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701 CONFIDENT !At omcE X-3817 COPY CORRESPONDENCE To Governor Crissinger From Mr.. Wya. t t, Gene ra.l Counsel. Da.tet August 15, 1923. Subject: Purchase of Government Securities a.nd Bankers' Acceptances by ~~ederal Reserve Ba.nkR under so-called Repurchase .Agreerr:ents .. ~uestion ha.s been ra.ised a.s to the propriety of the pra.ctice enga.ged in by the Federal reserve banks of pu:rcha.sing Government securities and bankers 1 a.cceptanees from member and nonmember banks, a.nd stock, bond and acceptance brokers, under a.greemen ts providing that the sellers of these seouri ties or acceptances will repurcha.se the same from the Federa~ reserve banks within a specified period of ttme. The deta.ils of such transa.ctions va:ry, but it a.ppea.rs tha.t in all cases United Sta.tes Government securities or bankers 1 a.cceptances a.re transferred to the Federal reserve bank a.t a. certain a.greed price While a.t the same time an a.greeroent is entered into obligating or permitting the seller of the securities or a.cceptarices ·to repurcha.se the same within a. certa.in period. It is sometimes provided tha.t the Federal reserve ba.nks sha.ll ha.ve the right to require the seller ·to repurcha.se the securities or a.cceptances a.t any time within this period upon giving a. certa.in number of da.ys 1 written notice. The Federal reserve ba.nk charges interest for the period .during which it holds the securities or a.cceptances 1 a.nd this interest is son2times computed in a.dvance and sometimes when the ·resale is effected. It is a.lso provided in some of these a.greements tha.t the seller shall keep on deposit with the Federal reserve bank a.dditiona.l securities sufficient to ma.intain a. ma.rgin of safety 1 ba.sed upon a. ra.tio of $120 -to ea.ch $100 of the difference between the par value of the securities pur .. chased and the market value tbe:teof. The Comptroller's Office ha.s ruled tha.t na. tiona.l banks which ha:ve sold securities to Federal reserve banks under such agreements sha.ll consider the transa.ctions a.s borrowings of money and· sha.ll ca.rry them on their books accordingly· On the contrary 1 the Federal Reserve :Boa.rd ha.s held in connection with the reports of member Sta.te banks and trust companies tha.t such a transa.ction is not to be considered a.s a. borrowing but should be included in a. specia.l item on the report a.s securities sold under repurcha.se a.greements. You ha.ve requested the opinion of this office a.s to the true na.ture of such transa.ctions. i.e • 1 whether they constitute piucba.ses on the open m9.rket by Federal Reserve banks as authorized by Section 14 of the Federal Reserve Act or merely loans secured by the deposit of securities or a.caeptances a.s colla.teral. ..tA -2- X-3g17 In my opinion, a. transaction vt.hereby securities or a.ccepta.nces a.re sold to a. Federal Reserve bank under an agreeoent obliga.ting the seller to reput"cha.se the same on or before a. certa.in date is in legal effect merely a. loan secured by colla.teral, a.nd not a. sale; and Federal reserve banks have no legal authority to pa:rticipa.te in such· a. transa.ction, Where the a.greerr.ent merely perndts, but does not obliga.te, the seller to repurchase the secu:d ties or a.cceptances, no universal rule can be la.id downj but it is believed that even in these ca.ses the transa.ctions would genera.lly be construed by a. court a.s loans secured by colla.teral. The reasons upon which rn::r opinion is ba.sed a.re sta.ted below. GENEr\AL PRINCIPLES In construing an agreement such as that described above, a. court would be guided by the intention of the pa.rties as fa.r a.s it can be ascerta.ined from the agreement itself and the surrounding circumstances. For this purpose it is settled tha.t parol evidence will be admitted to show the fa.cts a.:nd circumsta.nces attending the execution of the a.greement. Tha court will look to the substance of the transaction and will not be controlled by the form which the a.greement may ha.ppen to have. The actual intent of the pa.rties will be the controlling fa.ctor. Where there is a. contract of sale and a contemporaneous a.greement to resell at a. certa.in time the two agreements will oe construed together in the endeavor to a.scerta.in the true intelltion of the contracting parties. In 5 Ruling Case La.w, p. 589, it is said! nsometimes a. bill of sale intended a.s a secu:ri ty for money lent is a.ccompanied by the execution of a. sepa.ra.te instrument of defea.sance, by the terms of Vihich, on the repa.yment of the loan at a. certa.in time, the bill to be surrendered to the vendor. In such a. ca.se the two instruments must be construed together and constitute a. mortga.ge. 11 In discussing the distinction between a. conditional sale and a. chattel mortga.ge ll Corpus Juris a.t page 412, states a.s follows: "Intention of the pe.rties. Whether a transa.ction constitutes e. chattel mortgage or a. conditional sale ul tiiQa.tely depends on the intention of the parties, which must be aseerta.ined from their conduct and the attendant circumstances, as well a.s from the terms of the a.greement. Further, the. intention must be collected from the entire transa.ction and not from any particu.la.r fea.ture of it, and from the a.ctual a.greement of the parties and not from their cha.ra.cteriza.tion of it, although the construction placed on the con tra:ct by the parties is properly considered. The form of the instrument is of little importance. A contract of conditional sale will not be regarded a.s a. cha.ttel mortgage merely because it is recorded a.s such." :-~ ,,,...·; < . -3- X-3817 With regard to the specific provisions of the em tra.ct v·;hich indica.te the intention of the pa.rties as to the tra.nsaction, it is further stated in ll Corpus Ju.ris, at pa.ge 413, a.s follows: "Conditions Permitting Repu.rcha.se. A bill of sale with an a.gre err.ent permitting r epurcha.s e may constitute 13 i ther a. cha.ttel rr.ortga.ge or a. conditional sa.le, its cha.racter depending on the surrounding circumstances and the intention of the pa:rties. The fact that a. bill of sale contains an agreement to resell the property to the seller a.t a. fixed price or confers on him an option to repurchase it does not, in itself, esta.blish tha.t the transaction is a. mortgage, especially when there is no debt to be secured and no obligation to repay .. But the transfer may be shov.n to be a mortga.ge by evidence tha.t the vendorts obligation continued, that he bound himself to pay interest, tha.t the bill of sale wa.s given to secure a. loan, or tha.t the amount of cons idera.tion wa.s inadequa.te as a. purchase price~ 11 From this s ta.tement of the la.w it is obvious that the specific provisions of a. pa.rticula_l' contra.ct tr.ust be known in order to determine whether or not a. conditional sale or a loa.n in the na.ture of a ch a.ttel mortga.ge is intended. This q_uestion tut'ns upon the provisions of the pa.rticula.r contra.ct and, therefore 1 an examination of each agreement entered into by the Federal reserve banks would be necessary for a. definite opinion as to the efiect of that pa.rticula.r a.greerr.ent. There a.re, however, certa.in of these a.greements which classify themselves very readily either a.s sales on condition or loans secured by chs.ttel Jt.ortga.ge or pledges. COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF LOANS There a.t'e several features found in many of the reput'cha.se a.greements of Federal Reserve banks which indica.te that .loans ra.ther than conditional sa.les a.re intended. One of the most important of these is the stipula.tion tha.t a.ddi tiona1 securities sha.ll be deposited by the seller wi ththe Federa.l reserve bank to ma.inta.in a certa.in margin over and a.bove . the market value of th~. securities. If the pa.rties intended a. sale there would be no necessity for such a. provision. This is a. clause which is usua.lly found in connection with cha.ttel rr.ortga.ges, pledges or other forms of loans secured by collaterali in such ca.ses the provision is very desira.ble. The purpose of the provision is plainly to protect the Federa.l reserve bank from any possible loss by rea.son of fluctllc9tion in the value of the securities or a.cceptances held by it a.s security for a. loan. ~~ X-38lft 704: -4- Another iuportant c.lia.racteristio of a. loan is p:r~s.;Jnt when 1 t is provided tha.t the Federal reserve ba.nk rr.ar sell a.t a. public or private sa.le the securities or acceptances upon which it has advanced n:oney, in ca.se the so-called seller fa.ils to comply with the agreement of repurcha.se and to buy ba.ck the securities or acceptances a.t the time specified. This a.lso is a. clause which is usually found in all forms of loan a.greements but for which there can be no possible need in a. contract of sale, even though such ccn tra.ct reserves tin the seller the privilege of repurcha.sing within a. certa.in time. If these securities or acceptances a.re really owned by the Federal reserve bank it would be entirely bnnecessa.l:·y to go through the form of a. sale in order to transfer the title thereto to the Federal reserve bank, because it already has title; Sl'ld if it is des ired by the Federal reserve bank to ha.ve scmeone else purcha.se them, the Federal reserve bank, being the owner of the securities or a.cceptances, ma'3 make such sale in the ordinary ma.rmer and it would be entirely superfluous to provide for this kind of a sale in the a.greement. :But if the Federal reserve bank does not, a.s a. matter of tact 1 take absolute title to the securities or acceptances 1 a. provision for sale in case of defa:ul t is necessa.ry in order tba.t the Federal reserve bank, or any other party purcha.sing a.t such sale, mq a.cquire a. clea.r title. The fact that the Federal reserve banks cha.rge interest on such transactions, and that this interest is cQmpute<i in the same wa.y a.s in the case of any ordina.ry loan is a. very strong factor in evidencing the intention of the parties to this agreement in reality to nego.tiate a. loan, a.l though in form tb.e tl'ansa.ction is an absolute sale with a. ri~t to repurchase reserved to the seller. In the case of an a.ctual sale with right to repurchase there p:roba.bly would be sorr.e form of fee or commission provided for to compensate the Federal reserve bank for its services 1 but it is unlikely th.a.t this fee or commission would take the form of interest and be computed in the same manner a.s interest, unless the parties were a.ttempting to consumrna.te a. loan ra.ther than a. sa.le. TWO CLASSES OF REP'QRCHASE AGREEMEN'rS . I Transa.ctions of the kind under considera.tion ma,y be divided into two general classes (l); Those in which the seller is obligated to repurcha:se the securities and a.c.ceptances on or before a. certa.in specified da.te; and (2) those in which the seller is gi van the privilege of repurcha.sing if he so desires. In the first of these cla.sses, the nature of the transa.ctions seems entirely clea.r, but the proper construction of the second cla.ss of transactions depends largely on the terms of ea.ch part icula.r a.greement • . SELLER OBLIGATED TO REPURCHASE· Where the so-called seller ha.s not only a. right or privilege to repurcha.se, but is absolutely required to repurcha,se by the terms of the a.greement, this is conclusive of the intention of the pa.rties to -5- X-3Slf effect a. loan secured by t...'le deposit of securities or accepta11ces a.s colla.tera.l. Wnere the agreerr.ent entered into by the Federal reserve bank, therefore, cont::Jins a. provision obligating the s el1er to repurcba.se the securities or a.cceptances within a. certain specified period, or at the option of the Federa.l x·eserve bank upon L a. certain number of days written notice, there is no question but that the transaction is a. loan, although in form a. conditional sale. This position is sustained by the authorities. In the ca.se of Robinson v. Fa.rrelly, 16 Ala.• , 472; the Court in discussing the nature of a. transa.ction similar to tb.a.t under considera.tion states as follows; 11 The nature of a. sale, with the right to repurcha.se for a. given sum, and within a. specified time, is a. conveyance of the title to the p-~.ucha.serj he is the owner of the property, but the vendor ha.s the right to repu_rcha.se if he sees fit; no obliga.tion rests on him to do so, it is a. mere ma.tter of volition, whether he will or not. If he declines to repurchase, he is not bound to refund the money, and the purcha.ser ha.s no ca.use of action against him because he does not see fit to claim his privilege. If the purch_aser reta.in the right to demand the money of the vendor, notwithsta.ndinghis purchase, a debt is then due from the vendor to him, and the existence of this debt within itself shows tha.t the conve;zance is a mere security for its payment." In the case of Cake v~ ShuJ,l, (N.J.) 16 Atl. 434, the coul't made the following s ta.tement: right of a. court of equity to decla.re a. deed or bill of sale, which is absolute on its face I to be 3mortga.ge, is clea.r, a.s is also the competency of pa.rol evidence to prove the fa.ct. 'Ihe question turns upon the a.ctua.l intention of the pa.rties a.t the time of the transa.ction ... Crane v .. Decamp, 21 N.J. Eq. 414. If tha.t intention wa.s that the instrument should constitute security for the payment of rr:oney, or the performance or non-performa.nce of any other act, then it is deemed a. mortga.gej bu.t 1 if a. real sale wa.s intended, then it takes effect according to its terms, even though a. contemporaneous right or privilege to purchase back the property sold wa.s contracted for by the vendor. Ga.ssert v. Bogk, (Mont·) 19 Pac·. Rep. 2Slj Conwa.yt s Ext r v. Alexander, 7 Cranch 213; notes to Thornbrough v. Bak"'Br, 2 Lea.d. Ca.s. Eq. 1030. An obliga.tion to repU-t'Cha.se, or any other duty resting on the vendor by the performance of which the property wa.s to revert to him, could ordinarily be conclusive evidence of a. mortgage, while the absence of such obligation or duty, either ~xpressed or implied, would be indica.tive of a. sa.le.tt'* 11The -6-- X-38. 70G SELLEll WITH OPTION TO REPYRCH.A§E .. Where the agreenent provides th.a.t the seller shall ha.ve the or privilege of repurchasing within a. certa.in specified period, but there is no obliga.tion upon him to do so, there rna.y be some question a.s to the intention of the parties; it is sometines uncerta.in V\hether such a transa.ction should properly be construed as a sale or a loan.. In such cases the courts ha:ve, in endea:voring to a.scerta.in the true intention of the pa.rties, reached different conclusions 1 depending upon the purpose of the trallSa.ction, the result to be accomplished 1 and the other surrounding circumstances. As ha.s been heretofore ste.ted, each agreement must be construed a.ccording to its own particu.la.r terms and 1 t is difficult to lay down any gen~ral rule which will be applicable to all cases. 'l'be fa.ct that most of the repurchase a.green:ents entered into by Federal reserve bankS provide for the pa.yreant or deduction of interest is a strong indica.tion of an intention to effect a loan ra.ther than a sa.le. Further indica.tion of such an intention is sometimes found in the pa.yment of a. price other than the rmrket value for the securities or acceptances and in the provision for deposit of additional colla.tera.l. In view of these fa.cts, I. believe that it may be fairly said that most if not a.U sale agreements made by Federal reserve bankS re• serving to the seller the privilege of repurc.~a.sing a.re, properly construed, loans and not sales. ri~t The ca.ses hereafter cited show under what circumstances. a.greements reserving to the seller marely the privilege to repurcba.se are to be construed a.s l.oans secured by colla.tera.l although the transactions are in fo~ conditional sales. In the ea.se of Dickinson v. Oliver, 89 N.Y. Supp., 52 (Affirmed in SS N.E. 44), where a bill of sale wa.s given for certa.in property together with an a.greement permitting the seller to repu.rcha.se within a: certain time, the transa.ction wa.s held to constitute e. loan in the na.ture of a cha.ttel mortgage and not a. sale with the right of repurchase. The court quotes with approval the following head note from the ca.se of Susman v·. Whla.rd 1 149 N.. Y. 127, 43 N.E·. 413~ "Where the provisions of an instrument which is in form an absolute bill of sale, taken in connection with the surrounding fa.cts, indica.te that the pa.rties contenpla.ted a. loan of money and e. sale of the property, upon the condition, howev.er. that the property should be returned upon the payment of the money so loaned, the instrument is in effect a. cha.ttel uortga.ge, and the fa.ct that it employs the term •resale• wlll not change its mea.ning when no other sum than the amount of tbe loan is mentioned or contemplated as the price of such resa.le. 11 X-3811~ -1- i 1"1/ ( ...·.• ••.. ' ~~ In the ca.se of 0'Niell v .. Wa.J.ke!', (La.• ) 12 South. 872, an a.greement of sa.le permittedthe seile:r to buy ba.ck timber purchased a.t any time within six months a.t cost pJ.us eight per cent interest, the repurcha.ser to stand any loss incu:t·red in the meantime. The court held tha.t this a.g:r.eement, in the light of all the surrounding circu.rnstances, wa.s in effect n::erely a. transa.ction giving security for a. loan and could not be cons trued a.s a. sa.le. s.w. In ~parks v. Robinson, (.Ark) 515, 460, which wa.s a. ca.se involving the usury laws, an a.bsclute bill of sale, which purported to sell certa.in property a.t a. price fa.r less th:m the market value thereof, wa.s construed a.s a. cover for a. lo:Jn. The court sa.id tha.t "The law shells the covering and extra.cts the kernel- 11 In the case of ~ercantile Trust Company v. Y..a.stor, (ilL) 112 N.E .. 988, the Trust Com!)any, mich had no power to make loans entered into a. contra.ct purporting to be a. sale by a. certain corporation of its a.ccounts receiva.ble to the Trust Company.. The Trust. Company wa.s by the terms of this agreement to pay no more than 77)~ of the value of the sa.id a.cccunts. The co:rpora.tion and the defenda.nt guaranteed to pa.y these accounts if they were not pa.id a. t ma.turi ty. On a. certain a.c count which wa.s unpaid the Trust Company brought suit a.ga.inst the defendant on this guaranty. It wa.s held that the transaction constituted not a. sa.le, but merely a. loan with the a.ccounts receivable a.ssigned to the Trust Company a.s security, and the Trust Company wa.s parmi tted to recover nothing because the contra.ct was ultra. vires and therefore void. In the case of Home Bond Company v. McChesney, 239 U.S .. 563, the Supren:e Court of the United States a.pproved. the findings of a. special ma.ster holding tha.t a. transaction very similar in its terms to that in the Ka.stor ca.se, which is discussed a.bove, wa.s a. mere loan with collateral security, and not a. sale.. The Supreme Court quotes with a.pprova.l the langua.ge of the United Sta.tes District Court a.s follows: "In so far a.s the contra.cts in question here used words fit for a. contract of purchase, they axe mere shams and devices to cover loans of money a.t usurious ra.tes of interest. 11 ' .._ ORIGIN OF PBACTICE Tba.t these transa.ctions are in substance loans rather than bona. fide purchases of securities on the open ma.rkot is further confirmed by a. considera.tion of the origin of the practice .. The pra.ctice of the Federal Reserve banks in purchasing Government securities and bankers' a.ccepta.nces under re-sale a.greexrents originated in N°vember, 1917, when demmdlO> for a.ccomodation upon the Federal re~erve banks were very hea.vy and the Government was floa.ting large issues of Liberty bonds. On December 1, 1917, the stamp tax on promissory notes wa.s to become effective and this would ha:ve been a. very hea.vy expense upon member ba.nks in obta.ining funds from Federal reserve banks upon ·their fifteen day collateral notes under Section 13 of the Act. The Federal Reserve Boa.rd, therefore, suggested tha.t in order to avoid the payment of this stamp ta.x member banks might obta.in short time a.dva.nces from Federa.l reserve banks by rediscounting eligible commercia.l pa.per of longer rna.turi ties under re-purchase agreements. The Board pointed out that interest might be charged only for the period covered by the a.greement, tha.t. is, from the da.te of discount to the date of repurchase, and that the interest might be a.djusted in advance or at t.he tim~ of the re-sale·. The suggestion of the Board was a.dopted and the Federal reserve banks began purchasing paper from ~r:he-T banks under repur.cha.se agreements as a. substitute for the fifteen day colla.teral notes of me~ ber ba.nks. Notes secured by Liberty Bonds or United Sta.tes certifi- · ca.tes of indebtedness were subse(iuently exempted from the stamp tax and thereupon a.t least one of the Federal reserve banks (Richmond) discontinued this pra.ctice.. O'ther Federal reserve banks, (nota.bly New York) have not discontinued it, however, but on the contrary ba.ve extended i t by entering into transactions of t:pis kind not only with their member· ba.nks but a.lso with non-member banks and stock, bond, and a.cceptance brokers~ · It is clear, therefore, tha.t these tra.nsa.ctions origina.ted a.s loans (presumably under the a;uthori ty to make direct loans to n:ember pra.ctice ha.s simply grown and spread until it ba.s gone ba.nks) a.nd fa.r beyond the original purpose of the Boa.rd t s ruling, al;ld ha.s been taken a.dva.nta.ge of by the .Federa~ reserve banks a.s a. justifica.tion . for.making direct loans to non-member banks and to brokers -parties to whom the Federal. Reserve Act never intended tha.t Federal reserve banks should extend credit in any way wi tbout the intervention of a. member bank. the . CONCLUSIONS OF LAW. When the transactions ·between the Federal reserve bank and the. va.rious membe·r and non-member banks, and other corpora.tions, therefore, a.re considered in the lig}:lt of a.ll the surrounding ci. rcumstances it seems clea.r tha.t under the principles announced by the cou.Tts, mc)st if not a.ll •• -9of the~e transactions should of securities or acceptances right to repurchase reserved form sales, a.re in substance be considered loans secmred by the deposit as collateral, instea.d of sales with the to the seller. 1.J1l.le a.g:':'eements, though in loans secured by the pledge of col:!ateral. The transaction descri'bed being a loan sectil"ed by collateral, instea.d of a. sale which it purports to be, FederaJ. reserve banks have no power to engage in such t1•ansa.ctions and such agreements on the part of these banks are entirely ultra vires·.. Federal reserve banks have no power to make loans direct to the person or corpora.tion primarily liable under azv conditions, except tha.t they make advances to their member banks upon Pl'Omissory not~! for a period not exceeding J-5 d.qs vmen properly se~red in accordance with Section 13 of the Federal Reaerve Act. Advances under repurchase agreements such as described a:bove, however, ~ not be considered advance~ upon promissory notes, beca.use the debt in such ca.s~s iS not evidenced by notes of 81lY kind. Federal l'6Serve banks, therefore, can not in J1lY opinion, make advances even to ember banks under :repurchase agreements • P,OLICY This subject has been discussed above largely as a qliestion of general law,. and I have not discussed the effect of its apPlica.tiC?n to the Federal reserve ba:nk;s. I think, how~ver, it is perfectly manifest that the application of· these conclusions of law to the operations of the Federal reserve ba.nks will lead to a tt111ch closer a.dhe:l'ence to the fund.a:rnenta.l purposes and principles of the Federal Reserve Act tha~ exists a.t the 11resent time. The original Federal :Reserve Act ga.ve the Federal reserve banks no power to make direct lo~ even to their member banks • to The power to make direct loans member banks on their fifteen daJ notes was granted on the recommendation of the Federal Reserve Board as a means of enabling Federal :reserve banks to extend credit to their member banks for short periods of tim on the sec:g.rity of paper eligible for rediscount. All amenciment to the Act granting this power to Federal reserve banks wa.s recommended by the Federal aaserve :Board in 1916 when little use was 'being made of the redisco1mt facilities of the Federal reserve banks and 1 t wa.s hoped tba.t this would. :induce the meaer bankS to ma.:1e more use of the system. The. Board's proposed amerulusnt, however, was not acted u;pon before it becan:e evident tha.t this country miStlt be drawn into the world-wa:r and in o:rder that t~e banks of the co"Untry might be in position to facilitate Government financing in such an event, the Board made a further suggestion tba.t tb1 proposed fifteen-da.y collateral notes of member banks might be made EJligible when secu.red by bonds and notes of the United States a.s well as when secured by paper eligible for rediscount. •• -10- X-3817 It wa.s never contempla.ted by Congress tba.t the Federa.l reserve banks should ~~ke direct loans to non-~2mber banks nor to stock, bond and a.cceptance brokers or other individuals, pa.rtnerships or corpora.tions which ordina.rily would seek such a.ccomrnoda.tions from member banks. The pra.ctice which ha.s grown up in the Federa.l reserve ba.nks of buying bonds and bankers r a.cceptances under so-called 11 repurcha.se agreements 11 amounts to nothing more nor less than the making of direct loans on the sec:uri ty of such bonds or a.ccelJtances; and the ~~king of . such loans to paxties other th8n member ba.nks is manifestly inconsistent with the purposes of the Act in tha.t it ena.bles non-member banks and stock, bond and a.cceptance brokers to tap the rasout'ces of tbe Federal reserve ba.nks directly a.nd without the intervention of a. member bank· As sta.ted a.bove, I am of the opinion tha.t these trc:nsa.ctions a.re clea.rly ultra. vires as to Fc1dera1 reserve banks and it is respectfully recomrr:ended tha.t the Boa.rd so rule. Respectfully, (Signed) Wa.lter Wya.tt, General Counsel ..
@FedFRASER