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GORNEM. LAW -Gxj; I.IBIIARY Kf Z5SS aiorttfU ICam ^t\\\xsx\ Eibtar^ Cornell University Library KF3555.A5B81 Women fn industry; decision of the United 3 1924 017 572 391 Cornell University Library The tine original of tiiis book is in Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924017572391 WOMEN IN INDUSTRY DECISION OF THE UNITED STATES SUPREME COURT IN CURT MULLER VS. STATE OF OREGON UPHOLDING THE CONSTITUTIONALITY OF THE OREGON TEN HOUR LAW FOR WOMEN AND BRIEF FOR THE STATE OF OREGON BY LOUIS Assisted by D. BRANDEIS JOSEPHINE GOLDMARK Fublication Secretary National Consumers' League REPRINTED FOR THE NATIONAL CONSUMERS' LEAGUE 105 East 22d Strest, New York City ^"io^^ol TABLE OF CONTENTS Pages Laws of the Several States Labor op Adult Women in Force Limiting the Hours op 1-8 ARGUMENT 9, — Legislation FIRST PART Hours Restricting the of Labor for Women I. n. 11-17 THE FOREIGN LEGISLATION 11-15 THE AMERICAN LEGISLATION 16, 17 PART SECOND — The the Legislation Women I. is World's Experience upon which Lvmitmg the Hours Labor for of Based 18-112 THE DANGERS OF LONG HOURS 18-55 18-27 Causes A. (1) (2) B. Physical Differences between Men and The New Strain in Manufacture Women . . . Bad Eppect op Long Hours on Health General Injuries from Long Hours Evil Effects on Childbirth (2) Specific Functions (1) 18-23 24-27 28-46 28-36 ., and Female 36-42 C. Bad Eppect op Long Hours on Safety D. Bad Effect op Long Hours on Morals ... 44-46 E. Bad Effect op Long Hours on General Welfare 47-55 (1) State's (2) The Need of Protecting Effect of 42-44 . Woman 47-51 Women's Overwork on Future Genera- tions II. 10 SHORTER HOURS THE ONLY POSSIBLE PROTECTION 51-55 56 Pages III. THE GENERAL BENEFITS OF SHORT HOURS 57-64 . Good Effect on the Individual Health, Home A. 57, 58 Life, etc Good Effect on the General Welfare B. IV. 59-64 ECONOMIC ASPECT OF SHORT HOURS 65-84 Effect on Output Hours increase Efficiency, and thus prevent Reduction of Output (2) Long Hours result in Inferior Quality of Product A. 65-77 (1) Shorter . V. B. Effect on Regularity of Employment C. Adaptation of Customers to Shorter Hours D. Incentivb to Improvements in Manufacture E. Effect on Scope of Women's Employment . 77-79 ... . . VII. 80-82 82-84 UNIFORMITY OF RESTRICTION 85-91 A. Allowance of Overtime Dangerous to Health B. Uniformity Essential for Purposes of Enforce- C. Uniformity Essential to Justice to Employers THE REASONABLENESS OF THE TEN-HOUR DAY 80 79, . 85, . MENT VI. 65-75 75-77 . 86 . 86-88 . 89-91 92-103 A'. Opinions of Physicians and Officials B. Opinions of Employees 99-102 C. Opinions of Employers 102, 103 92-99 LAUNDRIES 104-112 A. Present Character of the Business Bad Effect upon Health C. Bad Effect upon Safety D. Bad Effect upon Morals E. Irregularity of Work 104-106 B. 106-109 CONCLUSION 109 109-111 Ill, 112 113 mpreme €mxt ai % Into Stete OOTOBEE TERM, CURT MULLER, 1907 Plaintiff in Eeeor, V. THE STATE OP OREGON BRIEF FOR DEFENDANT IN ERROR This case presents the single question whether the Statute of Oregon, approved Feb. 19, 1903, which provides that " no female [shall] be employed in any mechanical establishment or factory or laundry " " more than ten hours during any one day," is unconstitutional and void as violating the Fourteenth Amendment of the Federal Constitution. The decision in this case will, in effect, determine the constitutionality of nearly all the statutes in force in the United States, limiting the hours of labor of adult women, — namely: Massachusetts First enacted in 1874 Revised Laws, chap. 106, (chap. 221), sec. 24, as now embodied amended by in Stat. 1902, chap. 435, as follows: No woman shall be employed in laboring in a manufacturing or mechanical establishment more than ten hours in any one day, except as hereinafter provided in this section, unless a different apportionment in hours of labor is made for the sole purpose of and in no a week. Hamilton Mfg. Co., 120 Mass. making a shorter day's work for one day of the week; case shall the hours of labor exceed fifty-eight in (Held constitutional in Comm. v. . . . 383.) Rhode Island First enacted in 1885 (chap. 519, sec. 1), in Stat. 1896, chap. 198, sec. now embodied 22 (as amended by Stat. 1902, chap. 994), as follows: . No woman shall be employed in laboring in any manufacturing or mechanical establishment more than fifty-eight hours in any one week; and in no case shall the hours of*labor exceed . . ten hours in any one day, excepting when it is necessary to make repairs or to prevent the interruption of the ordinary running of when a different apportionment of the hours of made for the sole purpose of making a shorter day's work one day of the week. the machinery, or labor for is LOXJISIANA First enacted in 1886 (Act No. 43), and amended byActs of 1902 (No. 49) now embodied in Revised Laws ; (1904, p. 989, sec. 4) : No woman shall be employed in any factory, warehouse, workshop, telephone or telegraph office, clothing, dressmaking, or millinery establishment, or in any place where the manufacture of any kind of goods is carried on, or where any goods are prepared for manufacture, for a longer period than an average of ten hours in any day, or sixty hours in any week, and at least one hour shall be allowed in the labor period of each day for dinner.' . . . Connecticut First enacted in 1887 (chap. 62, sec. 1), now embodied in General Statutes, Revision 1902, sec. 4691, as foUows: . . . No woman shall be employed in laboring in any manu- facturing, mechanical, or mercantile establishment more than ten hours in any day, except when it is necessary to make repairs to prevent the interruption of the ordinary running of the machinery, or where a different apportionment of the hours of labor is made a for the sole purpose of making a shorter day's work for one day of the week. ... In no case shall the hours of labor exceed sixty. in a week. Maine First enacted in 1887 (chap. 139, sec. 1) now re-enacted in Revised Statutes, 1903, chap. 40, sec. 48, as follows: , . . . No woman shall be employed in laboring in any manu- facturing or mechanical establishment in the State more than ten hours in any one day, except when it is necessary to make repairs to prevent the interruption of the ordinary running of the machinery, or is made when a apportionment of the hours of labor different for the sole purpose of one day of the week sixty in a week. ; and in making a shorter day's work no case shall the for hours of labor exceed a further provision that any woman " may lawfully contract for such labor or any number of hours in excess of ten hours a day, not exceeding six hours in any one week or sixty hours in any one year, receiving additional compensation therefor," There is New by Hampshire First enacted in 1887 (chap. 25, sec. 1), Stat. 1907, chap. 94, as follows: now re-enacted shall be employed in a manufacturing or meNo woman chanical establishment for more than nine hours and forty minutes in one day except in the following cases: I. To make a shorter . . . day's work for one day in the week. II. To make up time lost on some day in the same week in consequence of the stopping of machinery upon which such person was dependent for employment. When it is necessary to make repairs to prevent interruption of the ordinary running of the machinery. In no case shall the hours of labor exceed fifty-eight in one week. III. Maryland (chap. 455), now embodied in Public General Laws, Code of 1903, art. 100, sec. 1: No corporation or manufacturing company engaged in manu- First enacted in 1888 facturing either cotton or woollen yams, fabrics or domestics of : any kind, incorporated under the laws of this State, such named corporation, and no and no agent or servant of agent or servant of such firm or person shall require, permit, or suffer its, his, or their employees in its, his, or their service, or under his, its, or their control, to work for more than ten hours during each or any day of twenty-four hours for one full day's work, and shall make no contract or agreement with such employees or any of them providing that they or he shall work for more than ten hours for one day's work during each or any day of twenty-four hours, and said ten hours shall constitute one fuU day's work. Section 2 makes it possible for male employees to work longer officer, either to make repairs, or . . . by express agreement. ViEGINIA First enacted in 1890 (chap. 193, sec, 1), now embodied Code (1904), chap. 178 a, sec, 3657 b, as in Virginia follows No female shall work as an operative in any factory or manufac- turing establishment in this State more than ten hours in any one day of twenty-four hours. AU contracts made or to be made for the employment of any female ... as an operative in any factory or manufacturing establishment to work more than ten hours in any one day of twenty-four hours shall be void. Pennsylvania First enacted in 1897 (No. 26), of 1905, No. 226, as follows: and re-enacted in Laws That the term " establishment," where used for the mean any place within this Commonwealth other than where domestic, coal-mining, or farm labor is employed; where men, women, or children are engaged, and paid a salary or wages, by any person, firm, or corporation, and where Section purpose of 1. this act, shall such men, women, or children are employees, in the general acceptance of the term. Section 3. ... No female shall be employed in any establishment for a longer period than sixty hours in any one week, nor for a longer period than twelve hours in any one day. (Certain exceptions covering Saturday and Christmas.) (Held constitutional in Comm. v. Beatty, 15 Pa. Superior Ct. 5.) New York First enacted in 1899 (chap. 192, sec. 77), now embodied in Stat. 1907, chap. 507, sec. 77, sub-division 3: . . . No woman employed or permitted to work in any more than six days or sixty hours in any shall be factory in this State . . . one week ; nor for more than ten hours in one day. A female sixteen years of- age or upwards . . . may be employed in a factory more than ten hours a day ; (a) regularly in not to exceed five days a week in order to make a short day or a holiday on one of the six working days of the week (b) irregularly in not to exceed three days a week; provided that no such person shall be required or permitted to work more than twelve hours in any one day or more than sixty hours in any one . . . ; week, etc. Nebraska First enacted in 1899 (chap. 107), now embodied Compiled Statutes (1905, sec. 7955 a): in No female shall be employed in any manufacturing, mechanical, or mercantile establishment, hotel, or restaurant in this State more than sixty hours during any one week, and ten hours shall constitute a day's labor. The hours of each day may be so arranged as to permit the employment of such female at any time from six o'clock A. M. to ten o'clock p. m. but in no case shall such employ; ment exceed ten hours in any one day. (Held constitutional in Wenham v. State, 65 Neb. 400.) Washington Enacted in 1901, Stat. 1901, chap. 68, sec. 1, as follows: No female shall be employed in any mechanical or mercantile establishment, laundry, hotel, or restaurant in this State more than ten hours during any day. The hours of work may be so arranged as to permit the employment of females at any time so that they shall not work more than ten hours during the twenty-four. (Held constitutional in State v. Buchanan, 29 Wash. 603.) : 6 The acts in the following States raise somewhat similar questions Wisconsin First enacted in 1867 (chap. 83, sec. 1), and amended Stat. 1883, chap. 135, now embodied in Wisconsin Statutes, Code of 1898, sec. 1728, as follows: by In all manufactories, workshops, or other places used for mechanical or manufacturing purposes the time of labor ... of women employed therein shall not exceed eight hours in one day; and any employer, stockholder, director, officer, overseer, clerk, or foreman who shall compel any woman ... to labor exceeding shall be punished by fine not eight hours in any one day, fifty dollars for each such offence. nor more than less than five . . . NoETH Dakota (Penal Code, sec. 739), now Revised Code, 1905, sec. 9440, as follows: First enacted in 1877 embodied in Every owner, stockholder, overseer, employer, clerk, or foreman of any manufactory,, workshop, or other place used for mechanical or manufacturing purposes, who, having control, shall compel any woman ... to labor in any day exceeding ten hours, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction shall be punished by a fine not exceeding one hundred and not less than ten doUars. South Dakota (Penal Code, sec. 739), now Revised Code, 1903 (Penal Code, sec. 764), First enacted in 1877 embodied in as follows: Every owner, stockholder, overseer, employer, clerk, or foreof any manufactory, ^torkshop or other place used for mechanical or manufacturing purposes, who, having control, shall compel any woman ... to labor in any day exceeding ten hours, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction, shall be punished by a fine not exceeding one hundred and not less than man ten dollars. Oklahoma First enacted in 1890 (Stat. 1890, chap. 25, article 58, now embodied, in Revised Statutes, 1903, chap. sec. 10), 25, article 58, sec. 729, as follows: Every owner, stockholder, overseer, employer, clerk, or foreof any manufactory, workshop, or other place used for man mechanical or manufacturing purposes, who, having control, shall compel any woman or any child under eighteen years of age, or permit any child under fourteen years of age, to labor in any day exceeding ten hours, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction shall be punished by fine not exceeding one hundred and not less than ten dollars. New Jersey* First enacted in 1892 (chap. 92) , now embodied in Genpage 2350, sees. 66 and 67, as follows: eral Statutes, Section 66. fifty-five hours shall constitute a week's work any factory, workshop, or establishment where the manufacture of any goods whatever is carried on and the periods of employment shall be from seven o'clock in the forenoon until twelve o'clock noon, and from one o'clock in the afternoon until six o'clock in the evening of every working day except Saturday, upon which last named day the period of employment shall be from seven o'clock in the forenoon until twelve o'clock noon. Section 67. ... no woman shall be employed in any factory, . . . in ; workshop, or manufacturing establishment except during the periods of employment hereinbefore mentioned: Provided, That the provisions in this act in relation to the hours of employment shall not apply to or affect any person engaged in preserving perishable goods in fruit-canning establishments or in any factory engaged in the manufacture of glass. * It has been suggested that this provision has been repealed by a general repealing act of 1904, chap. 83. , : 8 Colorado Enacted in 1903, No woman Acts of 1903, chap. 138, sec, 3: work or labor for a greater number than eight hours in the twenty-four hour day, in any mill, factory, manufacturing estabhshment, shop, or store for any person, agent, firm, company, copartnership, or corporation, where such labor, work, or occupation by its nature, requires the woman to stand or be upon her feet, in order to satisfactorily perform her labors, work, or duty in such occupation and employment. . . . shall be required to South Carolina Approved February 19, 1907 (Acts of 1907, No. 223) as follows Ten hours a day or sixty hours a week shall conhours for working for all operatives and employees in Section 1. stitute the cotton and woollen manufacturing establishments engaged in the manufacture of yams, cloth, hosiery, and other products for merchandise, except mechanics, engineers, firemen, watchmen, teamsters, yard employees, and clerical force. All contracts for longer hours of work other than herein provided in said manufacturing establishments shall be and the same are hereby null and void; and any person entering into or enforcing such contracts shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor in each and every instance, and on conviction in a court of competent jurisdiction shall be fined a sum of money not less than twenty-five or more than one hundred dollars, or imprisonment not exceeding thirty days, provided that nothing herein contained shall be construed as forbidding or preventing any such manufacturing company from making up lost time to the extent of sixty hours per annum, where such lost time has been caused by accident or other unavoidable cause. ARGUMENT The legal rules applicable to this case are few and are well established, namely: First: The right to purchase or to sell labor is a part of the " liberty " protected by the Fourteenth Amendment of the Federal Constitution. Lochner v. New York, 198 U. S. 45, 53. Second: This right to " liberty " is, however, subject to such reasonable restraint of action as the State may impose power in the exercise of the police health, safety, morals, Lochner v. New for the protection of and the general York, 198 U. welfare. S. 45, 53, 67. Third: The mere assertion that a statute restricting " liberty " relates, though in a remote degree, to the public health, safety, or welfare does not render it valid. The act must have a " real or substantial relation to the pro- tection of the public health Jacobson v. and the public Mass, 197 U. safety." S. 11, 31. must have " a more direct relation, as a means to an end, and the end itself must be appropriate and legitimate." It Lochner v. New York, 198 U. S. 46, 56, 57, 61. Fourth: Such a law will not be sustained if the Court can see that it has no real or substantial relation to public health, safety, or welfare, or that it is " an unreasonable, unnecessary and arbitrary interference with the right of the individual to his personal liberty or to enter into those contracts in relation to labor which may seem to him ap- propriate or necessary for the support of himself and his family." But " If the end which the Legislature seeks to accomplish be one to which its power extends, and if the means employed to that end, although not the wisest or best, are yet not plainly and palpably tmauthorized by law, then the 10' Court cannot of a statute is upon In other words, when the validity questioned, the burden of proof, so to speak, interfere. is those " Lochner who v. New assail it. York, 198 U. S. 45-68. Fifth: The validity of the Oregon statute must therefore be sustained unless the Court can find that there is no " fair ground, reasonable in and of itself, to say that there is material danger to the public health (or safety), or to the health (or safety) of the employees (or to the general welfare), if the hours of labor are' not curtailed." Lochner v. New York, 198 U. S. 45, 61. was obviously enacted for the purpose of protecting the public health, safety, and welfare. Indeed it declares: The Oregon statute " Section 5. Inasmuch as the female employees in the various establishments are not protected from overwork, an emergency is hereby declared to exist, and this act shall be in full force and effect from and after The facts of its approval by the Governor." common knowledge take judicial notice — of which the Court may See Holden v. Hardi/, 169 U. S. 366. Jacobson v. Mass, 197 U. S. 11. Lochner v. New York, 198 U. S. 481. establish, we submit, conclusively, that there is reasonable ground for holding that to permit women in Oregon to work in a " mechanical establishment, or factory, or laundry " more than ten hours in one day is dangerous to the public health, safety, morals, or welfare. These facts of common knowledge will be considered under the following heads: Part I. Legislation (foreign and American) restricting the hours of labor for Part II. The women. world's experience upon which lation limiting the hours of labor for women is the legis- based. : 11 PART FIRST LEGISLATION RESTRICTING THE HOURS OF LABOR FOR WOMEN I. THE FOREIGN LEGISLATION The leading countries in Europe in which women are largely employed in factory or similar work have found it necessary to take action for the protection of their and safety and the public welfare, and have enacted laws Umiting the hours of labor for adult women. About two generations have elapsed since the enactment of the first law. In no coxintry in which the legal limitation upon the hours of labor of adult women was introduced has the law been repealed. Practically without exception every amendment of the law has been in the line of strengthening the law or further reducing the health working time. (a) Geeat Britain The First law enacted in 1844. British law of 1844 was any country limiting the hours of labor women. It simply extended to women the provisions of the Act of 1833, which had restricted the work of children in textile miUs to twelve hours per day. In 1847 the legal working time for women as well as children in textile mills was reduced to ten hours per day. By further legislation in 1867, 1878, 1891, and 1901 further restricthe first statute in for adult tions were introduced. The tions allowing overtime, of 1901, 1 Edw. VII. is law, subject to certain excepin substance as follows ch. 22) (Law 12 Hours. Textile Factories. The period begin at 6 (Sec. 24.) of employment, except on Saturday, shall either a. m. and end at 6 p. m., or begin at 7 a. m. and end at 7 P. M. There shall be allowed for meals during said period of employment on every day except Saturday not less than two hours, of which one hour at the least shall be before 3 p. m. Special regulations for a shorter day on Saturdays. NoTV-textUe Factories and Workshops. The period begin at 6 a. (Sec. 26.) of employment, except on Saturdays, shall either m. and end at 6 p. m., or begin at 7 a. m. and end at 7 P. M., or begin at 8 a. m. and end at 8 p. m. There shall be allowed for meals during the said period of employment on every day except Saturday not less than one and one-half houi:s, of which one hour at the least shall be before 3 p. m. 'Special regulations for a shorter work-day on Saturdays. In a Workshop which does not employ Children, or Yov/ng People, _ (Sec. 29.) The period of employment shall, except on Saturdays, be a hours taken between 6 a. m. and 10 p. m. There shall be allowed to a woman for meals and absence from work during the period of employment not less than one and onespecified period of twelve half hours. (&) Fbance The law of 1848, as amended by Act of November 2, 1892, and March 30, 1900, which became operative in 1904, provides in substance: Hours of Labor (in industrial establishments). The maximum length (Art. 3, sec. 2), broken of the working by day shall be ten at least one hour of rest. hours (Art. 3, sec. 1.) Overtime may be granted by departmental decrees for two hours in one day, during not more than sixty days in the year, for certain trades, chiefly season trades. (Art. 4, sec. 4.) By departmental decrees employment of women may be prohibited 13 or regulated in trades considered dangerous to health or morals. (Arts. 12 and 13.) (c) Switzerland The Canton of Glarus enacted in 1848 a law limiting the hours of labor to thirteen in one day. In 1864 this limit was reduced to twelve hours, and in 1872 it was fvu-ther reduced to eleven hours. The Town of Basel enacted in 1869 a law limiting the hours of labor to twelve in one day. The Canton of Ticino enacted in 1873 a law limiting the hours of labor to twelve in one day. The Federal Swiss Constitution of 1874 provided: The Confederation has Article 34: prescription . . the right to make uniform concerning the duration of labor which . may be required of adults. The Federal law enacted Hours The of Labor in 1877 provides: (in industrial estabhshments). daily hours of work shall not exceed eleven hours in one day, and shall not exceed ten hours on the days before Sundays or hohdays. These working hours must be broken by a rest of at least one one and one-half hours for women who have tg hour at noon ; attend to household. Overtime may (Art. 2, sec. 1.) be granted by the separate cantons for fixed times and fixed hours. by All the cantons have the same restriction of hours as the Federal law except is fixed Zurich (Law of 1894). Hours The and of Labor (in industrial establishments). daily hours of labor shall not exceed ten hours in one day, not exceed nine hours on the days before Sundays and shall hohdays. Overtime allowed for two hours in the day during seventy-five days in the year for various causes, such as season trades, press (Art. 9-16.) of work, etc. : 14 Austria (d) First law enacted in 1885 ; as amended by Acts of 1897, provides, in substance: Hours of Labor Women and workshops). (in factories shall not be employed more than eleven hours in one (Art. 96 a, sees. 1-3). day. These working hours must be broken by rests amounting to one and one-half hours, one hour of which is allowed at noon. (Art. 74. a.) may be granted by the MinCommerce and of the Interior for certain trades, the which must be revised every three years. (Art. 96 a, sees. Overtime for one hour in the day isters of of list 1-3.) The Ministers in trades held may prohibit or regulate employment of women dangerous to health. {e) Holland First law enacted in 1889 provides as follows: Hours of The day. Labor and workshops). (in factories daily hours of labor shall not exceed eleven hours in one (Art. 5, sec. 1.) Between 11 be allowed. a. m. and 3 p. m. a rest of at least one hour must (Art. 6.) Overtime may be granted by the provincial governors, allowing a thirteen-hour day for at most six consecutive days, or on alternative days during two weeks. (Art. 5, sec. 3.) By royal decree employment of women may be prohibited or regulated in trades held dangerous to health. (/) The law Hours June 19, 1902, provides in substance of Labor. Women day. of Italy shall (Art. 7.) not be employed more than twelve hours in one 15 The day's work shall be broken by one or more rests amounting to one and one-half hours in a day of from eight to eleven hoifrs, and amounting to two hours in a day of more than eleven (Art. 8.) hours, (g) The law Hours of of 1891 provides in substance: Labor Women Germany shall (in industrial establishments). not be employed more than eleven hours in one day, and not more than ten hours on the days before Sundays or holidays. These working hours must be broken by a rest of at least one hour at noon, or one and one-half hours for women who have to attend to a household. Overtime may be granted by the lower administrative authority for not more than thirteen hours of labor in one day, during two weeks, not more than forty days in the year. (Art. 138 a, sees. 1-3.) In case of accidents the higher administrative authority may allow overtiipe without any restriction of hours during four weeks, (Art. 139, the Chancellor of the Empire for any longer period. sec. 1.) The Bundesrat may grant 139 a, sees. 1 and (Art. 2.) The Bundesrat may in trades held overtime for special trades. prohibit or regulate employment of dangerous to health or morals. (Art. 139 women a, sec. 1.) 16 II. THE AMERICAN LEGISLATION Twenty States of the Union, including nearly all of those in which women are largely employed in factory or similar work, have found it necessary to take action for the protection of their health and safety and the public welfare, and have enacted laws limiting the hours of labor for adult women. This legislation has not been the result of sudden impulse or passing humor, it has followed deliberate consideration, and been adopted in the face of much opposition. More than a generation has elapsed between the — and the latest of these acts. In no instance has any such law been repealed. Nearly every amendment in any law has been in the line of strengthening the law or further reducing the working time. The earliest statute in the United States which underearliest took to limit the hours of labor for women in mechanical or manufacturing establishments was Wisconsin Statute, 1867, chap. 83, which fixed the hours of labor as eight. The act, however, provided a penalty only in case of compelling a woman to work longer hours. See present Wisconsin Law, supra, p. 6. The earliest act of labor for which effectively restricted the hours Massachusetts Statute, 1874, women was chap. 34, which fixed the limit at ten hours. The passage of the Massachusetts Act was preceded by prolonged agitation and repeated official investigations. The first legislative inquiry was made as early as 1865. After the Massachusetts Act had been in force six years, an elaborate investigation of its economic effects was undertaken by the Massachusetts Bureau of Labor Statistics, under the supervision of its chief, Mr. CarroU D. Wright. His report, published in 1881 (Twelfth Annual Report of the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor), to the effect that the reduction of the hours of labor had not resulted in increasing the cost or reducing 17 wages, led to the passage, in 1885 and 1887, of the tenhour law for women in Rhode Island, Maine, New Hampshire, and Connecticut, and largely influenced the legisla- tion in other States. See present laws, supra, pp. 1-8. In the United States, as in foreign countries, there has been a general movement to strengthen and to extend the operation of these laws. In no State has any such law been held unconstitutional, except in Illinois, where, in Ritchie v. People, 154 111. 98, the Act of June 17, 1893, entitled " An Act to regulate the manufacture of clothing, wearing apparel, and other articles in this State," etc., was held unconstitutional. That act provided (sec. 5) that " No female shall be employed in any factory or workshop more than eight hours in any one day or forty-eight hours in any one week." PART SECOND THE WORLD'S EXPERIENCE UPON WHICH THE LEGISLATION LIMITING THE HOURS OF LABOR FOR WOMEN I. IS BASED THE DANGERS OF LONG HOURS Causes A. (1) Physical Differences between Men and Women dangers of long hours for women arise from their special physical organization taken in connection with the strain incident to factory and similar work. Long hours of labor are dangerous for women primarily because of their special physical organization. In structure and function women are differentiated from men. Besides these anatomical and physiological differences, physicians are agreed that women are fundamentally weaker than men in all that makes for endurance: in muscular strength, in nervous energy, in the powers of The and application. Overwork, thereendurance to the utmost, is more disastrous to the health of women than of men, and entails persistent attention which fore, strains upon them more lasting injury. Report of Select Committee on Shops Early Closing Bill, British House of GoTrvmons, 1895. Dr. Percy pitals Kidd, physician in Brompton and London Hos- : The most common effect I ral deterioration of health; have noticed of the long hours very general symptoms which is gen- we medi- : 19 and debility of the nervous system; that more than what is called nervous disease, such as constipation, a general slackness, and a great many other cally att^ib^te to over-action, includes a great deal indigestion, symptoms. Are those symptoms more marked in women than in men ? I think they are much more marked in women. I should say one sees a great many more women of this class than men but I have seen precisely the same symptoms in men, I should not say in the same proportion, because one has not been able to make anything like a statistical inquiry. There are other symptoms, but I mention those Another symptom especially among as being the most common. women is anaemia, bloodlessness or pallor, that I have no doubt is indefinite ; connected with long hours indoors. (Page 215.) Report of Committee on Early Closing of Shops Lards, 1901. W. MacComac, Sir geons President of the Bill, British House of Royal College of Sur- : Would you draw a and the You distinction evil resulting to see pacity than between the evil resulting to women men ? men have undoubtedly a greater degree of physical cawomen have. Men are capable of greater effort in various ways than women. If a like amount of physical toil and effort be imposed upon women, they suffer to a larger degree. (Page 219.) Report of the Maine Bureau of Industrial and Labor Statistics, 1888. quote from Dr. Ely Van der Warker (1875) is badly constructed for the purposes of standing eight or ten hours upon her feet. I do not intend to bring into evidence the peculiar position and nature of the organs contained in the pelvis, Let me "Woman but to call attention to the peculiar construction of the knee and the shallowness of the pelvis, and the delicate nature of the foot as part of a sustaining column. The knee joint of woman is a sexual characteristic. Viewed in front and extended, the joint in but a slight degree interrupts the gradual taper of the thigh into the leg. Viewed in a semi-flexed position, the joint forms a smooth ovate spheroid. The reason of this lies in the smallness of the patella in front, and the narrowness of the articular surfaces of "the tibia and femur, and which in man form the lateral prominences, and thus is much more perfect as a sustaining column than that of a woman. The muscles . 20 which keep the body fixed upon the thighs in the erect position labor under the disadvantage of shortness of purchase, owing to the short distance, compared to that of man, between the crest of the ilium and the great trochanter of the femur, thus giving to man a much larger" purchase in the leverage existing between the trunk and the extremiComparatively the foot is less able to sustain weight than that ties. of man, owing to its shortness and the more delicate formation of the tarsus and metatarsus. (Page 142.) Rsport of the Massachusetts Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1875. A "lady operator," many years in the business, informed us: "I have had hundreds of lady compositors in my employ, and they all exhibited, in a marked manner, both in the way they performed their work and in its results, the difference in physical ability between themselves and men. They cannot endure the prolonged close attenI have tion and confinement which is a great part of type-setting. must time they few girls with me more than two or three years at a rapidly. I know no health have vacations, and they break down in if she were as a man, as much type reason why a girl could not set (Page 96.) as strong to endure the demand on mind and body." ; Report of the Nebraska Bureau of Labor and Industrial 1901-1902. They (women) Statistics, are unable, by reason of their physical limitations, endure the same hours of exhaustive labor as may be endured by adult males. Certain kinds of work which may be performed by men to without injury to their health would wreck the constitution and destroy women, and render them incapable of bearing their share and the home. The State must be accorded the right to guard and protect women as a class against such a condition, and the law in question to that extent conserves the public health, and welfare. (Page 52.) the health of of the burdens of the family Hygiene The of Occupations. By Dr. Theodore Wetl. investigations of Schuler members Jena, 1894. and Burkhardt embracing 18,000 of Swiss insurance against sickness (about 25 per cent of the Swiss factory workers and fifteen industries), show that factory work, even in a short period, produces very unfavorable effects upon the development of the body of young men. It is even more conspicuous in the case of women. Thus of 1000 men in the manufacture 21 of embroidery, 302 were sick to 332 women. In bleaching and dye279 men, 316 women; also in cotton spinning and weaving, the morbidity of women was much greater than of men. ing, Similarly the number of working days lost through illness was more among women than among men, being 6.47 among women to 6.25 among men. With increasing years, both frequency and duration of illness (Page 7.) second form of physical inferiority of women is their lessened increase. A refractoriness to external injurious conditions. with the relative morbidity of All statistics dealing men and women employed in factories number of days lost from work that disease makes greater inroads upon them, industrial labor is more injurious to women than justify the deduction that the greater by women indicate and that in general to men. (Page 86.) Nuit Travail de Bauer. des Femmes dans I'lndustrie. Prof. Etienne Jena, 1903. From the point of view of hygiene the protection of wage-earning women cannot fail to have good effects in view of the greater morbidity of women. According to the German Empire man statistics of 16.7 days of assistance rendered, or hospital treatment, case of sickness where the patient 1888-1899. Man the Krankenkassen of the there occurred in each case where the patient a a woman, 18.6 days, in the period (Page xxxvii.) and Woman. Havelock In strength as well as women is is and each in Ellis. rapidity and precision of movement are inferior to men. This is not a conclusion that has ever been contested. It is in harmony with all the practical experience of It is perhaps also in harmony with the results of those investilife. gators (Bibra, Pagliani, etc. have found Arch, per I'Antrop., Vol. VI, that, as in the blood of women, p. 173) who so also in their muscles, To a very great extent it is more water than in those of men. a certainty, a matter of difference in exercise and environment. It (Page 155.) probably, also, partly a matter of organic constitution. The motor superiority of men, and to some extent of males gener- there is is ally, is, it to what is can scarcely be doubted, a deep-lying fact. most fundamental in men and in women, and psychic organization. (Page 156.) It is related to their whole ; 22 There appears to be a general agreement that women are more and amenable to discipline that they can do light work equally well that they are steadier in some respects but that, on the other hand, they are often absent on account of slight indisposition, and (Page 183.) they break down sooner under strain. docile ; ; ; History of Factory Legislation. Women are "not only much Hutchins and Harbison. less free agents than 1903. men," but they are physically incapable of bearing a continuance of work for the same length of time as men, and a deterioration of their health is at- tended with far more injurious consequences to society. (Page 84.) Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1903, on the Thirteenth International Congress of Hygiene and Demography. Dr. Treves cited the case of a machine capable of giving 33,000 blows per diem, at which the men employed utilize on an average 18,000 to 20,000, while the women, less inured to fatigue and less capable of attention, utilize Hygiene of Occupation Sciences. many in Reference Geoege M. Price, M. spector, Health In but 13,000. Handbook Department of the City of industries . . . of the Medical D., Medical Sanitary In- female labor is New York. Vol. VI. very largely employed very detrimental to health. The injurious influences of female labor are due to the following factors: (1) The comparative physical weakness- of the female organ- and the effect of work on them is (2) The greater predisposition to harmful and poisonous elements in the trades (3) The periodical semi-pathological state of health of women; (4) The effect of labor on the reproductive ism; ; organs; and (5) The effects on the offspring. As the muscular organism of woman is. less developed than that of man, it is evident that those industrial occupations which require intense, constant, and prolonged muscular efforts must become highly detrimental to their health. This is shown in the general debility, anjemia, chlorosis, and lack of tone in most women who are compelled to work in factories and in shops for long periods. The women to industrial poisons and by a great number of observers. The female organism, especially when young, offers very little resistance to the inroads of disease and to the various dangerous increased susceptibility of to diseases has been demonstrated 23 Hirt says, " It must be conceded that certain trades affect women a great deal more injuriously than men ;" and he mentions, among others, the effects of lead, mercury, phosphorus, and other poisons. Even where there are no special noxious elements, work may produce, as already mentioned, harmful effects on the health of women; but when to the general effects of industrial occupation are added the dangers of dust, fumes, and gases, we find that the female organism succumbs very readily, as compared with that of the male. Schuler found the frequency, of sickness in females under eighteen, as compared with that of men of the same age is as 174 to 100. Miss Mary E. Abrams (Oliver: "Dangerous Trades") found that out of 138 lead-poisoning cases in Newcastle, where the number of men and women workers was about the same, there were ninety-four cases among the women and forty-one among the men. She also found that out of the twenty-three deaths from plumbism in the years 1889— 189S, twenty-two were women and only one was a man. The women were all between seventeen and thirty years of age. These figures are substantiated by Hirt, Arlidge, C. Paul, Tardien, and others. elements of certain trades. The predisposition of in general is women greater than it is in industrial occupations to disease in men, as was proven by Hirt in his effect of work on among workers. The development of women was found statistics of tuberculosis to be very detriArlidge says that in those who from their youth work in high temperatures, the bones and joints are imperfectly developed, and that they are Herkner found liable to female deformities and to narrow pelves. the physical mental, especially when they were very young. in his studies of Belgian female workers that girls who are en- from deformed joints, from deformities of the spinal column, and from narrow pelves. It has been estimated that out of every one hundred days women are in a semi-pathological state of health for from fourteen to sixteen days. The natural congestion of the pelvic organs during menstruation is augmented and favored by work on sewing- gaged in mines suffered machines and other industrial occupations necessitating the constant use of the lower part of the body. Work during these periods tends to induce chronic congestion of the uterus and appendages, and dysmenorrhoea and flexion of the uterus are working girls. (Page 321.) tions of well known affec- 24 (2) The New Strain in Manufacture endowment, women are affected to a far greater degree than men by the growing Machinery is increasingly strain of modern industry. speeded up, the number of machines tended by individual workers grows larger, processes become more and more complex as more operations are performed simultaneously. Such being their physical All these changes involve correspondingly greater physical strain upon the worker. Reports of Medical Commissioners on the Health of Factory Operatives Parliamentary Papers, 183S, Vol. XXI. The is first and most influential of all disadvantages of factory work the indispensable, undeviating necessity of forcing both their mental and bodily exertions to keep exact pace with the motions of machinery (Page 72.) propelled by unceasing, unvarying power. Factory and Workshop Act Commission, 1875. British Sessional Papers, 1876. We have already referred more than once to the unremitting and monotonous character of all labor at a machine driven by steam. If the day's work of a housemaid or even of a charwoman be closely looked at and compared with that of an ordinary mill hand in a card room or spinning room, it will be seen that the former, though occasionally making greater muscular efforts than are ever exacted from the latter, is yet continually changing both her occupation and her posture, and has very frequent intervals of rest. Work at a machine has inevitably a treadmill character about it each step may be easy, but it must be performed at the exact moment under pain of cbnsequences. In hand work and house work there is a certain freedom ; of doing or of leaving undone. Mill (i. e. machine) work must be done as if by clockwork. The people are tied as it were to machinery moving at a great speed in certain operations again it has been alleged that the state of the atmosphere is very unhealthy, and . . . ; the temperature at a great height, and from the employment of machinery the speed has been so much increased, that the wear and not merely of the body but of the mind were too great for them to bear. tear, also, of the operatives 25 Report of the Maine Bureau of Industrial and Labor The constant nervous Statistics, 1892. tension from continued exertion in a factory or workshop, for a period of ten hours, modern a severe strain upon the physical system. Work is not done in the old, slow way, and, in nearly all industries, by the present methods, from two to four times the quantity of product is turned out in the ten hours. How much faster is the operative compelled to work, and how much greater is the strain, to accomplish this amount of work, in comparison with the old twelve-hour method. (Page 11.) The Effect of Machmery on Wages. is London, 1892. The power of machinery is from one point of view too great and continuous machines breathing fire and smoke, those slaves of iron and steel, as Cournot calls them, can go on night and day Hence results the tendency of machinery to at high pressure. add enormously to the toil of the laborers by increasing the day's labor both in length and intensity. Trades-unions often object to piece-work because, to use a rowing phrase, the best men set too fast a stroke for the comfort of the average workman, but the strength of the strongest is as water compared with the — strength of machinery. stated forcibly crushing task. by This objection to machines has been " Machinery imposes on man a Chevalier : Feeble appendage of a mighty engine bound to an engine of immense power, the bow and way a tiny its movements, word, he must turn, twist, just as much as the untiring machinery pleases." (Pages to its attractions, give follow force, workman must it toil in its incessant pace to the rapidity of — in a 62, 63.) The following from the Cotton Factory Times, February, 1892, illustrates very forcibly the influence of machinery in setting too " We have frequently heard spinners in cotton mills fast a pace : about being worked up, and made such that they could neither enjoy food nor rest and their lives felt a burden to them, and after leaving the mills at night they can be seen wending their way to places where they can quench their thirst, and liquids take precedence over food, which the appetite does not call for when the human system is overworked and overheated and the mind greatly disturbed by the difficulties and hardships which surtalk round the workmen in their employments." (Page 74.) ; 26 By Allen Clarke. Ejfects of the Factory System. London, 1899. Greater speed of improved machinery, whereby the work increased resulting sixfold, physical in deterioration is and mental (Page 41.) worry. The toil is ceaseless; the machinery demands constant watching. Their feet are never still; their hands are full of tasks; their eyes are always on the watch they toil in an unending strain that is cruel on the nerves. (Page 49.) spinner and weaver are ten hours a day And all these hours down no resting one must keep up to the their no sitting on feet machinery though agonized with headache or troubled by any other . . . ; — — ; ; ; While the engine runs the workers must stand. complaint. (Page 51.) Report of the United States Industrial Commission, 1900. Mrs. Robertson tells me that when she was a girl, to run one or two looms was as much as any woman would have tried. Now, in some instances, there are women running nine looms, and the looms have more than doubled or trebled their speed. This means more work and harder work. (Page 63.) Report of the United States Industrial Commission, 1901. It is intensity of labor The have made it duction. labor brought out that in nearly and strain . . . is all occupations an increasing required by modern methods of proand the division of introduction of machinery possible to increase greatly the speed of the indi- The testimony of a representative of the Cotton Weavers' Association shows this increasing strain of work. He vidual workman. . . . says: "Anybody who works was twenty-five or has been increased to it." now knows it is not like what it machinery such an extent, and they have to keep up with (Page 763.) Even these cases where machinery has not increased the intensity of exertion, a long is in the mills thirty years ago, because the speed of the workday with the machine, greatly specialized, in many especially where work cases reduces the grade of intelligence. The old handwork shops were schools of debate and discussion, and they are so at the present time where they survive in country districts 27 but the factory imposes silence and discipline for all except the highLong workdays under such conditions tend to inertia and dis- est. sipation when the day's work is (Page 772.) done. By Thomas Oliveb, M. A., M. D., F. R. C. P., Medical Expert on the White Lead, Dangerous Trades, Pottery, and Lucifer Match Committees of the Home Office. London, 1902. Dangerous Trades. The introduction of steam has revolutionized industry. chinery acts with unerring uniformity. At times so simple . , , Ma- mechdemands. is its anism that a child can almost guide it, yet how exacting are its While machinery has in some senses lightened the burden of human toil, it has not diminished fatigue in man. All through the hours of work in a factory the hum of the wheels never ceases. While the machinery pursues its relentless course and is insensitive to fatigue, human beings are conscious, especially towards the end of the day, that the competition is unequal, for their muscles are becoming tired and their brains jaded. Present-day factory labor is too much a competition of sensitive human nerve and muscle against insensitive iron, and yet, apart from an appropriate shortening of the hours of labor, it is difficult to see how this can be remedied. The greater the number of hours machinery runs per day the larger is the . , . . . . output for the manufacturer, but the feebler are the it. To the machine time is nothing; to the that guide human human limbs being each hour that passes beyond a well-defined limit means increasing fatigue and exhaustion. (Page 117.) The Working Hours of Female Factory Hands. From of Factory Inspectors, collaied in the Imperial Home the Reports Office. Berlin, 1905. From Frankfurt am Oder for two textile mills women employed it is show steady reported that the insurance records deterioration in the health of the eleven hours a day. up One reason for this is believed Vigorous weavers stated repeatedly that the old, slow looms exhausted them less in twelve and thirteen hours than the swift new looms in eleven hours. The more intensive work requires better nourishment; but there is no to be the speeding of the machinery. adequate increase in wages to afford eleven-hour day of more rapid work the deteriorated health. (Page 119.) improved food, and the presumably responsible for this is : : 28 Bad B. Long Hours on Health Effect of fatigue which follows long hours of labor becomes chronic and results in general deterioration of health. The Often ignored, since it does not result in immediate disease, weakness and anaemia undermines the whole system; it destroys the nervous energy most necessary for steady work, and eflfectually predisposes to other illness. The long hours of standing, which are required in many industries, are universally denounced by physicians as the this cause of pelvic disorders. General Injubies from Long Hours (1) Reports of Medical Commissioners on the Health of Factory Operatives. David Barry. British Sessional Papers, 1833, Vol. XXI. Evidence of Francis Sharp, at Leeds, member of College of Surgeons in London, student of medical profession for fourteen years, house surgeon of Leeds Infirmary for four years " The nervous energy of the body I consider to be weakened by the very long hours, Were it and a foundation not for the individuals who laid for many join the mills diseases. . . . from the country, the factory people would soon be deteriorated." (Pages 12, 13.) " Females whose work obliges them to stand constantly, are more and to a larger and have witnessed even in foot- subject to varicose veins of the lower extremities more dangerous extent than ever soldiers." I (Page 73.) Massachusetts Legislative Documents. House, 1866, No. 98. show the injurious effect of There may be serious evils from constant and exhausting labor, that do not show themselves in any (Specific) cases are not necessary to constant labor at long hours. . . . positive, clearly defined disease; while nevertheless the vital forces man, physical and mental, are very greatly impaired. (Page 35.) Dr. Jarvis, physician of Dorchester, says "Every man has a certain amount of constitutional force. This is of the whole which must not be diminished. and definite amount of available his vital capital daily a certain expend in labor of Out of this comes which he may muscle or brain, without drawing on his vital force, , 29 He may and he should work every day and expend so and no more, that he shall awake the next morning and every succeeding morning until he shall be threescore and ten, and find in himself the same amount of available force, the same power, and do his ordinary day's work, and again lie down at night with capital. much his . force . . constitutional force unimpaired." Judging by this standard, there can be no doubt of the serious injury often resulting from overwork, even appears. when no palpable evidence (Page 36.) Dr. Ordway, practising physician many years (in Lawrence), has no hesitation in saying that mill work, long continued, is injurious to bodily and mental health, and materially shortens life, especially of women. (Page 63.) Reports of Commissioners on the Hours of Labor. Legislative DocuTnents. House, 1867, No. 44. Women are held under the present customs Massachusetts and ideas to at each half day of continjious work, often in the most tedious, minute, and monotonous employ. It is assumed that they have no lower limbs to ache with swollen or ruptured veins, no delicacy of nerve, or versatility of mind, to revolt from such severity least five hours . of application. . . (Page 66.) Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor. Woman's Work, Domestic Labor and 1872. women and children are pale, The women appear dispirited, and the In the cotton mills at Fitchburg the crooked, and sickly-looking. children without the bloom of childhood in their cheeks, or the elasti- city that belongs to that age. Hours, 60 to 67f a week. (Page 94.) Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1873, Vol. The house XIX. surgeon of a large hospital has stated that every year he had a large number of cases of pulmonary disease in girls, the origin of which he could distinctly trace to long and late hours in (Page 43.) overcrowded and unhealthy workrooms. Factory and Workshops Act Commission, 1875. Miss A. E. Todd. Great Britain Sessional Papers, 1876, Vol. XXIX, Appendix D. I would say that factory work to those engaged in it; country is often, but not always, injurious girls especially suffer from the close : 80 air of them fall into consumption or bad have known many deaths from this cause in I have also found much derangement of the liver, stom- and confinement; many health of some kind. this class. I and digestive organs, owing, 1 think, partially to the rapidity (Page 164.) with which they are obliged to eat their meals. ach, Report of the Maine Bureau of Industrial and Labor Statistics, 1888. saleswomen are so worn out, when their week's work is ended, that a good part of their Sundays is spent in bed, recuperating for the next week's demands. And one by one girls drop out and This I know from observation and die, often from sheer overwork. personal acquaintance. (Page 142.) Many Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1893. Arguments against overtime {i. e. more than ten and a half hours) 2. That the long hours of confinement are injurious to the health of the workers. "Overtime . . . e. {i. over ten and a half hours daily) allows but The consequent effect upon the scanty opportunity for leisure. . . . health of the workers -is exceedingly injurious. Some employers, too, hold that in proportion as the workpeople suffer in health, their work (Page 11.) suffers in execution." Report of Select Committee on Shops Early Closing Bill, British of Commons, House 1895. Miss MacDonald, M.B., now attached in Euston Road: to the Hospital for Wo- men Dr. Kidd told us just pital there now was a good deal that in his experience at Brompton Hos- of general deterioration of health among women ? That is exactly what I should say, ansemia and general nervous debility. And would not standing so long very much affect women, if they were married, afterwards ? It is not good for women to stand ... at all really. If it is not good for them to stand at all, still less will it be good for them to stand thirteen hours I think it is shocking. a day ? ) 31 . . . The them more standing of course would exhaust the lialjle to other illnesses. women and make (See pages 5S79-5387. Reports from Committee on Early Closing of Shops, British of Lords, 1901, Vol. VI. House Considering the weight which belongs to that memorial (submitted by some doctors Committee did not deem it necessary on the subject. The presidents, however, both of the College of Physicians and of the College of Surgeons, have come before us and spoken strongly on the great and increasin 1888), the to multiply medical evidence ing evils of the present long hours. "There is no doubt in my mind Sir W. MacCormac that such long hours (it stated that speaks of an average of fourteen hours per day) must contribute to the incidence of disease; that it must lower the general vitality of persons so en- gaged and render them more liable than they otherwise would be to attacks of different forms of disease. These hours, too, for the most part, are worked in an atmosphere very prejudicial to health, and we know how largely the air so contaminated contributed to the production of various forms of disease in which tubercule, for instance, and manifold forms of disease in which tubercule manifests itself, and that other disease of great cities (rickette) has some parts of its origin from this cause." Furthermore, he urged on us that the evil is one which increases as time runs on " it is gradual and progressive in its effects, and it goes on, I am afraid, in a cumulative degree." Sir W. Selby Church, the president of the College of Physicians, ; gave similar evidence. We are able, however, to appeal to the highest medical testimony especially on women). as to the injury thus caused Gong hours medical colleges with some of great In 1888 presidents of the two Paget, Sir Anprofession. Sir James the other leaders of the medical Marshall, John Dr. Playfair, Mr. Duncan, drew Clark, Dr. Matthews — Dr. Priestly, Sir Richard Quain, Sir Wm. Savory, Sir Samuel Wilks, called the attention of Parliament to the subject and urged the pass(Page v.) ing of the Early Closing Bill. Report of British Chief Inspectors of Factories and Workshops, 1901. Ten and a half hours sitting bent over stitching, requiring very careful attention, with two can be eaten, that there is intervals so short that only a hasty no time for exercise, meal even were the workers 32 permitted to go out, and that, day after day, might well try the strongest constitutions and ruin the best digestions and nerves. on the health is injurious is constantly brought before one, and anaemic and heavy-eyed workers who suffer from neuralgia who form too large a proportion of the whole number, make one feel very strongly that some reform is needed. (Page 176.) That its effect Report of British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1903. T. M. Legge, H. M. Medical Inspector of Factories and Workshops. "A point of some importance which was mentioned to me by the medical attendant at one factory (cigar) was that the number of cases under treatment for sickness varied pari passu with the amount of overtime Journal of field. Sir work," i. e. over ten hours in one day. Royal Sanitary London, 1904. William Institute, MacCormae, giving XXV. M. Vol. evidence Committee on The Early Closing of Shops, (Page 286.) before G. Bond- the Lords' "There is no doubt, I think in my mind, that such long hours must contribute to the incidence of disease that it must lower the general vitality of persons so engaged, and render them more liable than they otherwise would be to attacks of different forms of disease. These hours, too, for the most part are worked in an atmosphere very prejudicial to health. said, ; . . . ... I quite agree with the opinions of my predecessors that such long hours are very grievous, and are calculated to do the community in which they prevail serious harm. ... on their offspring, undoubtedly. to be urgent, but it is insidious; It must have an influence ... In one it is sense it cannot be said gradual and progressive in its And it goes on I am afraid, in a cimiulative degree." (Page 742.) Sir William Church, who gave evidence the same day, said: "There is another great group which falls under the observation of the ordinary physician and of which we see a very great deal in our effect. London Hospitals, and that is an anaemic condition which is produced by long hours of work, and still more by the confinement that employment entails," (Page 743.) partly this 33 From the Reports of Factory Home Berlin, Office, Inspectors. 1905. Collated in the Imperial The Working Hours of Female Factory Hands. Report for Bremen The reduction for the working hours for will be of great value to the entire working population, and more especially to workingmen's families. It is of great hygienic importance on account of the more delicate physical organization of woman, and will contribute much toward the better care of children and the maintenance of a regular family life. : women The Inspector for Erfurt urges the introduction of the ten-hour day for women because "eleven hours daily toil in a factory is extremely exhausting for the weaker physical organization of woman. Although perhaps under good sanitary conditions of work no direct may be women and injury to health traced to the eleven-hours day, certain that who work in factories are worn out who do not. The factory worker who has much sooner than those most still it a poor physical inheritance to contend with, and likely poorly nourished, is is girls is liable to frequent attacks of sickness." Report for Cassel: The ill effects of factory work for women is most marked in those cases where long hours are joined to heavy work. The female frame is not strong enough to resist the harmful Although the ill influence of such work for any length of time. effects may not show themselves at once, it is not unlikely that inwhich manifest themselves years after may be traced juries to health back to former work in the factory. The total exclusion of women from the factories is not at present contemplated, but the introduction of the ten-hour day will tend towards reducing the harmful influence of factory work. The (Page 107.) inspector for Erfurt reports that when a working girl marries, very strong she gradually fails in health and is frequently unfitted for giving birth to healthy children or to nurse those who are unless she is (Page 111.) born. Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, Appendix II. Report on Tobacco, Cigars and Cigarette 1906. Industry. The question of the health of the workers has been the main object of our enquiry, to this point. one. It is and we have therefore given our attention chiefly impossible to consider the industry an unhealthy With the exception of one or two processes there has been little 34 or no evidence to prove that the manufacture of tobacco injurious to health. ... In in itself is a Very six of the largest factories visited complete system of preliminary medical examination was found to be We carried out by the doctors specially appointed by the firms. . . . have gained a great deal of information from these doctors, whose Our attention was drawn to a very experience is almost unique. interesting and important point by two of the doctors ; their experi- ence (which in one case has been tabulated) had led them to form the opinion that overtime has a very marked bearing on the normal health of the workers. They had noted an increase during work of from one-third workers coming to them for treatment number of and just to one-half in the after periods of overtime ; the matters com- plained of were not anything special, but simply an increase in the usual form of ailment, such as indigestion, anaemia, heavy colds (in summer. When one considers that overtime here means simply employment up to the normal legal period, that is, ten and ten and a half hours a day, and does not mean overwinter), gastric disorders in time as permitted in a large number of industries women the case of (in over eighteen), and which extends to twelve hours in the day, is all the more striking, and one one of the industries in which overtime the result feels that in is more noticeable statistics of a similar record allowed would produce the results of over-fatigue. The conclu- and a half to nine hours' work a day cannot be exceeded by women and girls without overstrain and sion seems to us clear that eight fatigue resulting in a lower standard of health. From (Page 253.) Reports by the District Inspectors {of France) upon the Question of Night Work {Paris, 1900). By M. Legard, Inspecteur Divisionnaire de la 10^ circonscription a Marseille. During an investigation made by the inspector (lady) of work in the dressmaking establishments of the city of Marseilles, several work- ingwomen complained that after a certain number of evenings of overtime, they did not recover their sleep, dispelled by fatigue. They went home their work. some hours in the morning before returning to Therefore these workers lost a part of the seven or eight to sleep hours of sleep absolutely requisite to an adult for proper rest. They did not have restful nights after very full days. Insomnia visited them with all its accompanying evils. Sleep is so important from the health standpoint that there is perhaps no function which should be so conscientiously exercised. Everything which affects the hygiene of sleep constitutes a danger, because the equilibrium of the nervous system is jeopardized. (Page 71.) ) 35 Age and Sex in Occupations. Twentieth Century 1895, Vol. III. By Db. James H. Lloyd. Woman may Practice of Medicine, ways that do not suffer in health in various affect — neurasthenia, the bane of overworked and materially her mortality underfed women, does not leave a definite trace on the mortality tables. Again, woman's ill-health and drudgery in a factory may affect her progeny a way that the in Women statistician cannot estimate. (Page 326. are said to suffer from derangements and displacements from occupations requiring long standing and certain movements of the body, while the lacteal secretion is impaired by some occupations, and also by enforced absence of mothers from their nursing infants. (Page 327). Neurasthenia from overwork. ... It cannot be ignored, because among its well recognized and active causes the strain of excessive is (Page 488). with the numerous facts that have come I have been struck to my notice tending to convince me that one of the most common effects of overwork and poor hygiene in industrial life is an ill-defined condition of neurasthenia, insomnia, headache, and pains in and along extreme lassitude and weakness occur. the spine The treatment of neurasthenia from overwork should be first, by removing or modifying the cause as much as possible. (Page 490.) labor. . . . . . . Journal of the American Medical Association, By Dr. Frederick sity, N. Y. S. May 19, 1906. Fatigue. Lee, Prof. Physiology, Columbia Univer- There are probably few physiologic functions that are not affected unfavorably by the prolonged and excessive activity of the muscular and the nervous systems. In such a condition the normal action of the tissues may easily give place to pathologic action. Fatigue undoubtedly diminishes the resistance of the tissues to bacteria, and also predisposes the individual to attacks other than bacterial. . . from diseases . Heretofore attention has been directed chiefly to the extreme effects of the pathologic acids. . . . We should not forget, however, that long before these extreme effects are manifested the same causes are producing evil, if less obvious, phenomena, and rendering the cells less capable of their proper functions. Mankind . . . can administer no food or drug that can push Only the assimilation up the metabolic grade. at present the wearied cells . . . 36 **and ditoxication that normally come with are capable of adequate restoring power. rest, and best, rest with sleep, The Hygiene, Diseases, and Mortality of Occupations. 1892. J. T. Ahlidge, M. D., F. R. C. p.. Late Melroy Lecturer at Royal College. may Excessive exertion operate either over a long period and pro- When such be sudden and severe. people are seized by some definite lesion, attention is so completely attracted to it that the antecedent over-toil laying the foundation for duce the its ill malady results slowly, or . . (Page 16.) apt to be overlooked. is The want . body induces general torpidity of functions, reduces lung capacity and respiratory completeness, and the activity of the abdominal muscles, which aid both respiration and the of exercise of the Hence, the proclivity to venous and lower extremities and and in the rectal vessels, with the production of constipation, add to these disorders of digesin women of menstrual difficulties, tion in their multiform shape, debilitated muscular power, and a low functions of the digestive organs. (congestion), particularly in the pelvis stasis — — vitality and vigor When generally. muscular activity insufficient is associated with almost constant standing, the increased difficulty to the return of the blood from the lower limbs is tive of varicose veins, and the most pronounced feature, and produculcers and thickened knee, and ankle joints. (Page 19.) (2) The riage on Childbirth and Female Functions Specific Evil Effects evil eflFect of upon overwork before as well as after maris marked and disastrous. childbirth Report of Select Committee on Shops Early Closing House of Testimony Bill. British Commons, 1895. of Dr. W. Chapman Grigg (formerly out-patient women at Westminster Hospital, and physician for the diseases of senior physician to the Queen Charlotte Lying-in Hospital and the Victoria Hospital for Children). Would you please tell us in a general way your the effects of these prolonged hours on health It experience as to ? has a very grave effect upon the generative organs of women, : 37 and also injuring a very large body up inflammation in the pelvis in connec- entailing a great deal of suffering of them permanently, setting tion with those organs. . . . have had a great many sad cases come before me of women who were permanent invalids in consequence. If the matter could be gone into carefully, I think the committee would be perfectly surprised to find what a large number of these women are rendered sterUe in consequence of these prolonged I hours. I believe that is hours. one of the greatest I have seen who have pursued many evils attached to these prolonged cases in families where certain members the calling of shop-girl assistants have been sterile, have borne children. I know of one case where four members of a family who were shop-girls were sterile, and two other girls in the family, not shop-girls, have borne children; and I have known other cases in which this has occurred. ... I have patients come to me from all parts of London. It appears to be a most common condition. When these women have children, do you find that the children themselves suffer from the woman having been affected by these very long hours ? I have seen many cases where I have attributed the mischief arising in childbed to this inflammatory mischief in the mother, which, after delivery, has set up fresh mischief, and I have seen serious consequences resulting. (Page 219.) while other members of the family to the Local Governing Board on Proposed Changes in Hours and Ages of Employment in Textile Factories, by J. H. BbipgEs, M.D., and T. Holmes. British Parliamentary Papers. (Page 39.) 1873. Vol. LV. Report Experience afforded by residence in the worsted manufacturing town of Bradford, and extensive practise among its population during periods of from one to thirty-five years Amongst the women of factory operatives, much more than A. among tLe general population, derangements of the digestive organs are common, e. g., pyrosis, sickness, constipation, vertigo, and headache, generated by neglect of the calls of nature through the early hours of work, the short intervals at meals, the eating and drinking of prepared foods, as bread, tea, and coffee, and the neglect of meat and fresh cooked vegetables. Other deranged states of a still worse character are present, e. g., leucorrhcea and too frequent and profuse easily 38 Cases also of displacement, flexions, and versions of and the increased heat CEdema and varicose veins of the of and confinement in the mill. legs are common amongst female mill-workers of middle age. menstruation. the uterus, arising from the constant standing . Q. Has mortality . . the labor any tendency to increase the rate of infant ? The A. Yes. occurring in evils women as detailed in answer to more perfect growth of the child in utero, and dispose it when born more easily to become diseased. Signed on behalf of the Bradford Medico Chirurgical Society, at a question 2 indirectly affect the meeting held February 4, 1873. Sub-Committee. President, J. H. Bell, M.D. P. E. MiiLL, Secretary, M.R.C.S. David Gotdee, M.D. Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1873'. Dh. R. H. Leach, Certifying Surgeon for over Thirty Years. Shorten their hours of labor, for I believe that scores of infants are annually lost under the present system. As things now stand, a mother leaves her infant (say of two months old) at 6 asleep in bed, at 8 she nurses then until 12.30 the child it, or stuffed with indigestible food. and exhausted, her milk is On a. m., often is bottle fed, her return at noon, overheated unfit for the child's nourishment, state of things is again repeated until 6 p. m. ; and the consequence is, this that the child suffers from spasmodic diarrhoea, often complicated with convulsions and ending in death. Report of Massachusetts Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1875. seems to be the back that gives out. Girls cannot work more than eight hours, and keep it up they know it, and they rarely will, and even this seems to "pull them down," so that it is extremely rare that a girl continues more than a few years at the business. It ; B — foreman of a large printing establishmeht, says: I never knew but one woman, and she a strong, vigorous Irishwoman, of unusual height, who could stand at the case like a man. Female compositors, as a rule, are sickly, suffering much from backache, headache, weak limbs, and general M^r. "Girls must , sit at the 'case.' 'female weakness.'" Miss , for several years in charge of the female department 39 of one of the largest offices in the country, testified: as long as one can The work a busy in "One year is without a good vacation. office confined position, constipation, heat, and dizzy headache, I most noticeable troubles think, are the 'grown up.' The hours of 'lady operators' who are are too long for such strained employment. From 8 a. m. to 6 p. m., with only an hour for dinner, makes too long a day for the kind of work," (Pages 90-92.) a lady compositor, says: "We cannot stand at the back and head ache, and weakness of limbs, as well as a dragging weight about the hips. I have been at this work five years, but have been frequently obliged to give up for vacations Miss J , It increases 'case.' from peculiar troubles and general when fourteen; I am now when type for a year, and have been more or I began to menstruate debility. twenty-two. I was well until I had set I began to be troubled with difficult periods, less ever since. my but, as often as I return to When I go away I get better, am troubled again. Have work, I lost color, and am not nearly as fleshy and heavy as when I began work. I have now a good deal of pain in my chest, and some cough, which increases, if I work harder than usual. I am well whoUy acquainted with many other lady compositors who suffer as I do." Miss S a lady long in charge of the "composing-room" (female department) of a large printing establishment testifies: "I was myself a compositor, and have had scores of girls under me and with me, many of whom I have known intimately. I have no hesitation in saying that I think I never knew a dozen lady compositors who were 'well.' Their principal troubles are those belonging to the sex, and great pain in back, limbs, and head." , Report of the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor, 1884. We secured the personal history of these 1032 of the whole 20,000 working girls of Boston, a number amply purposes of the investigation. Long hours, (Page and being obliged sufficient for the scientific 5.) to stand all day, are very generally any lack or loss of health occar advanced Exhaustion from overwork. In girls. 3. work of the sioned by the labor, the great speed the machinery hours of of the long consequence weavers tend, and looms the the general number of the large is run at, produced in most cases that, exhaustion is much so overtasking, immediately after taking supper, the tired operatives drop to sleep as the principal reasons for in their chairs. ... 10. Predisposition to pelvic disease. There 40 my appears, as far as pelvic disease among The culty in parturition. much very observation goes, quite a predisposition to the female factory operatives, producing diffi- necessity for instrumental delivery has increased within a few years, owing to the females working pregnant and in consequence of deformed Other uterine diseases are produced, and, in other cases, (Page 69.) aggravated in consequence of the same. in the mills while they are pelvis. Report of the California Bureau of Labor Kane Dr. F. B. attention has been Statistics, 1887-1888. of San Francisco says: "Very many times my drawn professionally to the injury caused by the long hours of standing required of the saleswomen in this city, the one most calculated to cause the manifold diseases peculiar to sex, and direfuUy does Nature punish the disobedience of her position their laws." "I Dr. C. A. Clinton, of the San Francisco Board of Health, says: am decidedly of the opinion that it is highly injurious. It will cer- tainly aggravate any existing complaints, and still more, it will and does have a tendency to induce complaints in persons previously free from them. It is especially injurious to females in regard to the diseases peculiar to the female sex." (Page 102.) New Jersey Bureau of Statistics of Labor and Industries, Report of the 1902. The weak, females, The is physical condition very noticeable. . . of the operatives, especially the . long hours of labor, frequently ten or twelve, and the foul air of the workroom operatives. is most marked in its efiFects upon the female to throat and lung diseases, which are In addition almost equally prevalent among both sexes, the sufferings of the female operatives from causes peculiar to the sex is very greatly aggravated by the conditions under which they wofK.\ A physician of high standing whose practice is largely-among the authority for the statement that a large majority of female mill-workers are sufferers from some one or more of the organic complaints brought on or intensified by the condi- operatives of these mills tions under which they work. ing the mill, if it is it did exist If no such disease existed before enterwas almost sure to develop soon after beginning work; before, it was aggravated to a degree that made them easy victims of consumption. 41 The long hours of labor, being constantly standing, the foul air of the workroom, and, from the motion in more than all, the ceaseless vibration of the floor mass of machinery are the prime factors of the great producing these diseases. La RegUmentation (Page 377.) Legale du Travail des rindustrie Italienne. Femmes et des Enfants dans Lionel Baudoin. At the International Congress at Milan, on accidents among the May, 1894, Mr. Luigi Belloc (Factory Inspector of the Department of Labor) represented Italy. He stated that the continuous motion of the body taxes the nervous system, causing the gravest troubles. The sewing-machine, which requires of the operator 40,000 movements a day, causes in the long run abdominal and renal troubles, disarrangement of the menstrual function, and falling and deviations of the uterus. Functional weaknesses and paralysis are the The result of the continual performance of the same movement. necessity of standing or sitting for the whole day causes malformation of the body or curvature of the spine, as a result of the strained posiThe attention required in watching a machine, especially an tion. laboring class, in automatic one, is very fatiguing, on account of the large number of wheels operating at the same time which need attention. Women employed in the manufacture of tobacco and of matches are subject to gastric, intestinal troubles, and affections of the respiratory tract, necrosis of the jaw, and are liable to miscarriage. Women employed in sorting rags used in the manufacture of paper are liable to Tuberculosis smallpox or carbuncle. spreads with alarming and wool weavers. Those whom tuberculosis spares drag along with anaemia, the most common malady rapidity, especially -among cotton of the women factory workers, especially the textile workers, subject to long hours of labor. For the cotton industry (Page the ten-hour day. Infant Mortality: A . . who are . in particular Mr. Luigi Belloc demands 14.) Social Problem. Geo. Newman, M. D., Lon- don, 1906. if accompanied by a strain and a decided effect in the production of premature birth, particularly if these conditions are accompanied by long (Page 80.) hours of work and poor or insuflBcient nourishment. Physical fatigue, particularly stress, are likely to exert : 42 The direct injuries to workshops are: and (c) women and girls employed Injury through fatigue and insufficient periods of rest for food, . . and . and in factories strain, long (e) Too hours short a period of rest at the time of childbirth. Over and over again, in the official reports of factory inspectors or medical officers of health, juries. Where does one meet with evidences of these in- the conditions resulting in these evils, coupled with home, are present, the infant mor- the absence of the mother from tality is high; where they are not present, it is usually low. (Page 131.) In consequence of the fact that while there has been a steady and continuous decline in the general mortality of Preston during the past thirty years, the infant mortality has shown an increase, a sub- committee was appointed to inquire into the causes (1902), and submitted certain conclusions (1) First among these causes is the employment of female labor in mills. An occupation requiring a woman to stand during the greater part of the day when continued up to within a few days or even hours of the time of parturition, must act to the detriment of the offspring, and there is less chance of the latter coming into the world fully grown, well formed, and in good health. Many deaths taking place during the first month, which are returned as due to premature birth, immaturity, congenital debility, convulsions, and the like, may safely be ascribed to this cause. it may be said that it is the employment of women through married life and through the period of child- In a general way from girlhood all bearing, the continual stress and strain of the work and hours, and general conditions prevailing in women's labor, that is baneful influence on the individual and on the home. (Page 134.) C. Bad Effect of exerting its Long Hours on Safety Accidents to working women occur most frequently at the close of the day, or after a long period of uninterrupted work. The coincidence of casualties and fatigue due to long hours is thus made manifest. British Parliamentary Debates. Third Series. 1844. Vol. LXXIII. Lord Ashley's Speech. "Those honourable gentlemen who have been in the habit of perusing the melancholy details of mill accidents should know that 43 — a large proportion of those accidents particularly those which may be denominated the minor class, such as loss of fingers and the like occur in the last hours of the evening, when the people become — so tired that they absolutely get reckless of the danger. I state this on the authority arise of several practical spinners. Hence many serious evils to the working classes, none greater than the early prostration of their strength." (Page 1082.) Report of the German Imperial Factory Inspectors, 1895. The ten-hour day, with the exceptions necessary for certain trades, a measure which can be introduced without great difficulty, and which would prevent many dangers threatening the health of workers. Many accidents are no doubt due to the relaxed vigilance and lessening is of bodily strength following excessive hours of work. (Page 369.) Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1900. One can only feel surprise that accidents are not more numerous (in laundries), inattention may when one the hot cylinders, and may realizes that the slightest carelessness or result in the fingers or when one hand being drawn between considers arise in the case of the over-tired how easily such inattention young workers. (Page 383.) Report of British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1903. the The comparative immunity from accidents in West Riding of Yorkshire may be possibly due to the the laundries in in some measure moderate hours of employment. The day is somewhat most dangerous hours apparently being 11 a. m. to 12 noon and 4 to 6 p. m. Probably 11 a. m. to 12 noon is more generally than any other time the last tiring hour of a day five hours' 4-6 p. m. covers the time when most generally the transition is spell from daylight to artificial light. (Page 210.) Reference was also made (in the Thirteenth International Congress of Hygiene), although figures were not adduced, to the alleged increase in the number of accidents which occur late in the working day when the effect of intellectual and physical fatigue have made themselves incidents of accidents according to time of surprising, the . ; apparent. (Page 298.) . . 44 Infant Mortality: A Social Problem. Geohge Newman, M. D., London^ 1906. The results of fatigue become manifest in various least being the occurrence of accidents or of ways, not the physical breakdown. now well recognized, occur most frequently in For example, since 1900 there has been a steady, though not marked, increase in the number of accidents to women over eighteen years of age in laundries. In 1900 such accidents numbered 131 in 1904, 157. Now it has been shown that whilst the first half of the day yields about the same number of accidents as the second half, more accidents, amounting to nearly double the number, occur between the hours of 11 a. m. and 1 p. m., and between 4 p. m. and 7 p. m. than at any other time of the day. The former, as is fatigued workers. ; (Page 112.) Getting a Living. Chap. 15. By G. L. Bohn. Shoetee Wouxday. much work has been done If in the tenth hour as as the average for the previous nine hours, a reduction of time to nine hours per day, at the same pay, would be an increase of wages by eleven and one-ninth per cent, unless the extra hour of rest increased the hourly product. But in any work not fixed in speed by steadily running machinery, less is done in the tenth hour, by reason of weariness, than in other hours and the work of the last hour, like overtime work at night, weakens a person for the next day. ; It is this weariness that causes accidents to occur two or three times as frequently in the last hour as in other hours a fact — proved by European statistics. With the steady machinery, too, weariness, as a rule, either lowers the quaUty of the work done, or by frequent stoppage lessens its amount often causing both — these losses. (Page 407.) D. Bad Ejfed The effect of of Long Hours on Morals overwork on morals is closely related to Laxity of moral fibre follows physical the working day is so long that no time the injury to health. debility. When whatever is relief lants left for a minimum from the strain of work and other excesses. is of leisure or home-life, sought in alcoholic stimu- 45 Massachusetts Legislative Document. Overwork is House, 1866, No. eleven hours daily of hard labor are more than the ... bear, save in a few exceptional cases. health, shortens 98. Ten and human system can the fruitful source of innumerable evils. It cripples the body, ruins mind, gives no time for culture, no opportunity for reading, study, or mental improvement. It leaves the system jaded and worn, with no ability to study. ... It tends to dissipation in various forms. The exhausted system craves stimulants. This opens the door to other indulgences, from which flow not only the degeneracy of individuals, but the degeneracy of the race. (Page 24.) It stunts the life. and Relations between Labor Vol. Testimony I. of U. S. Senate Committee, 1883. Capital. Robert Howard, Mule-Spinner in Fall River Cotton Mills. I have noticed that the hard, slavish overwork into the saloons, after they leave the mills evenings come out is . driving those girls . . good, respect- and so thirsty and so exhausted from working along steadily from hour to hour and breathing the noxious effluvia from the grease and other ingredients used in the mill. Wherever you go near the abodes of people who are overworked, you will always find the sign of the rum-shop. Drinking is most prevalent among working people where the hours able girls, but they . . so tired . . . (Page 647.) of labor are long. The Case . for the Factory Acts. Edited by Mrs. Sidney Webb. London, 1901. If working long and irregular hours, accepting a bare subsistence wage and enduring insanitary conditions tended to increase women's physical strength and industrial skill if these conditions of unregulated industry even left unimpaired the woman's natural stock of strength and skill we might regard factory legislation as irrelevant. But as a mattei^)f fact a whole century of evidence proves exactly the contrary/^To leave women's labor unregulated by law means inevitably to leave it exposed to terribly deteriorating influences. The woman's lack of skill and lack of strength is made worse — — by lack of regulation^ one who has And there is still a further deterioration. Any read the evidence given in the various inquiries into the Sweating System will have been struck by the invariable coincidence ) ) 46 low standard of regularity, sobriety, and morality, with the condiwhich women, under free competition, are exposed. (Page of a tions to 209.) Thomas Olivee, M. D. London, Dangerous Trades. 1902. women as a class are intem- perate and rougher than most industrial workers. That they are pecuand the long It is frequently asserted that laundry liarly irregular in their habits it is and exhaustion due hours, the discomfort and impossible to deny ; to constant standing in wet heat, discourage the entrance into the trade of a better class of workers is certain. many of them, . . . The prevalence of the drink habit among which so much is said, is not difficult to account for: the heat of an atmosphere often laden with particles of soda, ammonia, and other chemicals has a remarkably thirst-inducing effect; the work is for the most part exhausting, even apart from the conditions, and the pernicious habit of quenching the thirst, and stimulating an overtired physical condition, with beer. (Page 672. of Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1902. The result is disastrous, even from the point of view of this industry which if properly organized would be capable of offering really desirable employment to skilled workers instead of being, as it too itself, often is, the last resort of the idle and intemperate. ... I would add is created by the conditions of that too often the very intemperance employment, by the excessive overstrain of endurance. (Page 174. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science: the Economic Effect of Legislation Regulating Women's Labor, 1902. On the morals of the workers there has been a the Factory Acts]. just as irregularity "Saint Monday" is now marked effect [by a thing of the past, and conduces to drunkenness and irregular living, and the rush of overtime at the end of the week, with nothing to do in the early parts, induced an irregular and careless mode of life, so the comparative steadiness of the present methods have tended to raise the standard of morality and sobriety. (Page 287.) 47 Bad E. Effect of Long Hours on General Welfare The experience of manufacturing countries has illustrated the evil effect of overwork upon the general welfare. Deterioration of any large portion of the population incommunity physically, mentally, and morally. When the health of women has been injured by long hours, not only is the working efficiency of the community impaired, but the deterioration is handed evitably lowers the entire down to succeeding generations. Infant mortality rises, while the children of married working- women, who survive, are injured by inevitable neglect. The overwork of future mothers thus directly attacks the welfare of the nation. The (1) Need of Protecting Woman State's Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Health, 1873. Jarvis, M. D. All additions to the physical, moral, or intellectual Edward power of indi- — in any individual to that extent, additions to the energy and the productive force — the effectiveness of the State and on the deductions from these whether of mind or body — contrary, every impairment of energy — every sickness, and injury or viduals are, ; forces, all disability, much from take so body politic. The of . . . an interest not only in the prosperity, but also and strength and effective power of each one of its mem- State thus has in the health bers. . the mental force, the safe administration of the . . The first and human power largest interest of the State lies in the great agency — the health of the people. Report of the Massachusetts Bureau of Labor (Page 336.) Statistics, 1871. It is claimed that legislation on this subject is an interference But legislation has interfered with between labor and capital. . capital and labor both, good. Now public in the safety . . demand for public safety and public good, the wealth and the public of the common- wealth, centred, as such wealth is, in the well-being of its common people, demands that the State should interfere by special act in favor ) working-women, and working children, by enacting a tenhour law, to be enforced, by a system of efficient inspection. (Page of . . . 567.) International Conference in Relation to Labor Legislation. Berlin, 1890. It demands it German Emperor the idea of the is the attention of all that the industrial question the civilized nations. . . . The quest of a solution becomes not only a humanitarian duty, but is exacted also by governmental wisdom, which should at once look all its citizens out for the well-being of Proceedings of the French Senate. and the preservation of the (Page 29. inestimable benefits of civilization. Session of July 7, 1891. M. Jules Simon. impossible for It is position of women me tlemen, I ask permission to tell the Senate what I think of the and that I may gain your favor, genyou that for at least forty years I have not to in industry, tell (Page 573.) applied myself to this question. When women, it I ask, is when we ask, for a lessening of the daily toil of not only of the women that we think; it is not princi- It is of the whole human race. father, it is of the child, it is of society, which we wish to re-establish on its foundation, from which we believe it has perhaps swerved a pally of the women, is of the (Page 575.) little. Report of the The New York Bureau of Labor family, furnishes the really growing generation life it thus really — the Statistics, 1900. fundamental education of the education of character determines the quality of as efficient or non-efficient wealth the ; and the family rising generation a reduction in the hours of labor does promote the growth of a purer and better family life, it will unquestionably result in the production of greater producers. If material wealth on the part of the generation trained under ence ; its influ- nothing else in fact will so effectively diminish the vast number and idlers, who, in the present generation, consume the people's substance. When one or both parents are away from home for twelve or thirteen hours (the necessary period for those who work ten hours) a day, the children receive comparatively little attention. What was said in the opening paragraph of of criminals, paupers, 49 this section in discussing the importance of a good family the training of character needs repeated emphasis, for damental argument for a shorter working day. Hygiene Women and the is essen- State has a vital interest in securing for itself future generations capable of living maintaining it. and (Page 84.) The Working Hours From of Female Factory Hands. Factory Inspectors collated by the Imperial lin, in Jena, 1904. bear the following generation whose health influenced by that of the mothers, tially life the fun- (Page 69.) Db. Theodore Weyl. of Occupations. it is Home reports of the Office. Ber- 1905. The reports from Marseburg, Erfurt, Breslau, Hanover, Wurtemand Offenbach dwell upon the dependence of future generations their total efficiency and value upon the protection of working women and girls. (Page 111.) berg, — — President Roosevelt's 59th Congress. Annual Message delivered December 4i, 1906. More and more our Second Session to of people are growing to recognize the fact that the questions which are not merely of industrial but of social imporall others and these two questions (labor of women and children ) most emphatically come in the category of those which affect in the most far-reaching way the home life of the Nation. tance outweigh Legislative Control of ; Women's Work. Journal of Political Economy. By Vol. S. P. XIV. Beeckinridge. 1906. The assumption of control over the conditions under which inwomen are employed is one of the most significant features of recent legislative policy. In many of the advanced industrial communities the State not only undertakes to prescribe a minimum dustrial of decency, safety, and healthfulness, below which may not its wage-earners be asked to go, but takes cognizance in several ways of sex differences and sex relationships. ... In the third place, the State sometimes takes cognizance of the peculiarly close relationship which exists between the health of its physical vigor of future generations. ... women citizens and the It has been declared a matter of public concern that no group of its women workers 50 should be allowed to unfit themselves by excessive hours of work, by standing, or other physical strain, for the burden of motherhood which each of them should be able to assume. (Page 107.) The object of such control the protection of the physical is community by setting a well-being of the limit to the exploita- tion of the improvident, unworkmanlike, unorganized women who are yet the mothers, actual or prospective, of the coming genera- (Pages 108, 109.) tion. By Physical and Medical Aspects of Labor and Industry. Hoffman. Annals of Amer. Academy Science. Vol. XXVII. May, 1906. Again, in longevity, an increase of liability, of Political J. L. and Social vitality, a decrease in disease economic-elements of the greatest possible economic They lie at the root of the true labor problem, for are all importance. they determine in the long run the real and enduring progress, prosperity, and well-being of the masses. ... It manifestly must be to the advantage of the State, and the employers of labor, that nothing within reason be left undone to raise to the highest possible standard the level of national trial efficiency. . . . The physique and of health and indus- interests of the nation, of wage-earners and of society as a whole, transcend the narrow and as a class, of short-sighted employers of labor, who, disregarding the teachings of medical and other sciences, manage industry and permit the existence of conditions contrary to a sound industrial economy and a rational humanitarianism. selfish interests Women Lahor Laws for in Germany. Women's lished by the Dr. Alice Salomon. Industrial Council. A study of the laws relating to female labor reveals that the special of the aim women of the legislators to protect in their character as wives On generations. Pub- London, 1907. it has been and preserve the health and as the mothers of future the one hand, the regulations are intended to pre- vent injury to health through over-long hours, or the resumption of work too soon after confinement, often the cause of serious illness which may render the patient incapable of bearing healthy . . . But if work married ones — in the factory it is all the be a necessity for more women offspring. — even for desirable that protective legislation should be so extended and worked out in such detail as to ensure the fullest attainment of its object, viz. protection for the health of the : 51 female working population, as well as for the family and the home. (Page 5.) Report of the Maine Bureau of Labor Employers should realize that long hours at among cause of irritation almost any trouble, and The lent strikes. Statistics, 1892. trifles a severe tension are a and they become their employees, ripe for are often sufficient to precipitate vio- real cause of many of these strikes is overwork. (Page 11.) (2) The Effect of Women's Overwork on Future Generations Report of the Massachusetts Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1871. Progressive physical deterioration produced by family labor in 14. It is well factories. known that like begets like, and if the parents are feeble in constitution, the children must also inevitably be feeble. Hence, among that class of people, you find many puny, sickly, partly developed children every generation growing more and more so. 15. Connection between continuous factory labor and premature old age. It is a fact, patent to every one, that premature old age is fully developed, in consequence of long hours of labor and close con(Page Very few live to be old that work in a factory. finement. ; 504.) Proceedings of the French Senate, July Ten-hour Day The woman mill-gates ; she for 9, 1891. Arguments for a Women. wage-earner, gentlemen, does not always live at the is therefore obliged to make a half or three-quarters' hour journey before she arrives consequently she will leave home at half-past five in the morning, only to return at half-past eight or nine ; o'clock in the evening. can a Is that living? woman truly care for Under such circumstances her children and her Report of the Maryland Bureau of Industrial Once . (Page 581.) Statistics, 1896. of the factory a weary day's work of begun, with an intermission for lunch at inside the walls ten hours' duration noon. home ? . is . work is at last over, the wearied crowd trooping from their place of employment hasten in all directions to their homes, which in many instances are in the extreme suburbs of the city. Once When the day's : ) 52 home, they swallow a hasty supper and soon retire to a needed and deserved rest, with no pleasant anticipations for the morrow. What lives are these for future wives and mothers ? Future generations will answer. (Page 52.) Report of the United States Industrial Commission, 1901. Factory life brings incidentally new and depressing effects, which those whose experience has been wholly agricultural do not appreci- which have pushed their way from and have found that their delay in protecting their factory employees has weakened the physical and moral strength of the new generation of working people, would seem to be an experience which the citizens of new manufacturing States should hope to avoid. (Page 788.) But the experience ate. of States agricultural to manufacturing industries, Report of the Committee on the Early Closing of Shops Bill, British House of Lords, 1901. Sir W. MacCormac, President of the Royal College of Surgeons And you can hardly expect that women who have been suffering from such long hours should become the mothers of healthy children ? That is what I ventured to hint. It must have an influence on their offspring undoubtedly. ... am It is afraid, in gradual and progressive in a cumulative degree. its effect, and it goes on, I You mean that from generation to generation the population will become feebler and feebler, and less able to resist disease ? It must suffer from the influence of it, no doubt. (Page 119.) Report of the Wisconsin Bureau of Labor In certain fields of Statistics, 1903-1904. industry, like the manufacture of cotton goods we may find the establishments paying the lowest wages, working their employees the longest hours, and under the worst sanitary conditions, temporarily driving out of the field of or hosiery and Icnit goods, competition those establishments paying the best wages, working a reasonable length of time surrounded by the best sanitary conditions; but if the process is allowed to continue, the nation tolerating it will certainly revert to a state of discontent, pov- their employees and crime, which no agency or force can overcome so well as wise factory legislation strictly and judiciously enforced. (Page 137. Besides this many eminent students of social conditions maintain erty, " ; 53 that in countries where industries have been allowed to run for centuries without any form of regulation, pauperism and crime are more prevalent than in those countries where regulation exists. countries where regulations have been imposed Also, in and withdrawn, misery and want have risen and fallen in almost direct proportion to the imposition and withdrawal of such regulation, and poor relief has ebbed and flowed in almost the same proportion. (Pa)ge 140.) The Working Hours of Female Factory Hands. Factory Inspectors, Collated by the Imperial From Home Reports of the Office. Berlin, 1905. The report for Wiirtemberg says, in regard to the injurious effect — work: "The children of such mothers according to the unanimous testimony of nurses, physicians, and others who were are mostly pale and weakly interrogated on this important subject when these in turn, as usually happens, must enter upon factory work immediately upon leaving school, to contribute to the support of the of factory — family, it is impossible for a sound, sturdy, enduring race to develop. (Page 113.) The Case for the Factory Acts. Edited by Mrs. Sidney Webb. \ The ^ ^ question arises, however, whether on philanthropic grounds alone individuals of mature years can be denied the right to work as long and as unhealthily as they like. The Acts of 1891 and 1895 show signs of a recognition, if a tardy one, that the real grounds of interference with industry are considerations of public health and safety. The old idea of protecting certain classes of workers because they are not "free agents" ingless. is There are more and more still those who felt to be irrelevant, if ask in astonishment, not mean- "May not a man, may not a woman, employ their capital or their labor as they choose ? " But the State says, with a less and less hesitating sound, "Not under conditions wasteful of the life, or destructive of the efficiency, of those employed, or dangerous to the safety and well-being To this conclusion it has been driven by inquiry of' the community." into the conditions of public health. The Case for the Factory Acts. (Page 122.) Edited by Mrs. Sidney Webb. It may be enough for the individual employer if his workpeople remain alive during the period for which he hires them. But for the 54 continued efficiency of the nation's industry, it is indispensable that its- citizens should not merely continue to exist for a few months or years, but should be well brought up as children, and maintained for unimpaired in health, strength, and character. The human beings of a community form as truly a portion of its working capital as its land, its machinery, or its cattle. If the employers in a particular trade are able to take such advantage of the normal their full necessities of life their workpeople as to hire them for wages actually enough food, clothing, and shelter to maintain insufficient to provide them and their children in health ; if they are able to work them for hours so long as to deprive them of adequate rest and recreation if ; or they subject them to conditions so dangerous or insanitary as posi- tively to shorten their lives, that trade is clearly using up and destroy- ing a part of the nation's working capital. . . . Industries yielding only a bare minimum of momentary sub- In deteriorating the sistence are therefore not really self-supporting. physique, intelligence, and character of their operatives, they are drawing on the capital stock of the nation. is And even if the using up not actually so rapid as to prevent the "sweated" workers from producing a new generation to replace them, the trade is none the In persistently deteriorating the stock it employs, it less parasitic. is subtly draining away the vital energy of the community. It is taking from these workers, week by week, more than its wages can restore to them. A whole community might conceivably thus become parasitic on itself, or, rather, upon its future. (Page 20.) History of Factory Legislation. Hutchins and Harrison. So far from being regarded as romantically philanthropic, like bill of 1844 the bills of 1867 were taken as a matter of common sense and economic prudence. Only a certain amount of work is to be got out of women and children in the twentyfour hours. Nothing can be gained in the end by anticipating our resources, and to employ women and children unduly is simply to run in debt to Nature. (Page 167.) the ten-hour . . . . . . . . . Infant Mortality. A Social Problem. George Nevstman, M. D. London, 1906. A nation grows out of its children, and if its children die in infancy, means that the sources of a nation's population are being sapped, and further that the conditions that kill such a large proportion of it ) ) 55 infants injure was a Wales many of those which survive. Last year, 1905, there England and which is almost exactly one quarter of all the deaths in England and Wales in that year. (Page 2. And this enormous sacrifice of human life is being repeated year by year and is not growing less. (Page 7.) Nor is England alone. The birth rate is declining in civilized nations with few exceptions and the same may be said of the death But the infant mortality rate, as a rule, is stationary or even rate. loss to the nation of 120,000 dead infants, in alone, a figure . . . ; increasing. There are two features, however, which appear to be common to the high infant mortality districts, namely, a high density of population and a considerable degree of manufacturing industry. (Page 26. 56 II. SHORTER HOURS THE ONLY POSSIBLE PROTECTION This needed protection to women can be afforded only through shortening the hours of labor. A decrease of the intensity of exertion is not feasible. Report of the United States Industrial Commission, 1901 It is certain that must exertion any programme for reducing The fail. entire tendency of industry this intensity of is in the direction an increased exertion. Any restrictions on output must work to the disadvantage of American industry, and the employers are often right in their demand, usually successful, that such restrictions be abandoned. This being true, there is but one alternative if the working population is to be protected in its health and trade longevity, (Page 763.) namely, a reduction of the hours of labor. of Industrial Conference New York, 1902. The factory system . makes necessary in proportion as all . . perfected in exacting. the machinery or the method, the (Page 173.) And whatever is Naiional this (shortening it is more and more the time the of necessary to The more make its Civic hours) more and more mechanism. attention if it calls for too much becomes is required. . the most of the machinery the laborers tired, then, so far as the employer tired; It greater the perfection of important to the successful conduct of the industry. must be Federation. is If that . . is makes concerned, they strenuous attention, too much nerve exhaustion, then the nerve exhaustion must come or the is a failure. The remedy for this cannot be found in up on the demands for economic output and effectiveness The remedy for that must come on the other the machinery. machinery slackening in . . . side, shortening the day, effort. The tension may may be reduced. The exhaustion on the not slackening the not be lessened, but the hours laborer must be avoided, but duction . . . it cannot be avoided by reducing' prothey (employers) find that modern business is more exacting than ever and . . . that to slacken is to fail. Consequently they find that long vacations are necessary to avoid physical exhaustion. But long vacations are impossible for laborers they must have relief by lessening the duration of the pressure every day. (Page 174.) . . . 57 III. THE GENERAL BENEFITS OF SHORT HOURS History, which has illustrated the deterioration due to long hours, bears witness no less clearly to the regeneration due to the shorter working day. To the individual and to society alike, shorter- hours have been a benefit wherever introduced. The married and unmarried working woman is enabled to obtain the decencies of life out- working hours. With the improvement in home the tone of the entire community is raised. Wherever sufficient time has elapsed since the establishment of the shorter working day, the succeeding generation has shown extraordinary improvement in physique and morals. side of life, A. Good Effect on Home the Individual Health, Life, etc. Report of the Massachusetts Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1871. Their hours of labor should not exceed ten hours per day, for, as we have seen, 85 -\- per cent of the working girls of Boston do own housework and sewing either wholly or in part, and homework must be done in addition to that performed for eniployers. their this their (Page 558.) Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1877. Ten years ago, when I made the first effort to introduce the Factory Acts in London, I was frequently met with the statement on the part of employers that the tendency of the Act would be to encourage' prostitution, because by giving the women an enforced leisure I was loath to they would be exposed to additional temptation. believe any such theory, and I am glad to say that, so far as my experience during the last ten years goes, the fears thus expressed realized. There has been quite a revolution during have never been that period in the conditions on which seamstress in the metropolis. The employment of them in work is carried on workshops and fac- : 58 has increased enormously, but I can find no employer willing to commit himself to the opinion that in their respective classes there has been any deterioration in the' character and the conduct of tories All the evidence indeed the workpeople. goes to establish the contrary. Report of the The cially if New wife's life York Bureau is which I have obtained (Page 14.) of Labor Statistics, 1900. darkened even more by the long-hour day, espewoman. Even if the day be one of she also be a working only ten hours, she must arise as early as five o'clock to prepare breakfast for her husband work and herself, so that they may be at their Beginning at that early hour her day (Page 69.) places at seven. a very long one. Female Factory Hands. From Factory Inspectors collated by the Imperial Home The Working Hours reports of the Office. Ber- 1905. lin, The of be will inspector for Upper Bavaria dwells upon the advantage ac- cruing to the health of working-girls as follows , "In the matter of health the shortening of the unusual value, because for them free time is working hours not resting time, as is of it is man. For the working-girl on her return from the factory there a variety of work waiting. She has her room to keep clean and in order, her laundry work to do, clothes to repair and clean, and, besides this, she should be learning to keep house if her future household is for a is not to be disorderly and a failure." Many (Page 111.) inspectors urge the need of shortening the hours of laBor on grounds of morality. From Offenbach it is reported: "The period before marriage is the time for learning the future profession, but during this period the factory worker is exposed to strain and fatigue, which hinder her bodily development and deprive her of educational opportunity. Desirable, therefore, would be a reduction of the working hours which should give to married women more time for their housework and family life, and to the younger unmarried women the opportunity to learn the art of home-making, because upon this the health," welfare, and prosperity of her whole family (Page 113.) will depend." 59 Good B. Effect on the General Welfare Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1859. I think I can show that the Factory Acts have put an end to the premature decrepitude of the former long-hour workers; that they have enlarged their social and intellectual privileges; that by making them masters of their own time they have given them a moral energy which is directing them to the eventual possession of political power and that they have lifted them up high in the scale of rational beings, compared with that which they had attained in 1833. Moreover, I think I can further prove that all this has been accomplished without any prejudice whatever to our commercial prosperity. There is no need to raise again to public view the crooked and ; . attenuated creatures of that bygone period. . . . The . . " factory leg " and the "curved spine" were a proverb and a reproach. How happily then may we turn to the contemplation of it in 1859 The proverb has died a natural death, and the reproach is all but taken away. There is scarcely now to be seen in any of the manu. . . ! facturing districts a crooked leg or a distorted spine as the result of factory labor. The may classes try. . . physical condition of the future mothers of the working be challenged to meet that of any mothers of any coun- (Page 47.) Report of the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor, 1873. On Results of Ten-houb, Laboe Law in England. " the good moral and social influence of most favorable from the clergymen and school teachers throughout Yorkshire and Lancaster. How have the Lord Ashley said : Upon the change, the testimony is used their time ? Hundreds of them are attending evening to read and write and to knit and sew, things that they could not have learned under the twelve-hour system. " A burial society testifies to the diminution of burial although the women school, — learning cholera was . that the diminution was among and he assumes as a reason that and give that attention to children which upon the town, and children under five years of age, mothers can get home earlier no hired nurse can ensure. " The number Catholic priests at Stockport and Bolton testify that the more than doubled, of factory workers attending schools has ; 60 and that there was not the slightest physical condition of the people Report of the New doubt that the moral, social, and (Page 491.) had improved." Jersey Bureau of Statistics of Labor and Industry, 1886. ' The Factory Acts were believed to be the death-blow to English made labor more efficient, more intelmore decent, and more continuous without trenching on manufactures, and they have ligent, profits. In 1851 and 1852 those who advocated that ten hours should be a legal day's work were denounced as demagogues, and the ten-hour plan as a humbug which could only tend to reduce the wages propor- tionately, while all kinds of evil results cation, especially to agricultural labor. become the wages have not rule; prophesied disaster are now as the friends of the change. were sure to follow its appliBut we have seen ten hours fallen, and many as loud in their praises of of those its who beneficence (Page 231.) Report of the Massachusetts Chief of the District Police, 1889. The good ent, in results of shortening the hours of labor were soon appar- the substantial disappearance of discontent among those maintenance of the standard of factory productions, both as to quantity and quality; and in placing Massachusetts in the lead, where, by her history and her aspirations, she affected thereby; in the rightfully belonged. ... If experience has shown anything in this matter, it has been wisdom and statesmanship of the body of laws in our Public Statutes and additions thereto, which are known as industrial legislation. It is sixteen years since the ten-hour law was enacted; and it is entirely safe to say that, if it were stricken from the statutes to-day, not an influential voice would be raised within our borders in favor of the the restoration of the order of things which that law changed. The inis a very significant crease of public interest in matters of this kind fact. (Page 7.) Report of the Illinois Chief Inspector of Factories, 1895. In England the principle of the regulation of the hours of work of children has been established for more than a generation women and and the regeneration of the working class in that country, from the : 61 degradation in which tory Acts, and it was sunk French Review of Fac- in 1844, is attributed to the especially to this essential feature of them. Hygiene and Sanitary (Page Vol. XVIII. Police. 5.) 1896. knows well that there is much to do, and that, if our has already bettered conditions, new ameliorations are desirable, but they will come, I think, only through the pressure of All the world legislation public opinion, . . . have made clear the which will become exacting . . . when doctors a protection which regards not only the woman, but, secondarily, the child to be born by her; when it knows utility of better that to protect the of the race. Report of the mother is an absolute necessity for the future (Page 193.) New York Bureau of Labor But the good accomplished by each Statistics, 1900. successive factory law was so clearly apparent, that even capitalistic Parliament could not refuse to continue the policy of labor protection. The evidence that this wrought a revolutionary change in the amount of crime, pauperism, and misery is superabundant but it is too familiar to warrant repetition now. (Page 49). The best evidence of the overwhelming success of the short-hour law from all points of view is afforded by the complete conversion of its opponents. Thus it came to pass that. in 1860, when a bill was introduced to extend the ten-hour law to other branches of the textile industry, J. A. Roebuck, who had originally opposed with bitterness policy ; kind of legislation, made the following recantation " I am about to speak on this question under somewhat peculiar circumstances. Very early in my parliamentary career Lord Ashley, this now the Earl of Shaftesbury, introduced a bill of this description. I, am now, opposed the measure, in my opposition by what the being an ardent political economist, as I . . . and was very much influenced gentlemen of Lancashire said. They declared that it was the last half-hour of the work performed by their operatives which made all their profits, and that if we took away that last half-hour we should ruin the manufacturers of England. I listened to that statement and but Lord trembled for the manufacturers of England Ashley persevered. Parliament passed the bill which he brought in. From that time down to the present the factories of this country have [a laugh]; been under State control, and I appeal to manufacturers of England have suffered by this House whether this legislation," the : 62 James Graham, another persistent antagonist of the short-hour Mr. Roebuck with a similar recantation am sorry once more to be involved in a short-time discussion. Sir laws, followed " I I have, however, a confession to has shown to my make to the House. Experience many of the predictions formerly . . . satisfaction that made against the factory bill have not been verified by the result, as, on the whole, that great measure of relief for women and children has contributed to the well-being and comfort of the working classes, while it has not injured their masters. The enactment of the present bill ought to approach as nearly as possible the Factory Act. ... By the vote I shall give to-night, I will endeavor to make some amends for the course I pursued in earlier life in opposing the factory bill." (Page 51.) All travellers unite in testifying the wonderful energy dis- to played in their work by the wage-earners of Australia. is Such energy much of the stimulating climate as the high standmade possible by the short working-day. Con- a product not so ard of comfort adduced John Rae siderable evidence might be opinion enthusiastic of support of the following in (" Eight .Hours for Work," page 312). The inore we examine pression borne in from the subject the more irresistibly is the im- growing up in Australia, consequence of the eight-hour day, a working class, all sides that there is and very largely in who, for general morale, intelligence, and industrial efficiency is probably already superior to that of any other branch of our Anglo-Saxon race, and for happiness, cheerfulness, and all-around comfort of life has never had its equal in the world before. (Page 59.) Report of the United States Industrial Commission, 1901. Lessening of hours leaves more opportunity and more vigor for the betterment of character, the improvement of the home. For these reasons the short work-day for working people brings an ad. vantage to the entire community. Night-work of Women in Industry. . . (Page 773.) Pkof. Etienne Bauer. Jena, 1903. Above all, there is perceptible in all the countries in which are protected, a reduction in the mortality both of women children. For England the convincing argument on produced. women and of this point has often been There, since the establishment of the normal working 63 day the mortality working-women have fallen much lower This proportion was as follows: 1841-1850, 23.11 per cent for men, 21.58 per cent for women. From 1881-1890, 20.22 per cent for men, 18.01 per cent for women. The diminution in the two figures taken together is to be attributed to the great advance in hygiene achieved in the interval, and the relafigures for than those for men. tively greater decrease in the mortality of to the protective legislation. women is to be attributed (Page 37.) Report of the Wisconsin Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1903-1904. No private individual has any more moral right to exhaust the working energy and working capital of a nation without giving "value received " than he has to take the life of an employee outright. The only difference is that one is a slower criminal process than the other. It is not enough that workmen should obtain barely enough for their labor to enable them to live, They should much clothing, receive as but they should receive a competency. energy from their employers in food, homes, and furnishings amid healthful surroundings as they give to their employers in the articles they produce. The stronger, healthier, wealth he represents. capital just as the The and more intelligent hands of the farmer, And a laborer is, laborers of a nation represent his horse, or his its the more working ox represent and healthier either may be, the more capital it represents. The more efiBcient this capital becomes, the more wealth will be produced. Machinery operators represent the working capital of the manufacturer, and he owes it to the nation which protects him in his business to do everything in his power to increase this working capital and keep it in the highest his working capital. possible state of efliciency. The the stronger (Page 129.) regulation of factories either by law or by special agree- ment worked marvellous changes in England. In the course of half a century the "sweated" laborers of this great country whose course of life seemed almost run became energetic, self-reliant, intelligent, and efficient workers, owning their own homes, amid wholesome surroundings, and working a reasonable number of hours for a' day's work. Not only put to the test is it factory legislation sound in principle, but wherever has been found sound in practice as well. (Page 137.) 64 History 0/ Factory Legislation. Hutchins and Harrison. In 1861 the president of the Economic Section of the British Association could say in his address that the results of that bill (ten- hours bill) were "something of which all parties might well be proud. There is in truth a general assent that if there has been one change which more than another has strengthened and consolidated the social fabric in this part of the island, has cleared away a mass of depravity and discontent, has placed the manufacturing enterprise of the coun- on a try safe basis, and has conferred upon us resources against the competition which can scarcely be overvalued, it is -precisely the changes which have been brought about by the sagaeffects of foreign and persevering and successful cious efforts to establish in manufac- turing occupations a sound system of legal interference with the hours (Page 122.) of labor." The Case for the Factory Acts. The two Edited by Mrs. Sidney Webb. great industries which, at the beginning of the nine- teenth century, were conspicuous for the worst horrors of sweating were the textile manufactures and coal-mining. Between 1830 and 1850 the parliamentary inquiries into these trades disclosed sickening details of starvation wages, incredibly long hours, and conditions of work degrading to decency and tive, of a compulsory minimum The remedy health. substitution, for individual bargaining applied was the between employer and opera- set forth in common rules prescrib- ing standard conditions of employment. What was the result? Fortunately, there is no dispute. Every one who knows these great industries agrees in declaring that the horrors which used to prevail under individual bargaining have been brought to an end. The terms "cotton-operative" and "coalminer," instead of denoting typically degraded workers, as they did in 1830, are now used to designate the very aristocracy of our labor. And when, to-day, those who are interested in the industrial progress of women need an example of a free and self-reliant class of female wage-earners, earning full subsistence, enjoying adequate leisure, and capable of effective organization, they are compelled to turn to the great body of Lancashire cotton-weavers, now for half a century "restricted " in every feature of their contract. (Page 36.) . . . ) 65 IV. ECONOMIC ASPECT OF SHORT HOURS A. Effect on Output The universal testimony of manufacturing countries tends to prove that the regulation of the working day acts favorably upon output. With long hours, output declines with short hours, it rises. The heightened eflSciency of the workers, due to the shorter day, more than balances any loss of time. Production is not only increased, but ; improved in quality. Shorter HotrRs inceease Efficiency, and thus prevent Reduction of Output (1) Report of the United States Industrial Commission, 1900. Those States which are just now advancing to the position of man- ufacturing communities might well learn from these examples the lesson that permanent physical exhaustion of industrial progress cannot be built women and children. ... A upon the reduction in hours has never lessened the working-people's ability to compete in the markets of the world. States with shorter work-days actually manufacture their products at a lower cost than States with longer workdays. (Page 788.) History of Factory Legislation. Hutchins and Harrison. Bleachers in a petition to their employers, 1853 : We believe the such as to corroborate our statement that short hours produce more work and that of a better quality than under the old system. (Page 132. result generally is ) : 66 Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor. The testimony of those most unanimous who have adopted in its favor. No of the employees. many Many instance is the shorter time given of decreased wages, though report an increase, not only in wages, but in production. arguments against reduction made of the is al- reported an improved condition hours and over are answered by those time, 1872. and worked under that system All by those working eleven who have adopted the shorter for years. The advocates of eleven hours have utterly failed to sustain themselves in their con- tinued adhesion to a system that England outgrew twenty-two years ago ; a system unworthy of our State and nation, and one that would month if the victims of it were men instead of women and not last a children, as most of them are. (Page 240.) Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor. 1873. The overseer (of Pemberton Mills, Lawrence) informed us that they took the result of every half -hour's work, and upon inquiring the relative product of the different hours, he assured us that invariably the last hour was the least productive. (Page 246. Hon. William Gray, Treasurer of the Atlantic Mills, LavsTence, began the ten-hour experiment with the operatives in his employ, June, 1867, and his testimony concerning its practical and financial may be regarded as nearly, if not quite, authoritative and decisive. Ten and three-fourths hours had been the running time of this mill previous to this date. The result of this reduction is substansuccess tially as follows In three and a half years from the time of the change, the prodwas fully equal to the product of ten and three- uct of the hours fourths hours, and this was accomplished with old machinery that had been running for twenty years with very little change. With no material change in machinery, these results appear. First. An improvement in the operatives directly after adopting ten hours, which improvement has been going on and they now — have the best ; workers that have been in the mills for fifteen years, this being the opinion of the agent and overseers, as well as the treasurer. (Page 495.) set of : 67 Factory and Workshops Act Commission, 1875. Papers, 1876. Vol. XXX. British Sessional Testimony of Phillip Grant, representing operatives During the agitation for the ten-hours bill in the year 1844 or 1845, he (a cotton-spinner at Preston) reduced his time voluntarily to eleven hours instead of twelve, and at the end of twelve months he Mr. Hugh Mason did, that he had got a better quality of work and more of it in the eleven hours than he had in the twelve, and that is obvious to anybody who understands the process of reported, as following a machine. (Paragraph 8582.) Report of the British Factory Inspector, 1877. The women at the close of the twelve hours, which period con- stitutes the usual day's work, were tired and exhausted, and hardly did enough after that to pay for the gas consumed. Book sewers and folders are all paid by piecework, and if overtime were continued for a few weeks together their earnings would soon fall to about the same amount as when they worked the regular hours. Report of Massachkisetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor, 1881. It is much apparent that Massachusetts with ten hours produces as man or per loom or per spindle, equal grades being con- per sidered, as other States with eleven and more hours; and also that wages here rule as high, if not higher, than in the States where the mills run longer time. (Page 457.) But perhaps the most emphatic testimony is that of another carpet mill employing about twelve hundred persons. This mill, which has been running but ten hours for several years, and has during this period tried the experiment of running overtime, gives the following results. management and The manager supervision, the said, "I believe, with proper same help will produce as many goods, and of superior quality, in ten hours as they will in eleven. I judge so from the fact that during certain seasons, being pushed for goods, we have run up to nine o'clock, production was increased materially. and for the first month the After this, however, the help would grow listless, and the production would fall off and the quality of the goods deteriorate." (Page 460.) The reason is, the flesh and blood of the operatives have only ) : 68 much work in them, and it was all got out in ten hours, and no more could be got out in twelve and what was got extra in the first month was taken right out of the life of the operatives. (Page 461.) so ; Report of the Connecticut Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1886. Down to a certain point, the nations who work shorter hours not merely do better work, but more work than their competitors. In Russia the hands work twelve hours a day in Germany and France, eleven; in England, nine. Yet nine hours a day of English work ; mean more than twelve hours of Russian work. The laborer receives better wages, and at the same time the manufacturer gets a larger product so much larger that it is the Russian, the German, or the Frenchman who requires protection — against his English competitor in spite of the longer hours day's wages. and lower (Page 16.) Report of the German Imperial Factory Inspectors, 1886-1887. Report for Mittel and Unter Franken It has been repeatedly shown that a shortening of the working day does not lessen the value of the work done, because owing to the effort to prevent a decrease in the income, the shorter time is more profitably used. (Page 86.) Belgium. Commission du Travail, 1886. Inquiry into Industrial Labor. But Report of the Sessions of Brussels, 1887. shown that everything which makes the worker more more energetic, more intelligent, etc. (and these will be the results of greater leisure, and the observance of rules prescribed for hygiene, upon the subject of the hours of labor and rest), make him also more productive. Therefore the introduction of strong, it is more healthy, reforms indicates strongly that the final result will be a very great increase of production with a shorter time period for work. (Page 65. International Conference in Relation to Labor Legislation, Berlin, 1890. Alone, the nations hesitate to reduce the hours of work for fear modern machinery, experience has of competition, although, with abundantly proved that the countries with the shortest working day ) ) 69 maximum of production. These are the countries that produce under good conditions most cheaply that are most prosperous, and most feared as competitors in the world's markets. (Page 88. attain the ; Report of the Maine Bureau of Labor In my eleven hours in mills is Statistics, 1890. State, since the adoption of the ten hours in lieu of the and factories where machinery is employed, the universal verdict of manufacturers that their product is it as great under the ten-hour system as it was under the eleven-hour system, and I think that the same answer comes from every State that has adopted the ten-hom: system. Conditions of Female Labor in Toronto, by Toronto, 1891. Jean Thomson Scott. Experts say that the cost of production in the cotton trajie is where the wages are the highest and the hours shortest. Dr. Schulze Gaevernitz shows this specifically, because the standard of living of the workers has been raised and with it their general intelligence, enabling them to do more in a shorter time what I have called "intensive work." That is the opinion of experts on the trade throughout the actually the lowest — . . world. . They say that all over the world the cost of production lowest where wages are highest Report of the and hours German Imperial Factory shortest. is (Page 44. Inspectors, 1893. In most establishments the working day was eleven hours, not seldom the ten-hour day was introduced. The shorter day turned out well in all cases. (Liegnitz.) In a cigar-box and wrapper-mold factory given uniform working hours in summer and all adult workers were — a nine-hour time noon. The owner hours free at day, from seven to six, with two formerly less work is done than in this shorter time no asserts that in the longer time, the eleven-hours day. Report of the Imperial German Factory winter, (Kassel.) (Page 155.) Inspectors, 1893. The week workers expressed anxiety in many cases lest their wage be cut after the new regulations took effect, but our observation is that, in most cases, the pay of the women wage-earners remained unchanged. (Page 155.) 70 Report of the Connecticvi Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1893. As to the effect of reducing the working time to nine hours daily, no inquiry was made, but several employers stated voluntarily to agents of the bureau that their experience proved to them that production was as large in nine hours as it had been in ten. (Page 28.) Report of the The German Imperial Factory report of amount and value working day are also of of the The interest. Inspectors, 1895. work done in the reduced fact that the value of the work but slowly understood. A wool factory reduced their working day by one hour, in accordance with the law of June 1, 1891; subtracting the rest periods, it now is not in proportion to the hours of work is The owners assert that the amounts to ten and one-half hours. amount and value of work done by both males and females remain the same, while calls upon sick fund have greatly diminished. (Page 370.) Report of the German Imperial Factory Inspectors, 1898. In one laundry in Plauen, where the hours of the workers have been reduced from eleven to ten hours, it has been proved that the women accomplish fully as much as before this reduction. In a jute spinning and weaving factory in Cassel the ten-hour day was provisionally introduced at the request of the hands in September. Thus far it has worked so well that the shorter day will probably be retained. (Page 106.) Report of New York Bureau of Fortunately, statistics are at Labor Statistics, 1900. hand which afford simple but fairly Massachusetts industries are threatlabor legislation. In the first place, effective tests of the assertion that ened with ruin by restrictive Massachusetts' cotton industry, the business chiefly affected by shorthour laws, has fully kept pace with that of rival States in the North. Certain facts appear with distinctness, one of which is that the cotton industry of Massachusetts has not only grown steadily through- out the period of short-hour legislation, but pressive — has made larger gains than are States with less radical short-hour laws. — what is far more imshown by the adjacent In 1870, four years before had 39.5 per cent North Atlantic States six years after that law Massachusetts' proportion was 45 per cent; the enactment of the ten-hour law, Massachusetts of all the cotton spindles in the the passage of ; 71 it was 47.5 per cent, and in 1900 53.5 per cent. It is difficult what clearer proof could be demanded of the beneficial results of the Massachusetts short-hour laws of 1874 (sixty hours a week) and 1892 (fifty-eight hours). (Page 55.) in 1890 to see In all those departments of the factory in which wages are paid by piece-work — and these constitute probably not less than four-fifths of the whole, the proportion to fixed daily wages being daily on the has been found that the quantity produced in ten and one-half hours falls little short of that formerly obtained from twelve hours. In some cases it is said to be equal. This is accounted for increase — it by the increased stimulus given to ingenuity to make the mamore perfect and capable of increased speed, but it arises far more from the workpeople by improved health, by absence of that weariness and exhaustion which the long hours occasioned, and by their increased cheerfulness and activity, being enabled to work more steadily and diligently and to economize time, intervals of rest while at their work being now less necessary. (Page 50.) partly chines Report of the United States Industrial Commission, 1900. It is also Vol. VII. claimed that a shorter day would not lessen production hand work. Perhaps you would be interested in the experiwho had an establishment in Fitchburg where were made the balls used in bicycle bearings. When he first took charge of the establishment they were running ten hours a day, with even ment in of a gentleman when they ran eight, making fifty-eight were employed in inspecting the balls. They do this by touch, which becomes very perfect in time and sensitive to the least imperfection the balls are dropped into boxes, the perfect balls into one box and the imperfect ones into others, graded according to the imperfection. In the afternoon the work done by one woman in the morning is inspected by another, and thus there is a double inspection. He became persuaded that there was a certain strain in this work on the eyes, the fingers, and the attention, and finally he made up his mind that shorter hours would be better for it would the women and would not lessen the amount of work done be better for their health and quite as well for the business. Accordingly he directed the women's department to be run but nine hours a day. At first the women were very much distressed. As they were paid by the number of thousands of balls inspected, they thought it would permit them to earn less money but they sooh found that they the exception of Saturday, hours a week. Women ; — ; did just as many balls in the nine hours as they had heretofore done 72 and they had besides ten minutes' vacation in the middle Later, the time was of the morning session and in the afternoon. so much objection was not half. There and a shortened to eight hours was, and they object what the see they began to as at first, because half as in nine. At and a in eight much did just as soon found they hours, and it was eight shortened to time had been accounts the last (Page 63.) believed it could be cut down to seven and one-half. in the ten ; Report of the United States Industrial Commission, 1900. What I wanted to show was that the trend of intelligent business management is to the conclusion that when a person who is doing the work has less strain upon him, he will get out more work up to a cerand where the work !s done by the piece it is tain limit, in less time done with less dawdling and more diligence, nor is it so hard to work with that severe attention for less time as it is to work longer hours ; with less attention. Report of the (Page 64.) New York Department of Factory Inspection, 1901. It was feared by employers that to reduce the hours of labor was to reduce the quantity of products, and that in the competition for markets the longer hours would have a decided advantage but it has been demonstrated that the over the shorter hours ; lessening of the hours of labor does not, within certain hmits, an increase of products instead. Another phase of the subject has also come to the front gradually in the course of this agitation for a shorter work-day. It is that quality of product may be improved by a shorter day, and by this improvement in quality of the product has come to be considered the improvement of the quality of the laborer himself. (Page 562.) result in a decrease, but rather in Factory People and their Employers. By E. L. Shtjey. New York, 1900. Among for women. the most desirable things is the matter of shorter hours The experience of a number of leading manufacturers has indicated that equal results may be obtained in many forms of manufacture in the shorter hours. Fels & Co. of Philadelphia gradually reduced the time of their women from ten to eight hours, girls working five days in the week. At the same time wages have been practically increased. The Levy Bros. Co. (England) has 73 had a similar experience. The National Cash Register Co. same manner reduced its hours for women from ten to (Page 113.) Report of the New York Bureau in the eight. of Labor, 1901. " It men that every successive reduction of the hours of labor from fifteen hours to the Kmit, say ten or eleven hours in ordinary mercantile pursuits, effected not a proportional loss of product, not a loss at all, but a positive gain, especially if not only the present productive power Walker thus sums up Prof. r. A. is this general conclusion : the general belief of intelligent and disinterested of the body of laborers is considered, but also the keeping up of the full supply of labor in fuU numbers and unimpaired strength from generation to generation." (Page 562.) The Case for Edited by Mks. Sidney Webb. the Factory Acts. London, 1901. The direct and constant of employment is, . . . result of enforcing standard conditions to raise the capacity of the workers. The prevention of excessive or irregular hours of work, the require- ment of healthy conditions, and the insistence on decency in the factory or workshop the direct results of factory legislation represent exactly what is required to extricate the mass of working women from the slough of inefficiency in which they are unfortunately sunk. Hence, so far from regulation being any — — detriment to the persons regulated, a positive good. it is, as all experience proves, (Page 209.) Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1902. There was a general consensus of opinion that shorter hours and better sanitation enforced by legislation had been amongst . the causes tending to increase the efficiency of women workers, (Page 287.) Travail de Nuit des Femmes dans I'Industrie. Bauee. Jena, 1903. Peof. Etienne Before the enactment of the German Imperial Law of 1891 restricting the hours of labor of women there, overtime work was ; 74. concerned, occasional and irregular. already, In the industries The very great majority of the establishments affected were work- ing regularly eleven hours a day or less as early as 1892. Not one fact indicates that industry suffered under the restriction. The output, which, in a few establishments, diminished at soon regained its normal dimensions, thanks to the greater energy evinced by the employees. (Page 12.) first, Bulletin of the French Labor There are estabhshments 1903. Office, in which it may be affirmed, according to the statement of a district inspector of Nantes, that the proas the number of hours per day These are the industries in which the personal qualiof the worker are an important factor in production. (Page duction per hour increases decreases. ties 807.) Report of the Wisconsin Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1903—1904. Manufacturers maintain that by enforcing shorter hours they are unable to compete with those factories which are not hampered in this way. In order to test the truth or falsity of this claim, the Salford Iron Works of Manchester, England, voluntarily reduced the number of hours required for a day's work to eight. After giving the system a fair trial, the management declared that the character of work performed and wages paid remained about the same ; that although a depression in trade took place about the same time this experiment was being made, and competition was exceedingly fierce, the output was greater and the receipts larger than under the old system. The Salford Iron Works continue the eight-hour system to the present day, and other allied industries and the arsenal works and dock-yards are following example. (Page 140.) The Relation- of TANo. of New Labor to the Law of To-day. By Lujo Been- York. Why then does an increase in wages and a decrease in the time work in general lead to a greater capability for work ? Because higher wages and a shorter day's work make it possible for laborers to increase and satisfy their physical and spiritual needs because better food, more careful fostering, greater and more moral recreation increase the power to work, and because they 75 increase the pleasure in labor. in wages and a decrease ... In other words, an increase in the time of work lead to a greater performance, because they elevate the standard of hving of the laborer, a higher standard of living necessarily spurs to greater intensity of labor, and at the same time makes the same possible. (Pages 233, 234.) By Getting a Livmg. G. L. Bolen. Repeated shortening of the factory day has come because it was found that strength was saved, intelligence promoted, and that product and wages were both increased. (Pages 423, 424.) Long Houes Result (2) in Infeuigk. Quality of Report of the Massachusetts Bureau of Labor The Product Statistics, 1871. operatives vary in perfectness and productiveness as the day progresses; and if there should be a reduction to ten hours there would not be a loss of one-eleventh of the product. ... I wiU be found that much of the cloth made during the eleventh hour is of poorer quality than the rest, and that the necessity of looking it over the next day and fixing it all right lessens the product of that next day. ... I certainly believe that the think it may productive capacity of a set of work-people creasing the hours of their daily work. mately one of arithmetic, nor can it one-eleventh less or one-tenth more. by actual results on long-continued The be lessened by in- question is not legiti- be settled by argument about It is a question to be settled trial. (Page 498 ff.) Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1893. Arguments against overtime (i. e., two hours more than the and one-half) 1. That the work done during overtime is not equal, in amount or quality, to that done during the reguMr time. daily ten Dangerous Trades. It is : Thomas Omver, M. D. London, 1902. admitted that in iron-works and factories, where the hours of labor have been ^ unusually long, say ten and eleven hours, the 76 work done in the latter part of the day is not so good as that done in the forenoon. Women m the Prmtmg Trades. Edited hy 3. R. MacDonaid. London, 1904. From this it is evident that protection is viewed favorably by many employers, on the specific ground that it prevents systematic On the whole they are of the opinion that after overovertime. (Page 82.) time the next day's work suffers. 8 p. m. regularly, including to from 8 a. m. B. used to work was tired out at the end overtime, dishked She Saturdays. . . . and thought the other women were too, and how b^dly the work was done after eight Later on, as a forewoman, she noticed that hours at it. or nine loafed about the next day and did always overtime girls after the of a day's work, she had often noticed well. (Page 84.) Another forewoman gave it as her dehberate opinion that when overtime is worked the piece workers do not make more, as a rule, for they get so tired that if they stay late one night, they work not work less the next day. is the unanimous view held by the forewomen, and it comes with considerable force from them, as it is they who have to arrange to get work done somehow within a certain time. They are the people who have to put on the pressure, and are in such a posi- This tion as to see how any particular system of getting work done. (Page 87.) Hours and Wages m Relation Luigi Beentano. to Production. By degrees the employers themselves admitted that the last two hours, formerly considered indispensable, used generally to produce work far inferior to that of the preceding hours, and that owing to the greater industry of the employees, who no longer idled through the first hours of the day, the regular unbroken labor of the new working day 'was much more advantageous to the employees than the longer working day, with its alternations of overwork and indolence. So it came about, as a result of the curtailment of the working day, production did not diminish, but actually increased. (Page 29.) In the report of the Stuttgart Chamber of Commerce of 1890 we find, on page 47, a corset factory reports " Five years ago : 77 we returned to a ten-hour working day (with a half-hour pause in the morning and another in the afternoon) we find that our workwomen can get through very much more with regular work for ten or even nine hours, than when the working day is longer." (Page 36.) B. Effect on 'Regularity of Employment Wherever the employment of women has been promore than ten hours in one day, a more equal distribution of work throughout the year has followed. The supposed need of dangerously long and irregular hibited for hours in the season trades are shown to be unnecessary. In place of alternating periods of intense overwork with periods of idleness, employers have found it possible to avoid such irregularities by foresight and mjinagement. Report of Conference of Members of Women's Trade Unions on the Factory and Workshops Act, 1875. Vol. XXIX. The permission granted to season trades for the extension of the hours to fourteen per day, during certain periods of the year, should be withdrawn, with the view of equalizing the work through- out the year. . . . Bookbinders complained that the trade was most unnecessarily The existence of the considered by the law a season trade. modification made employers careless of due economy in time. . . . (Page 193.) Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1892. I am convinced that there is no necessity for this overtime ; the work or the press orders would be executed just the season-trade and many of work would only be spread over a longer period or mean the employment of more hands. Much of the good done by the Factory Act is undone by allowing delicate women and girls to work from 8 a. m. to 10 p. m. for two months (Page 89.) of the year. same if overtime were illegal, as it is in the textile the non-textile trades; the 78 Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1892. I believe that time is on the actual hands, nearly much of the apparent necessity for working over- simply the result of want of forethought and organization How little part of employers and their managers. protected part of overtime on the demand there is for Out of district will show. this I think the return from workshops, only factories and of nine thousand occupiers . . . about two hundred apparently avail themselves of the permission to work overtime but then these two hundred have between them two thousand occasions during the year. (Page made overtime on ; 88.) Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1900. One of the most unsatisfactory results of the present system or lack of system 'of working hours in laundries is the unfortunate on the women and girls of this irregularity. The difficulty of securing steady regular work from employees and of ensuring punctual attendance is complained of on all sides, and the more intelligent employers are beginning to see that this is the moral effect natural result of the irregularity in working hours. Workers who on one or tWo days in the week are dismissed to idleness or to other occupations, while on the remaining days they are ex. . . pected to work for abnormally long hours, are not rendered methodical, industrious, or dependable workers by such an unsatis- factory training. The self-control and good habits engendered by a regular and definite period of moderate daily employment, which affords an excellent training for the young worker in all organized industries, is sadly lacking, and, instead, one finds periods of violent overwork alternating with hours of exhaustion. The result is the estabHshment of a kind of " vicious circle " bad ; habits among workers make compliance by any regulation as to hours very difficult. their employers with (Page 385.) Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1902. By make their trade as regular as the overtime clauses have operated toward increased forcing the employers to possible, eflSciency. (Page 287.) 79 Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1903. A very important, perhaps from the economic point of view the most important, effect of legislation has been to spread the period of work more uniformly through the week, month, and year than had been the case before regulation. (Page 5.) Restriction is met by adaptation of manufacture or rearrangement of numbers employed and time at which work is done, women being still employed at the work. Thus, it will be seen that the loss of overtime is not necessarily a loss of work, but a redistribution (and an economical one, too) of the times a,t which work is done, and does not therefore mean a loss in income, but a steadying and regulation of income. (Page 13.) . . . C. Adaptation of Customers Experience shows how the to Shorter demands to the requirements of a fixed Hours of customers yield working day. When cus- tomers are obUged to place orders sufficiently in advance to enable them to be filled without necessitating overtime work, compliance with this habit becomes automatic. Factory and Workshops Acts Commission, 1875. sional Papers, 1876. Vol. British Ses- XXIX. A very large number of the orders of customers (to printers, which it has been usual to keep back to the last minute and then throw upon the already fuUy-burdened workers, not merely can be quite as easily given so as to have milliners, dressmakers, etc.), plenty of time for their completion, but also will be so given, and are in fact so given, when and so often as the customer is made to recognize that he otherwise runs the risk of not having his orders completed in time to suit his own convenience. . . . We may trust in time that the use of overtime in trades of this class (Page 41.) be restricted down to the vanishing point. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1903. The tendency to put off giving orders to the last moment is easily checked when the customer can be met with a universal legal prohibition. (Page 7.) 80 History of Factory Legislation. Htjtchins and Haekison. 1903. Tremenheere then took the opinion of certain of the merchants this point, and found them much more favorable to the extension of the Factory Act. ... A hmitation of hours might, it was admitted, occasionally produce inconvenience, but this would by degrees adjust itself. Merchants would have to think of thei» One bleacher very candidly adorders a little beforehand. mitted that knowing the bleacher would undertake to bleach and finish one thousand pieces of cloth in five days he often, in cases of sudden orders, gave him only five days to do it in but that, if the hours of the boys and women working were restricted so he would know the work could not be accomplished in that time, he should have to make his arrangements beforehand to give seven on . . . ; or ten days, or to send part of the order to another bleacher. It was pointed out that if a bleacher lost part of an order on one occasion it would be made up to him on another, and that very possibly the bleachers would enlarge their works and keep more hands ready. If legislation were alike for all, the outlay would do the trade no harm. Tremenheere arrived at the conclusion that a limitation of women's and boys' hours would cause the masters to enlarge their works and improve their machinery rather than chance losing an order. ... In 1857 the mere anticipation of some such measure had caused additions to be made both to buildings and machinery which would considerably augment the firms' power of getting speedily through an increased quantity. (Page 134.) . D. Incentive to Improvements in . . Manufacture The regulation of the working day has acted as a stimulus to improvement in processes of manufacture. Invention of new machinery and perfection of old methods have followed the introduction of shorter hours. Report of the Wisconsvn Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1903-1904. Wherever a uniform standard of wages, hours of labor, and wholesome sanitary conditions have been uniformly enforced, the result has been that laborers have been stimulated to render 81 greater services to their employers, and, in turn, employers strive to excel in improved machinery employees, sanitation, and devices for the protection of and methods of production in general. (Page 138.) That the enforcing of a certain standard in regard to hours and sanitary conditions compels employers to of labor, wages, continually seek more improved machinery and methods of production is as true in practice as in theory. (Page 140.) The Case for the Factory Acts. London, 1901. Edited by Mus. Sidney Webb. But the exemption from regulation is also responsible for corresponding deficiencies in the technical administration of the industry. The very fact that the employers are legally free to make their operatives work without limit, and to crowd any number them into one room, makes them disinclined to put thought and capital into improving the arrangements. We might indefinitely prolong the list of examples of the effect of the Factory Acts in improving the processes of manufacture. (Page 53.) of . . . Woman in Industry. R. Gonnard. Paris, 1905. The inspector of labor of Lyons says: " It has come about that this decrease of the legal maximum Hmit of hours of labor (ten hours a day), which went into effect the 28th of March, 1902, obliging the employer to pay a higher wage for overtime hours, has urged the manufacturers to replace their former equipment by machines of great producing power. In short, for the manufacturers in question, the regulation has become a powerful stimulus, which has driven them to do away with methods of manufacture already somewhat superannuated." (Page 78.) History of Factory Legislation. Hutchins and Haerison. 1903. If it could be shown that this regulated industry, far from suffering in competition with others, went ahead, improved its machinery, and developed a higher standard of comfort than its rivals, then, although the improvement might not be due to the legislation, there would be, at all events, a strong presumption 82 harm had been The improvement And what has was that good and not done. taken place. in the regulated industry . . . and conspicuous. clear this is (Page 121.) E, Effect on Scope of Women's Employment The establishment of a legal limit to the hours of result in contracting the sphere of her work. woman's labor does not Work and English Wages. By Thomas Beassey, 1st Baron Brassey. London, 1879. The argument that the tendency of the Factory Acts is to place an artificial restriction on the employment of women, and Foreign thus to depreciate the market value of this labor, is refuted on every hand by practical experience in the textile manufactories.- Here the restrictions upon women's work are the most stringent, and yet the tendency for a long series of years has been the opposite the proportion of women employed has steadily in• — The same creased. observation applies to occupations carried on in London. As many of the trades and for the rate of wages paid, is not an employer in the metropolis who will hesitate to acknowledge that there has been during the last ten or fifteen years a very substantial and important advance in the remuneration given to women for their work. (Pages S38, 339.) there The Case for the Factory Acts. Edited by Mrs. Sidney Webb. Loridon, 1901. But, it may be objected, that although Factory Legislation it annoys the employer, and makes him would improve the women, inclined to get rid of matter of is women fact, this course, altogether and employ men. As a though often threatened beforehand, Where women can be employed, their much cheaper than that of men that there is no chance being displaced. The work of men and women tending not in practice followed. labor is of their so automatically to differentiate itself into separate branches, it follows that there is very Httle direct competition between individual men and women. (Page 209.) 83 The Night-worJc of Women m Industry. Peofi E. Baueh. Jena, 1903. All the official Swiss figures indicate that the establishment of the normal, legal working day has never, or rarely, narrowed the field of women's industrial activity. upon the The restriction has exercised who compose the working world no notable influence. The results show how unfounded were the fears cherished both as to the loss for the working women of a part of their wage, and the advantages which arise from the regulation of the working day are, on the other hand, considerable for the whole body of the workers. (Page 38.) distribution of the classes of people _ History of Factory Legislation. It HtrTCHiNS and Haekison. 1903. surely extremely significant that whilst the attack on the is regulation of women's labor has been fruitless in better organized — — that is, in those which can make their wishes felt has taken effect precisely in those industries which are unorganized and collectively inarticulate. By the admission of the opposi- industries it tion itself, the women whose trades have been under State control now so strong, so efficient, so who most strongly disapprove of withdraw it from them. Yet we are for thirty, forty, or fifty years are well organized that even those State control do not wish to who to believe that to those are still working long hours, sanitary conditions. State control would haps ruin! in un- mean lowered wages, per- (Page 193.) Women's Worlc and Wages. By Edwakd Cadbury. London, 1906. This witness (Mr. Johnson, Sub-inspector of Factories) did not think that the limitation of hours of women would lead to the substitution of men for women, nor to any reduction of women's wages. He did not consider that there were many trades where men could be substituted for women, because of the nature of the work. This was an inteihgent and true forecast of what has actually happened. It is work by women often stated (Page 36.) by those who oppose regulation of women's legislation that the effect of such legislation is to displace in favor of this idea is men. Our inquiry seems to prove,- however, that erroneous, and that in the large majority of cases . . . it is other questions altogether that determine the division of labor A great deal of light has been thrown on the question of women's work and wages generally by the elucidation of the fact that as a rule men and women do different work, and the relation between men and women workers is, on the whole, that of two non-competing groups. It is quite true that that marginal division between the two groups is constantly shifting, but in the particular trades where this is the case the questions considered are the difference in wages between the two groups, their aptitude and physical fitness for certain work, and the fact that between men and women. women expect to leave work when married. (Page 39.) 85 UNIFORMITY OF RESTRICTION V. The arguments in favor of allowing overtime in seasonal trade or in cases of supposed emergency have gradually yielded to the dictates of experience which show that uniformity of restriction is essential to carrying out the purposes of the act. A. Allowance of Overtime Dangerous to Health Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1873. To my mind it seems verj fallacious reasoning to attempt to amongst females ... on the ground that, taking the year through, the hours of work average less than sixty weekly. A girl is not a whit less likely to be injured physically and morally by working fourteen hours a day in May and June because she has not to work more than seven hours in September and October. (Page 43.) In regard to milliners and dressmakers, I strongly deprecate justify overtime the granting of " fourteen-hour permissions," which only unsettle Such hours are very (Page 134.) the trade, and are quite unnecessary. ous to the girls employed. injuri- Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1898. Sixty hours' actual work in a normal week may be considered as a reasonable amount by the average laundry girl, but when one day in the week is a whole holiday, prescribed by the Factory Act, and she is still required to work sixty hours in the remaining five days, she apparently seems to feel that she is not being fairly taking away with one hand what it gave with the other. Several complaints have been received of sixty hours' employment in a laundry on the five consecutive days dealt by, and that the law is following a statutory holiday, as of something illegal, and a visit 86 paid in response to one of these on a Saturday following a Monday Bank (holiday) found manageress, women, and girls tired out and murmuring that a holiday which had to be made up for as they had made it up was no holiday. (Page 107.) Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories cmd Workshops, 1901. It is often said that the rigidly fixed hours for in factories tend to make work and meals of the worker a machine, taking no actual personal interest in her work, while actually the effect is to help her, the work does not occupy too great a part of the day, to be a person of some vigor interested in the work, but not entirely to the if exclusion of other things, for which she can count on regular periods of leisure. B. (Page 178.) Uniformity Essential for Purposes of Enforcement In order to establish enforceable restrictions upon working hours of women, the law must fix a maximum working day. Without a fixed limit of hours, beyond which employment is prohibited, regulation is practically nullified. Exemptions of special trades from the restriction of hours not only subject the workers in such industries to injurious overwork, but go far to destroy the whole intent of the law. The difficulties of inspection The Case for the Factory Acts. London, 1901. become insuperable. Edited by Mrs. Sidney Webb. To accede to the demand for greater elasticity is to suppose a higher code of morals on the part both of employers and of employed than experience justifies, and it would also render necessary a far more elaborate and irritating system of inspection than at present exists. The efficiency of modern factory industry de- — pends very greatly upon automatic working upon its standardization of conditions and the existing factory law with its inelastic provisions is, in reality, a great aid in maintaining those conditions ; of efficiency. (Page 93.) 87 Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1873. From the point of view of one empowered to carry out the law, I consider these modifications in favor of " season trades " as most They immensely increase -the difficulties of inspecintroduces an element of uncertainty and dissatisfaction into the relations between inspector and inspected, which cannot but be productive of ill results. For a law to be thoroughly unfortunate. and tion, it respected and obeyed, there should be no apparent partiality or contradiction in its provisions, and if it is to work with ease and efficiency these cannot be too completely simplified. (Page 134.) Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1873. The difficulty of acquiring evidence, too, of this overwork is very employment on the disclosure of facts is so deterrent of exact information by the oppressed workers that they will not appear before the magistrates to support the great, for the danger of loss of Sub-Inspector in his attempt to protect them, however urgently or indignantly that protection has been claimed. (Page 44.) Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1898. Nothing has been more striking than the difficulties surrounding the law affecting laundries. The immensely long hours, the absence of any conditions as to mealtimes other than that there an hour in every five hours' spell, and the manner in extraordinary which overtime is at present worked, combine to make the inspection of laundries more difficult and more (Page ineffectual than in any trade I have had under my notice. shall be at least half 107.) Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1900. The existence of an exemption in the fish-curing trade has ren- It is difllcult and uncertain in result. noteworthy that in this trade, in which overtime is permissible to women on sixty occasions in the year, I have never found overtime The occupiers do not find them notices in use in any workshop. dered the administration 88 Starting with an exemption for one process, that of " gutting, salting, and packing," the industry would seem to have necessary. shaken itself gradually free from control, until now we find fish that have been in salt for several weeks dealt with as perishable Given plenty of time and unsuitable surroundings, every some extent perishable, and when a herring has been kept in salt for some weeks there is no reason for working on it at night except the reason that the day will bring other work, and in this seems to he the cause of much of the late and irregular hours of the fish-curing trade. articles. article of food is to . One . . want of regulation leads is the practice of employing the same person in the same day in processes controlled by the Acts, and in those outside their control. ... In another case in which a curer had a factory and also a kippering shop in the same town, the workers went from one to the other, always sure of their full day's work in the factory, followed very often by five or six hours' work in the other shop. (Page of the evils to which this 383.) The Case for the Factory Acts. London, 1901. Edited by Mrs. Sidney Webb. — The fact that exceptions lead always to illegalities that a permission to work till ten at night leads constantly to work till one or two in the morning -appears frequently. (Page 153.) — Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1902. After six years' experience of the effect of the present regulais impossible not to feel greatly depressed by the result; the elasticity of the law has tended to encourage rather than check these unsettled hours. (Page 174.) tions, it Labor Laws for Women in Germany. Dr. Alice Salomon. Published by the Women's Industrial Council. London, 1907. Unfortunately, however, the law provides for a number of exceptions to the above rules respecting the hours of labor, exceptions which render adequate control difficult and greatly weaken the effect of the law. (Page 5.) 89 C. Uniformity Essential to Justice to Employers To grant exceptions from the restriction of hours to certain industries places a premium upon irregularity and the evasion of law. When restrictions are uniform, the law operates without favor and without injury to employers are able to grant their employees reductions of hours, even if they are convinced of its advantages, when their competitors are under no such obligation. Justice to the employer as well as to the individuals. Few employee therefore requires that the law set a fixed hmit of hours for working women and a Hmit fixed for all alike. Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Worldshops, 1873. In regard to " season trades " modification, the employers in favor of the modifications, argue, that it would be, firstly, a hardship upon them should they be unable to fulfil a large order unexpectedly coming in that it would be calculated to drive their trade from them to others, either employing more workers or not ; at that time so busy. To this I answer that the hardship to themselves that the employers here complain of is only one which they would share in common with every other trader and manufacturer in the country, which are happily prevented by legislative enactment from gratifying their cupidity oy caprice at the expense of others and that the establishment of a uniform system of hours of labor would place all upon a more equal footing in the very matter complained . . . ; of than in point of fact they are on now. There can be no doubt that much uncertainty and dissatisfacexists amongst trades generally at the granting unusual privileges to certain selected ones, and that this is a serious ob(Page struction to the performance of the duties of inspection. tion 134!.) Report of the Massachusetts Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1881. As a further result, we have found that a large majority of the manufacturers would prefer ten hours to any greater num- 90 ber, " if only all would agree to it." Repeatedly has it occurred, when our agents have made known their errand, that almost the first words of the manufacturer would be, " It (ten hours) would be better for manufacturer and operative, if it could only be made universal " and these words, always spoken so spontaneously as to show that they were the expression of a settled conviction, may be fairly taken to express the united wisdom of the manufacturers (Page 458.) of textile fabrics in New York and New England. As one reason for this it was constantly said, that, if all worked but ten hours, then it would be the same for all, and so everybody would have just as fair a chance for success under ten as now under more hours. (Page 459.) ; , Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1900. A lack of loyal adherence to reasonable hours of employment by many laundry occupiers increases the difficulty for those who make the attempt in real earnestness. Many employers gladly welcome further regulation as a means of organizing and controlling their workers. " What is the use of my making the effort to so organize my work that the laundry shall close at 8 p. m. like other reasonable work-places do," said a disheartened employer; " all the neighboring laundries are open until nine, ten, or even eleven o'clock, and my women find it suits their irregular habits to my premises they laundry till 9.30 or 10 next morning. If we all had to keep the same rules and close at the same time, the law would work fairly as it is I must just scramble on with the others in the stupid expensive old way." (Page 385.) go and work in these places after they leave are then too tired out to arrive at ; my ; The Case for the Factory Acts. London, 1901. Edited hy Mrs. Sidney Webb. Now and again an employer complains of some hard experience, and forgets that a departure from rigid rule would destroy the certainty which he feels that the law is treating him exactly as it is his competitors. Such a feeling of security is essential to business enterprise. (Page 93.) 91 Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories cmd WorJc' shops, 1902. I have discussed this matter with numbers of all classes conwho are at present availing themselves to cerned, even to those the full of the concessions under the law, and with hardly any exceptions they have agreed that if we, as factory inspectors, could insure that nowhere should the unprincipled be able to steal a march on those who observed the law, and all overtime abolished, they would be more than satisfied. They freely admit the evils resulting from overtime, and these can be spoken to by all my colleagues, and I think in all large towns by the police. (Page 88.) The innumerable loopholes and subterfuges which it affords to a sharp and unscrupulous employer places his more stupid or more scrupulous competitor at an unfair disadvantage, which is prevent- and therefore should be prevented. The broad, clear limitations, easily understood and capable of being exactly and thoroughly enforced, which apply to other industries under the Act, impose the same obligations and provide the same protection for able, all alike. This is impossible where regulations cannot be properly enforced and can be continually evaded with success. (Page 174.) — 92 THE REASONABLENESS OF THE TEN-HOUR DAY VI. Factory inspectors, physicians, and working women are unanimous in advocating the ten-hour day, wherever it has not yet been estabhshed. Some indeed consider ten hours too long a period of labor; but as opposed to the unregulated or longer day, there is agreement that ten hours is the maximum number of working hours compatible with health and efficiency. A. Opinions of Physicians and British Sessional Papers. From Du. Loudon. Officials 1833. Vol. XXI. fourteen (years of age) upwards, I would recommend that no individual should, under any circumstaiices, work more than twelve hours a day although if practicable, as a physician, I would prefer the limitation of ten hours for all persons who earn their bread by industry. Ten working hours a day are in fact thirteen hours, allowing an hour for dinner, half an hour for breakfast, half an hour for tea-time, half an hour for going, and the same for returning from work. (Page 24!.) ; Report of Special Committee to inquire as to the Propriety of reducing the Hours of Labor. Document. House, 1865. Massachusetts Legislative' — This (system of ten hours) is now very generally in use, the exceptions being in manufacturing towns and corporations, where they now require women and children to work eleven — one hours daily our opinion (Page . . . — hour more than in England a disgrace in to Massachusetts and an outrage on humanity. 2.) Report of the Special Commission on the Hours of Labor. Massachusetts Legislative Documents. House, 1866, No. 98. in Dr. Tewksbury has been a practising physician eighteen years Lawrence, and a close observer of the health and morals of 93 Thinks long confinement operatives. in mills for meals injurious, and that ten hours a day and is insufficient time better than eleven or twelve hours. Dr. Sargent, Ten hours women. many years practising physician in Lawrence: a day enough for strong men ; too long for delicate (Page 63.) House, 1867, No. 44. Massachusetts Legislative Documents. I recommend, as the result of my investigations, and in view of the expressed wish of the interest of labor in the factories, . . . the enactment of ten hours as a legal standard for a day's labor. (Page 141.) Conclusions and Recommendations. Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor, 1872. 1. That the hours of labor are too long [for women], and that the enactment of a law the preliminary step to remedy the evil is restricting labor in all manufacturing and mechanical establish- ments in the State to ten hours per day or to sixty hours per week. (Page 96.) Report to the Local Governing Board on Proposed Changes in Hours and Ages of Employment in Textile Factories. By British Sessional J. H. Beldges, M.D., and T. Holmes. Papers. Vol. LV. 1873. 7. Q. Do you half hours) is think that the present day's work (ten and onetoo long for young persons under twenty or for the grown-up women.? A. Yes. Nine and one-half hours appears sufficiently long for young persons under twenty, but eight hours would, ceteris paribus, more greatly conduce to their health. For women over twenty, nine and one-half hours is a reasonable time so long as they remain unmarried. (Page 40.) Factory and Workshops Act Commission, 1875. British Sessional Papers, 1876. Vol. XXIX. Appendix D. 87 c. One of the evils arising from female labor hours they are allowed to work, being so many is the numbers of hours in excess of 94 a great deal of male labor. We would suggest that all females, married and single, commence work not earlier than 8 a. m. and not work later than 7 p. m. (Signed) Edwakd Bennett. Saul Hingley. Permsylvania. Part III. Arnnual Report of Secretary of Internal Affairs. Industrial Statistics, 1880-1881. Vol. IX. among the working people and 1835, extending through many years. The custom of working twelve and thirteen hours per day became exceedingly obnoxious to the working classes, and great efforts were made to prevail upon proprietors to reduce Injury to health, no the number of hours to ten per day. The agitation of the ten-hour system of this State began as far back as 1834 . . . time for leisure, recreation, or study, a total deprivation of social and innocent pleasure, by an aU-work and bed system, was the great plea of the laborer, while the stereotyped objection of the employer was, that a reduction of the hours would curtail production, and thus render them unable to compete with Kke establishments in other sections of the country. (Page 100.) That ten hours per day is fuUy as much as should be exacted from the employees we think cannot be gainsaid, and such is the spirit of the law, as well as the sentiments of all who take an interest in promoting the welfare of mankind in general and of labor in particular. The justice of both law and sentiment becomes more apparent when we contemplate the class of laboi employed in factories and their relation to future generations. To the strong and sturdy male adult the task of being compelled to labor more than ten hours per day might not seem arduous, more especially where the work assigned to him is not of such a character as to be a drain upon his physical constitution; but, while this exception may possibly be granted, its compulsory exac- from the large number of women, girls, and young children employed admits of no excuse. In the returns received by the Bureau, the number of women and girls over fifteen years of age employed are 23,076; boys under sixteen, 4,183, and 3,548 girls under fifteen. These figures, without special analysis, we presume are sufficient to convince the most sceptical of the wisdom of a systematic enforcement of the ten-hour law by proper legislation, to the end tion . . . . , 95 that youtb be protected, the condition of hfe be ameliorated, and the future of our State be promoted. Nor should the law be confined to factories alone, but extended to all industries where women and children are in any manner apt to be employed to the detri- ment of hfe and health. (Page 104.) Condition of Female Labor ki Toronto. Scott. 1891. By Jeax Thompson The clause in the Act which allows a different apportionment of the hours per day in case of shorter hours on Saturday is an unfortunate one, because it would permit an average of eleven hours a day for to work. five days in the week — far too long a period for women (Page 29.) Report of the Maine Bureau of Industrial and Labor Statistics, 1892. In view of all the facts in the case, we were led to accept the ten-hour day, and it has proved a better day for all concerned than the twelve or fourteen hour day. In many industries the workers are employed at piece work, and do not average over eight hours a day, and in this they simply follow natural law and stop work when they feel that a good day's work has been accomplished and feel so tired as to need rest or change. (Page 11.) Report of the German Imperial Factory Inspectors, 1895. For adult working women, with very few exceptions, the elevenhour working day is the rule. In Wiirzburg several establishments have ten hours. In the length of the working day there is no conspicuous difference between factories and workshops ( Aschaffenburg) As to the customary working hours in Hamburg the following summary is enlightening. The working day of women varies from eight to eleven hours. 8 8-8i hours and " less in 10 places with 115 women. 96 New York Department Report of the of Factory Inspection, 1897. Any woman employed at manual labor for ten consecutive hours per day, and constantly employed, is performing a task beyond her strength, whether she is just under or over twenty-one years of age. (Page 25.) Report of the Commission Superieure du Travail. Paris, 1897. Twelve hours of steady work is an exertion which any young women cannot often repeat except at the expense of health. The result of overtime work in the evening for a woman of any age is physical deterioration when it does not lead to moral deterioragirls or (Page 100.) tion as well. Report of the New York Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1900. From that time (1881) to this, public opinion in Massachusetts has upheld the ten-hour law, and approved the extension of its principles. (Page 53.) Industrial Conference National Civic Federation, 1902. The most striking fact about this question of hours of labor me its universaHty. In virtually every country dominated seems to by Western civiKzation the daily work-time in mechanical industries is being cut down by successive movements that appear to be as inevitable as the tide, and that have the appearance of steps in the path of human progress. (George Gunton, page 190.) That the time is now ripe for another general reduction in the daily working time is indicated by the testimony of physicians and . . . the mortality statistics of occupations. Medical research shows that a ten-hour day in modern industry calls for an expenditure of either muscular or nervous energy or both depending upon the nature of the Weber, Chief work — that Statistician, — inevitably shortens New York Department life. (A. F. of Labor, page 200.) Report of the California Bureau of Labor A suggestion Statistics, 1904. made, which it is hoped will have the serious consideration of the people and of the legislators of the State and it is, namely, that an amendment be made to the Constitution of California, providing, as is done by the Constitution of Massachuis ; ) 97 setts regarding that State, that our legislature shall, by appropriate legislation, provide for the health and welfare of women wage-earners in this State. (Page 133. The WorJcing Hours of Female Factory-hands. From the Reports of Factory Inspectors, collated in the Imperial Home Office. Published by The Von Decker. Berlin, 1905. inspector for Breslau says, " The reduction of the working day to ten hours is such a decided step in advance, and is of such marked and wholesome influence on the mental, physical, and moral status of the entire working population, that its introduction should be emphatically urged." The day for inspector for Cologne says, " all women over sixteen years The reduction of the working must be regarded as a necessity for both moral and hygienic reasons." The of the inspector for (fl) (b) (c) (d) are all Hanover says, " The reasons working day to ten hours — for the reduction The physical organization of woman, Her maternal functions, The rearing and education of the children, The maintenance of the home — so important and so far reaching that the need for such education need hardly be discussed." Another inspector says, " Considering the detrimental physical defect of factory work, its nerve-exhausting character, its ruinous influence all on family life, and the care of children, and, indeed, under the aspects of the physical, moral, and mental development of day for women must be regarded as an emphatic demand and a moral obligation, whose introduction must be urged after a careful and conscientious weighing of all the reasons for and against it." (Page 106.) the working class, the reduction of the legal working Report of the Washington Bureau of Labor The present law Statistics, 1905-1906. prohibits the employment of any female worker any one calendar day. Splendid results have been obtained through the operation of this law, for much as one may dislike to credit it, there are employers who would insist upon working their female help from twelve to sixteen, hours per day did the law not stand in their way. for a longer period than ten hours in 98 There is peculiar necessity for protecting through legislative means those classes of female workers who are employed in laundries, factories, and other similar industries. Eight hours of continuous work of that character is as much as should be exacted ,f rom any woman, and there is general agreement among those who have investigated the subject that the well-being of the community would be consulted through the adoption of an eight-hour day for all women employed in such occupations. (Page 18.) Edited by Mrs. Sidney Webb. The Case of the Factory Acts. London, 1901. No one who studies the actual working of the Factory Code can doubt that it will be perfected just in the measure in which all these differences are abolished and an equal adequacy of protection extended to all the places and all the persons who work. The ideal is that the regulations of for gain is all places in which manufacturing work carried on should approximate as closely as possible to those which obtain in the most completely guarded places, namely, . the textile factory is cursed by no such the textile factories . . overtime exception as elsewhere undermines the value of the hours' Hmitation. The overtime exception Is doomed. Unless some .unforeseen change in our industrial conditions revolutionizes the present order of things, the total abolition of overtime for women must follow on that for young persons, which was virtually accomphshed by Mr. Asquith in 1895. The case for abolition was as clearly proved as the complete consensus of opinion on the subject of those who work under the exception and those who have to enforce it could prove anything. The opinions of H. M. Inspectors of Factories and the opinions of the organized women workers were all but unanimous against allowing any overtime. These opinions, the expression of which dates back to the Royal Commission of 1875, are based on arguments which carry with them conviction on many grounds. Over and over again the view is stated that with better . . . organization of the business the need for overtime disappears. Cases are quoted to prove that many large dressmaking and mil- linery firms never avail themselves of this exception, object lesson of the textile trade is given. In and the great all textile factories, and in a great many non-textile factories, to which no exception has been granted, organization and management quite easily cope 99 with the recurring season pressure, and the trade automatically adapts itself to the law's requirements. In other non-textile fac- and workshops, to which the overtime exception has been extended, demands no more urgent are met by the deliberate overtaxing of the workers' health and strength. (Page 153.) tories In 1878, when this industry (fruit-preserving (jam-making) was first brought under inspection, the employers protested against any regulation of the hours of labor, or even of sanitation, during the jam-making season, on the plea that the fruit had to be dealt with as it was delivered. The House of Commons, instead of insisting that the employers should exert their brains so as to cope with difficulties inherent in their particular trade,' weakly accepted their plea, and exempted them from the Common Rules enforced on other industries. What has been the result.'' The majority of British jam factories at the beginning of the twentieth century present, during the summer months, scenes of overwork, overcrowding, dirt and disorder, hardly to be equalled by the cotton mills at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Women and young girls are kept continuously at work week-days and Sundays alike often as much as a hundred hours in the seven days and sometimes for twenty or even thirty hours at a stretch. As if on purpose to complete the proof that these shortcomings are not inevitable in the business, and are merely the result of a disastrous exemption from regulation, we have the fact that, here and there, in different parts of the kingdom, a few firms stand out as preferring the " upward way " ; scientifically organizing their supphes, providing cold storage, working their operatives only normal hours, and seeing to it that the work-places are clean and healthy. If the " downward way " were barred by law, as it is in cotton-spinning, all jam-making firms would long ago have been forced into the same course. (Page 50.) factories) ; ; . . . B. Opinions of Employees History of Factory Legislation. Hutchdsts and Haeeison. In June, 184!7, after the Bill became a law the rejoicings throughout the manufacturing districts were such as had never (Page 96.) been known before. In order to test the general feeling, 10,270 adult male laborers ) 100 were examined as to their views on the question, and of these seventy per cent declared for a ten-hours day (for women and young persons) even though it might involve a reduction in in ten factories wages. (Page 99.) Report of the Massachusetts Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1871. I have worked what is called ten hours a day, and the ten-hour system always has a good influence on the work-people. We don't lose one-eleventh of the pay, everybody knows that. I did n't lose a (Page single cent, because I did n't get so much exhausted. . . . 498.) To prove the soundness of the ten-hour claim, the operatives instance the reduction in the past, from sixteen to fourteen, to thirThey also teen and to twelve, and from twelve to eleven hours. point to the twenty-one years' experience in Great Britain, where the reduction was made in 1850 from twelve to ten, a reduction of (Pages 557-568. one-sixth of the working day. Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1877. " Since the meeting of the Trades Union Congress at Leicester, however, I have made it my business to ascertain, so far as I could, the opinion of women employed in different occupations in London as to the influence of the Factory Acts, and I can say confidently that without a single exception I have found the limitations imposed upon their hours of work most cordially approved of, and the greatest anxiety and positive alarm entertained at the prospeat of any relaxation which would expose them to the irregular and uncertain hours of work which prevailed prior to the passing of the Factory Act of 1867. Among what class of working-women of London it can be pretended that the regulations and restrictions imposed by the Factory Acts are unpopular, I confess I am altogether at a loss to understand. All I can say is that notwithstanding most diligent inquiry I have entirely failed to meet with them. ..." A F states: "... I decidedly prefer to work the hours fixed by the Factory Acts. After working as a book-folder for about five years I left, as I found the long and irregular hours made me ill. I have never had any illness since the Factory Act came into operation. The general opinion among the women in the 101 shop is that they prefer working under the Factory Act, and th^ grumble much when they are kept later than eight o'clock." E B a book sewer, says " I have been six years em, : ployed in the sewing department. I am very well satisfied with the Factory Acts as they are, and I think all the sewers are of opinion that it is a good law, as it prevents excessive overwork. I had no experience of the trade before the passing of the Factory Act, but from what I have been told, the state of things must have been dreadful. I have never heard any of the women complain of the Factory Act in any way, nor of its preventing them from getting employment ; and as far as I can judge, the number of women employed in the book-binding trade is increasing." (Pages 12, 13.) Report of the Massachusetts Bureau of Labor What reply. is Statistics, 1881. the greatest desire of the factory operatives.'' Beyond operatives of America, relative to employment, . . seers, We question, one of the greatest desires of the factory all is for ten hours. We have examined hundreds, a large part of them overand altogether the greater part of them are in favor of ten . hours anyway, let the pay come as it will. Report of Connecticut Bureau of Labor (Page 4)64.) Statistics, 1888. The law forbidding the employment of women and children for more than ten hours per day, or sixty hours per week, has met with general public favor. tiously obeyed- In a majority of cases the law is conscien- (Page 25.) Report of the Connecticut Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1890. The violation of this law is objected to by the most of the working people, on the ground that ten hours out of twenty-four make as long a day as women and children should ever be required to work. (Page 29.) . . . Report of the German Imperial Factory Inspectors, 1895. In regard to efforts made to abolish female labor in factories, " Among the the inspector for the Dresden district remarks : workers themselves, even married women, there is no emphatic desire to prohibit industrial work for women, provided that this labor did not occur at night or on was subject to certain limitations, ten hours by day." (Page 93.) Sundays, and did not last more than — 102 Report of the German Imperial Factory Inspectors, 1895. " For the working-women, even for those who suffer loss of wages, the ten-hours day on Saturday, closing at 5.30 is very welcome, as they have stated in numerous cases, and there is no doubt that the law meets the wishes of the workers." Report of the New York Bureau of (Page 150.) Labor Statistics, 1900. We have thus seen how industrial efficiency has been improved to such an extent by legislative restrictions upon the hours of labor that the maximum length of the working day for women and minors has been successively reduced until it is nine and one-half in England and virtually the same in Massachusetts (fifty-eight hours a week), and that the extension of such legislation has been, and stiU is, desired by the operatives themselves, who would naturally be the principal sufferers duction. if such a policy really meant diminished pro- (Page 58.) Labor Laws for Women in Germany. Dr. Alice Salomon. lished by Women's Industrial Council. London, 1907. Pub- A chief means to this end, desired not merely by the women of Germany, but by most of her great political parties, is the reduction of the maximum working day to ten hours (to start with), a demand long since ripe for settlement, which has been proved practicable by enquiries of a Government Commission. For this concession working-women have already fought many a hard battle, and it ought no longer to be withheld from them, especially in view of the fact that most firms employing women have already adopted the ten-hours day, so that the legal enforcement of this measure would merely compel backward employers to bring their establishments up to date, (Page 9.) C, Opinions of Employers Report of the German Imperial Factory Inspectors, 1884. Report for the Rhine Province, District of Dusseldorf Wolf: The whether — Dr. question as to the length of the working day and as to it should be regulated by the State has been much discussed. 103 At a meeting at Gladbach of Textile Manufacturers it was resolved " that the length of the working day can be effectively regulated only by the laws of the country, and that such regulation should be urged." (Page 150.) Report of the German Imperial Factory Inspectors, 1888. The report for the district of Chemnitz says that the manufac- turers of that district have repeatedly expressed a desire for the (Page 114.) introduction of the ten-hour day. United States Industrial Commission, 1900. We may find that it is desirable in time to do by law what a few persons are doing voluntarily. It is in that way that the original ten-hour law was tried tentatively in England a few manufacand found that their ten hours as they theretofore had been turers tested the matter in their people could do as much in doing in twelve and thirteen (Page ; own that ; factories made the law seem reasonable. 64-.) Women in the Printing Trade. Edited hy J. R. MacDonald. London, 1904. Some employers, like Mr. Bell, admit candidly enough that legisthem to be more humane (and humanity in this respect pays) than they could otherwise afford to be. The Act is " a great relief," such an employer has said. " Legislation is an lation enables excellent thing ; existing hours are quite long enough. has not done her work by If a person the time they are up, she never will do it." " The Factory Acts are a very good thing," another has said. " Legislation Is a very good thing. I don't believe in long hours. Employers are often shortsighted and think that workers are like but this the longer you work them the more they do machines . — . . ; they work from nine to seven they have is not really the case; for." " The good done by the Facare good done as much as they outweighed any evils or hardships." (Page tory Acts has quite if 82.) 104 VII. The LAUNDRIES specific prohibition in the Oregon Act of more than ten hours' work in laundries is not an arbitrary discrimination against that trade. Laimdries would probably not " be included under the general terms of " manufacturing or " mechanical establishments " and yet the special dangers of long hours in laundries, as the business is now conducted, present strong reasons for providing a legal ; limitation of the hours of work in that business. A. Present Character of the Business Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor. Laundries: Much of this 1872. work is very fatiguing, and but few month to month. (Page 96.) are able to endure the labor from Dangerous Trades. Thomas Ouver, Medical Expert on Danger- ous Trades Committees of the XLVII. Home Office. 1902. Chapter Laundry Workers. is perhaps difficult to realize that the radical change which everywhere transformed industrial conditions has already affected this occupation (laundry work) also, and that for good or for evil the washerwoman is passing under the influences which have so profoundly modified the circumstances of her sister of the It has When the first washing spinning-wheel and the sewing needle. machine and ironing roUer were applied to this occupation, alteration in the conditions became as much a foregone conclusion as it did in the case of the textile or the clothing manufactures, when the spinning frame, the power loom, or the sewing machine appeared. Meanwhile, few industries afford at the present time a more interesting study. From a simple home occupation it is steadily being transformed by the application of power-driven machinery and by the division of labor into a highly organized factory industry, in which complicated labor-saving contrivances of kinds play a prominent part. The tremendous impetus in all the adoption of machinery, and the consequent modification of the 105 system of employment so striking in the large laundries, is not greater than the less obvious but even more important development in the same direction among small laundries. Indeed the difference is rapidly becoming one of degree only. may In the large laundries be found perhaps more machinery and a greater number of the newest devices, but the fundamental change has affected all ahke. " With this advent whole character of the and more evident that, industry is passing — of machinery and subdivision of labour, the It is becoming more from the smallest to the largest laundry, the has indeed in some respects already passed out of the peculiar position which it has hitherto occupied, and industry has changed. — taking its place alongside ordinary trades." ' The manufacture of laundry machinery, to which much energy and capital is devoted, is every year increasing. New and ingenious inventions and improvements constantly appear, many of is which come from America, whence a considerable amount of this machinery is imported. The " calender machine " has been adapted to laundry work, and is now commonly found in quite small laundries; it consists of huge steam or gas heated cylinders, varying from four to eight or nine feet long, either revolving singly in a metal bed, as in the case of the " decoudun," or on each other, as in the case of the The hnen is generally drawn in under multiple-roller calenders. which thus " iron " it smooth and rollers, revolving the hot, as each damp article passes under arising steam cloud of glossy, a to so put the work under required care is Constant roller. the drawn under; want of also are not hands the that the machine accident, and even where care is an by followed be attention may string or hole in the in a entangled be may fingers the exercised material and the hand thus drawn in. The heat given off by these machines is sometimes very great; a temperature of over 90° F. may be registered even in winter on the feeding-step in front of this machine. ... at which little girls stand all day long. (Pages 663-666.) This work is not the light and often pleasant occupation of sewing or folding. It is not done sitting down. From morning to night these young gii;ls are constantly standing; they are generally tending machines, the majority of which are specially heated, and they work in an atmosphere in which steam, which • Annual Report of the Chief Inspector of Factories for 1900. 106 nearly always present, makes the high temperature far more oppressive than would be the case if the air were not thus artiSteam ficially saturated to an excessive degree with moisture. given oif It is rises from the calenders and various machines. is by the damp clothes, which in majiy laundries, even large ones, hang drying or airing overhead or on " horses " in the room. The conditions in this respect are often at least as trying as in any spinning-mill, and the hours during which the girls are exposed to them very much longer. (Page 670.) also Third Biennial Report of the Bureau of Labor Sta1891-1892. Part II. Female Wage Earners. the hours of employment during the rush fresome laundries In quently extend to eleven and twelve hours per day, although no extra compensation is paid to female employees, with but few ex- Colorado. tistics, ceptions. . . . While machinery to a large extent relieves her much work, the full strength of taxed by a tedious attention to the (the female laundry worker) of her physical endurance duties assigned her. B. is (Page 28.) Bad Effect upon Health Report of British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1900. The whole work of a laundry, is done standing, and the pracapportioning the legal " sixty hours a week " that on three or four days in the week the women have to work from a practice which could be, and 8 A. M. to 10 or 11 at night where there is proper organization often is, rendered needless has its natural result in the form of disease to which laundry workers are extremely liable. It is well known that they suffer much from varicose veins, and terrible ulcers on the legs but the extraordinary extent to which they are so afflicted is, I think, not generally known. In many other trades standing is a necessary condition, and it is difficult to account for the far greater prevalence of this disease among laundry workers than among others of the same class engaged in ordinary factory occupations, except on the ground of the long and irregular hours. (Page 383.) tice of so — — ; With a view to arriving, if possible, at some definite knowledge of the position of laundry workers as compared with other women of their class and situation, in regard to the question of health, I have this year devoted some time to inquiring into the 107 subject in the districts under localities. . . . By my charge and in neighboring the kindness of the superintendents of the two first infirmaries (Islesworth, and Wandsworth and Clapham) I have been able to examine the carefully kept records of the number, ages, occupations, and diseases of the patients. The following tables, compiled from these records, speak for themselves, and afford some indication of the kinds of disease to which laundry workers appear to be particularly liable. (Page 384.) Table A. Islksworth Infiemaby (Includes Acton, Chiswick, Brentford — a typical laimdry district) 108 At the Fulham and Hammersmith Infirmary about the same proportions exist, but it was not so easy to collect accurate sta- by the records of the cases attended by the Kensington District Nursing Association show a large proportion of ulcerated legs and of forms of internal disease aggravated by standing for long hours. I was struck by noticed the absence of any particular liability to skin disease tistics. . . . The figures supplied . . . The since almost disappeared. some years ago, but washing process of immensely increased use of machinery in the . . . . . . . may . account for this difference. The constant exposure to great heat in which the work at exhausting work, disease. . amply steam, standing on wet floors, the is carried on, and the long hours explains the tendency to pulmonary The badly arranged wash-houses are a floors in large constant source of discomfort and probably of ill-health to the iWorkers. ... It is not uncommon to find that the yellow and row of tanks or washing machines at one side of a wash-house flows all across the floor and over the feet of the foul water from a workers before eventually reaching the drain. . . . (Page 385.) Dcmgerous Trades. Thomas Oliver, M.D., Medical Expert of the Dangerous Trades Committee of the Home Office. 1902. and steam, the exhausting manual which is done standing), and above all the excessively long hours of work in this iU-regulated industry, can fail to have a marked effect on the health of the workers as a class. In 1893 and 1894, when inquiry as to these conditions preceded the passing of the Act of 1895, the periods of work of women and young girls were found to be excessively long and they are still not only very long, but extraordinarily irregular. The most immediately obvious effect on health is to be found in the prevalence among these workers of ulcers on the legs and varicose veins. It would perhaps be hardly credited by any who are not intimately acquainted with them to what extent these poor women suffer in this respect. To stand at work all day is the lot of many industrial workers, but in no other woman's industry is this form of suffering so serious. In certain well-defined laundry districts in West London an inquiry at the Poor Law Infirmaries, to which, and not to the hospitals, the poor woman suffering from this troublesome and painful ailment most naturally resort, It is impossible that the heat labour (all of — 109 demonstrated the peculiar liability of laundry workers in this respect. Ironers suffer from headaches and sore eyes, which result from constantly bending over the gas-heated irons in general use. The fumes from the tiny gas-jets unless these and the air supply — to each iron are very carefully regulated able on entering the room, are of course worst of all — are disagreeably notice- and sometimes even the laundry, and just above the iron so heated. would be interesting to test the accuracy of this general impression, which is shared by many medical and philanthropic persons who are interested in laundry workers, if figures were available on which to base a calculation of the " expectation of " Worn out while still young " is the life " among these women. expression constantly used by those whose professional work brings them into contact with these women when speaking of the effect of the occupation on health. (Pages 668-671.) It C, Bad Effect on Safety Report of British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1903. The comparative immunity from accidents in West Riding of Yorkshire may be possibly due the the laundries in in some measure to the moderate hours of employment. The day is somewhat most dangerous hours apparently being 11 a. m. to Probably 11 a. m. to 12 noon is more 12 noon and 4 to 6 p. m. generally than any other time the last tiring hour of a day five 4-6 p. m. covers the time when most generally the hours' spell (Page 210.) transition from daylight to artificial light. Reference was also made (in the Thirteenth International Congress of Hygiene), although figures were not adduced, to the alleged increase in the number of accidents which occur late in the working day when the effect of intellectual and physical fatigue have made themselves apparent. (Page 298.) incidents of accidents according to time of surprising, the . . . ; D. Bad Effect upon Morals Report of British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1900. One of the most unsatisfactory or lack of system of working hours results of the present system in laundries is the unfortunate 110 on the women and girls of this irregularity. The securing steady regular work from employees and of insuring punctual attendance is complained of on all sides, and the moral "effect difficulty of more intelligent employers are beginning to see that this is the natural result of the irregularity in working hours, which is still too readily fostered by many who do not realize its mischievous effect. Women who are employed at arduous work till far into the night are not likely to be early risers nor given to punctual attendance in the mornings, and workers who on one or two days in the week are dismissed to idleness or to other occupations, while on the remaining days they are expected to work for abnormally long hours, are not rendered methodical, industrious, or dependable workers by such an unsatisfactory training. The self-control and good habits engendered by a regular and definite period of moderate daily employment, which affords an excellent training for the young worker in all organized industries is sadly lacking, and, instead, one finds periods of violent over-work alternating with hours of exhaustion. The result is the establishment of a kind of " vicious circle " bad habits among workers make oompliance by their employers with any regulation as to hours very difficult, while a lack of loyal adherence to reasonable hours of employment by many laundry occupiers increases the difficulty for those who make the attempt in real earnestness. (Page 386.) ; Dangerous Trades. Thomas Oliver, M.D., Medical Expert Dangerous Trades Committee of the Home Office. 1902. to ten minutes or quarter-hour " lunch " of " beer " is common, and the " beer-man " who goes his rounds at 10 a. m. and The 6 or 7 P. M. to all the laundries, delivering his cans of beer from the nearest public house, known is an institution which is, I believe, un- any other trade. Imagine the amazement of the master of a mill or weaving factory if his employees were to stop in a body for a quarter of an hour twice a day between meals to drink beer Yet in many laundries the beer is kept on the premises for the purpose, and it is certain that as long as time thus wasted (to put it on the lowest grounds) can be made up by each separate woman " working it out " at the end of the day, irregular dawdling and intemperate habits will be encouraged. On the other hand, a woman who is expected on Thursdays or Fridays to be in the laundry from 8 or 8.30 in the morning till 9 or 10 or 11 at night ! in Ill may claim with some show of reason that only by some kind of spur can she keep her over-tired body from flagging. E. Irregularity of Work Debate in the British House of Lords on Clause 30, Factory and Workshops Bill. Hansards' Parliamentary Debates, 18901891. Vol. The Eaul work said, CCCLV. of Dunkaven. . But the hours that the women ... I know it has been your Lordships' House, that this . . (in laundries) are excessively long and it may be repeated in in the nature of a season trade that there comes a sudden rush of work, and that it cannot be performed and the business carried on unless those employed in it work excessively long hours. Believe me, that is all nonsense. It may be the cause at the present time; but if the hours are limited, as they ought to be, the trade would very soon adapt itself to the new conditions. ... Of course, my noble friend on the cross benches (Lord Wemyss) may be perfectly right in saying that it is a mistake but if altogether to interfere with the liberty of adult women so, let us at least be consistent and do away with all our factory But if our factory legislation legislation affecting adult women. interfering with adult women is beneficial, as I beHeve it to be, should it not be extended to these women who arc then why business is ; ; . engaged . . in this laborious work. The Marquess . (Page 1034.) surely Then as to hours regard to work that is so hard and so laborious these poor women (laundresses) have just as good a claim to have their hours regulated as have the milliners and women employed in bootmakers' establishments, who are brought under the regulations of Some of the noble Lords the Factories and Workshops Act. who have addressed the House have spoken as if our factory legisI believe lation was a thing to be deprecated and not extended. it to be, as my noble friend behind me (Lord Sandhurst) said, one of Ripon. . . . . . . in . . . of the most successful portions of the legislation of this country. (Page 1038.) 112 Report of the British Chief Inspector of Factories and Workshops, 1902. The work of endeavoring to administer the regulation as to period of employment in (laundries) when work is is extremely disheartening carried on in spurts, the shamefully long hours, straining endurance to the utmost, alternating with days of idleness ; the worker cannot be expected to develop any qualities but those of the casual laborer. (Page 174.) 113 CONCLUSION We submit that in view of the facts above set forth legislative action extending over a period of more than sixty years in the leading countries of Europe, and in twenty of our States, it cannot be said that the Legis- and of lature of Oregon had no reasonable ground for believing that the public health, safety, or welfare did not require a legal limitation on women's work in manufacturing and mechanical establishments and laundries to ten hours in one day. See Holden v. Hardy, 169 U. S. LOUIS 366, 895, 397. D. BRANDEIS, Counsel for State of Oregon. Boston, Jarmary, 1908. : CURT MULLER, In Error to ^ Plaintiff in Error, THE SUPREME COURT I V. OF I THE STATE OF OREGON J FEBKUAET THE STATE OF OREGON 24,1908 Mr. Justice Brewer delivered the opinion On February of the Court. 19, 1903, the legislature of the State of Oregon passed an Laws, 1903, p. 148) the words " Sec. 1. That no female (shall) be employed in any mechanical establishment, or factory, or laundry in this State more than ten hours during any one day. The hours of work may be so arranged as to permit the employment of females at any time so that they shall not work more than ten hours during the twenty-four hours of any one first act (Session section of. which is in these day." Section 3 made a violation of the provisions of the prior sections a misdemeanor, subject to a fine of not less than $10 nor more than $25. On September 18, 1905, an information was filed in the Circuit Court of the State for the county of Multnomah, charging that the defendant " on the 4th day of September, a. d. 1905, in the county of Multnomah and State of Oregon, then and there being the owner of a laundry, known as the Grand Laundry, in the and the employer of females therein, did city of Portland, : : then and there unlawfully permit and suffer one Joe Haselboek, he, the said Joe Haselbock, then and there being an overseer, superintendent and agent of said Curt Muller, in the said Grand Laundry, to require a female, to wit, one Mrs. E. Gotcher, to work more than ten hours in said Laundry on said 4th day of September, a. d. 1905, contrary to the statutes in such cases,made and provided, and against the peace and dignity of the State of Oregon." trial resulted in a verdict against the defendant, A was sentenced to pay a fine of $10. who The Supreme Court of the State affirmed the conviction (48 Ore. 252), where- upon the case was brought here on writ of error. The single question is the constitutionality of the statute under which the defendant was convicted so far as it affects the work of a female in a laundry. That it does not conflict with any provisions of the State constitution is settled by the decision of the Supreme Court of the State. The contentions of the defendant, now plaintiff in error, are thus stated in his brief " (1) Because the statute attempts to prevent persons, sui juris, from making their own contracts,, and thus violates the provisions of the Fourteenth Amendment, as follows No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.' " (2) Because the statute does not apply equally to all persons similarly situated, and is class legislation. " (3) The statute is not a valid exercise of the police power. The kinds of work prescribed are not unlawful, nor are they declared to be immoral or dangerous to the pubhc health; nor can such a law be sustained on the ground that it is designed to protect women on account of their sex. There is no necessary or reasonable connection between the limitation prescribed by the act and the pubhc health, safety, or welfare." It is the law of Oregon that women, whether married or have equal contractual and personal rights with men. As said by Chief Justice Wolverton, in First National Bank v. Leonard, 36 Ore. 390, 396, after a review of single, the various statutes of the State upon the subject: " may therefore say with perfect confidence that, with these three sections upon the statute book, the wife can We not only with her separate property, acquired from whatever source, in the same manner as her husband can with property belonging to him, but that she may make contracts and incur liabilities, and the same may be enforced against her, the same as if she were a feme sole. deal, There is now no residuum of civil disability resting upon her which is not recognized as existing against the husband. The current runs steadily and strongly in the direction of the emancipation of the wife, and the policy, as disclosed by aU recent legislation upon the subject in this State, is to place her upon the same footing as if she were a feme not only with respect to her separate property, but as make binding contracts and the most natural corollary to the situation is that the remedies for the enforcement of liabilities incurred are made co-extensive and co-equal with such enlarged conditions." It thus appears that, putting to one side the elective franchise, in the matter of personal and contractual rights they stand on the same plane as the other sex. Their rights in these respects can no more be infringed than the equal held in Lochner v. New York, rights of their brothers. 198 U. S. 45, that a law providing that no laborer shall be required or permitted to work in bakeries more than sixty hours in a week or ten hours in a day was not as to men a legitimate exercise of the police power of the State, but an unreasonable, unnecessary, and arbitrary interference with sole, it affects her right to ; We the right and liberty of the individual to contract in rela- tion to his labor, and as such was in conflict with, and void 4 That under, the Federal Constitution. decision is invoked by plaintiff in error as decisive of the question before us. But this assumes that the difference between the sexes does not justify a different rule respecting a restriction of the hours of labor. In patent cases counsel are apt to open the argument with a discussion of the state of the art. It may not be amiss, in the present case, before examining the constitutional question, to notice the course of legislation as well as expressions of opinion from other than judicial sources. In the brief filed by Mr. Louis D. Brandeis, for the defendant in error, is a very copious collection of all these matters, an epitome of which is found in the margin.* While there have been but few decisions bearing directly * The following upon the hours Laws legislation of the States of labor that 1902, chap. 106, sec. 24 p. 73; may be ; Louisiana, 1886, Rev. restriction in some form women: Massachusetts, impose required of or another 1874, Rev. Rhode Island, 1885, Acts and Resolves 1902, chap. 994, Laws 1904, vol. i, sec. 4, p. 989; Connecticut, 1887, Stat, revision 1902, sec. 4691; Maine, 1887, Rev. Stat. 1903, chap. 40, sec. 48; Hampshire, 1887, Laws 1907, chap. 94, p. 95 Maryland, 1888, Pub. Gen. Laws 1903, art. 100, sec. 1; Virginia, 1890, Code 1904, tit. 51 a, chap. 178 a, sec. 3657 b; Pennsylvania, 1897, Laws 1905, No. 226, p. 352; New York, 1899, Laws 1907, chap. 507, sec. 77, subdiv. 3, p. 1078; Nebraska, 1899, Comp. Stat. 1905, sec. 7955, p. 1986; Washington, Stat. 1901, chap. 68, sec. 1, p. 118; Colorado, Acts 1903, chap. 138, New Jersey, 1892, Gen. Stat. 1895, p. 2350, sees. 66 and 67 Oklahoma, sec. 3, p. 310 1890, Rev. Stat. 1903, chap. 25, art. 58, sec. 729; North Dakota, 1877, Rev. Code 1905, sec. 9440; South Dakota, 1877, Rev. Code (Penal Code, sec. 764), p. 1185; Wisconsin, 1867, Code 1898, sec. 1728; South Carolina, Acts 1907, No. 233. In foreign legislation Mr. Brandeis calls attention to these statutes: Great Britain, 1844, Law 1901, 1 Edw. VIL chap. 22; France, 1848, Act Nov. 2, 1892, and March 30, Gen. New ; ; : 1900; Switzerland, Canton of Glarus, 1848, Federal Law 1877, art. 2, sec. 1 ;. Austria, 1855, Acts 1897, art. 96 a, sees. 1 to 3; Holland, 1889, art. 5, sec. 1; Italy, June 19, 1902, art. 7; Germany, I^aws 1891. Then follow extracts from over ninety reports of committees, bureaus of statistics, commissioners of hygiene, inspectors of factories, both in this country and in Europe, to the effect that long hours of labor are dangerous for women, primarily because of their special physical organization. The matter is discussed in these reports in different aspects, but all agree as to the danger. It would of course take too much space to give these reports in detail. Following them are extracts from similar reports discussing the general benefits of short hours from an economic aspect of the question. In many of these reports individual instances are given tending to support the general conclusion. Perhaps the general scope and character of all these reports may be summed up in what an inspector for Hanover says: "The reasons for the reduction of the working day to ten hours (a) the physical organization ot woman, (b) her maternal functions, (c) the rearing and education of the children, (d) the maintenance of the are all so impoitant and so far-reaching that the need for such reduction home need hardly be discussed." — — upon the question, the following sustain the constitution- ality of such legislation Co., 125 Mass. 383; : Commonwealth v. Hamilton Mfg. Wenham v. State, 65 Neb. 394, 400, State v. Buchanan, 29 Wash. 602 Commonwealth V. Beatty, 15 Pa. Sup. Ct. 5, 17; against them in the case of Ritchie v. People, 155 111. 98. 406 ; The may ; legislation and opinions referred to in the margin not be, technically speaking, authorities, and in them is little or no discussion of the constitutional question presented to us for determination, yet they are significant of a widespread belief that woman's physical structure, and the functions she performs in consequence thereof, justify special legislation restricting or qualifying the conditions under which she should be permitted to toil. Constitutional questions, it is true, are not settled by even a consensus of present public opinion, for it is the peculiar value of a written constitution that it places in unchanging form limitations upon legislative action, and thus gives a permanence and stability to popular government which otherwise would be lacking. At the same time, when a question of fact is debated and debatable, and the extent to which a special constitutional limitation goes is affected by the truth in respect to that fact, a widespread and long continued belief concerning it is worthy of consideration. take judicial cognizance of all matters of general knowledge. It is undoubtedly true, as more than once declared by this court, that the general right to contract in relation to one's business is part of the hberty of the individual, protected by the Fourteenth Amendment to the Federal Constitution; yet it is equally well settled that this liberty is not absolute and extending to all contracts, and that a State may, without conflicting with the provisions of the Fourteenth Amendment, restrict in many respects the individWithout stopping to discuss at ual's power of contract. length the extent to which a State may act in this respect, we refer to the following cases in which the question has We 6 been considered: Allgeyer Holden v. Hardy, -169 U. v. Louisiana^ 165 S. 366; Lochner v. U. S. 578; New York, supra. That woman's physical structure and the performance of P maternal functions place her at a disadvantage in the struggle for subsistence is obvious. This is especially true when the burdens of motherhood are upon her. Even when they are not, by abundant testimony of the medical fraternity continuance for a long time on her feet at work, repeating this from day to day, tends to injurious effects the body, and as healthy mothers are essential to vigorous offspring, the physical well-being of woman becomes an object of public interest and care in order to preserve the strength and vigor of the race. Still again, history discloses the fact that woman has always been dependent upon man. He established his control at the outset by superior physical strength, and this control in various forms, with diminishing intensity, has continued to the present. As minors, though not to the same extent, she has been looked upon in the courts as needing especial care that her rights may be preserved.1 -Education was long denied her, and while now the doors of the school-room are opened and her opportunities for acquiring knowledge are great, yet even with that and the consequent increase of capacity for business affairs it is still true that in the struggle for subsistence she is not an equal competitor with her brother. Though limitations upon personal and contractual rights may be removed by legislation, there is that in her disposition and habits of life which will operate against a full assertion of those rights. She will still be where some legislation to protect her seems necessary to secure a real equality of right. Doubtless there upon are individual' exceptions, and there are many respects in which she has an advantage over him; but looking at it from the viewpoint of the effort to maintain an independent position in by life, is not upon an equality. Differentiated from the other sex, she is properly placed she these matters by herself, and legislation designed for her probe sustained, even when like legislation is not necessary for men and could not be sustained. It is im- in a class may tection possible to close one's eyes to the fact that she still looks to her brother and depends upon him. I'^ven though strictions on political, personal, all re- and contractual rights were taken away, and she stood, so far as statutes are concerned, upon an absolutely equal plane Avith him, it would still be true that she is so constituted that she will rest upon and look to him for protection that her physical structure and ; — a proper discharge of her maternal functions having in view not merely her own health, but the well-being of the justify legislation to protect her from the greed as race well as the passion of man. | The limitations which this statute places upon her contractual powers, upon her right to agree with her employer as to the time she shall labor, are not imposed solely for her benefit, but also largely for the benefit of all. Many words cannot make this plainer. The two sexes differ in structure of body, in the functions to be performed by each, in the amount of physical strength, in the capacity for long-continued labor, particularly when done standing, the influence of vigorous health upon the future well-being of the race, the self-reliance which enables one to assert full rights, and in the capacity to maintain the struggle for subsistence. This difference justifies — a difference in legislation and upholds that which is designed to compensate for some of the burdens which rest upon her. We have not referred in this discussion to the denial of the elective franchise in the State of Oregon, for while that may disclose a lack of political equality in all things with her brother, that is not of itself decisive. The reason runs deeper, and rests in the inherent difference between the two sexes, and in the different functions in life which they perform. For and without questioning in any respect Lochner v. New York, we are of the opinion these reasons, the decision in . cannot be adjudged that the act in question is in conflict with the Federal Constitution, so far as it respects the work of a female in a laundry, and the judgment of the that it Supreme Court of Oregon is Affirmed. [True Copy. Test: JAMES H. McKENNEY, Clerk, Supbeme Cotjkt, U. S. Date Due ^^DEC 16 '76 MAY 13 '77 KF 3555 A5 B81 |:S;Author Vol. Eradeis, Louis Dembitz Title j Women in industry Copy