal products, and transportation equipment. Many re pairmen also were employed in the paper and rubber industries. Because industrial machinery repairmen work in a wide variety of plants, they are employed in every section of the country. The largest numbers of these workers are found in New York, Pennsyl vania, California, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, New Jersey, Massachu setts, and other heavily industrial ized States. Places of Employment Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Repairmen work in almost every industrial plant that uses large Most workers who become in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 438 dustrial machinery repairmen start as helpers and pick up the skills of the trade informally, through several years of experience. Others learn the trade through formal ap prenticeship programs. Apprentice ship training usually lasts 4 years and consists of both on-the-job training and related classroom (or correspondence school) instruction in subjects such as shop mathema tics, blueprint reading, and welding. Mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity are important qualifica tions for workers in this trade. Good physical condition and agility also are necessary because repair men sometimes have to lift heavy objects or do considerable climb ing in order to reach equipment located high above the floor. High school courses in mechani cal drawing, mathematics, and blue print reading are recommended for those interested in entering this trade. Employment Outlook Employment of industrial ma chinery repairmen is expected to increase rapidly through the mid1980’s. In addition to jobs that be come available from employment growth, many openings will result from the need to replace experi enced repairmen who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. More repairmen will be needed to take care of the growing amount of machinery used in manufacturing. In addition, as automatic equip ment and continuous production lines become more widespread, re pair work and preventive mainte nance will become more essential. Earnings and Working Conditions Average hourly earnings of in dustrial machinery repairmen in manufacturing industries in 13 met ropolitan areas that were surveyed in 1972— are shown in the follow 73 ing tabulation: Metropolitan area Hourly rate Baltimore ..................................... Boston ............................................ Chicago ......................................... Detroit ............................................ Houston ......................................... Miami ............................................ Minneapolis-St. Paul .................. New York ..................................... Phoenix ......................................... Pittsburgh ..................................... San Francisco-Oakland ............. Seattle-Everett ............................. South Bend ................................... $5.10 4.70 5.07 5.88 3.96 4.86 4.94 4.91 5.01 4.89 5.69 5.39 4.60 Apprentices usually begin at 50 percent of the journeyman rate and receive periodic increases until that rate is reached. Industrial machinery repairmen are not usually affected by seasonal changes in production. During slack periods, when some plant workers are laid off, repairmen are often retained. Many companies have repairmen do major overhaul jobs during such periods. In emergencies, industrial ma chinery repairmen may be called to the plant during off-duty hours. In some factories, repairmen may work nights and weekends. Repairmen may work in stooped or cramped positions in limited space or from the tops of ladders, and are subject to common shop injuries such as cuts and bruises. Accidents have been reduced, how ever, by the use of goggles, metaltip shoes, safety helmets, and other protective devices. Most industrial machinery repair men belong to labor unions. Some of the unions in this field are the United Steelworkers of America; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agri cultural Implement Workers of America; the International Asso ciation of Machinists and Aero space Workers; and the Interna tional Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers. Most union contracts provide for paid holidays and vacations, health and life in surance, retirement pensions, and other fringe benefits. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment opportunities in this field may be available from local offices of the State employment service. INSTRUMENT REPAIRMEN (D.O.T. 710.131, 710.281, 729.281, 823.281, and 828.281) Nature of the Work Instrument repairmen service instruments that are used to meas ure, record, analyze, and control product output in nearly all areas of research and industry. Most repairmen service a variety of instru ments; others specialize in electronic, hydraulic, or pneumatic instruments. Some repairmen install and test new instruments and advise operators on how to use and care for them. Instrument repairmen perform preventive maintenance by correct ing weakened or defective parts that might break down and cause production losses. They also clean, lubricate, and adjust instruments. When an instrument-controlled system is not working correctly, repairmen determine whether the trouble is caused by the instrument or by other equipment. They may take apart faulty instruments and examine and test the parts for de fects. They use testing equipment, such as pressure and vacuum gauges, speed counters, voltmeters, am meters, and oscilloscopes. Readings shown on test equipment are com pared with readings that would be 439 OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN shown if the instruments were oper ating properly. Repairmen work at the site of trouble or in repair shops. They may perform major overhauls, re place worn or damaged parts, or make minor repairs, such as re soldering loose connections. They use handtools such as screwdrivers and wrenches, and bench tools such as jeweler’s lathes, pin vises, and ultrasonic cleaners for small metal parts. In some companies, they operate drill presses, polishers, and other machine tools to make new parts or to change standard parts to fit particular instruments. When an instrument must be set very pre cisely, they may use jeweler’s loupes, micrometers, or micro scopes. Repairmen frequently use instruction books, maintenance manuals, diagrams, and blueprints. Places of Employment More than 100,000 persons worked as instrument repairmen in 1972. Most of them worked for gas and electric utilities, petroleum and chemical plants, and manufacturers of instruments and industrial con trols. Large numbers of instrument repairmen also worked for airlines and manufacturers of pulp and pa per, metals, rubber, aircraft and missiles, and automobiles. A few thousand worked for Federal agen cies, mainly the Air Force, Navy, and Army. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement At least 4 years of on-the-job training and study are usually re quired in order to become an instru Instrument repairman uses hand tools for final adjustments. ment repairmen. However, training time depends upon individual ability, previous experience and training, and complexity of the instruments serviced. Instrument repairmen generally are selected from production em ployees or hired as trainees. They may learn their trade informally on the job or through formal ap prenticeship. Apprenticeship pro grams generally last 4 years and, in addition to work experience, may include instrumentation theory, mathematics, blueprint reading, physics, electronics, and chemistry. These courses may be taken by cor respondence or at local schools. Some people train for instrument repair work in technical institutes and junior colleges. Programs of fered by these schools usually last 2 years and emphasize basic engi neering courses, science, and mathe matics. As instruments become more complex, technical school train ing will become more important and young people with this kind of train ing will have better advancement opportunities. Armed Forces technical schools also offer training in instrument servicing. Skills acquired in this way may help a person qualify for a civilian job as an instrument repair man. A small number of unemployed and underemployed workers receive training in general instrument repair or in specialized electronic instruments under the Manpower Development and Training Act. Several instrument manufacturers offer specialized training to experi enced repairmen employed by their customers. This training generally lasts from 1 week to 9 months, de pending upon the number and com plexity of the instruments. Courses are given in theory, maintenance, and operation of the instruments produced by these manufacturers. Instrument repairmen also keep up 440 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK with new developments in their field by reading trade magazines and manufacturers’ service manuals. Trainees or apprentices generally must be high school graduates. Courses in algebra, trigonometry, physics, chemistry, electronics, machine shop, and blueprint read ing are considered particularly use ful. Some employers give tests to applicants to determine their me chanical aptitude. Good eye-hand coordination and finger dexterity are needed to handle delicate parts. The ability to work without close supervision also is important. Build ing and maintaining a ham radio station or a stereo is good experience for an individual planning to be come an instrument repairman, at least for electronic instrumentation. Instrument repairmen having supervisory ability may become foremen in maintenance and repair departments. Some may advance to positions as service representatives for instrument manufacturers. A few instrument repairmen become engineering assistants. A basic knowledge of electronics increases advancement possibilities because of the growing use of electronic cir cuitry in instruments. Employment Outlook Employment of instrument re pairmen is expected to increase rapidly through the mid-1980’s. In addition to jobs due to growth, a few thousand openings will result annually from the need to replace experienced repairmen who retire, die, or transfer to other occupa tions. Additional instrument repairmen will be needed because the use of instruments is expected to increase, particularly in areas such as ocean ography, pollution monitoring, and medical diagnosis. Industrial instru ments for process control in indus tries such as petroleum, steel, chemicals, food, and rubber also are expected to increase substan tially. In addition, more instruments will be needed for research labora tories, aircraft and missiles, auto motive repair shops, and optical ap plications. The anticipated U.S. conversion to international units of measure will require altering and recalibrating instruments to the metric system. This conversion will largely be done by instrument repairmen. Earnings and Working Conditions Several union contracts in the paper and petroleum industries in dicated that many instrument re pairmen received between $3.81 and $5.29 an hour in 1972. Those spe cializing in the repair of electronic instruments often receive higher wages. Instrument repairmen em ployed by Federal agencies receive about the same rates as those in private industry. Most instrument repairmen work a 40-hour, 5-day week. Those em ployed in plants that operate around-the-clock may work on any of three shifts or rotate among shifts. Repairmen also may be called to work with emergency crews nights, Sundays, and holi days. They receive premium pay for night and holiday work, and most companies provide holiday and vacation pay. Many companies provide additional employee bene fits, such as health and life in surance and retirement pensions. Work settings for instrument re pairmen vary from factory floors amid noise, heat, and fumes to quiet, clean well-lighted shops.In some industries, such as chemicals, petroleum, and steel, repairmen may have to work outdoors. Those em ployed by instrument manufacturers may travel frequently. Many instrument repairmen be long to unions, including the Inter national Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; Interna tional Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; International Brotherhood of Pulp, Sulphite and Paper Mill Workers; International Chemical Workers Union; International Union of Electrical, Radio and Ma chine Workers; International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; Oil, Chemical and Atom ic Workers International Union; United Steelworkers of America; and Utility Workers Union of America. Sources of Additional Information The local office of the State em ployment service may be a source of information about the Manpower Development and Training Act, apprenticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities for persons who wish to enter this occupation. Additonal information about training and employment op portunities is available from: Instrument Society of America, 400 Stanwix St., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15222. Scientific Apparatus Makers Associa tion, 1140 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Inquiries concerning positions with the Federal Government should be made at the regional offices of the U.S. Civil Service Commission. JEWELERS (D.O.T. 700.281 and .381) Nature of the Work Jewelers make rings, pins, neck laces, and other precious jewelry. These craftsmen also may do repair 441 OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN work such as enlarging and reduc ing rings, resetting stones, and soldering broken parts. The jew eler’s work is very delicate and must be done with care and preci sion because materials usually are expensive. Jewelers follow either their own designs or those created by de signers. They outline the design on metal such as gold or silver, and then cut, fit, and shape each part. After polishing, they solder parts together to form the finished piece. Jewelers then carve designs in the metal and mount rubies, opals, or other stones. When doing very precise work, they use a magnifying glass or eye “loupe.” As a rule, jewelers specialize in a particular kind of jewelry, or in a particular operation, such as model making, designing, polish ing, or stone setting. With years of experience some develop all round skills and are capable of making and repairing any kind of jewelry. Costume jewelry and some kinds of precious jewelry are mass- produced by factory workers using assembly line methods. The metal usually is melted and cast in a mold or shaped with a die. Skilled jewelers are needed, however, to perform finishing operations, such as engraving and stone setting. Many jewelers own jewelry stores or shops that make and repair jewelry. In addition to working on jewelry, these small businessmen hire employees, order and sell merchandise, and handle other managerial duties. Places of Employment About half of the 18,000 jewelers employed in 1972 owned retail jewelry stores and repair shops. The remainder worked in jewelry stores, repair shops, and factories. Nearly one-half of all precious jewelry factories are located in New York, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and California. The New York City metropolitan area is the center of precious jewelry manufacturing. The jeweler’s work is very delicate. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Jewelers’ skills can be learned through informal on-the-job train ing or formal apprenticeship pro grams. Beginners usually can qualify as jewelry repairmen after about a year on the job. Depending on the particular skill to be learned, ap prenticeship programs for jewelry makers usually take from 3 to 4 years. For example, 3 years are required in order to become a colored-stone setter and 4 years to qualify as a diamond setter. Apprenticeship programs include on-the-job training as well as class room instruction in design, quality of precious stones, chemistry of metals, and related subjects. Jewelry factories offer the best opportunities for a young person to acquire all-round skills. Repair shops also offer training opportu nities, but their small size—many employ only one or two persons— limits the number of trainees. A high school education is desir able for young people entering the trade. Courses in chemistry, me chanical drawing, and art are particularly useful. A small num ber of trade schools offer courses in jewelry repair. The precise and delicate nature of jewelry work requires finger and hand dexterity, good eye-hand co ordination, patience, and concen tration. People working with precious stones and metals must be bonded and investigated for honesty, trustworthiness, and re spect for the law. In manufacturing, jewelry work ers can advance to foremen; in stores, they may become managers. Some jewelers open their own jewelry stores or repair shops. A substantial financial investment is required in order to open a jewelry store, and the field is high ly competitive. Jewelers who plan 442 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK O c c u p a tio n Jewelers—handmade work ................................. Modelmakers ......................................................... Stone setters: Diamonds— handmade work .......................... production ................................... Colored stones— handmade work .................. production .......................... Engravers ............................................................... Polishers ............................ .................................... Toolmakers ............................................................. to open their own stores should have experience in selling jewelry. Those who can repair watches have an advantage, since watch repairs account for much of the business in small stores. Employment Outlook Employment of jewelers is ex pected to show little or no change through the mid-1980’s. However, several hundred job openings will occur each year as experienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. The demand for jewelry will in crease as population grows, and as rising incomes encourage people to spend more on luxuries. Most of the demand, however, will be for cos tume jewelry. Since most costume articles are mass-produced by semi skilled factory workers and are seldom worth repairing, the de mand for jewelers is not expected to grow significantly. Earnings and Working Conditions According to limited information available, weekly earnings of ex perienced jewelers ranged from $175 to $250 a week in 1972 in jewelry stores and repair shops. Beginners earned about $125 a week. Those in business for themselves earned much more. Most jewelers in stores and repair shops work 40 to 48 hours a week. A union contract covering several A v e r a g e h o u rly ea rn in g s M in im u m h o u rly j o b ra te LOCKSMITHS $6.00-6.50 7 .5 0 -8 .0 0 $4.50 4.55 (D.O.T. 709.281) 6 .5 0 -7 .0 0 6 .0 0 -6 .5 0 6 .0 0 -6 .5 0 6.00 5.00 5.00 6.50 4.75 4.50 4.20 4.05 4.00 4.00 4.55 Nature of the Work New York City jewelry factories in 1972 provided the minimum hourly rates shown in the accom panying table for workers in various jobs. Average hourly rates also are shown. Under this contract, employees have a 35-hour workweek and are paid time and one-half for all work done before or after the regular workday. Jewelry work is sometimes rec ommended for the physically handi capped since the employee is seated and exerts little energy. Sources of Additional Information Information on job opportunities in jewelry stores may be obtained from: Retail Jewelers of America, Inc., 1025 Ver mont Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Information on opportunities in jewelry manufacturing may be ob tained from: Manufacturing Jewelers and Silver smiths of America, Inc., Sheraton-Biltmore Hotel, Room S-75, Providence, R.I. 02902. Locksmithing is an ancient trade— so old, in fact, that archeol ogists have found evidence of keyoperated wooden locks made for Egyptian royalty as early as 2000 B.C. For many centuries, the lock smith’s talents were available to only a relatively few who could af ford the locks of the day, some times elaborate, if none too fool proof. In 1861, the pin tumbler lock was invented and a mass-production method developed that made these locks nearly as common as doors themselves. The locksmith came into demand as never before. Today’s locksmiths spend much of their time helping people who have locked themselves out of their cars, homes, and businesses. If the key has been left inside the car or house, for example, they may simply pick the lock. If, on the other hand, the keys are lost, new ones must be made. To do this, the locksmith will first try to obtain identifying key code numbers so that he can cut duplicates of the original key. Code numbers for a car’s keys, for example, may be obtained by con sulting the dealer who sold the car, or by checking the owner’s bill of sale. Keys also can be dupli cated by impression. In this case, the locksmith places a blank key in the lock and, by following marks left on the blank, files notches in it until it works. Combination locks offer a special challenge. Locksmiths sometimes open them by touch, that is, by rotating the dial and feeling the vi brations when the wheels come into place. If all else fails, a hole may be drilled through the lock to open it. Finally, locksmiths repair damaged locks by replacing tum blers, springs, and other parts. OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN As a security measure, many firms periodically have their locks rekeyed. To do this, locksmiths change the locking mechanism to fit new key codes, thus making the old keys useless. Rekeying a master system is one of the most compli cated and time consuming jobs handled by a locksmith. In a master system, some keys must open all doors; others open various combina tions (for example, all doors on one floor); still others are individual keys for each door. Some locksmiths install and re pair electronic burglar alarms and surveillance systems which signal police or firemen when break-ins or fires occur. A basic knowledge of electricity and electronics is needed to install and repair these systems. Much of the work is done by spe cialists called protective-signal re pairmen, rather than by locksmiths. Locksmiths use screwdrivers, 443 pliers, tweezers, and electric drills in their work, as well as special tools such as lockpicks. They make origi nal and duplicate keys on key cutting machines. To guide them in their work, they refer to manuals that describe the construction of various locks. Places of Employment Most of the estimated 8,000 locksmiths in 1972 were employed in locksmith shops. Many operated their own businesses. Locksmith shops typically employ one to three locksmiths; few employ more than five. Some locksmiths worked in hardware and department stores that offered the public locksmith services; other worked in govern ment agencies and large industrial plants. A small number worked for safe and lock manufacturers. Although most jobs will be found Locksmith changes safe’s combination. in big cities, locksmiths work in virtually every part of the country. Locksmithing in small towns, how ever, is usually a part-time job, often combined with other work, such as fixing lawn mowers, guns, and bicycles. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The skills of this trade are learned primarily through on-the-job train ing. Experienced locksmiths are the teachers. First, beginners may learn to duplicate keys and make keys from codes. Later, they learn to open, repair, and install locks, and, finally, to work on safes. Generally, a beginner needs about 4 years of on-the-job training to qualify as a locksmith. Additional training is needed to service electronic security systems. Employers look for young people who have mechanical aptitude, good hand-eye coordination, and manual dexterity. A neat appearance and a friendly, tactful manner also are important, since the locksmith has frequent contacts with the public. Employers usually will not hire applicants who have been convicted of crimes. Although high school graduates are preferred, many employers will hire applicants with less education. High school courses in machine shop, mechanical drawing, and mathematics are helpful. Comple tion of a correspondence school course in locksmithing increases the chances of getting a trainee job. Locksmiths’ training programs for unemployed and underemployed workers were in operation in a small number of cities in 1972, under provisions of the Manpower Development and Training Act (MDTA). Graduates can qualify as skilled locksmiths after additional on-the-job training. 444 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK from $4 to $6 an hour in early 1972, according to the limited information available; many self-employed lock smiths earned even more. Trainees usually started at about $2 an hour, with periodic raises during training. Most locksmiths receive an hourly rate or weekly salary, although some work on a commission basis, receiving a percentage of the money they collect; their earnings depend on the amount of work available and how quickly they complete it. Fringe benefits vary, including in some cases, holidays and vacation pay, laundered uniforms free of charge, employer contributions to life, health, and accident insurance, and paid sick leave. Locksmiths generally work yearround. Most work 40 to 48 hours a week; even longer hours are com mon among the self-employed. The locksmith may be called at night to handle emergencies, though in many shops the responsibility to be “ on call” is rotated among the Employment Outlook staff. Locksmiths do considerable driv Employment in this relatively small occupation is expected to in ing from job to job. At times, they crease moderately through the mid- must work outside in bad weather 1980’s. The need to replace experi and occasionally work in awkward enced workers who retire or die will positions for long periods. However, create almost as many job openings locksmithing is cleaner work than as employment growth. Additional that of most mechanical trades and openings will arise as some lock is comparatively free from the dan smiths transfer to other occupations. ger of injury. Employment of locksmiths will increase as a result of population Sources of Additional Information and business growth, and a more Details about training and work security conscious public. Oppor opportunities may be available from tunities will be particularly favor able for locksmiths who know how local locksmith shops and local of to install and service electronic fices of the State employment serv security systems. Use of such sys ice. General information about the tems has expanded greatly in recent occupation can be obtained from: Associated Locksmiths of America, years, and still greater growth is Inc., 11 Elmendorf St., Kingston, expected in the future. Some cities require locksmiths to be licensed. To obtain a license, the applicant generally must be finger printed and pay a fee. However, specific requirements vary from city to city. Information on licensing may be obtained from local govern ments. To keep up with new developments in their field, locksmiths may read monthly technical journals. Another method is attendance at training classes at the annual convention of Associated Locksmiths of America. Here, they may update their knowl edge of security devices and learn how to install and repair new ones. Locksmiths can advance to super visory positions as shop foremen— positions found, however, only in the larger shops. Experienced lock smiths also can go into business for themselves with relatively little capi tal. Many do business from their homes. N.Y. 12401. Earnings and Working Conditions Experienced locksmiths earned MAINTENANCE ELECTRICIANS (D.O.T. 825.281 and 829.281) Nature of the Work Maintenance electricians keep lighting systems, transformers, gen erators, and other electrical equip ment in good working order. They also may install new electrical equipment. Duties vary greatly, depending on where the electrician is employed. Electricians who work in large fac tories may repair particular items such as motors and welding ma chines. Those in office buildings and small plants usually fix all kinds of electrical equipment. Re gardless of location, electricians spend much of their time doing pre ventive maintenance—periodic in spection of equipment to locate and correct defects before breakdowns occur. When trouble occurs, they must find the cause and make re pairs quickly to prevent costly production losses. In emergencies, they advise management whether continued operation of equipment would be hazardous, necessitating a shutdown. Maintenance electricians make re pairs by replacing items such as fuses, circuit breakers, or switches. When installing new or replacing existing wiring, they splice wires and cut and bend conduits (pipes) through which the wires are run. Maintenance electricians some times work from blueprints, wiring diagrams, or other specifications. They use ammeters, volt-ohm meters, and other testing devices to locate faulty equipment. To make repairs they use pliers, screw drivers, wire cutters, drills, and other tools. 445 OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN Places off Employment An estimated 260,000 mainte nance electricians were employed in 1972. More than half of these craftsmen worked in manufacturing industries; large numbers worked in plants that make automobiles, machinery, chemicals, aluminum, and iron and steel. Many mainte nance electricians also were em ployed by public utilities companies, mines, railroads, and by Federal, State, and local governments. Maintenance electricians are em ployed in every State. Large num bers work in heavily industrialized States such as California, New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Maintenance electricians learn their skills on the job or through formal apprenticeship programs. Training authorities generally agree that ap prenticeship gives trainees more thorough knowledge of the trade and improved job opportunities dur ing their working life. Apprenticeship programs for main tenance electricians usually last 4 years. Apprentices are given on-thejob training and related classroom instruction in subjects such as mathematics, electrical and elec tronic theory, and blueprint reading. Training may include motor repair, wire splicing, installation and re pair of electronic controls and cir cuits, and welding and brazing. A young person employed as a helper to a skilled maintenance electrician can gradually learn the skills of the craft by observing the electrician and following instruc tions. Others learn the fundamentals of the trade by moving from job to job in the maintenance depart ment of a plant; they eventually get enough experience to qualify as skilled maintenance electricians. This method of learning the trade, however, may take more than 4 years. Young people interested in be coming maintenance electricians should include courses in mathe matics (such as algebra and trigo nometry) and basic science in their high school or vocational school curriculum. Because the electrician’s craft is subject to constant techno logical change, many experienced electricians continue to learn new skills. For example, some mainte nance electricians who entered the trade years ago must now learn basic electronics. In selecting apprentice applicants or trainees, employers look for young people who have manual dexterity and are interested in learning how elec trical equipment functions. Appli cants also need good color vision because electrical wires are fre quently identified by color. Al though physical strength is not es sential, agility and good health are important. All maintenance electricians should be familiar with the National Electric Code and local building codes. Many cities and counties require mainte nance electricians to be licensed. Electricians can get a license by passing an examination that tests their knowledge of electrical theory and its application. Some maintenance electricians be come foremen. Occasionally, they advance to jobs such as plant electri cal superintendent or plant mainte nance superintendent. After addi tional training, maintenance electri cians also can become construction electricians. Maintenance electrician checks circuit. 446 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook Employment of maintenance electricians is expected to in crease moderately through the mid-1980’s because of the grow ing amount of electrical and elec tronic equipment used in industry. In addition to the jobs from em ployment growth, a few thousand openings will arise each year to replace experienced electricians who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of maintenance electri cians compare favorably with those of other skilled manufacturing workers. In early 1972, maintenance electricians averaged $4.96 an hour, ranging from $3.40 in Manchester, N.H. to $5.79 in Chicago, based on a survey of 88 cities. In about threefourths of the cities surveyed, hour ly averages for these craftsmen ranged from $4 to $5.25. Apprentices start at about 60 percent of the journeyman’s basic hourly pay rate. They receive in creases every 6 months, and rise to 85 or 90 percent of the journey man’s rate during the last period of apprenticeship. During a single day, a mainte nance electrician may repair equip ment in a clean air-conditioned office and on the factory floor, surrounded by the noise, oil, and grease of machinery. Electricians often climb ladders or work on scaffolds in awkward or cramped positions. Because maintenance electricians work near high-voltage industrial equipment, they must be alert and accurate. Errors in wiring instal lations could have dangerous conse quences, both to the electrician and other employees. Safety princi ples, which are a part of all elec trician training programs, have reduced the frequency of accidents. Electricians are taught to use pro tective equipment and clothing, to respect the destructive potential of electricity, and to fight small electrical fires. Among unions organizing mainte nance electricians are the Inter national Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; the International Associ ation of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America (Ind.); and the United Steelworkers of America. Most union contracts provide major bene fit programs that may include paid holidays and vacations, health and life insurance, and retirement pen sions. Sources of Additional Information Young people who wish to ob tain further information about electrician apprenticeships or other work opportunities in the trade should apply to local firms that employ maintenance electricians; to a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee, if one is in the locality; or to the local office of the Bureau of Apprentice ship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addition, the local office of the State employment serv ice may provide information about training opportunities. Some State employment service offices screen applicants and give aptitude tests. MOTORCYCLE MECHANICS (D.O.T. 620.281 and .384) Nature of the Work More than 3 million Americans own motorcycles and motor scoot ers. Although many cycling enthu siasts repair their own vehicles, most rely on skilled mechanics. Motorcycles, like automobiles, need periodic servicing to operate at peak efficiency. Spark plugs, ignition points, brakes, and many other parts that frequently get “ out of whack” have to be adjusted or replaced. This routine servicing represents the major part of the mechanic’s work. The mark of a skilled mechanic is his ability to diagnose mechani cal and electrical problems and to make necessary repairs in a mini mum of time. In diagnosing prob lems, the mechanic first obtains a description of the symptoms from the motorcycle owner, and then runs the engine or test rides the machine. He may have to use spe cial testing equipment and dis assemble some components for further examination. Once he has pinpointed the problem, he makes needed adjustments or replacements. Some jobs require only the replace ment of a single item, such as a carburetor or generator, and may be completed in less than an hour. In contrast, an overhaul may re quire several hours, because the mechanic must disassemble and re assemble the engine to replace worn valves, pistons, bearings, and other internal parts. Mechanics use common handtools such as wrenches, pliers, and screwdrivers, as well as special tools for getting at “hard to re move parts” such as flywheels and bearings. They also use compression 447 OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN “customizing” motorcycles. Most shops employ less than five mechanics. Motorcycle mechanics are em ployed in every State and every major city. About one-half worked in 9 States: California, Michigan, Texas, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Florida, Minnesota, and Indiana. Nearly all mechanics who spe cialize in repairing motorcycles are employed in cities having more than 30,000 population. In smaller cities, motorcycles frequently are repaired by the owner or manager of the dealership that sells that particular make, or by mechanics who repair all kinds of equipment powered by small gasoline engines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Mechanic repairs motorcycle kick starter. gauges, timing lights, and other kinds of testing devices. Hoists are used to lift heavy motorcycles. Most mechanics specialize in servicing only a few of the more than 30 brands of motorcycles and motor scooters. In large shops, some mechanics specialize in over hauling and rebuilding engines and transmissions, but most are ex pected to perform all kinds of repairs. Mechanics may occasionally repair mini-bikes, go-carts, snow mobiles, outboard boat motors, lawn mowers, and other equipment powered by small gasoline engines. Places of Employment Nearly all of the estimated 9,500 full-time and 3,000 part-time motor cycle mechanics employed in late 1972 worked for motorcycle dealers. Most of the remainder maintained police motorcycles for municipal governments. A small number of mechanics were employed by firms that specialized in modifying or Motorcycle mechanics usually learn their trade on the job, picking up skills from experienced workers. Initially, a trainee learns to uncrate, assemble, and road test new motor cycles. Next, he learns routine maintenance jobs such as adjusting brakes, spark plugs, and ignition points. As the trainee gains experi ence, he progresses to more difficult tasks such as repairing electrical systems and overhauling engines and transmissions. Generally, 2 to 3 years of training on the job are necessary before a trainee becomes a fully qualified mechanic. A trainee is expected to accumu late handtools as he gains ex perience. Mechanics usually have several hundred dollars invested in tools. Employers sometimes send me chanics and experienced trainees to special training courses con ducted by motorcycle manufac turers and importers. These courses, which may last as long as 2 weeks, are designed to upgrade the worker’s skills and provide information on repairing new models. When hiring trainees, employers look particularly for cycling enthu siasts who have gained practical experience by repairing their own motorcycles. However, many em ployers will hire trainees with no riding experience if they have me chanical aptitude and show an interest in learning the work. Train ees must be able to obtain a motor cycle driver’s license. Most employers prefer high school graduates, but will accept applicants with less education. Courses in small engine repair— offered by some high schools and vocational schools—generally are helpful, as are courses in automo bile mechanics, science, and math ematics. Many motorcycle dealers employ students to help assemble new motorcycles and perform minor repairs. Public schools in some large cities offer post-secondary and adult edu cation in small engine and motor cycle repair. Some technical schools have training programs for motor cycle mechanics. Many junior and community colleges offer courses in motorcycle repairing. Some unem ployed and underemployed workers have received training in small en gine repair under the Manpower Development and Training Act. Skills learned through repairing motorcycles can be transferred to other fields of mechanical work. For example, since all internal combustion engines are similar, a motorcycle mechanic can become an automobile or diesel mechanic after some additional training. However, such a transfer would not necessarily mean higher earn ings. Motorcycle mechanics have lim ited advancement possibilities. Those with supervisory ability may ad vance to service manager and, eventually, to general manager in large dealerships. Those who have 448 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK the necessary capital may become dealers. Employment Outlook Employment in this relatively small occupation is expected to grow rapidly through the mid1980’s. Many additional openings will arise from the need to replace experienced mechanics who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Underlying the anticipated growth in the number of motorcycle me chanics is the continued growth in the number of motorcycles in use. Increases in the young adult popu lation and in personal income levels will create a demand for more motorcycles, and additional me chanics will be needed to maintain these machines. Also, growth in the numbers of mini-bikes and snowmobiles will stimulate the de mand for mechanics. Maintenance requirements per motorcycle may rise as a result of a trend toward use of higher pow ered, more complex engines. How ever, this favorable employment effect will probably be offset by increases in mechanic efficiency brought about by improved training methods, better shop management, and greater use of special tools and test equipment. Also, improved ignition systems and overall motor cycle design could lengthen the intervals between routine servicing and major repairs, as well. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of motorcycle mechanics and trainees vary widely and depend on level of skill, geographic loca tion, and employer. Limited infor mation indicates that experienced mechanics employed by motorcycle dealers earned between $3 and $10 an hour in late 1972. Generally experienced mechanics earned 2 to 3 times as much as trainees. Some mechanics are paid an hourly rate or a weekly salary. Others are paid a percentage— usually about 50 percent—of the labor cost charged to the customer. If a mechanic is paid on a per centage basis, his salary depends on the amount of work he is as signed and how rapidly he com pletes it. Frequently, trainees are paid on a piecework basis when uncrating and assembling new motorcycles. At other times, they are paid an hourly rate or weekly salary. Motorcycling increases sharply as the weather grows warmer. Con sequently, most mechanics work more than 40 hours a week during the summer. Many temporary workers hired to help handle the increased work load work only part time, and are laid off in the fall. However, a large proportion of these are either students or workers having full-time jobs elsewhere. Many motorcycle mechanics re ceive holiday and vacation pay and additional benefits such as life, health, and accident insurance. Some also receive paid sick leave, contributions to retirement plans, and laundered uniforms. Mechanics who work for dealers may receive discounts on purchases of acces sories, parts, and motorcycles, al though most dealers try to discour age this as a reason for working. Motorcycle shops generally are well-lighted and ventilated, but are noisy when engines are being tested. The work is not hazardous, although mechanics are subject to cuts, bruises, and other minor injuries. Since motorcycles are relatively lightweight and have easily acces sible parts, mechanics rarely do heavy lifting or work in awkward positions. A small percentage of motorcycle mechanics are members of the Inter national Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers. Sources of Additional Information For further information regard ing employment opportunities and training for motorcycle mechanics, contact local motorcycle dealers or the local office of the State employ ment service. PIANO AND ORGAN SERVICEMEN (D.O.T. 730.281, .381, and 829.381) Nature of the Work There are four kinds of piano and organ servicemen: piano tuners, piano technicians, pipe organ technicians, and electronic organ technicians. According to their skills, they tune, repair, and rebuild pianos and organs. They usually begin their trade by learning how to tune these keyboard instruments. Piano tuners (D.O.T. 730.381) adjust piano strings so that they will be in proper pitch and sound musically correct. There are 220 strings in the modern 88-key piano. After muting the strings on either side, the tuner uses a tuning ham mer (also called a tuning lever or wrench) to tighten or loosen the string being tested until its frequency matches that of a standard tuning fork. The other strings are tuned in relation to the starting string. Sometimes the tuner has to make minor repairs, such as replacing worn or broken strings. Major re pairs, however, are made by experi enced craftsmen called piano techni cians. In addition to knowing how to tune a piano, piano technicians OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN (D.O.T. 730.281) can detect other as special ones such as regulating problems that may affect its sound. tools, repinning tools, and key level Technicians talk with the customer ing devices. Although organs and pianos look to get an idea of what is wrong and then go to work to find out why. somewhat alike, they function dif Once they find what the problem is ferently, and few servicemen work on they make the necessary repairs or both instruments. Moreover, organ adjustments. For example, they may servicemen specialize in either elec have to realign hammers that do not tronic or pipe organs. strike the strings just right or replace Pipe-organ technicians (D.O.T. moth-eaten felt on the hammers. To 730.381) install, tune, and repair dismantle and repair pianos, techni organs that make music by forcing cians use common handtools as well air through one of two kinds of Piano technician restrings baby grand. 449 pipes—flue pipes or reed pipes. The tone in a flue pipe, like in a penny whistle, is made by air forced by an opening. The reed pipe makes its tone by vibrating a brass reed in the air current. Like a piano tuner, the organ technician uses his ear and a tuning fork to put an organ in good voice. To tune a flue pipe, the technician moves a metal slide which increases or decreases the pipe’s “speaking length.” A reed pipe is tuned by adjusting the length of the reed. A day or more may be needed to finish one of these jobs, because most organs have hundreds of pipes. Some workers specialize only in tuning, and do not have the all-round skills of a technician. Most pipe organs are very large and complex, and are assembled on site in places like churches and auditoriums. Technicians install air chests, blowers, airducts, organ pipes, and other components. They follow the designer’s blueprints and use a variety of hand and power tools to assemble components. Technicians may work in teams or be assisted by helpers. A job may take several weeks or even months, depending on the size of the organ. Technicians may also maintain organs on a regular basis, returning every 3 or 4 months to tune them and make other routine adjustments. Electronic organ technicians (D.O.T. 829.381) have very dif ferent duties from those of pipe organ technicians. They use special electronic test equipment to tune and to check tone and amplifica tions. Some electronic organs do not require tuning. Those that do are fairly simple to tune. However, these organs may break down due to loose connections, faulty tran sistors, dirty contacts, and other problems. When routine checks do not find the problem, technicians 450 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK use meters and electronic devices to check suspected circuits. For ex ample, they check voltages until an unusual or irregular measure shows up the part of the circuitry causing trouble. When they Find the problem, they make the neces sary repairs or adjustments, using soldering irons, wire cutters, and other handtools. Technicians often use wiring diagrams and service manuals that show connections within organs, provide adjustment information, and describe causes of trouble. Because of the large dif ferences among various brands of electronic organs, many technicians service only a particular brand. Places of Employment About 7,000 persons worked as full-time piano and organ service men in 1972; most were piano servicemen. A small percentage of these workers were women. About two-thirds of the total worked in independent repair shops; many were the sole operators of small shops. Another one-Fifth were employed by piano and organ deal ers. Most of the rest worked for piano and organ manufacturers. Piano and organ servicemen are employed mostly in big cities and in States that have large popula tions. In towns too small to offer enough work for a full-time service man, piano and pipe organ work may be done part time by local music teachers and professional musicians. Similarly, electronic organ work may be done by tele vision and radio repairmen. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Piano and organ servicemen gen erally learn on the job. Dealers and repair shops hire beginners to do general clean-up work, help service men move and install instruments, and do other routine tasks. Helpers gradually learn to tune and to make simple repairs, and then take on more difficult jobs as they gain experience. Generally, 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training are needed to qualify as a piano, pipe organ, or electronic organ technician, al though workers who have formal education in these Fields can qualify in less time. Piano tuning alone usually can be learned on the job in less than 2 years. Piano and organ manufacturers train inexperienced workers to as semble instruments. However, be cause assembly is done in many steps, workers learn little about the instrument as a whole, and need additional training in tuning and repair work before they can qualify as technicians. Young people interested in a career in piano or organ servicing should have good hearing, mechani cal aptitude, and manual dexterity. Because service work frequently is done in the customer’s home, a neat appearance and a pleasant, cooperative manner also are impor tant. Although some very capable piano technicians are blind, organ technicians need normal eyesight. Ability to play the instrument helps, but is not essential as a qualification. In terms of education, employers prefer high school graduates. Music courses help develop the student’s ear for tonal quality. Courses in woodworking are useful also be cause many of the moving parts in pianos and pipe organs are made of wood. For jobs as electronic organ technician trainees, applicants usual ly need formal training in elec tronics available from technical schools, junior and community col leges, and some technical-vocational high schools. Training in elec tronics also is available in the Armed Forces. Courses in piano technology, which may take up to 2 years, are offered by a small number of pri vate technical schools. Some have special courses for the blind and other handicapped people. Home study (correspondence school) courses in piano and organ tech nology also are available. Piano and organ servicemen keep up with new developments in their Fields by studying trade magazines and manufacturers’ service manuals. Most electronic organ manufac turers conduct brief courses peri odically to provide information on technical changes in their instru ments. Servicemen who work for large dealers or repair shops can ad vance to supervisory positions. Most servicemen move up, how ever, by going into business for themselves. Relatively little capital is required beyond an initial invest ment in tools. Basic piano or pipe organ tools cost only a few hundred dollars. By contrast, tools and test equipment for electronic organs may cost a thousand dollars or more. Typically, self-employed servicemen operate out of their own homes and use a car or a small truck for service calls. Employment Outlook Little growth in the number of piano tuners, piano technicians, and pipe organ technicians is expected through the mid-1980’s. The num ber of pianos and pipe organs has not increased much in recent years, primarily because of competition from other forms of entertainment and recreation, and this trend is expected to continue. Nevertheless, some jobs will open each year as experienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Near ly all will be for piano tuners and technicians. OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN A moderate increase in jobs for electronic organ technicians is ex pected. The electronic organ, a comparatively new instrument, con tinues to grow in popularity. How ever, this is a very small occupation and the number of job openings will be far fewer than those for piano tuners and technicians. Opportunities for beginners will be best in piano and organ dealer ships and large repair shops. Many repair shops are too small to afford a full-time helper, although they may hire one part time. Earnings and Working Conditions Experienced workers earned from $3 to $8 an hour in 1972, depending on their level of skill and where they worked, according to limited infor mation. Beginning rates for helpers ranged from $1.80 to $2.55 an hour. Many self-employed servicemen earned more than $10,000 a year, and earnings in excess of $15,000 a year were not uncommon. Earnings of self-employed servicemen de pend on the size of the community, their ability to attract and keep customers, their operating expenses, and competition from other service men. Service business increases with cold weather because people spend more time indoors playing the piano or organ. Consequently, during fall and winter, many servicemen work more than 40 hours a week. As busi ness falls off during spring and sum mer, shops may take up the slack by reconditioning or rebuilding old instruments. Self-employed service men frequently work evenings and weekends to suit their customers. Many employers provide holidays and vacation pay. Some of the larger ones also provide life and health in surance, paid sick leave, and other benefits. The work is relatively safe, al 451 though servicemen may suffer small cuts and bruises when making repairs. Electrical shock is a minor hazard for electronic organ technicians but it has rarely caused serious injury. Work is performed in shops and homes and public buildings such as churches and schools where working conditions usually are pleasant. Sources of Additonal Information Details about job opportunities may be available from local piano and organ dealers and repair shops. General information about piano technicians and a list of schools offering courses in piano tech nology may be obtained from: Piano Technicians Guild, Inc., P.O. Box 1813, Seattle, Wash. 98111. SHOE REPAIRMEN (D.O.T. 365.381) Nature of the Work Shoe repairmen spend most of their time replacing worn heels and soles. Repairmen prepare shoes by removing the worn soles and old stitching, and roughing the bottom of the shoes on sanding wheels. They select new soles or cut them from pieces of leather; and then cement, nail, or sew the soles to the shoes. Finally, they trim the soles. To reheel shoes, repairmen pry off old heels, select replacement heels or cut them to shape, and cement and nail them into place. After the heels and soles have been replaced, repairmen stain and buff them to match the color of the shoes. Before completing the job, repair men may replace insoles, restitch loose seams, and polish the shoes. Highly skilled repairmen may de sign, make, or repair orthopedic shoes according to doctors’ prescrip tions. Repairmen also may mend handbags, luggage, tents, and other items made of leather, rubber, or canvas. In large shops, repair work often is divided into a number of special ized tasks. For example, some re pairmen only remove and replace heels and soles; others only restitch torn seams. Shoe repairmen use power- Shoe repairman replacing zipper. 452 operated sole-stitchers and heelnailing machines, and manually operated sewing machines. Among the handtools they use are hammers, awls, and nippers. Self-employed shoe repairmen have managerial responsibilities in addition to their regular duties. They estimate repair costs, keep records, and supervise other repairmen. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook Employment of shoe repairmen is expected to decline slowly through the mid-1980’s. Nevertheless, hun dreds of openings will arise each year because of the need to replace experienced repairmen who retire, die, or change occupations. Although the sale of shoes will increase as the population grows, several factors are expected to limit the demand for repairmen. In recent Places of Employment years, the popularity of canvas foot About 25,000 shoe repairmen wear, loafers, sandals, and cushionwere employed in 1972. About three- soled shoes has increased. Because fourths of them own shoe repair of their construction, these types of shops, many of which are small, shoes often cannot be repaired. Also, one man operations. Most of the re as personal income rises, many maining repairmen worked in large people buy new shoes rather than shoe repair shops. Some repairmen repair old ones. worked in department stores, variety stores, shoe stores, and drycleaning Earnings and Working Conditions shops. All cities and towns and many Information from a limited num very small communities have shoe ber of employers and union contracts repair shops. Employment, however, indicate that many shoe repairmen is concentrated in large cities. earned between $2.50 and $3.50 an hour in 1972. Inexperienced trainees generally earned between $1.85 and Training, Other Qualifications, $2.10 an hour. Some highly skilled and Advancement repairmen, including managers of Most shoe repairmen are hired shoe repair shops, earned more than as helpers and trained on the job. $200 a week. Shoe repairmen generally work Helpers begin by assisting experi enced repairmen with simple tasks, 8 hours a day, 5 days a week. The such as staining, brushing, and shin workweek for the self-employed, ing shoes; then they progress to however, is often longer, sometimes more difficult tasks, such as replac 10 hours a day, 6 days a week. ing heels, as they gain experience. Although shoe repair shops are Helpers who have aptitude and busiest during the spring and fall, initiative can become qualified shoe work is steady with no seasonal repairmen after 2 years of on-the-job layoffs. Employees in large shops receive from 1 to 4 weeks’ paid vaca training. tion each year, depending on the Some repairmen learn their trade at vocational schools. A small num length of service, and usually at least ber enter the occupation through 6 paid holidays. Working conditions generally are apprenticeship training programs. good in large repair shops. Some Skilled shoe repairmen in large shops may become foremen or man small shops, however, may be agers. Those who have the necessary crowded and noisy and have poor light or ventilation. Strong odors funds can open their own shops. from leather goods, dyes, and stains may be present. Shoe repair work is not strenu ous, but it does require stamina, because repairmen must stand up much of the time. Sources of Additional Information Information about work oppor tunities can be obtained from the local office of the State employment service, as well as shoe repair shops in the community. TELEVISION AND RADIO SERVICE TEC H N IC IA N S (D.O.T. 720.281) Nature of the Work Television and radio service tech nicians repair a growing number of electronic products, of which televi sion sets and radios are by far the most numerous. They also repair stereo components, tape recorders, intercoms, and public address sys tems. Some service technicians spe cialize in repairing one kind of equipment—for example, television sets or car radios. Equipment may operate unsatis factorily or break down completely because of faulty tubes or transis tors, poor connections, or other problems. Service technicians check and evaluate each possible cause of trouble; they begin by checking for the most common cause—tube or module failure. In other routine checks, they look for loose or broken connections and for parts that are charred or burned. When routine checks do not lo cate the trouble, technicians use test equipment, such as voltmeters and signal generators, to check sus pected circuits. For example, they 453 OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN may measure voltages or wave forms in a television set until an unusual or irregular measurement indicates the faulty part. Once the cause of trouble is found, they replace faulty parts and make adjustments, such as focusing the picture or correcting the color balance. Technicians who make customer service calls carry tubes, modules, and other parts that can be easily replaced in the customer’s home. Radios, portable televisions, and other small equipment usually are repaired in service shops. Large tele vision sets also are repaired in shops when the trouble must be located with complex test equipment. Service technicians use screw drivers, pliers, wire cutters, solder ing irons, and other handtools. They refer to wiring diagrams and service manuals that show connec tions and provide information on how to locate problems and make repairs. Places of Employment More than 140,000 people worked as radio and television service tech nicians in 1972. About one-third of them were self-employed, a much larger proportion than in most skilled trades. Nearly three-fourths of all service technicians worked in shops and stores that sell and service televi sion sets, radios, and other electronic products. Many others were em ployed by manufacturers of such products. Television and radio service tech nicians work in almost every city. Geographically, employment is dis tributed in much the same way as the Nation’s population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training in electronics is required in order to become a skilled televi Television technicians use instruments to locate faulty circuits. sion and radio service technician. Technical, vocational, or high school training in electronics, mathematics, and physics may provide a good background for entering the field. The military service offers training and work experience that is useful to civilian electronics work, and correspondence school courses also are helpful. From 2 to 4 years of combined training and on-the-job experience are required to become a qualified service technician. People who have no previous training may be hired as helpers or apprentices if they show aptitude for the work or, like the amateur “ham” radio opera tor, have a hobby in electronics. An important part of the service technician’s training is provided by many manufacturers, employers, and trade associations. They con duct training programs to keep service technicians abreast of the latest servicing methods for new models or products. Technicians also keep up with technical develop ments by studying manufacturers’ instruction books and technical mag azines and by attending training meetings. Programs to train unemployed and underemployed workers for entry jobs in television and radio servicing were in operation in sev eral States in 1972 under the Man power Development and Training Act and the JOBS (Job Opportu nities in the Business Sector) Pro gram. These programs usually last from about 6 months to a year. 454 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Graduates, however, need additional training to become skilled technicians. Television and radio service tech nicians must know how electronic components and circuits work. Other essential qualifications include the ability to manipulate small parts and tools, good eye-hand coordina tion, normal hearing, and good eye sight and color vision. Service technicians who work in large repair shops may be promoted to foreman or service manager. Technicians who have sufficient funds may open their own sales and repair shops. Some technicians ob tain jobs as electronic “trouble shooters” or technicians in manu facturing industries or government agencies. A small number of highly qualified technicians who are em ployed by manufacturers can ad vance to higher paying occupations, such as technical writer, sales engi neer, design engineer, or service training instructor. People interested in advancing to positions such as electronic tech nician can improve their oppor tunities by taking trade school, correspondence, or technical insti tute courses in automatic controls, electronic engineering, television en gineering, and mathematics. Those planning to go into business for themselves should take some busi ness administration courses, par ticularly accounting. In 1972, several cities and six States—Indiana, Connecticut, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Florida, and Oregon—required that radio and television technicians be licensed. To obtain a license, applicants must pass an examination designed to test their knowledge of electronic cir cuits and components and their skill in the use of testing equipment. Employment Outlook Employment of television and radio service technicians is expected to increase moderately through the mid-1980’s. In addition to openings from employment growth, many openings will result each year from the need to replace experienced tech nicians who retire, die, or change occupations. Employment of service techni cians is expected to increase in response to the growing number of radios, televisions, phonographs, tape recorders, and other home entertainment products in use. Fac tors that will contribute to this growth include rising population and personal incomes. In 1972, over 95 percent of all households had at least one television set. During the next decade, the number of households with two television sets or more is expected to increase significantly, mainly because of the growing demand for color and port able sets. Greater use of non entertainment products, such as closed-circuit television, two-way radios, and various medical elec tronic devices, also is expected. For example, closed-circuit television is being used increasingly to monitor production processes in manufactur ing plants and to bring educational programs into classrooms. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of television and radio service technicians ranged from $3 to $6.50 an hour in 1972, based on the limited information available. The wide variations in wage rates reflect differences in skill level, type of employer, and geographic location. Television and radio service tech nicians employed in local service shops or dealer service departments usually work 40 to 48 hours a week. Some employers provide paid vaca tions and holidays; many also pro vide or help pay for health and life insurance benefits. Service on television, radio, and other home entertainment products is performed in shops and homes where working conditions are usual ly pleasant. Some physical strain is involved in lifting and carrying equipment. Hazards include elec trical shock and the risk of falling from roofs while installing or repair ing antennas. Some service technicians are mem bers of labor unions. Most of them belong to the International Brother hood of Electrical Workers. Sources of Additional Information For more information about jobs in this field, contact local shops and stores that service television sets and radios and other electronic equipment. Technical and vocational schools that offer courses in televi sion and radio repair, or elec tronics may provide information about training. In addition, the local office of the State employment service may have information about the Manpower Development and Training Act and other programs that provide training opportunities. Information about the work of television and radio service techni cians also is available from: National Alliance of Television and Electronic Service Associations, 5908 South Troy St., Chicago, 111. 60629. International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1125 15th St. NW „ Wash ington, D.C. 20005. TRUCK M ECHANICS AND BUS MECHANICS (D.O.T. 620.281) Nature of the Work Mechanics are needed to keep OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN 455 the Nation’s commercial vehicles in good operating condition. Truck me chanics maintain and repair heavy trucks used for mining, construction, and intercity travel; and small trucks used for local hauling. Bus mechan ics service both local and trans continental buses. Although many parts of large trucks and buses are similar to automobile parts, truck and bus mechanics repair large en gines, complex transmissions and differentials, air-brakes, and other components that are different from those in automobiles. Mechanics employed by organiza tions that maintain their own ve hicles may spend much time doing preventive maintenance to assure safe vehicle operation, prevent wear and damage to parts, and reduce costly breakdowns. During a main tenance check, mechanics inspect brake systems, steering mechanisms, wheel bearings, and other parts, and make needed repairs and adjust ments. In large shops, mechanics may specialize in one or two kinds of repair. For example, some mechan ics specialize in major engine or transmission work. If an engine is to be rebuilt, the mechanic dis assembles it, examines parts—such as valves or pistons—for wear, and replaces or repairs defective parts. Many mechanics specialize in diesel engines; that power large trucks and buses. Diesel and gasoline en gines are similar, but have different fuel and ignition systems. A mechan ic who has worked only on gasoline engines needs special training to qualify as a diesel mechanic. (See statement on diesel mechanics else where in the Handbook.) Truck and bus mechanics use common handtools such as screw drivers and pliers; power and ma chine tools such as pneumatic wrenches and drills; and welding and flame cutting equipment. They facturers employed a relatively small number of mechanics. Truck and bus mechanics are em ployed in every section of the country, but most of them work in large towns and cities where trucking companies, buslines, and other fleet owners have large repair shops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Truck mechanic works on engine. also use testing equipment, such as dynamometers to locate malfunc tions, and jacks and hoists to lift and move large parts. When doing heavy work, such as removing engines and transmis sions, two mechanics may work as a team, or a mechanic may be assisted by an apprentice or helper. Mechan ics generally work under the super vision of a shop foreman or service manager. Places of Employment A large proportion of the esti mated 115,000 truck mechanics em ployed in 1972 worked for firms that own fleets of trucks. Fleet owners include trucking companies and businesses that haul their own products such as dairies and bak eries. Other employers include truck dealers, truck manufacturers, truck repair shops, firms that rent or lease trucks, and Federal, State, and local governments. Most of the estimated 20,000 bus mechanics employed in 1972 worked for local transit companies and intercity buslines. Bus manu Most truck or bus mechanics learn their skills on the job. Begin ners usually do tasks such as clean ing, fueling, and lubrication. They may be required to drive vehicles in and out of the shop. As beginners gain experience and as vacancies become available, they usually are promoted to be mechanics’ helpers. In some shops, young persons— especially those who have prior automobile repair experience—begin as mechanics’ helpers. Most helpers can make minor repairs after a few months’ experi ence, and advance to increasingly difficult jobs as they prove their ability. Generally, 3 to 4 years of on-the-job experience is necessary to qualify as an all-round truck or bus mechanic. Additional training may be necessary for mechanics who wish to specialize in diesel engines. Most training authorities recom mend a formal 4-year apprenticeship as the best way to learn these trades. Typical apprenticeship programs for truck and bus mechanics consist of approximately 8,000 hours of shop training and at least 576 hours of classroom instruction. Frequently, these programs include training in both diesel and gasoline engine re pair. In 1972, unemployed and under employed workers seeking entry jobs as truck mechanics were trained in a large number of cities under the Manpower Development and Training Act. This training, which 456 lasts up to a year, stresses basic maintenance and repair work, but additional on-the-job or apprentice ship training is needed before gradu ates can qualify as skilled mechanics. For entry jobs, employers gen erally look for applicants who have mechanical aptitude, are at least 18 years of age, and in good physical condition. Completion of high school is an advantage in getting an entry mechanic job, because most em ployers believe it indicates that a young person can finish a job and has advancement potential. When the mechanic’s duties in clude driving trucks or buses on public roads, applicants may have to get a State chauffeur’s license. If the employer is engaged in inter state transportation, applicants also may have to meet qualifications for drivers established by the U.S. De partment of Transportation. These applicants must be at least 21 years of age, able bodied, and have good hearing, and 20/40 eyesight with or without glasses. They must read and speak English and have a good driv ing record, including 1 year’s driving experience. Young persons interested in be coming truck or bus mechanics can gain valuable experience by taking high school or vocational school courses in automobile repair. Science and mathematics are helpful since they better one’s understanding of how trucks and buses operate. Courses in diesel repair provide valuable related training. Practical experience in automobile repair from working in a gasoline service sta tion, training in the Armed Forces, and working on automobiles as a hobby also is valuable. Most mechanics must buy their own handtools. Experienced me chanics often have several hundred dollars invested in tools. Employers sometimes send ex perienced mechanics to special train OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ing classes conducted by truck, bus, diesel engine, and parts manufac turers. In these classes, mechanics learn to repair the latest equipment or receive special training in sub jects such as diagnosing engine malfunctions. A young person considering a career as truck or bus mechanic should have strength and manual dexterity to handle tools and equip ment. Good mechanics read many service and repair manuals to keep abreast of engineering changes. Truck and bus mechanics usually work independently and can see the results of their work. Experienced mechanics who have supervisory ability may advance to shop foremen or service managers. Truck mechanics who have sales ability sometimes become truck salesmen. Some mechanics open their own gasoline service stations or repair shops. Employment Outlook Employment of truck mechan ics is expected to increase rapidly through the mid-1980’s as a result of significant increases in the trans portation of freight by trucks. More trucks will be needed for both local and intercity hauling due to in creased industrial activity, contin ued decentralization of industry, and the continued movement of the population to the suburbs. Several hundred job openings for bus mechanics are anticipated an nually through the mid-1980’s to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Total employment, however, is not ex pected to change significantly be cause of offsetting factors affecting the demand for bus service. More buses will be needed for local travel due to increased emphasis on mass transit systems. Intercity bus travel, on the other hand, is expected to remain about the same. Earnings and Working Conditions According to a survey covering 88 metropolitan areas in 1972, mechanics employed by trucking companies, buslines, and other firms that maintain their own vehicles had average hourly earnings of $4.83, one-fourth more than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Apprentices’ wage rates generally start at half of skilled workers’ rates and are increased about every 6 months until a rate of 90 percent is reached during the last 6 months of the training period. Most mechanics work between 40 and 48 hours per week. Because many truck and bus firms provide service around the clock, mechanics may work evenings, night shifts, and weekends, for which they usual ly receive a higher rate of pay. A large number of employers provide holidays and vacation pay; many pay part or all the cost of employee health and life insurance. Some em ployers furnish laundered uniforms. Truck mechanics and bus mechan ics are subject to the usual shop hazards such as cuts and bruises. If proper safety precautions are not followed, one risks injury when re pairing heavy parts supported on jacks and hoists. Mechanics handle greasy and dirty parts and may have to stand or lie in awkward or cramped positions when repairing vehicles. Work areas usually are well lighted, heated, and ventilated, and many employers provide locker rooms and shower facilities. Al though most work is done indoors, mechanics occasionally make repairs outdoors where breakdowns occur. Many truck and bus mechanics are members of labor unions, includ ing the International Association of 457 OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Amalgamated Transit Union; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agri cultural Implement Workers of America; the Transport Workers Union of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffers, Ware housemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Sources of Additional Information More details about work oppor tunities for truck or bus mechanics may be obtained from local employ ers such as trucking companies, truck dealers, or bus lines; locals of unions previously mentioned; or the local office of the State employ ment service. The State employment service also may have information about the Manpower Development and Training Act, apprenticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. General in formation about the work of truck mechanics and apprenticeship train ing may be obtained from: American Trucking Associations, Inc., 1616 P St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. VENDING MACHINE M ECHANICS (D.O.T. 639.381) Nature of the Work Vending machines have become a familiar part of the everyday lives of most people. In places of recreation, work, and education, vending machines provide every thing from a piece of candy to a full-course meal. Vending machine mechanics keep these machines in good working order. They also assemble and in stall machines, and in some cases, stock them with merchandise. Some mechanics work only in repair shops and some work only in the field, but many do both. In preparing machines for installa tion, mechanics follow instructions supplied by the manufacturer. After the machine is put together and tested, the mechanic fills it with products or ingredients and gives it a test run. When working on com plicated machines, such as beverage or food dispensers, mechanics check to see that the machines give proper quantities of ingredients and that refrigerating and heating units work properly. On gravity-operated ma chines, mechanics check springs, plungers, and merchandise delivery systems. They also test coin and change-making mechanisms. When installing a machine on location, mechanics make the necessary water and electrical connections and re check the machines for proper operation. Preventive maintenance—avoiding trouble before it starts—is another major part of the job. For example, the mechanic periodically cleans electrical contact points, lubricates mechanical parts, and adjusts ma chines to perform properly. When a machine breaks down, the mechanic must determine the cause of the trouble. He first inspects the ma chine for obvious problems, such as loose electrical wires, malfunc tions of the coin mechanism, and leaks. If the problem cannot be readily located, the repairman may refer to troubleshooting manuals and wiring diagrams and use testing devices such as electrical circuit testers to find the defective parts. The mechanic then repairs or re places the faulty parts, either on location or in the employer’s service shop. Mechanics use pipe cutters, sol dering irons, wrenches, screwdrivers, hammers, and other handtools. In the shop, they also may use power tools, such as grinding wheels, saws and drills. Mechanics who install and repair food vending machines must know State public health and sanitation standards as well as those estab lished under local plumbing codes. They also must know and follow safety procedures, especially when lifting heavy objects and working with electricity and gas. Mechanics have to do some clerical work, such as filing reports, preparing repair cost estimates, and ordering parts. Those employed by small operating companies frequent ly service as well as repair ma chines. These combination “ repairroutemen” stock machines, collect money, fill coin and currency changers, and keep daily records of merchandise distributed. (Addi tional information about vending machine routemen is included in the statement on routemen elsewhere in the Handbook.) Places off Employment In 1972, about 29,000 mechanics maintained and repaired approxi mately 5 million vending machines. Most mechanics work for vending service companies that install ma chines and provide necessary serv ices, such as cleaning, stocking, and repairing. Other mechanics work for beverage companies that have coin-operated machines. Some also work for companies that own and operate juke boxes, pin-ball ma chines, and laundry and dry cleaning machines. Although mechanics are employed throughout the country, most are located in industrial and commercial centers where there are a large number of vending machines. Vending machine manufacturers 458 employ some highly skilled mechan ics to explain technical innovations and ways to repair new machines to other repairmen. Instruction takes place either in manufacturers’ serv ice divisions in major cities or in operators’ repair shops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Young people usually enter this trade as general shop helpers. If shop helpers show promise as me chanics, they may become trainees. Some workers are hired directly as trainees. Trainees learn the trade on the job—observing, working with, and receiving instruction from experi enced mechanics. Sometimes, they attend manufacturer-sponsored training sessions, which emphasize the repair of new and complex OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK machines. Employers usually pay wages and expenses during these sessions which may last from a few days to several weeks. Because vending machines are becoming more complex, some oper ators encourage both trainees and experienced mechanics to take even ing courses in subjects related to machine operation and repair—for example, basic electricity. Employ ers pay for at least part of the tuition and book expenses for these courses. The length of on-the-job training varies with the individual’s capa bilities and previous education. Al though it usually takes from 1V to 2 2 years for trainees to become skilled, they usually can handle simple repair jobs after 6 months. Mechanics are generally “in training” throughout their working lives, since they must be prepared to handle new and im proved vending equipment. Many beginners are high school graduates, but employers generally do not require a diploma. High school or vocational school courses in electricity, refrigeration, and ma chine repair help beginners to qualify for entry jobs. These courses also may help beginners to skip the lowest rung of the job ladder— general shop helper. Employers require applicants to demonstrate mechanical ability, either through their work experience or by scoring well on mechanical aptitude tests. The ability to deal tactfully with people also is im portant. A commercial driver’s license and a good driving record are essential for most vending ma chine repair jobs. Skilled mechanics may be pro moted to senior mechanic or, in large companies, to shop foremen or supervisor. Advancement to service manager, who schedules repair work, is possible for mechanics having administrative ability. Mechanics having initiative and adequate finan cial backing may become inde pendent operators. Employment Outlook Employment of vending machine mechanics is expected to increase rapidly through the mid-1980’s. In addition, many job openings will result from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Many factors will spur the de mand for vending machines and, in turn, for the workers who service and repair them. The movement of industrial plants, schools, hospitals, department stores and other estab lishments to the suburbs where eat ing places are not always close by, will increase the demand for vending machines. Demand also may be stimulated by the rising popularity 459 OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN of light meals, snacks, and quick lunches. Vending machines now of fer a wide variety of merchandise with, in many cases, round-the-clock service and money-changing ma chines. This will make it more appealing and convenient for cus tomers to use these machines. Earnings and Working Conditions Wage rates for vending machine mechanics ranged from $2.60 to $4.97 an hour in 1972, based on information from a small number of union contracts. Most vending machine mechanics work 8 hours a day, 5 days a week, and receive premium pay for over time. Since vending machines can be operated around the clock, me chanics frequently work at night and on weekends and holidays. Some union contracts stipulate higher pay for nightwork and for emergency repair jobs on weekends and holidays. Many employers provide fringe benefits such as health and life insurance and retirement plans. Paid vacations are granted according to length of service—usually 1 week after 1 year of service, 2 weeks after 2 years, and 3 weeks after 10 years. Typically, mechanics also re ceive 7 or 8 paid holidays annually. Vending machine repair shops are generally quiet, well-lighted, and have adequate work space. How ever, when servicing machines on location, mechanics may work in cramped quarters, such as passage ways, where pedestrian traffic is heavy. Repair work is relatively safe, although mechanics are sub ject to shop hazards such as elec trical shocks and cuts from sharp tools and metal objects. Many vending machine mechanics employed by large companies are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf feurs, Warehousemen, and Helpers of America. Sources of Additional Information Further information on job op portunities can be obtained from local vending machine operators and local offices of the State em ployment service. Information is also available from the National Automatic Merchandising Associa tion, 7 South Dearborn St., Chicago, 111. 60603. machines. They use electrical meters when repairing electric watches to make sure that cir cuits are working properly. Watch repairmen often own jew elry stores, and may do minor jewelry repair and sell watches, jewelry, silverware and other items. They also may hire and supervise salesclerks, other watch repairmen, and jewelers; arrange window dis plays; purchase goods to be sold; and perform other managerial duties. Places of Employment WATCH REPAIRMEN (D.O.T. 715.281) Nature of the Work Watch repairmen (also called watchmakers) clean, repair, and adjust watches, clocks, and other timepieces. When a watch is not working properly, repairmen use tweezers, screwdrivers, and other tools to remove the watch from its case and disassemble the move ment. With the aid of a special magnifying glass called a loupe, they carefully examine each part of the mechanism. Repairmen may replace the main spring and other parts of the wind ing mechanism, adjust improperly fitted wheels, and replace broken hands or a cracked watch crystal. They clean and oil parts before the watch is reassembled and tested for accuracy. The development of interchange able mass-produced watch parts has decreased the need to make parts by hand; however repairmen often must adjust factory-made parts of complicated timepieces to insure a true fit. In addition to handtools, watch repairmen use timing and cleaning About 16,000 watch repairmen were employed in 1972. Nearly half of them were self-employed. Most of the remainder worked in jew elry stores and repair shops or in factories that made watches, clocks, or other precision timing instru ments. A few watch repairmen were instructors in vocational schools. Although jewelry stores and re pair shops are found in many small towns, most are in large commercial centers such as New York City, Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and San Francisco. Nearly half of all manufacturing establishments are located in the mid-Atlantic region. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many young people become watch repairmen by taking courses in private watch repair schools or public vocational high schools. Others learn the trade through for mal apprenticeship or on-the-job training programs. There generally are no specific educational requirements for en trance into any of the approximately 40 watch repair schools although most students are high school grad uates. Courses usually last 18 460 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tiny parts. Beginners who have sufficient funds may open their own watch repair shops, but the usual prac tice is to work for an experienced watch repairman before starting one’s own business. Watch repair men may also open their own jew elry stores; however, these stores require a much greater financial investment than do repair shops. Employment Outlook Watch repairmen need patience and good manual dexterity. months, but the length of time varies with the ability of the indi vidual student and whether atten dance is full- or part-time. Students learn to take apart and reassemble various kinds of watch and clock movements, diagnose problems, make and adjust individual parts, and use and care for tools and machines. Some schools offer courses on repairing unusual types of timepieces, such as chronographs and timers. Most schools require students to furnish their own handtools. The following States require watch repairmen to obtain a li cense: Florida, Indiana, Iowa, Ken tucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Min nesota, North Carolina, North Da kota, Oregon, and Wisconsin. To obtain a license, repairmen must pass an examination designed to test their skill with tools and their knowledge of watch construction and repair. Watch repairmen in all States, however, can demonstrate their de gree of competence by passing one or two certification examinations given by the American Watch makers Institute. Successful exami nees receive the title of either Certified Watchmaker or Certified Master Watchmaker, depending on their proficiency. Annual voluntary examinations covering new phases of watchmaking also are offered, and those who pass are given a plaque of recognition. A young person planning a career as a watch repairman must be will ing to sit for long periods and work with a minimum of supervi sion. The precise and delicate nature of the work requires patience and concentration. Good visual depth perception helps in working with Employment of watch repairmen is expected to show little or no change through the mid-1980’s. However, hundreds of job openings will arise each year from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. The number of watches and clocks in use will grow fairly rapidly due to rising population and incomes. The trends toward owning more than one watch, wearing watches as costume jewelry, and buying more children’s watches are ex pected to continue. Only a limited number of these watches will be repaired, however, because most will be pin-lever types which cost little more to replace than to re pair. Consequently, the demand for repairmen is not expected to keep pace with increases in the number of watches in use. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of watch repairmen in entry jobs generally ranged from about $125 to $150 a week in 1972, based on the limited information available. Experienced watch re pairmen working in retail stores, repair shops, and watch manufac turing establishments received from $150 to $250 for a 40-hour week. In addition, repairmen in retail stores 461 OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN may receive commissions based on sales of watches and other items in the store. Watch repairmen who are in business for themselves usually earn considerably more than those work ing for a salary. Earnings of the self-employed depend on the amount of repair work done and, in the case of watch repairmen who own retail jewelry stores, the amount of sales. Repairmen working in factories and large shops often are covered by life and health insurance pro grams and may participate in sav ings and investment plans. Watch repairmen frequently work longer than the standard 40-hour week. Those who are self-employed or located in small communities often work a 48-hour week or longer. The work involves little physical exertion, however, and generally is performed in comfortable surround ings. This light benchwork frequent ly is recommended to certain handi capped workers. Some watch repairmen are mem bers of the International Jewelry Workers Union or the American Watch Workers Union (Ind.). Sources off Additional Information Information on training courses and watch repairing as a career can be obtained from: American Watchmakers Institute, P.O. Box 11011, Cincinnati, Ohio 45211. Information on job opportunities in retail stores can be obtained from: Retail Jewelers of America, Inc., 1025 Vermont Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Further information about work opportunities or training in this trade also may be available from local offices of the State employ ment service. HEALTH OCCUPATIONS When people are sick or injured, the availability of health service be comes very important to them. These services depend not only on the number of people employed in health occupations, but also on their geographic distribution. Num bers employed have grown very rapidly in recent years. How to improve their distribution remains a problem which is being attacked on the national, State and local levels. About 3.8 million people worked in health-related occupations in 1972. Besides doctors, nurses, den tists, and therapists, these include the behind-the-scenes technologists, technicians, administrators, and assitants. Registered nurses, physicians, pharmacists, and dentists consti tute the largest professional health occupations, and in 1972 ranged from 105,000 dentists to 750,000 registered nurses. Professional health occupations also include other medical practitioners (osteo pathic physicians, chiropractors, optometrists, podiatrists, and vet erinarians). Therapists (physical therapists, occupational therapists, and speech pathologists and audio logists) and administrators (hospital administrators and medical record administrators) also are profession al health workers, as are dietitians and sanitarians. Other health service workers in clude technicians of various types, such as medical technologist, medi cal X-ray technician, dental hygi enist, and dental laboratory tech nician. Large numbers—1.3 million— junior colleges have introduced worked as practical nurses and courses recently to prepare students auxiliary workers, including nursing for various health occupations. In aides, orderlies, hospital attendants, most of the occupations for which on-the-job-training has been the and psychiatric assistants. Hospitals employ about half of usual means of preparation, em all workers in the health field. ployers now prefer persons who Others work in clinics, laboratories, have completed one of these formal pharmacies, nursing homes, public programs. health agencies, mental health cen ters, private offices, and patients’ Earnings homes. Health workers are employed Earnings of health workers range mainly in the more heavily popu from the highest paid occupation— lated and prosperous areas of the physicians—to that of hospital at Nation. Large numbers of women work tendants, who receive three-fourths in health occupations. Almost all of the average earnings for nonnurses are women, as well as most supervisory workers in private in people in the technician, technologist dustry, except farming. Earnings and assistant occupations. Most for the other health occupations people in the therapist and reha that can be entered with up to 2 bilitation occupations also are wo years of formal training are about men. While more than 9 of every 1 C the same as average earnings for medical practitioners are men, an nonsupervisory workers in private increasing number of women have industry, except farming. People in entered these occupations in re those health occupations that re quire graduation from college earn cent years. from one-and-a-half times to twice these average earnings. Among the Training occupations for which average year The educational and other re ly earnings are reported in the quirements for work in the health Handbook, the top 15 include 8 of field are as diverse as the health the professional health occupations, occupations themselves. For ex including all 6 medical practitioners. ample, professional health workers— physicians, dentists, pharmacists, and Outlook others—must complete a number of years of preprofessional and profes Overall employment in the health sional college education and pass a field is expected to grow very State licensing examination. On the rapidly through the mid-1980’s, al other hand, some health service occu though the rates of growth will pations can be entered with little spec differ considerably among individual ialized training. Many community and health occupations. Among the fac 463 464 tors that are expected to contribute to an increase in the demand for health care are population growth coupled with increasing health con sciousness and rising standards of living. Expansion of coverage under payment programs that make it easier for persons to pay for hos pitalization and medical care also will cause growth in the health serv ice occupations. Other openings OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK will be created each year by the in creasing expenditures by Federal, State, and local governments for health care and services. In addition to jobs created by employment growth many new workers will be needed each year to replace those who retire, die, or—particularly for women—leave the field for other reasons. Recent expansion of training pro grams in most of the occupations will add to the supply of trained health service personnel. The em ployment outlook in the various occupations ranges from excellent to possibly competitive, depending on the balance between supply of workers and expected openings. See the individual statements for an outlook description for each occupation. DENTAL OCCUPATIONS Proper dental care is an integral part of overall health care. This section focuses on the dental pro fession and the three key dental occupations. Dentists examine and treat pa tients for oral diseases and abnor malities, such as decayed and impacted teeth. To an increasing extent, however, modern dentistry is emphasizing education in the proper care of teeth and gums to prevent future dental problems be fore they occur. Dental hygienists are the only dental auxiliary required by each State to be licensed. They scale, clean, and polish teeth, expose X-rays, and instruct patients in proper oral hygiene. Dental assistants assist dentists primarily in private offices. They prepare the patient for treatment and assist the dentist while he is working with the patient. Dental laboratory technicians prepare various dental and ortho dontal appliances from models and specifications received from dentists. This work requires patience, minute attention to detail, and a high de gree of manual dexterity. tract teeth and substitute artificial dentures designed for the individual patient. They also perform correc tive surgery of the gums and sup porting bones. In addition, they may clean teeth. Dentists spend most of their time with patients, but may devote some time to laboratory work such as making dentures and inlays. Many dentists, however—particularly in large cities—send most of their laboratory work to commercial firms. Some dentists also employ dental hygienists to clean patients’ teeth and for other duties. (See statement on Dental Hygienists.) They also may employ other assist ants who perform office work and assist in “chairside” duties. Most dentists are general prac titioners who provide many types of dental care; about 10 percent are specialists. The largest group of specialists are orthodontists, who straighten teeth. The next largest group, oral surgeons, operate in DENTISTS (D.O.T. 072.108) Dentists examine teeth and other tissues of the mouth to diagnose diseases or abnormalities. They take X-rays, fill cavities, straighten teeth, and treat gum diseases. Dentists ex 465 466 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK the mouth and jaws. The remainder In 13 States, however, a dentist specialize in pedodontics (dentistry cannot be licensed as a “specialist” for children); periodontics (treating unless he has had 2 or 3 years of the gums); prosthodontics (making graduate education and passes a artificial teeth or dentures); endo special State examination. Few dontics (root canal therapy); public States permit dentists licensed in health dentistry; and oral pathology other States to practice in their jurisdictions without further ex (diseases of the mouth). About 3 percent of all dentists amination. Dental colleges require from 2 teach in dental schools, do research, or administer dental health pro to 3 years of predental education. grams on a full-time basis. Many However, of those students enter dentists in private practice do this ing dental school in 1971, 70 per cent had a baccalaureate or mas work on a part-time basis. ter’s degree. Predental education must include courses in the sciences and humanities. Places of Employment Competition is keen for admit About 105,000 dentists were at tance to dental schools. In selecting work in the United States in 1972— students, schools give considerable 9 of every 10 were in private prac weight to college grades and amount tice. About 5,800 served as commis of college education. In addition, all sioned officers in the Armed Forces, dental schools participate in a nation and about 1,400 had other types of wide admission testing program, and Federal Government positions— scores earned on these tests are chiefly in the hospitals and clinics considered along with information of the Veterans Administration and gathered about the applicant through the Public Health Service. Women recommendations and interviews. dentists represent only about 2 per Many State-supported dental cent of the profession. schools also give preference to residents of their particular States. Dental school training generally Training, Other Qualifications, lasts 4 academic years although and Advancement some institutions condense this into A license to practice dentistry 3 calendar years. Studies begin with is required in all States and the Dis an emphasis on classroom instruc trict of Columbia. To qualify for a tion and laboratory work in basic license, a candidate must be a grad sciences such as anatomy, micro uate of an approved dental school biology, and physiology. The last and pass a State board examination. 2 years are spent chiefly in a dental In 1972, 49 States and the District clinic, treating patients. of Columbia recognized the exami The degree of Doctor of Dental nation given by the National Board Surgery (D.D.S.) is awarded by of Dental Examiners as a substi most dental colleges. An equivalent tute for the written part of the degree, Doctor of Dental Medicine State board examinations. Delaware (D.M.D.) is conferred by 13 schools. also requires new graduates to serve Dentists who want to do research, 1 year of hospital internship, in teach, or become specialists must addition to passing the written ex spend an additional 2 to 4 years amination. Most State licenses per in advanced dental training in pro mit dentists to engage in both grams operated by dental schools, general and specialized practice. hospitals, and other institutions of higher education. Dental education is very costly because of the length of time re quired to earn the dental degree. However, the Comprehensive Health Manpower Training Act of 1971 provides Federal funds for loans and scholarships of up to $3,500 a year to help needy students pursue full-time study leading to the de gree. The profession of dentistry re quires both manual skills and a high level of intelligence. Dentists should have good visual memory, excellent judgment of space and shape, delicacy of touch, and a high degree of manual dexterity, as well as scientific ability. The ability to instill confidence, self-discipline, and a good business sense are help ful for success in private practice. Most dental graduates open their own offices or purchase established practices. Some start in practice with established dentists, to gain experience and to save the money required to equip an office; others may enter residency or internship training programs in approved hos pitals. Dentists who enter the Armed Forces are commissioned as cap tains in the Army and Air Force and as lieutenants in the Navy. Graduates of recognized dental schools are eligible for Federal Civil Service positions and for com missions (equivalent to lieutenants in the Navy) in the U.S. Public Health Service. Employment Outlook Employment opportunites for den tists are expected to be very good through the mid-1980’s. Dental school enrollments have grown in recent years because of Federallyassisted construction of additional training facilities. However, unless schools expand beyond present HEALTH OCCUPATIONS levels, the number of new entrants to the field is expected to fall short of the number needed to fill open ings created by growth of the occu pation and by those who die and retire from the profession. Employment of dentists is ex pected to grow rapidly due to population growth, increased aware ness that regular dental care helps prevent and control dental diseases, and the expansion of prepayment arrangements which make it easier for people to afford dental services. In addition, dental public health programs will need qualified admin istrators and dental colleges will need additional faculty members. Many dentists will continue to serve in the Armed Forces. Improved dental hygiene and fluoridation of community water supplies may prevent some tooth and gum disorders, and preserve teeth that might otherwise be ex tracted. However, since the pre served teeth will need care in the future, these measures may increase rather than decrease the demand for dental care. New techniques, equipment, and drugs, as well as the expanded use of dental hygienists, assistants, and laboratory techni cians should enable individual den tists to care for more patients. However, these developments are not expected to offset the need for more dentists. Earnings and Working Conditions During the first year or two of practice, dentists often earn little more than the minimum needed to cover expenses, but their earnings usually rise rapidly as their prac tice develops. Specialists generally earn considerably more than general practitioners. The average income of dentists in 1972 was about $34,000 a year, according to limited infor mation available. In the Federal 467 Government, new graduates of den tal schools could expect to start at $13,996 a year, in early 1973. Location is one of the major fac tors affecting the income of dentists who open their own offices. For ex ample, in high-income urban areas, dental services are in great demand; however, a practice can be devel oped most quickly in small towns, where new dentists easily become known and they may face less competiton with established practition ers. Although the income from practice in small towns may rise rapidly at first, over the long run the level of earnings, like the cost of living, may be lower than it is in larger communities. Most dental offices are open 5 days a week and some dentists have evening hours. Dentists usually work between 40 and 45 hours a week, although many spend more than 50 hours a week in the office. Dentists often work fewer hours as they grow older, and a considerable number continue in part-time practice well beyond the usual retirement age. Sources of Additional Information Persons who wish to practice in a given State should get the require ments for licensure from the board of dental examiners of that State. Lists of State boards and of ac credited dental schools, as well as information on dentistry as a career, is available from: American Dental Association, Council on Dental Education, 211 East Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. American Association of Dental Schools 1625 Massachusetts Ave. NW ,, Wash ington, D.C. 20036. Students should contact the Di rector of Student Financial Aid at the school they attend to get infor mation about Federal loans and scholarships. DENTAL ASSISTANTS (D.O.T. 079.378) Nature of the Work Dental assistants work with den tists as they examine and treat patients. The assistant makes the patient comfortable in the dental chair, prepares him for treatment, and obtains his dental records. As the dentist works, the assistant hands him the proper instruments and ma terials and keeps the patient’s mouth clear by using suction or other de vices. Dental assistants may prepare materials for making impressions and restorations and may expose X-rays and process dental X-ray film as directed by the dentist. They also sterilize and care for dental instruments. Dental assistants perform a vari ety of duties that do not require the dentist’s professional knowledge and skill. Some assistants make casts of the teeth and mouth from impres sions taken by the dentist. These casts are used by dentists and tech nicians to make dentures. Some dental assistants manage the office and arrange and confirm appoint ments, receive patients, keep treat ment records, send bills, receive payments, and order dental supplies and materials. The work of the dental assistant should not be confused with that of the dental hygienist who scales and cleans the teeth. (See statement on Dental Hygienists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Places of Employment Nearly 115,000 persons, prac tically all of them women, worked as dental assistants in 1972; about one out of five worked part time. Most dental assistants work in private dental offices, either for in dividual dentists or for groups of 468 dentists. Many of the remainder work in dental schools, hospital dental departments, State and local public health departments, or pri vate clinics. The Federal Govern ment employs dental assistants, chiefly in the Public Health Service, the Veterans Administration, and the Department of the Army. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most dental assistants learn their skills on the job. An increasing number, however, are trained in formal post-high-school programs. About 200 such programs were ac credited by the Council on Dental Education of the American Dental Association (ADA) in early 1973. Some were supported by funds authorized under Federal legislation, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK including the Vocational Education Act of 1963 and the Health Training Improvements Act of 1970. Most post-high-school courses in dental assisting are given in junior and community colleges or in voca tional or technical schools. More than three-fourths of these programs last one year and lead to a certificate or diploma. Graduates of 2-year programs offered in junior and com munity colleges earn an associate degree upon completion of special ized training and liberal arts courses. The minimum requirement for any of these programs is a high school diploma or its equivalent. Some schools also require typing or a science or business course. Although some private schools offer 4- to 6month courses in dental assisting, these are not accredited by the dental profession. Approved dental assisting curriculums include classroom and lab oratory instruction in skills and related theory and usually a general occupational orientation. Trainees get practical experience in affiliated dental schools, local clinics or se lected dental offices. A correspondence course ap proved by the American Dental As sociation is available for employed dental assistants who are learning on the job or who otherwise are unable to participate in regular dental assisting programs on a full time basis. The correspondence pro gram is equivalent to 1 academic year of study, but generally requires about 2 years to complete. Graduates of approved dental as sistant programs who meet certain experience requirements and who successfully complete an examina tion administered by the Certifying Board of the American Dental As sistants Association may become Certified Dental Assistants. Certifi cation is acknowledgement of an assistant’s qualifications but is not generally required for employment. After working 1 or 2 years, dental assistants sometimes seek to add to their skills by becoming dental hy gienists. Prospective dental assist ants who foresee this possibility should plan carefully since credit earned in a dental assistant program usually is not applicable toward re quirements for a dental hygiene certificate. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for dental assistants are expected to be excellent through the mid-1980’s, especially for graduates of academic programs in dental assisting. Parttime opportunities also will be very favorable. Employment of dental assistants is expected to grow rapidly, largely HEALTH OCCUPATIONS because recent graduates of dental schools have been taught to use as sistants in their practice. In addition, the increase in the demand for dental services which stems from popula tion growth, a growing awareness of the importance of regular dental care, and the increasing ability of people to pay for care will contribute to the demand for dental assistants. For example, increased participation in dental prepayment plans and public programs such as Head Start and Medicaid bring dental services within the reach of many who could not otherwise afford them. In addition to job openings cre ated by growth in the demand for dental assistants, thousands of as sistants also will be required each year to replace those who leave the field. Earnings and Working Conditions Salary depends largely on the assistant’s education and experience, the duties and responsibilities at tached to the particular job, and geographic location. Weekly salaries of assistants employed in private dental offices ranged from $80 to $160 in late 1972, according to the limited data available. In the Federal Government, ex perience and the amount and type of education determine entrance sal aries. In early 1973, a person who had 6 months of experience started at $6,128 a year; graduates of an ADA approved 1-year training pro gram who had an additional year of general experience could expect to start at $6,882 a year. Although the 40-hour workweek prevails for dental assistants, the schedule is likely to include work on Saturday. A 2- or 3-week paid vacation is common. Some dentists provide sick leave and other ben efits. Dental assistants who work for the Federal Government receive 469 the same employee benefits as other Federal workers. Dental assistants work in a welllighted, clean environment. They must be careful in handling X-ray and other equipment. Sources of Additional Information Information about career op portunities, scholarships, accredited dental assistant programs, including the correspondence program, and requirements for certification is available from: American Dental Assistants Association, 211 East Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Other material on opportunities for dental assistants is available from: Division of Dental health, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C. 20201. DENTAL HYGIENISTS (D.O.T. 078.368) Nature of the Work Dental hygienists remove deposits and stains from patients’ teeth and apply prescribed medications to con trol dental decay. They take medical and dental histories; prepare diag nostic tests for interpretation by the dentist; and chart conditions of decay and disease for the dentists’ use. They expose and develop dental X-ray films, sterilize instruments, and maintain patient records. They may mix filling compounds and act as chairside assistants to dentists. Hygienists also teach the techniques of mouth care and proper diet. Dental hygienists who work in school systems examine children’s teeth, assist dentists in determining the dental treatment needed, and report their findings to parents. They also clean teeth and give instruction on correct mouth care. Some help to develop classroom or assembly programs on oral health. Dental hygienists employed by health agen cies work in dental clinics. A few assist in research projects. Those having advanced training may teach in schools of dental hygiene. Places of Employment Nearly 17,000 persons, most of them women, worked as dental hy gienists in 1972. Many work part time. Most work in private dental offices. Public health agencies, school systems, industrial plants, clinics, hospitals, dental hygiene schools and the Federal Government also employ dental hygienists. Some who are graduates of bachelor’s de gree programs are commissioned officers in the U.S. Army. Training and Other Qualifications Dental hygienists must be li censed. To get a license, a candidate must be a graduate of an accredited dental hygiene school, except in Alabama, and pass both a written and clinical examination. In 1972, candidates in 48 States and the District of Columbia could complete part of the State licensing require ments by passing a written exam ination given by the National Board of Dental Examiners. In order to practice in a different State, a licensed dental hygienist must pass the State’s examination. However, about 15 States grant li censes without further examination to dental hygienists already licensed in certain other States. In 1972, about 150 schools of dental hygiene in the United States were accredited by the Council on Dental Education of the American Dental Association. Most of these schools provide a 2-year certificate or associate degree program. Some have 4-year programs leading to the bachelor’s degree in dental hygiene 470 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment of dental hygienists is expected to rise very rapidly due to an expanding population and the growing awareness of the im portance of regular dental care. Increased participation in dental prepayment plans and more group practice among dentists will result in new jobs for dental hygienists. Dental care programs for children also may lead to more employment opportunities in this field. In addi tion, a great number of job openings will be created by young women leaving their jobs for marriage and family responsibilities. Mature women who wish to re turn to the field and those who desire part-time positions can ex pect to find very good opportunities for employment. Earnings and Working Conditions and others offer both programs. Five schools offer master’s degree programs. Completion of the 2-year program is sufficient for dental hygienists who want to practice in a private dental office. In order to do re search, teach, and work in public or school health programs, the com pletion of a 4-year program usually is required. The minimum requirement for ad mission to a school of dental hygiene is graduation from high school. Several schools which offer the bachelor’s degree admit students to the dental hygiene program only after they have completed 2 years of college. Many schools also re quire that applicants take an apti tude test given by the American Dental Hygienist’s Association. The curriculum at a school of dental hygiene consists of courses in the basic sciences, dental sciences, Earnings of dental hygienists are affected by the type of employer, education, and experience of the individual hygienists and the geo graphic location. Dental hygienists and liberal arts. These schools offer who work in private dental offices laboratory work, clinical experience, usually are salaried employees, al and classroom instruction in sub though some are paid a commission jects such as anatomy, chemistry, for work performed or a combina histology, pathology, pharmacology, tion of salary and commission. and nutrition. Salaries of dental hygienists who People who want to become dental work in dentists’ offices averaged hygienists should enjoy working with about $8,900 a year in 1972, accord others. The ability to put patients ing to the limited data available. at ease in an uncomfortable situation This salary was about the same is helpful. Personal neatness and as the average for nonsupervisory cleanliness, manual dexterity, and workers in private industry, except good health also are important farming. The beginning salary for a qualities. dental hygienist in the Federal Government ranged from $6,882 to Employment Outlook $8,722 a year in early 1973, depend Employment opportunities for ing on education and geographic dental hygienists are expected to be area. very good through the mid-1980’s. Dental hygienists employed full Despite an anticipated rise in the time in private offices usually work number of graduates from schools between 35 and 40 hours a week. of dental hygiene, the demand is ex They may work on Saturdays or pected to be greater than the number during evening hours. Some hy available for employment if current gienists work for two or more trends in enrollments continue. dentists. HEALTH OCCUPATIONS Dental hygienists work in clean, by dentists. They also make metal well-lighted offices. Important castings for dentures, finish and health protections for persons in polish dentures, construct metal or this occupation are regular medical porcelain crowns or inlays for par checkups and strict adherence to tially destroyed teeth, make bridges established procedures for using X- of gold and other metals, and make ray equipment and for disinfection. appliances to correct abnormalities Dental hygienists who work for such as cleft palates. Trainees in beginning jobs usually school systems, health agencies, and the Federal or State govern mix and pour plaster into casts and ments have the same hours, vaca molds and do other simple tasks. tion, sick leave, retirement, and As they gain experience, they do health insurance benefits as other more difficult laboratory work. Some dental laboratory technicians workers in these organizations. do all kinds of laboratory work. Others are specialists who make Sources of Additional Information crowns and bridges, arrange arti For information about approved ficial teeth on dental appliances, schools and the educational require process plastic materials, work with ments needed to enter this occupa dental ceramics (porcelain), or make castings of gold or other metal tion, contact: alloys. To perform their work, tech Division of Educational Services, Amer ican Dental Hygienists Association, nicians use small handtools as well 211 East Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. as special electric lathes and drills, 60611. high-heat furnaces, and other kinds Other material on opportunities of specialized laboratory equipment. for dental hygienists is available from: Division of Dental Health, Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C. 20201. The State Board of Dental Exam iners in each State, or the National Board of Dental Examiners, 211 East Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611, can supply information on licensing requirements. DENTAL LABORATORY TEC H N IC IA N S (D.O.T. 712.381) Nature of the Work Dental laboratory technicians make dentures (artificial teeth), crowns, bridges, and other dental and orthodontic appliances. To make many dental appliances, the technicians form plaster models from written instructions and im pressions of patients’ mouths taken 471 Places of Employment About 32,000 persons worked as dental laboratory technicians in 1972; an estimated one-fifth of the working force were women. Most work in commercial laboratories, either as employees or as owners of the business. Commercial labor atories, which handle orders from dentists, usually employ fewer than 10 technicians. However, a few large laboratories employ over 200 tech nicians. About 5,000 dental laboratory technicians work in dentists’ offices. Others work for hospitals that pro vide dental services and for the Federal Government, chiefly in Vet erans Administration hospitals and clinics and in the Armed Forces. Establishments that manufacture dental materials and equipment also employ dental laboratory techni cians as technical representatives and salesmen. Dental laboratories are located 472 mainly in large cities and populous States. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although no minimum formal education is needed to enter this occupation, a high school diploma is an asset. Most dental laboratory technicians learn their craft on the job. This training usually lasts 4 or 5 years, depending on the trainee’s previous experience, his ability to master the techniques, and the num ber of specialized areas to be learned. A few public vocational high schools offer courses in dental laboratory work that may be taken in conjunction with on-the-job training. In 1972, 2-year education pro grams accredited by the American Dental Association were offered in 33 schools. High school graduation or equivalent education is required to enter these programs. The first year of training includes formal classroom instruction in dental law and ethics, chemistry, ceramics, metallurgy, and other related sub jects. During the second year, the student gets supervised practical ex perience in the school or dental laboratory. After completion of the 2-year training program, the trainee generally needs about 3 more years of practical experience to develop the skills needed in order to be recognized as a well-qualified dental technician. Dental laboratory technicians may become Certified Dental Technicians after passing written and practical examinations given by the National Board for Certification, a trust established by the National As sociation of Dental Laboratories. Certification is becoming increas ingly important as evidence of a technician’s competence. Wellqualified technicians can advance to managers and foremen. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Among the personal qualifications that employers look for in selecting trainees are a high degree of man ual dexterity, good color perception, patience, and a liking for detailed work. Preference also may be given to persons who have completed high school courses in art, crafts, or sciences. Employment Outlook Job opportunities for wellqualified dental laboratory techni cians are expected to be very good through the mid-1980’s. Some ex perienced technicians should be able to establish laboratories of their own. A technician whose work has become known to several dentists in a community will have the best prospects of building a successful business. Employment of dental laboratory technicians is expected to grow rapidly due to expansion of dental prepayment plans and the increas ing number of older people who re quire artificial dentures. In addition, the number of dentists is not ex pected to keep pace with the demand for their services; to devote more time to treatment of patients, den tists will send more and more of their laboratory work to commercial firms, or hire dental laboratory tech nicians to work directly for them. In addition to job opportunities created by growth, many openings for dental laboratory technicians will occur each year because of the need to replace technicians who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Earnings and Working Conditions Dental laboratory technician trainees who worked in commercial laboratories earned an average of $80 a week in 1972. Technicians with 10 years’ experience or more in commercial laboratories general ly earned between $200 and $275 a week, depending on their skill and experience. This was higher than average earnings for nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Technicians who special ized in ceramics received the highest salaries. Large dental laboratories employ foremen or managers who generally earn more than techni cians. In general, earnings of selfemployed technicians are higher than those of salaried workers. In the Federal Government, grad uates of approved training programs were paid starting salaries of about $132 a week in early 1973. Ex perienced dental laboratory tech nicians employed in the Federal Government generally earned be tween $183 and $223 a week. Salaried technicians usually work 40 hours a week but self-employed technicians frequently work longer hours. Many technicians in com mercial laboratories receive paid holidays and vacations and some also receive paid sick leave, bonuses, and other fringe benefits. Tech nicians employed by the Federal Government have the same benefits as other Federal employees. Sources of Additional Information For information about the train ing and a list of approved schools contact: American Dental Association, Council on Dental Education, 211 East Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Information on scholarships is available from dental technology schools or from: The American Fund for Dental Educa tion, 211 East Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. For information on career oppor tunities in commercial laboratories and requirements for certification, contact: National Association of Dental Labor atories, Inc., 3801 Mt. Vernon Ave., Alexandria, Va. 22305. strict the type of supplementary treatment permitted in chiropractic. Chiropractic as a system for healing does not include the use of drugs or surgery. MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS Places of Employment Medical practitioners work to prevent, cure, and alleviate disease. This group includes almost four times as many physicians as all other practitioners combined. Physicians, osteopaths, and chiro practors treat diseases that affect the whole body; chiropractors and osteopaths emphasize manipulation of muscles and bones, especially the spine. Optometrists care for the eyes, and podiatrists treat foot diseases and deformities. Veterin arians care for animals. All of these occupations are closely regulated. States require that medical practitioners be li censed and pass a State board exam. Only physicians, osteopaths, podi atrists, and veterinarians can use drugs and surgery in their treatment. Among the six medical practi tioner occupations, educational re quirements for a license vary from 6 to 9 years after high school. After graduation from college, os teopaths must complete a 4-year program and physicians generally 3 or 4 years. Most States require a 1-year internship for both physicians and osteopaths. Physicians who spe cialize must spend more years in residency and pass a specialty board examination. Most schools of chiro practic require that students com plete 2 years of college preceding their 4-year program. Optometrists, podiatrists, and veterinarians all must complete a minimum of 2 years of college before beginning the 4-year program. The percent of women medical practitioners varies. All occupations have fewer than 10 percent women, but this number represents a growth over the past few years. Student enrollments indicate that these per cents will continue to grow. All medical practitioners must have the ability and perseverance to complete the years of study re quired. Medical practitioners should be emotionally stable, able to make decisions in emergencies, and have a strong desire to help the sick and injured. Sincerity and the ability to relate to and gain the confidence of people also are important qual ities for medical practitioners. CHIROPRACTORS (D.O.T. 079.108) Nature of the Work Chiropractic is a system of treat ment based on the principle that a person’s health is determined largely by the nervous system, and that interference with this system im pairs normal functions and lowers resistance to disease. Chiropractors treat patients primarily by manual manipulation of parts of the body, especially the spinal column. Because of the emphasis of the importance of the spine and its posi tion, most chiropractors use X-rays extensively to aid in locating the source of patients’ difficulties. Many also use such supplementary measures as water, light, and heat therapy, and prescribe diet, exer cise, and rest. Most State laws re About 16,000 persons, 6 percent of them women, practiced chiro practic in 1972. Most chiropractors are in private practice. Some are salaried assistants of established practitioners or work for chiro practic clinics and industrial firms. Others teach or conduct research at chiropractic colleges. More than two-fifths of all chiropractors are located in California, New York, Texas, Missouri, and Ohio. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Forty-eight States and the Dis trict of Columbia regulate the prac tice of chiropractic and grant licenses to chiropractors who meet certain educational requirements and pass a State board examination. The type of practice permitted and the educational requirements for a li cense vary considerably from one State to another. In 1972, Louisiana and Mississippi did not regulate the practice of chiropractic or issue licenses. Most States require successful completion of a 4-year chiropractic course following high school grad uation. About three-quarters of the States also require 2 years of col lege work in addition to chiro practic training. Nearly two-fifths of the States also require that chiropractors pass a basic science examination. Chiropractors licensed in one State may obtain a license in another State by reciprocity. In 1972, there were 10 chiropractic colleges. Most require 2 years of college before entrance, and some 473 474 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK chiropractors are expected to be favorable through the mid-1980’s. Most of the openings will be to re place those who die and retire. Underlying the expected moderate growth in the occupation are an increase in the population and the trend to include chiropractic serv ices in health insurance coverage, including Medicare and Medicaid. Since most States require some college training and others are like ly to require it in the next few years, the outlook is best for those who have completed 2 years of college in addition to the 4 years of chiro practic college. Opportunities for new graduates to begin their own practice are like ly to be best in those parts of the country where chiropractic is gen erally accepted as a method of health care. Opportunities also should be good for those who wish to enter salaried positions in chiro practic clinics, chiropractic colleges, and other organizations that employ chiropractors. Earnings and Working Conditions require that specific courses be taken during these 2 years. Some chiropractic colleges emphasize courses in manipulation and spinal adjustments. Others offer a broader curriculum, including subjects such as physiotheraphy and nutrition. In most chiropractic colleges, the first 2 years of the curriculum are de voted chiefly to classroom and laboratory work in subjects such as anatomy, physiology, and bio chemistry. During the last 2 years, students obtain practical experience in college clinics. The degree of Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C.) is awarded to students completing 4 years of chiropractic training. Chiropractic requires consider able hand dexterity but not unusual strength or endurance. Persons de siring to become chiropractors should be able to work indepen dently and handle responsibility. The ability to work with detail is important. Sympathy and under standing are among personal quali ties considered desirable in dealing effectively with patients. Most newly licensed chiropractors either set up a new practice or purchase an established one. Some start as salaried chiropractors to acquire experience and funds needed to establish their own practice. A moderate financial investment is usually necessary to open and equip an office. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for In chiropractic, as in other types of independent practice, earnings are relatively low in the begin ning, but rise after the first few years. Incomes of chiropractors vary widely. Earnings for beginning chiropractors average about $10,000 a year. Experienced chiropractors usually earn from $14,000 to $28,000 annually, with an average of about $24,000, according to limited data available. Sources of Additional Information The State board of licensing in the capital of each State can supply information on State licensing re quirements. General information on chiro practic as a career and a list of MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS 475 schools of chiropractic are available from: American Chiropractic Association, 2200 Grand Ave., Des Moines, Iowa 50312. International Chiropractors Association 741 Brady St., Davenport, Iowa 52808. For information on requirements for admission to a specific chiro practic college, contact the admis sions office of that school. OPTOMETRISTS (D.O.T. 079.108) Nature of the Work About 2 out of every 5 persons in the United States need eye care. Optometrists provide most of this care. They examine people’s eyes for vision problems, disease, and other abnormal conditions, and test for proper depth and color percep tion and the ability to focus and co ordinate the eyes. When necessary, they prescribe lenses and treat ment. Most optometrists supply the prescribed eyeglasses and fit and adjust contact lenses. Optometrists also prescribe corrective eye exer cises or other treatment not re quiring drugs or surgery. Although most optometrists are in general practice, some specialize in work with the aged or with chil dren. Others work only with per sons having partial sight who can be helped with microscopic or tele scopic lenses. Still others are con cerned with the visual safety of in dustrial workers. A few optome trists teach or do research. Optometrists should not be con fused with either ophthalmologists, sometimes referred to as oculists, or with dispensing opticians. Ophthalmologists are physicians who specialize in eye diseases and in juries, perform eye surgery, and prescribe drugs or other eye treat ment, as well as lenses. Dispensing opticians fit and adjust eyeglasses according to prescriptions written by ophthalmologists or optometrists; they do not examine eyes or pre scribe treatment. (See statement on Dispensing Opticians.) Places of Employment In 1972, there were about 18,700 practicing optometrists; about 3 per cent were women. Most optometrists are in single practice. Others are in partnerships or group practice with other optome trists or doctors as part of a profes sional health care team. Some optometrists work in special ized hospitals and eye clinics and teach in schools of optometry. Others work for the Veterans Administra tion, public and private health agencies, and industrial health in surance companies. About 600 op tometrists serve as commissioned officers in the Armed Forces. Op tometrists also may act as consult ants to engineers specializing in safe ty or lighting, educators in remedial reading, or serve as members of health advisory committees to Fed eral, State and local governments. According to a recent survey, about 3 optometrists out of 5 practice in towns of under 50,000 population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require that optometrists 476 be licensed. Applicants for a license must have a Doctor of Optometry degree from an accredited optometric school and pass a State board examination. In some States, applicants are permitted to sub stitute the National Board of Op tometry examination, given in the third and fourth year of optometric school, for the written State examination. Several States allow applicants to be licensed without lengthy examination if they have a license in another State. The Doctor of Optometry degree requires a minimum of 6 years of college consisting of a 4 year pro fessional degree program preceded by at least 2 years of preoptometric study at an accredited uni versity, college, or junior college. In 1972, there were 12 optometric schools approved by the Council on Optometric Education of the Ameri can Optometric Association. Re quirements for admission to these schools usually include courses in English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology, or zoology. Some schools also require courses in psychology, social studies, litera ture, philosophy, and foreign lan guages. Since most optometrists are selfemployed, business ability, selfdiscipline, and the ability to deal with patients tactfully are neces sary for success. Most beginning optometrists en ter into associate practice with an optometrist or other health profes sional. Others either purchase an established practice or set up a new practice. Some take salaried posi tions to obtain experience and the necessary funds to enter their own practice. Optometrists wishing to advance in a specialized field may study for a Master’s or Doctor of Philosophy degree in physiological optics, neurophysiology, public health ad OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ministration, health information and communication, and health education. Optometrists who enter the Armed Forces as career officers have the opportunity to work toward advanced degrees and to do vision research. Independent practitioners can set their own work schedule. Some work over 40 hours a week, in cluding Saturday. Since the work is not physically strenuous, op tometrists often can continue to practice after the normal retire ment age. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for optometrists are expected to be favorable through the mid-1980’s. New graduates from schools of op tometry are expected to be adequate to fill the positions made available by the moderate employ ment growth in the occupation and the need to replace optometrists who die and retire. An increase in the total popula tion, especially in the groups most likely to need glasses—older people and white-collar workers—is the main factor contributing to the moderate growth expected in the occupation. Greater recognition of the importance of good vision for efficiency at school and work, and the possibility that more persons will have health insurance to cover optometric services, also should in crease the demand for optometric services. Sources of Additional Information Information on optometry as a career and a list of scholarships and loan funds offered by various state associations, societies, and institu tions are available from: American Optometric Association 7000 Chippewa St., St. Louis, Mo. 63119. Federal Health Professions Scholarships and Loans are avail able for up to $3,500 per year for optometric students. For informa tion on this financial aid and on required preoptometry courses contact individual optometry schools. The Board of Optometry in the capital of each State can supply a list of optometry schools approved by that State, as well as licensing requirements. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1972, net earnings of new op tometry graduates averaged about $13,000; experienced optometrists averaged from $26,000 to $28,000 annually. Incomes vary greatly, de pending upon location, specializa tion, and other factors. Optome trists entering solo practice begin at approximately the same income level as those entering associateship or group practice. However, after several years, the optometrist in associateship or part nership practice will earn substan tially more than his solo practition er counterpart. OSTEOPATHIC PHYSICIANS (D.O.T. 071.108) Nature of the Work Osteopathic physicians diagnose, prescribe remedies, and treat diseases of the human body. They are particularly concerned about problems centered in the muscles or bones. The basic treatment or therapy used by osteopathic phy sicians centers on manipulating these systems with the hands. Osteopathic physicians also use 477 MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS surgery, drugs, and all other ac cepted methods of medical care. Most osteopathic physicians are “ family doctors” who engage in general practice. These physicians usually see patients in their offices, make house calls, and treat patients in osteopathic and some city and county hospitals. A few doctors of osteopathy teach, do research, or write and edit scientific books and journals. In recent years, specialization has increased. In 1972, about 10 percent were practicing specialties including internal medicine, neurol ogy and psychiatry, ophthalmology, pediatrics, anesthesiology, physical medicine and rehabilitation, derma tology, obstetrics and gynecology, pathology, proctology, radiology, and surgery. States in 1972; nearly 9 percent were women. Nearly all osteopathic physicians were in private practice. Less than 5 percent had full-time salaried positions in osteopathic hospitals and colleges, private indus try, or government agencies. Osteopathic physicians are lo cated chiefly in those States that have osteopathic hospital facilities. In 1972, almost half of all osteo pathic physicians were in Michigan, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Missouri. Twenty-three States and the Dis trict of Columbia each had fewer than 50 osteopathic physicians. More than half of all general prac titioners are located in towns and cities having fewer than 50,000 people; specialists, however, prac tice mainly in large cities. Training, Other Qualifications Places of Employment About 13,800 osteopathic phy sicians were practicing in the United A license to practice as an osteo pathic physician is required in all States. To obtain a license, a can didate must be a graduate of an approved school of osteopathy and pass a State board examination. In 17 States and the District of Co lumbia, candidates must pass an ex amination in the basic sciences before they are eligible to take the professional examination; 36 States and the District of Columbia also require a period of intern ship in an approved hospital after graduation from an osteopathic school. The National Board of Osteopathic Examiners also gives an examination which is accepted by some states as a substitute for state examination. All States except Alaska and California grant licenses without further examination to properly qualified osteopathic phy sicians already licensed by another State. Although 3 years of preosteopathic college work is the mini mum entrance requirement for schools of osteopathy, almost all osteopathic students have a bache lors degree. Preosteopathic educa tion must include courses in chemistry, physics, biology, and English. Osteopathic colleges require successful completion of 4 years of professional study for the degree of Doctor of Osteopathy (D.O.). During the first 2 years of profes sional training, emphasis is placed on basic sciences such as anatomy, physiology, pathology and on the principles of osteopathy; the last 2 years are devoted largely to work with patients in hospitals and clinics. After graduation, nearly all doc tors of osteopathy serve a 12month internship at 1 of the 73 osteopathic hospitals that the American Osteopathic Association has approved for intern training. Those who wish to become special ists must have 2 to 5 years of addi tional training, followed by 2 years of supervised practice in the specialty. 478 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK The osteopathic physician’s training is very costly because of the length of time it takes to earn the D.O. degree. However, Federal funds for loans and scholarships of up to $3,500 a year are available to help needy students pursue full time study leading to the degree. The seven schools of osteopathy admit students on the basis of grades received in college, scores on the required Medical College Admissions Test, and the amount of preosteopathic college work completed. The applicant’s desire to serve as an osteopathic phy sician rather than as a doctor trained in other fields of medicine is a very important qualification. The colleges also give considerable weight to a favorable recom mendation by an osteopathic phy sician familiar with the applicant’s background. Newly qualified doctors of osteopathy usually establish their own practice, although a growing number are entering group practice. A few work as assistants to ex perienced physicians or become associated with osteopathic hospi tals. In view of the variation in State laws, persons who wish to be come osteopathic physicians should study carefully the professional and legal requirements of the State in which they plan to practice. The availability of osteopathic hospitals and clinical facilities also should be considered. Persons who wish to become osteopathic physicians must have a strong desire to practice osteo pathic principles of healing. They should have a keen sense of touch, emotional stability, and selfconfidence. A pleasant personality, friendliness, patience, and the ability to deal with people also are important. Employment Outlook Opportunities for osteopathic physicians are expected to be very good through 1980. With the planned expansion of schools of osteopathy, by 1985 the number of osteopathic physicians available is expected to be in rough balance with the openings created by growth in the occupation and by those who die or retire from the profession. Greatest demand for their services probably will continue to be in States where osteopathy is a widely accepted method of treatment, such as Pennsylvania and a number of Midwestern States. Generally, pros pects for beginning a successful practice are likely to be best in rural areas, small towns, and city suburbs, where the young doctor of osteopathy may establish his pro fessional reputation more easily than in the centers of large cities. The osteopathic profession is ex pected to grow very rapidly because of population growth; the extension of prepayment programs for hospi talization and medical care in cluding Medicare and Medicaid; and the establishment of additional osteopathic hospital facilities. Earnings and Working Conditions In osteopathy, as in many of the other health professions, incomes usually rise markedly after the first few years of practice. Earnings of individual practitioners are deter mined mainly by ability, experi ence, geographic location, and the income level of the community served. In 1972, the average income of general practitioners after busi ness expenses ranged from $25,000 to $35,000, according to limited data available. This income is very high in comparison with other pro fessions. Specialists usually had higher incomes than general prac titioners. Many osteopathic physicians work week. work hours more than 50 or 60 hours a Those in general practice longer and more irregular than specialists. Sources of Additional Information People who wish to practice in a given State should find out about the requirements for licensure di rectly from the board of examiners of that State. Information on Federal scholarships and loans is available from the Director of Student Financial Aid at the indi vidual schools of osteopathy. For a list of State boards, as well as general information on osteopathy as a career, contact: American Osteopathic Association 212 East Ohio St., Chicago, 111. 60611. PHYSICIANS (D.O.T. 070.101 and. 108) Nature of the Work People in the United States visit a physician on the average of about 5 times a year either for treatment of an illness or injury or else for routine checkups. Physicians diagnose diseases and treat people who are suffering from injury or disease. They also try to prevent illness by advising patients on selfcare related to diet and exercise. Physicians generally examine and treat patients in their own offices and in hospitals, but they may also visit patients at home. About one-fifth of the physicians who provide patient care are general practitioners; the others specialize in 1 of the 33 fields recognized by the medical profes sion. The largest specialties are internal medicine, general surgery, MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS obstetrics and gynecology, psy chiatry, pediatrics, radiology, anesthesiology, opthalmology, path ology, and orthopedic surgery. Some physicians combine the practice of medicine with research or teaching in medical schools. Others hold full-time research or teaching positions or perform ad ministrative work in hospitals, pro fessional associations, and other organizations. A few are primarily engaged in writing and editing medical books and magazines. Places of Employment About 316,500 physicians were professionally active in the U.S. in 1972; more than 7 percent were women. About 9 out of 10 pro vided patient care services. Nearly 196,000 of these physicians had office practices; more than 86,000 others worked as interns, residents, or full-time staff in hospitals. Over 479 lumbia require a license to practice medicine. To qualify for a license, a candidate must be a graduate of an approved medical school, pass a licensing examination, and in 34 States and the District of Columbia serve a 1-year hospital internship. Eighteen States and the District of Columbia require candidates to pass a special examination in the basic sciences to become eligible for the licensing examination. Licensing examinations are given by State boards. The National Board of Medical Examiners also gives an examination which is ac cepted by 48 States and the District of Columbia as a substitute for State examinations. Although phy sicians licensed in one State usually can get a license to practice in another without further examina tion, some States limit this reciprocity. In 1972, there were 110 approved schools in the United States in 36,000 taught or performed admin which students could begin the study of medicine. One hundred istrative or research duties. In 1972, 17,500 graduates of seven award the degree of Doctor foreign medical schools served as of Medicine (M.D.) to those who hospital interns and residents in complete the course; 3 offer 2-year this country. To be appointed to programs in the basic medical sci approved internships or residencies ences to students who could then in U.S. hospitals, these graduates transfer to regular medical schools (citizens of foreign countries as for the last semesters of study. well as U.S. citizens) must pass Three new schools enrolled medical the American Medical Qualification students for the first time during Examination given by the Educa 1973. Most medical schools require tional Council for Foreign Medical applicants to have completed at Graduates. The Northeastern States have the least 3 years of college education; highest ratio of physicians to popu some require 4 years. A few medi lation and the Southern States, the cal schools allow selected students lowest. General practitioners are who have exceptional qualifications much more widely spread geo to begin their professional study graphically than specialists, who after 2 years of college. Most stu tend to be concentrated in large dents who enter medical schools have a bachelor’s degree. cities. Eleven States require various courses in premedical study such Training and Other Qualifications as undergraduate courses in English, All States and the District of Co physics, biology, and inorganic and 480 organic chemistry in an accredited college. Students should take courses in the humanities, mathe matics, and the social sciences to acquire a broad general education. Other factors considered by medi cal schools in admitting students include the individual’s college record and his scores on the Medi cal College Admission Test, which is taken by almost all applicants. Consideration also is given to the applicant’s character, personality, and leadership qualities, as shown by personal interviews, letters of recommendation, and extracur ricular activities in college. Many State-supported medical schools give preference to residents of their particular States and sometimes, those of nearby States. The traditional curriculum lead ing to the M.D. degree is a 4-year course of study. However, more than 30 medical schools have shortened the curriculum or plan to do so. Most of these are 3-year curriculums, but a few schools offer the M.D. degree within 6 years of high school graduation. The first semesters of medical school training are spent primarily in laboratories and classrooms, learning basic medical sciences such as anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, pharamacology, micro biology, and pathology. During the last semesters, students spend most of their time in hospitals and clinics under the supervision of ex perienced physicians. They learn to take case histories, perform exam inations, and recognize diseases. Many new physicians acquire training beyond the 1-year hospital internship. Those who plan to be general or family practitioners often spend an additional year or two as interns or residents in a hospital. To become certified specialists, physicians must pass specialty board examinations. To qualify for OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK these examinations, they must spend from 2 to 4 years—depending on the specialty—in advanced hos pital training as residents, followed by 2 years or more of practice in the specialty. Some doctors who want to teach or do research take graduate work leading to the master’s or Ph.D. degree in a field such as biochemistry or micro biology. Medical training is very costly because of the long time required to earn the medical degree. However, many private scholarships and loans are available for medical education. In addition, Federal funds provide scholarships and loans for up to $3,500 per year for students in the health professions who need finan cial aid. Persons who wish to become phy sicians must have a strong desire to serve the sick and injured. They must be willing to study a great deal to keep up with the latest advances in medical science. Besides being one of the most exacting sciences, medicine demands that practition ers strictly adhere to high moral standards subscribed to by the pro fession, law and tradition. Sincerity and a pleasant personality are assets that help physicians gain the confidence of patients. Prospective physicians should be emotionally stable and able to make decisions in emergencies. The majority of newly qualified physicians open their own offices or join associate or group practices. Those who have completed their internships and enter active military duty initially serve as captains in the Army or Air Force or as lieu tenants in the Navy. Graduates of medical schools are eligible for commissions as senior assistant sur geons (equivalent to lieutenants in the Navy) in the U.S. Public Health Service, as well as for Federal Civil Service professional medical positions. Employment Outlook The employment outlook for physicians is expected to be very good through 1985. Anticipated in creases in graduates from existing and developing U.S. medical schools combined with foreign medical grad uate entrants point to a greatly improved supply situation. This may result in an increasing movement of physicians into rural and other areas which have experienced shortage conditions in the past. Foreign medical graduates are a large part of the new supply of physicians each year. In 1972, 1 new physician out of 3 was a foreign medical graduate. Even with the expansion of U.S. schools, by 1985 1 new physician out of 4 will still be a foreign medical graduate if their entry continues in line with past trends. Even though the number of medi cal schools has increased in the last few years, the competition for first year places in medical school is be coming even greater. In 1973, there were about 40,000 applicants for 14,000 positions. Growth in population will create much of the need for more physi cians. Also, a larger percentage of the population will be in the age group over 65, which uses increased physicians’ services. Also, the effec tive demand for physicians’ care will increase because of greater ability to pay, resulting from exten sion of prepayment programs for hospitalization and medical care, including Medicare and Medicaid, and continued Federal Government provision of medical care for mem bers of the Armed Forces, their families, and veterans. More physi cians will be needed, in addition, for medical research and adminis tration, and for teaching in medical schools, as well as the continuing growth in the fields of public health, rehabilitation, industrial medicine, MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS and mental health. Recent concern over the distribu tion of physicians between special ties and general practice has re sulted in creation of Federal funds for promotion of programs in family medicine. The new specialty of family practice has grown very rapidly since 1971, in keeping with the need for more M.D.’s who treat a variety of the more common ill nesses. To some extent, the rise in the demand for physicians’ services will be offset by developments that will enable physicians to care for more patients. For example, increasing numbers of medical technicians are assisting physicians; new drugs and new medical techniques are shorten ing illnesses; and growing numbers of physicians are able to use their time more effectively by engaging in group practice. In addition, fewer house calls are being made by phy sicians because of the growing ten dency to treat patients in hospitals and in physicians’ offices. The extent to which the devel oping health occupations, such as those of physicians’ assistants and nurse practitioners, will enable each physician to treat more patients is as yet unknown. It is possible that these new health personnel will de crease the physicians’ work signifi cantly. In addition, legislation was passed in 1972 authorizing the Vet erans Administration to assist States in the establishment of up to 8 new medical schools. As of mid-1973, no funds had been requested for the implementation of this legislation. However, if these schools were established, the increased number of physicians could create an over supply in some geographic or spe cialty areas. Either a large increase in the number of physicians or the ability of each physician to treat more patients would force more physicians to establish their prac 481 tice in sections of the country which have few doctors and to choose gen eral practice or family medicine instead of one of the other spe cialties. Earnings and Working Conditions New graduates serving as in terns in 1972 had an average annual salary of $8,838 in hospitals affiliated with medical schools and $10,076 in other hospitals. In 1972, residents earned average annual salaries of $7,572 in hospitals affili ated with medical schools and $9,418 in nonaffiliated hospitals, according to the American Medical Associa tion. Many hospitals also provided full or partial room, board, and other maintenance allowances to their interns and residents. Graduates employed by the Fed eral Government in 1973 received an annual starting salary of about $14,000 if they had completed their internship, and about $16,700 if they had completed a 1-year residency. Newly qualified physicians who establish their own practice must make a sizable financial investment to equip a modern office. During the first year or two of independent practice, physicians probably earn little more than the minimum needed to pay expenses. As a rule, however, their earnings rise rapidly as their practice develops. Physicians have the highest aver age annual earnings of any occu pational group. The net income of physicians who provided patient care services averaged about $44,000 in 1972, according to limited in formation available. Earnings of physicians depend on factors such as the region of the country in which they practice; the patients’ income levels; and the physician’s skill, personality, and professional reputation, as well as the length of his experience. Self-employed phy sicians usually earn more than those in salaried positions, and special ists usually earn considerably more than general practitioners. Many physicians have long working days and irregular hours. Most special ists work fewer hours each week than general practitioners. As doc tors grow older, they may accept fewer new patients and tend to work fewer hours. However, many con tinue in practice well beyond 70 years of age. Sources of Additional Information Persons who wish to practice in a given State should find out about the requirements for licensure directly from the board of medical examiners of that State. Informa tion on Federal scholarships and loans is available from the Director of Student Financial Aid at the individual medical schools. For a list of approved medical schools, as well as general information on premedical education, financial aid, and medicine as a career, contact: Council on Medical Education, Amer ican Medical Association, 535 North Dearborn St., Chicago, 111. 60610. Association of American Medical Col leges, One Dupont Circle, NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20036. PODIATRISTS (D.O.T. 079.108) Nature of the Work Podiatrists diagnose and treat foot diseases and deformities. They perform surgery, fit corrective de vices, and prescribe drugs, physical therapy, and proper shoes. To help in diagnoses, they take X-rays and perform or prescribe blood and other pathological tests. Among the con OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 482 ditions podiatrists treat are corns, medicine admit only students who bunions, calluses, ingrown toenails, have completed at least 2 years of skin and nail diseases, deformed college, including courses in Eng toes, and arch disabilities. They lish, chemistry, biology or zoology, refer patients to medical doctors physics, and mathematics. The first 2 years in podiatry whenever the feet show symptoms school include classroom instruc of medical disorders affecting other parts of the body—such as arthritis, tion and laboratory work in basic sciences such as anatomy, bacteri diabetes, or heart disease. Some podiatrists specialize in foot ology, chemistry, pathology, phy surgery, orthopedics (bone, muscle, siology, and pharmacology. During and joint disorders), podopediatrics the final 2 years, students obtain (children’s foot ailments), or podo- clinical experience. The degree of geriatrics (foot problems of the Doctor of Podiatric Medicine elderly). However, most provide (D.P.M.) is awarded upon gradu ation. Additional education and ex all types of foot care. perience are generally necessary to practice in a specialty. Needy stu Places of Employment dents may obtain loans and scholar About 7,300 persons practiced ships up to S3,500 a year from podiatry in 1972, 6 percent of them Federal funds provided by the Com women. Most podiatrists practice prehensive Health Manpower Train in large cities. The few who had full ing Act of 1971. Young people planning a career time salaried positions worked in podiatry should have a scientific mainly in hospitals, podiatric col leges, or for other podiatrists. The aptitude, manual dexterity, and like Veterans Administration and city detailed work. A good business health departments employ podia sense, congeniality, and a sense of trists on either a full- or part-time responsibility are additional assets basis. Others serve as commissioned in the profession. Most newly licensed podiatrists officers in the Armed Forces. set up their own practices. Some purchase established practices, or Training, Other Qualifications, obtain salaried positions to gain and Advancement the experience and money needed All States and the District of to begin their own practices. Columbia require a license for the practice of podiatry. To qualify for a license, an applicant must gradu ate from an accredited 4-year pro gram in a college of podiatric medicine and pass a State board examination. Three States— Michigan, New Jersey, and Rhode Island—also require applicants to serve a 1-year internship in a hospital or clinic after graduation. Three-fourths of the States grant licenses without further examination to podiatrists licensed by another State. The five colleges of podiatric Employment Outlook Opportunities for graduates to establish new practices, as well as to enter salaried positions, should be favorable through the 1970’s. Competition may increase in the 1980’s, however, if the number of podiatry graduates increases as ex pected. Through the mid-1980’s, practice of podiatry is expected to grow' moderately as a result of greater demand for health services by an expanding population, particularly the growing number of older people. This age group, the one needing the most foot care, is entitled to certain podiatrists’ services under Medicare. Furthermore, the trend toward providing preventive foot care for children is increasing. More podiatrists will be needed to furnish services in hospitals, ex tended care facilities, and public health programs. Earnings and Working Conditions Experience and the income level and location of the community served have a great affect on earn ings of individual podiatrists. Start ing salaries of beginning podiatrists ranged from $12,000 to $16,000 in 1972, according to the limited avail able information. In podiatry, as in many other professions, incomes usually rise markedly after the first years of practice. Net income of podiatrists with five or less years of practice averaged about $21,000; with from 5/10 years’ experience, $34,000. The work week is generally 40 hours, and they may set their hours to suit their practice. Sources of Additional Information Information on license require ments in a particular State may be obtained from the State board of examiners in the State capital. A list of colleges of podiatric medicine, entrance requirements, curriculums, and scholarships are available from: American Association of Colleges of Podiatric Medicine, 20 Chevy Chase Circle, NW., Washington, D.C. 20015. Additional information on podi atry as a career may be obtained from: American Podiatry Association, 20 Chevy Chase Circle, NW ., Washington, D.C. 20015. MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS VETERINARIANS (D.O.T. 073.081 through .281) Nature of the Work Veterinarians (doctors of veteri nary medicine) diagnose, treat, and control diseases and injuries among animals. Their work is important for the Nation’s food production. It is also important for public health, because it helps to prevent the outbreak and spread of animal diseases, many of which can be transmitted to human beings. Veterinarians treat animals in hospitals and clinics or on the farm and ranch. They perform sur gery on sick and injured animals and prescribe and administer drugs, medicines, and vaccines. 483 practice. The Federal Government employed more than 2,500 veteri narians, chiefly in the U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture and the U.S. Public Health Service. About 900 more were commissioned officers in the veterinary corps of the Army and Air Force. Other employers of veterinarians are State and local government agencies, international health agencies, colleges of vet erinary medicine, medical schools, research and development labora tories, large livestock farms, animal food companies, and pharmaceutical companies that manufacture drugs for animals. Places of Employment Although veterinarians are located in all parts of the country, the About 26,000 veterinarians—3 percent of them women—were prac type of practice generally varies ticing in 1972. About three-fifths according to geographic setting. of all veterinarians were in private Veterinarians in rural areas chiefly treat farm animals; those in small towns usually engage in general practice; those in cities and subur ban areas often limit their prac tice to pets. About two-fifths of all veteri narians treat small animals or pets. A large number specialize in the health and breeding of cattle, poul try, sheep, swine, or horses. Many veterinarians inspect meat, poul try, and other foods as part of Federal and State public health programs. Others teach in veteri nary colleges. Some do research related to animal diseases, foods and drugs, or work as part of a medical research team to seek knowledge about prevention and treatment of human disease. Training, Other Qualificatons, and Advancement Veterinarians must be licensed to practice in all States and the Dis trict of Columbia. To obtain a li cense, applicants must have a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M. or V.M.D.) degree and pass a State board examination. A few States also require that applicants have some practical experience under the supervision of a licensed veteri narian. Some States issue licenses without further examination to vet erinarians already licensed by another State. For positions in research and teaching, an additional master's or Ph.D. degree usually is required in a field such as pathology, physiology, or bacteriology. Minimum requirements for the D.V.M. or V.M.D. degree are 2 484 years of preveterinary college work that emphasizes the physical and biological sciences, followed by 4 years of study in a college of veteri nary medicine. However, two pro fessional schools require 3 years of preveterinary study. Most veterinary school applicants have completed 3 to 4 years of college before entering the professional program. Veteri nary college training includes con siderable practical experience diag nosing and treating animal diseases and performing surgery, and labora tory work in anatomy, biochemistry, and other scientific and medical subjects. There were 18 colleges of veterinary medicine in the United States in 1972. When selecting students for admission, these colleges considered primarily the applicants’ scholastic records and the amount and charac ter of their preveterinary training. Residents of the State in which the college is located usually are given preference since veterinary colleges are largely State supported. In the South and West, regional educa tional plans permit cooperating States without veterinary schools to send a few students to designated regional schools. In other areas, colleges which accept a certain number of students from other States usually give priority to ap plicants from nearby States that do not have veterinary schools. Needy students may obtain loans and scholarships of up to $3,500 a year to pursue full-time study leading to the degree of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine under provi sions of the Comprehensive Health Manpower Training Act of 1971. Most veterinarians begin as em ployees or partners in established OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK practices. A few start their own practice with a modest financial investment in drugs, instruments, and an automobile. With a more substantial investment, one may open an animal hospital or pur chase an established practice. New ly qualified veterinarians may enter the Army and Air Force as commis sioned officers, or qualify for Fed eral positions as meat and poultry inspectors, disease-control workers, epidemiologists, or research assist ants. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for veterinarians are expected to be favorable through the mid-1980’s. The occupation is expected to grow very rapidly through the mid1980’s, primarily because of growth in the pet population, an increase in the numbers of livestock and poultry needed to feed an expand ing population, and an increase in veterinary research. Emphasis on scientific methods of raising and breeding livestock and poultry and growth in public health and disease control programs also will contrib ute to the demand for veterinarians. Earnings and Working Conditions The incomes of veterinarians in private practice vary considerably, depending on such factors as loca tion, type of practice, and years of experience. In 1972, the overall average income for veterinarians in private practice was $25,000. Newly graduated veterinarians employed by the Federal Govern ment started at $11,782 a year in early 1973. Salaries of experienced veterinarians employed by the De partment of Agriculture ranged be tween $15,000 and $29,000 a year. The income of veterinarians in pri vate practice usually is higher than that of other veterinarians, accord ing to the limited data available. Veterinarians sometimes may be exposed to danger of physical in jury, disease and infection. Those in private practice often have long and irregular working hours. Vet erinarians in rural areas may have to spend much time traveling to and from farms and may have to work outdoors in all kinds of weather. Veterinarians often can continue working well beyond normal retire ment age because of many oppor tunities for part-time work. Sources of Additional Information A pamphlet entitled Today’s Vet erinarian, presents additional in formation on veterinary medicine as a career, as well as a list of colleges of veterinary medicine. A free copy may be obtained by submitting a re quest, together with a self-addressed stamped business size envelope, to: American Veterinary Medical Associa tion, 600 South Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60605. Information on opportunities for veterinarians in the U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture is available from: Agricultural Research Service, U.S. De partment of Agriculture, Hyattsville, Md. 20782. Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Personnel Division, 12th and Independence Ave. SW., Washington, D.C. 20250. Agricultural Marketing Service, Person nel Division, 12th and Independence Ave. SW., Washington, D.C. 20250. Medical Technician, Technologist, and Assistant Occupations This section deals in detail with nine health occupations that are technical or clerical in nature. Many of these occupations have evolved to relieve highly-trained profes sionals of the less-complicated and routine duties. Medical assistants, for example, in doctors’ offices, assist with patient care as well as do clerical work. Optometric assist ants give preliminary eye examina tions and help patients do prescribed eye exercises. Medical record tech nicians and clerks process the large numbers of medical records gen erated daily in hospitals and nursing homes. The development of sophisticated diagnostic tools and techniques for treatment, brought about by ad vances in medical science and tech nology, also has created the need for workers such as electro cardiograph technicians who operate equipment that monitors a patient’s heart action, and electroencephalo graph technicians who operate equipment that monitors the elec trical activity of a patient’s brain. the electrical changes that occur during a heartbeat. Physicians use electrocardiograms to diagnose ir regularities in heart action and to analyze changes in the condition of a patient’s heart over a period of time. Some physicians order electrocardiograms as a routine di agnostic procedure for persons who have reached a specified age. In some cases, the tests also are used if surgery is to be performed. Electrocardiograph (EKG) tech nicians take and process electro cardiograms at the request of a physician. This can be done in a doctor’s office, in the EKG depart ment of a hospital, or at the patient’s bedside, since the equipment is mobile. To perform an electro cardiogram, the technician straps electrodes to specified parts of the patient’s body, manipulates selector switches of the electrocardiograph, and moves chest electrodes across the patient’s chest. The test may be given while the patient is at rest, or before and after mild exercise. The electrocardiograph records the “picture” of the patient’s heart action on a continuous roll of paper. The technician then clips and mounts this electrocardiogram for analysis by a physician, usually a cardiologist or a heart specialist. During the test, technicians must be able to recognize and correct any technical errors or interferences recorded on the electrocardiograms. They also must be able to recognize any significant deviations from the norm that call for a doctor’s atten tion. EKG technicians sometimes con duct other tests such as basal metabolism tests, which measure energy usage, and phonocardiograms, which record the sounds of the heart valves and blood passing through them. In addition, techni cians usually schedule appointments, type doctors’ diagnoses, maintain patients’ EKG files, and care for equipment. Places off Employment About 10,000 people worked as electrocardiograph technicians in 1972; most were women. Most EKG technicians worked in cardiology departments of large hospitals. Others worked part-time in small general hospitals where workloads are usually not great enough to demand full-time technicians. Some worked full- or part-time in clinics and doctors’ offices. ELECTROCARDIOGRAPH TEC H N IC IA N S Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement (D.O.T. 078.368) Generally, EKG technicians are trained on the job. Training—which may last as long as 3 months— usually is conducted by a senior EKG technician or a cardiologist. Generally, the minimum require ments for the job is high school graduation. Typing and familiarity Nature of the Work Electrocardiograms (EKG’s) are graphic heartbeat tracings produced by an instrument called an electro cardiograph. These tracings record 485 486 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK with medical terminology are help ful. The military services also give some general training in electrocardiology. In addition, some manu facturers of electrocardiographs give instructions in the operation of their equipment. Persons who want to become EKG technicians should have mechanical aptitude, the ability to follow de tailed instructions, a calm presence of mind in emergency situations, common sense, reliability, and patience. Larger hospitals sometimes pro mote EKG technicians to super visors over other EKG technicians. Advancement to jobs as junior vascular-cardio technicians is also possible in some instances. General ly, however, opportunities for ad vancement are limited. Employment Outlook marriage, family responsibilities, or other reasons. Earnings and Working Conditions EKG technicians who worked in hospitals and medical schools earned about $450 a month in 1972, ac cording to a survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Top salaries, in some cases, were as high as $830 a month. Inexperienced EKG technicians starting work with the Federal Government earned $5,432 a year; a few experienced technicians earned as much as $10,007 a year. EKG technicians who work in hospitals receive the same fringe benefits as other hospital person nel, including hospitalization, va cation, and sick leave. Some institutions provide tuition assist ance or free education courses, pension programs, and uniforms. Technicians generally work a 40hour week, which may include work on Saturdays. Employment opportunities for EKG technicians are expected to be very good through the mid-1980’s. Employment is expected to rise Sources of Additional Information very rapidly because of increasing Local hospitals can supply infor reliance by physicians on electro mation about employment opportu cardiograms in the diagnosis of heart diseases and the routine use nities. For additional information of EKG’s by some physicians in about the work of EKG technicians physical examinations of patients contact: American Hospital Association, 840 above a certain age. Also contribut North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111. ing to the expected growth of this 60611. occupation is the increase in demand for health services in general, as a result of population growth, rising living standards, improved health ELECTROconsciousness, expanding medical ENCEPHALOGRAPHIC services resulting from new med TECHNICIANS ical techniques and drugs, and (D.O.T.078.368) extension of prepayment programs that make it easier for people to pay for health and medical care. Nature of the Work In addition to openings result EEG (electroencephalographic) ing from growth in the occupation, workers will be needed to replace technicians fulfill an important technicians who leave the field for function in the diagnosis of brain disease and infections through elec troencephalography—a system which records in graphic form the electrical activity of the brain. Neurologists and other qualified professionals use EEG’s to help diagnose such brain disorders as epilepsy and tumors, and assess damage and recovery after cerebral vascular strokes. Use of EEG’s in pinpointing the time brain func tions stop has also made them very important in vital organ transplant operations. To carry out the procedure, the EEG technician measures the patient’s head and attaches elec trodes leading from the electro encephalograph to the patient’s head. The complex machine detects and graphs (EEG’s) the electrical activity of the patient’s brain. Interpretation of the electroen cephalograms is done by profes sional EEG personnel, often neu rologists. However, the EEG tech nician must have some knowledge of medicine, anatomy, and physi ology to understand the condition of the patient. EEG technicians make routine repairs and replacements to keep equipment in good working order. They also schedule appointments and keep records of services per formed for patients. Places of Employment About 3,500 persons—mostly women—worked as electroen cephalograph technicians in 1972. Although EEG technicians work primarily in the neurology depart ments of hospitals, some work in neurologists’ offices. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most EEG technicians working in 1972 were trained on the job by experienced EEG personnel. How- 487 MEDICAL TECHNICIAN, TECHNOLOGIST, AND ASSISTANT OCCUPATIONS Employment Outlook ever, with advances in medical tech technical schools. In 1973, these nology, electroencephalograph standards were adopted by the equipment becomes increasingly American Medical Association’s more sophisticated and requires house of delegates. technicians with more training. EEG technicians who have one About 10 programs in colleges year of training and a year of ex and medical schools trained EEG perience, and successfully complete technicians in early 1972. These a written and oral examination ad programs lasted from 6 months to ministered by the American Board of Registration of Electroenceph one year. In recognition of the need for alograph Technologists (ABRET), educational programs for EEG may become registered (R.EEG.T.). technicians, the Council on Med Although not a general require ical Education of the American ment for employment, registration Medical Association, in collabora by ABRET is acknowledgment of tion with the American Electro- a technician’s qualifications, and encephalographic Society, the makes better-paying jobs easier to American Medical Electroencephalo- obtain. People who want to enter this graphic Association and the Amer ican Society of Electroencephalo- field should have manual dexterity, graphic Technologists, developed a good vision, an aptitude for work set of standards for use in the ing with electronic equipment, and establishment of educational pro the ability to work with patients grams for EEG technicians and and with other members of the hos technologists. These standards rec pital team. As openings occur, some EEG ommend that programs last from 6 months to one year and include technicians in large hospitals ad laboratory experience as well as vance to chief EEG technician and classroom instruction in anatomy, have increased responsibilities in physiology, neurophysiology, clinical laboratory management and in and internal medicine, psychiatry, teaching basic techniques to new and electronics and instrumentation. personnel. Chief EEG technicians Programs may be carried on in are supervised by an electroencolleges, junior colleges, medical cephalographer, or a neurologist schools, hospitals, vocational or or neurosurgeon. Employment opportunities for EEG technicians are expected to be very good through the mid-1980’s. The occupation is expected to grow rapidly because of increased use of EEG’s in the diagnosis and moni toring of patients with brain disease and during surgical procedures. Factors contributing to the over all increase in health services, such as expanding population and rising living standards, also will stimulate the need for EEG technicians. In addition to openings that will result from growth of the occupa tion, many will arise because of the need to replace the large number of workers who retire or leave the field for other reasons. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries of EEG tech nicians employed by hospitals and medical centers averaged $507 a month in 1972, according to a survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Top salaries of EEG technicians ranged as high as $830 a month. Very highly-qualified technicians may earn more in special training situa tions. The annual beginning salary for inexperienced EEG trainees em ployed by the Federal Govern ment was $5,432 in early 1973. Technicians in the Federal Govern ment can earn as much as $10,007 a year. EEG technicians in hospitals re ceive the same benefits as other hospital personnel, including hos pitalization, vacation, and sick leave. Some institutions may pro vide tuition assistance or free courses, pension programs, uni forms, and parking. EEG technicians generally work a 40-hour week with little afterhours or Saturday work involved. 488 Sources of Additional Information OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK patients, and receive payments on bills. Medical assistants also may arrange instruments and equipment in the examining room, check office and laboratory supplies, and maintain the waiting, consulting, and examination rooms in a neat and orderly condition. vocational programs offered in some high schools, vocational institutes, Local hospitals can supply in and junior colleges. Other medical formation about employment op assistants learn their skills in portunities. Additional information adult education courses provided by about the work of EEG technicians post-secondary schools. is available from: Applicants for on-the-job or American Hospital Association, 840 post-secondary school training usu North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111. ally need a high school education 60611. or the equivalent. High school For information on registration, courses in mathematics, sciences, contact: Places of Employment and office practices are helpful. American Board of Registration of ElecMost junior college programs More than 200,000 people, most troencephalographic Technologists, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Ave., last 2 years and lead to an associ of them women, worked as medical Cleveland, Ohio 44105. assistants in 1972. Most work in ate degree; the others are 1 year the offices of physicians in private programs, and graduates receive a practice. The others work in hos diploma. Currently there are 22 2-year programs approved by the pitals and medical clinics. MEDICAL ASSISTANTS American Medical Association (AMA). The curriculum in these (D.O.T. 079.368) Training, Other Qualifications, programs consists of courses in and Advancement biology, chemistry, anatomy and Nature of the Work Most medical assistants receive physiology, typing, shorthand, and Medical assistants help phy their training on the job. However, a accounting. Students also get super sicians examine and treat patients growing number are trained in vised, on-the-job clinical experience and take care of the clerical work necessary for a smoothly run office. In helping physicians examine patients, medical assistants may check weight, height, temperature, and blood pressure, and make simple laboratory tests. In helping with treatment, they instruct patients about medication and self treatment at home, give injec tions, apply bandages, and take electrocardiograms and X-rays. They also sterilize and clean in struments and supplies and per form routine tasks such as prepara tion of patients for examination, medical treatment, and minor sur gery. Medical assistants also do a variety of clerical jobs. They keep patients’ medical records, fill out medical and insurance forms, handle correspondence, schedule appointments, answer the tele phone, and greet patients. Among their other office duties they take dictation, keep the books, bill 489 MEDICAL TECHNICIAN, TECHNOLOGIST, AND ASSISTANT OCCUPATIONS and learn laboratory techniques, use of medical machines, adminis trative and clinical procedures, medical terminology, and office practices. The American Association of Medical Assistants (AAMA) awards certificates to medical as sistants who pass a written ex amination, have at least a high school education, and 3 years of experience in the field. Those with an associate degree need only one year of experience to be certified. Certification is not a license and is not required for AAMA member ship; however, physicians usually consider Certified Medical Assist ants (CMA’s) to be well-qualified workers. The American Medical Tech nologists registers medical assist ants who pass a written examina tion and have completed a 9 to 12 month course from an accredited school. Currently over 20 schools are accredited by the Accrediting Bureau of Medical Laboratory Schools. The Registered Medical Assistant (RMA) like the CMA is recognized as competent in the field. Persons who want to become medical assistants should get along well with people since they must work closely with a variety of persons. They also should be thorough, accurate, dependable, and conscientious. Students who plan to continue their education and obtain a bach elor’s degree should realize that not all 4-year colleges accept the same type and amount of junior college credits. Therefore, it is important to apply to a junior college that offers the kind of courses and number of credits acceptable for transfer to a four-year college. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for medical assistants are expected to be excellent through the mid-1980’s, particularly for graduates of twoyear junior college programs. Employment of medical assist ants is expected to grow very rapidly because of the projected rapid increase in the number of physicians in patient care. The growing complexity of medical ser vices, combined with the increasing volume of paper work, also will con tribute to the demand for medical assistants. The need for more medical assist ants also is related to the demand for medical care services in general. Generating this demand is a grow ing population with an increasing proportion of older people who re quire more medical attention, and expansion in coverage under pre paid insurance programs, including Medicare and Medicaid, that en able more people to afford hospital and medical care. In addition to openings resulting from growth of the occupation, many jobs will become available each year because of the need to replace workers who die, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. work evenings and on Saturdays. If so, they get equivalent time off during weekdays. Sources of Additional Information General information on a career as a medical assistant and on the certification program is available from: American Association of Medical Assist ants, One East Wacker Dr., Suite 1510 Chicago, 111. 60601. A list of accredited private schools and information on the registration program, is available from: American Medical Technologists, 710 Higgins Rd., Park Ridge, 111. 60068. For information on training pro grams for medical assistants contact: American Medical Association Council on Medical Education, 535 North Dearborn St., Chicago, 111. 60610. MEDICAL LABORATORY WORKERS (D.O.T. 078.128, .168, .281, and .381) Nature of the Work Earnings and Working Conditions In 1972, weekly salaries general ly ranged from $90 to $125 for inex perienced medical assistants, and from $125 to $160 for experienced assistants, according to limited information available. Salaries vary widely in different areas of the United States. The salaries of begin ners depend on their training and other qualifications. Junior college graduates generally receive higher starting salaries than those paid workers without any training. Medical assistants usually work a 40-hour week. Their hours, how ever, may be irregular. They may Laboratory tests play an impor tant part in the detection, diagnosis, and treatment of many diseases. Medical laboratory workers, often called clinical laboratory workers, include three levels: medical tech nologists, technicians, and assist ants. They perform tests under the direction of pathologists (physicians who diagnose the causes and nature of disease), and other physicians, or scientists who specialize in clini cal chemistry, microbiology, or the other biological sciences. Medical laboratory workers analyze the blood, tissues, and fluids in the human body by using precision 490 instruments, such as microscopes and automatic analyzers. Medical technologists, who re quire 4 years of post-secondary training, perform complicated chemical, microscopic, and bacteri ological tests. These tests may include chemical tests to deter mine, for example, blood cholestrol level, or microscopic examination of the blood to detect the presence of diseases such as leukemia. They microscopically examine other body fluids; make cultures of body fluid or tissue samples to determine the presence of bacteria, parasites, or other micro-organisms; and analyze them for chemical content or reac tion. Technologists also may type and cross-match blood samples. Technologists in small labora tories often perform many types of tests. Those in large laboratories usually specialize in areas such as microbiology, parasitology, bio chemistry, blood banking, hema tology (the study of blood cells), and nuclear medical technology (the use of radioactive isotopes to help detect diseases). Most medical technologists con duct tests related to the examina tion and treatment of patients. However, some do research on new drugs or on the improvement of laboratory techniques. Others teach or perform administrative duties. Medical laboratory technicians, who generally require 2 years of post-secondary training, perform a wide range of tests and laboratory procedures that require a high level of skill but not the technical knowl edge of the highly-trained tech nologists. Like technologists, they may work in several areas or specialize in one field. Medical laboratory assistants, who generally have a year or less of formal training, assist medical technologists in routine tests and related work that can be learned in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK a relatively short time. In large about 1,600 medical technologists laboratories, they may concentrate and about 1,900 medical laboratory in one of several areas. For ex technicians and assistants. Others ample, they may identify slides with worked for the Armed Forces and abnormal blood cells. In addition the U.S. Public Health Service. to performing routine tests, assist ants may store and label plasma; Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement clean and sterilize laboratory equip ment, glassware, and instruments; The minimum educational re prepare solutions following stand quirement for a beginning job as a ard laboratory formulas and proce medical technologist usually is 4 dures; keep records of tests; and years of college training including identify specimens. completion of a specialized training program in medical technology. Undergraduate work includes Places of Employment courses in chemistry, biological About 165,000 people worked science, and mathematics. These as medical laboratory workers in studies give the technologist a 1972. About 80 percent of all medi broad understanding of the scien cal laboratory workers were women; tific principles underlying labora however, the number of men in the tory work. Specialized training field has been increasing in recent usually requires 12 months of study years. and includes extensive laboratory Most medical laboratory person work. In 1972, about 750 hospitals nel work in hospitals. Others work and schools offered programs ap in independent laboratories, physi proved by the American Medical cians’ offices, clinics, public health Association. These programs were agencies, pharmaceutical firms, and affiliated with colleges and uni research institutions. These places versities and a bachelor’s degree are concentrated in larger cities and is usually awarded upon completion. populous States. A few schools require a bachelor’s In 1972, Veterans Administration degree for entry into the program. hospitals and laboratories employed Many universities also offer ad vanced degrees in medical tech nology and related subjects for technologists who plan to specialize in laboratory work or in teaching, administration, or research. Medical laboratory technicians employed in 1972 got their training in a variety of educational settings. Many attended junior or 4-year colleges and universities for one or more years. Others were trained in the Armed Forces. Some techni cians received training in private and nonprofit vocational and techni cal schools. Most medical laboratory assist ants employed in 1972 were trained Medical laboratory assistant prepares on the job. In recent years, how to scan blood smear to identify red ever, an increasing number have and white blood cells. MEDICAL TECHNICIAN, TECHNOLOGIST, AND ASSISTANT OCCUPATIONS studied in one-year training pro grams conducted by hospitals, junior colleges in cooperation with hospitals, or vocational schools. Hospitals offer the greatest number of training programs. Applicants to these programs should be high school graduates with courses in science and mathematics. The pro grams include classroom instruc tion and practical training in the laboratory. They often begin with a general orientation to the clini cal laboratory followed by courses in bacteriology, serology, parasitol ogy, hematology, clinical chemis try, blood banking, and urinalysis. Certification or registration is considered important in this field because it indicates that the per sons certified have met educational standards recognized by the certi fying body. After the successful completion of the appropriate ex aminations, medical technologists may be certified as Medical Tech nologists, MT (ASCP), by the board of Registry of the American Society of Clinical Pathologists; Medical Technologists, MT, by the American Medical Technologists; or Registered Medical Technologists, RMT, by the International Society of Clinical Laboratory Technol ogists. These organizations also certify technician-level workers. Laboratory assistants are certified by the American Society of Clinical Pathologists. Medical technologists and/or technicians must be licensed in Alabama, California, Florida, Geor gia, Hawaii, Illinois, Nevada, Penn sylvania, Tennessee, New York City, and Puerto Rico. Requirements for licensure include a written ex amination in some States. Accuracy, dependability, and the ability to work under pressure are important personal characteristics for a medical laboratory worker. Manual dexterity and accurate color 491 of a technologist. vision are highly desirable. Young people interested in medi Technologists will be needed to cal laboratory careers should use fill supervisory positions in all considerable care in selecting a laboratories. Also, some will be training program. They should get needed in laboratories where they information about the kinds of jobs are required by State licensing re obtained by graduates, educational quirements or third party health costs, the accreditation of the insurance regulations, and in labo school, the length of time the ratories not using the new auto training program has been in opera mated equipment. tion, instructional facilities, and In addition to medical laboratory faculty qualifications. workers who will be needed to fill Technologists may advance to openings resulting from expansion supervisory positions in certain in the field, thousands of workers areas of laboratory work, or, after will be needed annually to replace several years’ experience, to chief those who die, retire, or leave medical technologist in a large their jobs for other reasons. hospital. Graduate education in one of the biological sciences or chemis try usually speeds advancement. Earnings and Working Conditions Technicians can advance to tech nologists by getting necessary addi Salaries of medical laboratory tional education and experience. workers vary by employer and geo graphic location. In general, medical laboratory workers employed on the West Coast and in large cities Employment Outlook received the highest salaries. Employment of medical labora Starting salaries for medical tech tory workers is expected to expand nologists in hospitals and medical moderately through the mid-1980’s, schools averaged about $8,300 in as physicians make wider use of 1972, according to a survey con laboratory tests in routine physi ducted by the University of Texas cal checkups and in the diagnosis Medical Branch. Beginning salaries and treatment of disease. Indirectly for laboratory assistants averaged influencing growth in the field are about $6,200. Technicians earn population growth, rising standards salaries that range between those of living, greater health conscious paid technologists and assistants. ness, and expansion of prepayment The Federal Government paid programs for medical care that newly graduated medical techno make it easier for people to pay logists with bachelor’s degrees for services. starting salaries of $7,694 a year While employment of laboratory in early 1973. Those having experi personnel in general is expected ence, superior academic achieve to expand moderately, the use of ment, or a year of graduate study automated laboratory test equip entered at $9,520. The Federal ment may lead to a greater growth of Government paid medical labora medical laboratory technicians and tory assistants and technicians assistants relative to technologists. starting salaries ranging from Through technological advances, $4,798 to $6,128 a year in early technicians and assistants can oper 1973, depending on the amount and ate equipment to perform tests type of education and experience. which previously required the skill Medical laboratory personnel gen 492 erally work a 40-hour week. In hospitals, they can expect some night or weekend duty. Hospitals normally provide vacation and sick leave benefits; some have retire ment plans. Laboratories generally are welllighted and clean. Although un pleasant odors and specimens of many kinds of diseased tissue often are present, few hazards exist if proper methods of sterilization and handling of specimens, materials, and equipment are used. Sources of Additional Information Information about education and training for medical technologists, technicians, and laboratory assist ants meeting standards recognized by the medical profession and/or the U.S. Office of Education, as well as career information on these fields of work is available from: Board of Registry of the American Soci ety of Clinical Pathologists, Box 4872, Chicago, 111. 60680. American Society for Medical Technol ogists, 555 West Loop South, Hous ton, Tex. 77401. The Accrediting Bureau of Medical Lab oratory Schools of the American Medi cal Technologists, 710 Higgins Rd., Park Ridge, 111. 60068. For information about other technician training programs, con tact: International Society of Clinical Labora tory Technologists, 805 Ambassador Building, 411 North Seventh St., St. Louis, Mo. 63101. Information about employment opportunities in government clinical and research hospitals is available from the Department of Medicine and Surgery, Veterans Administra tion, Washington, D.C. 20421, and the Clinical Center, National Insti tutes of Health, Bethesda, Mary land 20014. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK MEDICAL RECORD TECHNICIANS AND CLERKS (D.O.T. 249.388) Nature of the Work A medical record is a perma nent report on a patient’s condition and course of treatment in a hos pital, clinic, or other health care institution. Doctors, hospital admin istrators, public health authorities, and insurance companies rely on these records which are kept by those behind-the-scenes but impor tant members of the health care staff known as medical record tech nicians and clerks. Medical record technicians and clerks compile, record, and file all of the medical reports that describe a patient’s problem, diag nosis, treatment, and progress. This vital information is collected from many sources in the hospital or clinic, including the doctor and the X-ray, laboratory, dietary, and nursing departments. The system used in hospitals to gather, preserve, and maintain the information for the medical records requires the teamwork of many medical record technicians and clerks. In large hospitals, record keeping activities are supervised and coordinated by a medical rec ord administrator, but in smaller hospitals, experienced medical rec ord technicians often administer the department. In most nursing homes, a medical record clerk, working independently, is responsi ble for the limited number of medi cal records. Medical record clerks perform routine clerical tasks that require a minimum of specialized knowl edge. They assemble the informa tion for the records in sequence; check to see that all necessary forms, signatures, and dates are present; and locate any previous medical records that may be on file for the patient. They trans late selected information such as sex, age, and referral source into a code and enter it on the records. Medical record clerks answer rou tine staff requests for information about patients and gather statis tics for reports to various groups such as State health departments. Some medical record clerks trans cribe reports of operations, X-ray and laboratory examinations, and special treatments given to patients. Medical record clerks follow the explicit instructions and guidelines of their supervisors. Person-toperson contacts in hospitals are limited to providing readily avail able, nontechnical information to the hospital staff. In small nursing homes where the medical record clerk works independently, how ever, there is much personal con tact with the patients as well as with fellow staff members. Beginning medical record techni cians perform duties that may be similar to those of clerks but which require more technical knowledge. The technician codes the diseases, operations, and special therapies according to recognized classifica tion systems and enters the codes on the medical record. This coding 493 MEDICAL TECHNICIAN, TECHNOLOGIST, AND ASSISTANT OCCUPATIONS makes it easier to refer to the rec ord when there is a need to review the patient’s case or to collect data for other purposes. Analyzing rec ords and cross-indexing medical information make up a large part of the technician’s work. Technicians do the important job of reviewing records for completeness, accuracy, and compliance with requirements, referring incomplete records to the person who compiled them. They review records for internal consis tency and point out to their super visors any apparent errors. Technicians obtain information from records in answer to legal and insurance company inquiries when authorized to do so by hospital administrators, and gather statis tics and prepare periodic reports for hospitals on types of diseases treated, types of surgery performed, and utilization of hospital beds. They also prepare records for microfilming, supervise medical record clerks, assist the medical staff by preparing special studies and tabulating data from records for research, and take records to court. Places of Employment In 1972, there were about 8,000 medical record technicians and 39,000 clerks. Although most work in hosptials, a growing number are finding jobs in clinics, nursing homes, community health centers, and health maintenance organiza tions. Some medical record techni cians are consultants to several small health facilities. Some insur ance companies employ experienced medical record personnel to col lect information from patients’ rec ords to determine liability for pay ment. Public health departments hire medical record technicians to supervise data collection from health care institutions, and to assist in research to improve health care. Manufacturers of medical rec ord systems, services, and equip ment also employ medical record personnel to help develop and mar ket their products. Most medical record technicians and clerks are women. However, a growing number of men are enter ing the field. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to fill technician positions with graduates from one of the college or hospitalbased programs which have been accredited by the American Medi cal Association and the American Medical Record Association. These range in length from 10-month cer tificate programs to 2-year associ ate degree programs. In 1972, there were approximately 50 such pro grams available. Required courses included biological sciences, medi cal terminology, medical record science, business management, and secretarial skills. Persons with this training who also have passed the Accredited Record Technician (ART) examination can enter the medical record field as technicians, and can often look forward to promotion to supervisory positions. High school graduates who have basic secretarial skills can enter the medical record field as beginning clerks. About one month of on-thejob training will prepare them for routine tasks that do not require significant specialized skill. More training may be necessary for spe cialized clerical positions such as medical transcriptionists. Although they are not required, high school courses in Latin, biology, chem istry, and business subjects are helpful. Medical record personnel must be accurate and pay attention to detail. The American Medical Record Association offers a correspondence course in medical transcription that can be taken either as a home study program or as in-service training. The certificate given upon the suc cessful completion of the course is helpful in applying for a job as a medical record clerk. Medical terms and references learned provide a good foundation for advancement. Medical record clerks who have had several years of experience may advance to the technician level, especially in areas where there is a shortage of trained medical rec ord technicians. In addition, an other AMRA correspondence course is available for medical record clerks to prepare for the examina tion for accreditation as medical record technicians. Passing this ex amination and earning the title of ART often leads to promotion to higher-paying and more responsible positions in medical records. In 1972, there were 5,440 ART’s. Employment Outlook Employment of medical record technicians and clerks is expected to grow very rapidly through the mid-1980’s. This employment growth will stem from an expected con tinued increase in the use of health insurance, Medicare and Medicaid, and rising medical care standards, with an accompanying need for more complete medical records. New jobs also will be created as nursing homes, clinics, and new types of medical facilities such as health maintenance organizations increasingly employ medical rec ord personnel. The duties performed by medical record clerks make up most of the work in a medical record depart ment. Thus, the anticipated expan sion in medical facilities and recordkeeping offers a very good 494 employment outlook for clerks. However, opportunities for ad vancement to the technician posi tion without formal courses will greatly decrease. The outlook for technicians with a 2-year course will be favorable through the mid-1980’s. It is ex pected that medical record techni cians will be required to have this specialized training in the future as more attention is given to in novative ideas in medical records as a means of improving medical efficiency and service. As a result, technicians who have not received formal training may experience strong competition for positions from medical record technicians who have an associate degree. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of medical record clerks and technicians vary greatly ac cording to locality, but usually are higher than the salaries of general officeworkers. Beginning medical record clerks earned an average of $5,200 annually in nongovern ment hospitals in 1972. Earnings ranged from $4,600 in small hos pitals in the South to $8,800 in New York City, according to lim ited data. In general, salaries are highest in the big cities and lowest in rural areas. Salaries usually are higher in larger hospitals. Salaries of medical record tech nicians follow a similar geographic pattern, but typical beginning sala ries are about 30 percent higher than those of clerks. Limited data indicates that in 1972, the median annual salary for ART’s was $7,100. Experienced technicians who were directors of hospital medical rec ord departments averaged $7,850. Some earned over $10,000 a year. In Federal hospitals, medical rec ord clerks earned a beginning annual salary of $5,828 in 1972. Annual OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK salaries of medical record techni cians ranged from $6,554 to $11,711. Outstanding medical record tech nicians may work up to higher supervisory positions with corre sponding pay increases, although most of these positions are filled by Registered Record Administra tors. Like most hospital employees, medical record personnel work a 40-hour week, receive paid holi days and vacations, health and insurance benefits, and can par ticipate in retirement plans. Al though most of the positions are full-time, some part-time jobs are available. Sources of Additional Information A list of approved schools for medical record technicians, facts about the correspondence courses for medical transcription and medical record personnel, and additional de tails on the work performed by medical record technicians can be obtained from: American Medical Record Association John Hancock Center, Suite 1850, 875 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. OPERATING ROOM TECHNICIANS (D.O.T. 079.378) as blood and glucose that may be needed during an operation. Opera ting room technicians also prepare patients for surgery by washing, shaving, and disinfecting the parts of the body where the surgeon will operate. They may transport pa tients to the operating room and help drape and position them on the operating table. During surgery, they pass instru ments and other sterile supplies to members of the professional sur gical team. They hold retractors, cut sutures, and help nurses count the sponges, needles, and instru ments used during the operation. Operating room technicians help prepare, care for, and dispose of specimens taken for testing during the operation and help apply dress ings. They may operate sterilizers, lights, suction machines, and diag nostic equipment. After the operation, operating room technicians help transfer pa tients to the recovery room and assist nurses in cleaning and stock ing the operating room for the next operation. Places of Employment More than 25,000 people, about one-half of them women, worked as operating room technicians in 1972. They worked in hospitals or other institutions that have operating room, delivery room and emergency room facilities. Many are members of the Armed Forces. Nature of the Work Operating room technicians, also known as surgical technicians, assist surgeons and anesthesiologists be fore, during, and after surgery. They are supervised by registered nurses. They help set up the operating room with the instruments, equip ment, sterile linens, and fluids such Training and Other Qualifications Most operating room technicians are trained on the job. A high school education or the equivalent is generally required for employ ment. On-the-job training programs in many hospitals include class room instruction. The length of these programs vary from six weeks 495 MEDICAL TECHNICIAN, TECHNOLOGIST, AND ASSISTANT OCCUPATIONS Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for operating room technicians are ex pected to be excellent through the mid-1980’s. Graduates of 2-year junior college programs should be especially in demand. Employment of operating room technicians is expected to grow very rapidly as more routine nursing responsibilities are delegated to them. As a result, operating room nurses may concentrate on duties that require their professional train ing. The same factors that contrib ute to the demand for health workers in general apply to operating room technicians, namely population growth and the increased ability of people to pay for medical care due to expansion in coverage under prepayment insurance programs. In addition to job openings re sulting from growth of the occupa tion, many new operating room technicians will be needed to re place workers who die, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. to one year, depending on the trainee’s qualifications and the training given. Some hospitals pre fer applicants who have worked as nurse aides or practical nurses. Some operating room technicians are trained in adult, vocational, and technical schools, and junior colleges. Others learn in medic pro grams of the Armed Forces. Most of these training programs last from 9 months to one year; some junior college programs last 2 years and lead to an associate degree. The American Medical Association is currently evaluating and approv ing many of these programs. Students in junior colleges and vo cational schools get classroom train ing as well as supervised clinical experience. Required courses include anatomy, physiology, and micro biology. Practical application courses include the care and safety of pa tients during surgery, use of anes thesia and its hazards, and nursing procedures. They also learn how to sterilize instruments, prevent and control infection, and handle special drugs, solutions, supplies, and equip ment. The Association of Operating Room Technicians awards a certi ficate to operating room technicians who pass their comprehensive ex amination. A Certified Operating Room Technician (CORT) is recog nized as competent in the field and is generally paid a higher salary. Manual dexterity is a necessity for operating room technicians since they must handle various instruments quickly. They must be orderly and emotionally stable. Earnings and Working Conditions Depending on training and other qualifications, monthly salaries of inexperienced operating room tech nicians generally ranged from $454 to $578 in 1972-73, according to a National Survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Junior college graduates earn high er salaries than workers without training. Salaries also vary widely from one part of the country to the other, with those in the East and West Coasts generally higher. Sal aries of experienced technicians ranged from $519 to $751 per month. In general, operating room technicians earn about as much as average non-supervisory workers in private industries except farming. Operating room technicians usual 496 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ly work a 5-day, 40-hour week. However, they may be required to work “on call” shifts, for which they receive compensation. ordination to overcome focusing defects. Optometric assistants also work in the laboratory. They modify con ventional glasses or contact lenses to assure proper fit, insert lenses Sources of Additional Information in frames, repair frames, keep an Additional information on a ca inventory of optometric materials, reer as an operating room techni and clean and care for the instru cian and on training programs for ments. In a large optometric complex, the occupation is available from: assistants may specialize in visual Association of Operating Room Techni cians, Inc., 1100 West Littleton Blvd., training, chairside assistance, or Suite 101, Littleton, Colo. 80120. office administration. In a smaller practice, they may assume all these duties. OPTOMETRIC ASSISTANTS Nature of the Work Optometric assistants perform a wide variety of tasks, allowing op tometrists to devote more time to their professional duties. Their tasks range from assisting in eye ex aminations to bookkeeping. Optometric assistants keep pa tients’ records, schedule appoint ments, and handle bookkeeping, correspondence, and filing. They prepare patients for eye examina tions and help optometrists test for near and distant eyesight, color blindness, and tension of or pressure on the eyeball. Opto metric assistants measure patients for correct and comfortable fit of glasses. They suggest size and shape of eyeglass frames to compliment the patient’s facial features, and adjust finished eyeglasses by heat ing, shaping, and bending the plas tic or metal frames. They also assist the optometrist in fitting contact lenses and in giving instruc tions on the use and care of the lenses. Optometric assistants help pa tients with exercises for eye co Places of Employment About 11,000 persons, most of them women, worked as optometric assistants in 1972. Most worked for optometrisits in private prac tice. Others worked for health clinics, optical instrument manu facturers, or government agencies. Some served as assistants to op tometrists in the Armed Forces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most optometric assistants are trained on the job in their em ployers’ offices. Training also can be acquired in 1 year academic courses; four schools offered this type of training in 1972. More detailed training in the technical aspects of optometry was available in seven schools that offered 2-year courses leading to an associate de gree. One university offered a 4-year program in optometric tech nology. High school graduation or its equivalent, including courses in mathematics and office procedures, 497 MEDICAL TECHNICIAN, TECHNOLOGIST, AND ASSISTANT OCCUPATIONS is preferred for on-the-job training or admission to a formal training program. All of the formal pro grams offer specialized courses such as the anatomy and phy siology of the human eye, orthoptics (correction of defective vision), and contact lens theory and practice. Programs also include courses in secretarial and office procedures. Lectures and laboratory work are supplemented by actual experience in optometric clinics and practices. Although there are relatively few programs for training optometric assistants, a recent study indicated that over 4 optometrists out of 5 feel that a 1 or 2-year course, fol lowed by some on-the-job instruc tion, is the best preparation. This training will become more impor tant in gaining initial employment and advancement as more programs become available. Manual dexterity, accuracy, and the ability to distinguish shades of color are requirements for per sons planning to become optometric assistants. Because of the personto-person work relationship between optometric assistants and patients, a neat appearance, courtesy, and tact are important qualifications. Employment Outlook The employment of optometric assistants is expected to grow very rapidly through the mid-1980’s. Employment opportunities for op tometric assistants who have com pleted one of the few formal train ing programs should be excellent. On-the-job training, however, prob ably will continue to be the means by which most persons enter the occupation. The availability of many positions which require few er than 8 hours of work a day offers opportunities for continued employment while caring for a family. Factors underlying the expected growth of the occupation are the increase in population and greater demand for eye care services. As the number of patients served by optometrists increase, more trained assistants will be needed. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of optometric assistants vary by geographical region, aca demic and technical qualifications, and the size and type of practice of the optometrists employing them. In 1972, beginning salaries ranged from $80 a week for optometric assistants having no training or ex perience to $160 a week for experiienced and highly trained assistants, according to limited information available. Most optometric assistants work between 30 and 40 hours a week, but about 1 out of 10 works shorter hours. Occasionally they may work a few hours on Saturday. The work is not strenuous and physical sur roundings are usually pleasant. Sources of Additional Information Further information on a career as optometric assistant and a list of training programs are available from: American Optometric Association, 7000 Chippewa St., St. Louis, Mo. 63119. RADIOLOGIC (X-RAY) TECHNOLOGISTS (D.O.T. 078.168 and .368) Nature of the Work Medical X-rays play a major role in the diagnostic and therapeutic fields of medicine. Radiologic tech nologists, also called medical X-ray technologists and X-ray technicians, operate X-ray equipment. They are usually supervised by radiologists (physicians who specialize in the use of X-rays). Most radiologic technologists use X-ray equipment to take pictures of internal parts of the patient’s body. They may prepare chemical mixtures, such as barium salts, which the patients swallow to make specific organs appear clearly in X-ray examinations (recorded in radiographs). The technologist uses radiation protection devices and techniques to safeguard himself, as well as the patient, against possible radiation hazards. After determin ing the correct voltage, current, and desired exposure time, the tech nologist positions the patient and makes the required number of ra diographs to be developed for in terpretation by the physician. The technologists may use mobile X-ray equipment at a patient’s bedside and in surgery. The technologist also is usually responsible for keep ing treatment records. Some radiologic technologists do radiation therapy work. They help physicians treat patients with dis eases, such as certain types of can cer, by administering prescribed doses of X-ray or other forms of radiation to the affected areas of the body. They also may assist the radiologists in measuring and han dling radium and other radioactive materials. Other technologists work in the field of nuclear medicine in which radioactive isotopes are used to diagnose and treat diseases. They help the radiologist prepare and administer the prescribed radio isotope and operate special equip ment for tracing and measuring radioactivity. Places of Employment About 55,000 persons—about 498 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ethics, department administration, and the operation and maintenance of equipment. Registration with the American Registry of Radiologic Technolo gists is an asset in obtaining highly skilled and specialized positions. Registration requirements include graduation from an approved school of medical X-ray technology and the satisfactory completion of a written examination. After regis tration, the title “ Registered Tech nologist, (ARRT)” may be used. Once registered, technologists may be certified in radiation therapy or nuclear medicine, by completing an additional year of combined class room study and work experience. Good health and stamina are im portant qualifications for this field. As openings occur, some tech nologists in large X-ray depart ments may qualify as instructors in X-ray techniques or advance to chief X-ray technologists. Employment Outlook two-thirds of them women—worked as radiologic technologists in 1972. Hospitals employ about threefourths of all radiologic technol ogists; most of the remainder work in medical laboratories, physicians’ and dentists’ offices or clinics, Federal and State health agencies, and public school systems. A few work as members of mobile X-ray tuberculosis detection teams. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The requirement for entry into this field is the completion of a formal training program in X-ray technology. In 1972, about 1,200 programs in X-ray technology of fered in hospitals, medical schools affiliated with hospitals, colleges, and community colleges were ap proved by the American Medical Association (AMA). In addition to training programs in approved schools, training also may be ob tained in the military service. Some courses in X-ray technology are offered by vocational or tech nical schools. Programs usually take 24 months to complete. A few schools offer 3- or 4-year pro grams, and about 30 schools award a bachelor’s degree in X-ray technology. All schools accept only high school graduates. Courses in math ematics, physics, chemistry, biol ogy, and typing are helpful. X-ray technology programs usu ally include courses in anatomy, physiology, nursing procedures, physics, radiation protection, dark room chemistry, principles of radiographic exposure, X-ray therapy, radiographic positioning, medical Radiologic technologists are ex pected to have favorable opportuni ties for both full- and part-time work through the mid-1980’s. The occu pation is expected to grow rapid ly through the mid-1980’s, because of wide use of X-ray equipment in diagnosis and treatment of dis eases, and the expansion of prepay ment medical programs that make medical care available to patients who would otherwise be unable to afford it. Radiotherapy also is ex pected to find increased uses, open ing more jobs in the years ahead. X-raying of large groups will be ex tended as part of disease control programs. In addition to radiologic tech nologists needed to fill new jobs, a large number of new workers will be needed to replace those who die, retire, or leave the field. MEDICAL TECH NICIAN, TECHNOLOGIST, A N D ASSISTAN T OCCUPATIONS Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries of radiologic technologists employed in hospitals and medical centers averaged about $150 a week in 1972, according to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. The Federal Government paid new graduates of AMA approved schools of X-ray technology start ing salaries of $6,882 a year in early 1973. Full-time technicians generally work 8 hours a day and 40 hours a week but may be “on call” for some weekend or night emergency duty. Sick leave, vacations, insur ance, and other benefits are com parable to those covering other workers in the same organization. There are potential radiation hazards in this Field; however, these hazards have been greatly reduced by the modern use of special safety devices such as individual instru ments that measure radiation ex posure, lead aprons, gloves, and other shieldings. Sources of Additional Information For additional information about a career in radiologic technology write: The American Society of Radiologic Technologists, 645 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. The American Registry of Radiologic Technologists, 2600 Wayzata Boule vard, Minneapolis, Minn. 55405. RESPIRATORY THERAPISTS (D.O.T. 079.368) Nature of the Work Respiratory therapists and tech nicians, sometimes called inhalation 499 therapists, treat patients with res Other duties include keeping records piratory problems. This treatment of the cost of materials and charges may range from giving temporary re to patients, and maintaining and lief to patients with chronic asthma making minor repairs to equipment. Respiratory therapists and res or emphysema to giving emergency care in cases of heart failure, stroke, piratory therapy technicians per drowning, and shock. Respiratory form essentially the same duties. therapists also are among the However, the therapist is expected first medical specialists called for to have a higher level of expertise emergency treatment of acute res and may be expected to assume some piratory conditions arising from teaching and supervisory duties. head injury or drug poisoning. The short span of time for which a Places of Employment patient can safely cease to breathe emphasizes the highly responsible About 17,000 people worked as role of the respiratory therapist. respiratory therapists or technicians If breathing has stopped for longer in 1972—about one-half were than 3 to 5 minutes, there is little women. Most work in respiratory chance that the patient can recover therapy, anesthesiology, or pul without brain damage, and if oxygen monary medicine departments of is cut for more than 9 minutes, he hospitals. Others work for oxygen will die. equipment rental companies, ambu Respiratory therapists follow doc lance services, nursing homes, and tors’ orders and use special equip universities. Women are in ment such as respirators and creasingly entering this field, positive-pressure breathing ma which has been mostly staffed by chines to administer gas therapy, men. aerosol therapy, and other treat ments involving respiration. They Training, Other Qualifications, also show patients and their families and Advancement how to use the equipment at home. Respiratory apparatus has become increasingly complex in recent years and, although a few therapists are trained on the job, formalized train ing is now stressed as the requisite for entry to the field. In 1972, more than 100 institu tions offered educational programs in respiratory therapy approved by the Council on Medical Educa tion of the American Medical As sociation. High school graduation is required for entry. Courses vary in length between 18 months and 4 years and include both theory and clinical work. A bachelor’s degree is awarded for completion of a 4-year program and lesser degrees are awarded for shorter courses. Areas of study include human anatomy and physiology, chemistry, 500 physics, microbiology, and mathe matics. Technical courses offered deal with procedures, equipment, and clinical tests. Respiratory therapists with an associate degree from an AMAapproved program and 1 year of experience are eligible to be regis tered by the American Registry of Inhalation Therapists (ARIT). Ap plicants must pass written and oral examinations. In 1972, nearly 1,800 therapists had been registered. A registered inhalation therapist often can advance faster and obtain a higher position than one who is not registered. An increasing number of employers recognize registration as an acknowledgement of a therapist’s qualifications. Those who do not qualify or fail to pass the registry examination may elect to take the examination to be come Certified Respiratory Therapy Technicians. This CRTT examina tion is less comprehensive than the registry examination. To be eligible for it, applicants must have com pleted either an associate degree respiratory therapy program or a 1year respiratory therapy technician program, either of which must be approved by the Council on Medical Education of the American Medical Association. Respiratory therapists can ad vance to positions as assistant chief, chief therapist, or, with graduate education, instructor of respiratory therapy at the college level. People who want to enter the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK respiratory therapy field should be able to work with patients and understand their physical and psy chological needs. Respiratory ther apists must be able to pay attention to detail, follow instructions, and work as part of a team. Operating the complicated respiratory therapy equipment also requires some me chanical ability. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for respiratory therapists and tech nicians are expected to be very good through the mid-1980’s. Those with advanced training in respiratory therapy programs will be in demand to fill teaching and supervisory positions. A rapid growth in employment of respiratory therapists is expected, owing to new uses for respiratory therapy, increased acceptance of its use, and the growth in health services in general. Many specialists in respiratory therapy will be hired to release nurses and other personnel now performing respiratory therapy work to return to their primary duties. Many other openings will arise from the need to replace those who retire, die, or leave the occupa tion for other reasons. Earnings and Working Conditions The starting salary of res piratory therapy personnel employed in hospitals and medical centers averaged about $604 a month in 1972, according to a survey con ducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Top salaries of respiratory therapists in hospitals ranged as high as $960 a month. The Federal Government paid respiratory therapists starting salaries of $6,128 a year in 1973 if they had 1 year of post secondary training, and $6,882 for those with 2 years of training. Some therapists employed by the Federal Government in early 1973 earned as much as $12,373 a year. Respiratory therapists who work in hospitals receive the same bene fits as other hospital personnel, including hospitalization, paid vacations, and sick leave. Some institutions provide tuition assist ance or free courses, pension pro grams, uniforms, and parking. Therapists generally work a 40hour week. After-hours and week end duty is generally required since most hospitals have 24-hour coverage throughout the week. Adherence to safety precautions and testing proper operation of equipment minimizes the potential hazard of fire to therapists and patients. Sources of Additional Information Information concerning educa tion programs is available from: American Association for Respiratory Therapy, 7411 Hines Place, Dallas, Tex. 75235. On-the-job training information can be obtained at local hospitals. in providing health care. As im portant members of the medical care team, registered nurses perform a wide variety of duties. They administer medications; observe, NURSING OCCUPATIONS evaluate, and record symptoms, re actions, and progress of patients; assist in the rehabilitation of patients; The nursing field, consist must work closely with other ing of registered nurses; licensed members of the health team and and help maintain a physical and practical nurses; and nursing aides, care for patients who are uncom emotional environment that pro orderlies, and attendants, accounts fortable and sometimes irritable. motes patient recovery. Some registered nurses provide for about one-half of total employ Nursing workers must be thoroughly ment among health service workers. reliable and possess a level head hospital care. Other’s perform re Nursing personnel perform a in emergencies, since lives may de search activities or instruct students. The type of employment setting variety of duties to care for and pend on them. usually determines the scope of the comfort the sick, the injured, and nurse’s duties. others requiring medical services. Hospital nurses constitute the This section deals in detail with largest group. Most are staff nurses the three basic nursing occupations. REGISTERED NURSES who provide skilled bedside nursing Registered nurses (R N ’s) are the (D.O.T. 075.118 through .378) care and carry out medical treat Nation’s second largest group of ment plans prescribed by physicians. professionally employed women. They may also supervise practical Only teaching employs larger num Nature of the Work nurses, aides, and orderlies. Hospi bers. Following doctors’ orders, Nursing care plays a major role tal nurses usually work with groups these nurses dispense medications and treatments, and observe and monitor patients’ progress. Some become head nurses and are re sponsible for all nursing services of a specified area of an institution. Licensed practical nurses provide skilled nursing care to sick, injured, and convalescent patients. They work under the general supervision of physicians and registered nurses, and may sometimes supervise nursing aides, orderlies, and attend ants. Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants make up the largest group of nursing personnel. They provide for the care and comfort of patients. They serve meals, feed patients, and do other tasks that free profes sional and practical nurses for more critical work requiring profes sional and technical training. Those seeking to be registered nurses, licensed practical nurses, and nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants should genuinely like Registered nurse monitors patient receiving treatment tor kidney disease. working with people, since they 501 502 of patients that require similar nursing care. For instance, some nurses work with post-surgery pa tients; others care for children, the elderly, or the mentally ill. Some are administrators of nursing services. Private duty nurses give individual care to patients who need constant attention. The private duty nurse may sometimes care for several hospital patients who require spe cial care, but not full-time attention. Office nurses assist physicians, dental surgeons, and occasionally dentists in private practice or clinics. Sometimes they perform rou tine laboratory and office work in addition to their nursing duties. Public health nurses care for patients in clinics, homes, schools and other community settings. They instruct patients and families in proper care, and give periodic care as prescribed by a physician. They may also instruct groups of patients in proper diet and arrange for im munizations. These nurses work with community leaders, teachers, parents, and physicians in community health education. Some public health nurses work in schools. Nurse educators teach students the principles and skills of nursing, both in the classroom and in direct patient care. They also conduct continuing education courses for registered nurses, practical nurses and nursing assistants. Occupational health or industrial nurses provide nursing care to em ployees in industry and government, and along with physicians promote employee health. As prescribed by a doctor, they treat minor injuries and illnesses occurring at the place of employment, provide for the needed nursing care, arrange for further medical care if necessary, and offer health counseling. They also may assist with health exam inations and inoculations. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK (Licensed practical nurses who al so perform nursing service are dis cussed elsewhere in the Handbook). Places of Employment Nearly 750,000 persons—all but 1 percent women—worked as regis tered nurses in 1972. About onethird of them worked on a part-time basis. More than two-thirds of all registered nurses worked in hospi tals, nursing homes, and related institutions. About 60,000 were office nurses and about 50,000 were private duty nurses who cared for patients in hospitals and private homes. Public health nurses in government agencies, schools, visit ing nurse associations, and clinics numbered about 54,000; nurse edu cators in nursing schools accounted for about 35,000; and occupational health nurses in industry, about 20,000. Most of the others were staff members of professional nurse and other organizations, State boards of nursing, or working for research organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license is required to practice professional nursing in all States and in the District of Columbia. To obtain a license, a nurse must be a graduate of a school approved by the State board of nursing and pass the State board examination. Nurses may be licensed in more than one State, either by examination or endorsement of a license issued by another State. Three types of educational pro grams—diploma, baccalaureate, and associate degree—offer the educa tion required for basic careers in registered nursing. Education at the master’s level and above is required for positions in research, consulta tion, teaching, and clinical spe cialization. Graduation from high school is required for admission to all schools of nursing. Diploma programs are conducted by hospital and independent schools and usually require 3 years of training. Bachelor’s degree programs usually require 4 years of study in a college or university, although a few require 5 years. Associate degree programs in junior and com munity colleges require approxi mately 2 years of nursing education. In addition, several programs pro vide licensed practical nurses with the training necessary to upgrade themselves to registered nurses while they continue to work part-time. These programs generally offer an associate of arts degree. In early 1972, more than 1,360 programs (associate, diploma, and baccalau reate) were offered in the United States. In addition, about 80 col leges and universities offered mas ter’s and doctoral degree programs in nursing. Programs of nursing include class room instruction and supervised nursing practice in hospitals and health facilities. Students take courses in anatomy, physiology, microbiology, nutrition, psychology, and basic nursing care. They also get supervised clinical experience in the care of patients who have different types of health problems. Students in bachelor’s degree pro grams as well as in some of the other programs are assigned to public health agencies to learn how to care for patients in clinics and in the patients’ homes. General education is combined with nursing education in baccalaureate and as sociate degree programs and in some diploma programs. Qualified students who need fi nancial aid can get a nursing scholarship or a low-interest loan under the provisions of the Nurse 503 NURSING OCCUPATIONS Training Act of 1971. Depending on length of service, up to 85 percent of the loan can be cancelled over a 5-year period for full-time employment as a pro fessional nurse in any public or nonprofit institution or agency. Full-time employment in an area identified as a shortage area can make one eligible for cancellation of 85 percent of the loan over a three-year period. Young persons who want to pursue a nursing career should have a sincere desire to serve humanity and be sympathetic to the needs of others. Nurses must be able to follow orders precisely and to use good judgment in emergencies; they also should be able to accept re sponsibility and direct or supervise the activity of others. Good mental health is helpful in order to cope with human suffering and frequent emergency situations. Staff nurses may need physical stamina because of the amount of time spent walking and standing. From staff positions in hospitals, experienced nurses may advance to head nurse, assistant director, and director of nursing services. A master’s degree, however, often is required for supervisory and admin istrative positions, as well as for positions in nursing education, clin ical specialization, and research. In public health agencies, advance ment is usually difficult for nurses who do not have degrees in public health nursing. A growing movement in nursing, generally being referred to as the “ nurse practitioner program” is opening up new career possibilities. Nurses who wish to take the extra training are preparing for highly independent roles in the clinical care and teaching of patients. They are practicing in primary roles which include nurse-midwifery, ma ternal care, pediatrics, family health, and the care of medical patients. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for registered nurses are expected to be favorable through the mid1980’s. However, if trends in the number of persons enrolling in schools of nursing continue, some competition for more desirable, higher paying jobs may develop by the mid-1980’s. Opportunities for full- or part-time work in present shortage areas such as some South ern States and many inner-city areas are expected to be very favorable through 1985. For nurses who have had graduate education, the outlook is excellent for obtaining positions as administrators, teachers, clinical specialists, public health nurses, and for work in research. A very rapid increase in em ployment of registered nurses is expected because of rising popula tion, improved economic status of the population, extension of prepay ment programs for hospitalization and medical care, expansion of medical services as a result of new medical techniques and drugs, and increased interest in preventive med icine and rehabilitation of the handi capped. In addition to the need to fill new positions, large numbers of nurses will be required to replace those who leave the field each year because of marriage and family responsibilities. Earnings and Working Conditions Registered nurses who worked in hospitals in 1972 received average starting salaries of $8,100 a year, according to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. This was slightly above average for nonsupervisory workers in private in dustry, except farming. Registered nurses in nursing homes can expect to earn slightly less than those in hospitals. Salaries of industrial nurses averaged $158 a week in early 1971, according to a survey conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). In early 1973, the Veterans Ad m inistration paid inexperienced nurses who had a diploma or an associate degree starting salaries of $8,572 a year; those with baccalau reate degrees, $10,012. Graduates of associate degree programs entered at $8,256, and those who had a baccalaureate degree or diploma began at $8,722 in other Federal Government agencies. Most hospital nurses receive extra pay for work on evening or night shifts. Nearly all receive at least 2 weeks of paid vacation after 1 year of service. Most hospital nurses receive from 5 to 13 paid holidays a year and also some type of health and retirement benefits. Sources of Additional Information For information on approved schools of nursing, nursing careers, loans, scholarships, salaries, work ing conditions, and employment opportunities, contact: ANA Committee on Nursing Careers, American Nurses’ Association, 2420 Pershing Rd., Kansas City, Mo. 64108. Information about employment opportunities in the Veterans Ad ministration is available from: Department of Medicine and Surgery, Veterans Administration, Washing ton, D.C. 20420. 504 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK LICENSED PRACTICAL NURSES (D.O.T. 079.378) Nature of the Work Licensed practical nurses help care for the physically or mentally ill and infirm. Under the direction of physicians and registered nurses, they provide nursing care that re quires technical knowledge but not the professional training of a regis tered nurse. (See statement on Registered Nurses.) In California and Texas, licensed practical nurses are called licensed vocational nurses. In hospitals, licensed practical nurses provide much of the bedside care needed by patients. They take and record temperatures and blood pressures, change dressings, admin ister certain prescribed medicines, and help bed patients with bathing and other personal hygiene. They assist physicians and registered nurses in examining patients and in carrying out nursing procedures. They also assist in the delivery, care, and feeding of infants, and help registered nurses in recovery rooms by reporting any adverse ment. They also may make appoint changes in patients. Some licensed ments and record information about practical nurses help supervise hos patients. pital attendants. (See statement on Nursing Aides, Orderlies, and Places of Employment Attendants.) Licensed practical nurses who About 430,000 persons—the work in private homes provide great majority of them women— mainly day-to-day patient care that worked as licensed practical nurses seldom involves highly technical in 1972. Hospitals employed about procedures or complicated equip three-fifths of all licensed prac ment. In addition to providing tical nurses. Most of the others nursing care, they may prepare worked in nursing homes, clinics, meals and care for the patient’s doctors’ offices, sanitariums, and comfort and morale. They also other long-term care facilities. teach family members how to per Many worked for public health form simple nursing tasks. agencies and welfare and religious In doctors’ offices and in clinics, organizations. Some were selflicensed practical nurses prepare employed, working in hospitals or patients for examination and treat the homes of their patients. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia regulate the preparation and licensing of practical nurses. To be licensed, students must com plete a course of instruction in practical nursing that has been approved by the State board of nursing and pass a licensing exam ination. Educational requirements for en rollment in State-approved train ing programs range from comple tion of eighth or ninth grade to high school graduation. Many schools do not require completion of high school but give preference to graduates. Physical examina NURSING OCCUPATIONS tions and aptitude tests are usually required. In 1972, nearly 1,300 Stateapproved programs provided prac tical nursing training. Public schools offered more than half of these programs as part of their vocational and adult education pro grams. Other programs were avail able at junior colleges, local hos pitals, health agencies, and private educational institutions. Practical nurse training programs are generally one year long and in clude both classroom study and clinical practice. Classroom in struction covers nursing concepts and principles and related subjects including anatomy, physiology, medical-surgical nursing, admin istration of drugs, nutrition, first aid, and community health. Stu dents learn to apply their skill to an actual nursing situation through supervised hospital work. Aspiring licensed practical nurses should have a deep concern for human welfare. They must be emo tionally stable because working with sick and injured people some times can be upsetting. As part of a health care team, they must be able to follow orders and work under close supervision. Good health is very important, as is the physical stamina needed to work while standing up a great deal. Advancement opportunities are limited without additional training. In-service educational programs prepare some licensed practical nurses for work in specialized areas. There are also some career ladder programs. Under this con cept, nurses’ aides attend training to become licensed practical nurses (LPN’s) while continuing to work part time. Similarly, LPN’s may prepare to become registered nurses while they continue to work part time. 505 Employment Outlook The employment outlook for licensed practical nurses is ex pected to be very good through the mid-1980’s. Employment is ex pected to continue to rise very rapidly through the mid-1980’s in response to a growing population, the increasing ability of persons to pay for health care, and the continuing expansion of public and private health insurance plans. Jobs will be created also as licensed practical nurses take over duties previously performed by registered nurses. Also, thousands of newly licensed practical nurses will be needed each year to replace those who die, retire, or leave the occupa tion for other reasons. Earnings and Working Conditions The average starting salary of licensed practical nurses who worked in hospitals and medical schools was about $120 a week in 1972, according to a national sur vey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Public health agencies paid licensed practical nurses salaries that averaged about $6,600 a year in 1972. Federal hospitals offered beginning licensed practical nurses annual salaries ranging from $6,128 to $6,882 in early 1973, according to personal qualifications and the geographical area. Many hospitals give periodic pay increases after specific periods of satisfactory service. Some hos pitals provide free lodging and laundering of uniforms. Practical nurses generally work 40 hours a week, but often this workweek in cludes some work at night and on weekends and holidays. Many hos pitals provide paid holidays and vacations, health insurance, and pension plans. In private homes, licensed prac tical nurses usually work 8 to 12 hours a day and go home at night. Sources of Additional Information A list of State-approved train ing programs and information about practical nursing is available from: A N A Committee on Nursing Careers, American Nurses’ Association, 2420 Pershing Rd., Kansas City, Mo. 64108. National Association for Practical Nurse Education and Service, Inc., 122 East 42nd St., Suite 800, New York, N.Y. 10017. National Federation of Licensed Prac tical Nurses, Inc., 250 West 57th St., New York, N.Y. 10019. Information about employment opportunities in U.S. Veterans Administration hospitals is avail able from your local Veterans Ad ministration hospital, as well as: Department of Medicine and Surgery, Veterans Administration, Washington, D.C. 20420. NURSING AIDES, ORDERLIES, AND ATTENDANTS (D.O.T. 355.687 through 355.887) Nature of the Work Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants perform a variety of duties to care for sick and injured people. Women usually are called nursing aides and men generally are known as orderlies. Other job titles include hospital attendant, nursing assistant, auxiliary nursing worker, home health aide, and (in mental institutions) psychiatric aide. Nursing aides and orderlies answer patients’ bell calls and de liver messages, serve meals, feed patients who are unable to feed OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 506 themselves, make beds, and bathe and dress patients. They also may give massages, take temperatures, and assist patients in getting out of bed and walking. Orderlies pro vide many of the same services. Orderlies also escort patients to operating and examining rooms and transport and set up heavy equip ment. Some attendants may work in hospital pharmacies or supply rooms. The duties of nursing aides de pend on the policies of the insti tutions where they work, the type of patient being cared for, and— equally important—the capacities and resourcefulness of the nursing aide or orderly. In some hospitals, they may clean patients’ rooms and do other household tasks. In others, under the supervision of registered nurses and licensed practical nurses, they may assist in the care of patients. The tasks performed for patients differ considerably, and depend on whether the patient is confined to his bed following major surgery, is recovering after a: dis abling accident or illness, or needs assistance with daily activities be cause of infirmity caused by ad vanced age. Places of Employment About 900,000 persons worked as nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants in 1972; more than fourfifths were women. Most of them work in hospitals. Others work pri marily in nursing homes and other institutions that provide facilities for care and recuperation. A small number give supportive services to patients in their homes. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although some employers prefer high school graduates, many, such as Veterans Administration hos pitals, hire non-graduates. Many employers accept applicants 17 or 18 years of age. Others—particu larly nursing homes and mental hos pitals—prefer to hire more mature men and women who are at least in their mid-twenties. Nursing aides generally are trained after they are hired. Some institutions combine on-the-job training, under the close super vision of registered or licensed practical nurses, with classroom instruction. Students learn to take and record temperatures, bathe patients, change linens on beds that are occupied by patients, and move and lift patients. Training may last several days or a few months, de pending on the policies of the hospital, the complexity of the duties and the aide’s aptitude for the work. The Manpower Develop ment and Training Act and the Vocational Education Act provide funds for many programs which train nursing aides. Courses in home nursing and first aid, offered by many public school systems and other com munity agencies, provide a useful background of knowledge for the work. Volunteer work and tempo rary summer jobs in hospitals and similar institutions also are help ful. Applicants should be healthy, tactful, patient, understanding, emotionally stable, and dependable. Nursing aides, as other health workers, should have a genuine desire to help people, be able to work as part of a team, and be willing to accept some menial tasks. Opportunities for promotions are limited without further training. 507 NURSING OCCUPATIONS Some acquire specialized training to prepare for better paying posi tions such as hospital operating room technician. To become licensed practical nurses, nursing aides must com plete the year of specialized train ing required for licensing. Some inservice programs allow nursing aides to get this training while they continue to work part-time. health care; the growth of public and private health insurance plans; and the expanded medical services of Medicare and Medicaid. Em ployment opportunities also will arise as hospitals continue to delegate to nursing aides tasks which, although associated with patient care, do not require the training of registered and licensed practical nurses. holidays. Attendants in hospitals and simi lar institutions generally received paid vacations which, after 1 year of service, may be a week or more in length. Paid holidays and sick leave, hospitalization and medical benefits, and pension plans also are available to many hospital employees. Sources of Additional Information Employment Outlook Earnings and Working Conditions Nursing aides, orderlies, and Employment of nursing aides is expected to increase very rapidly attendants earned slightly less than through the mid-1980’s. In addition the average for all nonsupervisory to those needed because of occupa workers on private payrolls, except tional growth, many thousands of farming. Nursing aides employed nursing aides will be needed each full time by nursing homes and re year to replace workers who die, re lated facilities earned consider tire, or leave the occupation for ably less than those in hospitals. Depending on the experience of the other reasons. Most jobs for nursing aides and applicant, salaries of inexperienced orderlies are in hospitals, but many nursing aides in Veterans Adminis new openings will be in nursing tration hospitals ranged from $92 homes, convalescent homes, and to $102 a week in early 1973. With few exceptions, the other long-term care facilities. Major reasons for expected occupa scheduled workweek of attendants tional growth are the increasing in hospitals is 40-hours or less. need for medical care of a growing Because nursing care must be avail population, including a larger pro able to patients on a 24-hour-a-day portion of elderly people; the in basis, scheduled hours include nightcreasing ability of people to pay for work and work on weekends and Information about employment may be obtained from local hospi tals and State and metropolitan health career programs. Additional information about the work of nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants may be obtained from: ANA Committee on Nursing Careers, American Nurses’ Association, 2420 Pershing Rd., Kansas City, Mo. 64108. Division of Careers and Recruitment, American Hospital Association, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111. 60611. In addition, the local office of the State employment service may be a source of information about the Manpower Development and Train ing Act, Vocational Education Act, and other programs that provide training opportunities. THERAPY AND REHABILITATION OCCUPATIONS Through various types of ther apy, handicapped people, particu larly the physically disabled, can learn to build satisfying and pro ductive lives. Helping in this ther apy are rehabilitation workers who use exercise, massage, heat, light, and water as well as mechanical and scientific devices to treat a variety of disorders. They work on a health care team, led by a phy sician, with nurses, social workers, psychologists, and vocational coun selors. This chapter presents statements on three areas of therapy and re habilitation: speech pathology and audiology, physical therapy, and occupational therapy. Speech pathologists and audi ologists are the largest rehabilita tion and therapy group. They help people with speech and hearing im pairments to overcome their handi cap. Physical therapists and physicaltherapist assistants and aides use exercise, massage, and heat to help disabled people regain the use of their muscles. Occupational therapists and occupational therapy assistants plan and lead activities which help disabled people regain coordination. Eventually, they help the patient learn a skill which can be used to find employment. They also help elderly people in nursing homes be come involved in interesting and absorbing hobbies. People who work in the therapy and rehabilitation occupations should have concern for the physi 508 cal and emotional well-being of others. They must have patience and be able to establish and main tain effective personal relation ships. Therapists should be stable, since patients who receive therapy often also need help to cope emo tionally with their disability. Other occupations also provide opportunity for work with the dis abled and handicapped. Rehabilita tion counselors give personal and vocational guidance to the physical ly, mentally, or socially handi capped. Employment counselors work with the disabled as well as the able-bodied in career plan ning and job adjustment. Both oc cupations are described elsewhere in the Handbook. OCCUPATIONAL THERAPISTS (D.O.T. 079.128) Nature of the Work Occupational therapists plan and direct educational, vocational, and recreational activities designed to help mentally and physically dis abled patients become selfsufficient. They evaluate the capaci ties and skills of patients and plan a therapy program with other members of a medical team which may include physicians, physical therapists, vocational counselors, nurses, social workers, and other specialists. About 1 therapist out of 3 works with emotionally handi capped patients, and the rest work with physically disabled persons. These patients represent all age groups and degrees of illness. Patients participate in occupa tional therapy to determine the ex tent of abilities and limitations; to regain physical, mental, or emo tional stability; to relearn daily routines such as eating, dressing, writing, and using a telephone; and eventually, to prepare for employ ment. Occupational therapists teach manual and creative skills such as weaving and leather working, and business and industrial skills such as typing and the use of power tools. They also plan and direct activities especially for children. Therapists may design and make special equipment or splints to help disabled patients. Besides working with patients, occupational therapists supervise student therapists, occupational therapy assistants, volunteers, and auxiliary nursing workers. The chief occupational therapists in hospitals may teach medical and nursing stu- THERAPY AND REHABILITATION OCCUPATIONS Course work in occupational dents the principles of occupational therapy. Many therapists adminis therapy programs includes physi ter occupational therapy programs, cal, biological, and behavioral coordinate patient activities, or are sciences and the application of oc consultants to local and State health cupational therapy skills. Students departments and mental health also work in hospitals or health agencies. Some teach in colleges and agencies to gain clinical experience. After students complete the 6 to 9 universities. month clinical practice period and graduate from their programs, they Places of Employment are eligible for the American Oc About 7,500 people, more than cupational Therapy Association ex 9 out of 10 of them women, worked amination to become registered oc as occupational therapists in 1972. cupational therapists (O.T.R.). More than three-fourths of all oc Occupational therapy assistants who cupational therapists work in hos are certified by the association and pitals. Rehabilitation centers, have 2 years of approved work ex nursing homes, schools, outpatient perience also are eligible to take clinics, community mental health the examination to become regis centers, and research centers employ tered occupational therapists. most of the others. Some work in Personal qualifications needed in special sanitariums or camps for this profession include emotional handicapped children, others in stability and a sympathetic but State health departments. Still objective approach to illness and others work in home-care programs disability. Occupational therapists for patients unable to attend also need ingenuity, imagination, and clinics or workshops. Some are the ability to teach. members of the Armed Forces. Newly graduated occupational therapists generally begin as staff Training, Other Qualifications, therapists. After several years on and Advancement the job, they may qualify as senior A degree or certificate in occu therapists or specialized practi pational therapy is required to enter tioners. Some advance to super the profession. In 1972, 40 colleges visory or administrative jobs in and universities offered programs in occupational therapy programs; a few occupational therapy which were teach or do research. accredited by the American Medical Association and the American Employment Outlook Occupational Therapy Association. Employment opportunities for All but one of these schools offer occupational therapists are ex bachelor’s degree programs. Some schools have 2 year programs and pected to be favorable through the accept students who have completed mid-1980’s. The increasing number 2 years of college. Some also offer of graduates is expected to be shorter programs, leading to a cer roughly in balance with new open tificate or a master’s degree in oc ings that are expected to result cupational therapy for students who from growth of the occupation and have a bachelor’s degree in another replacement for those who will die, field. One school offers the master’s retire, or leave the occupation for degree only. A graduate degree other reasons. Public interest in the rehabilita often is required for teaching, re tion of disabled persons and the search, or administrative work. 509 success of established occupational therapy programs are expected to create very rapid growth in the employment of occupational thera pists. Many therapists will be needed to staff community health centers and extended care facilities and to work with psychiatric patients, children with cerebral palsy, and elderly persons with heart disease. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning salaries for new gradu ates of occupational therapy pro grams averaged about $8,500 a year in 1972, according to a national sur vey conducted by the University of Texas Medical School at Galveston. Experienced occupational therapists earned an average salary of about $10,200 a year; some earned as much as $13,000. In early 1973, beginning thera pists employed by the Veterans Administration earned starting salaries of $8,572 a year. Most experienced, nonsupervisory occu pational therapists earned about $11,600 annually. Many part-time positions are available for occupational therapists. Some organizations require evening work. Sources of Additional Information For more information on occupa tional therapy as a career write to: American Occupational Therapy Associ ation, 6000 Executive Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20852. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 510 OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY ASSISTANTS (D.O.T. 079.368) Nature of the Work Occupational therapy assistants work under the supervision of pro fessional occupational therapists to help rehabilitate patients who are physically and mentally disabled. Through educational, vocational, and recreational activities they help plan and carry out programs to strengthen patients’ muscle power, increase motion and coordination, and develop self-sufficiency in over coming disabilities. Occupational therapy assistants teach patients creative skills such as woodworking, ceramics, and graphic arts, or work-related recrea tional and social activities such as games, dramatics, and gardening. They also teach self-care skills such as eating, dressing, and shaving. Assistants must be able to teach a broad range of skills because of the wide variety of patients. They may work either with groups or with individual patients. When treat ing patients with diseases, assistants usually work under the supervision of professional occupational thera pists. In other situations, such as organizing crafts projects for handi capped persons living in institutions, they may function independently, with only periodic consultation with professionals. Besides working directly with pa tients, occupational therapy assist ants may order supplies, prepare work materials, and help maintain tools and equipment. They also may keep patients’ records, prepare clinical notes, and perform other clerical duties. Places of Employment About 6,000 people worked as occupational therapy assistants in 1972; most were women. Most occu pational therapy assistants work in hospitals. Others work in nursing homes for the aged, schools for handicapped children and the men tally retarded, rehabilitation and day care centers, special workshops, and out-patient clinics. A small number are members of the Armed Forces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most occupational therapy as sistants qualify through on-the-job training received in hospitals and other health care facilities. Some learn their skills in vocational, tech nical, and adult education programs. Other assistants graduate from 1or 2-year junior college programs, or have completed an approved mil itary occupational therapy assistant training program. In early 1973, there were 31 programs approved by the American Occupational Therapy Association. Most of these are 2-year college programs leading to an associate degree. Others are 1-year voca tional school programs and a few are hospital-based and last 25 weeks. Graduates of these programs may be certified by the American Occu pational Therapy Association and receive the title Certified Occupa tional Therapy Assistant (COTA). In 1972, about 2,200 employed occupational therapy assistants were COTA’S . Approved programs combine classroom instruction with at least 2 months of supervised practical experience. Courses include the history and philosophy of occupa tional therapy, structure and func tion of the human body, the effect of illness and injury on patients, and human development. Students also learn skills and crafts and their application to physical and mental disabilities. Applicants for training programs must be high school graduates or the equivalent. Preference is given to applicants who have taken courses in science and crafts and have pre vious experience as nursing aides. Occupational therapy assistants should sincerely like people, have good physical and mental health, and be able to establish and main tain effective personal relationships. THERAPY AND REHABILITATION OCCUPATIONS They also should be able to work well with their hands since they must teach patients how to use tools and materials. Occupational therapy assistants who work in large health facilities begin with routine tasks and may advance to more responsible levels as they gain experience. Experienced COTA’s may take the exam to be come a registered occupational ther apist (OTR) without completing the remaining 2 years of study for a bachelor’s degree in occupational therapy. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for oc cupational therapy assistants are expected to be very good through the mid-1980’s, particularly for graduates of approved programs. Many openings will be created each year by growth in the occupation and the need to replace those who die, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Although the number of occupational therapy assistant programs is expected to increase, the supply of new gradu ates is likely to fall short of demands. Thus, the outlook should be favorable for people who want to enter the field through on-the-job training. Public interest in the rehabilita tion of disabled people is expected to cause very rapid growth in the employment of occupational ther apy assistants. All types of health care institutions, especially nurs ing homes and community health centers, will need more occupa tional therapy assistants through the mid-1980’s. 511 enced occupational therapy assist ants earned between $6,500 and $8,000 a year, according to limited information available. Those who completed an approved program generally earned higher starting sal aries than beginners without any training. Occupational therapy assistants may work outside with their patients in pleasant weather. Some work evenings, weekends, and part time. Sources of Additional Information For information about work op portunities and programs offering training for occupational therapy assistants, contact: American Occupational Therapy Asso ciation, 6000 Executive Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20852. PHYSICAL THERAPISTS (D.O.T. 079.378) Nature of the Work Physical therapists help persons with muscle, nerve, joint, and bone diseases or injuries to overcome their resulting disabilities. Their patients include accident victims, crippled children, and disabled older persons. Physical therapists perform and interpret tests and measure ments for muscle strength, motor development, functional capacity, and respiratory and circulatory ef ficiency to develop programs for treatment. They evaluate the ef fectiveness of the treatment and discuss the patients’ progress with physicians, psychologists, occupa tional therapists, and other spe Earnings and Working Conditions cialists. When advisable, physical In 1972, annual salaries gen therapists revise the therapeutic pro erally ranged from $6,000 to $7,000 cedures and treatments. They help for inexperienced assistants. Experi disabled persons to accept their physical handicaps and adjust to them. They show members of the patients’ families how to continue treatments at home. Therapeutic procedures include exercises for increasing strength, endurance, coordination, and range of motion; stimuli to make motor activity and learning easier; in struction in carrying out everyday activities and in the use of helping devices; and the application of massage, heat and cold, light,water, or electricity to relieve pain or im prove the condition of muscles. Most physical therapists provide direct care to patients as staff members, supervisors, or selfemployed practitioners. These therapists either may treat many categories or patients or else may specialize in pediatrics, geriatrics, amputations, arthritis, or paralysis. Others administer physical therapy programs, teach, or are consultants. Places of Employment About 18,000 persons—3 out of 4 of them women—worked as licensed physical therapists in 1972. About three-fourths of all physical thera pists work in hospitals or nursing 512 homes; others, in rehabilitation centers or schools for crippled chil dren. Some who work for public health agencies treat chronically sick patients in their own homes. Still others work in physicians’ offices or clinics, teach in schools of physical therapy, or work for research organizations. A few serve as consultants in government and voluntary agencies or are members of the Armed Forces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require a license to prac tice physical therapy. Applicants for a license must have a degree or certificate from a school of physical therapy and to qualify must pass a State board examination. In 1972, 59 schools of physical therapy were approved by the American Medical Association and the American Phys ical Therapy Association. Most of the approved schools of physical therapy offer bachelor’s degree programs. Some schools pro vide 1- to 2-year programs for students who have completed some college courses. Other schools accept those who already have a bachelor’s degree and give a 12- to 16-month course leading to a certificate in physical therapy. Many schools offer both degree and certificate programs. The physical therapy curriculum includes science courses such as anatomy, physiology, neuroanat omy, and neurophysiology, also specialized courses such as bio mechanics of motion, human growth and development, and manifesta tions of disease and trauma. Besides receiving classroom instruction, stu dents get supervised practical ex perience administering physical therapy to patients in a hospital or treatment center. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Several universities offer the mas ter’s degree in physical therapy. A graduate degree, combined with clinical experience, increases the opportunities for advancement, es pecially to teaching, research, and administrative positions. Therapists must have patience, tact, resourcefulness, and emotional stability in order to help patients and their families understand the treatments and adjust to their handi caps. Physical therapists also should have manual dexterity and physical stamina. Many persons who want to determine whether they have the personal qualities needed for this occupation volunteer for summer or part-time work in the physical therapy department of a hospital or clinic. $8,700 a year in 1972, according to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical School at Galveston. Earnings of experienced physical therapists aver aged $10,400; some earned as much as $17,000. Beginning therapists employed by the Veterans Administration (VA) earned starting salaries of $8,572 a year in early 1973. Most experi enced nonsupervisory physical ther apists in the VA earned about $11,600 annually, those who are supervisors, about $16,700. Sources of Additional Information Additional information is avail able from: American Physical Therapy Association, 1156 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for physical therapists are expected to be favorable through the mid-1980’s. The rapidly growing number of new graduates is expected to be in rough balance with the average number of openings that will result each year from growth in the occupation and from replacement of those who will die or retire. Employment in the occupation is expected to grow very rapidly through the mid-1980’s because of increased public recognition of the importance of rehabilitation. As programs to aid crippled children and other rehabilitation activities expand, and as growth takes place in nursing homes and other facilities for the elderly, many new positions for physical therapists are likely to be created. Many part-time posi tions should continue to be available. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for new physical therapy graduates averaged about PHYSICAL THERAPIST ASSISTANTS AND AIDES (D.O.T. 355.878) Nature of the Work Physical therapist assistants and aides work under the supervision of professional physical therapists to rehabilitate disabled persons so that they may again lead useful and pro ductive lives. They work to restore physical functions and prevent dis ability from injury or illness. Assistants help physical thera pists perform tests on patients to determine the best treatment for them and assist in administering it. They use special therapy equip ment to apply heat, cold, light, sound, and massage, and report to supervisors or professionals the pa tient’s response to treatment. As sistants also help patients perform therapeutic exercises as well as THERAPY AND REHABILITATION OCCUPATIONS everyday activities such as walking and climbing stairs. They help fit artificial limbs, braces, and splints, and instruct patients in their use. Physical therapist aides help pa tients prepare for treatment, and may remove and replace for the patients such devices as braces, splints, and slings, and transport patients to and from treatment areas. They may help assistants or therapists in administering treat ment to patients. Aides care for and assemble physical therapy treatment equipment. They also keep patients’ records, make appointments, act as receptionists, and perform other clerical duties. Some small health care institu tions employ only 1 person besides the therapist in the physical therapy department. In this case, the assist ant or aide assumes most of the duties listed for both groups, within the limits of their training. 513 completed an approved 2-year asso ciate degree program. Some of these States also licensed experienced phy sical therapist assistants who passed a proficiency test and who had learned their skills in vocational, technical, or adult education pro grams, or from on-the-job training before associate degree programs were available. There were 36 programs for physical therapist assistants in 1972; most are in junior or community colleges. Courses include history and philosophy of rehabilitation, human anatomy and physiology, human growth and development, and psychology. A course in phy sical therapist assistant procedures covers massage, therapeutic exer cises, heat and cold therapy, and functional activities. Supervised clin ical experience also is a requirement of physical therapist assistant pro grams. Between 1967, when the first programs were developed, and 1972, 645 persons graduated from 2-year physical therapist assistant pro Places of Employment grams. About 60 percent were About 10,500 persons worked as women. physical therapist assistants and Physical therapist aides qualify aides in 1972; most of them were for their occupation through train women. Most work in physical ing received on the job in hospitals therapy departments of general and and other health care facilities. The specialized hospitals. Others work length and content of on-the-job in physicians’ or physical therapists’ programs vary widely, depending on offices and clinics, rehabilitation the level of duties that aides are centers, or nursing homes for the permitted to perform, the particular chronically ill and elderly. Some services required by different pa community and government health tients when the program is in agencies, schools for crippled chil progress, and the amount of time dren, and facilities for the mentally professional physical therapists can retarded also employ physical thera spend teaching trainees. Applicants pist assistants and aides. A small admitted to on-the-job training pro number are members of the Armed grams for physical therapist aides Forces. generally must be high school grad uates or the equivalent. Employers usually prefer that they have science Training, Other Qualifications, courses and previous hospital ex and Advancement perience as nurse aides. In 1972, 14 States licensed phy Physical therapist assistants and sical therapist assistants who had aides need good physical and mental OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 514 health, manual dexterity to adjust equipment, body coordination to assist in positioning patients, and a sincere interest in helping the physically handicapped. As physical therapist assistants and aides gain experience, they may advance to more responsible duties with corresponding pay in creases. Advancement opportunities for aides are best in areas where associate degree programs for phy sical therapist assistants are not available. Employment Outlook Job opportunities for physical therapist assistants and aides are expected to be excellent through the mid-1980’s. In communities where there are large classes in a physical therapist assistant program, some graduates may find it necessary to move to other locations where there are no associate degree programs available. On the national level, however, openings for physical ther apist assistants caused by growth and replacement needs will far ex ceed graduates from these programs. The expected very rapid growth in the occupation will accompany the growing demand for professional physical therapists. Overall demands in the physical therapy field stem from increased public awareness of the importance of rehabilitation and the growing number of nursing homes which provide therapeutic services to the elderly. Expanded physical therapy services planned by hospitals, nursing homes, schools for crippled children, facilities for mentally retarded, and other health and rehabilitation centers are ex pected to further increase the need for physical therapist assistants and aides. aged about $90 for beginning phy sical therapist aides and about $120 for those with experience, according to limited information available. Physical therapist assistants received higher salaries than aides, begin ning at about $120 a week. Experi enced physical therapist assistants earned as much as $165 weekly. Sources of Additional Information Information on a career as a physical therapist assistant or aide and on programs offering training for physical therapist assistant is available from: The American Physical Therapy Asso ciation, 1156 15th St. NW ., Washing ton, D.C. 20005. SPEECH PATHOLOGISTS AND AUDIOLOGISTS (D.O.T. 079.108) Nature of the Work About 1 out of 10 Americans is unable to speak or hear clearly. Children who have trouble speak ing or hearing cannot participate fully with other children in play or in normal classroom activities. Adults having speech or hearing impairments often have problems in job adjustment. Speech pathologists and audiologists provide direct serv ices to these people by evaluating their speech or hearing disorders and then providing treatment. The speech pathologist works with children and adults who have speech, language, and voice disorders re sulting from causes such as total or partial hearing loss, brain in jury, cleft palate, mental retarda tion, emotional problems, or foreign Earnings dialect. The audiologist primarily In 1972, weekly salaries aver assesses and treats hearing prob lems. Speech and hearing, however, are so interrelated that to be com petent in one of these fields, one must be familiar with both. The duties of speech pathologists and audiologists vary with educa tion, experience, and place of employment. In clinics, either in schools or other locations, they use diagnostic procedures to identify and evaluate speech and hearing disorders. Then, in cooperation with physicians, psychologists, physical therapists, and counselors, they de velop and implement an organized program of therapy. Some speech pathologists and audiologists con duct research such as investigating the causes of communicative dis orders and improving methods for clinical services. Others supervise clinical activities or do other ad ministrative work. Speech pathologists and audi ologists in colleges and universities instruct in the principles and bases of communication, communication disorders, and clinical techniques; participate in educational programs with physicians, nurses, and teachers; and work in university clinics and research centers. Places of Employment About 27,000 persons, threefourths of them women, worked as speech pathologists and audi ologists in 1972. About two-thirds worked in public schools. Colleges and universities employed many in classrooms, clinics, and research centers. The rest were distributed among hospitals, speech and hearing centers, government agencies, in dustry, and private practice. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although only a few States pres ently require a master’s degree for 515 THERAPY AND REHABILITATION OCCUPATIONS work in schools, the master’s degree or its equivalent increasingly is needed. A teacher’s certificate often is required. In addition, some States require workers dealing with handi capped children to have special training. Speech pathologists and audiologists who supervise many Federal programs, such as Medi care and Medicaid, need a master’s degree. Undergraduate courses in speech pathology and audiology include anatomy, biology, physiology, phy sics, linguistics, semantics and phonetics. Courses in speech and hearing as well as in child psy chology and psychology of the ex ceptional child are also helpful. This training is usually available at colleges that offer a broad liberal arts program. In 1972, more than 200 colleges and universities offered graduate education in speech pathology and audiology. Courses at the graduate level include advanced anatomy and physiology of the areas involved in hearing and speech, acoustics, and psychological aspects of com munication. Training also is given in the analysis of speech produc tion, language abilities, and auditory processes. Graduate students gain a familiarity with research methods used to study speech and hearing. Scholarships, fellowships, assistantships and traineeships are avail able in this field. Teaching and training grants to colleges and universities that have programs in speech and hearing are given by the U.S. Rehabilitation Services Admin istration, the Maternal and Child Health Service, the U.S. Office of Education, and the National Insti tutes of Health. In addition, some Federal agencies distribute money to colleges to aid graduate students in speech and hearing programs. Opportunity for advancement, as in most health service occupations, is generally not an important con sideration for speech pathologists and audiologists. However, meeting the American Speech and Hearing Association’s (ASHA) requirements for a Certificate of Clinical Com petence usually is necessary in order to advance professionally and to earn a higher salary. ASHA members work in all areas of speech pathology and audiology. Most speech pathologists and audi ologists have some administrative responsibilities. However, directors of speech and hearing clinics, and coordinators of speech and hearing in schools, health departments or government agencies, may be totally involved in administration. Speech pathologists and audiol ogists should like people; have the ability to approach problems ob jectively; and should be sensitive, patient, and emotionally stable. A person who desires a career in speech pathology and audiology should be able to accept responsi bility, work independently, and di rect others. The ability to work with detail is important. Speech pathologists and audiologists have an opportunity for self-expression and receive satisfaction from seeing the results of their work. Employment Outlook The employment of speech path ologists and audiologists is expected to increase moderately through the mid-1980’s. For those who have completed graduate study, oppor tunities are expected to be very good. Although some jobs will be available for those having only a bachelor’s degree, the increasing emphasis being placed on the mas ter’s degree by State governments and Federal agencies will limit opportunities at the bachelor’s level. Population growth which will in crease the number of persons having speech and hearing problems is one of the principal factors underlying the expected moderate increase in employment of speech pathologists and audiologists through the mid1980’s. In addition, the trend is growing toward earlier recognition and treatment of hearing and lan 516 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK in colleges and universities range from $9,900 to $18,500 for a 9-10 month contract in 1972, according to limited data available. Median salaries might be as much as $2,000 higher for an 11 to 12 month contract. Many experienced speech pathologists and audiologists in col leges and universities supplement their regular salaries by doing con sulting work, special research proj ects, and writing books and articles. In 1972, speech pathologists and audiologists in schools averaged $11,500 for a 9-10 month contract according to limited information available. Their average salaries were over $1,000 higher than those of all classroom teachers for the same period. Earnings and Working Conditions In early 1973, the annual starting Median salaries of speech path salary in the Federal Government ologists and audiologists teaching for speech pathologists and audi guage problems in children. Many school-age children, thought to have learning disabilities, actually have language disorders which speech pathologists can treat. Other factors expected to in crease demand for speech path ologists and audiologists are the rapid expansion in expenditures for medical research and the growing public interest connected with speech and hearing disorders. These are illustrated by the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, as amended, which provides for the education of handicapped children, and expanded Federal programs such as Medicare and Medicaid. ologists with a master’s degree was $11,614. Those having a doctoral degree were eligible to start at $13,996. Many speech pathologists and audiologists work over 40 hours a week. Almost all receive fringe benefits such as paid vacations, sick leave, and retirement programs. Sources of Additional Information State departments of education can supply information on certifi cation requirements for those who wish to work in public schools. A list of college and university programs and a booklet on student financial aid as well as general career information are available from: American Speech and Hearing Associa tion, 9030 Old Georgetown Rd., Wash ington, D.C. 20014. OTHER HEALTH DIETITIANS (D.O.T. 077.081 through .168) Nature of the Work Dietitians plan nutritious and appetizing meals to help people maintain or recover good health. They also supervise the food service workers who prepare and serve the meals, manage purchases and keep the accounts, and give advice on good eating habits. Administrative dietitians form the largest group in this occupation; the others are clin ical, teaching, and research dieti tians. Nutritionists also are included in this field. Administrative dietitians apply the principles of nutrition and sound management to large-scale meal planning and preparation, such as that done in hospitals, uni versities, schools, and other institu tions. They supervise the planning, preparation, and service of meals; select, train, and direct food-service supervisors and workers; budget for and purchase food, equipment, and supplies; enforce sanitary and safety regulations; and prepare records and reports. Dietitians who are directors of a dietetic depart ment also decide on departmental policy; coordinate dietetic service with the activities of other depart ments; and are responsible for the development and management of the dietetic department budget, which in large organizations may amount to millions of dollars annually. Clinical dietitians, sometimes called therapeutic dietitians, plan Research dietitians evaluate and interpret research findings to im prove the nutrition of people in health and in disease. This research may be in nutrition science and OCCUPATIONS education, food management, food service systems and equipment. They conduct studies and make diets and supervise the service of surveys of food intake, food accep meals to meet the nutritional needs tance, and food utilization in the of patients in hospitals, nursing body for individuals and groups of homes, or clinics. Among their people. Research projects may re duties, clinical dietitians confer late to subjects such as nutritional with doctors and other members needs of the aging, persons with a of the health care team about the chronic disease, or space travelers. patients’ nutritional care, instruct Dietetic educators teach normal patients and their families on the nutrition and nutrition in disease requirements and importance of to dietetic, medical, dental, and their diets, and suggest ways to help nursing students and to interns, them stay on these diets after leaving residents, and other members of the hospital or clinic. In a small the health care team. This may be institution, one person may be both in hospitals, clinics, and schools. the administrative and clinical Nutritionists counsel people of dietitian. all ages, as individuals or in groups A therapeutic dietitian instructing a patient about his diet. 517 518 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK on sound nutrition practices, to iology, and related courses such as maintain and improve health. This mathematics, data processing, psy includes food budgeting and pur chology, sociology, and economics. For a dietitian to qualify for chasing, and meal planning and preparation. Nutritionists in the professional recognition, the Ameri public health field are responsible can Dietetic Association recom for planning, developing, adminis mends the completion after gradua tering, and coordinating nutrition tion of an approved dietetic programs and services as part of internship or 2 years experience. In 1972, 75 internship programs public health programs. An increasing number of dieti were approved by the American tians work as consultants to hospi Dietetic Association. A growing tals and to health-related facilities. number of coordinated under Others act as consultants to com graduate programs, located in mercial enterprises, including food schools of medicine and in allied processors, equipment manufacturers, health and home economics depart ments of both colleges and univer and utility companies. sities, enable students to complete both the requirements for a bache Places of Employment lor’s degree and the clinical experi About 33,000 persons, most of ence requirement in four years. Experienced dietitians may ad them women, worked as dietitians in 1972. More than two-fifths work vance to assistant director or direc in hospitals and clinics, including tor of a dietetic department in a about 1,000 in the Veterans Ad large hospital or other institution. ministration and the U.S. Public Advancement to higher level posi Health Service. Colleges, univer tions in teaching and research sities, and school systems employ usually requires graduate education; a large number of dietitians as public health nutritionists must earn teachers or as dietitians in food a graduate degree in this field. service systems. Most of the rest Graduate study in institutional or work for public health agencies, business administration is valuable restaurants, or cafeterias and large to those interested in administrative companies that provide food serv dietetics. Persons who plan to become ice for their employees. Some dieti dietitians should have organiza tians are commissioned officers in tional and administrative ability, the Armed Forces. as well as high scientific aptitude, and should be able to work well Training, Other Qualifications, with a variety of people. and Advancement A bachelor’s degree, preferably with a major in foods and nutrition or institution management, is the basic educational requirement for dietitians. This degree can be earned in more than 250 colleges and universities, usually in depart ments of home economics. College courses usually required are in food and nutrition, institution manage ment, chemistry, bacteriology, phys Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for qualified dietitians on both a full time and part-time basis are ex pected to be good through the mid1980’s. In recent years, dietetic assistants trained in vocational and technical schools and dietetic tech nicians trained in junior colleges have increasingly been utilized by employers to help meet demands for dietetic services. Since this situation is likely to persist, em ployment opportunities also should continue to be favorable for gradu ates of these programs. Employment of dietitians is ex pected to grow rapidly to meet the nutrition and food management needs of hospitals and extended care facilities, schools, industrial plants, and restaurants. Dietitians also will be needed to staff com munity health programs and to conduct research in food and nutri tion. In addition to new dietitians needed because of occupational growth, many others will be re quired each year to replace those who die, retire, or leave the profes sion for marriage and family responsibilities. The number of men dietitians is growing. Men are likely to find increasing employment opportuni ties, especially as administrative dietitians in college and university food services, hospitals, and com mercial eating places. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries of hospital dieti tians averaged $8,800 a year in 1972, according to a national sur vey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Experi enced dietitians received annual salaries ranging from $8,400 to $14,700. Colleges and universities paid dietitians with bachelor’s de grees average salaries of $10,700 a year in 1972, according to the American Dietetic Association. Dietitians who worked in com mercial or industrial establishments averaged about $12,300; those in public and voluntary health agen cies, $10,800. Self-employed dieti tians with a bachelor’s degree earned over $14,000 a year, in 1972; some, with Ph.D.’s, averaged as much as 519 OTHER HEALTH OCCUPATIONS $21,000 yearly. The entrance salary in the Federal Government for those completing an approved internship was $9,500 in early 1973. Beginning dietitians with a master’s degree who had completed an internship earned $11,600. Nutrition consultants work ing in State and local governments averaged salaries of $9,900 to $12,800 in 1972. Most dietitians work 40 hours a week; however, dietitians in hospi tals may sometimes work on week ends, and those in commercial food service have somewhat irregular hours. Some hospitals provide laundry service and meals in addi tion to salary. Dietitians usually receive paid vacations, holidays, and health insurance and retire ment benefits. Sources of Additional Information For information on approved dietetic internship programs, schol arships, and employment oppor tunities, and a list of colleges providing training for a professional career in dietetics, contact: The American Dietetic Association, 620 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. The U.S. Civil Service Com mission, Washington, D.C. 20415, will send information on the re quirements for dietetic interns and dietitians in Federal Government hospitals. HOSPITAL ADMINISTRATORS (D.O.T. 187.118) Nature of the Work Hospital administrators hold the highest executive positions in hos pitals and manage all administra tive activities. They usually receive general guidance from a hospital governing board in developing plans and policies. Administrators direct and co ordinate the varied activities of the hospital, and are responsible for the personnel, equipment, fi nances, building, and services provided by the hospital. Admin istrators work closely with the medical and nursing staffs to deter mine the needs for additional per sonnel and equipment. They also plan, with the help of their business staff, for current and future space needs, purchase of supplies and equipment, and provision of pa tients’ services such as mail and laundry. The preparation and ad ministration of the budget are important responsibilities of the administrator. With the help of a hospital engineer, the administrator is responsible for insuring that the buildings and equipment are prop erly maintained. In small hospitals, administrators assume all management duties. In large hospitals they are assisted by specialists trained either in hospital administration or in specialized managerial skills such as purchas ing, public relations, or labor relations. Under the direction of the gov erning board, administrators may carry out large projects to expand or develop the hospital’s services, such as organizing fund-raising campaigns or planning new medi- 520 cal care, research, or educational social or behavioral sciences, in dustrial engineering, or business programs. Administrators meet regularly administration, along with exten with their staff to discuss progress, sive experience in the health field. make plans, and solve problems A few require their administrators concerning the operations of the to be physicians or registered hospitals. Working with the medi professional nurses. Specialized hos cal staff and department heads, pitals (such as mental or orthopedic they may develop and maintain hospitals) may prefer physicians teaching programs for nurses, in whose medical specialty is the same terns, and other hospital staff as that of the hospital. Hospitals members as well as cooperative run by religious groups may seek educational programs in allied administrators of the same faith. health with colleges and universi In 1972, 38 colleges and uni ties. Administrators also may versities offered master’s degree address community gatherings, or programs in health and hospital ganize community health campaigns, administration. The programs gen and participate in planning com erally last 2 years, but vary in time munity health care programs. allocated to academic study and to supervised administrative experience in hospitals or health agencies. The Places of Employment minimum amount of required aca demic study is about a year; super About 17,000 persons worked as hospital administrators and assist vised administrative experience re ants in 1972. About two-thirds quirements range up to a year. The curriculum may include worked in nonprofit or private hos pitals. The remainder worked in courses such as hospital organiza Federal, State, and local govern tion and management, medical care, ment hospitals. Of those employed accounting and budget control, by the Federal Government, most personnel administration, public worked in Veterans Administra health administration, and the eco tion, Armed Forces, and Public nomics of health care. The chief administrator of the affiliated hos Health Service hospitals. About 15 percent of all admin pital or his assistant supervise stu istrators and their assistants are dents as they gain experience in all women; many are members of re phases of hospital administration. A Ph.D. in health administration, of ligious orders. Hospital administrators are lo fered in several universities, is cated in cities and towns throughout especially helpful for those who want the country, but most are in large to teach and do research. The American College of Hos population centers. pital Administrators provides fi nancial loans and scholarships to a Training, Other Qualifications, limited number of students for and Advancement graduate work in health and hos Educational requirements for pital administration. Some Federal hospital administrators vary. Most Government awards for graduate hospitals prefer applicants having training in health and hospital at least a master’s degree in health administration also are available. and hospital administration from A growing number of colleges an accredited graduate program. and universities offer bachelor’s Some prefer formal training in degree programs in health admin OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK istration. These prepare students for middle management positions in hospitals or other health care institutions such as nursing homes or community health centers. Some community colleges offer an asso ciate degree in health administra tion which prepares students for assistant administrative positions in smaller health care institutions. New graduates having a master’s degree in health and hospital ad ministration usually enter the field as assistant administrators or de partment heads and occasionally as administrators in small hospitals. Some persons who do not have a master’s degree in health and hospital administration enter the field by working in one of the specialized administrative areas such as personnel, records, budget and finance, or data processing. With this experience and some graduate work, they may be promoted to department head, to assistant ad ministrator, and eventually some become a chief administrator. Personal qualifications needed for success as a hospital administrator include initiative and interest in community service. Administrators should be able to work with and inspire people, organize and direct large-scale activities. They also must be good public speakers. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for new graduates having the master’s degree in hospital administration are expected to be favorable through the mid-1980’s. Applicants who do not have graduate education will find it increasingly difficult to enter this field in upper manage ment positions in hospitals and other health programs. A few posi tions for administrators are likely to continue to be filled by physicians, persons in other professional medi OTHER HEALTH OCCUPATIONS cal occupations, or persons experi enced in a specialized administrative area. The number of positions in hos pital administration is expected to grow very rapidly through the mid1980’s, as health facilities are expanded to provide additional health services to an increasing population. A trend towards more complex organization in hospitals also is expected to create new openings for administrative assist ants. However, the number of master’s programs in health and hospital administration also has grown very rapidly since the mid1960’s. If these trends continue through the 1970’s, the number of graduates can be expected to be adequate to meet the growth in the occupation. The position of hospital admin istrator, especially in a large hospi tal, is a career goal which is attained by only a few of the graduates of a master’s degree program in hospi tal administration, and is generally filled by promotion from within the hospital. However, there are a growing number of administrative positions available to these gradu ates in other health care institu tions such as large nursing or personal care homes and in public health departments. Still other positions will be open to them in voluntary health organizations which are State or nationwide in scope. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of hospital administra tors depend on factors such as size, type, and location of the hospital, and size of its administrative staff and budget. Administrative assist ants in hospitals earned an average starting salary of $9,780 in 1972, according to a national survey con ducted by the University of Texas Medical School at Galveston. Ex 521 perienced administrative assistants contact the financial aid office of in very large hospitals earned up the individual universities, or: Bureau of Health Manpower Educa to $18,000 or more. tion, National Institutes of Health, Average salaries of chief hospi Bethesda, Md. 20014. tal administrators ranged between $21,000 and $25,000 in 1972, ac cording to a survey conducted for the American College of Hospital Administrators. Many earned over MEDICAL RECORD $40,000. ADMINISTRATORS Salaries of experienced VA hos pital administrators, many of them (D.O.T. 100.388) physicians, ranged from $31,203 to $36,000 in early 1973. Nature of the Work Commissioned officers in the Armed Forces who work as hospi All health care institutions keep tal administrators hold ranks rang records that contain medical in ing from second lieutenant to formation on each patient, includ colonel or from ensign to captain. ing case histories of illnesses or Commanding officers of large injuries, reports on physical exam Armed Forces hospitals are usually inations, X-rays and laboratory physicians who may hold higher tests, doctors’ orders and notes, ranks. Hospital administrators in and nurses’ notes. These records the U.S. Public Health Service are are necessary for correct and prompt commissioned officers, holding ranks diagnosis and treatment of illnesses ranging from lieutenant (junior and injuries. They also are used for grade) to captain in the Navy. research, insurance claims, legal Hospital administrators often actions, evaluation of treatment work long hours. Since hospitals and medications prescribed, and in operate on a round-the-clock basis, the training of medical personnel. the administrator may be called on Medical information in hospital to settle emergency problems at records also is used to evaluate the any time of the day or night. He effectiveness of a hospital’s care, also may be called on to attend and to plan programs at community meetings held at various locations health centers. outside the hospital. Medical record administrators, also known as medical record li brarians, direct the activities of the Source of Additional information medical record department and de velop systems for documenting, Information about hospital ad storing, and retrieving medical in ministration and a list of col formation. They supervise the work leges and universities offering this of the medical record staff in the training are available from: preparation and analysis of records American College of Hospital Admin and reports on patients’ illnesses istrators, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., and treatment. Among their main Chicago, 111. 60611. duties are training members of the Association of University Programs in medical record staff for specialized Health Administration, One Dupont Circle NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. jobs, compiling medical statistics For information on Federal Gov required by State or national health ernment awards for graduate train agencies, and assisting medical staff ing in hospital administration, members in evaluation of patient OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 522 care and in scientific studies. Medi cal record administrators represent their departments at hospital staff meetings, and may be called to testify in court about information contained in a medical record. The size and type of institution employing medical record admin istrators affects the duties and amount of responsibility assigned to these workers. In large hospitals, chief medical record administrators supervise other medical record ad ministrators, technicians, and clerks. Smaller hospitals may employ only two or three persons in the medical record departments and in nursing homes usually one person keeps the medical records. In these cases, the medical record administrator performs technical and clerical as well as professional duties. ing homes, State and local public health departments, and medical research centers. Some health in surance companies also employ medical record administrators to help determine liability for pay ment of their clients’ medical fees. Some medical record administra tors work for firms that manu facture equipment for recording and processing medical data and develop and print health insurance and medical forms. Many small health care facilities hire medical record administrators as consultants. Although most medical record ad ministrators are women, the num ber of men in the occupation is growing. Places of Employment Preparation for a career as a medical record administrator is offered in specialized programs in colleges, universities, and hospitals. Most programs last 4 years and lead to a bachelor’s degree in medical record administration. How ever, concentration in medical record administration begins in the third or fourth year of study, making transfer from a junior college pos sible. One-year certificate programs also are available for those who already have a bachelor’s degree and required courses in the liberal arts and biological sciences. In 1972, there were 31 programs in medical record administration ap proved by the Council on Medical Education of the American Medi cal Association and the Ameri can Medical Record Association (AMRA). Training for medical record ad ministrators includes both class room instruction and experience in hospital medical record depart ments. Anatomy, physiology, fun Most of the 11,600 medical record administrators employed in 1972 worked in hospitals. The remainder worked in clinics, nurs- Medical record administrator obtains in formation from a patient’s record with the help of a technician on her staff. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement damentals of medical science, medical terminology, and medical record science are among the re quired scientific courses. In addi tion, management courses such as hospital organization and admin istration, health law, statistics, and data processing are part of the curriculum. Experience in the medi cal record departments of hospitals provides students with a practical background in applying standard ized medical record practices, com piling statistical reports, analyzing data from the medical records, and organizing medical record systems. Graduates of approved schools in medical record administration are eligible for the national regis tration examination given by AMRA. Passing this examination gives professional recognition as a Registered Record Administrator (RRA). There were about 4,750 employed RRA’s in 1972, accord ing to AMRA. Medical record administrators must be accurate and interested in detail. They also must be able to communicate clearly in speech and writing. Because medical records are confidential, medical record administrators must be discreet in processing and releasing informa tion. Supervisors must be able to organize and analyze work pro cedures and to work effectively with other hospital personnel. Medical record administrators with some experience in smaller health facilities may advance to positions as department heads in large hospitals or to higher level positions in hospital administra tion. Some coordinate the medical record departments of several small hospitals. Others move on to medi cal record positions in health agencies. Many teach in the expand ing programs for medical record personnel in 2- and 4-year colleges and universities. OTHER HEALTH OCCUPATIONS Employment Outlook 523 those having bachelor’s degrees and good academic records were eligible to begin at $9,500. Some experienced medical record admin istrators employed by the Federal Government earned as much as $16,700 annually. Medical record administrators usually work a regular 40-hour week and receive paid holidays and vacations. Employment opportunities for graduates of approved medical record administrator programs are expected to be excellent through the mid-1980’s. Employment is ex pected to grow very rapidly, with the increasing use of hospitals and other health facilities as more and more people are covered by health insurance. The detailed informa tion required by third-party payers such as insurance companies and Sources of Additional Information Medicare also will cause some Information about approved growth in the occupation. More schools and employment oppor consultants will be needed to stand ardize health records in nursing tunities is available from: The American Medical Record Associa homes and home care programs. tion, 875 North Michigan Ave., Suite The importance of medical records 1850, John Hancock Center, Chicago, in research, and the growing use 111. 60611. of computers to store and retrieve medical information also should increase the demand for qualified medical record administrators to develop new medical information PHARMACISTS systems. Part-time employment (D.O.T. 074.181) opportunities also should be avail able in teaching, in research, and as consultants to health care Nature of the Work facilities. Pharmacists dispense drugs and medicines prescribed by medical practitioners and supply and advise Earnings and Working Conditions people on the use of many medicines The salaries of medical record that can be obtained with and with administrators are influenced by out prescriptions. Pharmacists must the location, size, and type of understand the use, composition, employing institution, as well as and effect of drugs and be able by the duties and responsibilities to test them for purity and strength. of the position. The average start They also advise physicians on ing salary for medical record ad the proper selection and use of ministrators in 1972 was $8,760 a medicines. Compounding—the ac year, according to a national sur tual mixing of ingredients to form vey conducted by the University powders, tablets, capsules, oint of Texas Medical Branch at Gal ments, and solutions—is now only veston. Top salaries averaged a small part of pharmacists’ prac $10,500 a year, with some earnings tice, since most medicines are pro duced by manufacturers in the form as much as $16,000. Newly graduated medical record used by the patient. Many pharmacists employed in administrators employed by the community pharmacies also have Federal Government generally started at $7,700 a year in early 1973; other duties. Besides dispensing medicines, some pharmacists buy and sell nonpharmaceutical mer chandise, hire and supervise per sonnel, and oversee the general operation of the pharmacy. Other pharmacists, however, operate pre scription pharmacies that dispense only medicines, medical supplies, and health accessories. Pharmacists in hospitals and clin ics dispense prescriptions and advise the medical staff on the selection and effects of drugs; they also make sterile solutions, buy medical supplies, teach in schools of nursing and allied health professions, and perform administrative duties. An increasing number of hospital phar macists work in patient care areas as consultants to the medical team. Some pharmacists, employed as medical sales representatives by drug manufacturers and wholesalers, sell medicines to retail pharmacies and to hospitals, and inform health personnel about new drugs. Others teach in pharmacy colleges, super vise the manufacture of pharma ceuticals, or develop new medi cines. Some pharmacists also edit or write articles for pharmaceutical journals, or do administrative work. Places of Employment Nearly 131,000 persons worked as licensed pharmacists in 1972; nearly 10 percent were women. About 107,000 pharmacists worked in community pharmacies. Of these community pharmacists, more than two-Fifths owned their own phar macies; the others were salaried employees. Most of the remaining salaried pharmacists worked for hospitals, pharmaceutical manu facturers, and wholesalers. Some were civilian employees of the Federal Government, working chief ly in hospitals and clinics of the Veterans Administration and the U.S. Public Health Service. Others 524 Pharmacist at poison control center giving emergency instructions for treatment. served as pharmacists in the Armed Forces, taught in colleges of phar macy, or worked for State and local government agencies. Most towns have at least one pharmacy with one or more phar macists in attendance. Most phar macists, however, practice in or near cities, and in those States which have the largest populations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license to practice pharmacy is required in all States and the District of Columbia. To obtain a license, one must be a graduate of an accredited pharmacy college, pass a State board examination and—in nearly all States—have a specified amount of practical ex perience or internship under the supervision of a registered phar macist. All States except California, Florida, and Hawaii grant a license without examination to qualified pharmacists already licensed by an other State. At least 5 years of study beyond high school are required to graduate from one of the 73 accredited col leges of pharmacy and receive a Bachelor of Science (B.S.) or a Bachelor of Pharmacy (B. Pharm.) degree. A few colleges that require 6 years award a Doctor of Pharmacy OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK (Pharm. D.) degree at the comple tion of the program. A few colleges admit students directly from high school and offer all the education necessary for graduation. Most col leges provide 3 or 4 years of pro fessional instruction and require all entrants to have completed their prepharmacy education in an ac credited junior college, college, or university. A prepharmacy curriculum usu ally emphasizes mathematics and basic sciences, such as chemistry and biology, but also includes courses in the humanities and social sciences. Because entry requirements vary among colleges of pharmacy, prepharmacy students should in quire about and follow the curricu lum required by colleges they plan to attend. The bachelor’s degree in phar macy is the minimum educational qualification for most positions in the profession. However, a master’s or doctor’s degree in pharmacy or a related field usually is required for research work or college teach ing. Areas of special study include pharmaceutics, pharmaceu tical chemistry, pharmacology (study of the effects of drugs on the body), pharmacognosy (study of the drugs derived from plant or animal sources), clinical pharmacy, and pharmacy administration. Needy students may obtain Fed eral loans or scholarships up to $3,500 a year to pursue full-time study leading to a degree in phar macy. Several scholarships are awarded annually by drug manu facturers, chain drug stores, corpora tions, State and national pharmacy associations, and the colleges of pharmacy. Since many pharmacists are selfemployed, prospective pharmacists should have some business ability, as well as an interest in medical science and the ability to instill confidence in patients. Honesty, integrity, and orderliness are im portant attributes for the profession. In addition, accuracy is needed to compound and dispense medicines, as well as keep records required by law. Pharmacists often begin as em ployees in community pharmacies. After they gain experience and ob tain the necessary funds, they may become owners or part-owners of pharmacies. A pharmacist who gains experience in a chain drugstore may advance to managerial posi tions, and later to a higher executive position within the company. Hos pital pharmacists who have the necessary training and experience may advance to director of phar macy service or to other adminis trative positions. Employment Outlook The employment outlook for phar macists is expected to be very good through the mid-1980’s. Since growth of the occupation is ex pected to be moderate, most of the openings will result from the death and retirement of persons already in the profession. Overall, job open ings are expected to exceed in number the graduates of pharmacy schools. Employment in the occupation will grow as new pharmacies are established, particularly in residen tial areas or suburban shopping centers. Many community phar macies, also, are expected to hire additional pharmacists, because of a trend towards shorter working hours. Population growth, the rising standard of medical care, and the growth of Medicaid and other insurance programs that provide payment for prescription drugs also will generate demand for phar macists. Employment in hospitals prob OTHER HEALTH OCCUPATIONS 525 ably will rise with the more extensive Sources off Additional Information use of pharmacists for hospital and A free packet giving information clinic work. Continued expansion in on pharmacy as a career, prepro the manufacture of pharmaceutical products and in research are ex fessional requirements, and student Financial aid is available from: pected to provide more opportunities American Association of Colleges of for pharmacists in production, re Pharmacy, Office of Student Affairs, search, distribution, and sales. Phar 8121 Georgia Ave., Suite 800, Silver macists with advanced training will Spring, Md. 20910. be needed for college teaching and General information on pharmacy laboratory research. is available from: Earnings and Working Conditions American Pharmaceutical Association, 2215 Constitution Ave. NW ., Wash ington, D.C. 20037. Information about chain drug Earnings of pharmacists employed in chain drug stores averaged about stores is available from: National Association of Chain Drug $14,700 in 1972, according to a Stores, 1911 Jefferson Highway, Ar survey conducted by the National lington, Va. 22202. Association of Chain Drug Stores. For information about retail phar Pharmacists who are owners or managers of pharmacies often earn macies, contact: National Association of Retail Drug more. The entrance salary in the gists, One East Wacker Dr., Chicago, Federal Civil Service for new grad 111. 60601. uates was about $11,600 a year, in A list of accredited colleges is early 1973. With a master’s degree available from: or 2 years of graduate studies, the American Council on Pharmaceutical beginning salary was about $14,000. Education, 77 West Washington St., Annual starting salaries for hospi Chicago, 111. 60602. tal pharmacists were about $11,100 Information on requirements for in 1972, according to a survey licensure in a particular State is conducted by the University of available from the Board of Phar Texas Medical School at Galveston. macy of that State or from: Top salaries for experienced hospital National Association of Boards of pharmacists averaged $13,500, and Pharmacy, 77 West Washington St., some were as high as $17,500. Chicago, 111. 60602. Community pharmacists general Information on college entrance ly work more than the standard 40- requirements, curriculums, and fi hour workweek. Pharmacies often nancial aid is available from the are open in the evenings and on dean of any college of pharmacy. weekends, and all States require a registered pharmacist to be in attendance during store hours. De spite the general trend toward short er hours, 44 hours is still the basic SANITARIANS workweek for many salaried phar (D.O.T. 079.118) macists, and some work 50 hours or more. Self-employed pharmacists often work more hours than those Nature of the Work in salaried positions. Those who teach or work for industry, govern Sanitarians, frequently called en ment agencies, or hospitals have vironmentalists, are specialists in shorter workweeks. environmental health. They perform a broad range of duties to protect the cleanliness and safety of the food people eat, the liquids they drink, and the air they breathe. Sanitarians check the cleanliness and safety of food and beverages produced in dairies and processing plants, or served in restaurants, hospitals, and other institutions. They often examine the handling, processing, and serving of food for compliance with sanitation rules and regulations. Sanitarians also may develop and manage programs to prevent contamination, control insects and rodents, properly dis pose of refuse, and insure adequate sanitary water supplies. Sanitarians concerned with waste control oversee the treatment and disposal of sewage, refuse, and garbage. They examine places where pollution is a danger, perform tests to detect pollutants, and collect air or water samples for analysis. San itarians determine the nature and cause of the pollution, then initiate action to stop it. Public health sanitarians work closely with doctors, nurses, and public health officers to prevent and investigate outbreaks of disease. They may conduct surveys to deter mine the adequacy of health regula tions or perform sanitary inspections of schools, houses, swimming pools, and recreation facilities. They also plan for civil defense and emer gency disaster aid. Sometimes sanitarians teach health education classes and lecture to student assem blies, civic groups, and other organ izations. Professional sanitarians work closely with a variety of other workers such as life and environ mental scientists, waste water treatment plant operators, and en vironmental health technicians. En vironmental health technicians may help them perform routine duties such as compliance inspections, 526 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK dairy products. A small number were teachers in colleges and universities. A few were consultants. Others worked in hospitals and for trade associations and other organizations. Most sanitarians work in populous areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Sanitarian uses air samples to check bacteria carried on a hospital worker. collection of air and water samples, and testing for pollutants. Sanitarians who have supervisory duties analyze reports of inspection and investigations, and occasionally give evidence in court cases involving violations of sanitation and health regulations. Sanitarians in top ad ministrative positions plan and direct environmental health programs and coordinate them with the programs of other agencies. Other duties may include advising on difficult or unusual environmental health prob lems, and drafting health laws or regulations. In large local and State health or agriculture departments, san itarians may specialize in areas of work such as milk and dairy prod ucts, food sanitation, waste control, air pollution, institutional sanitation, and occupational health. In rural areas and small cities, they may be responsible for a wide range of environmental health activities. Increasing numbers of sanitarians work in private industry to min imize contamination and pollution hazards and make sure that work ing conditions are healthy, safe, and clean. They frequently work closely with government sanitarians who en force health, safety, and pollution laws and regulations. Places of Employment About 17,000 persons, mostly men, worked as sanitarians in 1972. Three out of every four worked for State and local governments. Most of the remainder worked for pro ducers and processors of food and Laws in 35 States provided for the registration of sanitarians in 1972; in some States, registration is man datory. Although requirements for registration vary considerably among States, the minimum educa tional requirement usually is a bachelor’s degree. A bachelor’s de gree in environmental health is preferred for beginning sanitarian jobs, although a major in any en vironmental, life, or physical science generally is acceptable. Administra tive, teaching, and research jobs usually require a graduate degree in some aspect of public health. In 1972, 58 colleges and univer sities offered undergraduate or grad uate programs in environmental health. A typical curriculum leading to a bachelor of science degree in environmental health includes back ground courses in the humanities, social sciences, mathematics, chem istry, physics, and biology. Core courses include microbiology (bacteriology); biostatistics, epidem iology, environmental sciences, ad ministration, and field work. Sanitarians usually begin at a trainee level and work under the supervision of experienced sani tarians for up to a year. They receive on-the-job training in en vironmental health practice, learn to evaluate health and sanitation hazards and recommend corrective action. After a few years of ex perience, they may be promoted to minor supervisory positions with more responsibilities. Specializa 527 OTHER HEALTH OCCUPATIONS tion may begin after several years of experience, especially in large local health offices. Further ad vancement is possible to top super visory and administrative positions. To keep abreast of new develop ments and to supplement their academic training, many sanitarians take specialized short-term train ing courses in subjects such as occupational health, water supply and pollution control, air pollution, protection from dangers of radia tion, milk and food inspection, metropolitan planning, and hospital sanitation. Young people interested in becom ing sanitarians should like working with detail and possess a mechan ical aptitude, since sanitarians may operate various testing devices. An ability to communicate effectively, both orally and in writing is nec essary for writing detailed reports and tactfully dealing with persons concerning the correction of un sanitary conditions. through the mid-1980’s in response to anticipated expansion of public and private programs dealing with food sanitation, water and air pol lution, and occupational health. Underlying the demand for san itarians in the private sector will be industrial growth and an increas ing recognition by industry of its responsibility for safe and sanitary products and healthful environment. Demand for sanitarians in the public sector will be generated by an ex pansion of the environmental health activities of State and local govern ments. Increasing public concern with health hazards, waste manage ment, radiation danger, and pollu tion is expected to require the services of more sanitarians. Popu lation growth, continued migration of people from rural to urban areas, and industrial growth will place a greater strain on food serv ices, housing, and sewage disposal facilities of urban communities. Earnings and Working Conditions Employment Outlook Starting salaries of sanitarians Employment opportunities for employed by State governments sanitarians who have a bachelor’s averaged $7,800 annually, in early degree in environmental health are 1972, according to a survey of State expected to be very good through and selected local governments con the mid-1980’s, particularly in pri ducted by the Public Personnel vate industry. The outlook for those Association. Maximum salaries of having degrees in life, physical, or journeymen sanitarians in State environmental sciences is expected governments averaged $10,000 an nually; annual salaries were about to be favorable. Employment of sanitarians is ex $1,000 higher for sanitarians work pected to increase very rapidly ing for local governments. Salaries of supervisory sanitarians and san itarians having extensive experience ranged to more than $20,000. Sanitarians employed by the Fed eral Government started at $7,319 or $9,053 in 1972, depending on their academic records. Experienced sanitarians in the Federal service earned from $11,046 to $20,627. Sanitarians spend considerable time away from their desks. Some come in contact with unpleasant physical surroundings, such as sew age disposal facilities and slum housing. Transportation or gasoline allowance frequently are given, and some health departments provide an automobile. Sources of Additional Information Information about careers as san itarians is available from the follow ing associations: American Public Health Association, 1015 18th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. International Association of Milk, Food, and Environmental Sanitarians, Blue Ridge Rd., P.O. Box 437, Shelbyville, Ind. 46176. National Environmental Health Associa tion, 1600 Pennsylvania St., Denver, Colorado 80203. Information on stipends for grad uate study is available from: Division of Allied Health Manpower, Bureau of Health Professions Educa tion and Manpower Training, National Institute of Health, 9000 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md. 20014. SOCIAL SCIENTISTS The social sciences are concerned with all aspects of human society from the origins of man to the latest election returns. Social scientists, however, generally specialize in one major field of human relationships. Anthropologists study primitive tribes, reconstruct civilizations of the past, and analyze the cultures and languages of all peoples, past and present. Economists study the alloca tion of land, labor, and capital. Geographers study the distribution of people, throughout the world, types of land and water masses, and natural resources. Historians de scribe and interpret the people and events of the past and present. Polit ical scientists study the theories, ob jectives, and organizations of all types of government. Sociologists analyze the behavior and relation ships of groups—such as the family, the community, and minorities—to the individual or to society as a whole. Besides these basic social science occupations, a number of closely related fields are covered in separate statements elsewhere in this Handbook. (See statem ents on Statisticians, Psychologists, and Social Workers.) The basic social science occupa tions provided employment for about 95,000 persons in 1972; about 10 per cent of them were women. Over lapping among the basic social science fields and the sometimes hazy distinction between these and related fields such as business ad ministration, foreign service work, and high school teaching, make it difficult to determine the exact size of each profession. Economists, how culture. These areas include a study of the people’s traditions, beliefs, customs, languages, material posses sions, social relationships, and value systems. Although anthropologists generally specialize in one of these areas, they are expected to have a general knowledge of all of them. Most anthropologists specialize in cultural anthropology, sometimes called ethnology. Ethnologists may spend long periods living with tribal groups or in other communities to learn about their ways of life. The ethnologist takes detailed and com prehensive notes that describe the social customs, beliefs, and material possessions of the people. He usu ally learns the native language in the process. He also makes comparative studies of the cultures and societies of various groups. In recent years, such investigations have included complex urban societies. Archeologists excavate places where people of past civilizations liv ed. They study the remains of homes, tools, clothing, ornaments, and other evidences of human life and activity to reconstruct the inhabitants’ his tory and customs. For example, archeologists are digging in the Pacific Coast area between northern Mexico and Ecuador to find evi dences of trade and migration in the pre-Christian Era. Some archeolo gists are excavating ancient Mayan ANTHROPOLOGISTS cities in Mexico and restoring temples. Others are working in the (D.O.T. 055.088) Missouri River valley to salvage remnants of Indian villages and sites Nature of the Work of early military forts and trading Anthropologists study man—his posts. origins, physical characteristics, and Some anthropologists specialize in ever, are the largest social science group, and anthropologists the smallest. Most social scientists work in col leges and universities. A large number work for the Federal Government and private industry. The trend in some industries is to hire increasing numbers of social science majors as trainees for ad ministrative and executive positions. Research councils and other non profit organizations provide an im portant source of employment for economists, political scientists, and sociologists. Overall employment in the social sciences is expected to grow moder ately through the mid-1980’s. Teach ing in colleges and universities will remain the major area of employ ment. Employment of social scien tists in government, private indus try, and nonprofit organizations is expected to rise also. Despite this an ticipated growth, the number of per sons seeking to enter the social science field is likely to exceed avail able job openings. The following statements present more detailed in formation about the prospective out look in the individual occupations. 529 530 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Closely related to the four basic subfields is applied anthropology, an emerging specialty which attempts to use the findings in the other anthro pological areas in a practical manner. Applied anthropologists may, for example, provide technical guidelines to ease the transition of nonindustrial societies to a more complex level of socioeconomic organization. Another related spe cialty area is urban anthropology, which is the study of urban life, ur banization, rural-urban migration, and the influence of city life. Most anthropologists teach in col leges and universities. They often combine teaching with research. Some anthropologists specialize in museum work, which generally com bines managerial and administra tive duties with field work and re search on anthropological collec tions. A few work as consultants or engage in nontechnical writing, or other activities. Places of Employment linguistics, the scientific study of the sounds and structures of languages and of the historical relationships among languages. They study the relationship between the language and the behavior of people. Their work assists in reconstructing the prehistory of mankind. Physical anthropologists study human evolution. They do compara tive studies of the physical character istics of different races or groups of people as influenced by heredity and environment. In order to perform About 3,700 persons—about onefifth of them women—worked as a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s in 1972. A b o u t f o u r fifths of all anthropologists work in colleges and universities. Several hundred work in private industry and nonprofit organizations. The Fed eral Government employs a small num ber, chiefly in museums, national parks, in the Bureau of In dian Affairs, and in technical aid programs. State and local govern ment agencies also employ some anthropologists, usually for museum work or health research. these tasks, physical anthropologists need extensive training in human anatomy and biology. Because of their knowledge of body structure, physical anthropologists occa sionally are employed as consultants on projects such as the design of driver seats, space suits, cockpits for Training, Other Qualifications, airplanes and spaceships, and the siz and Advancement ing of clothing. They consult on proj Students who want to become ects to improve environmental con anthropologists should get the Ph.D. ditions and on criminal cases. They are increasingly employed in medi degree. College graduates with bachelor’s degrees often get tempo cal schools. 531 SOCIAL SCIENTISTS rary positions and assistantships in the graduate departments where they are working for advanced degrees. A master’s degree, plus field experi ence, is sufficient for many begin ning professional positions, but promotion to top positions is gener ally reserved for individuals who have a Ph.D. degree. A nthro pologists in many colleges and most universities need a Ph.D. degree to get p erm a n en t te ach in g a p pointments. Some training in archeology, lin guistics, and physical and cultural anthropology is necessary for all anthropologists. Mathematics is helpful, since statistical and com puter methods are becoming more widely used for research in this field. Undergraduate students may begin their field training in archeology by arranging, through their university departments, to accompany expedi tions as laborers or to attend field schools established for training. They may later advance to super visor in charge of the digging or collection of material and finally may direct a portion of the work of the expedition. Ethnologists and lin guists usually work independently in doing their field work. Most anthro pologists base their doctoral disserta tions on data collected through field r e s e a r c h ; they a r e , t h e r e f o r e , experi enced fieldworkers by the time they earn the Ph.D. degree. About 200 colleges and univer sities have bachelor degree pro grams in anthropology; nearly 130 offer master’s degree programs and about 80, doctorate programs. Most universities that have graduate pro grams also offer undergraduate training in anthropology. The choice of a graduate school is very impor tant. Students interested in museum work should select a school that can provide experience in an associated museum that has anthropological collections. Similarly, those inter ested in archeology should either choose a university that offers oppor tunities for summer experience in archeological fieldwork, or else should plan to attend an arche ological field school elsewhere dur ing their summer vacations. Anthropologists should be per sons who have an above average in terest in natural history or social studies and enjoy reading, research, and writing. A desire to travel and the ability to cope with the disadvan tages of remote work areas are some times necessary for success. Anthropologists work with ideas and have the opportunity for selfexpression. They should have the ability to work with detail and work independently. Employment Outlook Employment in this rather small occupation is expected to increase very rapidly through the mid-1980’s. The largest area of employment will continue to be in college and univer sity teaching. However, an increas ing number of jobs will be available for anthropologists in museums, and in programs of archeological re search, mental and public health, and poverty and community action, as well as in private industry. T h e n u m b e r of g r a d u a t e s with ad vanced degrees in anthropology also is expected to grow very rapidly, and it is very likely that the number seek ing to enter the field will exceed job openings generated by growth as well as replacement needs. As a result, anthropologists holding the doctor ate may face keen competition for positions of their choice through the mid-1980’s. Graduates with only the master’s degree are expected to face very persistent competition for professional positions in anthro pology and may have to enter re lated fields of work such as mental health or poverty programs. Some who meet certification requirements may secure high school teaching positions. Others may find jobs in government, and in nonprofit organizations and civic groups that hire personnel with social science training as a general background. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for anthro pologists with a Ph.D. degree were generally about $12,000 a year in 1972. Experienced anthropologists earned median salaries of $16,000 a year, according to limited data available. They may, however, earn more than $20,000 a year. In the Federal Government, start ing salaries for anthropologists hav ing a master’s degree were $11,614 a year in early 1973, and for those hav ing a Ph.D., $13,996. Experienced anthropologists earned from $16,700 to more than $23,000 a year. Many anthropologists who work in colleges and universities supple ment their regular salaries with earn ings from other sources such as sum mer teaching and research grants. Anthropologists doing arche ological fieldwork sometimes are re quired to work in adverse weather conditions and perform manual l a b o r . They a l s o must adapt them selves to cultural environments which are materially and socially different. Sources of Additional Information For information about employ ment opportunities and schools that offer graduate training in anthro pology, contact: The A m erica n A n th r o p o lo g ic a l Association, 1703 New Hampshire Ave. N W ., Washington, D.C. 20009. 532 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK EC O N O M ISTS (D.O.T. 050.088) Nature off the Work Economics is concerned with how to utilize scarce resources to provide goods and services for society. Economists study the problems that arise in the use of such resources as land, raw materials, and manpower. Economists analyze the relationship between the supply of goods and services and demand for them, on the one hand, and on the other, how goods and services are produced, dis tributed, and consumed. Some economists are concerned with such practical matters as the control of in flation, business cycles, and unem ployment, as well as farm, wage, tax, and tariff policies. Others develop theories to explain the causes of employment and unemployment or the ways in which international trade influences world economic condi tions. Still others collect, analyze, and interpret data on a wide variety of economics problems. Economists who work in colleges and universities teach the theories, principles, and methods of econom ics and conduct or direct research. They frequently write, and act as consultants. Economists in government plan and carry out studies used to assess economic conditions and the need for changes in government policy. To ac complish this work they collect data, analyze it, and prepare reports. Most government economists are in the fields of agriculture, business, finance, labor, or international trade and development. Economists who work for busi ness firms provide management with information to make decisions on marketing and pricing of company products; the effect of government policies on business or international Economist analyzes results of computer printout. trade; or the advisability of adding new lines or merchandise, opening new branch operations, or otherwise expanding the company’s business. politan areas. Some work overseas, mainly for t h e U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of State and the Agency for Interna tional Development. Places of Employment Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Economics is the largest social science field. More than 36,000 per sons, about 6 percent of them women, worked as economists in 1972. Private industry and business employ one-half; colleges and univer sities about one-third; and govern m ent agencies — m ainly F ed eral—roughly one-sixth. A few are self-employed or work for private re search organizations. Economists work in all large cities and university towns. The largest number are in the New York City and the Washington, D.C. metro Economists must have a thorough understanding of economic theory and methods of economic analysis. An increasing number of univer sities emphasize the value of mathe matical methods of economic anal ysis. Since many beginning jobs for economists in government and busi ness involve the collection and com pilation of data, a thorough knowl edge of basic statistical procedures usually is required. A bachelor’s degree with a major in economics is sufficient for many SOCIAL SCIENTISTS beginning research jobs in govern ment and private industry, although persons employed in these entry jobs are not usually regarded as profes sional economists. In the Federal Government, candidates for en trance positions must have a mini mum of 21 semester hours of economics and 3 hours of statistics, accounting, or calculus. Graduate training is very impor tant for persons who want to be come economists. Students inter ested in research should select schools that emphasize training in re search methods and statistics and provide good research facilities. Those who wish to work in agri cultural economics will Find oppor tunities to gain experience in parttime research work at State univer sities that have agricultural experi ment stations. A master’s degree generally is re quired to get a job as a college in structor, although in large schools graduate assistantships sometimes are awarded to superior students working toward their master’s de grees. In many large colleges and uni versities, completion of all the re quirements for a Ph.D. degree, ex cept the dissertation, is necessary for appointment as instructor. In government or private industry, economists who have a master’s degree usually can qualify for more responsible research positions. The Ph.D. degree is required for a professorship in a high-ranking col lege or university and is an asset when competing for other respon sible positions in government, busi ness, or private research organiza tions. About 800 colleges and univer sities offer bachelor degree pro grams in economics, 200 master’s, and 100 doctorate. Persons who consider careers as economists should be able to work accurately and in detail—since much 533 time is spent on research. Fre quently, the ability to work as part of a team is required. Economists must be objective in their work and be able to express themselves effectively orally or in writing, since they do many reports and presentations. Employment Outlook The number of persons who will graduate with degrees in economics through the mid-1980’s is likely to exceed available positions that will arise from the expected moderate growth of the occupation and the need to replace economists who will die and retire during this period. As a result well-trained economists hav ing a doctorate or master’s degree are expected to face keen competi tion for choice academic positions. Persons who have bachelor’s de grees in economics may Find some employment in government, indus try and business as trainees or management interns, but competi tion may be keen. Private industry and business will continue to provide the largest num ber of employment opportunities for economists because of increased reliance on scientific methods of analyzing business trends, forecast ing sales and planning purchases and production operations. The next largest area of employment oppor tunities for economists will be in col leges and universities where a pro jected moderate increase in enroll ments will lead to a similar increase in faculty size. Employment of economists in State and local government agencies is expected to increase rapidly because of the in creasingly analytical nature of pro grams in areas such as housing and poverty. Employment of economists in the Federal Government is ex pected to rise slowly—in line with the rate of growth projected for the Fed eral work force as a whole. Earnings Starting salaries for economists with a Ph.D. were nearly $12,000 a year in 1972, according to limited in formation. Salaries of economists employed by colleges and univer sities in 1972 averaged about $20,000, and for those in business, indus try, and nonprofit organizations it was about $22,000. Economists who have a Ph.D. are paid higher sala ries than those who have lesser de grees and similar experience. A sub stantial number of economists sup plement their basic salaries by con sulting, teaching, and other research activities. Economists earn about twice as much as the average earn ings for non-supervisory workers in private industry or private nonfarm payrolls. In the Federal Government, the entrance salary for beginning econo mists having a bachelor’s degree was $7,694 a year in 1973; however, those with superior academic records could begin at $9,520. Those having 2 full years of graduate training or experi ence could qualify for positions at an annual salary of $11,614. Most ex perienced economists in the Federal Government earned from $17,000 to $23,000 a year; some having greater administrative responsibilities earn ed considerably more. Sources of Additional Information Additional inform ation on a career as an economist is available from: American Economic Association, 1313 21st Avenue South, Nashville, Tenn. 37212. 534 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK HISTORIANS (D.O.T. 052.088) Nature of the Work History is the record of past events, institutions, ideas, and peo ple. Historians'describe and analyze the past through writing, teaching, and research. They relate their knowledge of the past to current events in an effort to explain the pre sent. Historians may specialize in the history of a specific country or area, or in a particular period of time—an cient, medieval, or modern. They may specialize, also in the history of a field, such as economics, culture, military affairs, the labor move ment, art, or architecture. The num ber of specialties in history is con stantly growing. Newer specialties are concerned with business archives, quantitative analysis, and the rela tionship between technological and other aspects of historical develop ment. In this country, most his torians still specialize in the political history of either the United States or modern Europe; however, a growing number now specialize in African, Latin American, Asian, or Near Eastern history. Some historians specialize in phases of a larger his torical field. They may for example, study part of American history such as the Civil War. M ost historians are college teachers who not only lecture, but write and take part in research. Some are specialists called archi vists, who identify or prepare ex hibits, or who are spokesmen for mu seums, special libraries, and his torical societies. A few serve as con sultants to editors, publishers, and producers of materials for radio, television, and motion pictures. Some historians are researchers or administrators in government. They Historian searches for information at National Archives. the F ed eral G overnm ent are employed in Washington, D.C. His torians in other types of employ ment usually work in localities that Places of Employment have museums or libraries with col About 24,000 people worked as lections adequate for historical professional historians in 1972. More research. than 10 percent were women. Col leges and universities employ about three-fifths of all historians. His Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement torians also work in archives, librar Graduate education usually is ies, museums, junior colleges, sec ondary schools, research and edit necessary for employment as an his ing organizations, and government. torian. A master’s degree in history Historians employed in the Federal is the minimum requirement for the government work principally in the position of college instructor. In National Archives, and the Depart many colleges and universities, how ments of Defense, Interior, and ever, a Ph D. degree is essential for State. A small growing number work high-level teaching, research, and ad ministrative positions. Most histori for State and local governments. Since history is taught in all U.S. ans in the Federal Government and institutions of higher education, in nonprofit organizations have historians are found in college com Ph.D. degrees, or their equivalent, in munities. Many of the historians in training and experience. prepare studies, articles, and books on their research findings. SOCIAL SCIENTISTS Although a bachelor’s degree and a major in history is sufficient train ing for some beginning jobs in gov ernment—either Federal, State, or local—people in such jobs may not be regarded as professional his torians. A knowledge of archival work is helpful, since beginning jobs are likely to be concerned with col lection and preservation of his torical data. For some jobs in inter national relations and journalism an undergraduate major in history is considered helpful. Training for historians is avail able in many colleges and uni versities. Over 1,300 schools offer programs for the bachelor’s degree, about 550 offered the master’s and 115 offered doctorates. History curriculums in the na tion’s colleges and universities are varied; however, each basically pro vides, in addition to history topics, training in research methods, writ ing, and speaking. These are the basic skills essential for historians in all positions in this Field. Quantita tive methods of analysis are becom ing more important for historians and many college programs include them. Historians spend a great deal of time studying, doing research, writ ing papers and reports, and giving lectures and presentations. In order to do these things well, they must be capable of communicating their ideas effectively, orally and in writ ing. The ability to work as part of a group, as well as independently is essential. Employment Outlook Employment of historians is ex pected to grow moderately through the mid-1980’s. Historians will be needed to Fill positions in colleges and universities, junior colleges, li braries, archives, museums, second ary schools, research and editorial 535 organizations, and government. De mand also will exist for people with training in historical specialties such as business history, as well as those who use quantitative methods in their research. In addition to jobs created by growth of the Field, an even larger number of openings for historians each year over the pro jected period is expected to result from the need to replace those who retire, die, or leave the profession. In contrast with the projected moderate growth of the occupation is a probable continuing rapid increase in the number of persons graduating with master’s and doctoral degrees in history. Not all who receive ad vanced degrees in history, of course, represent new entrants to the profes sion. Although information is limited on patterns of entry to the Field, if present trends in the number of per sons studying for advanced degrees in history continue, the number of persons seeking to enter the Field will likely exceed available positions. As a result, historians who have a Ph.D. are expected to face keen competi tion for the more desirable positions through the mid-1980’s, especially for jobs in the academic community. Historians having only the master’s degree will encounter very keen com petition for jobs, but some teaching positions may be available in junior colleges or some high schools if they meet state certification require ments. People having only a bachelor’s degree in history may be able to qualify as administrative and management trainees in government agencies, foundations, civic organi zations, and private industry. of nearly $10,000 a year. Salaries of historians in educational institutions averaged $16,500 in 1972; in State and local governments, $13,000; in nonprofit organizations, about $16,000; and in private industry, nearly $18,000 a year. The annual median salary for historians was more than $14,000 in 1972. Historians earn about twice as much as the average earnings for nonsupervisory workers in private industry or private non farm payrolls. In the Federal Government, the starting salary for people having a bachelor’s degree in history was $7,694 in early 1973. Those who had a superior academic record or a year of graduate training were eligible to start at $9,520. Experienced his torians employed by the Federal Government in early 1973 earned be tween $13,996 and $26,898. Some historians, particularly those in college teaching, supple ment their income by summer teach ing or writing books or articles. A few earn additional income from lec tures. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on em ployment opportunities for histori ans is available from: American Historical Association, 400 A St. SE., W ashington, D.C. 20003. GEOGRAPHERS (D.O.T. 029.088 and 059.088) Earnings Starting salaries for historians having a doctorate averaged nearly $12,000 a year in 1972, according to limited information; master’s degree holders have average starting salaries Nature of the Work Geographers study the spatial characteristics of the earth’s terrain, minerals, soils, water, vegetation, and climate. They relate these char 536 acteristics to changing patterns of human settlement—where people live, why they are located there, and how they earn a living. The majority of geographers are college or university teachers; some combine teaching and research. Their research includes the study and analysis of the distribution of land forms, climate, soils, vegetation, and mineral and water resources. They also analyze the distribution and structure of political organizations, transportation systems, marketing systems, and urban systems. Many geographers spend considerable time in field study, and in analysing maps,, aerial photographs, and observa tional data collected in the field. Sometimes they utilize surveying and meteorological instruments. Photo graphs and other data from remote sensors on satellites are used in creasingly. Other geographers con struct maps, graphs, and diagrams. Most geographers specialize in one branch or more of geography. Economic geographers deal with the geographic distribution of economic activities—including manufactur ing, mining, farming, trade, and communications. Political geogra phers study how political processes affect geographic boundaries on sub national, national, and international scales and the relationship of spatial processes (geographic conditions) to political processes. Urban geogra phers study cities and their prob lems in depth, and are concerned with city and community planning. (See statement on Urban Planners elsewhere in the Handbook.) Physi cal geographers study the physical characteristics of the earth and moon. Regional geographers study the physical, economic, political, and cultural characteristics of a particu lar region or area, which may range in size from a river basin or an island, to a State, a country, or even a continent. Cartographers compile OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK data and design and construct maps. Many geographers have job titles such as cartographer, map catalog ed or regional analyst, that describe their specialization. Others have titles that relate to the subject matter of their study such as photo-intelli gence specialist or climatological analyst. Still others have titles such as community or environmental planner, or market or business ana lyst. Most of those who teach in col leges and universities are called geog raphers. Places of Employment About 7,500 persons worked as ge ographers in 1972; about 15 percent were women. Colleges and universities employ more than two-thirds of all geogra phers. The Federal Government em ploys a large number. Among Fed eral agencies, the Department of De fense employs the largest number in such agencies as the Defense Map ping Agency, the Aeronautical Chart and Information Center, Naval In telligence. The Commerce Depart ment employs geographers in such agencies as the Coast and Geodetic Survey, Bureau of the Census, Of fice of Regional Commissions, Na tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad ministration and National Weather Service. Geographers employed by the Interior Department work in such agencies as Bureau of Indian Affairs, Bureau of Outdoor Recre ation, Bureau of Land Management and Geological Survey. Other gov ernment agencies that employ ge ographers include the Central Intel ligence Agency (CIA), Office of Emergency Planning, National Aeronautical and Space Adminis tration (NASA), and the Library of Congress. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The educational requirement for beginning positions in geography is usually a bachelor’s degree with a major in the field. For research and teaching jobs, and for advancement, graduate training is usually re quired. A Ph.D. is preferred. In the Federal Government, candi dates for entrance positions must have a minimum of 15 semester hours in geography and 9 hours in related fields such as statistics or economics. For an applicant to start at a higher level, he needs 30 hours in geography and related fields and a year of graduate study or work ex perience as a geographer. About 380 colleges and universi ties offered degree training in ge ography in 1972. Undergraduate study provides a general introduc tion to geographic knowledge and re search methods and often includes some field studies. Typical courses offered are physical and cultural ge ography, weather and climate, eco nomic geography, political geogra phy, urban geography, weather and climate, quantitative methods in ge ography, and comparative courses such as the geography of North SOCIAL SCIENTISTS America and the USSR. Courses in cartography and in the interpreta tion of maps and aerial and satellite photographs also are offered. State and local governments also employ small numbers of geogra phers, mostly on city and State plan ning and development commissions. A small but growing number of ge ographers work in private industry. Most work for marketing research organizations, textbook and map publishers, travel agencies, manu facturing firms or chain stores. A few work for scientific foundations and research institutes. In 1972, 115 institutions offered master’s degree programs; 50 of fered Ph.D. programs. Admittance to a graduate program usually re quires a bachelor’s degree with a major in geography. However, many universities admit students with bachelor’s degrees in any of the social or physical sciences with some background in geography. Require ments for advanced degrees include field and laboratory work as well as advanced classroom studies in ge ography and thesis preparation. Many graduate schools also require course work in advanced mathemat ics and computer science because of the increasing emphasis on these areas in the field. A language is re quired for those students who plan to enter the field of foreign regional geography. Persons who want to become ge ographers should enjoy reading, studying, and research because they must keep abreast of developments in the field. Geographers must work with abstract ideas and theories as well as do practical studies. They also must be able to work independ ently and communicate their ideas orally and in writing. Employment Outlook The employment outlook for ge 537 ographers with the Ph.D. is ex pected to be favorable through the mid-1980’s for positions in research and teaching in college and universi ties and for research jobs in industry and government. Those with the master’s degree are likely to face some com petition for choice academic positions; however, ex panding geography programs in junior colleges should provide some jobs. Colleges and universities will continue to provide the largest num ber of employment opportunities for geographers because of the expected increase in college enrollment through the mid-1980’s. Some other jobs should be available in research for government or private industry. Graduates who have only the bachelor’s degree in geography usually are not qualified for jobs as professional geographers. However, they may find positions connected with making, interpreting, or analyz ing maps; or in research, either working for the government or in dustry. Others enter beginning posi tions in the planning field. Some may obtain employment as research or teaching assistants in educational in stitutions while studying for ad vance degrees. Some bachelor’s de gree holders do teach at the high school level. Some earn library science degrees and become map librarians. Employment of geographers in government is expected to increase. The Federal Government will need additional personnel to work in pro grams such as regional develop ment, environmental quality, and in telligence. Employment of ge ographers in State and local govern ments also is expected to expand, particularly in areas such as con servation, environmental quality control, highway planning, and city, community, and regional planning and development. Private industry also is expected to employ increas ing numbers of geographers for mar ket research and location analysis. Earnings Salaries of geographers in col leges and universities depend on their teaching rank and experience. Assist ant professors entering the field with a Ph.D. and no experience started at between $10,500 and $11,000 in 1972, according to limited informa tion. Nearly three-fourths of all ge ographers earned between $10,000 and $20,000 a year, according to a recent survey conducted by the Asso ciation of American Geographers. About one-fourth earned between $20,000 and $25,000, and a few more than $25,000, in an academic year (9 months). (See statement on College and University Teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Ge ographers in educational institu tions usually have an opportunity to earn income from other sources, such as consulting work, special re search, and publication of books and articles. Geographers in the Federal Gov ernment with the bachelor’s degree and no experience started at $7,694 or $9,520 a year in early 1973, de pending on their college records. Those with 1 or 2 years of graduate work started at $9,520 or $11,614 a year, and those with the Ph.D. at $13,996. Geographers earn about twice as much as the average earnings for non-supervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a ca reer as a geographer is available from: Association of American Geographers, 1710 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. 538 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK PO LITICAL S C IEN TIS TS (D.O.T. 051.088) Nature of the Work Political scientists study govern ments—what they are, what they do, and how and why. Many of them specialize in a general area of politi cal science including political theory, U.S. political institutions and proc esses, comparative political institu tions and processes, or international relations and organizations. Some specialize in a particular type of po litical institution or in the politics of a specific era. Most political scientists are college and university teachers. They combine research, consultation, or administrative duties with teaching. Some are primarily researchers who survey public opinion on political questions for private research or ganizations, or study proposed legis lation for Federal, State, and mu nicipal governments, legislative ref erence bureaus or congressional committees. Others analyze the op erations of government agencies or specialize in foreign affairs, re search, either for government or non government organizations. Some ad minister government programs. Places of Employment About 10,000 people worked as political scientists in 1972; ten per cent were women. About four-fifths work in colleges and universities. Most of the remainder work in gov ernment, research bureaus, civic and tax payers associations, and large business firms. Political scientists can be found in nearly every college or university town since courses in government and political science are taught in al most all higher education curriculums. Some work overseas prima rily for agencies of the U.S. Depart ment of State, such as the Foreign Service, and the U.S. Agency for International Development. They also work for the U.S. Information Agency. Training and Other Qualifications Graduate training generally is re quired for employment as a political scientist. Completion of the require ments for the Ph.D. degree, except the doctoral dissertation, is the usual prerequisite for appointment as a college instructor. A Ph.D. degree is required for advancement to the position of assistant professor. The Ph.D. also is helpful for advance ment in nonacademic areas. College graduates having a master’s degree can qualify for various administrative and research positions in government and in non profit research or civic organiza tions. A master’s degree in interna tional relations, foreign service, and area study (for example, New England, government) is helpful in obtaining positions in Federal Gov ernment agencies concerned with foreign affairs. People with only a bachelor’s degree in political science may qualify as trainees in public rela tions, research, budget analysis, per sonnel, or investigation fields. Many students with bachelor’s degrees in political science go on to study law or some specialized or related branch of political science, such as public ad m inistration and international relations. In 1972, more than 1,300 colleges and universities offered a bachelor’s degree in political science, 268 had master’s programs, and 115 had doc toral programs. Many colleges and universities offer field training and internships to gain experience in gov ernment work. Undergraduate programs in polit ical science vary throughout the Na- Political scientist discussing Govern ment operations with colleague. tion. A typical undergraduate cur riculum in political science includes introductory politics, state and urban politics, comparative studies, politi cal theory, foreign policy and public ad m in istratio n . An increasing number include courses in quanti tative and statistical methods be cause of increased research empha sis in the field. People planning careers as politi cal scientists should like to work with details. They must be objective and able to work independently or as part of a team. Ability to express them selves clearly, orally and in writing, is important to political scientists, as they must communicate the results of their findings. Employment Outlook The number of persons who will graduate with advanced degrees in political science is likely to exceed available job openings. Those hav ing a Ph.D. may face stiff competi tion finding choice academic posi tions. Master’s degree holders are SOCIAL SCIENTISTS not likely to find positions as coliege and university instructors, but those having specialized training in areas such as policy analysis or public ad ministration should have some op portunities in Federal, State and local government, research bureaus, political organizations and welfare agencies. New graduates having only the bachelor’s degree are expected to find very limited opportunities. However, for those planning to con tinue their studies in law, foreign af fairs, journalism, and other related fields, a political science back ground is very helpful. Some who meet State certification require ments will be able to enter high school teaching. Employment of political scientists is expected to increase moderately through the mid-1980’s. The largest area of employment will continue to be in college and university teach ing. In addition to those required to staff new positions, political sci entists will be needed to fill positions vacated due to retirements, death or transfers. Earnings Beginning political scientists with a master’s degree earned about $9,000 a year in 1972 according to limited information; with doctoral degrees, about $10,500. According to limited information, the median salary of those who work in educational institutions was $13,000 for an academic year, and $16,800 for a calender year. Political sci entists in the Federal government av eraged $20,000 a year, and those in state and local government about $17,000. Those employed in non profit organizations and private in dustry and business had a median salary of more than $19,000. Political scientists earn about twice as much as the average earnings for non-supervisory workers in pri 539 Many sociologists specialize in vate industry or private nonfarm social organization, social psychol payrolls. In the Federal Government, the ogy, or rural sociology. Others spe starting salary for political scientists cialize in intergroup relations, family having a bachelor’s degree was about problems, social effects of urban liv $7,694 a year in early 1973. Those ing, population studies, or analyses having a superior academic record or of public opinion. Some conduct sur a year of graduate training were eli veys or concentrate on research methods. Growing numbers apply gible to start at $9,520. Some political scientists, particu sociological knowledge and methods larly those in college teaching, sup in penology and correction, educa plement their income by teaching tion, public relations in industry, and regional and community planning. A summer courses or consulting. few specialize in medical sociol ogy—the study of social factors that Sources of Additional affect mental and public health. Information Most sociologists are college and Additional information on em university teachers whose duties in ployment opportunities in political clude both teaching and research. science and public administration is Sociological research involves the available from: collection of information, prepara tion of case studies, testing, and the American Political Science Associa conduct of statistical surveys and tion, 1527 New Hampshire Ave. NW „ Washington, D.C. 20036. laboratory experiments. Sociologists also supervise re search projects or the operation of social agencies such as family and marriage clinics. Others, acting as consultants, advise on diverse prob SOCIOLOG ISTS lems such as the management of hos pitals for the mentally ill, the reha (D.O.T. 054.088) bilitation of juvenile delinquents, or Nature of the Work Sociologists study the groups that man forms in his association with others. These groups include fami lies, tribes, communities, and gov ernments, along with a variety of social, religious, political, business, and other organizations. They study the behavior and interaction of these groups; trace their origin and growth; and analyze the influence of group activities on individual members. Some sociologists concern them selves primarily with the character istics of social groups and institu tions. Others are more interested in the ways individuals are affected by groups to which they belong. Sociologist working on manuscript for publication. 540 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK the development of effective adver tising programs to promote public interest in particular products such as television sets or cars. Places of Employment About 15,000 persons worked as sociologists in 1972, more than oneseventh were women. Others work in positions that require training in this field but are not classified as profes sional sociologists. These fields in clude social, recreation, and public health work. Colleges and universities employ about four-fifths of all sociologists. The remainder work for Federal, State, local, or international govern ment agencies, in private industry, or in welfare or other nonprofit organi zations, or else are self-employed. Since sociology is taught in most institutions of higher learning, soci ologists may be found in nearly all college communities. They are most heavily concentrated, however, in large colleges and universities which offer graduate training in sociology and opportunities for research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master’s degree and a major in sociology usually is the minimum re quirement for employment as soci ologist. The Ph.D. degree is an essen tial for attaining a professorship in most colleges or universities. It also is commonly required for directors of major research projects, impor tant administrative positions, or con sultants. Sociologists having master’s de grees, who are trained in research and statistic al and com puter methods can qualify for many ad ministrative and research positions. Advancement to supervisory posi tions in both public and private agencies is gained through experi ence. Sociologists having a master’s degree qualify for some college instructorships. Most colleges, how ever, appoint as instructors only peo ple who have training beyond the master’s level—frequently the com pletion of all requirements for the Ph.D. degree except the doctoral dis sertation. Outstanding graduate stu dents often get teaching or research assistantships which provide both fi nancial aid and valuable experience. Bachelor’s degree holders in soci ology usually are not recognized by the profession as sociologists. How ever, they may, get jobs as inter viewers or as research assistants. Many work as caseworkers, counse lors, recreation workers, or admin istrative assistants in public and pri vate welfare agencies. Sociology majors who have sufficient training in statistics may get positions as be ginning statisticians. Those who meet State certification require ments can teach high school. About 900 colleges and universities offer bachelor degree programs; more than 200 offer master’s degrees, and nearly 120 have doctorate programs. The choice of a graduate school is important for people who want to become sociologists. Students inter ested in research should select schools that emphasize training in re search, statistical, and computer methods. Opportunities to gain prac tical experience in research work may be available also. Professors and chairmen of sociology depart ments frequently aid in the place ment of graduates. Sociologists spend a great deal of their time in study and research. They must be able to communicate effectively, both orally and in writ ing, their ideas and Findings. The ability to work as part of a group or independently is important. Employment Outlook Overall employment opportunities for sociologists who have a Ph.D. are expected to be favorable through the mid-1980’s. However, those seeking choice academic positions may face some competition. Those having only a master’s degree will probably continue to face considerable com petition for academic positions, but some jobs will be available in gov ernment and private industry. Soci ologists well trained in research methods, advanced statistics and use of computer, will have the widest choice of jobs. Demand is expected to be strong for research personnel to work in the areas of rural sociology, community development, popula tion analysis, public opinion re search, medical sociology, and ju venile delinquency and education. Employment of sociologists is ex pected to increase very rapidly through the mid-1980’s. Most new positions will continue to be in college teaching. Some of these openings will result from the grow ing trend to include sociology courses in the curriculums of other professions, such as medicine, law, and education. Demand in the non teaching area will center around public and private programs dealing with the development of human re sources, particularly those designed to cope with social and welfare problems. In addition to growth needs, several hundred openings will occur each year to replace sociolo gists who die, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Earnings In 1972, according to limited in formation, the average salary for so ciologists was more than $14,000 a year. Sociologists working in edu cational institutions on a calendar year basis averaged about $16,500. Salaries ranged from $11,500 for an assistant professor to $36,000 for some heads of departments. Sociol SOCIAL SCIENTISTS ogists working in nonprofit organi zations and private industry had average annual salaries of $16,000 and $18,000 respectively. Sociolo gists earn about twice as much as the average earnings for nonsupervisory workers in private industry or on private nonfarm payrolls. In the Federal Government, the beginning salary for sociologists hav ing a master’s degree and a superior academic record was $11,614 a year 541 in early 1973. Salaries of experi enced sociologists in the Federal G overnm ent generally ranged between $13,996 and $26,898 a year. In general, sociologists having the Ph.D. degree earn substantially higher salaries than those having master’s degrees. Many sociolo gists, particularly those employed by colleges and universities for the aca demic year (September to June), are likely to supplement their regular salaries with earnings from other sources, such as summer teaching and consulting work. Sources off Additional Information Additional information on sociol ogists is available from: The American Sociological Associa tion, 1722 N S t . , N W „ Washington, D.C. 20036. SOCIAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Workers in social service occupa tions help people adjust to problems in their daily lives. Depending on their specific occupation, they may advise consumers on how to get the most for their money; help handi capped people to achieve satisfac tory lifestyles; counsel people with problems in their job, home, school, or social relationships; or treat peo ple with moderate and severe psy chological problems. A genuine concern for all kinds of people is necessary for anyone con sidering a career in a social service occupation. Patience, tact, sensitiv ity, and a sense of humor along with compassion for others balanced with objectivity, are helpful personal qualities. 543 COUNSELING OCCUPATIONS Professional counselors help peo ple to understand themselves and their opportunities so that they can make and carry out decisions and plans for a satisfying and productive life. Whatever the area of counsel ing—personal, educational, or voca tional—counselors must combine objectivity with genuine concern for each client. They must believe in the uniqueness and worth of each indi vidual, in his right to make and accept responsibility for his own de cisions, and in his potential for development. This chapter covers four generally recognized specialties in the field: school counseling; rehabilitation counseling; employment counseling; and college career planning and placement counseling. School Counselors are the largest counseling group. Their main con cern is the personal and social de velopment of students and helping them plan and achieve their educa tional and vocational goals. Rehabilitation Counselors work with persons who are physically, mentally, or socially handicapped. Their counseling is generally joboriented, but also involves personal counseling. Employment Counselors are mainly concerned with career plan ning and adjustment of young, old, able-bodied, and disabled persons. College Career Planning and Placement Counselors help college students examine their own inter ests, abilities, and goals; explore career alternatives; and make and follow through with a career choice. Persons who want to enter the 544 counseling field must be interested in helping people and have an ability to understand their behavior. A pleas ant but strong personality that in stills confidence in clients is desir able in counselors. They also must be patient, sensitive to the needs of others, and able to communicate orally as well as in writing. Many psychologists, social workers, and college student person nel workers also do counseling. The occupation most closely related to counselor is that of the counseling psychologist. Other professional workers who do some counseling but primarily work in teaching, health, law, religion, personnel, or other fields, are described elsewhere in the Handbook. SCHOOL COUNSELORS (D.O.T. 045.108) Nature off the Work School counselors are concerned about the educational, career, and social development of students. They work with students, both individ ually and in groups, as well as with teachers, other school personnel, parents, and community agencies. Counselors use the results of in terest, achievement, and intelligence tests as well as school and other rec ords to help students evaluate them selves. Then, with each student and sometimes with the parents, they help develop an educational plan that fits the student’s abilities, interests, and career aspirations. Many high school counselors help students individually with personal and social problems. They also may lead group counseling sessions and discussion groups on topics related to student interests and problems. School counselors often maintain a small library containing occupa tional literature so that students may find descriptions of work that they have heard about or in which they have shown an interest. Information on training requirements, earnings and employment outlook often are included with these job descriptions. Computers that students can operate are being experimented with in this area. Counselors sometimes arrange trips to factories and business firms, and show vocational films to pro vide a view of real work settings. To bring the workplace into the school, the counselor may conduct “career day” programs. School counselors must keep upto-date on opportunities for educa tional and vocational training be yond high school to counsel students who want this information. They must keep informed about training programs in 2- and 4-year colleges; in trade, technical and business schools; apprenticeship programs; and available federally supported programs. Counselors also advise students about educational require ments for entry-level jobs, job changes caused by automation and other technological advances, college entrance requirements and places of employment. Counselors in high schools often help students find part-time jobs, either to enable them to stay in school, or to help them prepare for their vocation. They may assist stu dents leaving school before or after graduating to find jobs or may direct them to community employment services. They also may participate in follow-up studies of graduates and COUNSELING OCCUPATIONS dropouts, conduct surveys of local job opportunities, or determine the effectiveness of the educational and guidance programs. Elementary school counselors help children to make the best use of their abilities by identifying these and other basic aspects of the child’s makeup at an early age, and by eval uating any learning problems. Methods used in counseling grade school children differ in many ways from those used with older students. Observations of classroom and play activity furnish clues about children in the lower grades. To better under stand children, elementary school counselors spend much time con sulting with teachers and parents. They also work closely with other staff members of the school, includ ing psychologists and social workers. Some school counselors, particu larly in secondary schools, teach classes in occupational information, social studies, or other subjects. They also may supervise school clubs or other extracurricular activities, often after regular school hours. 545 graduate work and from 1 to 5 years of teaching experience usually are re quired for a counseling certificate. People who plan to become counsel ors should learn the requirements of the State in which they plan to work, since requirements vary among States and change rapidly. College students interested in be coming school counselors usually take the regular program of teacher education, with additional courses in psychology and sociology. In States where teaching experience is not a re quirement, it is possible to major in a liberal arts program. A few States substitute counseling internship for teaching experience. In some States, teachers who have completed part of the courses required for the master’s degree are eligible for provisional certification and may work as coun selors under supervision while they take additional courses. Places of Employment Counselor education programs at About 43,000 people worked full the graduate level are available in time as public school counselors dur more than 370 colleges and univer ing the 1971-72 school year. More sities, most frequently in the depart than 10 percent of them worked in el ments of education or psychology. ementary schools. One to two years of graduate study Most counselors work in large are necessary for a master’s degree. schools. An increasing number of Most programs provide supervised school districts, however, provide field experience. guidance services to their small Subject areas of required graduateschools by assigning more than one level courses usually include ap school to a counselor. praisal of the individual student, For the most part, counselors who individual counseling procedures, work in junior high schools and es group guidance, information ser pecially in elementary schools are vices for career development, pro women; in high schools the majority fessional relations and ethics, and of the counselors are men. However statistics and research. positions at both levels are equally The ability to help others accept available to men and women. personal responsibility for their own lives is important for school coun Training, Other Qualifications, selors since they work with the de and Advancement velopment of young people. They Most States require school coun must be able to coordinate the ac selors to have counseling and teach tivity of others and work as part of ing certificates. (See statements on the team which forms the educa Elementary and Secondary School tional system. School counselors traditionally Teachers for certificate require ments.) Depending on the State, began as teachers and advanced to OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 546 principal. However, in recent years, the trend is either to remain a coun selor, possibly moving to a larger school; to advance to become direc tor or supervisor of counseling or guidance; or, with further graduate education, to advance to become a college counselor, educational psy chologist, or school psychologist. Earnings and Working Conditions School counselors holding bache lor’s degrees earned average annual salaries ranging from $7,900 to $11,400 during the 1971-72 school year, according to the National Educa tion Association. For those having master’s degrees, average yearly sal aries were from $9,000 to $13,400. Employment Outlook School counselors with doctorate’s Employment opportunities for had an average maximum salary of well-trained school counselors are almost $16,000 per year. School expected to be favorable through the counselors generally earn more than mid-1980’s. Over the long run, de teachers at the same school. (See mand for school counselors will be statements on Kindergarten and El due in large part to the impact of the ementary School Teachers and Sec Federal Government’s Career Edu ondary School Teachers.) cation program. This program is de In most school systems, counsel signed to inform children about the ors receive regular salary incre world of work early in their educa ments as they obtain additional edu tion, so that by the time they leave cation and expeience. Some coun the formal education system they are selors supplement their income by prepared for a suitable and available part-time consulting or other work career. In addition to the expected with private or public counseling expansion of the occupation, many centers, government agencies, or pri counselors will be required each year vate industry. to replace those who leave the profes sion. Sources of Additional Employment of school counselors Information is likely to grow only moderately State Departments of Education through most of the remainder of the can supply information on colleges 1970’s as the decline in school en rollments continues. An expected up and universities that offer training in swing in enrollments beginning in the guidance and counseling as well as late 1970’s should stimulate a more on the State certification re rapid growth in counselor employ quirements. Additional information on this ment through the mid-1980’s. In 1972, the average ratio of counsel field of work is available from: ors to students as a whole was still American School Counselor Associa well below generally accepted stand tion, 1607 New Hampshire Ave. NW „ Washington, D.C. 20009. ards despite Federal aid to the States for support and expansion of coun seling programs. Some school systems were forced to eliminate some counselor positions due to local financial problems. The extent of future growth in counselor employ ment will depend largely on the amount of funds which the Federal Government provides to the States for this purpose. EMPLOYMENT COUNSELORS (D.O.T. 045.108) Nature of the Work Employment counselors (some times called vocational counselors) help jobseekers evaluate their abili ties and interests so that they can choose, prepare for, and adjust to a satisfactory field of work. The ex tent of counseling services given by employment counselors varies, de pending on the jobseeker and the type of agency. Jobseekers may in clude veterans, youth with little or no work experience, the handicapped, older workers, and individuals dis placed by automation and industry shifts, or unhappy with their present occupational Fields. Sometimes job seekers are skilled in specific occu pations and ready for immediate job placement, while those who have lit tle education and lack marketable skills need intensive training to pre pare them for jobs. In State employ ment services, the counselor is also concerned with helping those who are least employable, such as wel fare recipients, prison releasees, and the educationally and culturally de prived. Counselors interview jobseekers to learn employment-related facts about their interests, training, work experience, work attitudes, physical capacities, and personal traits. If necessary, they may get additional data by arranging for aptitude and achievement tests, and interest in ventories, so that more objective help may be given. They may get addi tional information from sources such as former employers and schools. When the jobseeker’s back ground—his limitations and abili ties—have been thoroughly re viewed, the employment counselor discusses occupational requirements and job opportunities in different COUNSELING OCCUPATIONS 547 Also, the Federal Government em ployed a limited number of employ ment counselors, chiefly in the Vet erans Administration and in the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Some counselors teach in graduate train ing programs or conduct research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement fields within the potential of the job seeker. Then, the counselor and his client develop a vocational plan. This plan may specify a series of steps in volving remedial education, job training, work experience, or other services needed to enhance the per son’s employability. Often, in de veloping this plan, the employment counselor works with a team of specialists. In many cases, employment coun selors refer jobseekers to other agen cies for physical rehabilitation or psychological or other services be fore or during counseling. The coun selor must be familiar with the avail able community services so that he can select those most likely to benefit a particular jobseeker. Counselors may help jobseekers by suggesting employment sources and appropriate ways of applying for work. In many cases when further support and assistance are needed, counselors may contact employers to develop jobs for counseled appli cants, although jobseekers usually are sent to placement interviewers after counseling. After job place ment or entrance into training, coun selors may follow up to determine if additional assistance is needed. The expanding responsibility of public employment service counsel ors for improving the employability of disadvantaged persons has in creased their contacts with these per sons during training and on the job. Also, it has led to group counseling and the stationing of counselors in neighborhood and com m unity centers. Places of Employment In 1972, about 6,000 persons, half of them women, worked as employ ment counselors in State employ ment service offices, located in every large city and many smaller towns. In addition, about 2,500 employ ment counselors worked for various private or community agencies, pri marily in the larger cities. Some worked in institutions such as prisons, training schools for delin quent youths, and mental hospitals. The national qualification stand ard for first level employment coun selors in State employment service offices calls for 30 graduate semes ter hours of counseling courses be yond a bachelor’s degree. However, 1 year of counseling-related experi ence may be substituted for 15 grad uate semester hours. All States require counselors in their public employment offices to meet State civil service or merit system requirements that include minimum educational and experi ence standards. Applicants with advanced degrees and additional qualifying experience may enter at higher levels on the counselor career ladder. Many States also make provision for indi viduals with extensive experience in the Employment Service, whether or not they have college degrees, to enter the counselor career ladder and move upward by acquiring the pre scribed university coursework and qualifying experience for each level. Although minimum entrance re quirements are not standardized among private and community agen cies, most prefer, and some require, a master’s degree in vocational coun seling or in a related field such as psychology, personnel administra tion, counseling, guidance educa tion, or public administration. Many private agencies prefer to have at least one staff member who has a doctorate in counseling psychology or a related field. For those lacking an advanced degree, employers usu 548 ally emphasize experience in closely related work such as rehabilitation counseling, employment interview ing, school or college counseling, teaching, social work or psychology. In each State, the public employ ment service offices provide some inservice training programs for their new counselors or trainees. In addi tion, both their new and experienced counselors are often given part-time training at colleges and universities during the regular academic year or at institutes or summer sessions. Pri vate and community agencies also often provide inservice training op portunities. College students who wish to be come employment counselors should enroll especially in courses in psy chology and basic sociology. At the graduate level, requirements for this field usually include courses in tech niques of counseling, psychological principles and psychology of careers, assessment and appraisal, cultures and environment, and occupational information. Counselor education programs at the graduate level are available in about 370 colleges and universities, mainly in departments of education or psychology. To ob tain a master’s degree, students must complete 1 to 2 years of graduate study. Young people aspiring to be em ployment counselors should have a strong interest in helping others make vocational plans and carry them out. They should be able to work independently and keep de tailed records. Well-qualified counselors with ex perience may advance to super visory or administrative positions in their own or other organizations. Some may become directors of agen cies or of other counseling services, or area supervisors of guidance pro grams; some may become consult ants; and others may become pro fessors in the counseling field. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK $20,000, although the average was about $10,000 annually. In general, Employment counselors with salaries of employment counselors master’s degrees, and others with ex are about one and one-half times as perience in related fields are ex high as average earnings for nonpected to have favorable employ supervisory workers in private in ment opportunities in both public dustry, except farming. and community employment agen Most counselors work about 40 cies through the mid-1980’s. Some of hours a week and have various bene these openings will be due to deaths, fits, including vacations, sick leave, retirements and transfers to other oc pension plans, and insurance cover cupations. age. Counselors employed in com Demand for employment counsel munity agencies may work overtime. ors should increase as their role be comes more important in programs Sources of Additional dealing with the training and re Information training of unemployed workers, particularly those who are unskilled For general information on em or whose jobs have been displaced by ployment or vocational counseling, technology or industry shifts. Stim contact: ulating this demand is growing pub National Employment Counselors As lic recognition that more effort and sociation, 1607 New Hampshire services are needed if people with Ave, N W ., W ashington, D.C. limited skills are to be able to find 20009. satisfactory jobs. Expansion of these National Vocational Guidance As programs and consequently the ex sociation, Inc., 1607 New Hamp tent of growth in employment of shire Ave. NW ., Washington, D.C. 20009. counselors will depend in large part on the level of funding by the Federal U.S. Department of Labor, Man Government, as well as on the distri power Administration, U SE S, Division of Counseling and Test bution of revenue sharing monies al ing, Washington, D.C. 20210. located to these types of programs by The administrative office for each the individual States. State’s employment security agency, bureau, division, or commission can Earnings and Working Conditions supply specific information about local job opportunities, salaries, and Salaries of employment counsel entrance requirements for positions ors in State employment services in public employment service offices. vary considerably by State. In 1972, minimum salaries ranged from about $6,900 to $13,000 a year with an average of $8,300. Maximum sal aries ranged from $8,900 to $15,800 REHABILITATION with an average of $10,700. More COUNSELORS than one-half of the States listed maximum salaries of $10,000 or (D.O.T. 045.108) over. Trainees for counseling posi Nature of the Work tions in some voluntary agencies in Rehabilitation counselors help large cities were being hired at about $7,500 a year. Salaries of some em people with physical, mental, or ployment counselors in private and social disabilities to adjust their vo community agencies were as high as cational plans and personal lives. In Employment Outlook COUNSELING OCCUPATIONS the initial contact with a client, the counselor learns about his interests and abilities, as well as his limita tions. The counselor then uses this information, along with available medical and psychological data, to help the disabled person to evaluate himself—his physical and mental ca pacity and interests—in relation to suitable work. Together, the counselor and client develop a plan of rehabilitation with the aid of other specialists responsi ble for the medical care and occupa tional training of the handicapped person. As the plan is put into ef fect, the counselor meets regularly with the disabled person to discuss his progress in the rehabilitation program and help resolve any prob lems that have been encountered. When the client is'ready to begin work, the counselor helps him find a suitable job, and usually makes followup checks to insure that the placement has been successful. Rehabilitation counselors must maintain close contact with the fam ilies of their handicapped clients, other professionals who work with handicapped people, agencies and civic groups, and private employers who hire the disabled. Counselors in this field often perform related ac tivities, such as informing em ployers of the abilities of the handi capped and arranging for publicity of the rehabilitation program in the community. An increasing number of counsel ors specialize in a particular area of rehabilitation; some may work al most exclusively with blind people, alcoholics or drug addicts, the men tally ill, or retarded persons. Others may work almost entirely with per sons living in poverty areas. The amount of time spent in coun seling each client varies with the se verity of the disabled person’s prob lems as well as with the size of the counselor’s caseload. Some rehabili 549 Rehabilitation counselor leads group counseling session with alcoholics. tation counselors are responsible for many persons in various stages of re habilitation; on the other hand, less experienced counselors or those working with the severly disabled may work with relatively few cases at a time. Places of Employment About 16,000 persons, one-third of them women, worked as rehabilita tion counselors in 1972. About threefourths worked in State and local re habilitation agencies financed co operatively with Federal and State funds. About 800 rehabilitation counselors and counseling psycholo gists worked for the Veterans Ad ministration. Rehabilitation centers, sheltered workshops, hospitals, labor unions, insurance companies, spe cial schools, and other public and private agencies with rehabilitation programs and job placement serv ices for the disabled employ the rest. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with courses in counseling, psychology, and re lated fields is the minimum educa tional requirement for rehabilitation counselors. However, employers are placing increasing emphasis on the master’s degree i.* vocational coun i seling or rehabilitation counseling, or in related subjects such as psychol ogy, education, and social work. Work experience in fields such as vo cational counseling and placement, psychology, education, and social work is an asset for securing em ployment as a rehabilitation coun selor. Most agencies have workstudy programs whereby employed counselors can earn graduate de grees in the field. Usually, 2 years of study are re quired for the master’s degree in the fields preferred for rehabilitation counseling. In addition to a basic OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 550 foundation in psychology, courses generally included in master’s degree programs are counseling theory and techniques, occupational and educa tional information, and community resources. Other requirements may include courses in placement and followup, tests and measurements, cultural and psychological effects of disability, and medical and legisla tive aspects of therapy and rehabili tation. To earn the doctorate in rehabili tation counseling or in counseling psychology may require a total of 4 to 6 years of graduate study. Inten sive training in psychology and other social sciences, as well as research methods is required. Many States require that rehabil itation counselors be hired in ac cordance with State civil service and merit system rules. In most cases, these regulations require ap plicants to pass a competitive written test, sometimes supplemented by an individual interview and evaluation by a board of examiners. Since rehabilitation counselors deal with the welfare of individuals who may otherwise be unemployed, the ability to accept responsibility is important. It also is essential that they be able to work independently and be able to motivate and guide the activity of others. Counselors who have limited ex perience usually are assigned the less difficult cases. As they gain experi ence, their caseloads are increased and they are assigned clients with more complex rehabilitation prob lems. After obtaining considerable experience and more graduate edu cation, rehabilitation counselors may be advanced to supervisory posi tions or top administrative jobs. to be favorable through the mid1980’s. Persons who have graduate work in rehabilitation counseling or in related fields are expected to have the best employment prospects. Contributing to the long run de mand for rehabilitation counselors will be population growth with re lated increases in the number of peo ple who need to be served. Stimulat ing this demand will be the exten sion of service to a greater number of the severely disabled, together with increased public awareness that the vocational rehabilitation approach helps the disabled to become selfsupporting. The extent of growth in employment of counselors, how ever, will depend largely on levels of government funding for vocational rehabilitation. In addition to growth needs, many counselors will be re quired annually to replace those who die, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of beginning rehabilita tion counselors in State agencies averaged $8,700 a year in 1972. Ex perienced counselors earned average salaries of $11,500 a year; the range was $9,700 to $15,700 among the States. The Veterans Administration paid counseling psychologists with a twoyear master’s degree and one year of subsequent experience—and those with a Ph.D.—starting salaries of $14,000 in early 1973. Those with a Ph.D. and a year of experience, and those with a 2-year master’s degree and much experience, started at $16,700. Some rehabilitation counselors with a bachelor’s degree were hired at starting salaries of $9,500 and $11,600. In general, salaries of em ployment counselors are above the Employment Outlook average earnings for nonsupervisory Employment opportunities for re workers in private industry, except habilitation counselors are expected farming. Counselors may spend only part of their time in their offices counseling and performing necessary paper work. The remainder of their time is spent in the field, working with pro spective employers, training agen cies, and the disabled person’s fami ly. The ability to drive a car often is necessary for field work. Rehabilitation counselors gener ally work a 40-hour week or less, with some overtime work required, since, they often must attend com munity and civic meetings in the eve nings. They usually are covered by sick and annual leave benefits, and pension and health plans. Sources of Additional Information For information about rehabilita tion counseling as a career, contact; American Psychological Association, Inc., 1200 17th St. NW„ Washing ton, D.C. 20036. American Rehabilitation Counseling Association, 1607 New Hampshire Ave. N W ., Washington, D.C. 20009. National Rehabilitation Counseling A ssociation, 1522 K St. N W ., Washington, D.C. 20005. COLLEGE CAREER PLANNING AND PLACEMENT COUNSELORS (D.O.T. 166.268) Nature of the Work Choosing a career and deciding whether or not to go to graduate school are among the difficult deci sions faced by many college stu dents. Career planning and place ment counselors are employed by COUNSELING OCCUPATIONS colleges to offer encouragement and assist in these decisions. Career planning and placement counselors, sometimes called college placement officers, provide a variety of services to college students and alumni. They assist students in mak ing career selections by encouraging them to examine their interests, abil ities, and goals, and then aiding them in exploring possible career alterna tives and choosing an occupational area that is best suited to their in dividual needs. They advise students considering dropping out of the op portunities open to them. They also help students to get part-time and summer jobs. Career planning and placement counselors arrange for job recruiters to visit the campus to discuss their firm’s personnel needs and to inter view applicants. They provide employers with information about students and help in appraising stu dents’ qualifications. They must keep abreast of information concerning job market developments in order to contact prospective employers, help students prepare for promising fields, and encourage the faculty and school administration to provide per tinent courses. Many counselors also assemble and maintain a library of 551 career guidance information and recruitment literature. Placement counselors may special ize in areas such as law, education, or part-time and summer work. How ever, the extent of specialization usu ally depends upon the size and type of college as well as the size of the placement staff. Places of Employment Nearly all 4-year colleges and un iversities and many of the increasing number of junior colleges provide career planning and placement serv ices to their students and alumni. Large colleges may employ several counselors working under a director of career planning and placement ac tivities; in many institutions, how ever, a combination of placement functions is performed by one direc tor and his clerical staff. In some col leges, especially the smaller ones, the functions of career counselors may be performed on a part-time basis by members of the faculty or adminis trative staff. Universities frequently have placement officers for each major branch or campus. About 3,800 persons, one-third of them women, worked as career plan ning and placement counselors in 1972. Most of those in four-year schools were employed on a full-time basis. Of the 1,000 in junior col leges, about two-thirds worked parttime. In 1972, more than 100 colleges and universities offered graduate programs in college student person nel work. Graduate courses that are helpful for career planning and placement counseling include coun seling theory and techniques, voca tional testing, theory of group dynamics, and occupational re search and employment trends. Some people enter the career plan ning and placement field after gain ing a broad background of experi ence in business, industry, govern ment, or educational organizations. An internship in a career planning and placement office also is helpful. College career planning and place ment counselors must have an inter est in people. They must be able to communicate with and gain the con fidence of students, faculty, and employers in order to develop in sight into the employment problems of both employers and students. Peo ple in this field should be energetic and able to work under pressure, since they must organize and admin ister a wide variety of activities. Advancement for career planning and placement professionals usually is through promotion to an assistant or associate position, director of career planning and placement, director of student personnel serv ices, or some other higher level ad ministrative position. However, the extent of such opportunity usually depends upon the type of college or university and the size of the staff. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement College career planning and placement counselor discusses career alter natives with college student. Employment Outlook Although no specific educational program exists to prepare persons for career planning and placement work, a bachelor’s degree, prefer ably in a behavioral science such as psychology or sociology, is custom ary for entry into the field and a master’s degree is increasingly being stressed. The overall employment outlook for well-qualified college career plan ning and placement counselors is ex pected to be favorable through the mid-1980’s. College enrollments are expected to continue increasing through the early 1980’s, a factor which is likely to contribute to a moderate growth of employment in 552 this field. Demand will be greatest in junior and community colleges, where enrollment increases are pro jected to be very rapid and where, in many cases, there are no career counseling and placement programs at present. Also contributing to the demand will be expected continued expansion in services to students from minority and low-income groups, who require special counsel ing in choosing careers, and assist ance in finding part-time jobs to help pay for their education. However, many institutions of higher education faced financial problems in 1972. If this situation persists into the mid-1970’s, colleges and universities may be forced to limit expansion of counseling and placement services, resulting in com petition for available positions in this field during this period. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Earnings and Working Conditions The median salary of college career planning and placement coun selors was more than $13,000 a year in 1972, according to a National Education Association survey of public and private colleges and uni versities. Median salaries in large public universities ranged from about $15,000 to $19,000; in small private colleges, from $7,000 to $10,000. In general, salaries of college career planning and placement coun selors are about twice as high as average earnings for non-supervisory workers in private industry ex cept farming. Career planning and placement counselors frequently work more than a 40-hour week; irregular hours and overtime often are necessary, particularly during the “recruiting season.” Most counselors are em ployed on a 12-month basis. They are paid for holidays and vacations and usually receive the same benefits as other professional personnel em ployed by colleges and universities. Sources of Additional Information A list of schools that offer courses in career counseling and placement and a booklet on the college student personnel professions, as well as other information on career coun seling and placement, are available from: The College Placement Council, Inc., P.O. Box 2263, Bethlehem, Pa. 18001. CLERGYMEN Deciding to become a clergyman involves considerations different from those involved in another career choice. When young persons choose to enter the ministry, priest hood, or rabbinate, they do so pri marily because they posses a strong religious faith and a desire to help others. Nevertheless, it is important for the young to know as much as pos sible about the profession and how to prepare for it, the kind of life it offers, and its needs for personnel. The number of clergymen needed is related to the size and the geo graphic distribution of the Nation’s population and its participation in organized religious groups. These factors affect the numbers of churches and synagogues estab lished and of pulpits to be filled. In addition to the clergy who serve con gregations, many others teach or act as administrators in seminaries and in other educational institutions; still others serve as chaplains in the Arm ed Forces, industry, correctional in stitutions, hospitals or on college campuses; or render service as mis sionaries, or in social welfare agen cies. A young person considering a career as a clergyman should seek the counsel of a religious leader of his faith to aid in evaluating his qualifications. The desire to serve the spiritual needs of others and a deep religious belief are the most impor tant qualifications. To deal effec tively with all types of people, clergy men need to be well-rounded both educationally and socially, and able to speak and write effectively. They should have emotional stability, as More detailed information on the clergy in the three largest faiths in the United States—Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Jewish—is given in the following statements, prepared in cooperation with lead ers of these faiths. Information on the clergy in other faiths may be ob tained directly from leaders of the respective groups. well as a sensitivity to other people’s problems, and should also be able to motivate people. Some supervisory ability is important since they must direct the activities and business of church or synagogue. Clergymen should have initiative, self-disci pline, and the ability to organize. PROTESTANT M INISTERS They also should enjoy studying, be (D.O.T. 120.108) cause the ministry is an occupation that requires continuous learning. Clergymen are expected to be models Protestant ministers lead their of high moral and ethical standards congregations in worship services for the whole community. Also, and administer the rites of baptism, young persons considering this field confirm ation, and Holy Com should realize that the civic, social, munion. They prepare and deliver and recreational activities of clergy sermons, and give religious instruc men often are influenced and re tions to persons who are to become stricted by the customs and attitudes new members of the church. They of the community. also perform marriages; conduct To a large extent, the size and funerals; counsel individuals who financial status of the congregation seek guidance; visit the sick, aged, determines income. Usually, pay is and handicapped at home and in the highest in large cities or in pros hospital; comfort the bereaved; and perous suburban areas. Earnings serve church members in other help usually rise with increased experi ful ways. Many Protestant ministers ence and responsibility. write articles for publication, give Various additions to income have speeches, and engage in interfaith, been traditional, as well. Most community, civic, educational, and Protestant churches and a number of recreational activities sponsored by Jewish congregations provide hous or related to the interests of the ing. Roman Catholic priests ordi church. Some ministers teach in narily live in the parish rectory or in seminaries, colleges, and universities. housing their religious order pro The services that ministers con vides. Many clergymen receive duct differ among Protestant de transportation allowances or pay nominations and also among con ment of other expenses. Gifts or fees gregations within a denomination. In for officiating at special ceremonies, many denominations, ministers fol such as weddings, may be an impor low a traditional order of worship; in tant source of additional income; others they adapt the services to the however, clergymen frequently needs of youth and other groups donate such earnings to charity. within the congregation. Most serv Some churches establish a uniform ices include Bible reading, hymn fee for special services which goes singing, prayers, and a sermon. In directly into the church treasury. some demoninations, Bible reading 553 554 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK All cities and most towns in the United States have at least one Protestant church with a full-time minister. Although the majority of ministers are located in urban areas, many live in less densely populated areas where they may serve two or more congregations. Training and Qualifications by a member of the congregation and individual testimonials may con stitute a large part of the service. Ministers serving small congre gations generally work on a per sonal basis with their parishioners. Those serving large congregations have greater administrative respon sibilities, and spend considerable time working with committees, church officers, and staff, besides performing their other duties. They may have one or more associates or assistants who share specific aspects of the ministry, such as a Minister of Education who assists in educa tional programs for different age groups, or a Minister of Music. Places of Employment In 1972, about 325,000 minis ters—about 5 percent of them women—served 72 million Protes tants. In addition, thousands of ministers were in closely related oc cupations. Most ministers, however, serve individual congregations. The greatest number of clergymen are af filiated with the five largest groups of churches—Baptist, United Meth odist, Lutheran, Presbyterian, and Episcopal. Educational requirements for en try into the Protestant ministry vary greatly. Some denominations have no formal educational require ments, and others ordain persons having varying amounts and types of training in Bible colleges, Bible insti tutes, or liberal arts colleges. A large number of denominations require a 3-year course of professional study in a theological school or seminary following college graduation. A de gree of bachelor or master of divin ity is awarded upon completion. In 1972, there were 128 theo logical institutes accredited by the American Association of Theo logical schools. These institutions admit only students who have re ceived a bachelor’s degree or its equivalent from an accredited college. Recom mended pre-sem inary courses include English, history, philosophy, the natural sciences, social sciences, the fine arts, music, religion, and foreign languages. However, the student considering theological study should contact, at the earliest possible date, the school or schools to which he intends to apply, in order to learn what will best prepare him for the program he ex pects to enter. The standard curriculum recom mended for accredited theological schools consists of courses in four major fields: Biblical, historical, theological, and practical. In recent years, greater emphasis has been placed on courses of a practical nature such as psychology, religious education, and adm inistration. Many accredited schools require that students gain experience in church work under the supervision of a fac ulty member or experienced minis ter. Some institutions offer master of theology and doctor of theology de grees to students completing one year or more of additional study. Scholarships and loans are available for students of theological institutes. In general, each large denomina tion has its own school or schools of theology that reflect its particular doctrine, interests, and needs; how ever, many of these schools are open to students from other denomina tions. Several interdenominational schools associated with universities give both undergraduate and gradu ate training covering a wide range of theological points of view. Persons who have denomina tional qualifications for the ministry usually are ordained following graduation from a seminary. In denominations that do not require seminary training, clergymen are or dained at various appointed times. Clergymen often begin their careers as pastors of small congregations or as assistant pastors in large churches. Outlook The shortage of Protestant minis ters has abated significantly in recent years, with a marked reduction in de mand for Protestant ministers who serve individual congregations. Causes have been the trend toward merger and unity among denomina tions, combined with the closing of smaller parishes, and the downturn in financial support. If this trend continues, new graduates of theo logical schools may face increasing competition in finding positions. The supply-demand situation will vary among denominations and depend, in part, on the length of the candi- 555 CLERGYMEN date’s formal preparation. Most of the openings for clergymen that are expected through the mid-1980’s will therefore result from the need to re place those in existing positions who retire, die, or leave the ministry. Although fewer opportunities may arise for Protestant ministers to serve individual congregations, new ly ordained ministers may find work in youth, family relations, and wel fare organizations; religious educa tion; on the campus; and as chap lains in the Armed Forces, hospi tals, universities, and correctional in stitutions. Sources of Additional Information Persons who are interested in the Protestant ministry should seek the counsel of a minister or church guid ance workers. Additional informa tion on the ministry is available from many denominational offices. Each theological school can supply infor mation on admission requirements. RABBIS (D.O.T. 120.108) Nature of Work Rabbis are the spiritual leaders of their congregations and teachers and interpreters of Jewish law and tradi tion. They conduct daily services and deliver sermons at services on the Sabbath and on Jewish holidays. Rabbis customarily are available at all times to counsel members of their congregation, other followers of Judaism, and the community at large. Like other clergymen, rabbis conduct weddings and funeral serv ices, visit the sick, help the poor, comfort the bereaved, supervise reli gious education programs, engage in interfaith activities, and involve themselves in community affairs. Rabbis serving large congre gations may spend considerable time in administrative duties, working with their staffs and committees. Large congregations frequently have an associate or assistant rabbi. Many assistant rabbis serve as Educational Directors. Rabbis serve either Orthodox, Conservative, or Reform congre gations. Regardless of their particu lar point of view, all Hebrew congre gations preserve the substance of Jewish religious worship. The con gregations differ in the extent to which they follow the traditional form of worship—for example, in the wearing of head coverings, the use of Hebrew as the language of prayer, or the use of music or a choir. The for mat of the worship service and, therefore, the ritual that the rabbis use may vary even among congre gations belonging to the same branch of Judaism. Rabbis also may write for reli gious and lay publications, and teach in theological seminaries, colleges, and universities. particularly New York, California, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Illinois, Massachusetts, Florida, Maryland, and the Washington, D.C. metro politan area. Training, and Other Qualifications To become eligible for ordination as a rabbi, a student must complete the prescribed course of study. En trance requirements and the cur riculum depend upon the branch of Judaism with which the seminary is Places of Employment associated. More than 5,800 rabbis served Nearly 30 seminaries train Ortho nearly 5.9 million followers of the dox rabbis in programs of varying Jewish faith in this country in 1972. lengths. Two of the larger semi Most are Orthodox rabbis; the rest naries require the completion of a 4are about equally divided between year college course for ordination. Conservative and Reform congre However, students who are not col gations. The majority of rabbis are lege graduates may spend a longer the spiritual leaders of individual period at these seminaries and com congregations. The others are en plete the requirements for the bache gaged in other activities mentioned lor’s degree while pursuing the rab in the introduction to this section, ex binic course. The other Orthodox cept for missionary work, which seminaries do not require a college never has been a tradition of degree to qualify for ordination, al Judaism. though students who qualify usually Although rabbis serve Jewish have completed 4 years of college. communities throughout the Nation, The Hebrew Union Col they are concentrated in those States lege—Jewish Institute of Reli that have large Jewish populations, gion is the official seminary that 556 trains rabbis for the Reform branch of Judaism. The Jewish Theological Seminary of America is the official seminary that trains rabbis for the Conservative branch of Judaism. Both seminaries require the comple tion of a 4-year college course, as well as earlier preparation in Jewish studies, for admission to the rab binic program leading to ordination. Normally five years of study are re quired to complete the rabbinic course at the Reform seminary, in cluding one year of preparatory study in Jerusalem. Exceptionally well-prepared students can shorten this 5-year period to a minimum of three years. A student having a strong background in Jewish studies can complete the course at the Conservative seminary in four years; for other enrollees, the course may take as long as six. In general, the curriculums of Jewish theological seminaries pro vide students with a comprehensive knowledge of the Bible, Talmud, Rabbinic literature, Jewish history, theology, and courses in education, pastoral psychology, and public speaking. The Reform seminary places less emphasis on the study of Talmud and Rabbinic literature; it offers, instead, a broad course of study that includes subjects such as human relations and community organization. Some seminaries grant advanced academic degrees in fields such as Biblical and Talmudic research. All Jewish theological seminaries make scholarships and loans available. Newly ordained rabbis usually begin as leaders of small congre gations, assistants to experienced rabbis, directors of Hillel Founda tions, teachers in seminaries and other educational institutions, or chaplains in the Armed Forces. As a rule, the pulpits of large and wellestablished Jewish congregations are filled by experienced rabbis. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Outlook In 1972, the number of rabbis in this country was inadequate to meet the expanding needs of Jewish con gregations and other organizations desiring their services. This situa tion is likely to persist through the mid-1980’s, despite an anticipated increase in the number of students graduating from the Jewish theo logical seminaries. One cause underlying the demand for rabbis is a continued growth in Jewish religious affiliation in the number of synagogues and temples, particularly in the suburbs of cities having large Jewish communities. Another is the demand of large con gregations for assistant rabbis. How ever, there is a trend toward merger of several congregations in some communities, and this could effect somewhat the need for rabbis. De mand for rabbis to work with social welfare and other organizations con nected with the Jewish faith also is expected to increase. Immigration, once an important source of rabbis, is no longer significant. In fact, graduates of American seminaries now are in demand for Jewish con gregations in other countries. Over 450 American rabbis now serve in other countries. Sources of Additional Information Young people who are interested in entering the rabbinate should seek the guidance of a rabbi. Information on the work of a rabbi and occupa tions allied to it is available also from many of the local Boards of Rabbis in large communities. Each Jewish theological seminary can sup ply information on its admission re quirements. ROMAN CATHOLIC PRIESTS (D.O.T. 120.108) Nature of the Work Roman Catholic priests attend to the spiritual, moral, and educational needs of the members of their church. Their duties include offering the Sacrifice of the Mass; offering re ligious enlightenment in the form of a sermon; hearing confessions; ad ministering the Sacraments, (includ ing the sacrament of marriage); and conducting funeral services. They also comfort the sick, console rela tives and friends of the dead, counsel those in need of guidance, and assist the poor. Priests spend long hours working for the church and the community. Their day usually begins with morn ing meditation and Mass, and may end with the hearing of confessions or an evening visit to a hospital or a home. Many priests direct and serve in church committees, and in civic and charitable organizations; they may assist in community projects, as well. CLERGYMEN There are two main classifica tions of priests—diocesan (secular) and religious. Both types have the same powers acquired through or dination by a bishop. The differ ences lie in their way of life, the type of work to which they are assigned, and the church authority to whom they are immediately subject. Di ocesan priests generally work on an individual basis in parishes, assigned to them by the bishop of their di ocese. Religious priests generally work as part of a religious commu nity comprised of members of the same religious order, such as the Jesuits, Dominicans, or Francis cans. They engage in specialized ac tivities such as teaching or mission ary work assigned to them by the superiors of their order. Both religious and diocesan priests hold teaching and administrative posts in Catholic seminaries, col leges and universities, and high schools. Priests attached to religious orders staff a large proportion of the institutions of higher education and many high schools, whereas di ocesan priests are concerned with the parochial schools attached to parish churches and with diocesan high schools. The members of religious orders do most of the missionary work conducted by the Catholic Church in this country and abroad. Places of Employment More than 58,000 priests served nearly 49 million Catholics in the United States in 1972. There are priests in nearly every city and town and in many rural communities; however, the majority are in metro politan areas, where most Catholics reside. Catholics are concentrated in the Northeast and the Great Lakes regions, with smaller concentrations in California, Texas, and Louisiana. A large number of priests are lo 557 cated in communities near Catholic educational and other institutions. Training and Other Qualifications Preparation for the priesthood re quires 8 years more of study beyond high school. There are 450 seminar ies offering such education. Study in preparation may begin in the First year of high school, at the college level, or in theological seminaries after college graduation. High school seminaries provide a college preparatory program that em phasizes English gram m ar, speech, literature, and social studies. Two years of Latin are required and the study of modern language is en couraged. The seminary college of fers a liberal arts program, stressing philosophy and religion; the study of man through the behavioral sciences and history; and the natural sciences and mathematics. In many college seminaries, a student may con centrate in any of these Fields. The remaining 4 years of prepara tion includes sacred scripture; apolo getics (the branch of theology con cerning the defense and proofs of Christianity); dogmatic, moral, and pastoral theology; homiletics (art of preaching); church history; liturgy (Mass); and canon law. Diocesan and religious priests attend different major seminaries, where slight varia tions in the training reflect the dif ferences in the type of work ex pected of them as priests. During the later years of their seminary courses, candidates receive from their bishop a succession of orders (positions) cul minating in their ordination to the priesthood. Priests are not per mitted to both marry and remain priests. Most postgraduate work in theolo gy is given either at Catholic Uni versity of America, Washington, D.C., or at the ecclesiastical uni versities in Rome. Also, many priests do graduate work at other uni versities in Fields unrelated to the ology. Priests are commanded by the law of the Catholic Church to con tinue their studies, at least informal ly, after ordination. Young men are never denied entry into seminaries because of lack of funds. In seminaries for secular priests, the bishop may make ar rangements for student loans. Those in religious seminaries often are Fi nanced by contributions of benefac tors. The First assignment of a newly or dained secular priest is usually that of assistant pastor or curate. Newly ordained priests of religious orders are assigned to the specialized duties for which they are trained. Many op portunities for greater responsibility exist within the hierarchy of the church. Diocesan priests, for ex ample, may rise to positions such as monsignor or bishop. Much of their time at this level is given to ad ministrative duties. In the religious orders that specialize in teaching, priests may become heads of depart ments or assume other positions that include administrative duties. Outlook A growing number of priests will be needed in the years ahead to pro vide for the spiritual, educational, and social needs of the growing num ber of Catholics in the Nation. The number of ordained priests has been insufficient to Fill the needs of newly established parishes and other Catholic institutions, and to replace priests who retire or die. This situa tion is likely to persist. However, many of the minor duties of priests are being assigned to lay deacons (nonordained professionals). Al though priests usually continue to work longer than persons in other 558 professions, the varied demands and foreign posts, as missionaries, par long hours create a need for young ticularly in countries that have a priests to assist the older ones. Also, shortage of priests. an increasing number of priests have been acting in many diverse areas of service—in social work; religious Sources of Additional radio, newspaper, and television Information work; labor-management media Young men interested in entering tion. They have also been serving in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK the priesthood should seek the guidance and counsel of their parish priest. For information regarding the different religious orders and the secular priesthood, as well as a list of the seminaries which prepare stu dents for the priesthood, contact the Diocesan Directors of Vocations of the dioscesan chancery office. to meet market demands, including those for quality standards and vari eties. They also help community leaders to improve the community, and to plan and provide for eco nomic development, recreation, and OTHER SOCIAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS more adequate public facilities such as schools, water supply and sewer Extension workers help farm fam systems, and libraries. They help COOPERATIVE ilies analyze and solve their farm and homemakers to provide more family EXTENSION home problems and aid in com enjoyment from existing resources, a SERVICE WORKERS munity improvement. Much of this higher level of nutrition, and a more (D.O.T. 096.128) educational work is carried on in pleasant home environment. Some groups, through meetings, tours, extension workers help youths to be demonstrations, and use of local come more useful citizens and to Nature of the Work volunteer leaders. On problems that gain more personal satisfaction Extension service workers are en cannot be solved satisfactorily by through programs in career selec gaged with the farm area population such group methods, individual tion, recreation, health, and leader in educational work in topics like assistance is given. Extension ship. The essence of extension work agriculture, home economics, youth workers rely heavily on use of mass is to help people help themselves to activities, and community resource communication media such as news achieve the goals they think are im development. They are employed paper, radio, and television. portant. County extension workers help jointly by State land grant uni County extension workers are sup versities and the U.S. Department of farmers produce, more efficiently, ported by State Extension Special Agriculture. Extension workers must higher quality crops and livestock. ists. The latter’s job is to keep be proficient in both subject matter They also help them develop new abreast of the latest research in their and teaching methods. market outlets and plan production particular fields of interest, interpret this for use in extension programs, and help county extension workers develop educational programs, ac tivities, and events to demonstrate use of this new knowledge. Cooperative Extension Services employ persons with a wide range of skills. Staffs include workers skilled in all phases of crop and livestock production, conservation, environ mental improvement, farm manage ment and marketing, family living, human development, nutrition, home management, child development, sociology, psychology, veterinary medicine, engineering, textiles and clothing, resource economics, and business and public administration. Places of Employment Cooperative extension workers advise farmers about crop yields. Extension workers are located in county offices, area offices serving multi-county units, and State of fices, the latter usually on the cam559 560 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK pus of the land-grant college or uni ized activity, more help will be HOME EC O N O M ISTS sought from trained Extension Serv versity. (D.O.T. 096.128) Agents are located in nearly every ice personnel. The Extension Serv ice also is being extended to new seg county in the 50 States, Puerto Rico, Nature of the Work and the District of Columbia. The ments of the population, as residents county staffs range in size from one recognize the value of their assist Home economists work to im agent (serving a wide variety of clien ance, particularly in helping the dis prove products, services, and prac tele interests) to staffs of a dozen or advantaged. tices that affect the comfort and well Counterparts of the Cooperative being of the family. They may more specialized agents in counties with high-density population and Extension Service are being estab specialize in food and nutrition, great diversity of interests. Staffs are lished in many countries, and Exten clothing and textiles, child develop located in counties ranging from the sion Service personnel often are ment and family relations, housing, recruited to help initiate and organ home furnishings and equipment, most rural to the most urban. ize these programs. home management, or consumer economics, or they may have a broad Training and Other Qualifications knowledge of the whole professional Earnings and Working Cooperative Extension agents Conditions field. assigned to counties are required to Most home economists work as The salaries of extension workers be proficient in disciplines related to teachers. They teach high school stu the needs and programs of the clien vary from State to State and county dents about foods and nutrition; tele with whom they work. Each to county. In the main, however, they clothing, selection, construction and must have a B.S. degree in his sub are fully competitive with similar care; child development; consumer ject-matter field; and some training jobs in industry and government. education; housing and home fur in educational techniques is desir Generally speaking, the career nishings; and family relations, and ladder for extension workers pro able, as well. other subjects related to family living Often, they receive training in ex ceeds from assistant county agent to and homemaking. They also per tension techniques in a pre-induction more responsible jobs within that form the regular duties of other high training program, and are upgraded county, or in another county in the school teachers that are described in through regular in-service training State, to assignments on the State the statement on secondary school programs in both educational tech extension staff. teachers elsewhere in the Hand niques and the subject-matter for book. which they are responsible. In addi Sources of Additional Teachers in adult education pro tion to subject-matter proficiency Information grams help men and women to in and extension techniques, successful Additional information may be crease their understanding of family extension workers must like to work obtained from county extension of relations and to improve their home with people and to help them. making skills. They also conduct In most States, specialists and fices, the State Director of the Co training programs on secondary, agents assigned to multicounty and operative Extension Service located post secondary, and adult levels for State staff jobs are required to have at each land-grant university; or the jobs related to home economics. at least one advanced degree and Extension Service, U.S. Depart Special emphasis is given to teach ment of Agriculture, Washington, many must have the Ph.D. ing those who are disadvantaged and D.C. 20250. handicapped. College teachers may combine teaching and research, and Employment Outlook often specialize in a particular area Extension services employ more of home economics. than 15,600 professional people. The Home economists employed by demand for additional workers is ex private business firms and trade pected to continue, especially in de associations promote the develop pressed rural areas. As agricultural ment, use, and care of specific home technology becomes more compli products. They may do research, test cated, and as farm people become products, and prepare advertise ments and instructional materials. more aware of the need for organ OTHER SOCIAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Home economists do research on metabolism. Other duties may include preparing engineers on product development. Home economists in the field of and presenting programs for radio and television, serving as con communications work for maga sultants; giving lectures and demon zines, newspapers, radio and tele strations before the public, and con vision stations, advertising and pub ducting classes for salesmen and lic relations agencies, and trade asso appliance servicemen. Some home ciations. They prepare articles, ad economists study consumer needs vertisements, and speeches about and help manufacturers translate home economics products and serv ices. They may also test and analyze these needs into useful products. Food manufacturers employ home products and study consumer buying economists to work in test kitchens habits. or laboratories to improve products Home economists are employed and help create new ones. They also by dress-pattern companies, depart may publicize the nutritional values ment stores, interior design studios, of their company’s foods. Utility and other business firms to help companies hire home economists to design, manufacture, and sell prod demonstrate appliances and services ucts for the home. Financial institu and to give advice on household tions sometimes employ home p ro b lem s. Home eco n o m ists economists to give customers advice employed by kitchen and laundry on spending, saving, and budgeting. equipment manufacturers may assist Some home economists conduct 561 research for the Federal Govern ment, State agricultural experiment stations, colleges, universities, and private organizations. The U.S. De partment of Agriculture employs the largest group of researchers to do work such as study the buying and spending habits of families in all socio-economic groups and develop budget guides. Home economists who work for the Cooperative Extension Service conduct adult education programs for men and women, and 4-H Club and other youth programs for girls and boys, in areas such as home management, consumer education, family relations and nutrition. Ex tension home economists also train and supervise volunteer leaders and paid aides who teach adults and youth. (See statement on Coopera tive Extension Service Workers else where in the Handbook.) Federal, state, and local govern ments and private agencies employ home economists in social welfare programs to advise and counsel cli ents on the practical knowledge and skills needed for effective everyday family living. They may also help handicapped homemakers and their families adjust to the physical as well as social and emotional limitations by changing the arrangements in the home; finding efficient ways to man age household chores; aiding in the design, selection and arrangement of equipment; and creating other meth ods and devices to enable disabled people to function at their highest possible level. Other home econo mists in welfare agencies supervise or train workers who provide tempo rary or part-time help to households disrupted by illness. Home economists in health serv ices provide special help and guidance in home management, con sumer education and family eco nomics as it relates to family health and well-being. Activities of home 562 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK economists working in health pro grams are home visits, conducting clinic demonstrations and classes in hom em aking skills, financial counseling, assisting the mentally re tarded mother, working with agen cies and community resources, and supervising nutrition and home management aides. Places of Employment About 120,000 people worked in home economics professions in 1972. This figure includes 33,000 dieti tians and 5,300 Cooperative Exten sion workers who are discussed in separate statements elsewhere in the Handbook. About 70,000 home economists are teachers, of whom about 50,000 teach in secondary schools. More than 15,000 are adult education instructors, some of whom teach part-time in secondary schools; about 5,000 home economists teach in colleges and universities. Others teach in com m unity colleges, elementary schools, kindergartens, nursery schools and recreation centers. More than 5,000 home econ omists work in private business firms and associations. Several thousand are in research and social welfare programs. A few are self-employed. A lthough home econom ics generally has been considered a women’s field, a growing number of men are employed in home eco nomics positions. Most men special ize in foods and institutional management, although some are in the family relations and child development field, applied arts, con sumer education, and other areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement About 370 colleges and universi ties offer a bachelor’s degree in home economics, which qualifies gradu ates for most entry positions in the field. A master’s or doctor’s degree is required for college teaching, for cer tain research and supervisory posi tions, for work as an extension specialist, for some supervisory jobs, and for some jobs in the nutrition field. Home economics majors study sciences and liberal arts—particu larly social sciences—as well as specialized home economics courses. They may concentrate in a particu lar area of home economics or in what is called general home eco nomics. Advanced courses in chemistry and nutrition are impor tant for work in foods and nutrition; science and statistics for research work; and journalism for advertis ing, public relations work, and all other work in the communications field. To teach home economics in high school, students must complete the courses required for a teacher’s certificate. Scholarships, fellowships, and assistantships are available for un dergraduate and graduate study. Although colleges and universities offer most of these financial grants, government agencies, research foun dations, businesses, and the Ameri can Home Economics Association Foundation provide additional funds. Home economists must be able to work with people of various incomes and cultural backgrounds and should have a capacity for leadership. Good grooming, poise, and an interest in people also are essential for those who deal with the public. The ability to write and speak well is important. Home economists frequently gain experience as teachers and advance to responsible positions in business, extension service work, supervision, and teacher education. Those who leave the profession, but later wish to return, may find jobs as part-time or full-time adult education teachers in programs such as the Cooperative Extension Service. Employment Outlook Home economists, especially those wishing to teach in high schools, may face some competition for jobs through the mid-1980’s. Other areas of home economics also may experi ence competitive job market condi tions as those unable to find teach ing jobs look for other home economists positions. However, for those willing to continue their edu cation toward an advanced degree, employment prospects in college and university teaching are expected to be good. Although employment of home economists is expected to grow slow ly, many jobs will become available each year to replace those who die, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Growth will result from in creasing awareness of the contribu tions that can be made by profes sionally trained home economists in quality child care, nutrition, housing and furnishings design, consumer education information, and manenvironment relations. They also will be needed to promote home prod ucts, to act as consultants to con sumers and to do research for im provement of home products and services. The Vocational Education Amendments of 1968, which pro vide funds for consumer and home making education at the secondary, post-secondary, and adult levels, and focus on the needs of low income families, should further stimulate the need for home economists. Earnings and Working Conditions Home economics teachers in public schools generally receive the same salaries as other teachers. In 1972, the average starting salary of OTHER SOCIAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS public school teachers with a bache lor’s degree was $7,400, according to a National Education Association survey. Experienced teachers averag ed $10,500. Median salaries of women teaching in colleges and uni versities in 1972 ranged from $8,900 for instructors to $16,400 for profes sors. The Federal Government paid home economists with bachelor’s degrees starting salaries of $7,700 and $9,500 in early 1973, depending on their scholastic record. Those with additional education and experi ence generally earned from $11,600 to $19,700 or more, depending on the type of position and level of re sponsibility. Cooperative extension workers on the county level averaged $10,300 while those on the State level aver aged $14,200 in 1972. In general, home economists earn about one and one-half times as much as non-supervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Home economists usually work a 40-hour week. Those in teaching and extension positions, however, fre quently work longer hours because they are expected to be available for evening lectures, demonstrations, and other work. Most home econ omists receive fringe benefits, such as paid vacation, sick leave, retirement pay, and insurance benefits. 563 PSYCHOLO GISTS (D.O.T. 045.088 and .108) Nature of the Work Psychologists study the normal and abnormal behavior of individ uals and groups in order to under stand and explain their actions. In the course of their work, they may be concerned with the problems of emo tional stress and abnormal behavior, the causes of low morale, or the effective performance of an astro naut. Some teach in colleges and un iversities; others provide counseling services, plan and conduct training programs for workers, conduct re search, advise on psychological methods and theories, or administer psychology programs in hospitals, clinics, or research laboratories. Many psychologists combine sev eral of these activities. Psychologists gather information about the capacities, interests, and behavior of people in various ways. They interview individuals, develop and administer tests and rating scales, study personal histories and conduct controlled experiments. Psychologists also often design and conduct surveys. Areas of specialization in psychol ogy include experimental psychol ogy—in which behavior processes are studied in the laboratory; developmental psychology—the study of the causes of behavioral changes as people progress through Sources of Additional Information A list of schools granting degrees in home economics and additional information about home economics careers, the types of home eco nomics majors offered in each school granting degrees in home eco nomics, and graduate scholarships are available from: American Home Economics Associa tion, 2010 M assachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036 Psychologist experiments with monkey for insight into human behavior. 564 life; personality—the study of the processes by which a person be comes a unique individual; social psychology—in which people’s inter actions with others and with the social environment are examined; educational and school psychol ogy—which are concerned with the psychological factors in the process of education; comparative psychol ogy—in which the behavior of differ ent animals, including man, is com pared; physiological p sych o l ogy—the study of the relationship of behavior to the biological functions of the body; and p sych o m et rics—the development and appli cation of procedures for measuring psychological variables. Psychologists often combine sev eral areas of psychology in their spe cialty. Clinical psychologists are the largest group of specialists. They generally work in mental hospitals or clinics, and are involved mainly with problems of mentally or emotion ally disturbed people. They inter view patients, give diagnostic tests, and provide individual, family, and group psychotherapy, and design and carry through behavior modifica tion programs. Counseling psycholo gists help people with important problems of everyday living. In their work, they may use developmental psychology, psychopathology, per sonality, educational psychology, and psychometrics. Other combina tion fields are industrial and organizational psychology where problems of motivation and morale in work situations are studied; engineering psychology, the develop ment and improvement of manmachine systems; consumer psychol ogy, the study of the psychological factors that determine an individ ual’s behavior as a consumer of goods and services; and environ mental psychology, the relation ships between individual qualities and the environment. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Places of Employment About 57,000 people, one-fourth of them women, worked as psycholo gists in 1972. More than 40 percent of the total worked in colleges and universities, either as teachers, researchers, or counselors. The sec ond largest number of psycholo gists work for Federal, State, and local government agencies. Federal agencies that employ the most psy chologists are the Veterans Adminis tration, the Department of Defense, and the Public Health Service. Many psychologists work in public schools, clinics, hospitals, medical schools, and for business or indus try. Some are in independent prac tice, and others serve as commis sioned officers in the Armed Forces and the Public Health Service. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Generally, a master’s degree in psychology is the minimum educa tional requirement for professional employment in the field. People who have this degree can qualify for posi tions where they administer and in terpret psychological tests, collect and analyze statistical data, conduct research experiments, and perform administrative duties. They also may teach in colleges, counsel students or handicapped persons, or—if they have had previous teaching experi ence—work as school psychologists or counselors. (See statements on School Counselors and Rehabilita tion Counselors.) A Ph.D. degree—the mark of the full professional—is needed for many entrance positions and is becoming increasingly important for advancement. People who have doc torates in psychology qualify for the more responsible research, clinical, and counseling positions, as well as for the higher level positions in col leges and universities and in Federal and State programs. At least 1 year of full-time gradu ate study is needed to earn a master’s degree in psychology. An additional 3 to 5 years of graduate work usu ally are required in order to get a Ph.D. In clinical or counseling psy chology, the requirements for the Ph.D. degree generally include an additional year of internship or supervised experience. Some universities require appli cants for graduate work in psychol ogy to have had an undergraduate major in that field. Others prefer broader educational backgrounds that include not only some basic psy chology but also courses in the bio logical, physical, and social sciences, statistics, and mathematics. Many graduate students receive financial help in the form of fellow ships, scholarships, or part-time employment from universities and other sources. Several Federal agen cies provide funds to graduate stu dents, generally through the college or university that provides the train ing. The Veterans Administration offers a number of pre-doctoral traineeships, during which time the students receive payments and gain supervised experience in VA hos pitals and clinics. The National Science Foundation, the U.S. Office of Education, the Public Health Service, the Rehabilitation Services Administration, and the National Institute of Mental Health also pro vide fellowships, grants, and loans for advanced training in psychology. However at present the trend at the federal level is toward low-interest loans and away from fellowships and grants. The American Board of Profes sional Psychology awards diplomas in clinical, counseling, industrial, and school psychology to those who have outstanding educational records and OTHER SOCIAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS experience and who pass the re quired examinations. Psychologists who want to enter independent practice must meet cer tification or licensing requirements in an increasing number of States. In 1972, 46 States had these re quirements. People pursuing a career in psy chology must be emotionally stable, mature, and able to deal effectively with people. Sensitivity, patience, and a genuine interest in others are particularly important for work in clinical and counseling psychology. Research psychologists should be able to do detailed and independent work; verbal and writing skills are necessary to communicate research findings. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for psychologists are expected to be good through the mid-1980’s. Op portunities should be very good for Ph.D.’s and for some master’s de gree holders specializing in clinical or counseling psychology. Employment of clinical, counsel ing, and social psychologists in men tal hospitals, correctional institu tions, mental hygiene clinics, and community health centers is ex pected to expand rapidly. Many openings for psychologists also are anticipated in the Federal Govern ment, primarily in the Veterans Ad ministration and the Department of Defense. Psychologists may find some com petition for job openings in large col leges and universities which are pre ferred locations for many specialties in psychology. However, those wishing to work in the relatively smaller and newer publicly-supported institutions should have good employment prospects. The rapid growth of two-year colleges also will create many openings for psy chologists. Other openings will exist for clini cal, educational, and industrial psy chologists. Growing awareness of the need for testing and counseling chil dren is expected to increase the need for psychologists in schools. In creased public concern for the development of human resources as evidenced by Medicare and Medi caid will further increase the de mand for psychologists. Other open ings may occur as psychologists move into new employment fields where their services are beginning to be recognized as useful. Govern ment agencies are finding that psy chologists can conduct surveys and offer services, such as recom mending methods for improving public opinion and anticipating reac tions to government programs. Many vacancies also will occur each year as a result of retirements and deaths. The transfer of psycholo gists to purely administrative work also will create some job vacancies. 565 of experience, Ph.D.’s earned about $16,700. The average salary for Ph.D. psychologists in the Veterans Administration was about $21,500 a year. In general, psychologists earn over twice as much as the average nonsupervisory worker in private in dustry, except farming. Working conditions for psycholo gists who teach in colleges and uni versities are the same as for other faculty members. Most colleges pro vide for sabbatical leaves of absence, life and health insurance, and retire ment plans. Working hours are generally flexible, but often entail some evening work with individual students or organized groups. Clini cal and counseling psychologists often work in the evenings since their patients sometimes are unable to leave their jobs or school during the day. Sources of Additional Information For general information on career opportunities, certification or licen sure requirements, and educational facilities and financial assistance for Earnings and Working Conditions graduate students in psychology, In 1972, starting salaries for psy contact: American Psychological Association, chologists holding a master’s degree 1200 17th Street, NW „ Washing averaged about $11,000 a year, ac ton, D.C. 20036. cording to the American Psycho Information on traineeships and logical Association. Beginning sala ries for those holding a doctorate fellowships is available from col leges and universities that have averaged $13,000. graduate psychology departments. Median salaries of psychologists teaching in graduate departments ranged from $12,800 for assistant professors to $20,900 for full profes sors during the academic year 197273 (9-10 months), according to a sur vey conducted for the Conference of Chairmen of Graduate Departments of Psychology. In the Federal Government, psy chologists having a Ph.D. degree and 1 year of internship started at $14,000 a year in early 1973. With 1 year 566 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK RECREATION WORKERS (D.O.T. 079.128, 159.228, 187.118, 195.168, 195.228) Nature of the Work Directors of city recreation depart ments, camps, or private nonprofit organizations coordinate and evalu ate the many types of recreation pro grams and often prepare program budgets. Recreation workers employed by local government and voluntary agencies direct activities at neighbor hood playgrounds and indoor recrea tion centers. They provide instruc tion in the arts and crafts and in sports. They may supervise recrea tional activities at correctional in stitutions and work closely with social workers to organize programs for the young and the aged. School recreation workers organize the leisure-time activities of school-age children during schooldays, week ends, and vacations. Recreation workers in industry and in the Armed Forces direct bowl ing leagues, softball teams, and simi lar activities for servicemen and company employees. They also often plan social functions and fund drives. Under the supervision of a camp director, recreation workers in camps lead and instruct campers in nature-oriented forms of recreation such as swimming, hiking, and horseback riding. In resident camps, recreation workers must also safe guard the health and well-being of campers. Therapeutic recreation workers plan recreation programs for the ill and the handicapped in hospitals, convalescent homes, and other in stitutions. Working under medical direction, they organize and direct sports, dramatics, arts, and crafts for persons suffering from mental prob lems and physical disabilities. departments employed about onehalf, primarily in local recreation departments. Many others worked for schools, commercial recreation establishments like camps or resort hotels, and nonprofit voluntary organizations such as athletic or scouting organizations, churches, and community organizations. Although part-time recreation workers and volunteers assist full time workers throughout the year, an additional 120,000 recreation work ers were employed for the summer months only, during 1972. Seasonal workers are mostly college students and teachers who work primarily as recreation leaders and camp counselors. Recreation workers are employed mostly in urban areas where many people must use the same play grounds and recreation centers. Camp recreation workers, however, work generally in rural, less popu lated areas of the country. Camp recreation workers are employed at resident, day, family, and travel camps. Except for the directors of very large camps and workers at the few camps which remain open yearround, all camp recreation workers are employed for two or three months only during the summer. Participation in sports, hobbies, and other recreation activities has become an integral part of the in creasing leisure time enjoyed by many Americans. Recreation work ers direct individual and group recreation activities to help people better enjoy nonworking hours and to promote physical fitness, fair play, and good sportsmanship. Recreation workers organize and lead social, cultural, and physical education programs at camps, com munity centers, hospitals, work places, and playgrounds for people of various ages and interests. They also manage recreation facilities and study the recreation needs of groups and communities. There are three basic types of recreation workers: recreation leaders and camp coun selors, activity specialists, and recreation directors. Recreation leaders and camp counselors lead indoor and outdoor recreation activities. They instruct people in the proper use of facilities and the correct rules and techniques used in sports, games, and other ac tivities. Training, Other Qualifications, Activity specialists lead and in and Advancement struct people in specific activities such as archery, swimming, or ten A high school education is gener nis. They often conduct classes and ally the minimum requirement for coach teams in the activity in which recreation leader and camp coun they specialize. selor jobs. However, an associate Recreation supervisors or direc degree in recreation or a related sub tors administer recreation programs, ject, from a community or junior col departments, and camps. They lege usually is preferred for yearmanage facilities and supervise round employment. recreation workers, maintenance Activity specialists should have an Places of Employment personnel, and attendants. They associate or bachelor’s degree in develop new programs and organize More than 55,000 recreation recreation or in one of the arts, to sports leagues and teams, tourna workers were employed year-round hold year-round jobs. Part-time or ments, and contests that bring people in 1972; nearly one-half of them were seasonal work experience as a with similar interests together. women. Government recreation recreation leader or camp counselor OTHER SOCIAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 567 the recreation field as activity specialists or recreation directors. Beginning recreation director jobs include recreation facility director, community center director, and supervisor of recreation leaders and attendants. A small number of col lege graduates begin in jobs that lead directly to administrative recreation positions. A few large cities and organizations offer recreation direc tor trainee programs that generally last 1 year. After a few years’ experience, ac tivity specialists, and often recrea tion leaders, may become recreation directors. Opportunities for advance ment to administrative positions often are limited for persons without graduate training. However, ad vancement is sometimes possible through a combination of education and experience. Recreation worker teaches camping skills. Employment Outlook often is required. Many activity specialists who concentrate in sub jects such as drama, art, or dance have graduate degrees. Generally recreation directors must have a bachelor’s degree with a major in recreation, social science, or physical education as well as parttime or seasonal experience. Ad vanced courses in recreation or public administration leading to a master’s degree are desirable for per sons interested in higher level ad ministrative positions. The typical program of recreation study includes courses in communi cations, natural sciences, the human ities, philosophy, sociology, drama, and music. Specific courses in recreation include group leadership, program planning and organization, health and safety procedures, out door and indoor sports, dance, arts and crafts, and field work in which the student obtains actual recreation leadership experience. Students in terested in industrial recreation may find it desirable to take courses in business administration; those inter ested in therapeutic recreation should take courses in psychology, health education, and sociology. Young people planning careers as recreation workers must have the ability to motivate people and be sen sitive to their needs. Good health and physical stamina are required to par ticipate in sports. Activity planning often calls for creativeness and resourcefulness. Recreation workers should be able to accept respon sibility and exercise judgment since they usually work alone. To increase their leadership skills and under standing of people, students should obtain related work experience in high school and college. They may do volunteer, part-time, or summer work in recreation departments, camps, youth-serving organizations, institutions, and community centers. Most college graduates then enter Employment opportunities for persons having a bachelor’s degree in recreation are expected to be excel lent. As the number of college gradu ates with a major in recreation falls short of the demand, employment opportunities in this field will con tinue to be favorable for persons that have college training in social science, physical education, and health education. Opportunities for part-time and volunteer work should be plentiful, particularly in local government recreation departments. Employment of recreation work ers is expected to increase very rapid ly through the mid-1980’s. Popula tion growth, increased leisure time and rising incomes underlie the ex pected growth in employment of recreation workers. As incomes rise, more people will participate in a variety of organized competitive and noncompetitive sports and larger numbers will travel to parks, camps, and resorts for camping, hiking, fish 568 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ing, and other recreation pursuits. Public pressure for recreation areas may result in the creation of many new parks, playgrounds, and national forests, and increased atten tion to physical fitness by govern ment, educators, and others may produce a rise in public and indus trial recreation programs. Longer life and earlier retirements also will increase the demand for recreation programs for retired persons. All of these factors will increase the need for recreation workers. Earnings and Working Conditions Annual salaries for recreation leaders in State and local govern ments ranged between $7,000 and $9,000 in 1972, according to a sur vey by the Public Personnel Associ ation. In general, earnings are higher than the average for nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except in farming. Persons with bachelor’s degrees in recreation generally received start ing salaries ranging between $7,200 and $9,000, according to the National Recreation and Park Association. Recreation directors’ salaries ranged from $ 11,000 to more than $20,000 depending on their responsibilities. In early 1973, starting salaries for recreation workers in the Federal Government were $7,694 for appli cants having a bachelor’s degree or 3 years of recreation work experience. Persons with a good academic record, specialized training, or 4 years of experience could qualify for a starting salary of $9,520; those with a master’s degree or an addi tional year of experience, $11,614. Recreation worker salaries tend to be higher in the West than in other areas of the country. The average workweek for recrea tion workers is 40 hours, although some work more than 50 hours. Many camp recreation workers live at the camps where they work, and their room and board is included in their salaries. Most public and pri vate recreation agencies provide from 2 to 4 weeks vacation and other fringe benefits such as sick leave and hospital insurance. A person entering the recreation field should expect some night work and irregular hours since they often work while others are enjoying leisure time. Recreation workers usually spend most of their time out doors when the weather permits. Sources of Additional Information Information about recreation as a career, employment opportunities in the field, and colleges and univer sities offering recreation curriculums is available from: National Industrial Recreation Associ ation, 20 N orth W acker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60606. National Recreation and Parks Associ ation, 1601 N orth Kent S t., Arlington, Va. 22209. For information on careers in camping and job referrals, contact: American Camping Association, Brad ford Woods, Martinsville, Indiana 46151. SOCIAL SERVICE AIDES Nature of the Work Social service or social welfare aides enable social service agencies to help greater numbers of people by freeing professional social workers and rehabilitation counselors from many routine duties. Most social service aides work under the close guidance and supervision of social workers or counselors. Social service aides serve as a link between professional social workers or rehabilitation counselors and peo ple who seek help from social agen cies by welcoming visitors and learn ing the nature of their problems. Aides explain the services and facili ties of the agency and help new ap plicants fill out eligibility forms. In some welfare agencies, aides visit the applicant’s home, interview friends and relatives, and check documents such as marriage licenses or birth certificates to determine an individ ual’s or family’s eligibility for public assistance. Much of the routine paperwork re quired in welfare programs is done by social service aides. They may keep fact sheets on clients up to date, maintain a filing system of reports or a control system for periodic case re views, and fill out school enroll ment, employment, medical, and compensation forms. Aides usually referred to as case work aides or assistants, may work directly with clients. They may help clients locate and obtain adequate housing, find jobs, or counsel par ents about their children’s dress and appearance. Casework aides serve as advocates for clients by going with them to clinics to insure that they re ceive needed medical care or by help ing them effectively communicate their needs to institutions that pro vide educational or welfare services. Homemaker aides help women improve their skill in shopping, cleaning, sewing, budgeting, family health and hygiene, child care, and meal planning and preparation. They are assigned to a home for 1 or more days a week, or instruct groups of housewives at a community or neigh borhood center. An important facet of the home maker aides’ work is the actual dem onstration of homemaker skills. Stressing the importance of regular- 569 OTHER SOCIAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS ity and routine in the home, they set up a schedule of weekly activities. They get down to particulars of housekeeping by teaching home makers how to clean stoves and re frigerators, prepare meals from left overs, or recognize a bargain in in expensive material for an attractive dress. They encourage homemakers to take advantage of cost-saving op portunities such as the barber school for haircuts, the thrift shop, surplus foods, and free recreation. In addi tion to teaching domestic skills, some homemaker aides also help housewives obtain needed social ser vices. Social service aides help care for children of working mothers at child development facilities and day care centers. They feed, entertain, and otherwise care for children who are usually too young to attend school. Under the direction of social workers and other professionals, they help children develop socially and pre pare for elementary school. Aides also may teach children counting, arithmetic, art, music, and other sub jects that stimulate their curiosity and ability to think. Social service aides also may transport elderly and handicapped persons who are not in stitutionalized to clinics for medical checkups or stores to purchase food, clothes, and other necessities. Some outreach workers called neighborhood workers personally contact the residents of an area to ex plain and discuss agency services. They learn the needs of individuals and families and refer routine cases to a counselor or to the appropriate community service agency. They re port more difficult problems to a supervisor. Neighborhood workers may inform residents about job openings, available housing, job training opportunities, and public services. On a broader scale, they as sist in the organization of block and other neighborhood groups to con duct programs that benefit the neigh borhood, foster a sense of commu nity responsibility among residents, and encourage participation in the anti-poverty programs of social ser vice agencies. They also may assist in routine neighborhood surveys and counts, keep records, and prepare re ports of their activities for the super visor. Employment aides, another type of outreach worker, actively seek out the disadvantaged and help prepare them for employment through spe cial training and counseling. Work ing in neighborhood centers or mobile units, they locate candidates for available jobs and training pro grams by contacting unemployed residents in pool rooms, laundro mats, and street corners. They give the unemployed information about the services of the local State Em ployment Service office, available job and training opportunities, and help them Till out the necessary ap plication forms. After clients are em ployed, aides maintain contact to help workers adjust to the new work environment and to iron out minor difficulties. Apart from these more specific duties, the single most useful func tion of the social service aide is to be a friendly listener who is available when needed to offer encourage ment and counsel. Places of Employment About 100,000 people worked as social aides in 1972; about four out of five were women. Most work in the inner cities of large metropolitan areas. More than half of the social serv ice aides work for government de partments and agencies primarily on the state and local level. They work for community and neighborhood or ganizations and centers, welfare and social service agencies, residential welfare facilities for children or adults, and rehabilitation agencies serving the blind, disabled, and otherwise disadvantaged. 570 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Graduation from high school gen erally is not required for social serv ice aide jobs. Employers do not always look for the most highly skill ed applicants. An individual’s need for work, as well as his potential for upgrading his skills and making a useful contribution to the agency, often is considered. People seeking jobs as social serv ice aides should get along well with people, especially the disadvan taged, and be able to work as part of a team. They should be tactful, cour teous, and possess leadership qualities. Homemaker aides should be housewives and mothers who have demonstrated competence in man aging a home and rearing children. Outreach workers assigned to Puerto Rican or Mexican-American com munities should speak and under stand Spanish. Some social service aide jobs require typing skills. Most employers emphasize the de velopment of career ladders with op portunities for advancement through a combination of on-the-job train ing, work experience, and further ed ucation. Aides usually are trained on the job from one to several months. Those without high school diplomas often receive classroom instruction to help them pass a high school equivalency examination. Entry level positions as employment aides can lead to a job as an employment inter viewer, and, after special training, to employment counselor. Employing agencies frequently pay part of the cost of further education for social services aides. Employment Outlook Employment of social service aides is expected to grow very rapidly through the mid-1980’s. Many op portunities are expected for part time work. Most openings will be due to the need to replace aides who die, retire, or transfer to other jobs. Employment in this field will stem from population growth, coupled with this country’s continuing com mitment to aid those who are disad vantaged, disabled, or unable to care for themselves. In addition, as social welfare services and programs ex pand, social service aides increas ingly will be used for much of the routine and less responsible work now done by professional personnel. Earnings and Working Conditions Social service aides who worked full-time earned salaries ranging from $5,000 to $8,000 a year in 1972, according to a survey by the Child Welfare League of America. The Federal Government paid beginning social service aides salaries of from $4,798 to $6,128 depending upon their education and prior work ex perience; experienced aides earned as much as $12,373. Many aides work part-time and earn less. Although they work much of the time in offices of social service de partments and agencies, they may frequenly visit the homes of clients or offices of other social service agen cies, hospitals, and business estab lishments. Aides often must work evenings or weekends when clients can be reached. Sources of Additional Information Information on requirements for social service aide jobs is available from city, county, or State depart ments of welfare or social service, community or neighborhood devel opment agencies, and local offices of the State Employment Service. SOCIAL WORKERS (D.O.T. 195.108, .118, .168, and .208, .228) Nature of the Work The ability of people to live in har mony with their neighbors often is hampered by social problems that range from an individual’s personal problems to social unrest within a group or community. These prob lems aggravated by the growing complexity of society, have greatly increased the need for social serv ices. Social workers assist individ uals, families, and groups in using these services to solve their problems. Many social service programs are designed to meet the needs of indi viduals or families, some emphasize large groups, and still others are di rected mainly to the community’s so cial welfare. The three basic ap proaches to social work are case work, group work, and community organization. The approach used in tackling a social problem is usually determined by the nature of the problem and the time and resources available. Social workers sometimes combine two or all three approaches. In casework, social workers iden tify the problems of individuals and families through interviews. They aid in understanding and solving prob lems and help secure needed serv ices, education, and job training. Through group activities, social workers help people to understand themselves and others better, to overcome racial and cultural preju dices, and to work with others in achieving a common goal. They plan and conduct activities for children, adolescents, adults, and older per sons in a variety of settings such as settlement houses, hospitals, homes for the aged, and correctional insti tutions. In community organization, social workers organize political, OTHER SOCIAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS civic, religious, business, and union groups to combat social problems through community programs. They help plan and develop health, hous ing, welfare, and recreation services for a neighborhood or larger area. They often coordinate existing so cial services and organize fund rais ing for community social welfare ac tivities. The majority of social workers provide social services directly to in dividuals, families, or groups. How ever, a substantial number are exec utives, administrators, or super visors. Others are college teachers, research workers, consultants, or pri vate practitioners. Public and voluntary agencies have a variety of social work programs to meet specific needs, as suggested by the following descrip tions of the principal areas of social work. Social workers in family service positions jn State and local welfare offices and voluntary agencies pro vide counseling and social services that strengthen personal relation ships and help clients to improve their social functioning. They also advise their clients on the construc tive use of financial assistance and other social services. Social workers in child welfare positions in government and volun tary agencies work to improve the physical and emotional well-being of deprived and troubled children and youth. They advise parents on child care and child rearing, counsel chil dren and youth with social adjust ment difficulties, arrange home maker services during a mother’s ill ness, institute legal action for the protection of neglected or mis treated children, provide services to unmarried parents, and counsel couples who wish to adopt children after making appropriate case evaluations and home studies, they may place children in suitable adop tion or foster homes or in special ized institutions. 571 Social workers in schools aid chil dren whose unsatisfactory school be havior is related to their social prob lems. These workers consult and work with parents, teachers, coun selors, and other school personnel to identify and solve problems that hinder satisfactory adjustment. Social workers in medical and psy chiatric settings such as hospitals, clinics, health and mental health agencies, rehabilitation centers, and public welfare agencies aid patients, their families and communities with social problems accompanying ill ness, recovery, and rehabilitation. As members of medical teams, they help patients respond to treatment and guide them in their readjustment to their homes, jobs, and communities. (The related occupation of rehabili tation counselor is discussed in a sep arate statement.) Probation and parole officers and other social workers engaged in cor rectional programs help offenders and persons on probation and parole readjust to society. They counsel on social problems encountered in rela tion to their return to family and community life. Probation and parole officers also may help secure necessary education, training, em ployment, or community services. Places of Employment About 185,000 social workers were employed in 1972; nearly twothirds of them were women. Federal, State, county and city government agencies employ about two-thirds of all social workers. Most of the re mainder work for voluntary or pri vate agencies, schools, hospitals, and other medical establishments. Al though employment is concentrated in urban areas, many work with dis advantaged families in rural areas. A small number of social work ers—employed by the Federal Government and the United Nations 572 or one of its affiliated agen cies—serve in other parts of the world as consultants, teachers, or technicians and establish agencies, schools, or assistance programs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree, preferably in social welfare or social work, gener ally is the minimum educational re quirement for beginning jobs in so cial work. In several specialized areas, a master’s degree in social work is required. For teaching posi tions, a master’s degree in social work is also required, and a doctor ate is preferred. A graduate degree and experience in social work, as well as training in social science research methods, are required for research work. In most States, applicants for employment in a government agency must pass a written examination. Two years of specialized study and supervised Field instruction are need ed to earn a master’s degree in so cial work. In 1971, 81 colleges and universities offered accredited grad uate degree programs in social work. For admission to these schools, a stu dent must have a bachelor’s degree, preferably including courses in eco nomics, history, political science, psychology, social work, sociology, and social anthropology. Many scholarships and fellow ships are available for graduate edu cation. More than half of the full time students in graduate schools re ceive some type of Financial aid either from the schools or employ ing agencies. Some social welfare agencies, both voluntary and public, offer plans whereby workers are granted “educational leave” to ob tain graduate education. The agency may pay the expenses or a salary, or both. Social workers should be emo tionally mature, objective, sensitive, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK and possess a basic concern for peo ple and their social problems. They must be able to handle responsibility and work indepentently, form and sustain good working relationships, and encourage social adjustment in others. Students should obtain as much related work experience as possible during high school and college to de termine whether they have the inter est and capacity for professional so cial work. They may do volunteer, part-time, or summer work in places such as camps, settlement houses, hospitals, community centers, or so cial welfare agencies. Some volun tary and public social welfare agen cies hire students for jobs in which they assist social workers. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for persons having bachelor’s degrees in social welfare or related Fields should be favorable through the remainder of the 1970’s. Competition may in crease in the 1980’s, however, if the number of social work graduates in creases along with growth of all college graduates. The outlook for graduates of m aster’s degree programs in social work is expected to continue to be very good through the mid-1980’s. Women with social work experience should have favor able prospects for part-time work. The very rapid growth in employ ment of social workers that is ex pected through the mid-1980’s will stem primarily from anticipated ex pansion in programs to provide serv ices to disadvantaged individuals and groups. The occupational structure of the economy is expected to con tinue to change and create severe problem s for many unskilled workers and others whose jobs have been replaced by machines. In addi tion, social change will continue to affect family life. The increasing population of the very young and the very old, the age groups most in need of social work services, also is espected to contribute to the demand for social workers. Earnings and Working Conditions Social worker earnings are gener ally above the average earnings of all nonsupervisory workers on private non-farm payrolls. Various State agencies paid social caseworkers with bachelor’s degrees average starting salaries of about $6,900 a year, according to an early 1972 sur vey of selected occupations by the Public Personnel Association. Sal aries of casework supervisors in State agencies ranged from $8,800 for those having little experience to about $11,500 for those having con siderable experience. Salaries of psy chiatric social workers averaged from $8,700 to $10,800; those of probation and parole ofFicers aver aged from about $7,800 to $9,900. Social workers employed by cities and urban counties tend to average $1,000 to $2,000 more than those paid by State agencies, in many in stances according to the survey cited. Persons having Masters’ degrees in social work received starting sal aries of about $10,000 in 1972, ac cording to a survey by the National Association of Social Workers. Those having experience earned me dian salaries of about $13,000. Pri vate practitioners and those in ad ministrative, teaching, and research jobs earned more than $16,000. Persons having a bachelor’s degree in social work or 3 years of appro priate work experience hired by the Federal Government in 1972, began as social service assistants and re ceived $7,319 a year. Master’s degree graduates of accredited schools of social work started at $9,053 a year; those having professional social OTHER SOCIAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS work experience could begin at a higher salary. Salaries of journey men social workers employed by the Federal Government ranged from $13,309 to $17,305. Most social workers have a 5 day week, but many work only part-time. In some social work agencies, how ever, the nature of the work requires evening and weekend work, for which social workers usually receive 573 compensatory time off. Virtually all social work agencies provide fringe benefits such as paid vacations, sick leave, and retirement plans. Sources of Additional Information For information about career op portunities in the various fields of so cial work, contact: N a tio n a l A s s o c ia tio n o f S o c ia l Workers, 15th and H St. NW ., 600 Southern Building, Washington, D.C. 20005. Information on accredited gradu ate and undergraduate college pro grams in social work is available from: Council on Social Work Education, 345 East 46th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. ART, DESIGN, AND COMMUNICATIONS RELATED OCCUPATIONS Creativity and the ability to com municate ideas are prerequisites for work in the art, design, and com munications related occupations. For example, an architect’s blue print is the embryo of a building; floral designers express a mood of love, sympathy, or other emotion in a flower arrangement; and actors project a character on the stage or screen for the enjoyment of their audiences. Newspaper reporters communicate newsworthy events to their reading audiences; dancers ex press emotion, mood, or thought through physical movements; and photographers capture an emotion or idea through camera angle, lighting, and the flick of a shutter. This section of the Handbook de scribes in detail the occupations that require creative and communicative talents: the Performing Arts—ac tors, dancers, singers, and musi cians; Communications Related Oc cupations—interpreters, news re porters, and radio and T.V. an nouncers; and the Design Occupa tions—architects, commercial art ists, urban planners, and six other re lated occupations. 575 PERFORMING ARTISTS The performing arts include music, acting, singing, and the dance. In these fields, the number of tal ented persons seeking employment generally greatly exceeds the num ber of full-time positions available. As a result, many performers supple ment their incomes by teaching, and others work much of the time in different types of occupations. The difficulty of earning a living as a performer is one fact young per sons should remember when they consider such a career. They should consider, therefore, the possible ad vantages of making their art a hobby rather than a profession. Aspiring young artists usually must spend many years in intensive training and practice before they are ready for public performances. They need not only great natural talent but also determination, a willingness to work long and hard, and an overwhelming interest in their chosen field. The statements which follow this introduction give detailed informa tion on musicians, singers, actors, and dancers. ACTORS AND ACTRESSES (D.O.T. 150.028 and 150.048) Nature of the Work Making a character come to life before an audience is a job that has great glamour and fascination. It also is hard and demanding work that requires special talent and in 576 volves many difficulties and uncer tainties. Only a few actors and actresses achieve recognition as stars on the stage, in motion pictures, or on tele vision or radio. A somewhat larger number are well-known, experi enced performers, who frequently are cast in supporting roles. How ever, most actors and actresses strug gle for a toehold in the profession, and are glad to pick up parts wher ever they can. New actors generally start in “bit” parts, where they speak only a few lines. If successful, they may pro gress to larger, supporting roles, of which there are several in most stage, television, and screen productions. They also may serve as understudies for the principals. If a leading player misses a performance the under study has a chance to demonstrate his acting ability. Actors who prepare for stage, screen, and television roles rehearse many hours. They must memorize their lines and know their cues. In addition to the actors with speaking parts, “extras,” who have no lines to deliver, are used in vari ous ways in almost all motion pic tures and many television shows and theatre productions. In “ spectacu lar” productions, a large number of extras take part in crowd scenes. Some actors find alternative jobs 577 PERFORMING ARTISTS Training, and Other as dramatic coaches or become Qualifications directors of stage, television, radio, or motion pictures productions. A Young persons who aspire to act few teach in schools of acting or in ing careers should take part in high the drama departments of colleges school and college plays, or work and universities. with little theatres and other acting groups in their home towns to get as much acting experience as possible. Formal training in acting is in Places of Employment creasingly necessary. Such training About 9,000 actors and actresses can be obtained at special schools of work in the United States. The prin the dramatic arts, located chiefly in cipal areas of employment for actors New York, and in more than 1,600 are stage plays, motion pictures colleges and universities throughout (including films made especially for the country. College drama curricutelevision), industrial shows and lums usually include courses in commercials. liberal arts, speech, pantomime, In the winter, most employment play production, and history of the opportunities on the stage are in New drama, as well as practical courses in York and other large cities. In the acting. From these, the student summer months, stock companies in develops an appreciation of the great suburban and resort areas through plays and a greater understanding of out the Nation provide many oppor the roles he may be called on to play. tunities for employment. In addi Graduate degrees in the fine arts or tion, many cities now have “ little in drama are needed for college theatres,” repertory companies and teaching positions. dinner theatres, which provide op Acting demands patience and portunities for local talent as well as total commitment, since aspiring for professional actors and actresses actors and actresses must wait for from New York and other centers. parts or Filming schedules, work Plays that go “on the road” (move long hours, and often do much from city to city) are normally traveling. Flawless performances re produced in New York City with quire long rehearsal schedules and cast selected there. the tedious memorizing of lines. The Employment in motion pictures actor needs stamina to withstand the and film television is essentially cen heat of stage or studio lights, or the tered in Hollywood and New York adverse weather conditions which City, although a few studios are may exist “on location.” Above all, located in Miami, and other parts of young persons who plan to pursue an the country. In addition, many films acting career must have talent and are shot on location, providing the creative ability to portray differ employment for nonprofessionals ent characters. They must have who live in the area as “extras.” An poise, stage presence, and aggres increasingly large num ber of siveness to project themselves to the American-produced films are being audience. At the same time, the abil shot in foreign countries. In tele ity to follow directions is important. In all media, the best way to start vision, most opportunities for actors are at the headquarters of the major is to use local opportunities and to netw orks—in New Y ork, Los build on the basis of such experi Angeles, and, to a lesser extent, ence. Many actors who are success Chicago. A few local television sta ful in local dramatic productions eventually try to appear on the New tions occasionally employ actors. York stage. Inexperienced actors usually find it extremely difficult to obtain employment in New York or Hollywood. The motion picture field is especially difficult to enter, and employment often results from pre vious experience on Broadway. To become a movie extra, one must usually be listed by Central Casting, a no-fee agency which works with the Screen Extras Guild and supplies all extras to the major movie studios in Hollywood. Appli cants are accepted only when the number of persons of a particular type on the list—for example, ath letic young men, old ladies, or small children—is below the foreseeable need. In recent years, only a very small proportion of the total num ber of applicants have succeeded in being listed. Extras have very little, if any, opportunity to advance to speaking roles in the movies. The length of an actor’s working life depends largely on his skill and versatility. Great actors and actress es can work almost indefinitely. On the other hand, employment oppor tunities become increasingly limited by middle age, especially for those who become typed in romantic, youthful roles. Employment Outlook Overcrowding has existed in the acting field for many years and it is expected to persist. In the legitimate theater and also in motion pictures, radio, and television, numbers of job applicants greatly exceed the jobs available. Moreover, many actors are employed in their profession for only a small part of the year. The development of motion pic tures and TV has greatly reduced employment opportunities for actors in the theater. Although a motion picture production may use a very large number of actors, they are em ployed only during filming and the 578 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK films are widely distributed and may be used for years. Also, the increas ing number of American-produced films being shot in foreign countries will reduce employment oppor tunities for American actors. The number of filmed TV dramas and commercials using actors is increas ing, but not enough to offset the de cline in other media. Moreover, tele vision stations often broadcast “taped” dramas rather than live productions, and, like motion pic ture films, these tapes may be widely distributed and used many times. One possibility for future growth in the legitimate theater lies in the es tablishment of year-round profes sional acting companies in cities. The number of communities with such acting groups is growing. The recent growth of summer and winter stock companies, repertory companies, and dinner theaters also has in creased employment opportunities. Some increases also may be likely in the employment of actors on tele vision in response to expansion of the Public Broadcasting System, UHF stations, and cable TV (pay TV). The development and wider use of video cassettes also may result in some employment opportunities. In the acting field as a whole, how ever, employment is expected to change little through the mid-1980’s. The number of persons who want to enter the profession is expected to outnumber employment oppor tunities. Even highly talented young people are likely to face stiff com petition and economic difficulties. Earnings and Working Conditions Actors and actresses employed in the legitimate theater belong to the Actors’ Equity Association. If em ployed in motion pictures, including television films, they belong to the Screen Actors Guild, Inc., or to the Screen Extras Guild, Inc. If em ployed in television or radio, they belong to the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA). These unions and the show producers sign basic collective bargaining agreements which set minimum salaries, hours of work, and other conditions of employ ment. Each actor also enters into a separate contract which may pro vide for higher salaries than those specified in the basic agreement. The minimum weekly salary for actors in Broadway productions was about $197.50 in 1972. Those in small “off-Broadway” theaters re ceived a minimum of $125 a week. For shows on the road, the mini mum rate was about $274.50 a week. (All minimum salaries are adjusted upward automatically, by union con tract, commensurate with increases in the cost of living as reflected in the Bureau of Labor Statistics Con sumer Price Index). Motion picture actors and ac tresses earned a minimum daily rate of $140, or $483 for a five day week, in 1972. For extras, the minimum rate was $35.65 a day. Actors on net work television received a minimum program fee of about $180 for a single half-hour program and 10 hours of rehearsal time; actors on radio received about $50 for a halfhour performance, including one re hearsal hour. Because of the fre quent periods of unemployment, characteristic of this profession, an nual earnings may be low for many lesser-known performers. In all fields, many well-known actors and actresses have salary rates above the minimums. Salaries of the few top stars are many times the figures cited. Eight performances amount to a week’s work on the legitimate stage, and any additional performances are paid for as overtime. The basic work week after the opening of a show is 36 hours, including 12 hours for re hearsals. Before the openings, how ever, the workweek usually is longer to allow enough time for rehearsals. Evening work is, of course, a regular part of a stage actor’s life. Rehears als may be held late at night and on weekends and holidays. When plays are on the road, traveling over the weekend often is necessary. Most actors are covered by a pen sion fund and a growing number have hospitalization insurance to which their employers contribute. AH Equity and AFTRA members have paid vacations and sick leave. Most stage actors get little if any unemployment compensation solely from acting since they seldom have enough employment in any State to meet the eligibility requirements. Consequently, when a show closes, they often have to take any casual work obtainable while waiting for another role. Sources of Additional Information Information on colleges and uni versities and conservatories which offer a major in drama is available from the American Educational Theater Association, 1317 F Street, NW., Washington, D.C. 20004. DANCERS (D.O.T. 151.028 and 151.048) Nature of the Work Dancing is an ancient and world wide art that has many different forms. Professional dancers may perform in classical ballet or modern dance, in dance adaptations for musical shows, in folk dances, and in other popular kinds of dancing. In classical ballet, movements are based PERFORMING ARTISTS 579 dancers; others are situated in most large cities. Training and Other Qualifications on certain conventional or styled “positions,” and women dance “en pointe” (on the tips of their toes). In the modern dance, movements are more varied but are nonethe less carefully planned and executed to follow a pattern. In dance productions, performers most often work as a corps de ballet (chorus). However, a group of selected dancers may do special numbers, and a very few top artists do solo work. Many dancers combine their stage work with full-time teaching in schools of the dance or in colleges and universities. The few dancers who become choreographers create new ballet or dance routines. Others are dance directors who train danc ers in new productions. (This statement does not include instructors of ballroom and other social dancing.) Places of Employment About 4,000 dancers worked on the stage, screen, and television in the United States in 1972. Many more teach at schools of the dance and in other schools and colleges. A few teachers, trained in dance ther apy, work in mental hospitals. About 90 percent of all dancers are women, but in some types of dance, particu larly ballet and modern, women con stitute only about one-half of the per formers. Dancing teachers are located chiefly in large cities, but many smaller cities and towns have schools of the dance. New York City is the hub for the majority of performing Serious training for a dancing career traditionally begins by age 12 or earlier. For example, girls who wish to become ballet dancers should begin taking lessons at the age of 7 or 8. From 2 to 3 years of prior preparation is needed before the young girl should start dancing “en pointe.” Professional training in ballet typically takes from 10 to 12 lessons a week for 11 or 12 months in the year and many additional hours of practice. The length of the train ing period depends on the student’s ability and physical development, but most dancers have their profes sional audition by age 17 or 18. The selection of a professional dancing school is important for two reasons. First, the school must use expert judgment in setting the pace of training, since too early and too severe exercise can permanently damage the legs and feet. Second, the school’s connections with pro ducers may help the students obtain employment. Because of the strenuous training in professional schools, a student’s general education may not exceed the legal minimum. However, a dancer’s education should include a study of music, literature, and his tory to help in the interpretation of dramatic episodes and music. About 200 colleges and univer sities confer bachelor’s degrees on students who have majored in physi cal education and concentrated on the dance; majored in a dance; or majored in a dance program to pre pare students as professional dance artists. Some schools also give graduate degrees. A college education is an advan tage in obtaining employment as a teacher of professional dancing or 580 choreography. However, dancers who postpone their first audition for openings in classical ballet until graduation may compete at a disad vantage with younger dancers. Professional schools usually re quire teachers to have experience as a performer; colleges and conserva tories generally require graduate de grees, but experience as a performer often may be substituted. Maturity and a broad educational back ground also are important. The dancer’s life is one of rigor ous practice and self-discipline. Good health and physical stamina are necessary, both to keep in good condition and to follow the rugged travel schedule imposed on many dancers. Height and body build should not vary much from the average. Good feet and normal arches also are re quired. Above all, one must have a natural aptitude for dancing, and a creative ability to express oneself through dance. Seldom does a dancer perform un accompanied. Therefore, young per sons who consider dancing as a career should be able to function as part of a team. They also should be prepared to face the anxiety of un stable working conditions brought on by show closings and audition failures. Except for outstanding stars, women past 30 are rarely hired by ballet companies, and women past 25 are rarely hired for Broadway shows unless they have had experience in such productions. Men in ballet and men and women in modern dance can usually work longer than other dancers. After the employable age for performers has passed, some dancers teach in colleges or con servatories or establish their own schools. The few who become chore ographers or dance directors can continue to work as long as persons in other occupations. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook Opportunities in this field will be limited both by the small number of full-time jobs available and the rela tively large supply of applicants. The supply of trained dancers has ex ceeded the demand for many years. The irregular nature of employment is expected to persist despite recent union-management steps to guaran tee full or near full employment each year. Adversely affecting the demand for dancers is the decline in the num ber of stage productions because of competition from motion pictures and television and foreign compe tition (especially in ballet). Few stage shows run more than 26 weeks and many “fold” after the first week. On the other hand, more industrial ex hibitions, auto shows, and state fairs are being produced and a growing trend toward using professional dancers at these events is evident. Also, some new professional dance companies are being developed and television will offer a first employ ment opportunities. Civic and com munity dance groups are increasing in number, and opportunities for dancers will expand as these develop into professional groups. Neverthe less, employment opportunities for dance performers are expected to re main limited, and most of the open ings for dancers in the years ahead will stem from the need to replace those who leave the field. Dancers who have the personal and educational qualifications for teaching will have more employ ment opportunities than those train ed only as performers. The growing interest in the dance as one of the fine arts is contributing to the de mand for teachers of dancing. Earnings and Working Conditions Dancers who perform profes sionally are members of one of the unions affiliated with the Associated Actors and Artists of America (AFL-CIO). Dancers who perform in opera ballet, classical ballet, and the modern dance belong to the American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc.; those who perform on live tele vision belong to the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists; those who perform in films, T.V., and other forms of motion pic tures belong to the Screen Actors Guild or the Screen Extras Guild; and those who appear in musical comedies join Actors’ Equity Associ ation. Dancers also may be mem bers of other unions, depending upon the fields in which they perform. Minimum salary rates, hours of work, and other conditions of employment are specified in basic agreements signed by the unions and the producers. The separate con tract signed by each dancer with the producer of the show may be more favorable than the basic agreement regarding salary, hours of work, and working conditions. The minimum salary for dancers in ballet and other stage productions was about $170 a week in 1972. The single performance rate is $68.00 for a solo dance and $37.00 per dancer for a group. Dancers on tour re ceived an allowance of $15 a day in 1972, to defray the cost of room and board. The employer pays the cost of transportation. If a dancer signs a contract for a brief appearance in a performance on television or a few days’ work in a movie, the minimum rate is higher, relative to time work ed. However, this difference is offset by the brevity of the engagement and the long period likely to be spent waiting for the next one. A few per formers, of course, have much higher salaries. Some dancers qualified to teach in schools of the ballet combine this work with engagements as perform PERFORMING ARTISTS ers. Many more dancers have to sup plement their incomes by other types of work. Salaries of teachers in the tech nical schools of the ballet vary with the location and prestige of the school. Dance teachers in college and universities are paid on the same basis as other faculty members. (See statement on “College and Univer sity Teachers.”) The normal workweek is 30 hours (five hours per day maximum) spent in rehearsals and matinee and eve ning performances. Extra compen sation is paid for additional hours worked. Most stage performances take place, of course, in the evening, and rehearsals may require very long hours, often on weekends and holi days. When shows are on the road, weekend travel often is required. Dancers are entitled to some paid sick leave and various health and welfare benefits provided by their un ions, to which the employers con tribute. Sources of Additional Information Information on colleges and uni versities and conservatories of music which give a major in the dance or some courses in the dance, as well as details on the types of courses and other pertinent information is avail able from the American Association for Health, Physical Education and R ecreation, a division of the National Educational Association, 1201 16th Street, NW„ Washing ton, D.C. 20036. 581 M U SIC IA N S (D.O.T. 152.028 and 152.048) Nature of the Work Professional musicians—whether they play in a symphony orchestra, dance band, rock group, or jazz com bo—generally have behind them many years of formal or informal study and intensive practice. As a rule, musicians specialize in either popular or classical music; only a few play both types professionally. Musicians who specialize in popu lar music usually play the trumpet, trombone, clarinet, saxophone, organ, or one of the “rhythm” in struments—the piano, string bass, drums, or guitar. Dance bands play in nightclubs, restaurants, and at special parties. The best known bands, jazz groups, rock groups, and solo performers sometimes give con certs and perform on television. Musicians who specialize in classi cal music play in symphonies,opera and theater orchestras, and for other groups that require orchestral ac companiments. The instruments played by most of these musicians are the strings, brass, and wood w in d s . S o m e fo rm s m a ll groups—usually a string quartet or a trio—to give concerts of chamber music. Many pianists accompany vocal, instrumental soloists, or choral groups or provide background music in restaurants or other places. Most organists play in churches; often they direct the choir. A few exceptionally brilliant musicians become wellknown concert artists. They give their own concerts and appear as soloists with symphony orchestras. Both classical and popular musi cians often make recordings, either individually or as members of a group. A very high proportion of all mu sicians teach in the Nation’s schools and colleges. These teachers may be members of the faculty of music schools or conservatories or of col leges which offer instruction in in strumental and vocal music. Some are music teachers in elementary or secondary schools where they direct vocal and instrumental music pro grams, teach general classroom music appreciation, and give group instruction on an instrument. Pri vate lessons are given by many teachers employed by school sys tems, and by performing musicians, either in their own studios or in pupil’s homes. A few musicians work in the field of music therapy in hospitals, and in music libraries. Places of Employment About 85,000 persons worked as 582 performing musicians in 1972. Many thousands more taught in elemen tary and secondary schools and in colleges and universities. Moreover, almost every town and city has at least one private music teacher. Most professional musicians who perform work in cities where the Nation’s entertainment and record ing activities are concentrated, such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Nashville, Miami Beach, and New Orleans. Many perform with one of the 29 major symphonies, 80 metro politan, or 1,100 community orches tras. Dance bands and civic orches tras also are located in many com munities, although in the smaller towns, their members usually are part-time musicians with other reg ular jobs. In addition to the people prima rily employed as musicians or music teachers, thousands of qualified in strumentalists have other full-time jobs and only occasionally work as musicians. Most of these part-time musicians belong to dance bands, that are hired to play at private par ties or for special occasions. Others, with a background in classical music, play occasionally in an orchestra, be come conductors or composers, or do some part-time teaching. Training and Other Qualifications Most people who become profes sional musicians begin studying an instrument at an early age. To achieve a career as a performer or as a music teacher, young people need intensive training—either through private study with an accomplished musician, in a college or university which has a strong music program, or in a conservatory of music. They need to acquire not only great tech nical skill but also a thorough knowl edge of music, and they must learn how to interpret music. Before a young person can qualify for ad OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK vanced study in a music conserva tory or in a college or university school of music, an audition fre quently is necessary. Many teachers in these schools are accomplished ar tists who will train only promising young musicians. More than 660 conservatories of music and college and university schools of music offer a bachelor’s degree program in music education. Students who complete these pro grams can qualify for the State cer tificate required for elementary and secondary school positions. About 400 conservatories and collegiate music schools accredited by the National Association of Schools of Music award the degree of bachelor of music to students who major in in strumental or vocal music. Both of these programs provide not only training in performance but also a broad background in musical his tory and theory, together with some liberal arts courses. Advanced degrees usually are required for col lege teaching positions, but excep tions may be made for especially well-qualified artists. Musicians who play jazz and other popular music must have an under standing of and feeling for that style of music, but skill and training in classical styles may expand their em ployment opportunities. As a rule, they take lessons with private teach ers when young, and seize every op portunity to play in amateur or pro fessional perform ances. Some groups of young people form their own small dance bands or rock groups. As they gain experience and become known, the players may have opportunities to audition for other local bands, and still later, for the better known bands and orchestras. Young persons who consider careers in music should have both musical talent and creative ability. They also should have poise and stage presence to face large audi ences. Since quality of performance requires constant study and prac tice, self-discipline is vital. More over, musicians who do concert and nightclub engagements, must have physical stamina because of con stant travel and rugged time sched ules that often include long night hours. Employment Outlook The music performance field is ex pected to remain overcrowded through the mid-1980’s. Opportu nities for concerts and recitals are not numerous enough to provide ade quate employment for all the pian ists, violinists, and other instru mentalists qualified as concert art ists. Competition usually is keen for positions which afford some stability of employment such as jobs with major orchestras and teaching posi tions in conservatories and colleges and universities. Because of the ease with which a musician can enter pri vate music teaching, the number of music teachers has been more than sufficient to give instruction to all the young persons seeking lessons, and probably will continue to be. Al though many opportunities are ex pected for single and short-term en gagements, playing popular music in night clubs, theaters, and other places, the supply of qualified musi cians who seek such jobs is likely to exceed demand. On the other hand, first-class, experienced accompa nists and well-trained, outstanding players of stringed instruments are likely to remain relatively scarce. Employment of music performers is expected to increase slightly through the mid-1980’s. Although the number of civic orchestras in smaller communities has been grow ing steadily, many of these orches tras provide only part-time employ ment for musicians who work chiefly as teachers or in other occupations. 583 PERFORMING ARTISTS Moreover, openings created by these orchestras have been more than off set by the decline in opportunities for musicians in theater, radio, and mo tion pictures. The increased use of recorded music has lead to the de cline of opportunities in these areas. Additional employment opportu nities are expected from the ex panded use of cable TV (pay TV) and wider use of video cassettes. The employment outlook in music education for people who are quali fied as teachers as well as musicians is better than for those qualified as performers only. However, the sup ply of music teachers in the Nation’s schools is adequate—a situation which is likely to continue through the 1980’s. Earnings and Working Conditions The amount received for a per formance by either classical or pop ular musicians depends to a large ex tent on their professional reputa tions. Musicians who were members of 1 of the 29 major symphony or chestras in the United States re ceived minimum salaries that ranged from about $170 to $340 a week in 1972, according to the American Symphony Orchestras League, Inc. Seven orchestras—New York, Bos ton, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Cin cinnati, Houston, and Chicago— have year-round seasons (52 weeks) and minimum salaries ranging from $10,000 to $17,700. The other major symphony orchestras have seasons ranging from 34 to 54 weeks. Musicians who played on halfhour TV shows received a minimum of $72.45 in 1972 (includes 2-hour re hearsal time). The minimum scale for recording is $90 for a 15-minute tape (3 hours actual taping time). The salaries of public school music teachers are determined by the sal ary schedule adopted for all teachers. (See statements on Elementary and Secondary School Teachers else where in the Handbook.) Many give private music lessons to supplement their earnings. However, earnings are uncertain and vary according to the musician’s reputation, the number of teachers and students in the locality, and the economic status of the community. Musicians customarily work at night and on weekends. They also must spend considerable time in practice and in rehearsal. Many musicians, primarily those employed by symphony orchestras, work under master wage agree ments, which guarantee a season’s work up to 52 weeks. Musicians in other areas, however, may face rela tively long periods of unemploy ment between jobs. Thus, the overall level of their earnings generally is lower than that of many other occu pations. Moreover, they do not usually work steadily for one em ployer. Consequently, some per formers cannot qualify for unem ployment compensation, and few have either sick leave or vacations with pay. Most musicians who play profes sionally belong to the American Fed eration of Musicians (AFL-CIO). Concert soloists also belong to the American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc. (AFL-CIO). American Guild of Organists, 630 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10020. A list of accredited schools of music is available from: National Association of Schools of Music, One Dupont Circle, NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Further information about music teaching in elementary and second ary schools is available from: Music Educators National Confer ence, The National Education As sociation, 1201 16th St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. SINGERS (D.O.T. 152.028 and .048) Nature of the Work Professional singing is an art that usually requires not only a fine voice but also a highly developed tech nique and a broad knowledge of music. A small number of singing stars make recordings or go on con cert tours in the United States and abroad. Somewhat larger numbers of singers obtain leading or support ing roles in operas and popular music shows, or secure engagements as concert soloists in oratorios and other types of performances. Some singers also become members of opera and musical comedy choruses Sources of Additional or other professional choral groups. Information Popular music singers perform in musical shows of all kinds—in the For information about wages, hours of work, and working condi movies, on the stage, on radio and tions for professional musicians, con television, and in nightclubs and other entertainment places. The best tact: known popular music singers make American Federation of Musicians and sell many recordings. (A F L -C IO ), 641 Lexington Ave., Since most singers of both classi New York, N.Y. 10022. cal and popular music have only partInformation about the require time or irregular employment they ments for certification of organists often have full-time jobs of other and choir masters is available from: types and sing only in the evenings or 584 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK country and western music, is one of the most important places for em ployment of singers for “live” per formances and recordings. Singers who teach music in elementary and secondary schools, colleges, univer sities, and conservatories of music are employed throughout the coun try. Many singers work part-time, chiefly as church singers and choir masters. ed either the degree of bachelor of music, bachelor of science or arts (in music), or bachelor of fine arts. Young singers who plan to teach music in public elementary or sec ondary schools need at least a bach elor’s degree with a major in music education and must meet the State certificatio n requirem ents for teachers. Such training is available in over 660 colleges and universities throughout the country. College teachers usually are required to have Training and Other Qualifications a master’s degree and sometimes a Young persons who want to per doctor’s degree, but exceptions may form professionally as singers should be made for especially well-qualified acquire a broad background in artists. Although voice training is an asset music, including its theory and his for singers of popular music, many tory. The ability to dance may be helpful, since singers are sometimes with untrained voices have had suc required to dance. In addition, those cessful careers. The typical popular interested in a singing career should song does not demand that the voice start piano lessons at an early age. be developed to cover as wide a range As a rule, voice training should not on the musical scale as does classi begin until after the individual has cal music, and the lack of voice pro matured physically, although young jection may be overcome by use of a boys who sing in church choirs re microphone. Young singers of popular songs ceive some training before their may become known by participating voices change. Moreover, because of the work and expense of voice train in amateur and paid performances in ing which often continues for years their communities. These engage after the singer’s professional career ments may lead to employment with has started, a prospective singer local dance bands or rock groups and on weekends. Some give private must have great determination. An possibly later with better known voice lessons. A number of singers audition before a competent voice ones. In addition to musical ability, per teach general music courses and teacher to decide whether profes severance, an outstanding personal choruses in elementary and second sional training is warranted is also ity, an attractive appearance, good ary schools. Others give voice train important. contacts, and good luck often are re Young people can prepare for ing or direct choral groups in churches, in music conservatories or careers as singers of classical music quired to achieve a singing career. in colleges and universities. by enrolling in a music conserva Singers also must have physical tory, or a school or department of stamina in order to adapt to rigor music connected with a college or ous time and travel schedules which Places of Employment university, or by taking private voice often include working night hours. About 36,000 persons worked as lessons. These schools provide not professional singers in 1972. Oppor only voice training, but other train Employment Outlook tunities for singing engagements are ing needed to understand and in mainly in New York City, Los terpret music, including music-re The employment outlook for Angeles, Las Vegas, San Francisco, lated training in foreign languages singers is expected to remain highly Dallas and Chicago—the Nation’s and sometimes dramatic training. competitive through the mid-1980’s, chief entertainment centers. Nash Upon completion of a 4-year course especially among popular singers. ville, Tennessee, a major center for of study the graduate may be award Many short-term jobs are expected
@FedFRASER