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UNITED STATES DEPARTM ENT OF LABOR Frances Perkins, Secretary BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS Isador Lubin, Commissioner + W ages, H ours, and W o rk in g Conditions in the Bread-Baking Industry, 1934 Prepared by Division of Wages, Hours, and Working Conditions JACOB PERLMAN, Chief Bulletin ?S[o. 623 October 1936 + UNITED STATES GOVERNM ENT PRINTING OFFICE W ASHINGTON : 1937 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price 20 cents PREFACE This is the third of a series of surveys made by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in the bread-baking industry. The first one was conducted in the summer of 1923, but it was based on a very small coverage. A more comprehensive survey was undertaken in the fall of 1931. The present survey includes data for M arch and September 1933 and December 1934. This survey was made at the request of and in cooperation with the National Recovery Administration. Its purpose was to furnish impartial and detailed information to show the effect of the President's Reemployment Agreement and the code upon wages, hours, and work ing conditions of labor in the bread-baking industry. T he Bureau wishes to express its appreciation to the various firms in the industry that have furnished the information upon which this bulletin is based. Acknowledgment is also made to the National Bakers' Council and the Bakery and Confectionery Workers' Inter national Union of America for their cooperation in carrying out this survey. T he present bulletin includes a discussion of certain background material pertaining to this industry, a description of the scope and method of the survey, an analysis of the data relating to average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings, and a discussion of personnel policies and working conditions in the various plants visited. Appendix I gives a description of the technological processes in baking, together with a glossary of the occupations found, while appendix I I presents the detailed figures upon which are based the text, tables, and charts. The bulletin was prepared under the supervision of Jacob Perlman, Chief of the Division of W ages, Hou^s, and W orking Conditions. Members of the W ages and Hours Division who contributed to the writing of the text and material in the bulletin are Paul H . Moncure, Florence M . Clark, Henry A . Bates, Frances M . Jones, and Philip L. Jones. Others who assisted in the compilation of the data are Donald L . H elm , Dorothy S. Smith, and J. T . O'Brien. The field work was done by J. P. Corkery, C . H . D oughty, F . G . Gregory, T . P. Henson, C . F . Jackson, W . F. K irk, J. F . Laciskey, A . L . M aserick, W . B . Pettit, W . C. Quant, C. F . Rauth, W . C . Sims, F . I. Snyder, and G . E . Yotava. I sador L u b in , Commissioner of Labor Statistics. hi CONTENTS P age Preface________________________________________________________________ Summary and conclusions______________________________________________ C hapter I.-—The bread-baking industry________________________________ Definition of industry______________________________________________ Historical development of baking industry__________________________ Characteristics of bread-baking industry____________________________ Changes in conditions of work______________________________________ C hapter II.— Scope and method_______________________________________ Extent of coverage_________________________________________________ Factors considered in selection of sample___________________________ Information collected_________________________________________ Comparisons with 1931____________________________________________ C hapter III.'— Average hourly earnings________________________________ Changes in bread industry in country as a whole___________________ Increases confirmed by employment and pay-roll data for entire baking industry_________________________________________________________ Changes in averages by region and sex in bread-baking industry_____ Effect of President’s Reemployment Agreement on percentage distri bution by region and sex_________________________________________ Effect of code on percentage distribution by region and sex_________ Differentials in averages by broad occupational groupings___________ Effectiveness of President’s Reemployment Agreement and code minima as shown by data on broad occupational groupings_______________ Changes in averages by occupational classes________________________ Regional differentials in averages by occupations___________________ Sex differentials in averages by occupations_________________________ Average hourly earnings and size of city____________________________ Average hourly earnings in union and nonunion shops______________ Influence of mechanization on average hourly earnings______________ Type of distribution and average hourly earnings___________________ Kind of product and average hourly earnings_______________________ Comparisons with 1931_____________________________________________ C hapter IV.— Weekly hours___________________________________________ Changes in bread industry in country as a whole___________________ Changes in averages by region and sex in bread industry____________ Monthly trend of working time for entire baking industry based on employment and pay-roll data___________________________________ Changes in percentage distribution by region and sex in bread industry due to President’s Reemployment Agreement_____________________ Changes in percentage distribution by region and sex due to code___ Differentials in averages by broad occupational groupings___________ Weekly hours of driver-salesmen___________________________________ Changes in averages by occupational classes________________________ Regional and sex differentials in averages by occupations___________ Average weekly hours and size of city______________________________ Average weekly hours in union and nonunion shops_________________ Average weekly hours and degree of mechanization_________________ Type of distribution and average weekly hours_________________ - ___ Kind of product and average weekly hours_________________________ Comparisons with 1931_____________________________________________ C hapter V.— Weekly earnings_________________________________________ Changes in country as a whole_____________________________________ Changes in percentage distribution of all workers in bread industry. _ Changes in percentage distribution by region and sex_______________ Changes in averages by broad occupational groupings_______________ Changes in averages by occupational classes________________________ V iii 1 9 9 10 12 18 20 20 21 25 27 28 28 29 30 33 35 36 38 39 41 43 43 45 46 47 48 49 51 51 52 53 55 57 58 60 61 64 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 70 72 73 76 78 VI CONTENTS C hapter V.— Weekly earnings— Continued. Regional and sex differentials in averages by occupations___________ Average weekly earnings and size of city___________________________ Average weekly earnings in union and nonunion shops______________ Average weekly earnings and degree of mechanization_______________ Type of distribution and average weekly earnings___________________ Kind of product and average weekly earnings__________________ ____ Comparisons with 1931_________________________________________ C hapter VI/— Personnel policies and working conditions____________ The bakery worker_____________________________________________ Hiring procedure_______________________________________________ Training policies_______________________________________________ Lay-off and firing procedure_________________________________ Methods of wage payment_________________________________________ Overtime rates_____________________________________________________ Special bonuses and penalties___________________ Payments in kind____________________________________________ Employee expenses__________________________________________ Working time and shifts____________________________________________ Night work________________________________________________________ Rest periods, holidays, vacations, etc_______________________________ Welfare work________________________________________________ A ppendix I.— Technological processes and glossary of occupations.--------Part 1. Technological processes_______________________________ Bread making______________________________________________ Cake making_______________________________________________ Pie making________________________________________________ Part 2. Glossary of occupations_______________________________ Appendix II.— Detailed statistical tables________________________________ Table A. Distribution of employees according to average hourly earnings by occupational classes, as to region and sex, for three selected periods___________________________________ Table B. Distribution of employees according to weekly hours by occupational classes, as to region and sex, for three selected periods________________________________________ Table C. Distribution of employees according to weekly earnings by occupational classes, as to region and sex, for three selected periods________________________________________ Page 80 80 81 82 83 83 84 85 85 85 88 89 90 91 93 93 94 96 97 98 100 102 102 102 107 107 108 121 122 129 137 L is t o f S u m m a r y T a b le s T able T able T able T able T able T able T able T able T able T able T able T able T able T able 1.-— Growth of bread-baking industry in United States, 1914—1933. 2.<— Number of establishments, classified by number of wage earners, in baking industry as a whole, 1929______________ 3.— Index numbers of employment and pay rolls in the baking industry as a whole, 1919-35_____________________________ 4.-— Coverage of survey for each of three pay-roll periods________ 5.— Coverage of survey by region and size of city, December 1934. 6.— Distribution of establishments in sample according to number of employees, December 1934____________________________ 7.— Coverage of survey by degree of mechanization, type of distribution, and kind of product, as to region, December 1934_____________________________________________________ 8.— Coverage of survey by occupational classes, as to sex and region December 1934__________________________________________ 9.— Percentage distribution of employees according to average hourly earnings in bread industry in country as a whole__ 10.— Index numbers of average hourly earnings in entire baking industry in the United States, by months, 1932-35________ 11.-— Average hourly earnings in bread industry by region and sex__ 12.-—Total absolute increases in average hourly earnings from March 1933 to December 1934___________________________ 13.-—Percentage distribution of employees according to average hourly earnings by region and sex________________________ 14.— Average hourly earnings by broad occupational groupings as to region and sex______________ 11 12 16 20 22 23 24 25 28 30 32 32 33 37 CONTENTS T a b l e 15.-— Percentages o f w orkers in grou pin gs receiv in g less than 40 an d 30 cents, resp ectively , in M a rch a n d S ep tem ber 1933__ T a b l e 16.— A verage h ou rly earnings b y o ccu p a tio n a l classes as to region an d sex_________________________________________________________ T a b l e 17.-— A vera ge h ou rly earnings b y size o f c ity as to region a n d sex__ T a b l e 18.— A vera ge h ou rly earnings o f m ale em p loyees in N o rth engaged in d irect la b or, b y u nion a n d n on u n ion shops a n d sk ill_____ T a b l e 19.— A vera ge h ou rly earnings in bakeries classified b y degree o f m ech a n iza tion as t o region a n d se x __________________________ T a b l e 20.-— A vera ge h ou rly earnings in bakeries classified b y ty p e o f dis trib u tion as t o region a n d sex________________________________ T a b l e 21.-— A vera ge h ou rly earnings in bakeries classified b y kin d of p r o d u c t as t o region an d sex ___________________________________ T a b l e 22.-— P ercentage d istrib u tion o f em p loyees a cco rd in g to average h ou rly earnings in b rea d in d u stry in U n ited States, 1931 a n d 1934_______________________________________________________ • T a b l e 23.— P ercentage d istrib u tion o f em p loyees a ccord in g to w eekly hours in b rea d in du stry in cou n try as a w h ole______________ T a b l e 24.— A vera ge w eek ly h ours in b rea d in d u stry b y region a n d sex___ T a b l e 25.-— In d e x num bers o f average w eek ly h ours in entire baking in d u stry in th e U n ited States, b y m on th s, 1 9 3 2 -3 5 _________ T a b l e 26.'— P ercentage d istrib u tion o f em p loyees a cco rd in g t o w eekly hours b y region an d sex in b rea d in d u stry __________________ T a b l e 27.-— A vera ge w eek ly h ours b y b ro a d o ccu p a tion a l grou pin gs as to region a n d sex_________________________________________________ T a b l e 28.'— P ercentage o f em p loyees in b roa d o ccu p a tio n a l grou pin gs w ork in g co d e hours or less per w eek as t o region a n d sex in D ecem b er 1934_____________________________________________ T a b l e 29.-— P ercentage distrib u tion o f driver-salesm en a ccord in g to w eekly h ours as to reg ion _____________________________________ T a b l e 30.-— A vera ge w eek ly hours b y occu p a tion a l classes as to region a n d sex_________________________________________________________ T a b l e 31.— A vera ge w eek ly hours b y size o f city as to region an d sex____ T a b l e 32.-— A vera ge w eek ly hours o f m ale em p loyees in N o rth en gaged in d irect la b o r b y union a n d n on u n ion shop s an d sk ill________ T a b l e 3 3 .— A vera ge w eek ly hours in bakeries classified b y degree o f m ech a n iza tion as to region a n d s e x __________________________ T a b l e 34.'— A vera ge w eek ly hours in bakeries classified b y ty p e o f dis trib u tion as t o region a n d s e x ________________________________ T a b l e 35.-— A vera ge w eek ly hours in bakeries classified b y k in d o f p r o d u c t as t o region a n d sex___________________________________________ T a b l e 36.— A vera ge w eek ly earnings in b rea d in d u stry b y region a n d sex_ T a b l e 37.'— In d ex n um bers o f average w eek ly earnings in entire baking in d u stry in th e U n ited States, b y m on th s, 1 9 2 5 -3 5 _________ T a b l e 38.— P ercentage distrib u tion o f em p loyees a ccord in g t o w eekly earnings in b read in du stry in cou n try as a w h o le ___________ T a b l e 39.-— P ercentage distrib u tion o f em p loyees a ccord in g t o w eekly earnings b y region a n d sex____________________________________ T a b l e 40.-— A vera ge w eek ly earnings b y b roa d occu p a tion a l grou pin gs as to region a n d s e x ______________________________________________ T a b l e 41.— A vera ge w eek ly earnings b y occu p a tion a l classes as to region and sex_________________________________________________________ T a b l e 42.■— A vera ge w eek ly earnings b y size o f c ity as t o region a n d sex__ T a b l e 43.— A vera ge w eek ly earnings o f m ale em p loyees in N o rth engaged in d irect la b o r b y u nion a n d n on u n ion shop s a n d s k ill_____ T a b l e 44.— A vera ge w eek ly earnings in bakeries classified b y degree o f m ech an ization as to region a n d s e x __________________________ T a b l e 45.-— A vera ge w eek ly earnings in bakeries classified b y ty p e o f d istribution as t o region a n d sex_____________________________ T a b l e 46.— A vera ge w eek ly earnings in bakeries classified b y k in d o f p r o d u c t as to region a n d s e x _________________________________ T a b l e 47.-— E m p loy in g a g en cy in 252 bakeries, b y size o f pla n t, 1934____ T a b l e 48.— D istrib u tion o f em p loyees b y class m e th o d o f w age p a ym en t, ty p e o f d istrib u tion o f p r od u cts, a n d region, 1934__________ VII 38 40 44 45 47 48 49 50 51 53 55 56 57 60 61 62 65 66 67 68 69 70 72 72 74 77 78 81 82 82 83 84 86 90 CONTENTS VIII Page T a b l e 49.-— D is t r i b u t io n o f e m p lo y e e s a c c o r d i n g t o m e t h o d o f c o m p e n s a tio n f o r o v e r t im e , 1 9 3 4 -----------------------------------------------------------T a b l e 50.-— N u m b e r o f p la n t s r e q u ir in g u n ifo r m s a n d d is t r ib u t io n o f c o s t a n d m a in t e n a n c e __________________________________________________ T a b l e 51.-— E s t im a t e d a n n u a l p e r - c a p it a c o s t o f u n ifo r m s a n d t h e ir m a in te n a n c e f o r e a c h c la s s o f w o r k e r , 1 9 3 4 ________________________ T a b l e 5 2 .— D is t r i b u t io n o f e m p lo y e e s a c c o r d i n g t o w e e k ly p e r -c a p it a c o s t o f u n ifo r m m a in te n a n c e , 1 9 3 4 _____________________________ T a b l e 53.-— S t a r tin g t i m e b y k in d o f w o r k in th r e e b a k e s h o p s ____________ T a b l e 54.-— I n s u r a n c e f o r e m p lo y e e s , 1 9 3 4 _____________________________________ 92 95 95 96 96 101 List o f Charts C hart C hart C hart C hart C hart C hart C hart C hart C hart C hart 1.— A v e r a g e h o u r ly e a r n in g s, a v e r a g e w e e k ly h o u r s, a n d a v e r a g e w e e k ly e a r n in g s o f e m p lo y e e s in b r e a d in d u s t r y in c o u n t r y a s a w h o le , M a r c h 1 9 33 , S e p t e m b e r 19 3 3 , a n d D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 4 __________________________________________________ . _____________ 2.— E m p lo y m e n t a n d p a y r o lls in a ll m a n u fa c t u r in g in d u s tr ie s a n d in b a k in g in d u s t r y a s a w h o l e ___________________________________ 3 .— P e r c e n t a g e d is t r ib u t io n o f e m p lo y e e s a c c o r d in g t o a v e r a g e h o u r ly e a r n in g s in b r e a d in d u s t r y in c o u n t r y a s a w h o le , M a r c h 19 33 , S e p t e m b e r 1 9 33 , a n d D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 4 __________ 4.— A v e r a g e h o u r ly e a r n in g s in b r e a d in d u s t r y b y r e g io n a n d sex , M a r c h 1 9 3 3 , S e p t e m b e r 1933, a n d D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 4 __________ 5.— P e r c e n ta g e d is t r ib u t io n o f e m p lo y e e s a c c o r d in g t o w e e k ly h o u r s in b r e a d in d u s t r y in c o u n t r y a s a w h o le , M a r c h 1933, S e p t e m b e r 1 9 33 , a n d D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 4 __________________________ 6 .— A v e r a g e w e e k ly h o u r s in b r e a d in d u s t r y b y r e g io n a n d sex , M a r c h 19 33 , S e p t e m b e r 19 33 , a n d D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 4 __________ 7.'— A v e r a g e w e e k ly e a r n in g s in b r e a d in d u s t r y b y r e g io n a n d sex , M a r c h 19 33 , S e p t e m b e r 1933, a n d D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 4 __________ 8 .— P e r c e n t a g e d is t r ib u t io n o f e m p lo y e e s a c c o r d in g t o w e e k ly e a r n in g s in b r e a d in d u s t r y in c o u n t r y a s a w h o le , M a r c h 19 33 , S e p t e m b e r 1 9 3 3 , a n d D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 4 ___________________ 9 .— P r o p o r t io n o f d a y a n d n ig h t o p e r a t io n in 9 3 b a k e r ie s , f o r 7 ,5 6 9 b a k e -s h o p e m p lo y e e s , in 2 8 S t a t e s , 1 9 3 4 ______________________ 10.— F lo w o f flo u r a n d o t h e r in g r e d ie n ts th r o u g h a b a k e r y _________ 15 17 29 31 52 54 71 73 75 103 List o f Illustrations P l a t e 1.— F lo u r sc a le a n d flo u r c o n t r o l, c o n n e c t in g w ith s t o r a g e b in a b o v e , a n d d o u g h m ix e r w it h o p e r a t o r s . P l a t e 2.'— G r o u p o f o p e r a t io n s , s h o w in g b e n c h w o r k , d iv id in g , s c a lin g , r o u n d in g , a n d m o ld in g . P l a t e 3.— B r e a d d u m p in g f r o m t r a v e lin g o v e n . P l a t e 4 .— S lic in g , w r a p p in g , a n d p a c k in g o f b r e a d . P l a t e 5.— C a k e -b a t t e r m ix in g . P l a t e 6.— P ie -m a k in g m a c h in e , s h o w in g b o t t o m m a k in g , b o t t o m la y in g , fillin g , a n d t o p m a k in g . Bulletin 7S[o. 623 o f the United States Bureau o f Labor Statistics W ages, H ours, and W o rk in g Conditions in the Bread-Baking Industry, 1934 Summary and Conclusions 1. This survey was limited to the bread division of the baking industry. According to the census, this division reported in 1933 a total of 14,483 establishments, employing 14,149 salaried workers and 155,229 wage earners, who received about $174,000,000 in salaries and wages and manufactured a product valued at $770,000,000. 2. The purpose of the survey was to determine the influence of both the President's Reem ploym ent Agreement and the code upon wages and hours of labor in the bread-baking industry. Accordingly, three pay-roll periods were covered: One in M arch 1933 before the advent of the President's Reem ploym ent Agreement; one in Septem ber 1933 when the President's Reemployment Agreement was in effect; and, finally, one in December 1934 when the code had been in operation for about 6 months. 3. In selecting the plants in the sample, such factors as geographical distribution, size of city, size of establishment, unionization, degree of mechanization, type of distribution, and kind of product were taken into consideration. The 259 establishments covered in December 1934 employed 20,962 workers and were located in 66 cities in 37 States and the District of Columbia. Thus, although not very large, the coverage was adequate and representative of the bread baking industry as a whole. 4. Average hourly earnings m the bread-baking industry rose from 45.5 cents in M arch 1933 to 50.7 cents in September 1933 and to 54.9 cents in December 1934. Thus, under the President's Reem ployment Agreement, the average earnings per hour advanced 5.2 cents or 11.4 percent, and under the code they further increased by 4.2 cents or 8.3 percent. 5. The increase was not limited to any one class, as shown by the distribution of employees according to average hourly earnings. Between M arch and September 1933, there was a decline in the per centages of employees in practically all classes under 52.5 cents and an increase in the percentages in nearly all classes beginning with 52.5 cents. The shifting of workers toward higher-wage classes continued between September 1933 and December 1934. 6. The absolute and relative increases in average hourly earnings were shared by both males and females in both the northern and southern regions. For the period as a whole, the absolute gains were greater for males than for females and greater in the South than in the North. 1 2 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY 7. A s a result of the provisions of the Presidents Reemployment Agreement, there was a drop in the relative number earning less than the established minimum rates between M arch and September 1933. Thus, in the N orth the percentage receiving less than 40 cents de creased from 32.6 to 22.4 for males and from 79.1 to 75.4 for females. In the South, the proportion earning less than the 30-cent minimum decreased from 37.8 to 14.7 for males and from 82.6 to 52.2 for females. 8. In December 1934, 11.5 percent of the males and 64.3 percent of the females in the North earned less than 40 cents per hour (the code minimum for m ost northern workers) and 21.5 percent of the males and 71.8 percent of the females in the South received less than 35 cents (the code minimum for m ost southern workers). A large number of these workers belong to exempted occupations, which could be paid as low as 80 percent of the minimum, the remaining persons being either substandard workers or those paid in violation of the code/ 9. Am ong males engaged in direct labor, a slight differential existed during each of the three periods between the average hourly earnings of semiskilled and unskilled workers, but there was a large differential between the average earnings per hour of skilled and unskilled workers. In the N orth, the spread between the last two groups was 18.5 cents in M arch 1933, 17.9 cents in September 1933, and 20.4 cents in December 1934; and, in the South, it was 13.6 cents in M arch 1933, 13.7 cents in September 1933, and 14.2 cents in December 1934. The average hourly earnings of driver-salesmen approximated more closely those of skilled rather than semiskilled males engaged in direct labor. 10. Each occupational class showed absolute and relative increases in average hourly earnings between M arch and September 1933 and between the latter period and December 1934. These increases, however, varied considerably. 11. On an occupational basis, the northern employees enjoyed a differential as compared with the workers in the South. Thus, as regards the broad occupational groupings covering male employees engaged in direct labor, the differentials for the three periods were respectively 16.5, 13.4, and 16.2 cents for skilled, 13.2, 10.0, and 11.3 cents for semiskilled, and 1 1 .6 ,9 .2 , and 10.0 cents for unskilled workers. Similar differentials favoring the N orth as compared with the South were found in the case of individual male occupations, these differ entials having decreased between M arch and September 1933 and widened between September 1933 and December 1934. The regional differentials for identical female occupations followed much the same general course as that for male employees. 12. Females doing approximately the same work as males received less per hour than males. Thus, northern male cake wrappers and packers earned a substantially higher average per hour than females, this differential amounting to 12.1 cents in M arch 1933, 11.1 cents in September 1933, and to 10.1 cents in December 1934. 13. On the whole, the average earnings per hour of bakery workers varied directly with the size of city. In the North, there was a clearcut break between the cities of 250,000 and over and those of less than 250,000, whereas in the South the break occurred between cities of 50,000 and over and those of less than 50,000. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 3 14. Taking male employees engaged in direct labor in the N orth, the differential in favor of union as compared with nonunion shops was limited to skilled and semiskilled workers, as unskilled workers are seldom organized. A s regards skilled workers, the differential was 26.0 cents in M arch 1933, 19.2 cents in September 1933, and 23.9 cents in December 1934. The differential in favor of semiskilled workers was 6.4 cents in M arch 1933, 3.3 cents in September 1933, and 6.0 cents in December 1934. Furthermore, in nonunion shops there was practically no difference between the average hourly earnings of un skilled and semiskilled workers, whereas in union shops semiskilled employees enjoyed a differential of 6.1 cents in M arch 1933, 4.1 cents in September 1933, and 7.5 cents in December 1934. 15. In general, the greater the degree of mechanization in bakeries, the higher the average hourly earnings. Thus, in the North male workers in mechanical bakeries earned more per hour (3.5 cents in M arch, 8.3 cents in September 1933, and 10.4 cents in December 1934) than male workers in handicraft shops. The same was true, although to a lesser extent, of southern male workers in mechanical shops, whose earnings per hour exceeded those of male workers in handicraft shops by 0.6 cent in M arch 1933, 6.0 cents in September 1933, and 4.7 cents in December 1934. 16. On the whole, average earnings per hour were highest in multiState, multiple-unit retail, and chain-store bakeries. Likewise, the earnings in local wholesale bakeries tended to exceed those in retail and house-to-house establishments. 17. In the North, males employed in bread specialty shops earned much more per hour than males in either bread or cake shops. Except in the instance of northern male workers in March and September 1933, workers in bread shops earned somewhat more than those in cake shops. 18. Between the fall of 1931 and December 1934, the average hourly earnings advanced 1.4 cents or 2.6 percent. During this period, the percentage of employees earning less than 30 cents declined from 10.4 to 2 .9, the percentage earning 30 and under 50 cents rose from 33.7 to 4 5 .5, the percentage receiving 50 and under 65 cents declined from 31.2 to 25.2, and the percentage earning 65 cents and over increased from 24.7 to 26.4. 19. T h e average weekly hours of all workers in the bread-baking industry declined from 50.2 in M arch 1933 to 45.9 in September 1933 and to 43.5 in December 1934. The total reduction over the entire period amounted to 6.7 hours or 13.3 percent. 20. A better idea of the influence of both the President’s Reem ploym ent Agreement and the code upon weekly hours m ay be had if the exempted occupation of driver-salesman is excluded. Thus, the average for all workers exclusive of driver-salesman dropped from 47.4 in M arch 1933 to 42.2 in September 1933 and to 39.3 in D ecem ber 1934. A t the same time, the spread in hours worked which existed between the various sex-region groups was reduced. T he range between the weekly hours of males in the South and females in the North, the groups which had respectively the highest and lowest averages in all three periods, was reduced from 7.7 hours in M arch 1933 to 3.6 hours in September 1933 and to 2.5 hours in December 1934. 4 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY 21. A s regards the distribution of employees, exclusive of driversalesmen, according to weekly hours, there was a sharp increase in the percentage of the total number working 40 and under 48 hours in each sex-region group between M arch and September 1933. The con centration was especially marked in the 4 4 - and under 48-hour interval. Furthermore, the above concentrations were more pronounced in the case of male employees as compared with female workers and in the South as against the North. 22. Whereas the trend between M arch and September 1933 was toward a workweek of 44 and under 48 hours, the trend between September 1933 and December 1934 as a result of the code was toward a workweek of 40 and under 44 hours. The increase in the percent ages of employees having a workweek of that length was from 12.9 to 51.7 for males and from 26.9 to 44.8 for females in the N orth and from 13.2 to 60.7 for males and from 26.4 to 51.2 for females in the South. 23. B oth the President’s Reem ploym ent Agreement and the code tended to reduce the differential in hours which had existed between skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled male workers engaged in direct labor in both regions. A s a result of certain code exemptions, however, the differential in favor of indirect male workers as compared with skilled direct male workers increased between M arch 1933 and D ecem ber 1934 in both regions. 24. Am ong the broad occupational groupings engaged in direct labor, not over 2.1 percent of the males and not over 0.4 percent of the females worked more than 48 hours, the upper limit for handicraft shops. In fact, the great m ajority of these employees had a workweek of 40 hours or less, the upper lim it for mechanical bakeries. W ork of more than 48 hours a week was found to an appreciable extent only in the occupations classified as other indirect male labor, which group ing included occupations exempted from the provisions of the code. 25. The exempted occupation of driver-salesman shows the smallest decline in average weekly hours between M arch 1933 and December 1934, a decrease of only 2.0 percent. In each period, over 90 percent of these workers averaged over 48 hours per week. 26. The tendency between M arch 1933 and December 1934 was toward a leveling of the workweek of the various occupations. 27. Although in several cases the occupational averages for male workers in the South were higher than those for males in the North, this was not true of all occupations. In the case of females, there was little difference in the regional averages. In occupations requiring approximately the same skill, males worked on the average longer hours than females. 28. The leveling effect of both the President’s Reemployment Agreement and the code largely eliminated the longer hours which in M arch 1933 existed in cities of less than 250,000. 29. In the North, male workers engaged in direct labor in union shops had a shorter week than those in nonunion shops. This advan tage was m ost pronounced in M arch 1933 before either the President’s Reemployment Agreement or the code were in effect. 30. During each of the three periods, the northern male employees worked the longest hours in handicraft, the next longest in seimhandicraft, and the shortest in mechanical shops, but under both the Presi dent’s Reemploym ent Agreement and the code the spread in the aver- SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 5 age weekly hours between these types of shops was increased consider ably. In case of males in the South, mechanical bakeries worked longer hours than handicraft bakeries in March 1933, but the Presi dent’s Reemployment Agreement reversed this and established a differential in favor of handicraft as compared with mechanical shops. The code further increased this differential. Semihandicraft estab lishments in the South had the longest hours in March and September 1933 and the same hours as mechanical bakeries in December 1934. 31. From the standpoint of type of distribution, employees in the smaller establishments, such as retail and house-to-house or local wholesale shops, worked on the whole longer hours per week than employees in the larger multi-State, multiple-unit retail, and chainstore bakeries. 32. In each of the three periods and for each sex-region group, the average weekly hours differed but little between bread shops and cake, sweet goods, and pie shops. The large differential in favor of bread shops as compared with bread specialty shops was reduced from 11.7 hours in March 1933 to 5.6 hours in September 1933 and to 6.1 hours in December 1934. 33. Average weekly hours dropped from 53.2 in the fall of 1931 to 43.5 in December 1934, a decline of 9.7 hours or 18.2 percent. The decrease was greater for males than for females. 34. $22.84 1933 $23.24 1933 $23.86 1934. Average earnings per week in the bread-baking industry ad vanced from in March to in September and to in December These gains were the result of increases in average hourly earnings sufficiently great to more than offset the decreases in average weekly hours. Taking the entire period, the weekly earnings increased more in the South ($1.59 or 8.8 percent) than in the North ($1.01 or 4.3 percent), and in each region the gains were relatively greater for females than for males. 35. Although not very large, the changes in the distribution of employees according to weekly earnings in the entire industry between M arch and September 1933 wTere significant. Thus, a decrease in the percentage earning less than $12 (from l2 .7 to 7.7) was accompanied by an increase in the percentage earning $12 and under $20 (from 24.8 to 33.6). Likewise, a decline in the relative number receiving $20 and under $32 (from 45.6 to 38.9) was followed by an increase in the relative number earning $32 and over (from 16.9 to 19.8). W ith the exception of a slight increase in the percentage earning $36 and over, the changes between September 1933 and December 1934 were negl i gi bl e. . . . . 36. Taking the distribution of employees according to weekly earnings by sex-region groups, there was a shift of workers from the immediately adjoining classes on both sides to the $12 and under $20 class for males in the N orth and to the $12 and under $16 class for females in the North and for both males and females in the South. This was due to the fact that, on the one hand, all employees outside of driver-salesmen were more or less uniformly affected by the reduc tion of weekly hours, and, on the other hand, the increases in average earnings per hour were greater on the whole for the lower-paid rather than for the higher-paid workers, thus tending to increase the weekly earnings of the lower-paid employees and to decrease the weekly earnings of the higher-paid employees. There was also an increase in the relative number of males in the upper wage-brackets in both the 6 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY N orth and the South, which m ay be accounted for by the inclusion of driver-salesmen. The increase in the average hourly earnings of driversalesmen was not accompanied by an appreciable decrease in average weekly hours, so that these employees were shifted to still higher wage classes. There is a striking similarity in the percentage of workers m each of the wage classes for each sex-region group between September 1933 and Decem ber 1934. 37. In both the N orth and South, although the average weekly earnings of semiskilled and unskilled male workers engaged in direct labor differed but little during each of the three periods, there existed a substantial differential between each of these two groups and skilled workers. There was also a differential in the average weekly earnings in favor of driver-salesmen as compared with skilled male workers engaged in direct labor. This differential became greater in both September 1933 and December 1934, which was due to the fact that the former group was exempted from the hour regulations under the code, whereas the latter group was subject to these regulations. 38. For males in the N orth, the changes in the average weekly earn ings between M arch 1933 and December 1934 ranged from a decrease of 86 cents for dividers or scalers to an increase of $1.16 for pan greasers among the 14 individual occupations in the direct-labor group, and in the indirect-labor group they ranged from a decrease of 70 cents for office clerks to an increase of $5.49 for driver-salesmen. For the six individual occupations shown for females in the N orth, the gains ranged from 47 cents for stenographers, typists, telephone operators, etc., to $2.03 for cake finishers. In the South, five of the six indi vidual occupations presented for males engaged in direct labor showed increases between M arch 1933 and December 1934. 39. In all three periods, the occupational average weekly earnings were higher in the N orth than in the South. T he largest regional differential among the broad occupational groupings was for “ other” male workers in the indirect-labor group ($6.33 in M arch 1933, $5.39 in September 1933, and $5.58 in December 1934). The smallest North-South differential was found among unskilled female employees classified as direct labor ($2.86 in M arch 1933, 67 cents in September 1933, and $1.49 in December 1934). 40. A comparison of the weekly earnings of unskilled workers classified as direct labor reveals that for comparable work male em ployees averaged more than female employees. 41. On the whole, the average weekly earnings were higher in the larger cities in both the North and the South. 42. In all three periods, the average weekly earnings of skilled and semiskilled male workers engaged in direct labor were greater in union shops than in nonunion shops. The opposite was true of unskilled workers. The differential between unskilled and skilled workers was virtually twice as large in union as in nonunion shops. 43. In both regions, the average weekly earnings were generally greatest in the most highly mechanized shops. 44. For males in both regions, the weekly earnings were highest in multi-St ate, multiple-unit retail, and chain-store bakeries, but for females in the North they were highest in retail and house-to-house bakeries, and for females in the South they were highest in local wholesale shops. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 7 45. Am ong the males in the North, bread specialty shops not only had the highest average earnings per hour, but they also had the highest average weekly earnings. In all four sex-region groups, the averages for bread shops exceeded those for cake shops. 46. Average weekly earnings decreased from $28.54 in the fall of 1931 to $23.86 in December 1934, a drop of $4.29 or 14.5 percent. During this .interval, the weekly earnings of females advanced from $12.70 to $14.23, while those of males declined from $29.53 to $25.24. 47. Only a few of the larger bakeries had special employment agencies. In small shops the owner did the hiring, and in the larger establishments the superintendent or the general manager did the hiring or delegated this authority to some subordinate. 48. Previous experience, especially previous satisfactory service in the plant of the employer, outweighs all other considerations in hiring an applicant. 49. Due to the strenuous nature of the work in bread bakeries, there is a tendency to establish definite age limits in hiring. Gen erally speaking, the hiring age for bake-shop employees ranged from 18 to 45 and that for driver-salesmen from 21 to 35 years. 50. Both bakers and driver-salesmen must be trained. In only 7.0 percent of the bakeries was the training of bakers formal, other bakeries starting new men as helpers and advancing them to machine or bench hands in accordance with ability or seniority or both and not as a rule after a definite period of training. The training of driversalesmen often consists only in acquainting them with the route, although the larger plants usually require more extensive training in sales methods and other phases of the business. 51. During seasonal or other slack periods, it is customary for workers in a bakery to share available work. Considerable effort is made to keep the existing force intact, thereby minimizing the extent and cost of labor turn-over. W hen lay-offs are necessary, the major factors considered in retaining workers are ability, merit, and seniority. 52. Bakery workers are generally paid on a time basis. Driversalesmen were the chief exception to this rule, as they are usually paid wholly or in part b y commissions. 53. Code regulation of maximum hours of work coupled with puni tive overtime rates tended both to shorten and to regularize the work hours of bakery employees. 54. A common practice in this industry is to supply, free of charge or at a discount, bakery products for use by families of employees. 55. Am ong the more common expenses incurred by driver-salesmen are the cost of operators’ licenses and uniforms. In some establish ments, the driver-salesmen also m ay have to furnish bond or assume responsibility for any credit they extend to customers. 56. The starting and quitting hours of individual bake-shop employees are very irregular, due to the fact that these hours are determined by the order of manufacture and that very often processes overlap. D aily hours vary with week ends, holidays, and midweek lulls. The industry has, however, made an attempt to level out weekly peaks and lows. 57. N ight work is still common in the industry, although a struggle against it has been waged for the past 100 years. A typical sample of 93 plants showed that, of the total operating hours in these plants, 8 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY 857 hours were worked during the night (6 p. m. to 6 a. m .) and 812 hours represented daytime operation. 58. Approximately three-fourths of the bakeries provided for rest during lunch for at least a part of their employees although only twothirds of the shops extended this privilege to bake-shop workers. Onehalf hour was the m ost common lunch period. 59. The six holidays generally observed in the industry are Christ mas, Thanksgiving, Independence D a y , New Y ea r’s D a y , Labor D a y , and Decoration D a y . M o st salaried employees and about one-half of the regular bake-shop employees were paid for holidays. 60. Vacations with pay were provided for all employees in 12 per cent of the plants reporting and for part of the employees in an addi tional 36 percent of the plants. 61. Although welfare activities are not very common, they are found among the larger bakeries. Such activities include safety programs, company insurance, social and recreational activities, and mutual benefit associations. Chapter I.—The Bread-Baking Industry Definition of Industry The baking industry makes bread, rolls, biscuit, crackers, cookies, cakes, pies, doughnuts, pastries, pretzels, and a variety of other products, of which a single bakery m ay produce one or several items. The industry, however, is classified b y the Census of Manufactures into two branches, namely, ‘ ‘Biscuit and crackers” and “ Bakery products other than biscuit and crackers.” The biscuit and crackers division of the industry is composed chiefly of large-scale establishments which manufacture biscuit, crackers, machine-made cookies, pretzels, etc. These products are neither bulky nor perishable, so that they m ay be distributed geo graphically over a wide area. In 1933, the Census of Manufactures reported 347 establishments and nearly 30,000 employees in this branch of the industry. The problems here differ essentially from those of bread baking, and, in the codes under the National Recovery Administration, biscuit and crackers were separated from the bread division. This survey, therefore, excluded biscuit and cracker plants from its scope. The present survey covers the largest division of the industry, which includes the baking of bread, cakes, pies, etc. In 1933, the Census of Manufactures reported for this branch 14,483 establishments em ploying 14,149 1 salaried workers and 155,229 wage earners, who received about $174,000,000 in salaries and wages and manufactured a product valued at $770,000,000. This industry is one of the princi pal ones in the country, having more establishments than any other manufacturing industry.2 The bread division also differs from that of biscuit and crackers in other respects. I t not only embraces large mechanical plants run on a factory basis, but it also includes the semihandicraft group of par tially mechanized bakeries, as well as the numerous small handicraft shops that employ only a few people.3 A s the products of this division are designed for consumption within a few days, they must be dis tributed within a relatively local area. Sales of bakery goods are made either wholesale or retail or by both methods. The retail baker m ay sell his products from his own store, located usually in front of his bake shop, or through stores situated at various points in his city, or through chain grocery organizations that m ay control his output, or by the use of the house-to-house sales-route method, etc.4 1 Exclusive of employees in central administrative offices. 2 The above figures do not include establishments doing a business of less than $5,000 per annum. In his letter of transmittal to the President, in connection with the Code of Fair Competition for the Baking Industry, Administrator Hugh S. Johnson said: “ In 1929, a conservative estimate of establishments shows a total of 30,000 bakeries, which had dropped to 25,000 in 1933.” The applications for code Blue Eagles would seem to be the most reliable index of the number of bakeries, but the figures are available at the present writing only as a rough estimate, there being several important variables present that may later be corrected. The final compilation will probably be well over 30,000. 3 See p. 22. * See pp. 23 and 24. 102 7 4 5°— 37- -2 9 10 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY Historical Development of Baking Industry M a n baked his' bread before the dawn of history. Fragments of unfermented cakes or biscuits discovered in the Neolithic lake dwell ings of Switzerland are among evidences left that our ancestors o f the Stone Age gathered grain, fashioned cakes, and engaged in what has come to be known as home baking. Before the time of Christ, Egyptian hieroglyphs designated the occupation of baker. Home had 300 bake shops in the days of Emperor Augustus. W hen Pompeii was excavated, remains of shops were unearthed with loaves of bread still in the ovens. During the M iddle Ages, the possession of an oven was an exclusive right of the feudal lord. H e compelled all people in his jurisdiction to use his ovens and exacted a fee in return. In medieval cities the baking trade was among the first crafts to develop and bakers played a prominent part in the city life.5 The art of baking has held its place among the essential industries of mankind. By the late eighteenth century, there had developed in Europe a well-established market for commercial bakery products, with a large portion of the people accustomed to purchase their bakery goods. In some countries, notably France, handicraft shops were the rule and they have persisted almost exclusively to the present day. In other countries, large-scale bakeries, some mechanized, have become important. One mechanized plant in Moscow is equipped to supply one-third of the city’s population,6 but the greater part of bakery goods in Europe is still produced by craftsmen catering to particular demands. The development of baking in the United States has differed some what from that in Europe. The pioneer household did its own baking, and this practice persisted in industrialized America until the turn of the twentieth century. A n investigation among wageearners’ families by the Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1901 indicated that about two-thirds of the bread was still baked at home.7 C om mercial bake shops were, of course, established much earlier, but they served a very limited number of consumers. The proprietor of the bake shop was the baker, and the employees were usually drawn from the members of his immediate family. H e baked his products at night and sold them in a small store in front of the shop. A s early as 1850, however, baking had entered the wholesale field. The Census of Manufactures offers material for studying the development of the bakery industry in this country. The earliest information available is for 1849, when there were approximately 2,000 establishments employing 6,700 wage earners. The records indicate that the industry grew rapidly. By 1889 there were more than 10,000 shops with nearly 39,000 wage earners. At the outbreak of the World War, almost 26,000 bakeries were reported and 124,000 workers were employed by the industry. These figures cover the industry as a whole, and show the rapid growth in the number of establishments, as well as in the number of employees. Since 1914 separate figures are available for the bread division. These figures are given in table 1. The number of employees in8For a history of bread baking, see Braun, Emil: The Baker’s Book. New York, 1901, pp. 5-31. 6 Stone, Ursula B., Baking Industry, Europe, in Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, vol. 6, p. 305. 7 The investigation covered the consumption of various articles of food among 2,557 families. See Eight' eenth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor, 1903, p. 82. This ratio of “ two-thirds” is based on a comparison between the average number of loaves of bread and of pounds of flour and meal purchased per family. See also Alsberg, Carl L.: Combination in the American Bread-Baking Industry. Stanford University, California, 1926, pp. 27-28. 11 BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY creased steadily until the depression of the thirties. The data also clearly indicate the advent of the large-scale bakery. The largest number of bakeries was reported in 1914, for there was a decline in the number of bakeries with a product valued at $500 or more from 1914 to 1919. From 1919 to 1925, there was a decrease in the number with products valued at $5,000 or more.8 This is undoubtedly due to the development of larger establishments at the expense of the smaller ones. ^ During the depression years following 1929, the number of establishments in the bread-baking industry has declined nearly 30 percent, and the number of wage earners decreased about 7 percent. T able 1.— G r o w th o f b r e a d -b a k in g i n d u s t r y i n U n ite d S ta tes, 1 9 1 4 - 3 3 [Data taken from Census of Manufactures] Year Bakeries with a product valued at $500 or more: 1914__________________________________________ 1919_____________________________________ _____ Bakeries with a product valued at $5,000 or more: 1921___________________________________________ 1923_____________________________ _____________ 1925__________________________ _____ __________ 1927___________________________________________ 1929___________________________________________ 1931_______________________________________ . 1933__________________________________________ Number of establish ments Number of wage earners (average for year) 25,797 24,919 99,016 107,251 $66,072,000 132.171.000 $402,409,000 947.876.000 20,024 18,572 17,490 17,909 20, 410 17, 364 14,483 117,026 127,496 128,034 139, 013 166, 970 154, 764 155,229 169.829.000 183.221.000 187, 660, 000 202.197.000 240, 354,000 212,353. 000 174, 423, 000 902.463.000 911.118.000 1,023, 668, 000 1,145, 710, 000 1,251, 621, 000 979,904, 000 770, 332, 000 Wages Value of products Tw o important forces have been operating and m ay be expected to continue to affect the development of the baking industry. Of primary importance in the past has been the increasing proportion of bakers' bread used as compared with bread baked in the home. In 1901, about two-thirds of the bread used by w age-earned families was made at home, but it is estimated that in 191 8 -1 9 only one-third was baked at home and two-thirds was purchased.9 The same pro portions probably apply to all inhabitants of large cities,10 although in the smaller towns the percentage of bread baked at home is much larger. On the other hand, home baking has persisted in the rural sections of the country. In 1 9 2 2 -2 3 , it was estimated that at least 94 percent of the farm families of the United States baked their own bread.11 I t was the decreasing use of home-made bread in the cities, together with the increase in urban population, which gave the commercial 8 It is difficult to trace in detail the movements in recent years because of the absence of data on bakeries with a product valued at less than $5,000. In the first place, changes in the price of flour play an important role in determining whether or not a baker is eligible to report in one year and ineligible in another year, thus making it difficult to interpret the change in the number of bakeries from 1927 to 1933. In the second place, the discrepancy between 14,483 establishments reported by the Census of Manufactures in 1933 and the estimated 30,000 Blue Eagles issued to bakeries indicates the importance of these small establishments. It is probable that the number of bakeries has decreased more than is indicated by the table through the elimination of small units but that the growth in the number of wage earners has been less than is shown. The growth of employment in large scale units is accounted for, but the possible decrease of employment in small units is not shown. » Based on a study of the cost of living made by the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, which covered 11,900 families. The average quantities of bread and flour consumed per family are given on p. 118 of Bui. No. 357: Cost of Living in the United States. The ratio of “ one-third” was arrived at the same way as in 1901. See also Alsberg, Combination in the American Bread-Baking Industry, p. 28. It must be remembered, how ever, when comparing the two periods that the size of the family declined somewhat. 10 This was indicated by a study in 36 large cities, which was made by the U. S. Food Administration in 1918. See Alsberg, Combination in the American Bread-Baking Industry, p. 28. 11 Based on a survey made by the Farm Journal of Philadelr'*iia. See Alsberg, Combination in the Ameri can Bread-Baking Industry, p. 29. 12 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY bakeries a considerable opportunity for expansion during the first part of the twentieth century. W hether the city market is susceptible to further marked expansion is questionable. I t must be noted, moreover, that the rural market has proved difficult to develop. In recent years, however, several factors have tended to restrict the consumption of bread and other starchy foods. The decline of immigration after the adoption of quota restrictions was an important influence, since people just arrived from Europe consume comparatively larger amounts of bread than do those born in this country. O f more importance perhaps is the change in our own food habits, with greater emphasis on the food value of fruits and vegetables. Food require ments have also changed, tending toward lighter diet, as a result of shortened hours of labor, the shift of population from farms to cities, and the development of labor-saving devices. Characteristics of Bread-Baking Industry Bread making is not a localized industry, and the employees in it always work in a broad labor market that offers several types of em ployment. So-called “ company towns” , with no alternative oppor tunities for employment, offer no problem to this industry. Bread is manufactured in every city and town and many of the small villages in the country. Because bread becomes stale quickly, “ fresh” bread m ust be sold the same day it is baked.^ N o t only are bakeries located throughout the country, but their distribution corresponds closely to that of population, with the greatest concentration in the larger cities.* Along with the dispersion of the industry, bread baking also has a smaller average number of employees per establishment than any other manufacturing industry. According to the Census of M a n u factures, the average was 10.7 wage earners in 1933, which contrasts with 43 reported for all manufacturing industries. The average num ber of wage earners per plant, however, has risen steadily from 3.8 in 1914. This has been due mainly to the development of the larger units in the industry. T he distribution of establishments by size is available in 1929 only for the industry as a whole, i. e., including also biscuit and crackers. I t will be seen from table 2 that 19,183 out of a total of 20,785 estab lishments reporting to the Census of Manufactures had 20 or less wage earners. In addition, the number of code Blue Eagles issued to in dustry registrants suggests that there m ay be another 10,000 or more units operated either by a proprietor alone or with perhaps a single wage earner. T able 2 .— N u m b e r of e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , c la s s ifie d b y n u m b e r b a k in g i n d u s t r y a s a w h o l e , 1 9 2 9 1 Number of wage earners None___________ _ ___________ 1-5______________________________ 0-20______________________________ 2 1 -5 0 51-100_____________ ____ ______ 101-250__________________ Number of establishments 662 14,206 4,315 933 364 246 of Number of wage earners 2 5 1 -5 0 0 501-1.000 Over 1,000 w age ea r n e r s, in Number of establishments 44 12 3 Total 20, 785 ! Abstract of the Fifteenth Census of the United States, p. 794. with a product valued at $5,000 or more. Figures are limited to establishments BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY 13 Another distinguishing characteristic is that the bread-baking industry has been affected during recent years by rapid progress in the displacement of hand processes by machine operations, which is undermining the demand for the high degree of skill for which the old bakery worker was known. According to the Census of Manu factures, the percentage of bakeries 12 reporting the use of power was 5.3 in 1889, 9.8 in 1899, 25.9 in 1909, and 68.3 in 1919, thus indicat ing considerable acceleration in mechanization.13 The latter was hastened by the introduction of electricity,14 which made it possible to develop the small-scale use of power-driven machinery. The spread of mechanization, or partial mechanization, may also be judged by the following census averages of horsepower per plant15 (total reported horsepower divided by total reporting bakeries), which show the uninterrupted progress since 1899: 1899— 1.5 horsepower per bakery with products valued at $500 or more. 1904— 2.0 horsepower per bakery with products valued at $500 or more. 1909— 2.7 horsepower per bakery with products valued at $500 or more. 1914— 4.1 horsepower per bakery with products valued at $500 or more. 1919— 6.6 horsepower per bakery with products valued at $500 or more. 1921— No figures available. 1923 lft— 10.3 horsepower per bakery with products valued at $5,000 or more. 1925— 12.9 horsepower per bakery with products valued at $5,000 or more. 1927— 15.7 horsepower per bakery with products valued at $5,000 or more. 1929— 17.1 horsepower per bakery with products valued at $5,000 or more. With the development of large plants there also arose the movement toward combination in the industry.17 Even before 1900, certain companies began to operate groups of bakeries, sometimes located in several cities. These companies soon became the nuclei around which the large mergers and consolidations were built. The move ment began about 1907, when seven baking plants in St. Louis united to form the American Bakery Co. Similar mergers were organized in quick succession in other important cities, and soon afterward they began to extend to widely separated communities. These consolida tions were achieved either among the plant owners themselves or through the instrumentality of interested banks. The early combinations arose out of price wars, which threatened the existence of many producers. Although the curbing of competi tion was one of the prime factors, there were other considerations impelling the plants to consolidate. It was assumed that substan tial economies of operation might be effected, not only by reducing production and distribution costs but also by the employment of technical staffs, which small-scale bakeries could not afford. Like wise, the large organization had a definite bargaining advantage in the purchase of raw materials and the negotiation of credit. 13 Including biscuit and crackers. 13 The 1929 percentage, 94.9, is not comparable with that for earlier years, since in 1929 establishments with a product valued at $500 to $5,000 were not covered. 14 Kyrk, Hazel, and Davis, Joseph S.: The American Baking Industry, 1849-1923, as Shown in the Census Reports. Stanford University, California, 1925, pp. 38-39. 15 Census of Manufactures, 1929, vol. II, p. 52. 16 The data after 1919 are not strictly comparable with the data for earlier years, due to a change in census method. Beginning with the census of 1921, only plants doing a business of $5,000 or over were covered instead of $500 and over, as had previously been included. 17 For a full discussion of this subject, see the following: Alsberg, Combination in the American BreadBaking Industry, pp. 8-22 and 125-148; Federal Trade Commission, Competition and Profits in Bread and Flour (1928). 14 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY The next phase in the m ovem ent toward combination in the indus try was that of the holding company. This phase began in 1922 with the formation of the United Bakeries Corporation. B y 1925, a large number of the wholesale bakeries had been united in one or another of three very large holding corporations, namely, the Conti nental,18 the Purity, and the General, not to mention several smaller combinations. Following this, the W ard Food Products Corporation was organized to control the W ard Baking Corporation, the General Baking Corporation, and the Continental Baking Corporation, but this corporation was held by the courts to be in violation of the Federal antitrust laws and was dissolved. Another factor to be considered is the competitive situation in the industry. The development of consolidations tended to stabilize prices, but the entrance of chain grocery stores into the bread-baking industry has been an important influence in recent years. These stores have frequently used bread as a “ leader” ; that is, selling it below the standard price prevailing in the community. Unable to use their position as quantity purchasers, in order to secure price reductions from some of the wholesale bakers with whom they had been dealing, which concessions would have put them at an advantage in competition with other retailers, m any of these larger chains estab lished their own bakeries. Although the labor cost is only a relatively small part of the total price of a loaf of bread, amounting only to a fraction of a cent per pound, a reduction in the price of bread is often used as an argument for reducing wages. The average cost of producing a pound of bread in wholesale bakeries in 1 9 23-25 was 6.769 cents, of which only 0.786 cent was for labor. The components comprising the total cost were: Flour, 2.312 cents; other ingredients, 0.903 cent; manufacturing (in cluding labor), 1.709 cents; selling and delivery, 1.617 cents; and general and administrative, 0.22 cent.19 Finally, in view of the stability in the demand for bread, the industry has been able to furnish relatively steady employment to its workers. This is illustrated by chart 2, which contrasts the fluctuations in em ployment and pay rolls in the baking industry as a whole (including biscuit and crackers) with those in all manufacturing industries. The m onthly index numbers of employment and pay rolls for the baking industry as a whole are given in table 3. 18 The United was absorbed by the Continental. 19 Federal Trade Commission, Competition and Profits in Bread and Flour, pp. 291 and 320. 15 BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY C hart I. AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS, AVERAGE WEEKLY HOURS, AND AVERAGE WEEKLY EARNINGS OF EMPLOYEES IN BREAD INDUSTRY IN COUNTRY AS A WHOLE Mar c h 1933, S e p te m b e r 1933, HOURS 5040- so 20- to 20 15- 105‘ D e c em b er 1934 im rm ■40 30 20 10 SEPTEM BER 1933 DECEMBER 1934 AVERAGE WEEKLY EARNINGS_________ DOLLARS 25 -20 -IS -10 -5 MARCH 1933 U. S. B ureau of L abor S tatistics HOURS ■50 AVERA6E WEEKLY HOURS MARCH 1933 DOLLARS 25- and SEPTEM BER 1933 DECEMBER 1934 -0 *Does n o t Include D river - S alesmen 16 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY T a b l e 3 . — In d e x n u m bers o f em p lo ym en t and p a y rolls in the ba king in d u s try as a whole , 1 9 1 9 - 8 5 1 [1923-25=100] A. EM PLO Y M E N T Month 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 ; 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 92.3 92.4 94.8 94.1 94.4 96.4 100.9 105.2 115.3 123.1 113.1 104.3 103.1 103.5 102.7 106.4 106.7 108.4 111.3 110.3 110.9 99.1 103.7 106.8 113.0 125.6 123.1 115.2 10 1.0 97.4 101.9 106.2 112 .6 125.0 120.5 113.8 99.9 98.8 103.7 109.0 116.9 128.2 12 1.6 113.2 99.5 103.3 105.8 11 0 .1 118.3 129.8 120.4 111.9 100.1 10 1.2 10 1.6 100.5 103.6 108.4 117.7 127.7 118.4 109.1 98.3 100.4 100.0 98.9 10 2 .1 106.9 117.3 126.1 116.7 107.4 97.7 99.5 116.3 111.5 102.7 115.8 111.7 108.9 115.7 114.6 1 10 .1 116.1 114.6 109.1 115.4 113.6 107.7 115.4 112.4 88.7 89.4 91.0 98.1 87.4 89.7 95.3 102.0 89.2 92.2 98.3 10 2 .1 88.8 88.4 96.8 99.9 89.6 88.9 97.4 10 0 .1 93.6 91.7 101.4 102.6 Jan_____ Feb_____ Mar_____ Apr_____ May-----June........ 84.4 84.3 85.7 85.7 85.1 87.3 July_____ Aug_____ Sept....... . Oct_____ Nov------Dec_____ 89.0 100.0 97.0 97.8 88.7 100.9 97.0 94.5 87.6 97.2 95.2 92.8 88.2 96.4 96.3 93.8 90.4 95.9 95.1 95.2 91.4 93.4 91.4 92.7 97.7 99.0 97.7 96.4 96.7 99.5 95.8 95.4 94.6 95.7 102.6 96.8 103.7 108.4 113.1 125.0 124.2 114.3 102.0 98.1 96.8 96.9 99.5 98.8 102.6 106.1 118.2 123.1 113.1 103.8 107.7 12 0 .1 122.0 113.0 104.1 108.0 119.9 122.2 112.4 10 0 .1 103.7 110.8 122.2 123.0 114.2 105.6 102.0 104.2 100.5 103.6 101.5 105.6 102.2 1 1 1 . 2 11 1 .8 113.2 112.7 114.6 114.2 Aver... 87.3 95.7 92.4 92.3 100.1 10 1.1 98.8 101.4 105.9 112 .2 123.6 121.5 112 .6 10 1.2 10 1.2 113.2 112 .2 B. P A Y BO LLS Month 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 Jan_____ Feb_____ Mar_____ Apr_____ May____ June____ 65.2 68.9 69.4 68.9 70.6 73.4 85.4 83.2 94.1 84.1 96.7 101.5 91.0 92.3 93.4 84.6 92.3 94.2 July_____ Aug......... Sept____ Oct___ _ Nov_____ Dec......... 73.0 74.4 76.5 72.5 80.7 104.4 104.9 103.5 101.7 102.4 86.1 96.8 96.2 93.8 95.9 96.6 89.8 85.5 81.2 83.9 86.3 81.7 84.2 86.5 91.6 94.4 92.2 97.4 88 .1 101.5 105.9 115.4 125.8 112.3 107.9 119.2 126.1 112 .2 109.5 120.9 124.7 111.3 107.5 120.3 125.7 109.5 112.5 125.3 126.2 112.3 114.7 127.4 127.6 112.3 97.1 95.4 94.6 91.2 90.5 89.2 92.3 104.4 103.3 100.5 106.3 108.8 114.4 127.6 125.3 1 1 1 .0 113.7 126.9 121.7 108.4 117.9 130.6 124.6 108.3 119.0 132.1 121.7 106.3 118.5 129.8 119.3 103.3 117.9 127.9 115.9 100.4 84.5 85.8 85.6 82.7 80.7 98.7 98.0 100.0 102.9 102.0 97.7 100.9 105.8 102.0 98.7 102.8 106.6 100.8 97.0 100.5 106.1 101.4 100.1 104.5 107.3 103.4 102.0 107.1 110.3 88.1 100.0 99.9 98.7 103.5 107.6 90.4 103.8 105.5 100.6 106.0 110.4 91.0 101.9 101.4 105.5 107.6 1 1 1 . 2 93.1 10 2 .1 101.9 102.3 105.5 109.6 87.8 100.6 100.0 10 2 .1 104.9 107.3 79.2 77.6 75.3 76.8 78.1 79.6 88.5 91.4 91.8 91.3 95.3 96.5 89.6 93.7 93.7 95.5 97.3 99.6 86.0 81.8 98.2 96.5 83.1 90.2 90.6 90.4 89.6 97.8 99.6 98.3 98.6 98.7 95.7 101.6 100.8 99.7 99.4 Aver. _. 73.3 96.6 92.1 87.3 98.0 101.7 100.3 104.1 107.8 113.3 125.3 123.7 109.0 88.6 82.7 95.5 96.9 1 Compiled by the Division of Employment and Pay Rolls, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Chart 2 shows clearly that the baker’s job is relatively steady even in periods of acute depression. Thus, during the depression of 1 9 2 0 22, while employm ent and pay rolls in manufacturing as a whole dropped sharply, em ploym ent and pay rolls in the baking industry showed only a moderate decline. Likewise, during the relatively mild depressions of 1924 and 1 9 2 7 -2 8 , the curves for the baking industry were remarkably well maintained in comparison with those for all manufacturing. The m ost striking contrast, however, between the tw oseries is illustrated by the recent depression. In all manufactur ing industries, the drop from the high point to the low point was 46.1 percent in employm ent and 67.1 percent in pay rolls,20 while the reduc tion in the baking industry amounted respectively to 27.1 and 43.0 percent. In December 1935, compared to 1 9 2 3 -2 5 as a base, the index number for all manufacturing industries stood at 84.6 in employment and 76.6 in pay rolls, as against 112.4 in employment and 99.4 m pay rolls for the baking industry. 2° The high and low points for all manufacturing industries were respectively in September 3929 and March 1933. The high and low points in the baking industry were respectively in October 1929 and March BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY 18 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY Likewise, there is relatively little seasonal variation in employment in the baking industry. Usually, the greatest slack comes after New Y ea r’s D a y with increased activity during the summer months and late in the year. One important element in the summer is a decrease in home baking during hot weather. Baking in resort areas also in creases sharply during the summer months. Changes in Conditions of Work The conditions under which bakery employees worked in the early days of the industry were notoriously bad. W ith respect to these conditions, a union organizer reports as follows: M a n y w o r k e d 7 d a y s in t h e w e e k * * * a n d th e h o u r s o f c o n t in u o u s t o il a m o u n t e d d a ily t o f r o m 14 t o 18 h o u r s. I t m u s t b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t t h is w a s n ig h t w o r k , p e r fo r m e d u n d e r g r o u n d w it h in t h e a t m o s p h e r e o f o n e o r m o r e o v e n s a t fu ll h e a t, in t e r m ix e d w it h b a d o d o r s p r o d u c e d b y t h e p r o c e s s o f fe r m e n t a t io n o r c o m in g f r o m d e f e c t i v e se w e r a g e , o r b o t h . M a n y w e r e c o m p e lle d t o b o a r d w it h th e ir e m p lo y e r s , w h o c o m p e ll e d t h e m t o s le e p in t h e v e r y c e lla r h o le w h e r e in t h e y h a d b e e n d r u d g in g t h e la s t 2 0 h o u r s . B u t in m a n y c a s e s t h e r e w a s n o t e v e n a b e d t o lie u p o n , a n d a n u m b e r o f flo u r s a c k s p la c e d o n t h e t o p o f t h e t r o u g h s e r v e d a s a b u n k w h e r e t h e m e n t h r e w th e ir t ir e d b o d ie s , u n d r e s s e d a n d fu ll o f p e r s p ir a tio n , t o r e s t f o r fr o m 3 t o 5 h o u r s . T h e p r in c ip a l f o o d s e r v e d t o th e se m e n b y t h e ir m a s t e r s c o n s is t e d in m a n y c a s e s o f c h e e s e , c h e a p sa u sa g e , a n d b r e a d ; t h e b e e r t h e y h a d t o s u p p l y th e m s e lv e s . T h e w a g e s r a n g e d , a c c o r d in g t o th e g ra d e o f w o r k m e n w e r e a b le t o p e r fo r m , f r o m $ 2 t o $ 1 2 p e r w e e k .21 A survey made in New Y ork C ity in 1881 by the same person, covering 505 bakers, showed that these men worked “ 100% hours each on an average per week; or, if we distribute their work equally among the 6 working days in the week, they worked each on an average of 16% hours a day. B u t the length of their working days were actually very differently distributed. In m ost bakeries the Sunday labor was no more than 5 hours on an average. On week days it was almost universally 16 hours a day, Saturdays excepted, when the number of hours was greater, reaching even 23 hours of continuous w ork.” 22 These men gave their wages as “ being on an average $8.20 for each one, or 8% cents for each of the 100 working hours.” 22 In view of the close relation of bread to public health, the improve ment in the sanitary conditions of bakeries early became a question of public control. Various laws have been enacted in numerous States regulating the conditions of employment of bakery workers. These deal not only with sanitation but also with hours of labor. Regulation of hours in the baking industry has even been extended to men. A law in N ew Y ork, limiting the hours of bakery employees to 10 a day and 60 a week, was declared unconstitutional b y the United States Supreme Court in 1905, on the ground that no relationship was seen to exist between such a regulation and clean and wholesome bread.23 This ruling, however, was reversed b y the United States Supreme Court in 1917 in connection with a 10-hour law in Oregon.24 A considerable part of the improvement in labor conditions in the industry was brought about through the voluntary efforts of employers, especially those operating larger plants. M uch credit in this respect is also due to the organization of bakery workers. Between 1880 and 1885, sporadic attempts were made to 21 George G. Block, Concise History of the Journeymen Bakers’ National Union of the United States, p. 1. 22 Ibid., p. 2 . 23 Lochner v. New York, 19S U. S. 45, 25 Sup. Ct. 539 (1905). 2<Bunting v. Oregon, 243 U. S. 246, 37 Sup. Ct. 435 (1917). BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY 19 form unions of bakers in a number of cities* The m ost famous of these was the one in New Y ork C ity in 1880. This movement, which covered about 5,000 German bakers in New Y ork and Brooklyn, was followed b y an unsuccessful strike in 1881 that virtually put an end to the local union. In 1885, a few remnants of the union joined in establishing a German weekly under the name of the German-American Bakers’ Journal, which was followed in 1886 b y the formation of a national union, called the Journeymen Bakers’ National Union of the United States of Am erica.26 The jurisdiction of this organization was extended in 1903 to the candy and ice-cream workers, and the name was changed to the Bakery and Confectionery W orkers’ International Union of America. Although the Bakery and Confectionery W orkers’ International Union is organized on an industrial basis, with membership open to all workers of both sexes engaged in bread, cake, pie, cracker, pretzel, pastry, candy, and ice-cream manufacture, the membership consists largely of skilled and semiskilled workers among the processing em ployees.26 The driver-salesmen usually belong to the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Stablemen, and Helpers of America. The Bakery and Confectionery W orkers’ International Union has experienced a fairly steady but slow growth in membership. In M a y 1935, the union reported to the Bureau of Labor Statistics 30,600 members. Numerically, the union’s strongholds are in New Y ork, Chicago, Cleveland, and St. Louis. There is also relatively greater union organization in cities of lower New England than in other geographic sections of the country. The union has m et with more success in organizing small-scale shops than large establishments. Agreements are negotiated by the local unions acting independently. A degree of uniformity, however, is imposed through the requirement in the constitution of the International that its general executive board approve the proposed terms of the local agreements prior to conferences with employers. Frequently, numerous employers within the same city will sign union agreements which carry identical provisions. Sup plementary to the negotiating of agreements has been the use of unionlabel campaigns and strikes to reinforce the workers’ bargaining power. 25 Block, Concise History of the Journeymen Bakers’ National Union of the United States, pp. 3-5. 26 In 1921, a group of bakers in New York City left the union and helped to form the Amalgamated Food Workers of America, which aimed to organize the workers in all branches and processes of food production and distribution. Early in 1935, however, the bakery locals of the Amalgamated voted to reunite with the Internationa], and by the close of the year most of them had been reabsorbed. Chapter II.— Scope and Method Extent of Coverage Since the purpose of the survey was primarily to ascertain the effect of the code upon labor, the code definition of the “ baking industry” 28 was taken as the guide in determining the extent and limits of this survey. The plants covered were, therefore, those making bread, rolls, cakes, pies, cookies, doughnuts, and other sweet yeast-raised goods, including the distribution of these goods by them through driver-salesmen, trucks, and retail or wholesale stores or similar outlets. Omitted from the survey were hotels, restaurants, and other similar businesses, baking for their own sale or consumption only, and bakers of biscuit, crackers, pretzels, m atzoths, and ice-cream cones. The omitted producers were generally subject to codes other than that of the baking industry. In other words, the survey was limited to the bread division only, thus excluding biscuit and crackers. The survey covered three pay-roll periods, each representing a different phase in the recent history of the industry. These periods are as follows: Second half of March 1933— lowest level of business depression.29 Second half of September 1933— period of President's Reemployment Agreement, with allegedly substantial wage increases and reduction in hours. (The President's Reem ploym ent Agreement became effective during the latter part of July 1933, and substitute wages and hours provisions for the baking industry were agreed upon about the middle of August.) First half of December 1934— approximately 6 months after the per manent code had been in operation. (The effective date of the code was June 18, 1934.) The sample taken as representative of the industry includes an estimated 10 to 11 percent of all bakery workers in the bread division. A larger coverage could not be attempted economically because of the prevalence of small establishments. The total numbers of plants and employees included during each pay-roll period appear in table 4. T able 4. — C o v e r a g e o f s u r v e y f o r ea c h o f th ree p a y - r o l l p e r i o d s Pay-roll period March 1933____ ___________________________________ September 1933, - ____________ ________________ December 1934_____ ______________________________ Number of establish ments 250 256 259 Number of employees Total 16,480 18, 782 20, 962 Male 14,585 16,609 18,348 Female 1,895 2,173 2,614 as Baking-Industry Code, art. II, sec. 1: “ The term 'Baking Industry’ * * * shall mean the manufacture, distribution including trucking, and/or sale, in any manner whatsoever, of bakery products. Said term shall not include (a) hotels, clubs, restaurants, and similar places where bakery products are manufactured exclusively for consumption at the place of manufacture; (6) wholesale or retail groceries, provided the owner or operator thereof does not manufacture, directly or indirectly, through an agent, affiliate unit, or otherwise, any part of the bakery products offered for sale therein. If wholesale or retail groceries do so manufacture any part of the bakery products offered for sale therein, as to them said term shall include only the manufacture, distribution including trucking, and/or sale of the bakery products manufactured by them.” Sec. 2 of the same article states further: “ The term 'bakery products’ as used herein includes bread, rolls, cakes, pies, cookies, doughnuts and similar goods, and other sweet yeast-raised goods, but does not include biscuits, crackers, pretzels, matzoths, or ice-cream cones.” 29 For a discussion of the effect of the depression on the baking industry, see p. 16. 20 21 SCOPE AND METHOD Factors Considered in Selection of Sample Although the coverage was not large, the selection of the bakeries surveyed was made with great care, in order that the sample secured might be a fair representation of the trade as a whole. Among the factors taken into consideration in making the selection of establish ments were geographical distribution, size of city, size of establish ment, unionization, degree of mechanization, type of distribution, and product. Owing to the spread of the baking industry, the sample was made to embrace a fairly wide geographical distribution. The establishments covered were located in 66 cities in 37 States and the District of Columbia. The selection of these cities and States, which was made in consultation with representatives of the Code Authority of the N . R . A . and the bakery union, was sufficiently adequate to indicate regional differences between the North and the South, as provided in the code. The South was defined in the code as embracing Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia.30 W ith the exception of Mississippi, all of these were included in the sample. The number of cities covered in the South totaled 22. The remaining 25 States 31 and the District of Columbia, with their 44 cities, have been classified here as belonging to the North. A list of the cities covered by the survey follows. List of Cities included in N o rth Albany, N. Y. Auburn, Maine Baltimore, Md. Bay City, Mich. Boston, Mass. Bridgeport, Conn. Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Charleston, W. Va. Chicago,111. Cincinnati, Ohio. Denver, Colo. Des Moines, Iowa. Detroit, Mich. Elmira, N. Y. Evansville, Ind. Fargo, N. Dak. Fitchburg, Mass. Galesburg, 111. Grand Rapids, Mich. Huntington, W. Va. Indianapolis, Ind. Joplin, Mo. Lima, Ohio Lincoln, Nebr. Los Angeles, Calif. Madison, Wis. Manchester, N. H. Middletown, Conn. Minneapolis, Minn. New York, N. Y. Atlanta, Ga. Columbia, S. C. Dallas, Tex. Enid, Okla. Houston, Tex. Jacksonville, Fla. Johnson City, Tenn. Knoxville, Tenn. Lakeland, Fla. Little Rock, Ark. Louisville, Ky. Macon, Ga. Memphis, Tenn. Miami, Fla. Mobile, Ala. Omaha, Nebr. Philadelphia, Pa. Pittsburgh, Pa. Providence, R. I. San Francisco, Calif. Scranton, Pa. Sioux Falls, S. Dak. St. Louis, Mo. Syracuse, N. Y. Topeka, Kans. Trenton, N. J. Wilmington, Del. Washington, D. C. Zanesville, Ohio S ou th New Orleans, La. Oklahoma City, Okla. Paducah, Ky. Raleigh, N. C. Richmond, Va. Shawnee, Okla. Waco, Tex. 30 The same States, with the exception of Kentucky, were included in the South in connection with the substitute provision in the President’s Reemployment Agreement pertaining to minimum wages. 31 These were California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. 22 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY The fact that there are differences in wages according to size of city was recognized b y both the Presidents Reemployment Agree ment and the code, which set the minimum rates of pay for office and sales employees on the basis of the population of cities. For this reason, population was also considered in the selection of the cities included in this survey. Am ong the cities covered, 22 had a popula tion of 250,000 and over, 27 a population of 50,000 and under 250,000, and 17 a population under 50,000. Nearly all of the cities in the “ under 50,000” group were county-seat towns serving rural areas, which were taken in order to bring out the particular effects upon the labor of such areas.32 A n analysis of the sample, showing the number of establishments by region and size of city and the number of employees by region, size of city, and sex in December 1934, appears in table 5. T able 5.— C overa g e o f s u r v e y b y r e g io n a n d s iz e o f c i t y , D ec e m b e r 1 9 3 4 Region and size of city Number of establish ments Number of employees Total Male Female United States: 250,000 and over________ ___________ ______ ____ 50,000 and under 250,000. ________ ________________ Under 50,000 _______ __________________________ 156 71 32 15,926 4,135 901 13,988 3, 570 790 1,938 565 Total____________________________ _______ ____ 259 20,962 18,348 2,614 North: 250,000 and over. _____________________________ _ 50,000 and under 250,000_________ _______________ Under 50,000 ...................... .................................„ 128 46 14, 360 2,596 660 12,615 2,312 574 1,745 284 22 .. ___________________________________ 196 17, 616 15,501 2,115 South: 250,000 and over_____________ ____ __ _____ ______ 50,000 and under 250,000................. ...... ..................... Under 50,000 ....... ................ .................................. 28 25 10 1,566 1, 539 241 1,373 1,258 216 193 281 25 63 3, 346 2,847 499 Total Total______ _____ ______ ____________________ 111 86 As previously mentioned, the baking industry is one in which the small unit still predominates, the average number of employees per establishment in 1933 being approximately 11. This survey did not include any plants with less than four employees, m any of which were run as family businesses with no outside help. Furthermore, considerable difficulty was encountered in obtaining data from small bakeries with four or more workers, due chiefly to the lack of adequate pay-roll records. As a result, although some plants with 10 or less employees were included, the average number of employees per plant covered was 81 in December 1934. The distribution of plants covered according to size appears in table 6. 32 A few additional cities of this class were covered by the field representatives of the Bureau, but the bakeries visited in each place were either entirely too small or they had no records available. SCOPE AND METHOD T a b l e 6.-— 23 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f e s t a b lis h m e n t s i n s a m p l e a c c o r d in g to n u m b e r o f e m p l o y e e s , D ecem ber 1 9 3 4 1 N u m b e r o f e m p lo y e e s in e s t a b lis h m e n t N um ber of e s t a b lis h m en ts 10 a n d u n d e r _____ 11 a n d u n d e r 5 0 . . 50 a n d u n d e r 100. 100 a n d u n d e r 200 200 a n d u n d e r 500 500 a n d o v e r ........... 27 104 T o t a l _______ 259 49 15 4 1 T h is m a y b e c o m p a r e d w it h t h e c e n s u s d is t r ib u t io n , as s h o w n in t a b le 2, p . 12. An effort was also made to have the sample properly representative of both union and nonunion establishments. A s the survey was concerned chiefly with processing or “ direct” workers, however, a plant was classified as “ union” or “ nonunion” on the basis of whether or not it had a contract with the Bakery and Confectionery W orker’s International Union of America. I t has already been pointed out that this union frequently does not include certain classes of “ indirect” labor, so that comparisons of “ union” and “ nonunion” employees are drawn only with respect to the “ direct” labor or workers largely found in this organization. There are few union establishments in the South. Of the 63 southern plants covered by the survey, only 7 had union contracts. In the N orth, on the other hand, 59 of the 196 bakeries included in the sample had union contracts. One of the major issues in the industry arising out of the baking code was the provision relating to weekly hours, which set a maximum of 48 for “ handicraft shops” , as compared with 40 for “ other than handicraft shops.” Handicraft bakeries were defined by the code as those that “ use no power-driven machines other than mixers and dough brakes in the processing of their products and which do not employ more than 10 bake-shop employees.” M em bers of the industry proposed that “ other than handicraft shops” should be subdivided to create another class, namely “ semihandicraft shops” , which should have a maximum of 44 hours per week. I t was pro posed that “ semihandicraft shops” be defined as those “ in which at least 80 percent of the total working hours of all production employees, as such, is spent in hand operation; i. e., not in operation of any power-driven processing machines.” Bakeries “ other than handicraft shops and semihandicraft shops” would thus be mechanical shops, which, it was proposed, should continue to have a maximum of 40 hours per week. The 259 bakeries included in the sample represent each of these classes of establishment, although it m ay be noted that the number of mechanical bakeries surveyed, is considerably larger than that in the other two classes, due in part to the difficulty of finding adequate records among the smaller shops such as comprise largely the handicraft and semihandicraft classes. The code also defined bakeries according to type of distribution, such as retail, local wholesale, m ulti-State, house-to-house, multiple 24 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY unit retail, and chain store.33 Each of these types is well represented in the sample. The code classification has, however, been changed for the purpose of the survey into the following: 1. Retail and house-to-house bakeries. 2. Local wholesale bakeries. 3. Multi-State, multiple-unit retail, and chain-store bakeries. The last group contains primarily the largest bakery chains in the country. Finally, in classifying establishments the code distinguished be tween various products.34 The classification by products used in this survey is as follows: Bread; cake, sweet goods, and pies, including cake specialties; and bread specialties. The last item is unimportant, the number of bakeries making bread specialties being small in the N orth and virtually nonexistent in the South. A n analysis of the sample in December 1934, showing the number of bakeries and employees classified by region and b y degree of mechanization, type of distribution, and product, will be found in table 7. T able 7. — C o v e r a g e o f s u r v e y b y d e g ree o f m e c h a n i z a t i o n , t y p e o f d i s t r i b u t i o n , a n d k in d o f p r o d u c t , a s to r e g i o n , D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 4 Kind of bakery Degree of mechanization: Handicraft______ ______ Semihandicraft_________ Mechanical________ ___ Total......................... Type of distribution: Retail and house-tohouse.- _____________ Local wholesale______Multi-State, multiple-unit retail, and chain store.. Total______________ Product: Bread________________ Cake, sweet goods, and pies, including cake specialties____________ Bread specialties_______ Total_________ ____ United States North South Num Number of ber employees of estabFe lish- Total Male male ments Num Number of ber employees ofestabFe lish- Total Male male ments Num Number of ber employees of estabFe lish- Total Male male ments 473 367 106 39 226 43 1,357 1,131 177 19,132 16,850 2,282 259 20,962 18, 348 2,614 258 323 26 65 991 202 37 1,193 133 16,100 14, 252 1, 848 196 17,616 15, 501 2,115 150 109 13 164 140 6 44 3,032 2, 598 63 3,346 2, 847 41 24 434 499 447 535 326 13 407 31 1,653 1,433 81 220 76 10,286 8,955 1, 331 259 20,962 18, 348 2,614 57 9,000 7,867 1,133 196 17,616 15,501 2,115 19 1,286 1,088 63 3,346 2,847 198 499 227 16,832 15, 556 1,276 169 13,934 12,949 58 2,898 2,607 291 24 3, 775 2,455 1,320 8 355 337 18 259 20,962 18,348 2,614 19 3,327 2, 215 1,112 8 355 337 18 196 17,616 15, 501 2,115 60 3, 696 3,168 123 6,980 6,225 528 755 47 3,289 2,842 92 5, 327 4,792 985 5 448 240 208 63 3, 346 2,847 499 33 The definitions of each of these are as follows: R eta il bakers— 1“persons who manufacture and sell bakery products to the consumer through their own retail stores, who own or control not more than three stores, and who sell at least 70 percent of this product at retail over the counter.” L o c a l w h olesa le bakers— “persons who manufacture and sell bakery products at wholesale and who manu facture entirely within one State.” M u lti-S ta te bakers— “persons who manufacture bakery products in more than one State.” H ou se-to -h o u se bakers— “persons who manufacture bakery products and distribute them by their own vehicles directly to the consumer at the point of consumption.” M u ltip le -u n it reta il bakers —“ persons who manufacture bakery products and distribute them to the con sumer through their own retail stores and who own or control four or more such outlets” , but not “ chainstore bakers.” C h ain -store bakers —“persons who manufacture bakery products and distribute them through their own or through a parent company’s or subsidiary company’s retail grocery stores.” 34 The definitions given in the code are as follows: C a ke bakers —“persons who manufacture and sell, at wholesale, bakery products of which at least 75 percent is cake.” S p ecia lty bakers— “persons who manufacture and sell bakery products of a type and kind to fit a par ticular racial or national taste and/or market demand for special variety products not considered as standard in the industry (as compared with units of products generally sold in large volume) and the production of which requires special skill.” P i e bakers— “persons who manufacture and sell, at wholesale, bakery products of which at least 75 per cent is pies.” 25 SCOPE AND METHOD Information Collected The information obtained in this survey was limited to three prin cipal topics— namely, wages and hours, personnel policies, and occupational descriptions. The wages and hours data are based on transcripts of actual pay rolls for the three periods covered. Information was obtained for each employee on occupation, sex, total earnings, and total hours actually worked in 1 week. Average hourly earnings were calculated for individual employees. The data were then used to compute averages and frequency distributions of employees b y average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings as to sex, region, and occupation. D ata are also presented by broad occupational groupings. M ale workers employed as “ direct” labor were grouped as “ skilled” , “ semi skilled” , and “ unskilled” ; these classes, together with “ indirect” labor, which is composed of driver-salesmen and “ other” workers, embraced all male employees in the industry. Am ong females en gaged in occupations constituting “ direct” labor, there were not enough “ skilled” and “ semiskilled” workers to warrant separate tab ulations, and as a result these workers were included in the group tabulated as “ other miscellaneous indirect” labor, the latter together with the “ unskilled” in “ direct” labor constituting the only two broad occupational groupings used. A n analysis of the number of employees covered in December 1934 b y occupational classes, as to sex and region, will be found in table 8.35 Averages were also computed by size of city, by union and nonunion shops, and by establishments classified according to degree of mech anization, type of distribution, and product. T a b l e 8 .— C o v e r a g e o f s u r v e y b y o c c u p a t io n a l c la s s , a s to s e x a n d r e g i o n , D e c e m b e r 1934 Number of employees Sex and occupational class North South Males Direct labor: Skilled: Bench hands or hand bakers_____ ____ _____ _______ _________________ Cake makers_______________________ _____ _____________ __________ Dividers or scalers and rounders________ ____ _______________________ Mixers____ ___ ____________________________ _____ __________________ Molders_______________________________________ __________________ Ovenmen_____________ ____________ _____ _____ ______ ______ _ _ Miscellaneous, skilled______________________________________________ 807 494 304 429 341 628 158 Total________ _ _ _____________ ______ ______ ___ ______________ 3,161 632 246 608 437 617 198 2 52 116 2 68 147 11 2,106 394 Semiskilled: Bench hands’ or hand bakers’ helpers____ _________ ___________ _ General helpers____________________ _____ __________________________ Mixers’ helpers_______ _________ _____ ______________ ____ _________ Ovenmen’s helpers____________ ______ _. ___________________________ Miscellaneous, semiskilled________ __________________ _____ _______ Total_________ _____ ________________ ______ ______________ _______ 170 1 65 72 i 95 1 63 146 21 i 1 I n c lu d e d u n d e r d ir e c t la b o r , m is c e lla n e o u s , s k ille d , fo r p u r p o s e s o f a v e ra g e s a n d f r e q u e n c y d is t r ib u t io n s . 2 I n c lu d e d u n d e r d ir e c t la b o r , m is c e lla n e o u s , s e m is k ille d , fo r p u r p o s e s o f a v e ra g e s a n d f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t io n s . 35 “ D i r e c t ” la b o r , s o m e t im e s c a lle d p r o d u c t i v e la b o r , in c lu d e s h e re p r o c e s s in g w o rk e rs , 1 0 2745°— 37-------3 26 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY T a b l e 8 . — C o v e r a g e o f s u r v e y b y o c c u p a t i o n a l c l a s s , a s to s e x a n d r e g i o n , D e c e m b e r 1 9 8 4 — Continued Number of employees Sex and occupational class North South Males— C ontinued Direct labor—Continued. Unskilled: Bread packers.............................................. . Bread wrappers, automatic____ __________ Cake wrappers and packers_______________ Pan greasers_______ __________ ___________ Miscellaneous, unskilled__________________ 459 569 145 154 158 3 56 155 3 11 Total___________________________________ 1,485 316 Indirect labor: Driver-salesmen-------------- ------- ------------------------ 4,609 800 Other: Auditors, bookkeepers, etc........................... Chauffeurs and drivers................. _........ . Laborers.............................. .......... ............ — Maintenance and repair, skilled__________ Maintenance and repair, semiskilled-------Office clerks...................... .......... .......... .......... Service, unskilled____________ ___________ Supervisory, skilled____ _________________ Miscellaneous, skilled................................. Miscellaneous, semiskilled________________ Miscellaneous, unskilled____ _____________ 141 228 206 479 437 397 578 814 165 413 282 438 4 39 440 4 61 4 58 466 4 147 491 454 <59 4 52 Total----------------------------------------------------- 4,140 705 111 262 501 410 4 51 4 135 874 196 277 167 360 437 3 55 4 26 102 120 1,241 303 341 53 F em a les Direct Labor: Unskilled: Bread wrappers, hand____ Cake finishers____________ Cake wrappers and packers Total. Indirect Labor: Other: Office clerks....... ........... ...... ................................ Stenographers, typists, telephone operators, etc. Store clerks_________ _______________________ Miscellaneous6___________________ __________ Total. 3 Included under direct labor, miscellaneous, unskilled, for purposes of averages and frequency distribu tions. 4No separate averages and frequency distributions shown. 4 Included under indirect labor, miscellaneous, for purposes of averages and frequency distributions. 8 Includes a small number of skilled and semiskilled workers engaged in direct labor. The information relating to personnel policies was obtained by means of interviews with executives or other persons in charge of this work in the various firms. I t covered employment policies, methods of wage payment, working conditions, and welfare work. Detailed occupational descriptions in the baking industry were first published b y the Bureau in 1931. This information was supplemented during the present survey by obtaining for all establishments descrip tions of new occupations and of occupations not covered at that time (pie departments or establishments), as well as b y noting any changes in the other occupations. A s a result o f this additional information, the occupational classification and glossary for the industry has been revised. SCOPE AND METHOD 27 Comparisons with 1931 A s indicated before, the last survey in the baking industry made by the Bureau was in the fall of 1931, the data collected being based on pay-roll records mainly for the months of September, October, or November. The coverage of the survey was similar to that of the present one, except that pie departments and establishments were excluded, but the latter are only of minor importance in terms of the number of wage earners. Accordingly, it is possible to make com parisons between the 1931 and the 193 3 -3 4 figures. The data in 1931 were tabulated separately by bread and cake departments, so that in making comparisons with figures in the present survey it was necessary to combine the former data to obtain figures for the industry as a whole. This has been done, and comparisons have been made for average hourly earnings, weekly hours, and weekly earnings. Chapter III.— Average Hourly Earnings Changes in Bread Industry in Country as a Whole Due to the operation of the President's Reemployment Agreement and the code, the average hourly earnings in the bread industry in the country as a whole increased markedly between M arch 1933 and December 1934. From M arch to September 1933, at the end of which period the President's Reemployment Agreement had been in effect for over a month, the average hourly earnings rose from 45.5 to 50.7 cents, a gain of 5.2 cents or 11.4 percent. Likewise, from September 1933 to December 1934, after the permanent code had been in effect approximately 5 months, the average hourly earnings advanced further to 54.9 cents, a rise of 4.2 cents or 8.3 percent. The total gain between March 1933 and December 1934 amounted to 9.4 cents an hour, or 20.7 percent. The increase in average hourly earnings was not limited to any particular wage class. This is indicated by table 9, which presents the simple and cumulative percentage distribution of employees according to average hourly earnings in the country as a whole. The simple percentages are also plotted in chart 3, showing in general a reduction in the percentages of lower-paid workers and an increase in the per centages of higher-paid workers. Between M arch and September 1933, there was a shrinkage in the percentages of employees in nearly all classes under 52.5 cents per hour and an increase in nearly all classes above that figure. During this period, the percentage earning less than 27.5 cents per hour declined from 10.1 to 2.9. Those earning 27.5 cents to 52.5 cents per hour constituted 58.9 percent of the total number of employees in M arch and 54.3 percent in September. On the other hand, the increase in the proportion earning 52.5 cents and under 72.5 cents was from 19.7 percent in M arch to 28.2 percent in September, and the gain in the classes of 72.5 cents and over was from 11.3 percent in M arch to 14.6 percent in September. T a b l e 9. — P e r c e n t a g e d i s t r ib u t io n o f e m p l o y e e s a c c o r d in g to a v era g e h o u r l y e a r n i n g s i n b r ea d i n d u s t r y i n c o u n t r y a s a w h o le March 1933 Average hourly earnings Under 12.5 cents____________ 12.5 and under 17.5 cents------17.5 and under 22.5 cents_____ 22.5 and under 27.5 cents_____ 27.5 and under 32.5 cents_____ 32.5 and under 37.5 cents_____ 37.5 and under 42.5 cents_____ 42.5 and under 47.5 cents_____ 47.5 and under 52.5 cents____ 52.5 and under 57.5 cents_____ 57.5 and under 62.5 cents____ 62.5 and under 67.5 cents_____ 67.5 and under 72.5 cents_____ 72.5 and under 77.5 cents_____ 77.5 and under 85.0 cents_____ 85.0 and under 100.0 cents____ 100.0 and under 120.0 cents___ 120.0 cents and over_________ i Less than Ho of 1 percent. 28 September 1933 December 1934 Simple Cumulative Simple Cumulative Simple Cumulative percentage percentage percentage percentage percentage percentage 0.3 1.4 3.2 5.2 8.4 12.6 14.0 12.5 11.4 7.2 5.1 4.4 3.0 2.6 2.8 3.9 1.3 .7 0.3 1.7 4.9 10.1 18.5 31.1 45.1 57.6 69.0 76.2 81.3 85.7 88.7 91.3 94.1 98.0 99.3 100.0 0) 0.1 .4 2.4 9.1 10.1 13.9 10.3 10.9 10.0 7.0 5.9 5.3 4.3 3.2 4.8 1.7 .6 0) 0.1 .5 2.9 12.0 22.1 36.0 46.3 57.2 67.2 74.2 80.1 85.4 89.7 92.9 97.7 99.4 100.0 0) (0 0.1 .8 2.8 8.3 14.2 12.7 10.1 9.2 7.6 7.7 6.4 5.7 4.8 6.3 2.5 .8 0) 0) 0.1 .9 3.7 12.0 26.2 38.9 49.0 58.2 65.8 73.5 79.9 85.6 90.4 96.7 99.2 100.0 29 AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS Between September 1933 and December 1934, those earning under 37.5 cents per hour dropped from 22.1 percent to 12.0 percent, and the percentage earning less than 57.5 cents fell from 67.2 to 58.2. B y contrast, the increase in the classes of 57.5 cents and under 77.5 cents was from 22.5 percent in September 1933 to 27.4 in December 1934, and those earning 77.5 cents and over increased from 10.3 percent of the total number of workers in September 1933 to 14.4 percent in December 1934. CHART 3 P ercen tag e D is tr ib u tio n o f E m p lo yees A ccording E ar n in g s in B r ea d In d u s tr y in C o u n tr y to A v er a g e H o u r ly W h o le as a 1 % __ .cfc___ /-t- AVERAGE i i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 & ! \\ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 k > K iV X i ■Dec.b \l , | Hourly Earnings in c en ts U.S. Bureau of L abor S tatistics Increases Confirmed by Employment and Pay-Roll Data for Entire Baking Industry T he above increases are confirmed by the index numbers of average hourly earnings covering workers in the entire industry, including biscuit and crackers, which are compiled monthly by the Division of Em ploym ent and Pay Rolls of this Bureau.36 These index numbers are given in table 10. 36 The average hourly earnings computed by the Division of Employment and Pay Rolls are very similar to those obtained in this survey, their figures being 44.1 cents in March 1933, 50.3 cents in September 1933, and 54.0 in December 1934. The average of 54.0 cents per hour in December 1934 for baking may be compared with similar data in other food industries, such as 75.5 cents for beverages, 57.3 cents for slaughtering and meat packing, 54.8 cents for ice cream, 54.3 cents for flour, 52.0 cents for cane-sugar refining, 45.7 cents for beet-sugar refining, 42.9 cents for confectioneries, and 38.9 cents for canning and preserving. 30 T able WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY 10.— I n d e x n u m b e r s o f a v era g e h o u r l y e a r n i n g s i n e n t i r e b a k in g i n d u s t r y i n th e U n i t e d S t a t e s , b y m o n t h s , 1 9 8 2 —8 5 1 2 [January 1932=1001 Months January___________________________________________ February___________________________________ ____ March____ ___ ______________________________ ____ _ April.__________________ ____ ______ __ _______ ____ May________________ _____________ ________________ June. ____________ ________________ ______________ July ___________________________________________ August____________________ _____ _________________ September ______________________ _____ ____ _______ October___ ____________________ ____ _______________ November________________________________ _________ December__________ ________________ _____ ________ 1932 100.0 100.8 99.3 97.8 97.8 96.7 96.3 95.8 95.7 94.8 94.6 94.1 1933 92.8 91.1 91.6 90.6 89.8 90.2 90. 7 96.9 102.3 102.9 102.9 103.3 1934 103.5 104.9 103.4 102.0 105.2 105.0 108. 2 110.9 110.9 111.4 111.4 111.4 1935 108.3 107.3 107.5 108.7 109.5 109.7 109.0 109.4 109.0 108.2 108.9 109.1 1 Includes biscuit and crackers. 2 Compiled by the Division of Employment and Pay Rolls, Bureau of Labor Statistics. The index numbers indicate a considerable rise between July and September 1933, in response to the President's Reemployment Agree ment. There had been an almost uninterrupted decline from January 1932, when figures on average hourly earnings were first compiled by the Bureau, until about the middle of 1933. Thereafter the trend was reversed, the index rising from 90.7 in July to 96.9 in August. I t will be remembered that it was during the latter part of July that the President's Reemployment Agreement went into effect, and this was followed on August 17 by the approval of the substitute provisions for the baking industry. B y September, more establishments had apparently complied with the provisions of the agreement, as the index rose to 102.3. Due probably to further readjustments in wages, the index continued to advance moderately until February 1934, at which time it stood at 104.9. T he index numbers likewise show that the gain from September 1933 to December 1934 can be attributed primarily to the code, which went into effect June 18, 1934. After a small decline first and later a recovery in average hourly earnings during the spring of 1934, there occurred another sharp increase from 105.0 in June to 108.2 in July. Further readjustments in wages continued this rise until the end of 1934, when the index number reached a high level of 111.4. Changes in Averages By Region and Sex in Bread-baking Industry The increases in average earnings per hour in the bread-baking industry were shared by all parts of the country and by both male and female workers, as indicated by table 11 and chart 4. In each case, the relative gain between M arch and September 1933 exceeded that between September 1933 and December 1934. A n examination of the data shows that the same was true of the absolute increases, with the exception of males in the north, who received about the same increase in both periods. AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS 31 Ch a r t 4 AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS IN BREAD INDUSTRY BY REGION AND SEX, MARCH 1933, SEPTEMBER 1933, AND DECEMBER 1934 MALES-NORTH CEN TS FEMALES-NORTH MALES-SOUTH 32 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY T able 11 . — A v e r a g e h o u r ly e a r n in g s i n brea d in d u s tr y b y re g io n a n d sex Average hourly earnings Region and sex March 1933 Percentage of change September December 1934 1933 March to September 1933 to September December 1933 1934 March 1933 to December 1934 United States: Males._ _____________ Females ______________ $0.471 .307 $0,524 .354 $0.570 .379 +11.3 +15.3 +8.8 +7.1 +21.0 +23.5 Total.............................. .455 .507 .549 +11.4 +8.3 +20.7 North: Males _______________ Females______________ .491 .321 .540 .364 .590 .392 +10.0 +13.4 +9.3 +7.7 +20.2 +22.1 Total.............................. .475 .523 .569 +10.1 +8.8 +19.8 South: Males__________________ Females____ ______ ____ _ .360 .240 .436 .311 .462 .325 +21.1 +29.6 +6.0 +4.5 +28.3 +35.4 Total_________________ .346 .421 .445 +21.7 +5.7 +28.6 For the period as a whole, the relative gains were greater in the South than in the North and greater for females than for males. In absolute increases, the South also exceeded the N orth, but the gains reported for males were larger than those for females. The total absolute increases in average hourly earnings from M arch 1933 to December 1934 were as shown in table 12. T able 1 2 .— T o ta l a b s o lu te i n c r e a s e s i n a v era g e h o u r l y e a r n i n g s f r o m M a r c h 1 9 3 3 to D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 4 Sex United States North South Males _ ___ ___ _____________________________________________ Females______________________________________________________ Cents 9.9 7.2 Cents 9.9 7.1 Cents 10.2 8.5 Total _ ________________________________________________ 9.4 9.4 9.9 Although the rise in average earnings per hour reflects the general effects of the President’s Reem ploym ent Agreement and the code, a better picture of the influence of each of these factors can be obtained b y a study of the percentage distribution of employees according to average hourly earnings for each region and sex. This is shown in table 13. AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS T able 13.— P er cen ta g e 33 d i s t r ib u t io n o f e m p l o y e e s a c c o r d in g ea r n in g s b y r e g io n a n d se x March 1933 Region, sex, and average hourly earnings North Males: Under 22.5 cents....... ........................... 22.5 and under 27.5 cents____________ 27.5 and under 32.5 cents____________ 32.5 and under 37.5 cents____________ 37.5 and under 42.5 cents____________ 42.5 and under 47.5 cents____________ 47.5 and under 52.5 cents____________ 52.5 and under 57.5 cents____________ 57.5 and under 62.5 cents____________ 82.5 and under 67.5 cents____________ 67.5 and under 72.5 cents____________ 72.5 and under 77.5 cents............ ......... 77.5 and under 85.0 cents................. . 85.0 and under 100.0 cents___________ 100.0 cents and over________________ Females: Under 17.5 cents___________________ 17.5 and under 22.5 cents____________ 22.5 and under 27.5 cents-----------------27.5 and under 32.5 cents----------------32.5 and under 37.5 cents-----------------37.5 and under 42.5 cents. -------------42.5 and under 47.5 cents____________ 47.5 and under 52.5 cents____________ 52.5 and under 75.0 cents.._ _______ 75.0 cents and over....................... ........ South Males: Under 17.5 cents___________________ 17.5 and under 22.5 cents____________ 22.5 and under 27.5 cents-----------------27.5 and under 32.5 cents____________ 32.5 and under 37.5 cents-----------------37.5 and under 42.5 cents____________ 42.5 and under 47.5 cents-----------------47.5 and under 52.5 cents.. _________ 52.5 and under 57.5 cents____________ 57.5 and under 62.5 cents... _________ 62.5 and under 67.5 cents_______ 67.5 and under 72.5 cents___________ 72.5 and under 77.5 cents____________ 77.5 and under 85.0 cents____________ 85.0 and under 100.0 cents. _ ________ 100.0 cents and over__________ ______ Females: Under 12.5 cents___________________ 12.5 and under 17.5 cents------- ----------17.5 and under 22.5 cents-----------------22.5 and under 27.5 cents________ . . . 27.5 and under 32.5 cents-----------------32.5 and under 37.5 cents______ _____ 37.5 and under 42.5 cents________ . . . 42.5 and under 47.5 cents---- ------ -47.5 and under 52.5 cents____________ 52.5 and under 75.0 cents-----------------75.0 cents and over-------------------------- September 1933 Simple Cumula Simple tive percent percent percent age age age 3.0 4.0 7.2 12.2 14.2 13.0 12.4 7.7 5.4 4.8 3.4 2.9 3.1 4.4 2.3 3.0 7.0 14.2 26.4 40.6 53.6 66.0 73.7 79.1 83.9 87.3 90.2 93.3 97.7 100.0 4.4 15.5 22.3 13.7 16.3 11.6 6.3 5.6 3.9 .4 4.4 19.9 42.2 55.9 72.283.8 90.1 95.7 99.6 100.0 7.4 9.6 12.1 15.7 14.9 12.6 10.0 5.4 3.9 3.0 2.4 .9 .9 .8 .4 0) 7.4 17.0 29.1 44.8 59.7 72.3 82.3 87.7 91.6 94.6 97.0 97.9 98.8 99.6 100.0 100.0 4.3 15.8 34.7 18.2 14.0 5.2 3.6 2.4 .6 1.2 4.3 20.1 54.8 73.0 87.0 92.2 95.8 98.2 98.8 100.0 to 0.4 1.5 7.2 9.0 13.8 10.3 11.4 10.5 7.6 6.2 5.9 4.8 3.4 5.5 2.5 0) 1.3 5.4 41.6 19.2 11.7 8.1 5.9 6.1 .7 .6 1.3 7.0 19.6 16.4 14.3 10.1 8.0 6.9 4.0 4.2 2.1 1.6 1.9 1.3 .7 0) .2 1.2 28.2 46.4 12.7 5.2 2.0 2.0 1.9 .2 a v era g e h o u r ly December 1934 Cumula Simple tive percent percent age age Cumula tive percent age 0.4 1.9 9.1 18.1 31.9 42.2 53.6 64.1 71.7 77.9 83.8 88.6 92.0 97.5 100.0 0) 0.2 1.9 5.1 14.0 12.8 10.3 9.7 8.3 8.3 6.9 6.4 5.3 7.0 3.8 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 0) 1.3 6.7 48.3 67.5 79.2 87.3 93.2 99.3 100.0 .6 1.9 8.9 28.5 44.9 59.2 69.3 77.3 84.2 88.2 92.4 94.5 96.1 98.0 99.3 100.0 0) .2 1.4 29.6 76.0 88.7 93.9 95.9 97.9 99.8 100.0 1.9 21.3 29.9 24.5 8.7 5.9 6.6 1.2 .1 .3 4.0 7.6 25.7 15.6 12.0 9.1 6.9 3.4 4.7 3.8 2.2 1.7 2.0 .9 0) 0) .4 24.9 37.1 23.0 5.6 4.2 2.6 2.0 .2 0.2 2.1 7.2 21.2 34.0 44.3 54.0 62.3 70.6 77.5 83.9 89.2 96.2 100.0 1.9 23.2 53.1 77.6 86.3 92.2 98.8 100.0 .1 .4 4.4 12.0 37.7 53.3 65.3 74.4 81.3 84.7 89.4 93.2 95.4 97.1 99.1 100.0 0) 0) .4 25.3 62.4 85.4 91.0 95.2 97.8 99.8 100.0 1 Less than Ho of 1 percent. Effect of President’s Reemployment Agreement on Percentage Distribu tion by Region and Sex Before discussing the changes in the percentage distribution between M arch and September 1933, it is important to examine the wage pro visions of the President’s Reem ploym ent Agreement and the substi tute provisions applicable to the baking industry. First, there were 34 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY established certain minimum weekly rates for office, service, and sales employees, which varied according to the population of the city. N ext, northern employers agreed not to pay bakery employees, who constitute the m ajority of the workers in the industry, “ less than 40 cents per hour unless the hourly rate for the same class of work on July 15, 1929, was less than 40 cents per hour” , and in that case not to pay “ less than the hourly rate on July 15, 1929, and in no event less than 30 cents per hour.” In the South, employers agreed not to pay bakery employees “ less than 30 cents per hour.” Finally, the agreement provided that there was to be no reduction in the “ com pensation for employm ent now in excess of the minimum wages hereby agreed to (notwithstanding that the hours worked in such employment m ay be hereby reduced) and to increase the pay for such employment by an equitable readjustment of all pay schedules.” In view of the reduction of hours in the industry, this had the effect of increasing the hourly rate of those receiving more than the minimum wage. For males in the North, the provisions of the President’s Reem ploy ment Agreement caused a decrease between^ M arch and September 1933 in the percentage of employees falling in virtually e v e ^ wage class up to 52.5 cents per hour and an increase in every class above that figure. The number of workers receiving less than 52.5 cents declined from 66.0 percent in M arch to 53.6 percent in September. The percentages of males in the South decreased in the classes under 27.5 cents but increased in every class thereafter, the reduction of those earning less than 27.5 cents being from 29.1 per cent in M arch to 8.9 percent in September. T he m ost striking changes in the distribution of earnings occurred among female employees. In the North, 42.2 percent of the female workers received less than 27.5 cents per hour in M arch, but only 6.7 percent earned less than that amount in September. M a n y of these employees had evidently been shifted to the group earning 27.5 and less than 32.5 cents, as the percentage in this class rose from 13.7 in M arch to 41.6 in September. In the South the number of female workers receiving less than 22.5 cents dropped from 54.8 percent in M arch to only 1.4 percent in September. In September 29.6 percent of the females were still earning less than 27.5 cents an hour, but the greatest number of workers (46.4 percent) were found in the class of 27.5 to 32.5 cents. The President’s Reem ploym ent Agreement, as has been stated, provided more than one basic minimum. In the North 40 cents an hour was set as the general rule for all bakery employees, except those receiving less than this amount in 1929. This general 40-cent provi sion appears to have had some influence on the earnings of males but little effect on the earnings of females. For males in the North, the decline in the number earning less than 40 cents an hour was from 32.6 percent in M arch to 22.4 percent in September, but for females in the N orth the decrease was only from 79.1 percent in M arch to 75.4 percent in September. In the South, the minimum for all bakery employees was set at 30 cents per hour. A s a result, the percentage of males in this area earning less than 30 cents an hour declined from 37.8 percent in M arch to 14.7 percent in September. A t the same time, the percentage of females in the South earning less than 30 cents an hour decreased from 82.6 percent in M arch to 52.2 percent in Courtesy of Charles Schneider Baking C o. P l a t e 1.— F l o u r S c a l e a n d F l o u r C o n t r o l . C o n n e c t i n g w i t h S t o r a g e B i n A b o v e , a n d D o u g h M ix e r w it h O p e r a t o r s . P l a t e 2 .— G r o u p of O p e r a t i o n s , s h o w in g bench Work, d iv id in g , s c a l in g , r o u n d in g , a n d M o l d in g . AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS 35 September. The President's Reem ploym ent Agreement was not mandatory, so that these percentages reflect a combination of several factors. Compliance with the terms of the agreement was certainly not general,37 some firms failed to adhere to the agreement, and in the North the full 40-cent rate was found to be inapplicable. Effect of Code on Percentage Distribution by Region and Sex The wage provisions of the code followed the general principles of the President's Reemployment Agreement. M inim um weekly rates, varying with the size of the city, were established by the code for office and store employees and salesmen. A s for “ other em ployees", who comprise the m ajority of the workers, the code stipulated that none of these “ shall be paid less than at the rate of 40 cents per hour, except icers, wrappers, and cleaners, who shall be paid not less than 80 percent of said ra te " (i. e., 32 cents per hour). Moreover, there was established a differential in the South of $1 less per week for the salaried group and of 5 cents less per hour for “ other em ployees." Lower wage rates were also allowed for persons with limited earning capacity on account of “ age, physical or mental handicap, or other in firm ity", who could be employed on light jobs. W age rates above the minimum were raised by the following pro vision: No employee whose normal full-time weekly hours averaged over the four (4) weeks ending June 10, 1933, are as a result of the adoption of this code reduced by sixteen and two-thirds percent (16%%) or less shall have his or her full-time weekly earnings reduced; and any employee whose said normal full-time weekly hours are to be reduced by more than sixteen and two-thirds percent (16%%) shall have his or her hourly rate of pay increased by at least twenty percent (20% ). The above shall not apply to any employee whose earnings averaged over the aforementioned period were more than thirty-five dollars ($35.00) per week. Employees whose earnings averaged over the aforementioned period were more than thirty-five dollars ($35.00) per week and whose hours are reduced as a result of the adoption of this code shall have their wage rates equitably readjusted in order to maintain fair differentials * * *. In no case shall hourly rates of pay be reduced. In consequence of these provisions, there were further wage increases between September 1933 and December 1934. The percentages of employees falling in the lower wage classes shrank again, and the percentages of those in the upper wage classes were further increased. Am ong the males in the North, the percentages decreased in every class up to 57.5 cents per hour, with the exception of the classes be tween 37.5 and 47.5 cents, where a slight concentration was brought about by the provision of a 40-cent minimum. A s a result, the num ber of male workers earning less than 57.5 cents dropped from 64.1 percent in September 1933 to 54.0 percent in December 1934. In every class above 57.5 cents per hour, there was a larger percentage of the workers in December 1934 than in September 1933. A s for males in the South, the percentages decreased in each class up to 32.5 cents and increased in m ost of the classes thereafter. The number receiving 37 This survey has developed clearly the technical difficulty of enforcing a provision such as that in the President’s Reemployment Agreement “to pay not less than the hourly rate on July 15, 1929” if that rate had been more than 30 cents but less than 40 cents an hour. The difficulty is greatly increased when this procedure is applied to the standard of individual establishments. It has already been pointed out that many small bakers had no records in January and February 1935 from which hourly earnings in December 1934 could be computed. It was even more difficult to secure a sample for such comparatively recent periods as March and September 1933. Hence in a very large number of cases it would be quite impossible to secure 1929 earnings. 36 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY less than 32.5 cents dropped from 28.5 percent in September 1933 to 12.0 percent in December 1934. M a n y of these employees were apparently lifted to the group earning 32.5 but less than 37.5 cents an hour, as the percentage of Southern workers in this class rose from 16.4 in September 1933 to 25.7 in Decem ber#1934. T he percentages of female workers both in the N orth and South also declined in every class up to 32.5 cents per hour, rising in nearly every class above that figure. Between September 1933 and D ecem ber 1934, the number of female employees earning less than. 32.5 cents dropped in the North from 48.3 percent to 23.2 percent and in the South from 76.0 percent to 62.4 percent. I t should also be men tioned that in both the N orth and South there^ was a considerable in crease in the percentage of employees falling in the class embracing the minimum set by the code. Thus, in the North, where the mini mum was 4 0 cents per hour, the number of female workers earning 37.5 and under 42.5 cents rose from 11.7 percent in September 1933 to 24.5 percent in December 1934, and, in the South, where the mini mum was 35 cents per hour, the number of female employees receiving 32.5 and under 37.5 cents increased from 12.7 percent in September 1933 to 23.0 percent in December 1934. ^ In spite of the 40 cents per hour minimum for m ost employees in the North, there were still 11.5 percent of the males and 64.3 percent of the females receiving less than that amount in December 1934. I t must be noted that 6.0 percent of the total number of male em ployees and 40 .0 percent of the total number of females received less than 40 cents because they were in the three trades having a minimum hourly rate of 32 cents. On the other hand, the remaining persons were either handicapped employees or those who worked in establish ments not complying with the code. In December 1934, with a minimum rate for m ost workers of 35 cents per hour, 21.5 percent of the Southern males and 71.8 percent of the Southern females earned less than that amount. Eight percent of these males and 40 .0 percent of these females belonged to the three occupational classes with a minimum hourly rate of 28 cents. Differentials in Averages by Broad Occupational Groupings Neither the President’s Reem ploym ent Agreement nor the code contained any provision establishing or maintaining specific differ entials among the various occupations in the industry. A s previously indicated, however, provision was made for the readjustment of the hourly rates above the minimum, in order to compensate for the reduction of hours b y increases in the average hourly earnings, thus tending to maintain the weekly earnings of the higher-paid workers. A concise picture of the effect of the increases in average hourly earnings on the maintenance of differentials m ay be obtained from the figures covering the broad occupational groupings, which are shown in table 14. I t will be seen that increases occurred in each of these groupings between M arch and September 1933, as well as between the latter m onth and December 1934. In general, among males engaged in direct labor, there existed during each of the periods covered only a slight differential in the average hourly earnings between workers in occupations customarily considered unskilled and semiskilled. In both the N orth and the South, there was in all 37 AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS periods a substantial differential between the unskilled and skilled employees. The absolute amount of this differential in cents per hour, which was somewhat greater in the N orth than in the South, increased from M arch 1933 to December 1934, although under the President’s Reem ploym ent Agreement it had at first decreased slightly in the N orth. In the North, the differential between the unskilled and semiskilled varied only from about 1 to 2 cents, whereas the spread between the unskilled and skilled was 18.5 cents in M arch 1933, 17.9 cents in September 1933, and 20.4 cents in December 1934. In the South, the differential between the unskilled and semiskilled was less than 1 cent during each period, and that between the unskilled and skilled amounted to 13.6 cents in M arch 1933, 13.7 cents in September 1933, and 14.2 cents in December 1934. T a b l e 14 . — A v e r a g e h o u r l y e a r n i n g s b y b r o a d o c c u p a t io n a l g r o u p i n g s a s to r e g i o n an d sex A v e r a g e h o u r l y e a rn in g s R e g io n , sex , a n d b r o a d o c c u p a t io n a l g r o u p in g N orth M a le s : D ir e c t la b o r : S k ille d ___________________ S e m is k ille d . _____________ ____ __ U n s k ille d . _________ _____ __ ________ I n d ir e c t la b o r : D r iv e r -s a le s m e n ________________ . . . O th e r _______ ^___________________ P e r c e n ta g e o f c h a n g e M a r c h to S ep tem b e r 1933 S ep tem b e r 1933 to D e cem ber 1934 M arch 1933 t o D ecem b e r 1934 S ep tem b e r 1933 D ecem b e r 1934 $0. 559 .3 9 4 .374 $0.609 .4 3 9 .430 $0.677 .4 8 9 .473 + 8 .9 + 1 1 .4 + 1 5 .0 + 1 1 .2 + 1 1 .4 + 1 0 .0 + 2 1 .1 + 2 4 .1 + 2 6 .5 .4 9 2 .5 1 2 .545 .5 6 2 .601 .5 9 6 + 1 0 .8 + 9 .8 + 1 0 .3 + 6 .0 + 2 2 .2 + 1 6 .4 M arch 1933 T o t a l ___________ ________ ___________ .4 9 1 .5 4 0 .5 9 0 + 1 0 .0 + 9 .3 + 2 0 .2 F e m a le s : _ ... D ir e c t la b o r : U n s k ille d ______ __ I n d ir e c t la b o r : O t h e r ___________________ .2 6 6 .3 4 8 .3 1 9 .3 8 7 .3 5 9 .4 1 3 + 1 9 .9 + 1 1 .2 + 1 2 .5 + 6 .7 + 3 5 .0 + 1 8 .7 T o t a l ___________ _______________________ .321 .3 6 4 .3 9 2 + 1 3 .4 + 7 .7 + 2 2 .1 .394 .2 6 2 .2 5 8 .4 7 5 .339 .3 3 8 .5 1 5 .3 7 6 .373 + 2 0 .6 + 2 9 .4 + 3 1 .0 + 8 .4 + 1 0 .9 + 1 0 .4 + 3 0 .7 + 4 3 .5 + 4 4 .6 .3 7 8 .369 .475 .441 .4 7 7 .4 7 3 +25. 7 + 1 9 .5 + 0 .4 + 7 .3 + 2 6 .2 + 2 8 .2 .3 6 0 .4 3 6 .4 6 2 +21. 1 + 6 .0 + 2 8 .3 .1 9 8 .2 5 5 .2 9 5 .3 1 8 .3 0 4 .3 3 7 + 4 9 .0 + 2 4 .7 + 3 .1 + 6 .0 + 5 3 .5 + 3 2 .2 .2 4 0 .311 .3 2 5 + 2 9 .6 + 4 .5 + 3 5 .4 South M a le s : D ir e c t la b o r : S k ille d ________________________________ S e m is k ille d ______ _________________ U n s k ille d ________________________ . . . I n d ir e c t la b o r : D r iv e r -s a le s m e n _________ ___________ O t h e r . ......... .. _ _ . . . _____________ T o t a l __________ ________________ _ F e m a le s : D ir e c t la b o r : U n s k ille d _________________ I n d ir e c t la b o r : O t h e r ___________ . . . T o t a l ____________ ____________________ The average hourly earnings of driver-salesmen more closely approx imated those of skilled males engaged in direct labor than those of semiskilled males. In the N orth, the differential in favor of skilled males in direct labor over driver-salesmen amounted to 6.7 cents in M arch 1933, 6.4 cents in September 1933, and 7.6 cents in December 1934. In the South, however, where the average hourly earnings of skilled males engaged in direct labor were much lower than in the North, the differential between the hourly earnings of this group 38 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY and those of driver-salesmen was smaller. Driver-salesmen earned 1.6 cents less than skilled males engaged in direct labor in M arch 1933 and 3.8 cents less in December 1934. In September 1933, however, they earned exactly the same amount per hour as skilled males engaged in direct labor. Nearly all of the increase in the average hourly earnings of driver-salesmen in the South during the entire period occurred between M arch and September 1933. Owing to the wide diversity of the occupations included in the “ other” grouping under indirect labor for the males both in the N orth and South, no attem pt was made here to account for the differentials between it and the other groupings. Likewise, no differentials have been computed between the two groupings listed under females both in the N orth and South. Effectiveness of President’s Reemployment Agreement and Code Minima as Shown by Data on Broad Occupational Groupings The minimum rates of 40 and 30 cents per hour, which were set up in the President’s Reem ploym ent Agreement, applied for the most part to employees engaged in direct labor. The percentages of workers in these groupings receiving less than 40 and 30 cents, respectively, in M arch and September 1933 are shown in table 15. T able 15. — P e r c e n t a g e s o f w o r k e r s i n g r o u p i n g s r e c e iv in g le s s c e n ts , r e s p e c t iv e l y , i n M a r c h a n d S e p t e m b e r 1 9 3 3 M a r c h 1933 th a n J+0 a n d 80 S e p t e m b e r 1933 R e g io n , sex , a n d b r o a d o c c u p a t io n a l g r o u p in g L e s s th a n 40 c e n ts L ess th an 30 c e n ts L ess th an 40 c e n ts N o rth M a le s : S k ille d - - - ______ ________________ _______ S e m is k ille d ______________________ - - __________ ________ U n s k ille d _____ _________________________________________ F e m a le s : U n s k ille d __ ________________________ _________ 15. 5 54. 4 63. 7 9 5 .0 3 .7 1 9 .8 27. 3 7 1 .0 8. 5 3 7 .6 4 6 .7 93. 2 0. 5 5 .2 3 .9 3 0 .9 Sou th M a le s : S k ille d _____________________________________________________ S e m is k ille d ___________________ _________ ___________ -U n s k i ll e d __________ _ _ ________ ___________________________ F e m a le s : U n s k i l l e d ______ __________ _________ ________ _______ 5 4 .5 9 0 .6 9 2 .5 9 8 .9 2 6 .8 6 8 .1 7 3 .0 9 8 .9 3 6 .5 7 8 .2 8 2 .2 100 .0 7 .7 2 5 .6 2 5 .6 5 2 .7 L e s s th a n 30 ce n ts Although on the whole the percentages of employees receiving less than the above rates were considerably smaller in September than in M arch, there was still a large proportion in those wage classes. In other words, the President’s Reem ploym ent Agreement did not provide an effective minimum wage in the baking industry. T he minimum hourly rates mentioned in the code also applied largely to workers engaged in direct labor. In the North, it wrll be remem bered, the rate was 40 cents for m ost of the occupations, wdth 32 cents for icers, wrappers, and cleaners. The percentages of male employees in the N orth receiving less than 40 cents decreased between September 1933 and December 1934 from 8.5 to 2.2 for skilled, from 37.6 to 14.1 for semiskilled, and from 46.7 to 25.9 for unskilled workers. A bout two-thirds of the unskilled group receiving less than 40 cents consisted of icers, wrappers, and cleaners. These three occupations accounted AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS 39 for all of the unskilled females, which explains the fact that 81.9 percent of all the females received less than 40 cents an hour in December 1934, the percentage earning less than that in September 1933 being 93.2. In the South, the code provided a rate of 35 cents for m ost of the occupations and of 28 cents for icers, wrappers, and cleaners. The decrease in the percentages of workers in this region earning less than 35 cents between September 1933 and December 1934 was from 22.7 to 6.6 for skilled, from 62.0 to 27.2 for semiskilled, and from 70.1 to 37.7 for unskilled employees. A bout two-thirds of the unskilled males were icers, wrappers, and cleaners. For unskilled females, all of whom belonged to the three occupations, there was an increase in the per centage receiving less than 35 cents from 19.1 in September 1933 to 21.9 in December 1934. Changes in Averages by Occupational Classes Table 16 presents for individual occupations or small occupational groupings the average hourly earnings for M arch and September 1933 and December 1934, as well as the percentages of change between these months. I t will be noted that increases, both absolute and relative, are shown for each occupational class, although the increases varied considerably. Am ong the males engaged in direct labor in the North, there were 8 individual occupations out of the 14 for which data are given, that showed an increase of more than 10 cents in average earnings per hour over the entire period. Five of the eight occupations were skilled, one was semiskilled, and two were unskilled. The two m ost highly paid occupations showed the largest absolute gains, namely, ovenmen, 13.9 cents, and mixers, 13.8 cents. The next greatest increase (12.8 cents) was reported for pan greasers, which is one of the low-paid occupations. A s for the six occupations with increases of less than 10 cents per hour, one was skilled, three were semiskilled, and two were unskilled. T he smallest gain during the period (7.6 cents) is shown for cake wrappers and packers, another one of the low-paid occupations. A s for males employed in direct labor in the South, out of the five individual occupations for which data are available, all but one reported a gain of over 10 cents per hour during the entire period. The earnings of ovenmen showed the largest increase (14.1 cents). The occupation showing the smallest rise (9.3 cents) was that of general helpers. Aside from the “ miscellaneous” groupings, only two of the nine individual occupations or small occupational groupings shown for males employed in indirect labor in the N orth received increases of over 10 cents in average hourly earnings over the interval from M arch 1933 to December 1934. These two occupations, driver-salesmen and skilled supervisors, were also among the higher paid of the indirect labor occupations. In the South, separate figures are given for only one indirect labor occupation, that of driver-salesmen, and these workers received an increase over the entire period of 9.9 cents an hour. Am ong females in the North, statistics are available for six indi vidual occupations. The increases in these occupations between M arch 1933 and December 1934 ranged from 3.2 cents for store clerks to 9.6 cents for cake wrappers and packers. For indirect female labor in the South, separate figures are given only for store clerks, the gain for workers in this class amounting to 6.6 cents. 40 T WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY a b l e 16 . — A v e r a g e h o u r l y e a r n i n g s b y o c c u p a t io n a l c l a s s e s a s to r e g i o n a n d s e x A v e r a g e h o u r l y e a r n in g s R e g io n , sex, a n d o c c u p a t io n a l cla ss M arch 1933 M a l e s — N o rth D ir e c t l a b o r : S k ille d : B e n c h h a n d s o r h a n d b a k e r s _____________ C a k e m a k e r s .............................. ............... ............. D iv i d e r s o r s ca le rs a n d r o u n d e r s . .............. M ix e r s .. ____ . . . ______ _____ _________ M o l d e r s ________________________ _____________ O v e n m e n ......... .................................................... M is c e lla n e o u s , s k i l l e d ................................... T o t a l ______________________________________ S e m is k ille d : B e n c h h a n d s ’ o r h a n d b a k e r s ’ h e l p e r s .. . G e n e r a l h e lp e r s _______ _____________________ M ix e r s ’ h e lp e r s ______ ______________________ 0 v e n m e n ’ s h e lp e r s ...... ..................... ................. M is c e lla n e o u s , s e m is k ille d ________________ S ep tem D e c e m b e r 1933 b e r 1934 P ercen ta g e o f c h a n g e M arch to S ep tem ber 1933 S ep tem M arch b e r 1933 1933 t o to D e D ecem cem b er b e r 1934 1934 $0.563 .551 .5 4 3 .5 8 7 .487 .5 9 9 .501 $0.601 .5 9 8 .5 7 7 .6 5 6 .534 .6 6 2 .5 3 3 $0.677 .6 4 7 .6 5 4 .7 2 5 .6 0 5 .7 3 8 .6 0 1 4 -6 .7 4 -8 .5 4 -6 .3 4 -1 1 .8 4 -9 .7 4 -1 0 .5 4 -6 .4 4 -1 2 .6 4 -8 .2 4 1 3 .3 4 -1 0 .5 4 -1 3 .3 4 -1 1 .5 4 -1 2 .8 + 2 0 .2 + 1 7 .4 + 2 0 .4 + 2 3 .5 + 2 4 .2 + 2 3 .2 + 2 0 .0 .5 5 9 .6 0 9 .6 7 7 4 -8 .9 4 -1 1 .2 + 2 1 .1 .413 .3 6 4 .3 8 8 .4 0 3 .4 3 4 .4 5 3 .4 1 9 .4 3 4 .4 4 9 .4 5 8 .501 .4 5 8 .4 8 4 .511 .5 1 2 4 -9 .7 4 -1 5 .1 4 -1 1 .9 4 -1 1 .4 4 -5 .5 4 -1 0 .6 4 -9 .3 4 -1 1 .5 4 -1 3 .8 4 -1 1 .8 + 2 1 .3 + 2 5 .8 + 2 4 .7 + 2 6 .8 + 1 8 .0 .3 9 4 .4 3 9 .4 8 9 4 -1 1 .4 + 1 1 .4 + 2 4 .1 U n s k ille d : B r e a d p a c k e r s .......... ............................................. B r e a d w r a p p e r s , a u t o m a t i c ______ _____ _ C a k e w r a p p e r s a n d p a c k e r s ____________ P a n g re a se rs________________________________ M is c e lla n e o u s , u n s k ille d __________________ .4 0 4 .3 5 0 .3 8 4 .3 3 3 .4 1 2 .4 5 5 .4 1 2 .4 2 5 .4 0 3 452 .4 9 5 .4 5 7 .4 6 0 .461 .4 9 2 4 -1 2 .6 4 -1 7 .7 4 -1 0 .7 4 -2 1 .0 4 -9 .7 + 8 .8 + 1 0 .9 + 8 .2 + 1 4 .4 + 8 .8 + 2 2 .5 + 3 0 .6 + 1 9 .8 + 3 8 .4 + 1 9 .4 T o t a l . . ................................................................... .3 7 4 .4 3 0 .4 7 3 4 -1 5 .0 + 1 0 .0 + 2 6 .5 I n d ir e c t la b o r : D r iv e r -s a le s m e n ________________________________ .4 9 2 .5 4 5 .6 0 1 4 -1 0 .8 + 1 0 .3 + 2 2 .2 .7 0 1 .483 .3 6 6 .5 4 8 .3 9 4 .4 6 3 .353 .7 0 6 .5 8 9 .421 .3 6 4 .7 6 2 .5 2 5 .4 2 8 .6 1 8 .4 5 9 .5 0 2 .4 0 7 .7 5 9 .6 4 0 .4 6 5 .4 0 7 .7 9 5 .5 5 9 .4 5 4 .6 3 9 .4 7 6 .5 4 7 .4 3 6 .811 .6 8 4 .5 1 4 .437 4 -8 .7 4 -8 .7 4 -1 6 .9 4 -1 2 .8 4 -1 6 .5 4*8. 4 4 -1 5 .3 4 -7 .5 4 -8 .7 4 -1 0 .5 4 -1 1 .8 + 4 .3 + 6 .5 + 6 .1 + 3 .4 + 3 .7 + 9 .0 + 7 .1 + 6 .9 + 6 .9 + 1 0 .5 + 7 .4 + 1 3 .4 + 1 5 .7 + 2 4 .0 + 1 6 .6 + 2 0 .8 + 1 8 .1 + 2 3 .5 + 1 4 .9 + 1 6 .1 + 2 2 .1 + 2 0 .1 .5 1 2 .5 6 2 .5 9 6 4 -9 .8 + 6 .0 + 1 6 .4 D ir e c t l a b o r : U n s k ille d : B r e a d w r a p p e r s , h a n d _____________ _______ C a k e fin ish e rs _____________________________ C a k e w r a p p e r s a n d p a c k e r s ......... ............... .2 7 2 .2 7 0 .2 6 3 .341 .3 2 5 .3 1 4 .3 5 0 .3 6 2 .3 5 9 4 -2 5 .4 4 -2 0 .4 4 -1 9 .4 + 2 .6 + 1 1 .4 + 1 4 .3 + 2 8 .7 + 3 4 .1 + 3 6 .5 T o t a l __________ _____ ______________________ .2 6 6 .3 1 9 .3 5 9 4 -1 9 .9 + 1 2 .5 + 3 5 .0 .3 8 8 .431 .4 5 8 4 -1 1 .1 + 6 .3 + 1 8 .0 .4 1 8 .317 .3 1 5 .4 6 2 .3 4 0 .3 6 3 .4 8 6 .3 4 9 .4 1 2 4 -1 0 .5 4 -7 .3 4 -1 5 .2 +5. 2 + 2 .6 + 1 3 .5 + 1 6 .3 + 1 0 .1 + 3 0 .8 .3 4 8 .3 8 7 .4 1 3 4 -1 1 .2 + 6 .7 + 1 8 .7 T o t a l ______ _______________________________ O th e r : A u d it o r s , b o o k k e e p e r s , e t c _____________ . C h a u ffe u r s a n d d r i v e r s ____________________ L a b o r e r s ________________________________ . . . M a in t e n a n c e a n d r e p a ir , s k i ll e d _________ M a in t e n a n c e a n d r e p a ir , s e m is k ille d ____ O ffic e c le r k s _________________________________ S e r v ic e , u n s k il le d — _____________ _________ S u p e r v is o r y , s k i l l e d ________ _______________ M is c e lla n e o u s , s k i l l e d _____________________ M is c e lla n e o u s , s e m is k ille d ________________ M is c e lla n e o u s , u n s k il le d - ................ ............... T o t a l ______________ _______________________ F e m a le s — N o rth I n d ir e c t la b o r : O th e r: O ffic e c le r k s _________________________________ S te n o g r a p h e r s, t y p is t s , t e le p h o n e o p e r ___ ________ ______________________ a to rs, e t c S to re c l e r k s ________________________________ M is c e lla n e o u s ___ ___________________________ T o t a l ________________________ ______________ 41 AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS T a b l e 16.— A v e r a g e h o u r l y e a r n i n g s b y o c c u p a t io n a l c l a s s e s a s to r e g i o n a n d s e x — Continued A v e r a g e h o u r l y e a r n in g s R e g io n , sex, a n d o c c u p a t io n a l cla ss M a rch 1933 S ep tem D e ce m b e r 1933 b e r 1934 P ercen ta g e o f ch a n g e M arch to S e p te m b e r 1933 S ep tem M arch b e r 1933 1933 t o to D e D ecem cem ber b e r 1934 1934 M a l e s — S ou th D ir e c t la b o r : S k ille d : B e n c h h a n d s o r h a n d b a k e r s _____________ O v e n m e n ___________ _______________________ M is c e lla n e o u s , s k ille d _______ ____________ $0.344 .4 0 9 .4 1 2 $0.392 .4 9 5 .4 8 4 $ 0 .460 .550 .527 4 1 4 .0 4 -2 1 .0 4 -1 7 .5 + 1 7 .3 + 1 1 .1 + 8 .9 + 3 3 .7 + 3 4 .5 + 2 7 .9 T o t a l ______________________________________ .3 9 4 .4 6 3 .5 1 5 + 1 7 .5 + 1 1 .2 +30. 7 .2 5 5 .2 7 8 .251 .3 2 9 .3 4 2 .3 4 5 .3 4 8 .3 8 6 .3 8 7 + 2 9 .0 + 2 3 .0 + 3 7 .5 + 5 .8 + 1 2 .9 + 1 2 .2 + 3 6 .5 + 3 8 .8 + 5 4 .2 .2 6 2 .3 3 9 .3 7 6 + 2 9 .4 + 1 0 .9 + 4 3 .5 .2 6 2 .253 .3 3 7 .3 3 9 .3 7 6 .3 7 0 + 2 8 .6 + 3 4 .0 + 1 1 .6 + 9 .1 + 4 3 .5 + 4 6 .2 .2 5 8 .3 3 8 .3 7 3 + 3 1 .0 + 1 0 .4 + 4 4 .6 ____________ .378 .4 7 5 .4 7 7 + 2 5 .7 + .4 + 2 6 .2 .............._ _ _ _ _ _ .3 6 9 .441 .4 7 3 + 1 9 .5 + 7 .3 + 2 8 .2 D ir e c t la b o r : U n s k i ll e d _________ ___________________ .1 9 8 .2 9 5 .3 0 4 + 4 9 .0 + 3 .1 + 5 3 .5 I n d ir e c t la b o r : O th e r: S to re c le r k s _________________________ ________ M is c e lla n e o u s . _ _______ _______ _______ .2 2 0 .273 .2 7 4 .3 4 2 .2 8 6 .3 6 5 + 2 4 .5 + 2 5 .3 + 4 .4 + 6 .7 + 3 0 .0 + 3 3 .7 .255 .3 1 8 .3 3 7 + 2 4 .7 + 6 .0 + 3 2 .2 S e m is k ille d : G e n e r a l h e lp e r s _____________________________ O v e n m e n ’ s h e lp e r s _________________________ M is c e lla n e o u s , s e m is k ille d . . . . ________ T o t a l ------------------------------------------------------U n s k ille d : B r e a d w r a p p e r s , a u t o m a t i c _______________ M is c e lla n e o u s , u n s k ille d ________ _________ T o t a l _____________ _______________________ I n d ir e c t la b o r : D r iv e r -s a le s m e n _________________ O t h e r . . ____ ____ __ _ F e m a le s — Sou th T o t a l _____ _________ ____ . _ ___ Regional Differentials in Averages by Occupations The existing differentials between northern and southern wages were recognized by the President’s Reemployment Agreement to the extent of a spread equal to 10 cents per hour at the minimum rate. The code cut this to 5 cents. I t follows, therefore, that a considerable difference in wages for similar occupations in the N orth and the South would be found in the survey. The average of all male occupations showed that northern wages were 13.1 cents an hour higher than southern wages in M arch 1933, 10.4 cents higher in September 1933, and 12.8 cents higher in December 1934.38 Despite the narrower minimum-wage differential allowed by the code, the spread in average hourly earnings for all workers increased between September 1933 and December 1934. In fact, the regional wage differential in December 1934 was nearly as great as before the President’s Reemployment Agreement. The differentials between N orth and South by broad occupational groupings show some variations from the above averages, although each occupational grouping in the North shows higher earnings than 38 S ee t a b le 11. 102745°— 37- ■4 42 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY in the South.39 The greatest differential was between skilled male employees engaged in direct labor, where the difference in favor of the northern workers amounted to 16.5 cents in M arch 1933, 13.4 cents in September 1933, and 16.2 cents in December 1934. T he differ ential between semiskilled male employees engaged in direct labor was somewhat smaller, the figures being 13.2 cents in M arch 1933, 10.0 cents in September 1933, and 11.3 cents in December 1934. A still smaller difference in earnings is shown for unskilled male workers engaged in direct labor. The margin in favor of northern workers in this class amounted to 11.6 cents in M arch 1933, 9.2 cents in Sep tember 1933, and 10.0 cents in December 1934. In each of these groupings there was a narrowing of the differential in the second period and an increase during the last period, although the differential in the last period was still below that shown in the first period. I t is interesting to note the extent of the differential between the N orth and South for the several individual occupations of males for which comparable data are available.40 For ovenmen, the highestpaid occupation, the differential was 19.0 cents in M arch 1933, 16.7 cents in September 1933, and 18.8 cents in December 1934. Am ong bench hands or hand bakers, another skilled occupation, the differ ences amounted to 21.9 cents in M arch 1933, 20.9 in September 1933, and 21.7 in December 1934. Smaller differentials were reported for two semiskilled occupations, namely, ovenmen’s helpers, and general helpers. T h e differentials in these occupations were, respectively, 12.5 and 10.9 cents in M arch 1933, 10.7 and 9.0 cents in September 1933, and 12.5 and 11.0 cents in December 1934. T he differential was still smaller in one unskilled occupation, automatic bread wrappers, the figures being 8.8 cents in M arch 1933, 7.5 cents in September 19339 and 8.1 cents in December 1934. Each of these occupations shows a narrowing of the differential between M arch and September 1933 and a widening of the spread between September 1933 and December 1934. The North-South differential for driver-salesmen was 11.4 cents in M arch 1933. Owing to an increase in average hourly earnings be tween M arch and September 1933 of 9.7 cents in the South, as com pared with 5.3 cents in the North, however, the differential was re duced to 7.0 cents in September. Between September 1933 and December 1934, the gain in average hourly earnings was 5.6 cents in the N orth and only 0.2 cent in the South, with the result that the differential in December 1934 was 12.4 cents, or 1 cent higher than in M arch 1933. For “ other” employees engaged in indirect labor, the differential amounted to 14.3 cents in M arch 1933, 12.1 cents in September 1933, and 12.3 cents in December 1934. The regional differences in average hourly earnings of female work ers followed much the same general course, although the spread in favor of northern workers was less than among the male employees, amounting to 8.1 cents in M arch 1933, 5.3 cents in September 1933, and 6.7 cents in December 1934. For female unskilled employees engaged in direct labor, the difference was 6.8 cents in M arch 1933, 2.4 cents in September 1933, and 5.5 cents in December 1934. The narrowing of the differential to 2.4 cents in September was due to an advance of 9.7 cents per hour in the southern wages, as compared 3» S ee t a b le 14. 40 See t a b le 16. AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS 43 with a gain of only 5.3 cents in the northern wages. Between Sep tember 1933 and December 1934, however, the increase in average earnings per hour was only 0.9 cent in the South and 4.0 cents in the North, thus bringing the differential in December 1934 back to a figure not much below that in M arch 1933. Am ong the “ other” em ployees engaged in indirect labor, the differential amounted to 9.3 cents in M arch 1933, 6.9 cents in September 1933, and 7.6 cents in December 1934. For one of these occupations, namely, store clerks, there is comparable data available, indicating differentials of 9.7 cents in M arch 1933, 6.6 cents in September 1933, and 6.3 cents in December 1934. Sex Differentials in Averages by Occupations Neither the President's Reem ploym ent Agreement nor the code provided for any differential between males and females when engaged in similar work. In fact, the principle of “ equal pay for equal work” was specifically recognized in the code, when it declared that “ male and female employees customarily performing substantially the same duties or doing the same work shall receive the same rates of p a y .” The only exception to this was “ that when male employees perform work customarily done b y female employees only during hours when female labor is prohibited b y applicable law, it shall not be required that female employees doing such work at other times be paid at the same rate as such male employees.” The objectives of these provisions, however, were not fully achieved, since comparisons of male and female wages for occupations involving approximately the same degrees of skill indicate that the average hourly earnings of males considerably exceed those of females.41 For unskilled workers engaged in direct labor, the difference in northern bakeries amounted to 10.8 cents in M arch 1933, 11.1 in September 1933, and 11.4 in December 1934, and in the South it was 6.0 in M arch 1933, 4.3 in September 1933, and 6.9 in December 1934. A greater spread was reported for some occupations. The hourly earnings of male cake wrappers and packers (unskilled direct labor) in the N orth ern States, for example, exceeded those of female workers by 12.1 cents in M arch 1933, 11.1 in September 1933, and 10.1 in Decem ber 1934. For office clerks (“ other” indirect labor), the earnings of male workers in the North exceeded those of females by 7.5 cents in M arch 1933, 7.1 in September 1933, and 8.9 in December 1934. Average Hourly Earnings and Size of City On the whole, the average hourly earnings of employees in bakeries varied directly with the size of the city. This is illustrated by table 17, which shows the average earnings per hour and percentages of change for the three pay-roll periods according to size of city. In M arch 1933, male employees in the northern cities with a popu lation of from 50,000 to 250,000 averaged 2.2 cents per hour more than those in the smaller cities and 8.2 less than those in the larger cities. In September 1933, this relationship was changed, and the smaller cities (under 50,000 population), due to a larger gain in aver age hourly earnings, were paying 0.7 cents more than the middlesized group. In the larger cities (250,000 and over), the earnings were 9.1 cents higher than the level prevailing in cities of from 50,000 to « See t a b le s 14 a n d 16. 44 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY 250,000. B y December 1934 the situation was again altered, and due to a smaller increase in average earnings per hour, the smaller cities paid 1.5 cents less than the middle group. In the meantime, the larger cities increased their lead over the middle group to 9.3 cents. T able 17. — A v e r a g e h o u r l y e a r n i n g s b y s i z e o f c i t y a s to r e g i o n a n d s e x A v e r a g e h o u r l y e a r n in g s S ep tem b e r 1933 D ecem b e r 1934 M arch to Sep tem b er 1933 R e g io n , sex, a n d s ize o f c i t y M arch 1933 P ercen ta g e o f ch a n g e S ep tem b e r 1933 to D e cem ber 1934 M arch 1933 t o D ecem b e r 1934 N o rth M a le s : 250,000 a n d o v e r _________________________________ 50,000 a n d u n d e r 250,000-----------------------------------U n d e r 50,000_____________________________________ $0.507 .4 2 5 .4 0 3 $0.557 .4 6 6 .4 7 3 $0,608 .5 1 5 .5 0 0 + 9 .9 + 9 .6 + 1 7 .4 + 9 .2 + 1 0 .5 + 5 .7 + 1 9 .9 + 2 1 .2 + 2 4 .1 T o t a l ___________________________________________ .491 .5 4 0 .5 9 0 + 1 0 .0 + 9 .3 + 2 0 .2 .3 3 3 .2 7 8 0) .3 7 4 .3 1 7 0) .3 9 9 .3 6 4 0) + 1 2 .3 + 1 4 .0 0) + 6 .7 + 1 4 .8 0) __________________ .3 2 1 .3 6 4 .3 9 2 + 1 3 .4 + 7 .7 + 2 2 .1 M a le s : 250,000 a n d o v e r ----------- . ........................................ 50,000 a n d u n d e r 250,000_________ . --------------U n d e r 50,000_____________ _______ --------------- .3 5 8 .3 6 5 .3 2 5 .4 3 3 .4 4 5 .3 9 5 .4 6 0 .4 7 2 .4 1 7 + 2 0 .9 + 2 1 .9 + 2 1 .5 + 6 .2 + 6 .1 + 5 .6 + 2 8 .5 + 2 9 .3 + 2 8 .3 T o t a l __________________ _____ ___________________ .3 6 0 .4 3 6 .4 6 2 + 2 1 .1 + 6 .0 + 2 8 .3 F e m a le s : 250,000 a n d o v e r _____________________ __________ 50,000 a n d u n d e r 250,000_________ ____________ U n d e r 50,000_____________________________________ .259 .223 0) .3 1 7 .3 0 4 0) .3 3 8 .3 1 4 0) + 2 2 .4 + 3 6 .3 0) + 6 .6 + 3 .3 0) + 3 0 .5 + 4 0 .8 0) .2 4 0 .311 .3 2 5 + 2 9 .6 + 4 .5 + 3 5 .4 F e m a le s : 250.000 a n d o v e r ______ ____________ ___________ 50.000 a n d u n d e r 250,000...... .......................... ........... U n d e r 50,000_____________________________________ T o t a l ______________________ +19. +30. 0) S ou th T o t a l . . ______ _______ . ___________________ i N o t e n o u g h w o r k e r s t o j u s t i f y t h e c o m p u t a t io n o f a n a v e ra g e . For female employees in the North, the average hourly earnings in cities of 250,000 and over were 5.5 cents higher than in cities of 50,000 and under 250,000 in M arch 1933, 5.7 higher in September 1933, and 3.5 higher in December 1934. N o figures were computed for cities under 50,000, as comparatively few women workers were employed there. It is interesting to note that in the South the earnings of male work ers in cities of 50,000 to 250,000 were higher than in cities with a population of 250,000 and over or in cities of less than 50,000. C om pared with the larger cities, the hourly earnings in the medium-sized cities were 0.7 cent higher in M arch 1933 and 1.2 cents higher in both September 1933 and December 1934. In the cities with a population of less than 50,000, the hourly earnings of male employees were 4.0 cents less than in the medium-sized cities in M arch 1933, 5.0 less in September 1933, and 5.5 less in December 1934. B y contrast, the earnings of females in the South were highest in cities wuth a population of 250,000 and over. In comparison with cities of 50,000 to 250,000, the hourly earnings of female workers in the large cities averaged 3.6 cents higher in M arch 1933, 1.3 higher 45 AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS in September 1933, and 2.4 higher in December 1934. As in the North, averages were not computed for females in cities under 50,000. The m ost striking fact revealed by this analysis is that in the North there is a clear-cut break between the largest cities and the cities of less than 250,000. In the South, the break comes between cities of more than 50,000 and the smaller cities. Average Hourly Earnings in Union and Nonunion Shops t In the North, wages in crafts covered by the Bakery and Confec tionery Workers’ International Union were higher in union than in nonunion shops. This is clearly indicated by table 18, in which the average hourly earnings of male workers engaged in direct labor are classified by union and nonunion shops and according to skill.42 It should be remembered that union membership is here virtually limited to the skilled and semiskilled workers. T a b l e 18. — A v e r a g e h o u r l y e a r n i n g s o f m a le e m p l o y e e s i n N o r t h e n g a g e d i n d irec t la b o r, b y u n io n a n d n o n u n io n sh o p s a n d sk ill A v e r a g e h o u r ly ea r n in g s T y p e o f s h o p a n d s k ill M arch 1933 S ep tem b e r 1933 D ecem b e r 1934 P ercen ta g e o f ch a n ge M a rch to S ep tem b e r 1933 S ep tem b e r 1933 to D e cem ber 1934 M arch 1933 t o D ecem b e r 1934 U n io n s h o p s : S k ille d _____________________________________ S e m is k ille d ________________________ _______ U n s k ille d - ______________________________ $ 0 .746 .4 4 3 .3 8 2 $ 0 .746 .4 6 5 .4 2 4 $0. 847 .5 3 7 .4 6 2 0) + 5 .0 4 -1 1 .0 + 1 3 .5 + 1 5 .5 + 9 .0 +13. 5 + 2 1 .2 + 2 0 .9 T o t a l ____________________________________ .5 9 9 .6 1 2 .6 8 7 4 -2 .2 + 1 2 .3 + 1 4 .7 N o n u n io n sh ops: S k ille d _____________________________________ S e m i s k i ll e d .. - _ _ _ _________ __ ____ U n s k ille d ___________ ___________________ .4 8 6 .3 7 9 .3 7 3 .5 5 4 .4 3 2 .4 3 2 .6 0 8 .4 7 7 .4 7 7 4 -1 4 .0 + 1 4 .0 + 1 5 .8 + 9 .7 + 1 0 .4 + 1 0 .4 +25. 1 + 2 5 .9 + 2 7 .9 T o t a l ____________________________________ .4 3 2 .4 8 9 .5 3 7 +13. 2 + 9 .8 + 2 4 .3 1 N o ch a n g e . From this table it will be seen that the earnings of the unskilled (unorganized) workers in union shops in M arch 1933 were only slightly higher than in nonunion shops, and that in both September 1933 and December 1934 they were actually less than in nonunion establish ments. In striking contrast, the differential between union and non union shops for the skilled workers (organized) amounted to 26.0 cents in M arch 1933, 19.2 cents in September 1933, and 23.9 cents in December 1934. The table also brings out the fact that the nonunion shops pay substantially the same rates for both the semiskilled and unskilled occupations. In union shops, on the other hand, semiskilled workers, who are covered b y union membership, do receive more than the unskilled. Because of this difference, the hourly earnings of semi skilled workers in union shops were 6.4 cents higher than in nonunion shops in M arch 1933, 3.3 cents higher in September 1933, and 6.0 cents higher in December 1934. 42 S ee p p . 23 a n d 25. V e r y fe w fe m a le e m p lo y e e s are m e m b e r s o f t h e u n io n , a n d as a re s u lt t h e y h a v e b e e n o m it t e d fr o m t h is a n a ly s is . L ik e w is e , o w in g t o t h e s m a ll n u m b e r o f b a k e rie s w it h u n io n c o n t r a c ts in t h e S o u t h , n o su c h t a b u la t io n w a s m a d e fo r t h a t re g io n . 46 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY The trend of earnings from M arch 1933 to December 1934 in union shops differed conspicuously from the trend in unorganized establish ments. In the nonunion shops, as already stated, there was virtually no difference in the average hourly earnings of workers in occupations classed as unskilled and semiskilled in any period studied. The hourly earnings of the skilled workers averaged only 11.3 cents more than those of the unskilled workers in M arch 1933. From M arch 1933 to September 1933, the earnings of each of the three groups in nonunion shops advanced from 14 to 16 percent. Again from September 1933 to December 1934, there was about a 10 percent advance for all groups. In union shops, on the other hand, the average hourly earnings for semiskilled workers in March 1933 were 6.1 cents per hour more than for unskilled, and for skilled they were 36.4 cents an hour more than for unskilled. Under the President’s Reemployment Agreement, unskilled wages in union shops advanced 11 percent, semiskilled wages advanced 5 percent, and the earnings of skilled did not increase at all. From September 1933 to December 1934, the hourly earnings of semiskilled workers advanced 15.5 percent, as against an increase of 13.5 percent for skilled workers and a gain of 9.9 percent for unskilled workers. Influence of Mechanization on Average Hourly Earnings In general, the greater the degree of mechanization in bakeries, the higher were their average hourly earnings.43 This fact is illustrated by table 19. Hourly earnings of male employees in highly mechanized bakeries in the N orth averaged 3.5 cents more than in handicraft shops in M arch 1933, 8.3 cents more in September 1933, and 10.4 cents more in December 1934. In the South, the differential in favor of male workers of the mechanical establishments over those employed by handicraft bakeries amounted to 0.6 cents in M arch 1933, 6.0 cents in September 1933, and 4.7 cents in December 1934. It will be seen that in both regions there was a marked increase in the differential between March and September 1933. This m ay be explained b y the fact that, due to the establishment of the shorter workweek in m e chanical as compared with handicraft shops under the President’s Reem ploym ent A greem ent44 and the code, the gain in average hourly earnings during this period in mechanical bakeries was much greater than in handicraft bakeries. For females in either North or South, no figures on differentials are available, as the number of females was too small to compute any average hourly earnings for handicraft shops. In semihandicraft shops in the N orth, the average hourly earnings of male workers were below those of mechanical but above those of handicraft bakeries in each of the three periods. This was also true in the South in September 1933, but in the other 2 months the average hourly earnings of male workers in handicraft shops exceeded those in semihandicraft establishments b y a narrow margin, and, as in the North, the earnings in both the semihandicraft and handicraft shops were less than in mechanized shops. The average hourly earnings for 43 I n c o m p a r in g a v e r a g e h o u r ly e a rn in g s in b a k e rie s a c c o r d in g t o t h e ir d e g re e o f m e c h a n iz a t io n , it s h o u ld b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t tb© o p c u p a t io n a l s e t -u p I n e a c h t y p e is d iffe r e n t . 44See p. 25. 47 AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS females in the N orth were less in semihandicraft than in mechanical bakeries in all 3 months. T able 19 . — A v e r a g e h o u r l y e a r n i n g s i n b a k e r ie s c la s s ifie d b y d e g ree o f m e c h a n i z a t i o n a s to r e g i o n a n d s e x A v e r a g e h o u r l y ea rn in g s R e g io n , sex , a n d d e g r e e o f m e c h a n iz a t io n M arch 1933 P ercen ta g e o f ch a n g e S ep tem b er 1933 D ecem ber 1934 M a rch to S ep tem b er 1933 S ep tem ber 1933 t o D ecem b er 1934 M a r c h 1933 to D ecem b e r 1934 N orth M a le s : H a n d ic r a ft _ _____ _______ S e m ih a n d ic r a ft ____________ M e c h a n i c a l . . _____ _________ $0. 457 .4 8 5 .4 9 2 $0.460 .5 1 2 .5 4 3 $0.499 .5 6 2 .6 0 3 + 0 .7 + 5 .6 + 1 0 .4 + 8 .5 + 9 .8 + 1 1 .1 + 9 .2 +15. 9 + 2 2 .6 T o t a l _____ ________________ .491 .5 4 0 .5 9 0 + 1 0 .0 + 9 .3 + 2 0 .2 F e m a le s : H a n d i c r a ft _________________ S e m ih a n d ic r a ft ______ _. _ M e c h a n ic a l _________ __ T o t a l ______________________ (9 .3 1 0 .3 2 4 (9 .3 3 9 .3 7 0 (9 (9 (9 (9 .3 7 2 .3 9 7 + 9 .4 + 1 4 .2 + 9 .7 + 7 .3 + 2 0 .0 + 2 2 .5 .3 2 1 .3 6 4 .3 9 2 + 1 3 .4 + 7 .7 + 2 2 .1 .3 5 4 .3 4 2 .3 6 0 .3 8 0 .3 9 2 .4 4 0 .4 2 0 .4 1 4 .4 6 7 + 7 .3 + 1 4 .6 + 2 2 .2 + 1 0 .5 + 5 .6 + 6 .1 + 1 8 .6 + 2 1 .1 + 2 9 .7 .3 6 0 .4 3 6 .4 6 2 + 2 1 .1 + 6 .0 + 2 8 .3 South M a le s : H a n d i c r a ft __ ____________ S e m ih a n d ic r a ft __________ M e c h a n i c a l __________ _____ T ota l ___________ F e m a le s : H a n d i c r a ft _________________ S e m ih a n d ic r a ft ____________ M e c h a n i c a l ________________ T o ta l. _________________ (9 (9 .2 4 4 .2 4 0 (9 (9 (9 (9 (9 (9 (9 (9 .3 1 9 .3 3 2 + 3 0 .7 + 4 ,1 .311 .325 + 2 9 .6 + 4 .5 (9 (9 + 3 6 .1 + 3 5 .4 i Not enough workers to justify the computation of an average. For the period as a whole, the largest relative gains in average hourly earnings were found in the mechanized establishments, the next highest in semihandicraft, and the smallest in handicraft shops. Type of Distribution and Average Hourly Earnings An analysis of the data in bakeries classified by type of distribution shows that on the whole the average hourly earnings were highest in multistate, multiple-unit retail, and chain-store bakeries. There is also a tendency for the average hourly earnings to be greater in local wholesale than in retail and house-to-house establishments. This will be seen by table 20. A s a rule, the largest establishments are the multistate, multiple-unit retail, and chain-store bakeries, and the smallest are the retail and house-to-house establishments. It will also be seen that, as far as absolute increases in average hourly earnings over the entire period are concerned, the largest gains were reported for local wholesale bakeries, and the smallest gains occurred in the retail and house-to-house establishments. Between M arch 1933 and December 1934, the increases in local wholesale establishments amounted to 13.8 cents for males and 8.4 cents for females in the North and to 11.6 cents for males and 8.9 cents for fe males in the South. During the same period, the gains in the multi state, multiple-unit retail, and chain-store bakeries were 10.2 cents for 48 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY males and 6.8 cents for females in the N orth and 9.0 cents for males and 8.2 cents for females in the South. T he increases in the retail and house-to-house establishments were 7.6 cents for males and 5.2 cents for females in the N orth and 8.5 cents for males and 7.4 cents for females in the South. T he local wholesale plants also showed the largest relative gains for the entire period. T a b l e 20 . — A v e r a g e h o u r l y e a r n i n g s i n b a k e r ie s c la s s ifie d b y t y p e o f d i s t r ib u t io n a s to r e g i o n a n d s e x A v e r a g e h o u r l y ea r n in g s R e g io n , sex , a n d t y p e o f d is t r ib u t io n M arch 1933 S ep tem b e r 1933 D ecem b e r 1934 $0.491 .5 3 8 $0,541 .6 2 2 N o rth M a le s : R e t a il a n d h o u s e -t o -h o u s e ______________ L o c a l w h o le s a le __________________________ M u lt i- S t a t e , m u lt ip le - u n it r e ta il, a n d c h a in s t o r e ___________________ __________ $0,465 .4 8 4 .5 0 5 .5 6 0 T o t a l . ______________ __________ _____ .491 .5 4 0 .3 3 7 .291 .3 7 6 .3 5 0 F e m a le s : R e t a il a n d h o u s e -t o -h o u s e ______________ L o c a l w h o le s a l e .. _____ ________ ________ M u lt i- S t a t e , m u lt ip le - u n it r e t a il, a n d c h a in s t o r e ______________________________ P ercen ta g e o f ch a n g e S ep tem M a r c h to b e r 1933 S ep tem to D ecem b e r 1933 b e r 1934 M arch 1933 t o D ecem b e r 1934 + 5 .6 + 1 1 .2 + 1 0 .2 + 1 5 .6 .6 0 7 + 1 0 .9 + 8 .4 + 2 0 .2 .5 9 0 + 1 0 .0 + 9 .3 + 2 0 .2 .3 8 9 .3 7 5 + 1 1 .6 + 2 0 .3 + 3 .5 + 7 .1 + 1 5 .4 + 2 8 .9 + 1 6 .3 + 2 8 .5 .3 3 2 .3 6 8 .4 0 0 + 1 0 .8 + 8 .7 + 2 0 .5 _________________________ .321 .3 6 4 .3 9 2 + 1 3 .4 + 7 .7 + 2 2 .1 S ou th M a le s : R e t a il a n d h o u s e -t o -h o u s e ______________ L o c a l w h o le s a le . _ __ _ _________ ____ M u lt i- S t a t e , m u lt ip le - u n it r e t a il, a n d c h a in s t o r e . __ _ ______________________ .3 5 6 .3 4 2 .4 0 0 .4 2 9 .4 4 1 .4 5 8 + 1 2 .4 + 2 5 .4 + 1 0 .3 + 6 .8 + 2 3 .9 + 3 3 .9 .3 8 5 .4 5 7 .4 7 5 + 1 8 .7 + 3 .9 + 2 3 .4 .3 6 0 .4 3 6 .4 6 2 + 2 1 .1 + 6 .0 + 2 8 .3 .2 2 8 .2 2 8 .2 8 5 .3 0 4 .3 0 2 .3 1 7 + 2 5 .0 + 3 3 .3 + 6 .0 + 4 .3 + 3 2 .5 + 3 9 .0 .2 6 2 .333 .3 4 4 + 2 7 .1 + 3 .3 + 3 1 .3 .2 4 0 .311 .3 2 5 + 2 9 .6 + 4 .5 + 3 5 .4 T o t a l _____ T o t a l _____ __ _ . ___________________ F e m a le s : R e t a il a n d h o u s e -t o -h o u s e ______________ L o c a l w h o le s a le ___________________________ M u lt i- S t a t e , m u lt ip le - u n it r e t a il, a n d c h a in s t o r e . __ ________________________ T o t a l _____ ____ __ ____ ______________ Kind of Product and Average Hourly Earnings In the North, average hourly earnings of male workers were highest in the bread specialty departments of bakeries in each of the periods surveyed. Earnings of male workers in the bread and cake depart ments of bakeries in the Northern States were approximately the same, the cake-department employees having a slight advantage in M arch and September 1933 and the employees of the bread departments of bakeries averaging slightly more in December 1934. (See table 21.) The higher average earnings in specialty shops are accounted for in large part b y the greater skill required in making the bread special ties. In addition, the workers in specialty bakeries are, on the whole, well unionized; m ost of them are of foreign birth and employed in small shops. I t will be seen that for males in the North the average hourly earnings in these bakeries rose only slightly between M arch and September 1933 and not much more between the latter month and Decem ber 1934. In fact, the hourly earnings of skilled workers 49 AVERAGE HOURLY EARNINGS engaged in direct labor in these shops whose wage rates were the highest in the industry, declined somewhat throughout the period. The average hourly earnings of these employees were $1.03 in M arch 1933, $1.02 in September 1933, and 99 cents in December 1934. T a b l e 21. — A v e r a g e h o u r l y e a r n i n g s i n b a k e r ie s c l a s s ifie d b y k i n d o f p r o d u c t a s to re g io n a n d se x A v e r a g e h o u r l y e a rn in g s R e g io n , sex , a n d k i n d o f p r o d u c t T o t a l _________________________ __________ F e m a le s : B r e a d ........................................... .......................... C a k e , s w e e t g o o d s , a n d p ie , in c lu d in g c a k e s p e c ia lt ie s ......................................... B r e a d s p e c ia lt ie s ............................................. T o t a l ________________________________ _ M a r c h to S ep tem b e r 1933 S ep tem b e r 1933 to D e cem b er 1934 M arch 1933 t o D ecem b e r 1934 S ep tem b e r 1933 D ecem b e r 1934 $0.484 $ 0 ,535 $ 0 ,588 + 1 0 .5 + 9 .9 + 2 1 .5 .5 0 6 .741 .5 4 4 .7 4 6 .5 7 9 .7 6 8 + 7 .5 + .7 + 6 .4 + 2 .9 + 1 4 .4 + 3 .6 .4 9 1 .5 4 0 .5 9 0 + 1 0 .0 + 9 .3 + 2 0 .2 .3 4 7 .3 9 0 .4 0 8 + 1 2 .4 + 4 .6 + 1 7 .6 .2 8 8 0) .3 3 6 0) .3 7 5 0) + 1 6 .7 0) + 1 1 .6 (0 + 3 0 .2 0) .3 2 1 .3 6 4 .3 9 2 + 1 3 .4 + 7 .7 +22. 1 M arch 1933 N o rth M a le s : B r e a d ........................................... .......................... C a k e , s w e e t g o o d s , a n d p ie , in c lu d in g c a k e s p e c ia lt ie s ............... .............................. B r e a d s p e c ia lt ie s ........... .................................. P e r c e n ta g e o f c h a n g e S outh M a le s : B r e a d __________________________ ___________ C a k e , s w e e t g o o d s , a n d p ie , in c lu d in g c a k e s p e c ia lt ie s ________________________ B r e a d s p e c ia lt ie s _____________ ___________ .3 6 2 .4 3 8 .4 6 5 + 2 1 .0 + 6 .2 + 2 8 .5 .3 2 7 ( 2) .4 1 1 ( 2) .4 3 4 ( 2) + 2 5 .7 ( 2) + 5 .6 ( 2) + 3 2 .7 ( 2) T o t a l ____________________________________ .3 6 0 .4 3 6 .4 6 2 + 2 1 .1 + 6 .0 + 2 8 .3 F e m a le s : B r e a d ----------------------- ------------ --------------------C a k e , s w e e t g o o d s , a n d p ie , i n c lu d in g c a k e s p e c ia lt ie s ________________________ B r e a d s p e c ia lt ie s --------- ---------- -------------- --- .2 6 3 .3 2 2 .3 3 8 + 2 2 .4 + 5 .0 +28. 5 .1 9 6 ( 2) .2 9 3 (2) .3 0 5 ( 2) + 4 9 .5 ( 2) + 4 .1 ( 2) + 5 5 .6 ( 2) T o t a l ____________________________________ .2 4 0 .3 1 1 .3 2 5 + 2 9 .6 + 4 .5 + 3 5 .4 1 N o t e n o u g h w o r k e r s t o j u s t i f y t h e c o m p u t a t io n o f a n a v e ra g e . 3 N o n e rep orted . Earnings of female workers in the N orth and of both^ male and female employees in the South were higher in bread bakeries than in cake shops. Comparisons W ith 1931 For the industry as a whole, the average hourly earnings of bakery workers in December 1934 were 2.6 percent higher than in the fall of 1931,45 the averages being respectively 54.9 cents and 53.5 cents. This increase was due largely to an advance of 34.4 percent in the hourly earnings of female workers, which rose from an average of 28.2 cents in 1931 to 37.9 cents in December 1934. Earnings of male workers also increased during the 3-year interval, averaging 54.9 cents an hour in 1931 as against 57.0 cents in December 1934. Although the average hourly earnings for males were only slightly less in 1931 than in 1934, a comparison of the distributions of earnings 45 T h e s u r v e y fo r 1931 e x c lu d e d p ie d e p a r t m e n t s o r e s ta b lis h m e n t s . 50 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY presented in table 22 shows sharp differences. In 1931, for example, 13.0 percent of the male workers were receiving less than 35 cents an chour, but in 1934 only 7.2 percent of the workers were in this group. On the other hand, 27.9 percent earned 35 and under 50 cents an hour in 1931, as against 35.4 percent in 1934. It is interesting to note, however, that the percentage paid 50 and under 65 cents an hour declined from 33.2 in 1931 to 27.6 in 1934. The percentage of workers earning 65 cents and over increased from 25.9 in 1931 to 29.8 in 1934. Still more striking contrasts are shown in the hourly earnings of female employees. In 1931, nearly two-thirds (64.4 percent) of the female workers earned less than 30 cents an hour, but in 1934 the earnings of all but 11.7 percent of the female employees exceeded 30 cents an hour. A t the same time, the percentage paid 30 and under 45 cents an hour rose from 32.5 in 1931 to 71.9 in 1934. Female workers earning 45 cents an hour and over increased from 3.1 percent in 1931 to 16.4 percent in 1934. For all workers, the proportion earning less than 30 cents per hour declined from 10.4 percent in 1931 to 2.9 percent in 1934, whereas those earning 30 and under 50 cents increased from 33.7 percent in 1931 to 45.5 in 1934. The percentage of the total earning 50 and under 65 cents an hour declined from 31.2 in 1931 to 25.2 in 1934, but the percentage earning 65 cents and over increased from 24.7 in 1931 to 26.4 in 1934. T a b l e 2 2 .— P e r c e n t a g e d i s t r ib u t io n o f e a r n i n g s i n b r ea d i n d u s t r y i n e m p l o y e e s a c c o r d in g to a v era g e U n ite d S ta te s, 1 9 3 1 a n d 1 9 3 4 Fall of 1931 h o u r ly December 1934 Average hourly earnings Total Under 25 cents. . ______ _____ . . . . . . _ 25 and under 30 cents. _________________ 30 and under 35 cents_______________ .. 35 and under 40 cents________________ . 40 and under 45 cents___ _____ _________ 45 and under 50 cents.. ____________ ._ 50 and under 55 cents.. ________________ 55 and under 60 cents.. . . . _____ . . . 60 and under 65 cents.__________________ 65 and under 70 cents.. ___ _________ 70 and under 75 cents _ __ .. _______ 75 and under 80 cents__________________ 80 and under 90 cents__ ________________ 90 and under 100 cents. _ ______ ______ 100 and under 120 cents _______________ 120 cents and over. _ ______ _________ Total. .. _ ---------------- -------------- Male Female Total Male Female 4.4 6.0 6.8 7.7 10.3 8.9 12.4 9.9 8.9 5.2 4. 7 3.5 5.0 2.6 2.2 1.5 3.1 3.9 6.0 7.6 10.9 9.4 13.3 10.5 9.4 5.5 5.0 3.7 5.3 2.7 2.2 1. 5 25.1 39.3 19.7 9.1 3.7 1.0 1.5 .4 .2 0.4 2.5 8.7 11.7 14.8 10.3 9.6 7.7 7.9 5.9 5. 5 4.0 5.1 2.9 2.3 .7 0.3 1.4 5.5 9.7 14.8 10.9 10.3 8.5 8.8 6. 7 6. 2 4. 5 5.8 3. 3 2. 5 .8 1.4 10.3 31.4 25.8 14.7 5.9 4.9 2.1 1.6 .6 .2 .3 .5 .2 .l 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Chapter IV.—Weekly Hours Changes in Bread Industry in Country as a Whole The increase in average hourly earnings between M arch 1933 and December 46 1934 was accompanied by a pronounced reduction in weekly hours. For all workers in the bread industry in the country as a whole, the hours worked per week averaged 50.2 in M arch 1933, 45.9 in September 1933, and 43.5 in December 1934. The aggregate reduction of weekly working time for the period was 6.7 hours or 13.3 percent. The shift of employees from longer to shorter hours was especially conspicuous between M arch and September 1933. (See table 23 and chart 5.) In both periods, the percentage of those working under 40 hours per week, which includes m any part-time employees, was virtually the same. The number working 40 and under 48 hours, however, increased from 8.8 percent in M arch to 45.7 percent in Sep tember. A particularly large gain is shown in the number of employ ees working 44 and under 48 hours; in fact, by September this was the established working time for more than a third of the employees. A s a result of these changes, the proportion of employees working 48 hours and over fell from 80.5 percent in M arch to 42.9 percent in September. Whereas in September 1933 the trend was toward a workweek of 44 and under 48 hours, in December 1934 the industry was inclined toward a week of 40 and under 44 hours, as evidenced by the fact that the working time of nearly 40 percent of the employees fell within these limits. A t the same time, the proportion of employees working less than 40 hours per week increased from 11.4 percent in September 1933 to 18.5 percent in December 1934. This gain was largely due to an increase in the number of employees working 32 and under 40 hours per week. The percentage of employees working 48 hours and over declined from 42.9 in September 1933 to 35.4 in December 1934. T able 23 .— P e r c e n t a g e d i s t r ib u t io n o f e m p l o y e e s a c c o r d in g b r ea d i n d u s t r y i n c o u n t r y a s a w h o le March 1933 Weekly hours to w ee k ly hours in December 1934 September 1933 Simple Cumulative Simple Cumulative Simplo Cumulative percentage percentage percentage percentage percentage percentage Under 8 hours_______ _____ 8 and under 16 hours------------16 and under 24 hours______ 24 and under 32 hours..... ........ 32 and under 36 hours----------- 0.5 2.8 1.8 2.4 1.4 0.5 3.3 5.1 7.5 8.9 0.7 2.5 1.5 2.3 1.7 0.7 3.2 4.7 7.0 8.7 1.2 2.1 1.7 2.9 3.3 1.2 3.3 5.0 7.9 11.2 36 and under. 40 hours______ 40 and under 44 hours----------44 and under 48 hours_______ 48 and under 52 hours______ 52 and under 56 hours.......... 1.8 3.3 5.5 30.2 23.9 10.7 14.0 19.5 49.7 73.6 2.7 11.3 34.4 19.6 9.2 11.4 22.7 57.1 76.7 85.9 7.3 38.8 7.3 15.3 7.0 18.5 57.3 64.6 79.9 86.9 56 and under 60 hours----------60 and under 64 hours_______ 64 and under 72 hours______ 72 hours and over___________ 5.6 14.6 4.4 1.8 79.2 93.8 98.2 100.0 1.9 8.8 2.3 1.1 87.8 96.6 98.9 100.0 2.4 8.0 1.8 .9 89.3 97.3 99.1 100.0 « The figures in this section include driver-salesmen. See note 47, p. 52. 51 52 WAGES AND HOURS— BRE AD-B AKING INDUSTRY Long hours of work have always been a characteristic feature of the bread industry. In M arch 1933, 20.8 percent of the employees worked 60 or more hours per week. This number was reduced to 12.2 percent in September 1933 and 10.7 percent in December 1934. M o st of the employees who worked 60 hours and over in September 1933 and December 1934, however, were driver-salesmen, whose hours of labor were not regulated during the period of the National Recovery Administration. CHART 5 P ercen tage D is tr ib u tio n o f E m p lo yee s A ccording t o W e e k l y H o u r s In B read In d u s tr y in C o u n t r y a s a W h o le „ , M arch 1933, S e p te m b e r 1933, an d D ecem ber 1934 _ fow n/afe /&***&& 50 — ----------— — ----------— -----— -----— — -----— ---------- — 4 8 /£ 76 £0 £4 £8 S£ 86 |\ & f§ WEEKLY HOURS | | U. S. Bureau of Labor S tatistics — 50 8£ 56 60 64 68 7£ 76 ^ Including Driver-S alesmen Changes in Averages by Region and Sex in Bread Industry A s the working time of driver-salesmen was not subject to regulation under the National Recovery Administration,47 a better idea of the effects of the President’s Reem ploym ent Agreement and the code upon weekly hours in the bread industry can be obtained if the workers in this occupation are excluded. This has been done in table 24 and chart 6, which shows the average weekly hours in the bread industry by region and sex. 47 Driver-salesmen were specifically excluded from the maximum hours substitute provisions of the Presi dent’s Reemployment Agreement, and those whose earnings were computed partly or wholly on a commis sion basis were exempted from similar provisions in the code. Accordingly, all driver-salesmen (there are very few employed on a time basis) were excluded from the remaining tables in this chapter, although separate figures are shown for them in a later section of this chapter. However, the driver-salesmen have been included in the summary figures in the appendix table on weekly hours. 53 WEEKLY HOURS T able 24. — A v e r a g e w e e k l y h o u r s i n b r ea d i n d u s t r y b y r e g i o n a n d s e x Average weekly hours Region and sex March 1933 Percentage of change March March to September September December September 1933 to 1933 to 1933 1934 December December 1933 1934 1934 United States: Males, _ __ __________ Females________________ 48.3 42.8 42.7 39.7 39.0 37.6 —11.6 -7 .2 —7.3 -5 .3 —18.0 -12.1 Total_________________ 47.4 42.2 39.3 -11.0 -6 .9 -17.1 North: Males _________ Females..______ 48.0 42.8 42.6 39.6 39.6 37.4 -11.2 -7 .5 -7 .0 -5 .6 -17. 5 -12.6 47.1 42.1 39.3 -10.6 -6 .7 -16.6 50.5 43.0 43.2 40.0 39.9 38.2 -14.5 -7 .0 -7 .6 -4 .5 -21.0 -11.2 49.0 42.7 39.5 -12.9 -7 .5 -19.4 Total. ____ _ _____ South: Males __ _ Females.. _ _ Total____ __ ____ ___ _ _ ____ In general, the President’s Reem ploym ent Agreement and the code reduced the spread in hours worked which existed between regions and between sexes. In all three periods, males in the South had the highest average, and females in the N orth the lowest average. The range between the averages of these two groups was reduced from 7.7 hours in M arch 1933 to 3.6 hours in September 1933 and to 2.5 hours in December 1934. In M arch 1933, all workers in the South averaged 1.9 hours more per week than in the North, in September 1933 they averaged 0.6 hour more, and in December 1934 only 0.2 hour more. Just as the code operated to equalize working time in the two regions, it tended to reduce the difference in the working time of males and females. In M arch 1933, males averaged 5.5 hours more per week than females, whereas in December 1934 they averaged only 2.0 hours more. Monthly Trend of Working Time for Entire Baking Industry Based on Employment and Pay-Roll Data These findings regarding working time are substantiated by the index numbers of average weekly hours for the entire industry, in cluding biscuit and crackers, as shown b y the monthly data compiled in the Division of Em ploym ent and Pay Rolls.48 These index numbers are given in table 25. According to the index numbers, there was a gradual downward movement in average weekly hours, interrupted by several minor fluctuations, from January 1932 until about the middle of 1933. This is undoubtedly the result of factors that operated during the depression, such as the elimination of overtime and introduction of part-time work. The sharp drop in the index from 96.2 in July to 88.4 in August and the further decrease to 85.3 in September 1933, however, was probably due to the President’s Reemployment Agree ment. Although the index number rose again very slowly to 86.2 48 The absolute figures of average weekly hours worked were 45.6 in March 1933, 41.5 in September 1933, and 39.7 in December 1934. These averages exclude for the most part driver-salesmen. 54 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY C hart 3 AVERAGE WEEKLY HOURS IN BREAD INDUSTRY BY REGION AND SEX, MARCH 1933, SEPTEMBER 1933, AND DECEMBER 1934 (e x c l u s iv e o f d r iv e r - s a l e s m e n ) MALES NORTH 0 10 HOURS 20 30 FEMALES NORTH MALES SOUTH 40 SO 60 55 WEEKLY HOURS in June 1934, there was a further decline to 84.4 in July 1934 and to 82.1 in August, which reflect the working-time provisions of the code. B y December 1934, the index number had risen slightly to 83.1 T a b l e 25.— I n d e x n u m b e r s o f a v era g e w e e k l y h o u r s i n e n t i r e b a k i n g i n d u s t r y 1 i n th e U n i t e d S t a t e s , b y m o n t h s , 1 9 3 2 - 3 5 2 [J a n u a r y 193 2=1 00] Month January._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ February. _ _____ _ _ March__ _ _ _ _ _ April... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ M ay.. _ _ _ _ _ ___ June____ _ _ __ July______________________________________________ August.. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . ___ September.. __ _ _ October__________ __ _ _ _ _ ____ _ _ _ ______ November_____ _______ _ _ _______ _ December______________________ ____ 1932 100.0 98. 5 98. 5 97.4 97.0 96.2 93.9 94.3 96.6 97.0 94.6 93.3 1933 94. 7 95.1 92. 6 94.9 95.4 95. 8 96.2 88.4 85.3 84.9 85.7 85.6 1934 86.0 86.0 86. 6 86.4 85.8 86. 2 84.4 82.1 83.7 82.0 82.7 83.1 1935 83.9 85.0 84.8 84.8 85.2 85.8 85.8 84.3 87.5 87.4 87.2 87.8 1 I n c lu d e s b is c u it a n d cra c k e r s . 2 C o m p i l e d b y t h e D iv i s io n o f E m p l o y m e n t a n d P a y R o l l s o f t h e B u r e a u o f L a b o r S ta tistics. Changes in Percentage Distribution by Region and Sex in Bread Industry Due to President’s Reemployment Agreement The percentage distribution, of employees by weekly hours in the bread industry, covering male and female employees in the North and South, are given in table 26. These distributions serve to em phasize the shift in employees from longer to shorter hours, which resulted from the President’s Reem ploym ent Agreement and the code. The substitute provisions of the President’s Reemployment Agree m ent, regarding maximum hours in bakeries, were as follows: Employees (other than bakery shop employees and outside salesmen) shall not be employed for more than a 40-hour week provided, however, that clerical and sales employees in retail bakery shops shall not be employed for more than a 48-hour week. Bakery shop employees shall not be employed for more than a 44-hour week in machine bakeries nor more than a 50-hour week in handicraft shops nor more than 8 hours per day except before and after holidays and week ends and other special occasions when 10 hours per day is permitted. It will be seen from the table that the President’s Reemployment Agreement caused no appreciable change in the proportion of the workers on short time. Neither in the N orth nor South and neither for males nor females was there a marked change in the proportion of employees working less than 36 hours a week. Indeed, as far as male employees are concerned, there was little change in the propor tion working less than 40 hours a week. For females, there were significant changes in the proportion working 36 and under 40 hours a week. The movem ent, however, varied somewhat in the two regions. In M arch 1933, 5.6 percent of the females in the North worked 36 but less than 40 hours a week. In September 1933, this proportion rose to 9.3 percent. In the South, on the other hand, the proportion of women working 36 and under 40 hours fell from 4.9 percent in M arch 1933 to 2.7 percent in September 1933. 56 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY T able 26.— P e r c e n t a g e d i s t r ib u t io n o f e m p l o y e e s a c c o r d in g to w e e k l y h o u r s b y r e g io n a n d s e x i n brea d in d u s tr y March 1933 Region, sex, and weekly hours September 1933 December 1934 Simple Cumulative Simple Cumulative Simple Cumulative percentage percentage percentage percentage percentage percentage North Males:1 Under 8 hours---------------8 and under 16 hours_____ 16 and under 24 hours— 24 and under 32 hours-----32 and under 36 hours------ 0.7 3.6 2.3 3.1 2.0 0.7 4.3 6.6 9.7 11.7 1.0 3.2 1.8 2.6 2.3 1.0 4.2 6.0 8.6 10.9 1.6 2.8 2.0 3.1 3.8 1.6 4.4 6.4 9.5 13.3 36(and under 40 hours____ 40 and under 44 hours____ 44 and under 48 hours____ 48 and under 52 hours____ 1.8 3.7 6.4 34.4 13.5 17.2 23.6 58.0 2.8 12.9 49.6 17.2 13.7 26.6 76.2 93.4 9i 8 51.7 9.5 12.1 23.1 74.8 84.3 96.4 52 and under 56 hours____ 56 and under 60 hours___ 60 and under 64 hours....... 64 hours and over.......... . Females: Under 8 hours___________ 8 and under 16 hours_____ 16 and under 24 hours____ 24 and under 32 hours-----32 and under 36 hours-----36 and under 40 hours____ 24.9 5.9 7.8 3.4 82.9 88.8 96.6 100.0 4.2 .4 1.6 .4 97.6 98.0 99.6 100.0 1.8 .4 1.3 .1 98.2 98.6 99.9 100.0 1.2 3.8 4.0 5.0 2.5 5.6 1.2 5.0 9.0 14.0 16.5 22.1 1.2 4.4 2.4 6.6 3.3 9.3 1.2 5.6 8.0 14.6 17.9 27.2 1.7 3.2 2.9 7.4 8.4 16.2 1.7 4.9 7.8 15.2 23.6 39.8 40 and under 44 hours-----44 and under 48 hours-----48 and under 52 hours-----52 and under 56 hours-----56 hours and over________ 10.1 16.1 39.2 8.4 4.1 32.2 48.3 87.5 95.9 100.0 26.9 24.9 19.9 1.1 54.1 79.0 98.9 100.0 44.8 3.3 12.0 (2) .1 84.6 87.9 99.9 99.9 100.0 South Males:1 Under 8 hours___________ 8 and under 16 hours------16 and under 24 hours____ 24 and under 32 hours---32 and under 36 hours-----36 and under 40 hours-----40 and under 44 hours____ .2 4.5 2.7 1.5 .7 1.4 2.2 .2 4.7 7.4 8.9 9.6 11.0 13.2 .9 2.5 1.7 2.0 1.7 1.6 13.2 .9 3.4 5.1 7.1 8.8 10.4 23.6 1.3 2.2 2.1 3.0 2.9 4.4 60.7 1.3 3.5 5.6 8.6 11.5 15.9 76.6 44 and under 48 hours____ 48 and under 52 hours-----52 and under 56 hours-----56 and under 60 hours-----60 and under 64 hours____ 64 hours and over________ Females: Under 8 hours------ --------8 and under 16 hours------16 and under 24 hours....... 24 and under 32 hours____ 32 and under 36 hours____ 36 and under 40 hours____ 2.7 27.1 30.0 2.3 16.7 8.0 15.9 43.0 73.0 75.3 92.0 100.0 52.5 17.1 1.9 .9 1.8 2.2 76.1 93.2 95.1 96.0 97.8 100.0 8.6 10.7 1.8 .8 1.4 .1 85.2 95.9 97.7 98.5 99.9 100.0 .9 7.0 1.8 8.8 1.8 4.9 .9 7.9 9.7 18.5 20.3 25.2 .5 4.5 4.5 4.5 3.2 2.7 .5 5.0 9.5 14.0 17.2 19.9 1.8 3.8 3.6 7.0 5.6 4.0 1.8 5.6 9.2 16.2 21.8 25.8 40 and under 44 hours-----44 and under 48 hours-----48 and under 52 hours-----52 and under 56 hours 56 hours and over________ 5.2 7.0 35.9 24.9 1.8 30.4 37.4 73.3 98.2 100.0 26.4 30.3 23.4 46.3 76.6 100.0 51.2 5.0 17.8 .2 77.0 82.0 99.8 100.0 1 Excludes driver-salesmen. 3 Less than Ho of 1 percent. In both regions and for both sexes, there was a sharp increase in the proportion of employees working 40 but less than 48 hours per week. T he concentration in the interval 44 and under 48 hours was especially marked, and it was sharper for males than for females. This increase in the proportion working 40 but less than 48 hours was due almost entirely to a marked decrease in the proportion working WEEKLY HOURS 57 48 hours and over. This was especially true of the male employees, exclusive of driver-salesmen. Thus, among males in the North, the proportion working 48 hours and over per week decreased from 76.4 percent in M arch to 23.8 percent in September 1933. This com pares with a decrease from 84.1 to 23.9 percent in the South. The proportion of female employees working 48 hours and over per week dropped from 51.7 to 21.0 percent in the N orth and from 62.6 to 23.4 percent in the South. As the President’s Reemployment Agreement provided a maximum of 50 hours per week for handicraft bakeries, there was still a con siderable proportion of employees in each group working 48 and under 52 hours during September 1933. Moreover, had it been possible to cover the smaller establishments in the same proportion as they occur in the industry, the percentage of employees working 48 and under 52 hours a week would have been even greater. It is particularly significant, however, that (exclusive of the driversalesmen) the 56- and 60-hour week was virtually abolished by the President’s Reemployment Agreement. In the North, the percentage of male employees working 56 hours and over in September 1933 was only 2.4, as against 17.1 percent in M arch. In the South, the per centage of male employees working 56 hours and over a week declined from 27.0 in M arch to 4.9 in September. O f the female employees, none in the southern establishments covered and only 1.1 percent in the N orth were working in excess of 52 hours per week in September 1933. B y contrast, in M arch 1933, 26.7 percent of the female employ ees in the South and 12.5 percent of those in the North were working 52 hours and over a week. Changes in Percentage Distribution by Region and Sex Due to Code The maximum hours of labor established by the code were more detailed than those of the President’s Reemployment Agreement. In general, the code provided that no employee in “ other than handi craft” shops shall be permitted to work more than 40 hours per week.49 Employees in “ handicraft” shops were limited to 48 hours a week. The hours of sales employees in retail stores were limited to 10 hours a day and 48 hours a week. Likewise, chauffeurs, supply truckmen, and delivery men were not to work more than 48 hours per week. Finally, 44 hours per week were established as the maximum for engineers, firemen, and oilers. Some exceptions were made to the hour provisions of the code and account in part for the longer hours shown in table 26 for some workers. Executives, solicitors, and professional employees earning $35 or more per week in cities over 100,000 and $30 in those cities with less than 100,000 population were totally exempted from the hour provisions of the code, as were also salesmen working on a commission basis. For watchmen the maximum hours were 56 per week. The principal change in weekly hours that occurred between Sep tember 1933 and December 1934 was the marked shift from a week of 44 and under 48 hours to a week of 40 and under 44 hours. Am ong the four groups considered, the percentage of employees working 40 « The provisions of the code with reference to hours worked per day and their effect are not discussed in this survey. 102745°— 37------ 5 58 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY and under 44 hours a week in December 1934 was 51.7 for males and 44.8 for females in the N orth and 60.7 for males and 51.2 for females in the South. I t will be seen that this change affected male workers more than females. There is no evidence that the code had much influence on the propor tion of employees working less than 32 hours a week. There was, however, a marked increase for both sexes in the N orth and South in the number working 32 and less than 40 hours, with the largest gain generally taking place in the class interval of 36 and under 4 0 hours. This increase was due for the m ost part to the code provision limiting individual workers to a maximum of 40 hours per week in the mechan ical bakeries, so that voluntary absence or a short workweek would throw an employee into a period of less than 40 hours. B oth the President's Reem ploym ent Agreement and the code tended to eliminate extremely short-time work among females in the South. In M arch 1933, 7.9 percent of the female employees in the southern establishments worked less than 16 hours, but in December 1934 this proportion had dropped to 5.6 percent, and the proportion working 16 and under 24 hours a week had increased. Similarly, there was a decrease in the percentage working 24 and under 32 hours, and a considerable gain in the percentage working 32 and under 36 hours. The decrease in the number of employees working 48 and less than 52 hours has significance with reference to the relative degrees of acceptance of the President's Reem ploym ent Agreement and enforce ment of the code. The handicraft shop had a maximum limitation of 50 hours under the President's Reem ployment Agreement and of 48 hours under the code. For both September 1933 and December 1934, employees in establishments operating on this basis would appear in the class interval of 48 and under 52 hours. The decrease in the percentages found in this class seems to indicate that some mechanical bakeries were operating the longer workweek under the President's Reem ploym ent Agreement and that certain handicraft shops adopted a standard workweek of less than 48 hours. W ith reference to the reduction of the long workweek, the major change was accomplished under the President's Reemployment Agree ment. In the period from September 1933 to December 1934, how ever, there was further progress in the direction of a shorter week. Differentials in Averages by Broad Occupational Groupings The occupation quite often determines the length of the workday, as well as the number of hours worked during the week. This was recognized to a considerable extent by the President's Reemployment Agreement and the code, which, as noted already, set up varying maximum hours in accordance with individual occupations or occu pational groupings. Table 27 presents the average hours per week by broad occupational groupings for each of the three pay-roll periods covered, as well as the percentages of change, thus developing the extent of the occupational differentials in M arch 1933 and their subsequent changes. Prior to the President's Reemployment Agreement— i. e., in M arch 1933— there was little difference in average weekly hours between skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled male workers engaged in direct labor in the 50 WEEKLY HOURS North. In the South, however, skilled males worked 6.9 more hours per week than the semiskilled and 5.4 more than the unskilled. W eekly hours for all of these groups decreased under the President’s Reemployment Agreement and the code, the differentials becoming negligible in the N orth and narrowing in the South. M ore than 40 hours a week were permissible under the code for many of the occupations classified as “ other” indirect male labor. In the North, the working time of “ other” indirect labor averaged 3.2 hours a week more than for skilled direct labor in M arch 1933. This differential increased to 4.3 hours in December 1934. In the South, there was hardly any differential in M arch 1933, but in December 1934 the working time of indirect laborers was slightly above the average for skilled direct workers. T able 2 7 .— A vera g e w ee k ly hours b y b r oa d and sex o c c u p a t io n a l g r o u p i n g s Average weekly hours Region, sex, and broad occupational grouping March 1933 as to r e g i o n Percentage of change Septem ber 1933 Decem ber 1934 March to Sep tember 1933 Septem ber 1933 to De cember 1934 March 1933 to Decem ber 1934 N o rth Males: Direct labor: Skilled.................. ........... .............. Semiskilled................. .................. Unskilled________ ____ _________ Indirect labor: Driver-salesmen________________ Other______________ _______ __ 46.8 45.4 47.9 41.6 40.7 41.8 38.2 37.1 38.2 —11.1 -10.4 -12.7 -8 .2 -8 .8 -8 .6 —18.4 —18.3 —20.3 55.9 50.0 55.2 44.5 54.8 42.5 -1 .3 -11.0 —.7 -4 .5 —2.0 -15.0 Total____ ____________________ 48.0 42.6 39.6 -11.2 -7 .0 -17.5 Direct labor: Unskilled........................ Indirect labor: Other____ ___________ 41.2 43.5 37.4 40.9 34.9 39.2 —9.2 -6 .0 —6.7 -4 .2 -15.3 -9 .9 Total_________ __________________ 42.8 39.6 37.4 -7 .5 -5 .6 -12.6 Males: Direct labor: Skilled___ _____________________ Semiskilled____ _ _ ____ _____ _ Unskilled_____________________ Indirect labor: D river-salesmen__ _____________ Other__________ __________ ___ 52.4 45. 5 47.0 45.0 40.1 40.8 40.1 37.9 37.9 —14.1 —11.9 —13. 2 —10.9 —5. 5 —7.1 —23. 5 —16. 7 —19.4 60. 2 52.2 58.8 44.5 59.0 41.7 —2.3 -14.8 -K 3 -6 .3 -2 .0 -20.1 Females: S ou th Total________________________ 50.5 43.2 39.9 -14.5 -7 .6 -21.0 Females: Direct labor: Unskilled_______ _____ Indirect labor: Other____ ____ ____ 41.0 43.8 38.3 40.8 36.3 39.3 —6.6 -6 .8 —5.2 -3 .7 -11.5 -10.3 Total... -_ . ___________________ 43.0 40.0 38.2 -7 .0 -4 .5 -1 1 .2 An analysis of the distribution of employees by weekly hours in the above broad occupational groupings (table 27) indicates that in the establishments included in the survey, the hour provisions of the code were being generally observed. Am ong the occupational groupings engaged in direct labor, not over 2.1 percent of the males and not over 0.4 percent of the females worked more than 48 hours, the upper limit for handicraft shops. The great m ajority worked 40 hours or less, the upper limit for mechanical bakeries. W ork of more than 48 60 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY hours a week was found to an appreciable extent only in the occupa tions classified as other indirect male labor, which grouping included executives and others who were exempted from the hour provisions of the code. In this grouping, a very large proportion (over 40 percent) worked more than 40 hours, but the code provided a longer workweek than this for m any classes of indirect labor even in mechanical bakeries. Weekly Hours of Driver-Salesmen The most striking differentials in average weekly hours, however, were between direct labor and driver-salesmen, whose working time was not restricted by the code. In M arch 1933, driver-salesmen averaged 55.9 hours in the North and 60.2 hours in the South.50 These averages decreased only 2.0 percent between M arch 1933 and December 1934. Because of this fact, the spread between the working time of these employees and those of skilled direct labor increased from 9.1 to 16.6 hours a week in the N orth and from 7.8 to 18.9 hours a week in the South. T able 2 8 . — P e r c e n t a g e o f e m p l o y e e s i n b r o a d o c c u p a t io n a l g r o u p i n g s w o r k i n g co d e h o u r s or le ss p e r w eek a s to re g io n a n d se x i n D e c e m b e r 1 9 3 4 Percentage of employees who worked per week in December 1934— Region, sex, and broad occupational grouping Exactly 40 hours 40 hours or less Exactly 48 hours 48 hours or less North Males: Direct labor: Skilled______________________ ________ _____ _______ Semiskilled. _ __ _______________ ________ _____ Unskilled_______________________ ______ _____ _____ Indirect labor: Other____ __________________________ Females: Direct labor: Unskilled___________ ________________ Indirect labor: Other___ __________________________ 45.4 47.1 59.7 39.8 76.2 83.4 83.0 50.0 5.8 4.8 2.6 20.3 98.5 99.2 98.1 88.9 30.0 47.1 89.8 72.8 .9 19.3 99.6 99.6 65.0 56.6 63.3 48.2 77.7 83.4 84.3 58.8 8.7 6.3 3.8 15.3 97.9 98.4 98.5 88.9 39.8 48.2 79.6 65.2 2.6 26.7 100.0 98.7 South Males: Direct labor: Skilled_____________________ ______ _______ _______ _ S em isk illed....... ........................................................ Unskilled___________________ ______ _______________ Indirect labor: Other_______________ ________________ Females: Direct labor: Unskilled........... .................___........... ....... Indirect labor: Other_________________________ _______ Because of these wide differences, it is necessary to consider the working time of driver-salesmen separately. The detailed analysis of the weekly hours for employees of this class in the three pay-roll periods covered is given in table 29. This table shows that the weekly hours of these workers were not materially altered from one period to the next, although there was some decrease in the propor tion of driver-salesmen working the longest hours. Y e t, even in December 1934, 21.5 percent of the driver-salesmen in the South and 8.0 percent in the N orth worked 64 hours and over per week. so These hours represent the time between leaving and returning to the plant. It should also be remem bered that driver-salesmen are largely on a commission basis, which tends to encourage them to lengthen their working hours. 61 WEEKLY HOURS Changes in Averages by Occupational Classes Table 30 shows the average weekly hours by individual occupations or small occupational groupings for each of the three pay-roll periods, as well as the percentages of change between periods. In case of males engaged in direct labor in the North, the average weekly hours in M arch 1933 for the 14 individual occupations ranged from 42.1 for bench hands or hand bakers to 50.0 for automatic bread wrappers. The decreases in the average weekly hours for these occupations between M arch 1933 and December 1934 ranged from 5.1 for cake wrappers and packers to 11.8 for automatic bread wrap pers. The tendency throughout the period was toward a leveling of the weekly working time. Consequently, the largest decreases were reported for occupations that had the longest hours of labor in M arch 1933. A s a result of this leveling process, the range in December 1934 was from 35.1 hours for bench hands or hand bakers to 40.5 hours for cake makers. T able 29,— P er cen ta g e d i s t r ib u t io n o f d r i v e r -s a l e s m e n a s to r e g io n a c c o r d in g September 1933 March 1933 to w ee k ly hours December 1934 Region and weekly hours Cumulative Simple Simple Cumulative Simple Cumulative percentage percentage percentage percentage percentage percentage North Under 8 hours____ ____________ 8 and under 16 hours___ ______ 16 and under 24 hours_________ 24 and under 32 hours_________ 32 and under 36 hours...... ......... (9 0.5 .2 .3 .2 (9 0.5 .7 1.0 1.2 (9 0.3 .3 .3 <9 (9 0.3 .6 .9 .9 (9 0.2 .3 .4 .1 (9 0.2 .5 .9 1.0 under 40 hours_________ under 44 hours_________ under 48 hours_________ under 52 hours_________ .6 .7 1.5 23.5 1.8 2.5 4.0 27.5 .7 1.0 2.7 27.6 1.6 2.6 5.3 32.9 .4 1.0 4.5 27.5 1.4 2.4 6.9 34.4 52 and under 56 h o u rs ________ 56 and under 60 hours_________ 60 and under 64 h o u r s ________ 64 hours and over_. . . _ _ _. 26.0 6.6 29.7 10.2 53.5 60.1 89.8 100.0 24.0 5.1 28.2 9.8 56.9 62.0 90.2 100.0 22.6 6.9 28.1 8 .0 57.0 63.9 92.0 100.0 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .3 .2 .5 .5 .3 .4 .1 .2 .5 .9 1.2 36 and 40 and 44 and 48 and South ________ Under 8 hours__ 8 and under 16 hours _ ___ 16 and under 24 hours_________ 24 and under 32 hours_______ 32 and under 36 hours___ _____ 36 and 40 and 44 and 48 and under 40 hours_________ under 44 hours............ .. under 48 hours________ under 52 hours_________ 52 and under 56 hours_________ 56 and under 60 hours_________ 60 and under 64 hours_________ 64 hours and over_____________ i Less than Mo of 1 percent. .6 .9 5.4 21.8 12.5 32.2 26.1 .3 .1 .3 .1 .3 .4 .4 .5 1.1 2.0 7.4 .8 6.8 1.3 1.9 2.7 9.5 .1 2.1 1.5 7.0 .5 2.6 4.1 11.1 29.2 41.7 73.9 100.0 28.6 11.5 30.4 20.0 38.1 49.6 80.0 100.0 24.1 15.9 27.4 21.5 35.2 51.1 78.5 100.0 .6 62 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY T able 30 . — A verage w e e k ly hours by o c c u p a t io n a l c la s s e s Average weekly hours as to re g io n and sex Percentage of change Septem ber 1933 to D e cember 1934 March 1933 Septem ber 1933 Decem ber 1934 March to Sep tember 1933 Direct labor: Skilled: Bench hands or hand bakers........... Cake makers............................... ......... Dividers or scalers and rounders.. Mixers_____________________________ Molders__________ ________________ Ovenmen____________ _________ ____ Miscellaneous, skilled—.................... 42.1 47.5 48.6 49.9 48.6 47.8 46.4 38.4 42.9 43.0 43.9 41.6 42.2 42.9 35.1 40.5 39.1 39.8 37.9 38.5 39.5 - 8 .8 - 9 .7 - 1 1 .5 - 1 2 .0 - 1 4 .4 - 1 1 .7 - 7 .5 - 8 .6 - 5 .6 - 9 .1 -9 .3 -8 .9 - 8 .8 -7 .9 - 1 6 .6 -1 4 .7 - 1 9 .5 -2 0 .2 - 2 2 .0 - 1 9 .5 - 1 4 .9 Region, sex, and occupational class March 1933 to Decem ber 1934 Males—North T otal.................................................... 46.8 41.6 38.2 - 1 1 .1 - 8 .2 - 1 8 .4 Semiskilled: Bench hands’ or hand bakers’ helpers................................................ General helpers.................................... Mixers’ helpers_____________ _____ _ Ovenmen’s helpers_______________ _ Miscellaneous, sem iskilled............. 43.1 45.2 45.8 44.8 50.3 38.5 40.3 42.1 40.3 43.2 36.4 35.8 38.7 36.9 39.5 - 1 0 .7 -1 0 .8 - 8 .1 - 1 0 .0 - 1 4 .1 - 5 .5 - 1 1 .2 - 8 .1 -8 .4 - 8 .6 - 1 5 .5 - 2 0 .8 - 1 5 .5 - 1 7 .6 - 2 1 .5 T otal............................................ ....... 45.4 40.7 37.1 -1 0 .4 - 8 .8 - 1 8 .3 Unskilled: Bread packers....... ............................... Bread wrappers, automatic----------Cake wrappers and packers---------Pan greasers___________ _____ ______ Miscellaneous, unskilled................ 47.7 50.0 42.4 49.1 45.3 41.5 42.0 38.3 42.7 41.3 38.1 38.2 37.3 38.0 39.5 -1 3 .0 -1 6 .0 - 9 .7 -1 3 .0 -8 .8 - 8 .2 -9 .0 -2 .6 -1 1 .0 - 4 .4 - 2 0 .1 - 2 3 .6 - 1 2 .0 - 2 2 .6 - 1 2 .8 T otal.................................................... 47.9 41.8 38.2 - 1 2 .7 - 8 .6 - 2 0 .3 Indirect labor: Driver-salesmen....... .................................... Other: Auditors, bookkeepers, etc............... Chauffeurs and drivers...................... Laborers.......... ....................................... Maintenance and repair, S k ille d Maintenance and repair, semi skilled_________ _______ _____ _____ Office clerks__________________ _____ Service, unskilled- .......................... Supervisory, skilled----------------------Miscellaneous, skilled-------------------Miscellaneous, semiskilled-----------Miscellaneous, unskilled................. 55.9 55.2 54.8 - 1 .3 -.7 - 2 .0 48.2 48.6 45.3 50.4 44.4 46.6 41.7 44.2 42.6 44.1 38.7 44.2 - 7 .9 - 4 .1 - 7 .9 - 1 2 .3 - 4 .1 - 5 .4 -7 .2 - 1 1 .6 -9 .3 - 1 4 .6 - 1 2 .3 52.0 47.5 49.0 53.5 51. 5 47.8 46.4 42.6 42.8 41.8 50.0 46.3 42.8 41.7 42.4 39.0 38.5 48.3 43.4 40.7 39.2 - 1 8 .1 -9 .9 - 1 4 .7 -6 .5 - 1 0 .1 - 1 0 .5 - 1 0 .1 -.5 - 8 .9 -7 .9 - 3 .4 - 6 .3 -4 .9 - 6 .0 - 1 8 .5 - 1 7 .9 - 2 1 .4 -9 .7 - 1 5 .7 - 1 4 .9 - 1 5 .5 T o t a l.................................................. 50.0 44.5 42.5 -1 1 .0 - 4 .5 - 1 5 .0 Direct labor: Unskilled: Bread wrappers, h a n d .................... Cake finishers......... .............................. Cake wrappers and packers----------- 43.0 39.9 41.6 38.7 36.8 37.5 34.8 35.3 34.7 - 1 0 .0 - 7 .8 - 9 .9 - 1 0 .1 - 4 .1 - 7 .5 -1 9 .1 - 1 1 .5 - 1 6 .6 T otal______________ ______________ 41.2 37.4 34.9 - 9 .2 - 6 .7 -1 5 .3 Females—North Indirect labor: Other: Office c le r k s... _________ _______ _ Stenographers, typists, telephone operators, e t c . . . ............................... Store clerks............................................ Miscellaneous______________________ 44.3 41.0 38.6 - 7 .4 - 5 .9 - 1 2 .9 45.2 43.4 42.5 40.7 42.7 39.5 39.8 42.2 36.8 - 1 0 .0 -1 .6 - 7 .1 -2 .2 -1 .2 - 6 .8 - 1 1 .9 -2 .8 - 1 3 .4 T otal_______ _____ ________________ 43.5 40.9 39.2 - 6 .0 - 4 .2 -9 .9 63 WEEKLY HOURS T able 30.— A v e r a g e w e e k l y h o u r s b y o c c u p a t io n a l c la s s e s a s to r e g i o n a n d s e x — Continued Average weekly hours Percentage of change Septem ber 1933 Decem ber 1934 March to Sep tember 1933 Septem ber 1933 to D e cember 1934 50.5 53.1 52.9 44.6 45.4 45.0 37.4 40.8 41.2 —11.7 - 1 4 .5 - 1 4 .9 —16.1 - 1 0 .1 - 8 .4 —25.9 - 2 3 .2 - 2 2 .1 - 1 0 .9 - 2 3 .5 -.3 - 8 .8 - 7 .3 - 7 .6 - 2 3 .3 - 1 8 .9 Region, sex, and occupational class March 1933 March 1933 to Decem ber 1934 Males—South Direct labor: Skilled: Bench hands or hand bakers. __ Ovenmen____________ _____ ________ Miscellaneous, skilled-. . __ ______ _____ 52.4 45.0 40.1 - 1 4 .1 Semiskilled: General helpers_______ ___________ Ovenmen’s helpers......... ................... Miscellaneous, semiskilled. ______ T otal. _________________ 38.4 49.8 48.8 35. 6 41.9 42.7 35.5 38.2 39.6 -7 .3 - 1 5 .9 - 1 2 .5 * T o ta l.. __ . ____________________ 45.5 40.1 37.9 - 1 1 .9 - 5 .5 - 1 6 .7 Unskilled: Bread wrappers, automatic_______ Miscellaneous, u n sk illed _________ 49.0 44.9 41.2 40.5 37.5 38.2 - 1 5 .9 -9 .8 - 9 .0 -5 .7 - 2 3 .5 - 1 4 .9 T otal. _ _ ______________________ 47.0 40.8 37.9 -1 3 .2 - 7 .1 - 1 9 .4 Indirect labor: Driver-salesmen___ _____ Other.. ________ __________ _____ ______ 60.2 52.2 58.8 44.5 59.0 41.7 -2 .3 - 1 4 .8 +. 3 -6 .3 -2 .0 - 2 0 .1 41.0 38.3 36.3 - 6 .6 - 5 .2 — 11. 5 43.0 44.3 42.3 40.1 41.9 38.0 - 1 .6 - 9 .5 - .9 - 5 .2 -2 .6 -1 4 .2 43.8 40.8 39.3 - 6 .8 -3 .7 -1 0 .3 Females— South Direct labor: Unskilled. _ . . . ________ Indirect labor: Other: Store clerks_______ __________ Miscellaneous___ _ ___ _ ___ T otal. ________ _______ . For male employees engaged in indirect labor in the North (except driver-salesmen), the highest average weekly hours during each period were reported for skilled supervisory employees. Although m ost of these were probably classed as executives and exempted from the maximum-hours provisions of the President’s Reemployment Agree ment and the code, the average hours per week of this group declined from 53.5 hours a week in M arch 1933 to 48.3 hours in December 1934. As far as the remaining occupational classes are concerned, the range in average weekly hours in M arch 1933 was from 45.3 for laborers to 52.0 for semiskilled workers in maintenance and repair work, and in December 1934 from 38.5 for unskilled service employees to 44.2 for skilled workers in maintenance and repair work. Am ong males employed in direct labor in the South, there was also a narrowing of the spread between the hours worked in the various occupations. The range in average weekly hours in M arch 1933 for the five individual occupations shown in the table was from 38.4 for general helpers to 53.1 for ovenmen. B y December 1934 the working time for these occupations ranged from 35.5 hours a week for general helpers to 40.8 hours for ovenmen. Am ong females employed in occupations classed as unskilled direct labor in the North, the range in average weekly hours for the three individual occupations shown in M arch 1933 was from 39.9 to 43.0, 64 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY Northern store clerks in the indirect labor group, for whom the code provided a maximum of 48 hours, showed little change in average weekly hours, the averages being 43.4 hours in M arch 1933 and 42.2 hours in December 1934. In the South also, the average weekly hours of store clerks declined very little, averaging 43.0 in M arch 1933 as against 41.9 in December 1934. T he reduction for office clerks in the N orth was from 44.3 hours in M arch 1933 to 38.6 hours in December 1934, and for other office help the weekly hours were reduced from 45.2 in M arch 1933 to 39.8 in December 1934. Regional and Sex Differentials in Averages by Occupations Regional differentials are to be noted for all five individual occupa tions among males engaged in direct labor, for which comparable data are available.61 The average weekly hours of bench hands or hand bakers in the South exceeded those in the N orth by 8.4 hours in M arch 1933, 6.2 hours in September 1933, and 2.3 hours in December 1934. The southern average for ovenmen, another skilled occupation, exceeded the northern b y 5.3 hours in M arch 1933, 3.2 in September 1933, and 2.3 in December 1934. Ovenm en’s helpers, a semiskilled occupation, showed a differential of 5.0 hours in M arch 1933, 1.6 in September 1933, and 1.3 in December 1934. Despite the fact that the general averages for all male workers and for three directly comparable specific occupations show longer hours in the South than in the North, this is not true for all occupations. Thus, for general helpers, a semiskilled occupation, the average weekly hours were longer in the North, namely b y 6.8 hours in M arch 1933, 4.7 hours in September 1933, and 0.3 hour in December 1934. For auto matic bread wrappers, an unskilled occupation, the average hours per week were also slightly higher in the N orth than in the South in each of the three pay-roll periods. There was very little difference in the average weekly hours of female workers between the N orth and South, whether applied to all female employees, those in each of the broad occupational groupings, or store clerks (the only individual occupation for which there are comparable data). Comparisons between male and female employees in occupations involving approximately the same skill show that the average weekly hours were greater for males than for females. The weekly working time differential for unskilled direct labor was 6.7 hours in M arch 1933, 4.4 in September 1933, and 3.3 in December 1934 in the N orth, and 6.0 hours in M arch 1933, 2.5 in September 1933, and 1.6 in December 1934 in the South. M ale cake wrappers and packers in the N orth averaged 0.8 hour more per week than females in M arch and September 1933 and 2.6 hours more in December 1934. For office clerks in the North, the differential amounted to 3.2 hours in M arch 1933, 1.8 in September 1933, and 0.4 in December 1934. Average Weekly Hours and Size of City T he data covering average weekly hours according to size of city, including the percentages of change for the three periods covered, will be found in table 31. This table shows that in M arch 1933 there was 51 See table 30. 65 WEEKLY HOURS a tendency for the average weekly hours to be slightly greater in the cities of less than 250,000. This was largely eliminated by September 1933 and December 1934, due to the leveling process caused by the President’s Reemployment Agreement and the code. T able 31 . — A v e r a g e w e e k l y h o u r s b y s i z e o f c i t y a s to r e g i o n a n d s e x Average weekly hours Percentage of change Septem ber 1933 Decem ber 1934 March to Septem ber 1933 Septem ber 1933 to Decem ber 1934 Region, sex, and size of city March 1933 March 1933 to Decem ber 1934 N o rth M ales:1 250,000 and over.................................... .. 50,000 and under 250,000_______________ Under 50,000___________________________ 47.5 50.1 50.1 42.3 43.9 42.5 39.6 39.4 39.8 - 1 0 .9 - 1 2 .4 -1 5 .2 -6 .4 - 1 0 .3 - 6 .4 —16.6 —21.4 -2 0 .6 T o ta l.-- _____________ _____ _______ _ 48.0 42.6 39.6 -1 1 .2 - 7 .0 -1 7 .5 42.4 44.7 39.4 41.2 37.3 38.2 -7 .1 - 7 .8 -5 . 3 - 7 .3 — 12.0 -1 4 .5 Females: 250,000 and o v e r _______________________ 50,000 and under 250,000...... ..................... Under 50,000________________ _____ _____ Total____________ ___________________ ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) 42.8 39.6 ( 2) 37.4 - 7 .5 -5 .6 - 1 2 .6 49.0 52.1 50.3 43.1 43.6 42.3 39.6 40.0 40.6 -1 2 .0 —16.3 - 1 5 .9 - 8 .1 - 8 .3 - 4 .0 —19.2 -2 3 . 2 - 1 9 .3 50.5 43.2 39.9 -1 4 .5 - 7 .6 - 2 1 .0 South M a les:1 250,000 and over______ _______ _________ 50,000 and under 250,000_______________ Under 50,000___________________________ Total__ __ _ _____________________ - Females: 250,000 and over________ ____ __________ 50,000 and under 250,000_______________ Under 50,000_______________ __________ Total_________________________________ 40.0 44.6 ( 2) 43.0 39.1 40.2 ( 2) 40.0 37.4 38.2 (2) 38.2 -9 .9 - 4 .3 -5 .0 —6. 5 — 14.3 ( 2) ( 2) (2) - 7 .0 -4 . 5 -1 1 .2 -2 . 2 1 Excludes driver-salesmen. 2 N ot enough workers to ju stify the computation of an average. Average Weekly Hours in Union and Nonunion shops Table 32, covering only male workers engaged in direct labor in the North, shows the average weekly hours of employees classified accord ing to skill in union and nonunion shops.62 The average weekly hours in union establishments were appreciably lower than in nonunion establishments. T he advantage was m ost marked in M arch 1933, or prior to the President’s Reem ploym ent Agreement and code. U n skilled employees in both types of shops are largely unorganized, and little difference appears in their average weekly hours. T he average weekly working time of skilled workers in nonunion shops, however, was materially greater than that of workers in the same occupations in union shops, the difference being 6.7 hours in M arch 1933, 2.5 hours in September 1933, and 4.1 hours in December 1934. Average weekly hours of semiskilled employees in union shops was 3.5 hours less than in nonunion shops in M arch 1933, but in September 1933 and December 1934 the working time of semiskilled workers in nonunion shops was only slightly more than in union shops. In union shops, the average weekly hours of semiskilled and skilled workers were about the same, but those of unskilled workers were See p. 23. 66 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY longer. The average weekly working time of unskilled workers exceeded that of slulled workers by 4 .2 hours in M arch 1933, 1.2 hours in September 1933, and 3.0 hours in December 1934. In the nonunion shops, the weekly hours of all three classes showed only minor differences, although the semiskilled workers averaged somewhat shorter hours than either of the other two groups. T able 32.— A v e r a g e w e e k l y h o u r s o f m a le e m p l o y e e s i n N o r t h e n g a g e d i n d ir e c t la b o r b y u n io n a n d n o n u n io n s h o p s a n d s k ill Average weekly hours Type of shop and skill March 1933 Percentage of change Mareh March to September September December September 1933 to 1933 to 1934 1933 December December 1933 1934 1934 Union shops: Skilled_________ _____ Semiskilled__ ___________ Unskilled_______________ 42.3 42.8 46.5 39.9 40.6 41.1 35.4 36.6 38.4 -5 . 7 -5 .1 -11.6 -11.3 -9 .9 -6 .6 -16.3 -14.5 -17.4 Total. _______________ 43.2 40.3 36.3 -6 .7 -9 .9 -16.0 Nonunion shops: Skilled_________________ Semiskilled_____________ Unskilled_______________ 49.0 46.3 48.4 42.4 40.7 41.7 39.5 37.3 38.1 -13. 5 -12.1 -13.8 -6 .8 -8 .4 -8 .6 —19. 4 —19.4 -21.3 Total_________________ 48.0 41.7 38.5 -13.1 -7 .7 -19.8 Average Weekly Hours and Degree of Mechanization One of the controversial issues in connection with the framing of the code for the baking industry centered about the problem of fixing maximum weekly hours for bakeries with varying stages of mechani zation. T he substitute provision of the President’s Reemployment Agreement relating to maximum hours provided for a 44-hour week in mechanical shops and a 50-hour week in handicraft shops. The code set up a maximum of 48 hours for “ handicraft” bakeries and of 40 hours for “ other than handicraft” bakeries, although it was con tended that another class— “ semihandicraft” shops— should be estab lished and allowed a maximum of 44 hours a week. In other words, the maxim um hours would be 40 for handicraft, 44 for semihandicraft, and 48 for mechanical shops.63 In view of this suggestion, it is im portant to see what changes occurred in the average weekly hours for the three types of shops during the periods under consideration. These data, covering only employees engaged in direct labor and classi fied b y region and sex, appear in table 33. This table shows that in M arch 1933, prior to the President’s R e employment Agreement and the code, male employees in handicraft shops in the N orth worked on the average 3.5 hours more per week than those in semihandicraft bakeries and 4.2 hours more per week than those in mechanical bakeries. T he difference between the weekly hours in semihandicraft and mechanical establishments was not material. In September, with the industry operating under the President’s Reemployment Agreement, this spread was increased. T he working time in handicraft bakeries was 5.1 hours a week longer «3 See p. 23. 67 WEEKLY HOURS than in the semihandicraft shops and 7.4 hours a week longer than in the mechanized establishments. A t the same time, the average was 2.3 hours more in semihandicraft shops than in mechanical bakeries. The relationship was much the same m December 1934. T able 33,— A v e r a g e w e e k l y h o u r s i n b a k e r ie s c l a s s ifie d b y d e g ree o f m e c h a n i z a t i o n a s to r e g i o n a n d s e x 1 A v e r a g e w e e k ly h o u r s R e g io n , sex , a n d d e g r e e o f m e c h a n iz a t io n P ercen ta g e o f ch a n g e S e p tem b er 1933 t o D ecem b er 1934 M arch 1933 t o D ecem ber 1934 S ep tem b er 1933 D ecem b er 1934 M a rch to S ep tem b er 1933 5 0 .7 4 7 .2 4 6 .5 4 8 .4 43 .3 4 1 .0 4 4 .9 4 0 .3 3 7 .4 -4 . 5 -8 .3 -1 1 .8 - 7 .2 - 5 .8 - 8 .8 — 1 1 .4 — 1 3 .6 - 1 9 .6 4 8 .0 4 2 .6 3 9 .6 -1 1 .2 - 7 .0 -1 7 .5 M arch 1933 North M a le s : H a n d i c r a ft __________________ S e m ih a n d ic r a ft ____________ M e c h a n i c a l _______ _________ T o t a l __________ __ ___ F e m a le s : H a n d i c r a f t - ____ ___________ S e m ih a n d ic r a ft ................. .. M e c h a n ic a l____ r ___________ 41. 5 4 1 .8 3 8 .7 3 8 .0 36. 6 3 5 .1 ( 2) -6 . 7 -9 .1 ( 2) -5 . 4 -7 .6 4 2 .8 3 9 .6 3 7 .4 -7 .5 - 5 .6 -1 2 . 6 M a le s : H a n d i c r a ft - __________ _______ S e m ih a n d ic r a ft ........................ M e c h a n i c a l . . _____________ 44. 6 5 2 .3 4 9 .8 4 4 .4 4 5 .3 4 2 .4 4 4 .1 3 8 .7 3 8 .7 -.4 - 1 3 .4 -1 4 .9 -. 7 -1 4 . 6 -8 .7 -1 .1 -2 6 .0 -2 2 .3 T o t a l ______________________ 5 0 .5 4 3 .2 3 9 .9 - 1 4 .5 -7 .6 - 2 1 .0 T o ta l. (2) (2) _____ ___________ ( 2) (2) - 1 1 .8 -1 6 .0 South F e m a le s : H a n d i c r a f t . .. _____________ S e m ih a n d ic r a ft ____ ________ M e c h a n i c a l ___________ _____ T o t a l _____ ________ - - . (2) ( 2) (2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) 3 9 .2 3 8 .1 3 5 .7 ( 2) ( 2) - 2 .8 ( 2) ( 2) -6 .3 4 3 .0 4 0 .0 3 8 .2 - 7 .0 -4 .5 (2) ( 2) 8 .9 - 1 1 .2 1 Includes only employees engaged in direct labor. 2 Not enough workers to justify the computation of an average. In the South, a somewhat different situation was found. T he male employees in handicraft bakeries in this region in M arch 1933 worked on the average 5.2 hours per week less than those in mechanical bakeries, but by September under the President’s Reemployment Agreement the situation was reversed, and the workers in handicraft shops worked 2 hours more than those in mechanical establishments. B y December 1934 the differential had risen to 5.4 hours. The southern semihandicraft bakeries averaged more hours per week than mechanical shops both in M arch and September 1933 when no specific definition of a mechanical bakery existed. This differential, however, disappeared by December 1934, when the code classed mechanical and semihandicraft shops together. Type of Distribution and Average Weekly Hours In both the N orth and South, the employees in the smaller estab lishments, such as retail and house-to-house or local wholesale, worked, on the whole, longer hours per week than those in the larger m ulti-State, multiple-unit retail, and chain-store bakeries. In M arch 1933 the average weekly hours of workers in retail and house-to-house 68 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY shops were less than those of employees in local wholesale bakeries, whereas in September 1933 and December 1934 the weekly working time of employees in retail and house-to-house establishments ex ceeded that ol workers in local wholesale shops. These facts are brought out by table 34, which shows the average weekly hours according to type of distribution by region and sex for the three pay roll periods. T a b l e 34. — A v e r a g e w e e k l y h o u r s i n b a k e r ie s c la s s ifie d b y t y p e o f d i s t r ib u t io n a s to r e g i o n a n d s e x A v e r a g e w e e k ly h o u r s R e g io n , sex , a n d t y p e o f d is t r ib u t io n N orth M a le s :1 R e t a i l a n d h o u s e -t o -h o u s e -------------------------------------------L o c a l w h o le s a le _______ __ -------------------------- -------M u l t i - S t a t e , m u lt ip le -u n it r e ta il, a n d c h a in s t o r e . P ercen ta g e o f ch an ge Sep M a rch tem b er D ecem t o S e p 1933 t o ber tem b er D e ce m 1934 1933 ber 1934 M arch 1933 t o D ecem ber 1934 M arch 1933 Sep tem b er 1933 4 8 .2 49.1 4 7 .2 4 3 .0 4 3 .4 4 2 .0 4 0 .3 3 9 .6 3 9 .4 -1 0 .8 -1 1 .6 — 1L 0 -6 .3 -8 .8 -6 .2 - 1 6 .4 -1 9 .3 -1 6 .5 4 8 .0 4 2 .6 3 9 .6 -1 1 .2 -7 .0 -1 7 .5 F e m a le s : R e t a i l a n d h o u s e -t o -h o u s e ------- ------------ ----------------------L o c a l w h o le s a le _________________________________________ M u l t i - S t a t e , m u lt ip le -u n it r e ta il, a n d c h a in s t o r e .- 4 2 .4 4 6 .4 4 1 .1 4 0 .3 4 0 .3 3 9 .0 39 .1 3 8 .2 3 6 .4 - 5 .0 -1 3 .1 -5 .1 -3 .0 -5 .2 - 6 .7 -7 .8 -1 7 .7 -1 1 .4 T o t a l ------------------- ------------------------------- ------------------------- 4 2 .8 3 9 .6 3 7 .4 - 7 .5 -5 .6 -1 2 .6 M a le s : i R e t a il a n d h o u s e - t o -h o u s e ........... ....................................... L o c a l w h o le s a le ................ .......................................................... M u l t i - S t a t e , m u lt ip le - u n it r e ta il, a n d c h a in s t o r e .. 4 8 .8 5 1 .4 4 9 .7 4 7 .4 4 3 .1 4 2 .3 4 1 .6 4 0 .1 3 9 .1 -2 .9 -1 6 .1 -1 4 .9 - 1 2 .2 - 7 .0 - 7 .6 -1 4 .8 - 2 2 .0 -2 1 .3 T o t a l __________________________________________ ________ 5 0 .5 4 3 .2 3 9 .9 -1 4 .5 - 7 .6 -2 1 .0 F e m a le s : R e t a i l a n d h o u s e - t o - h o u s e .. . --------------------- ---------------L o c a l w h o le s a le ----------- ---------- ------------------------------------— M u l t i - S t a t e , m u lt ip le - u n it r e ta il, a n d c h a in s t o r e .. 4 4 .1 4 6 .9 3 8 .2 4 1 .8 4 1 .8 3 7 .4 4 0 .0 39 .3 36 .1 - 5 .2 -1 0 .9 -2 .1 -4 .3 - 6 .0 -3 .5 -9 .3 -1 6 .2 -5 .5 4 3 .0 4 0 .0 3 8 .2 - 7 .0 -4 .5 - 1 1 .2 T o t a l ______________________________ .............................. — S ou th T o t a l __________________________________________________ i E x c lu d e s d riv e r -s a le s m e n . Kind of Product and Average Weekly Hours M ale employees in bread shops in the N orth worked much longer hours than those in specialty bakeries, the actual differential amount ing to 11.7 hours in M arch 1933, 5.6 hours in September 1933, and 6.1 hours in December 1934. There was little variation in the working time of males in bread shops and those in cake shops. ^ Likewise, the differences between the average weekly hours of males in the South in bread and cake bakeries were not large. Am ong females in both the N orth and South, the average weekly hours were greater in bread shops than in cake shops. T he figures in table 35 give the average weekly hours in bakeries according to type of product b y region and sex for the three pay-roll periods for which information was obtained. 69 WEEKLY HOURS Comparisons W ith 1931 In the fall of 1931, the average weekly hours of workers in bakeries54 averaged 53.2. B y December 1934 this average had dropped to 43.5, a decline of 9.7 hours or 18.2 percent.55 T he decrease in average week ly hours was greater for males (from 53.8 to 44.3) than for females (from 44.9 to 3 7 .5). Thus the average for males decreased 9.5 hours or 17.7 percent, whereas the average for females declined 7.4 hours or 16.5 percent. T able 35 . — A verage w e e k ly h o u r s i n b a k e r ie s c l a s s ifie d re g io n a n d sex A v e r a g e w e e k ly h o u r s P ercen ta g e o f ch an ge D ecem b e r 1934 M arch to Sep tem ber 1933 S ep tem b e r 1933 to D e cem ber 1934 R e g io n , se x , a n d k i n d o f p r o d u c t M arch 1933 S ep tem b e r 1933 b y k i n d o f p r o d u c t a s to M arch 1933 t o D ecem ber 1934 North M a le s : i B r e a d . ................................ . . _______________ C a k e , s w e e t g o o d s , a n d p ie , in c lu d in g _________ c a k e s p e c ia lt ie s ____ __ _ B r e a d s p e c ia lt ie s _________ ___________ T o t a l ______ _________ _ ___ . F e m a le s : B r e a d ___ ___ _____ _______ _______ C a k e , s w e e t g o o d s , a n d p ie , in c lu d in g c a k e s p e c ia lt ie s ____ ____________________ B r e a d s p e c ia lt ie s _______ ________ ______ T o t a l _______________________ _________ __ 4 8 .5 4 2 .8 3 9 .7 -1 1 .8 -7 . 2 — 18.1 4 7 .0 3 6 .8 4 2 .5 3 7 .2 4 0 .0 3 3 .6 —9 .6 + 1 .1 —5. 9 - 9 .7 — 14 9 -8 .7 4 8 .0 4 2 .6 3 9 .6 -1 1 .2 - 7 .0 -1 7 .5 4 3 .5 4 0 .8 3 9 .2 —6. 2 —3. 9 —9. 9 4 1 .8 (2) 3 8 .4 (2) 3 5 .8 (2) -8 .1 (2) —6 .8 (2) -1 4 . 4 (2) 4 2 .8 3 9 .6 3 7 .4 - 7 .5 - 5 .6 -1 2 .6 South M a le s : i B r e a d ______________ _______. _ C a k e , s w e e t g o o d s , a n d p ie , in c lu d in g c a k e s p e c ia lt ie s ____ ______________ B r e a d s p e c ia lt ie s _______________________ _ T o t a l ______________________________ 5 0 .7 4 3 .2 3 9 .7 — 14.8 —8 .1 —21. 7 4 8 .4 4 3 .9 (3) 4 1 .2 (3) —9 .3 (3) —6. 2 (3) — 14.9 (3) 5 0 .5 4 3 .2 3 9 .9 -1 4 .5 - 7 .6 -2 1 .0 ( 3) F e m a le s : B r e a d ____ _______________________ _________ C a k e , s w e e t g o o d s , a n d p ie , in c lu d in g c a k e s p e c ia lt ie s _____ ____ ___________ B r e a d s p e c ia lt ie s . __________ ____ 43.1 4 0 .7 3 9 .0 —5. 6 —4. 2 —9. 5 4 2 .8 (3) 3 9 .0 (3) 37. 0 (3) —8. 9 (3) —5 .1 (3) -1 3 .6 (3) T o t a l . _____ ____________________________ 4 3 .0 4 0 .0 3 8 .2 - 7 .0 - 4 .5 -1 1 .2 1 Excludes driver-salesmen. 2 Not enough workers to justify the computation of an average. 3 Not available. 84 Excludes pie departments or establishments. 88 Figures for December 1934 also include driver-salesmen. Chapter V.— Weekly Earnings Changes in Country as a W hole T he curtailed working time was more than offset b y the increases in hourly wage rates, and as a result the weekly earnings of employees in bread bakeries advanced between M arch 1933 and Decem ber 1934. T he increase, however, was relatively moderate, as, against an average of $22.84 in M arch 1933, the weekly earnings rose to $23.24 in Sep tember 1933 and $23.86 in December 1934. (See table 36 and chart 7.) For the period as a whole, the increase in weekly earnings was greater both absolutely and relatively in the South than in the North, and female employees profited relatively more than males. Am ong female employees in the South, the average weekly earnings advanced 20 percent between M arch 1933 and December 1934. This compares with an advance of 4 .6 percent for male workers in the North. These changes in weekly earnings indicated b y the survey are corroborated b y the index numbers of average weekly earnings m the entire industry, including biscuit and crackers, which are compiled m onthly by the Division of Em ploym ent and Pay Rolls of the Bureau of Labor Statistics. According to these index numbers (see table 3 7 ), weekly earnings were at the lowest point (81.1) in M arch 1933. Since that time, with the exception of a few minor fluctuations, the trend was gradually upward, and in December 1934 the index stood at 87.7, a cumulative gain of 8.1 percent since M arch 1933. This m ay be compared with an advance of 8.8 percent, as indicated in the weekly earnings of the workers covered in this survey. T a b l e 36. — A v e r a g e w e e k l y e a r n i n g s i n b rea d i n d u s t r y b y r e g i o n a n d s e x A v e r a g e w e e k ly e a rn in g s P ercen ta g e o f ch a n g e R e g io n a n d sex M a r c h 1933 S ep tem ber 1933 D ecem b er 1934 M a r c h to S ep tem b er 1933 S ep tem b er 1933 t o D ecem b er 1934 M a r c h 1933 to D e ce m b e r 1934 U n it e d S ta te s: M a l e s _______________________ F e m a le s _____________________ $ 2 4 .1 0 13.15 $24. 45 14.04 $25. 24 14.23 +1. 5 + 6 .8 + 3 .2 + 1 .4 + 4 .7 + 8 .2 T o t a l --------------------------------- 22. 84 23. 24 23 .8 6 + 1 .8 + 2 .7 + 4 .5 N orth : M a l e s . . . __________________ F e m a le s _____________________ 24. 88 13. 75 2 5 .1 2 14.40 2 6 .0 3 14. 66 + 1 .0 + 4 .7 + 3 .6 + 1 .8 + 4 .6 + 6 .6 T o t a l - - __________________ 23. 65 23.92 24. 66 + 1 .1 + 3 .1 + 4 .3 S ou th : M a l e s ___ ________ --_ - . F e m a l e s _____________________ 19.29 10. 32 2 0 .7 4 12. 44 20. 92 12. 38 + 7 .5 + 2 0 .5 + .9 -.5 + 8 .4 + 2 0 .0 18. 05 19. 61 19. 64 + 8 .6 + .2 + 8 .8 T o t a l _________________ 70 WEEKLY EARNINGS 71 C hart 7 AVERAGE WEEKLY EARNINGS IN BREAD INDUSTRY BY REGION AND SEX, MARCH 1933, SEPTEMBER 1933, AND DECEMBER 1934 FEMALES-NORTH MALES-SOUTH 72 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY T able 37. — I n d e x n u m b e r s o f a v era g e w e e k l y e a r n i n g s i n e n t i r e b a k in g i n d u s t r y i n th e U n i t e d S t a t e s , b y m o n t h s , 1 9 2 5 - 8 5 2 1 [J a n u a ry 1925=100] M on th 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 J a n u a r y _____ __ _ __ _ F e b r u a r y ------------------ --M arch — _____ _____ A p r i l ____________ _______ M a y ____ _______________ J u n e ____________________ 1 00 .0 98. 3 100. 8 100. 2 1 0 3 .0 10 1 .9 102 .6 103. 7 102. 7 10 1 .5 104. 3 1 03 .4 1 02 .8 104. 2 104. 1 1 0 3 .6 105. 0 103 .5 103 .1 104. 2 1 0 4 .2 1 0 1 .9 1 0 4 .0 1 03 .9 1 0 2 .5 103 .4 103. 1 102. 7 105. 3 104 .7 105.1 105. 5 105. 0 1 0 5 .6 105. 6 105 .7 101 .9 101. 7 9 9 .9 1 0 0 .6 100 .3 9 4 .9 9 4 .5 93. 5 9 0 .6 8 9 .8 8 9 .2 8 4 .2 8 2 .7 81. 1 8 1 .8 82. 2 8 2 .7 8 4 .9 86. 0 8 4 .9 83. 8 8 5 .9 8 6 .0 85 .9 8 6 .0 86 .4 87 .2 88.0 89 .0 J u l y ____________________ A u g u s t _________________ S e p t e m b e r -------------------O c t o b e r . . . ______ . . . N o v e m b e r . . . ______ . D e c e m b e r ___________ . 100 .9 1 0 0 .7 101. 2 1 0 1 .4 1 0 0 .9 1 02 .5 1 0 2 .6 1 0 2 .0 102. 6 1 02 .4 102. 4 103 .6 103. 6 1 03 .3 103. 2 103. 1 1 03 .4 102 .7 103. 6 103. 4 1 0 3 .3 1 0 3 .0 103.3 103 .0 1 04 .3 104. 2 104. 7 1 0 4 .6 1 0 4 .6 104 .5 1 04 .6 103. 7 105.1 103. 8 103 .3 101 .9 9 8 .6 9 7 .3 9 7 .6 9 6 .9 9 6 .5 9 5 .3 8 6 .9 8 6 .2 8 7 .9 8 7 .0 8 5 .6 84. 2 8 3 .8 82. 5 8 4 .6 8 3 .9 8 4 .4 8 4 .9 8 6 .2 86. 2 8 7 .9 8 6 .5 8 7 .3 8 7 .7 88 .4 8 7 .5 9 0 .6 8 9 .8 89 .7 9 0 .3 101. 1 1935 1 I n c lu d e s b i s c u it a n d c ra ck e rs. 2 C o m p i l e d b y t h e D iv i s io n o f E m p l o y m e n t a n d P a y R o lls . Changes in Percentage Distribution of All Workers in Bread Industry Although the increases in average weekly earnings between M arch 1933 and December 1934 were not large, significant changes are shown in the distribution of individual employees according to weekly earnings. The percentage distribution of all workers in the bread industry is given in table 38 and chart 8. T a b l e 38.— P e r c e n t a g e d i s t r ib u t io n o f e m p l o y e e s a c c o r d in g to w e e k l y e a r n i n g s i n b rea d i n d u s t r y i n c o u n t r y a s a w h o le M a r c h 1933 W e e k l y e a rn in g s S im p le p e r c e n ta g e S e p t e m b e r 1933 C u m u la t iv e p er c e n ta g e S im p le p e r cen ta g e C u m u la t iv e p e r ce n t a g e D e c e m b e r 1934 S im p le p e r c e n ta g e C u m u la t iv e p e r c e n ta g e U n d e r $4_________________________ $4 a n d u n d e r $ 8 _____ ________ $8 a n d u n d e r $ 12 . -------------------$12 a n d u n d e r $16 _____________ $16 a n d u n d e r $20______________ 2 .3 3 .7 6 .7 1 1 .6 1 3 .2 2 .3 6 .0 1 2 .7 2 4 .3 3 7 .5 1 .7 2 .5 3 .5 1 7 .7 15.9 1 ,7 4 .2 7 .7 2 5 .4 4 1 .3 1 .6 2 .4 3 .9 14 .4 1 7 .6 l.< 4. ( 7. 1 22. { 39. { $20 $24 $28 $32 $36 and and and and and under under under under under $24_______________ $ 2 8 ._ . ................ $ 3 2 _____________ $36_______________ $40_______________ 1 7 .6 1 6 .6 1 1 .4 7 .3 3 .0 5 5 .1 7 1 .7 8 3 .1 9 0 .4 9 3 .4 1 5 .0 1 4 .3 9 .6 8 .2 4 .2 5 6 .3 7 0 .6 8 0 .2 8 8 .4 9 2 .6 15.1 1 2 .6 1 0 .2 8 .2 5 .9 55. ( 67. < 77 A 86. ( 91.1 $40 $44 $48 $56 and and and and u n d e r $44______________ u n d e r $ 4 8 ....................... u n d e r $56_______________ o v e r ____ ________________ 4 .2 1 .3 .9 .2 9 7 .6 9 8 .9 9 9 .8 100 .0 4 .1 1 .8 1 .2 .3 9 6 .7 9 8 .5 9 9 .7 100 .0 4 .3 1 .9 1 .4 .5 96.1 98. ] 99 A .( 100 Between M arch and September 1933, the percentage of workers earning under $12 a week declined from 12.7 to 7.7 percent. The number receiving $20 and under $32 likewise declined from 45.6 percent in M arch to 38.9 in September. These changes were accom panied by an increase in the proportion of workers earning $12 WEEKLY EARNINGS 73 and less than $20 a week. A s against 24.8 percent in this group in M arch, there were 33.6 percent earning between $12 and $20 a week in September. A t the same time, 19.8 percent of the workers were earning $32 and over in September, as compared with 16.9 percent in M arch. In contrast to the shifts that occurred between M arch and Septem ber 1933, the percentage of workers in the different wage groups in December 1934 was much the same as in September 1933. In December 1934, however, there was a slight increase in the percentage of workers earning $36 or more a week. Changes in Percentage Distribution by Region and Sex In both the northern and southern States, the percentage of bakery employees earning less than $12 a week declined between M arch and September 1933. Moreover, female as well as male workers profited by the change. In the North, the percentage of male workers earn ing less than $12 a week declined from 7.3 in M arch to 5.2 in Sep tember, and the percentage of female workers in this wage group declined from 38.9 to 22.6. T he shift was even more striking in the South, as, against 17.2 percent of the male employees earning less than $12 a week in M arch, only 7.8 percent were in this group in September, and for female workers the decline was from 66.5 to 25.9 percent. These changes are shown in table 39. 102745°—37----- 6 74 T able WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY 39 . — P e r c e n t a g e d i s t r ib u t io n o f e m p l o y e e s a c c o r d in g to w e e k l y e a r n i n g s b y re g io n a n d sex March 1933 Region, sex, and weekly earnings September 1933 December 1934 Cumula Cumula Cumula Simple Simple Simple tive tive tive percentage percentage percentage percentage percentage percentage N o rth Males: Under $4_______ ________ $4 and under $ 8 ________ $8 and under $12________ $12 and under $16_______ $16 and under $20______ 1.6 2.3 3.4 8.6 12.1 1.6 3.9 7.3 15.9 28.0 1.2 2.2 1.8 10.9 16.0 1.2 3.4 5.2 16.1 32.1 1.2 2.0 1.8 7.4 17.1 12.4 29.5 $20 and under $24_______ $24 and under $28_______ $28 and under $32_______ $32 and under $36_______ $36 and under $40_______ 18.2 19.0 13.8 9.0 3.6 46.2 65.2 79.0 88.0 91.6 16.0 16.6 11.3 10.0 4.9 48.1 64.7 76.0 86.0 90.9 16.1 14.4 12.4 10.1 7.3 45.6 60.0 72.4 82.5 89.8 1.2 3.2 5 .0 $40 and under $44 ______ $44 and under $48_______ $48 and under $56. .......... $56 and over____ ________ Females: Under $4_______________ $4 and under $8_________ $8 and under $12________ $12 and under $16_______ $16 and under $20_______ 5.3 1.7 1.1 .3 96.9 98.6 99.7 100.0 5.1 2.2 1.5 .3 96.0 98.2 99.7 100.0 5.5 2.4 1.7 .6 95.3 97.7 99.4 100.0 5.4 9.0 24.5 26.2 18.5 5.4 14.4 38.9 65.1 83.6 4.1 4.5 14.0 46.7 16.3 4.1 8.6 22.6 69.3 85.6 3.7 3.8 13.2 43.3 22.4 3.7 7.5 20.7 64.0 86.4 $20 and under $24_______ $24 and under $28_______ $28 and under $32. _______ 11.6 3.1 1.0 95.2 98.3 99.3 10.1 2.7 .6 95.7 98.4 99.0 9.3 2.8 .5 95.7 98.5 99.0 $32 and under $36_______ $36 and under $40_______ $40 and under $44_______ $44 and under $48_______ .3 .3 .1 99.6 99.9 100.0 .6 .2 .1 .1 99.6 99.8 99.9 100.0 .5 .3 .1 .1 99.5 99.8 99.9 100.0 Males: Under $4_________ ____ $4 and under $8_________ $8 and under $12________ $12 and under $16_- ____ $16 and under $20_______ 3.3 5.2 8.7 17.6 16.7 3.3 8.5 17.2 34.8 51.5 2.2 2.2 3.4 28.6 16.6 2.2 4.4 7.8 36.4 53.0 1.7 2.5 5.1 24.2 19.1 1.7 4.2 9.3 33.5 52.6 $20 and under $24_______ $24 and under $28_______ $28 and under $32_______ $32 and under $36_______ $36 and under $40_______ 20.5 13.5 6.7 4.0 2.0 72.0 85.5 92.2 96.2 98.2 15.0 11.9 7.7 4.9 3.5 68.0 79.9 87.6 92.5 96.0 16.0 11.7 7.0 5.4 3.4 68.6 80.3 87.3 92.7 96.1 1.4 .4 99.6 100.0 2.0 .8 .8 .4 98.0 98.8 99.6 100.0 1.7 .8 .9 .5 97.8 98.6 99. 5 100. 0 9.1 22.8 34.6 20.1 7.0 9.1 31.9 66.5 86.6 93.6 3.5 9.0 13.4 62.7 6.2 3.5 12.5 25.9 88.6 94.8 4.4 7.2 21.0 54.6 7.6 4.4 11.6 32.6 87.2 94.8 4.3 1.8 .3 97.9 99.7 100.0 4.0 1.0 98.8 99.8 3.6 1.4 98.4 99.8 .2 100.0 .2 100.6 South $40 and under $44.............. $44 and under $48_______ $48 and under $56. _______ $56 and over__ ____ _____ Females: Under $4__________ _____ $4 and under $8_______ . $8 and under $12________ $12 and under $16_______ $16 and under $20..... ........ $20 and under $24_______ $24 and under $28_______ $28 and under $32_______ $32 and under $36_______ 0) 1 Less than Mo of 1 percent. A further examination of the distribution for males in the North shows that the percentage of employees earning $12 and under $20 a week increased from 20.7 to 26.9 percent between M arch and Septem ber 1933. During the same period, the percentage of male employees in northern bakeries earning $20 and less than $32 a week declined from 51.0 to 43.9, but those receiving $32 a week and over increased WEEKLY EARNINGS 76 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY from 21.0 to 24.0 percent. Likewise, the percentage of male workers in the South increased from 17.6 to 28.6 in the class of $12 and less than $16, decreased from 50.7 to 43.5 in the classes of $16 and under $28, and increased from 14.5 to 20.1 in the classes of $28 and over. Similarly, the percentage of female workers in the N orth earning $12 and under $16 per week increased from 26.2 in M arch to 46.7 in September 1933. This was accompanied by a decrease in the percent age of northern females earning $16 and over from 34.9 in M arch to 30.7 in September. The same shift took place among the female em ployees in the South, where the number of workers earning $12 and under $16 per week increased from 20.1 percent in M arch to 62.7 per cent in September, the decrease in the percentage of those earning $16 and over being from 13.4 in M arch to 11.4 in September. The gain in the percentages in the upper brackets of males in both the North and South is clearly due to the inclusion of driver-salesmen. The average hourly earnings of these employees increased under the President's Reemployment Agreement, but their weekly hours did not change materially. This resulted in higher weekly earnings for them, thus increasing the percentage of male employees in the upper brackets. A s for the other employees, both male and female, all were affected more or less uniformly by the reduction of weekly hours, but the in creases in average hourly earnings were greater on the whole for the lower paid than for the higher paid workers. This accounts for the shift of employees to the classes of $12 and under $20 for males in the North and to the class of $12 and less than $16 for females in the North and for both males and females in the South from the classes immedi ately adjoining on both sides. There is a striking similarity in the percentage of workers in each of the groups between September 1933 and December 1934. A s the increases in average hourly earnings and the reductions in weekly hours due to the code were not great, the result was smaller changes in the weekly earnings and a relatively insignificant shifting in the percentage distributions between the two periods. The chief exceptions to this were the driver-salesmen, whose average hourly earnings again in creased without noticeable changes in weekly hours, thus causing another increase in their weekly earnings. A s a result, there was a further small increase in the percentages of workers in the higher brackets. This was especially noticeable among the males in the North, the percentage earning $28 and over a week having increased from 35.3 in September 1933 to 40.0 in December 1934. Changes in Averages by Broad Occupational Groupings The increases in average weekly earnings by broad occupational groupings are shown in table 40. The small gain in the average weekly earnings of male workers in the N orth was largely due to increased earnings in a single occupation, namely, driver-salesmen. Although each of the other broad occupa tional groupings showed either no change or a small reduction between M arch and September 1933, the average weekly earnings of driversalesmen increased 9.5 percent. From September 1933 to December 1934, the average weekly earnings of driver-salesmen advanced an additional 9.5 percent, and the earnings of the other occupational groupings show increases of less than 2 percent. Courtesy of Washington Star Newspaper Co. plate 3 .— B r e a d D u m p i n g F r o m T r a v e l i n g O v e n . Courtesy of Charles Schneider Baking Co. P L A T E 4 . — S L IC IN G , W R A P P IN G , A N D P A C K IN G O F B R E A D . 77 WEEKLY EARNINGS T able 40 . — A v e r a g e w e e k l y e a r n i n g s b y b r oa d o c c u p a t io n a l g r o u p i n g s a s to r e g io n a n d sex Average weekly earnings Region, sex, and broad occu pational grouping Males: North Direct labor: Skilled_____________ Semiskilled ___ Unskilled___________ Indirect labor: Driver-salesmen_____ Other... _ _________ Total_____________ Females: Direct labor: Unskilled-.. Indirect labor: Other____ Total_________________ Males: Smdh Direct labor: Skilled_____________ Semiskilled_________ Unskilled___________ Indirect labor: Driver-salesmen_____ Other.. ___________ Total____ ____ ____ Females: Direct labor: Unskilled.._ Indirect labor: Other____ Total_________________ March 1933 Percentage of change March 1933 March to September September December September 1933 to to 1934 1933 December December 1933 1934 1934 $26.19 17.87 17.34 $25.35 17.87 17.88 $25.84 18.18 18.09 -3 .2 -.3 +1.9 +1.7 +1.2 -1 .3 +1.7 + .8 27.47 25.60 24.88 30.09 25.02 25.12 32.96 25.30 26.03 +9.5 -2 .3 +1.0 +9.5 +1.1 +3.6 +20.0 -1 .2 +4.6 10.96 15.13 13.75 11.95 15.81 14.40 12.53 16.16 14.66 +9.0 +4.5 +4.7 +4.9 +2.2 +1.8 +14.3 +6.8 +6.6 20.64 11.92 12.12 21.26 13.60 13.81 20.65 14.25 14.15 +3.0 +14.1 +13.9 -2 .9 +4.8 +2.5 C) +19.5 +16.7 22.80 19.27 19.29 27.93 19.63 20.74 28.13 19. 72 20.92 +22.5 +1.9 +7.5 + .7 + .5 + .9 +23.4 +2.3 +8.4 8.10 11.18 10. 32 11.28 13.00 12.44 11.04 13.25 12.38 +39.3 +16.3 +20.5 -2 .1 +1.9 -.5 +36.3 +18.5 +20.0 1 Less than Ho of 1 percent. In the South, the result was slightly different. I t is true that the largest percentage gain in average weekly earnings over the whole period was shown for driver-salesmen, whose hourly wage rates advanced but whose hours were unchanged. A t the same time, the percentage gains in the earnings of semiskilled and unskilled workers were almost as large. T h e two last-mentioned groups are composed of the lower-paid workers. In both the North and South, the average weekly earnings of semi skilled males were virtually the same as those of unskilled males in each of the pay-roll periods covered, but the margin between these and the earnings of skilled males was substantial. In M arch 1933, the differential amounted to between $8 and $9. A s the average weekly earnings of skilled males remained practically stable from M arch 1933 to December 1934 and the earnings of semiskilled and unskilled workers advanced slightly, the differential was narrowed somewhat by December 1934. In M arch 1933, a relatively small differential existed between driver-salesman and skilled males engaged in direct labor, the weekly earnings of the driver-salesmen averaging $1.28 more a week than those of skilled workers in the N orth and $2.16 more in the South. In September, the difference was $4.74 in the N orth and $6.67 in the South, and, by December 1934, the earnings of driver-salesmen were $7.12 a week higher in the N orth and $7.48 a week higher in the South. The large increase in the differential was due to the fact that the hours of driver-salesmen were not regulated by either the President's Reemployment Agreement or the code, and that those of skilled workers were so regulated. 78 WAGES AND HOURS— BKEAD-BAKING INDUSTRY Changes in Averages by Occupational Classes Table 41 gives the average weekly earnings by individual occupa tions and small occupational groupings for each of the three pay-roll periods covered and the percentages of change between periods. In the N orth, the changes from M arch 1933 to December 1934 in the average earnings per week of the 14 individual occupations of males in the direct labor group for which data are available ranged from a decrease of 86 cents for dividers or scalers to an increase of $ 1.16 for pan greasers. O f the six occupations showing decreased earnings, four were skilled, one semiskilled, and one unskilled. The average weekly earnings of two skilled occupations increased, and gains are also shown for three semiskilled and three unskilled occupations. Am ong the males in the South, the weekly earnings of five individual occupations in direct labor are available. All of these, with the exception of bench hands, show increases in weekly earnings between M arch 1933 and December 1934. T he changes in the weekly earnings in eight of the individual occupations in indirect labor in the North, outside of driver-salesmen, were also small, ranging from a decrease of 70 cents a week for office clerks to an increase of $1.41 a week for the supervisory group. The average weekly earnings of driver-salesmen increased $5.49 during the period. Average weekly earnings of females in the N orth are available for six individual occupations. Increased weekly earnings were reported for each of these occupations. The gains ranged from 47 cents for stenographers, typists, telephone operators, etc., to $2.03 for cake finishers. T he only female occupation in the South for which separate figures are given is that of store clerks, and the earnings of these work ers averaged $2.55 more a week in December 1934 than in M arch 1933. T able 41 . — A v e r a g e w e e k l y e a r n i n g s b y o c c u p a t io n a l c l a s s e s a s to r e g i o n a n d s e x Average weekly earnings Region, sex, and occupational class Males—North Direct labor: Skilled: Bench hands or hand bakers_____ Cake makers___________________ Dividers or scalers and rounders.. Mixers___________________ _____ Molders......... . ____________ _ Ovenmen_______________ _____ Miscellaneous, skilled.................. Total________________________ Semiskilled: Bench hands’ or hand bakers’ helpers_______________________ General helpers__________ _____ _ Mixers’ helpers_____ ___________ Ovenmen’s helpers_____________ Miscellaneous, semiskilled______ T o ta l.___ _____ ____________ Unskilled: Bread packers.—. ........ ............ . Bread wrappers, automatic_____ Cake wrappers and packers_____ Pan greasers................................... Miscellaneous, unskilled____ ____ Total................. ......................... Percentage of change Septem ber 1933 Decem ber 1934 March to Septem ber 1933 Septem ber 1933 to Decem ber 1934 $23.69 26.19 26.39 29.28 23.59 28.59 23. 25 26.19 $23. 07 25.64 24.78 28.80 22. 25 27.93 22.89 25.35 $23. 77 26.23 25.53 28.83 22.91 28.41 23. 75 25.84 -2 .6 -2 .1 -6 .1 -1 .6 -5 .7 -2 .3 -1 .5 -3 .2 +3.0 +2.3 +3.0 +• 1 +3.0 +1. 7 +3.8 +1.9 +0.3 + .2 -3 .3 -1 .5 -2 .9 -.6 +2.2 -1 .3 17.78 16.46 17. 75 18.05 21.85 17. 87 17. 46 16.88 18.29 18.09 19.80 17.87 18.24 16.40 18. 72 18.86 20. 22 18.18 -1 .8 +2.6 +3.0 + .2 -9 .4 +4.5 -2 .8 +2.4 +4.3 +2.1 +1.7 +2.6 -.4 +5.5 +4.5 -7 .5 +1.7 19.26 17.47 16.30 16.34 18.69 17.34 18.92 17.33 16. 26 17.19 18. 67 17.88 18.87 17.48 17.18 17.50 19.46 18.09 -1 .8 -.8 -.2 +5.2 -.1 -.3 -.3 + .9 +5.7 +1.8 +4.2 +1.2 -2 .0 + .1 +5.4 +7.1 +4.1 + .8 March 1933 March 1933 to Decem ber 1934 79 WEEKLY EARNINGS T able 41.— A v e r a g e w e e k l y e a r n i n g s b y o c c u p a t io n a l c la s s e s a s to r e g i o n a n d s e x — Continued Average weekly earnings Percentage of change Septem ber 1933 Decem ber 1934 March to Septem ber 1933 Septem ber 1933 to Decem ber 1934 $30.09 $32.96 +9.5 +9.5 +20.0 33.86 24.47 17.84 33.83 24. 62 17. 56 +. 3 +4.2 +7.5 -.1 + .6 -1 .6 + .2 +4.9 +5.8 19.59 27.33 21.47 17.04 37.91 29.64 19.91 16.98 20.20 28. 22 21.32 16. 80 39.15 29. 67 20. 95 17.10 -4 .3 -1 .2 -2 .5 -1 .4 + .5 -2 .2 -1 .1 + .5 +3.1 +3.3 -.7 -1 .4 +3.3 +• 1 +5.2 + .7 -1 .4 +2.1 -3 .2 -2 .8 +3.7 -2 .1 +4.0 +1.2 25.60 25.02 25. 30 -2 .3 +1.1 -1 .2 Direct labor: Unskilled: Bread wrappers, hand__________ Cake finishers________ .. ____ Cake wrappers and packers.____ 11. 72 10. 76 10.92 13.20 11.94 11. 79 12.21 12. 79 12.47 +12.6 +11.0 +8.0 -7 .5 +7.1 +5.8 +4.2 +18.9 +14.2 Total________________________ 10.96 11.95 12.53 +9.0 +4.9 +14.3 17.18 17.69 17.68 +3.0 -.1 +2.9 18.90 13. 75 13. 39 18.80 14. 49 14. 34 19.37 14. 71 15.17 -.5 +5.4 +7.1 +3.0 +1.5 +5.8 +2.5 +7.0 +13.3 15.13 15. 81 16.16 +4.5 +2.2 +6.8 17. 39 21.74 21.80 17. 51 22.49 21.82 17.19 22.46 21.68 + .7 +3.4 +. 1 -1 .8 -. 1 -.6 -1 .2 +3.3 + .6 Region, sex, and occupational class March 1933 Males—North—Continued Indirect labor: Driver-salesmen____ _______________ $27.47 Other: Auditors, bookkeepers, etc___ __ 33. 77 Chauffeurs and drivers______ . . . 23. 48 Laborers.. ..................................... 16.59 Maintenance and repair, semiskilled____________ ___ _______ 20.48 27.65 Maintenance and repair, skilled... 22. 02 Office clerks________________ ___ 17.28 Service, unskilled_______________ Supervisory, skilled........ .............. • 37.74 Miscellaneous, skilled______ ____ 30. 32 20.14 Miscellaneous, semiskilled_______ Miscellaneous, unskilled________ 16.89 Total___________________ ____ March 1933 to Decem ber 1934 Females—North Indirect labor: Other: Office clerks____________________ Stenographers, typists, telephone operators, etc__________ ____ _ Store clerks___________________ Miscellaneous_________________ Total. _ __________ ________ Males—South Direct labor: Skilled: Bench hands or hand bakers_____ Ovenmen____________________ Miscellaneous, skilled___________ 20.64 21.26 20. 65 +3.0 -2 .9 0) Semiskilled: General helpers.. _____________ Ovenmen’s helpers______________ Miscellaneous, semiskilled_______ 9.80 13. 85 12. 26 11.71 14. 34 14. 73 12. 37 14. 75 15.35 +19.5 +3.5 +20.1 +5.6 +2.9 +4.2 +26.2 +6.5 +25.2 Total___ ______ ______________ 11.92 13.60 14. 25 +14.1 +4.8 +19.5 Unskilled: Bread wrappers, automatic........ Miscellaneous, unskilled. _____ 12.87 11.37 13.88 13. 72 14.13 14.17 +7.8 +20.7 +1.8 +3.3 +9.8 +24.6 +2.5 +16.7 Total.__ _ __________________ Total________________________ Indirect labor: Driver-salesmen........ ................. ...... 12.12 13.81 14.15 +13.9 22. 80 27.93 28.13 +22.5 + .7 +23.4 Other____________ ____________ ____ 19. 27 19.63 19. 72 +1.9 + .5 +2.3 Females—South Direct labor: Unskilled...................... ........................ Indirect labor: Other: Store clerks __________________ Miscellaneous___ ________ ______ 8.10 11.28 11.04 +39.3 -2 .1 +36.3 9.45 12.11 11. 56 13. 72 12.00 13.88 +22.3 +13.3 +3.8 +1.2 +27.0 +14.6 Total________________________ 11.18 13.00 13. 25 +16.3 +1.9 +18.5 1 Less than of Mo percent. 80 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY Regional and Sex Differentials in Averages by Occupations Average weekly earnings were substantially higher in the N orth than in the South in each of the three pay-roll periods. For males, the differential was $5.59 a week in M arch 1933, $4.38 in September 1933, and $5.11 in December 1934, and for female workers it was $3.43 in M arch 1933, $1.96 in September 1933, and $2.28 in December 1934. (See table 36.) Am ong the broad occupational groupings, the largest regional differ ential was for the “ other” male workers in the indirect labor group. This amounted to $6.33 in M arch 1933, $5.39 in September 1933, and $5.58 in December 1934. T he smallest N orth -S ou th differential was found among unskilled female employees classified as direct labor, the margin in favor of the northern workers being $2.86 in M arch 1933, 67 cents in September 1933, and $1.49 in December 1934. (See table 40.) The average weekly earnings of bench hands or hand bakers, ovenmen, ovenmen’s helpers, general helpers, and automatic bread wrap pers, were also substantially higher in the N orth than in the South in each of the three pay-roll periods covered. T he differential for the one female occupation, “ store clerks” , for which a regional comparison m ay be made, was appreciable, although the margin of difference decreased with each succeeding period. (See table 4 1 .) W eekly earnings of male employees were higher than those of females. This is brought out by a comparison of the data relating to unskilled workers classified as direct labor. This group covers occu pations involving approximately the same skill for both males and females, and in both the N orth and the South the differential in favor of male workers was considerable. This also applies in the North to the two individual occupations, cake wrappers and office clerks, in which both sexes are represented. Average Weekly Earnings and Size of City A s with hourly earnings, the weekly earnings of bakery employees are influenced by the size of the city in which they are employed. Table 42, with a single exception, shows higher average weekly earn ings in the larger cities in both the North and the South. T he one exception was in the South, where males in cities with a population of 50,000 and less than 250,000 received slightly higher earnings than those in cities of 250,000 and over. T o a lesser extent the relative increases in average weekly earnings for the entire period also varied directly with the size of the city. 81 WEEKLY EAKNINGS T a b l e 42 *— A v e r a g e w e e k l y e a r n i n g s b y s i z e o f c i t y a s to r e g io n a n d s e x A v e r a g e w e e k ly e a rn in g s P ercen ta g e of ch an ge S ep tem b er 1933 D ecem b er 1934 M a r c h to S ep tem b er M arch S e p t e m b e r 1933 t o D e 1933 t o D e 1933 c e m b e r 1934 c e m b e r 1934 R e g io n , sex, a n d size o f c i t y M arch 1933 N o rth M a le s : 250,000 a n d o v e r ____________ 50,000 a n d u n d e r 250,000— U n d e r 50,000............................. $25.59 22.05 20.45 $25.86 22.09 21. 51 $26 .83 22.72 21.80 + 1 -1 +. 2 + 5 .2 + 3 .8 + 2 .9 + 1 .3 + 4 .8 + 3 .0 + 6 .6 T o t a l ______________________ 24.88 2 5 .12 26.03 + 1 .0 + 3 .6 + 4 .6 F e m a le s : 250,000 a n d o v e r ---------------50,000 a n d u n d e r 250,000— U n d e r 50,000. .................. ........ 14.15 12.42 (9 14.74 13.06 (9 14.88 13.90 (9 + 4 .2 + 5 .2 (9 + .9 + 6 .4 (9 + 5 .2 + 11.9 (9 13.75 14.40 14.66 + 4 .7 + 1 .8 + 6 .6 M a le s : 250,000 a n d o v e r ____________ 50,000 a n d u n d e r 250,000— U n d e r 50,000............................. 19.07 19.80 17.28 20.84 21.03 18.17 21.04 21.21 18.38 + 9 .3 + 6 .2 + 5 .2 + 1 .0 + .9 + 1 .2 + 1 0 .3 + 7 .1 + 6 .4 T o t a l . -------------------- --------- 19.29 20 .7 4 2 0 .92 + 7 .5 + .9 + 8 .4 F e m a le s : 250,000 a n d o v e r . . ......... ........ 50,000 a n d u n d e r 250,000— U n d e r 50,000________________ 10. 38 9 .9 4 12.40 12.22 12.63 11.99 T o t a l ______________________ Sou th T o t a l _____ _____________ . . (9 10.32 (9 12.44 (9 12.38 + 1 9 .5 + 2 2 .9 (9 + 2 0 .5 + 1 .9 - 1 .9 (9 + 2 1 .7 + 2 0 .6 (9 -.5 +20 0 1 N o t e n o u g h w o r k e r s t o j u s t i f y t h e c o m p u t a t io n o f a n a v e r a g e . Average Weekly Earnings in Union and Nonunion Shops The average weekly earnings of male employees engaged in direct labor in the North by union and nonunion shops and degree of sk ill66 for the three pay-roll periods covered are shown in table 43. Skilled and semiskilled workers in union shops received higher weekly earnings than those in nonunion bakeries, but the earnings of unskilled employees in nonunion shops were higher than in organized shops. The differentials were not large, however, except for the skilled workers. The weekly earnings of skilled workers in union establishments exceeded those in nonunion shops by $7.78 in M arch 1933, $6.26 in September 1933, and $5.96 in December 1934. The narrowing of the differential was due to a decrease of 5.8 percent in the average weekly earnings in union bakeries between M arch and September 1933, as against a decrease of only 1.3 percent in non union establishments. The reduction between September 1933 and December 1934 was caused by a larger gain in average earnings in nonunion shops. It will also be seen that, while in each kind of bakery, the figures indicate very little difference in the average weekly earnings between semiskilled and unskilled workers, there is a considerable differential between the unskilled and the skilled employees. This differential, however, was virtually twice as large in union as in nonunion shops. m S ee p 25. 82 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY T able 43 , — A v e r a g e w e e k l y e a r n i n g s o f m a le e m p l o y e e s i n N o r t h e n g a g e d i n d irec t la b o r b y u n i o n a n d n o n u n i o n s h o p s a n d s k i l l Percentage of change Average weekly earnings Type of shop and degree of skill March to September March 1933 December September 1933 to De to Decem March 1933 September 1933 1934 cember 1934 ber 1934 1933 Union shops: Skilled_________________ Semiskilled-------------------Unskilled---------------------- $31.59 18.97 17.79 $29. 77 18.89 17.44 $29.98 19.65 17. 75 -5 .8 -.4 -2 .0 +0.7 +4.0 +1.8 -5 .1 +3.6 -.2 Total_________ ______ 25.89 24.69 24.96 -4 .6 +1.1 -3 .6 Nonunion shops: Skilled_______ __________ Semiskilled_____________ Unskilled______ ____ ___ 23. 81 17.51 18.04 23.51 17.60 18.01 24.02 17.78 18.19 -1 .3 + .5 -.2 +2.2 +1.0 +1.0 + .9 +1.5 + .8 Total------------------------- 20. 73 20.42 20.64 -1 .5 +1.1 -.4 Average Weekly Earnings and Degree of Mechanization In both N orth and South, the largest average weekly earnings were found generally in those shops which were m ost highly mechanized, with the existing differentials between mechanical and handicraft and between mechanical and semihandicraft shops increasing for the m ost part from M arch to September 1933 and from the latter month to December 1934. The data relating to average weekly earnings by degree of mechanization, which is limited to employees engaged only in direct labor, will be found in table 44. T able 44 . — A v e r a g e w e e k l y e a r n i n g s i n b a k e r ie s c la s s ifie d b y d e g ree o f m e c h a n i z a t i o n a s to r e g i o n a n d s e x 1 A v e r a g e w e e k ly e a rn in g s R e g io n , sex , a n d d e g r e e o f m e c h a n iz a t io n M a r c h 1933 N o rth M a le s : H a n d i c r a ft --------- -----------------S e m ih a n d ic r a ft _ __ $23,35 2 3 .1 0 25.03 S ep tem b er 1933 P ercen ta g e o f ch a n ge D ecem b er 1934 M arch to S e p t e m b e r M a r c h 1933 S e p t e m b e r 1933 t o D e to D ecem 1933 c e m b e r 1934 b e r 1934 $23 .26 $22. 75 -2 .6 23.63 2 3 .10 2M 5 .30 67 e c h a n i c a l26. ................................ + 1 .1 + 2 .2 + 2 .3 + 5 .4 -0 .4 + 2 .3 + 6 .6 2 4 .88 2 5 .12 26.03 + 1 -0 + 3 .6 + 4 .6 ( 2) 13.35 13.84 ( 2) 14.04 14.53 (2) 14,68 14. 67 ( 2) + 5 .2 + 5 .0 ( 2) + 4 .6 + 1 .0 ( 2) + 1 0 .0 + 6 .0 13. 75 14.40 14.66 + 4 .7 + 1 .8 + 6 .6 M a le s : H a n d i c r a ft __________________ S e m ih a n d ic r a ft _____________ M e c h a n i c a l __________ _______ 15.98 17.80 19.52 17.07 18.49 20 .9 9 18.67 18.04 21.17 + 6 .8 + 3 .9 + 7 .5 + 9 .4 - 2 .4 + .9 + 1 6 .8 + 1 .3 + 8 .5 T o t a l ___________ _______ F e m a le s : H a n d i c r a ft __________________ S e m ih a n d ic r a ft _____________ M e c h a n i c a l ................ ............... T o t a l ________________ _____ S ou th T o t a l ______________________ 19.29 20 .7 4 2 0 .9 2 + 7 .5 + .9 + 8 .4 F e m a le s : H a n d i c r a ft __________________ S e m ih a n d ic r a f t ____________ M e c h a n i c a l -------------------------- (2) ( 2) 10.45 f 2) ( 2) 12.69 ( 2) ( 2) 12.49 (2) ( 2) + 2 1 .4 ( 2) ( 2) -1 .6 (2) ( 2) + 1 9 .5 T o t a l ______________________ 10.32 12.44 12.38 + 2 0 .5 - .5 + 2 0 .0 1Includes only employees engaged in direct labor. 2Not enough workers to justify the computation of an average. 83 WEEKLY EARNINGS Type of Distribution and Average Weekly Earnings T hat the type of distribution affects average weekly earnings to some extent is apparent from table 45. The male workers in both North and South in m ulti-State, multiple-unit retail, and chain-store bakeries received, on the whole, higher average weekly earnings than those in either retail and house-to-house or local wholesale establish ments. In the North, male employees were better off in local whole sale than in retail and house-to-house shops, but in the South the reverse was true. For female workers, however, the retail and houseto-house bakeries paid the highest average weekly earnings in the North, and in the South earnings were highest in local wholesale shops. T a b l e 45 . — A v e r a g e w e e k l y e a r n i n g s i n b a k e r ie s c la s s ifie d b y t y p e o f d i s t r ib u t io n a s to r e g io n a n d s e x A v e r a g e w e e k ly e a rn in g s S ep tem b e r 1933 D ecem b e r 1934 M arch to Sep tem b er 1933 S ep tem b e r 1933 to D e cem b er 1934 + 4 .3 + 8 .5 R e g io n , sex , a n d t y p e o f d is t r ib u t io n M arch 1933 P e r c e n ta g e o f c h a n g e M arch 1933 t o D ecem b e r 1934 N o rth M a le s : R e t a i l a n d h o u s e -t o -h o u s e _______ _____ _ L o c a l w h o le s a le ________________ _______ M u lt i- S t a t e , m u lt ip le -u n it re ta il, a n d c h a in sto r e _____ ___________ _____ $24.11 24.65 $ 2 3 .82 2 5 .0 6 $24 .84 2 7 .1 8 -1 .2 + 1 .7 2 5 .3 2 25.64 26. 52 + 1 .3 + 3 .4 + 4 .7 T o t a l . , _____________ ________ ________ 2 4 .8 8 2 5 .12 26.03 + 1 .0 + 3 .6 + 4 .6 14.29 13. 52 15.15 14.11 15.24 14.33 + 6 .0 + 4 .4 + .6 + 1 .6 + 6 .6 + 6 .0 13.63 14.33 14.57 + 5 .1 + 1 .7 + 6 .9 13. 75 14.40 14.66 + 4 .7 + 1 .8 + 6 .6 + 9 .2 + 9 .3 + 2 .0 + 1 .8 + 1 1 .4 + 1 1 .2 F e m a le s : R e t a il a n d h o u s e -t o -h o u s e ______________ L o c a l w h o le s a le ................................................. M u l t i - S t a t e , m u lt ip le - u n it r e t a il, a n d c h a in s t o r e ____________ _________________ T o t a l ________________________ ________ _ + 3 .0 + 1 0 .3 Sou th M a le s : R e t a i l a n d h o u s e -t o -h o u s e ______________ L o c a l w h o le s a le .............. .............................. _. M u lt i- S t a t e , m u lt ip le - u n it re ta il, a n d c h a in s t o r e ____________________ _____ __ 18.96 18.63 20.71 2 0 .3 6 21.13 2 0 .72 2 0 .28 2 1 .24 2 1 .12 + 4 .7 -.6 + 4 .1 T o t a l __________________________________ 19.29 20.74 2 0 .92 + 7 .5 + .9 + 8 .4 10.07 10.69 11.89 12.72 12.07 12. 47 + 1 8 .1 + 1 9 .0 + 1 .5 —2 .0 + 1 9 .9 + 1 6 .7 10.01 12.46 12.40 + 2 4 .5 -.5 + 2 3 .9 10. 32 12.44 12. 38 + 2 0 .5 - .5 + 2 0 .0 F e m a le s : R e t a i l a n d h o u s e -t o -h o u s e _____________ L o c a l w h o le s a l e ............ .............................. M u lt i- S t a t e , m u lt ip le - u n it r e t a il, a n d c h a in s t o r e ______________ _______________ T o ta l. _ _________________________ Kind of Product and Average Weekly Earnings It is interesting to note the differences in average weekly earnings when classified according to principal product. (See table 46.) The highest average earnings per week of males in the North were found in bread specialty shops. These high weekly earnings were brought about by the unusually high average earnings per hour, which more than offset the low average weekly hours worked in plants of this type. In bread shops, the average weekly wages paid in M arch 1933 were only 72 cents more a week than in cake shops. The increase in weekly earnings was greater in bread shops, and employees in these 84 WAGES AND HOUftS— BBEAD-BARING INDUSTRY shops earned $1.46 a week more than those in cake shops in September 1933 and $2.45 more in December 1934. In the South, male employees in bread shops earned $3.74 a week more than employees in cake shops in M arch 1933, $2.82 more in September 1933, and $3.17 more in December 1934. The decrease of the differential was the result of a greater relative increase in earnings in cake shops between M arch 1933 and December 1934 than in bread shops. T he same general trend characterized the earnings of female workers both in the North and South. Comparisons W ith 1931 In the fall of 1931, the average weekly earnings of workers in bread bakeries67 was $29.53 for males and $12.70 for females, with an average of $28.54 a week for all workers. B y contrast, in December 1934 the weekly earnings of male employees averaged $2 5 .2 4 ; those of female workers, $ 1 4 .2 3 ; and the average for all employees was $23.86 a week. Thus, only the weekly earnings of female employees were higher in December 1934 than in 1931. The weekly earnings of male workers averaged $4.29 less than in 1931, a decrease of more than 14.5 percent. T able 46.— A v e r a g e w e e k l y e a r n i n g s i n b a k e r ie s c la s s ifie d b y k i n d o f 'p rod u ct a s to r e g i o n a n d s e x A v e r a g e w e e k ly e a rn in g s P erce n ta g e o f ch an ge S ep tem b e r 1933 D ecem b e r 1934 M arch to Sep tem ber 1933 S ep tem b e r 1933 to D e cem ber 1934 $24.89 $25.21 $26.33 + 1 .3 + 4 .4 + 5 .8 24.17 2 9 .56 23. 75 3 0 .4 2 2 3 .88 2 8 .77 -1 .7 + 2 .9 + .5 -5 .4 -1 .2 - 2 .7 26.03 + 1 .0 + 3 .6 + 4 .6 R e g io n , se x , a n d k i n d o f p r o d u c t M arch 1933 M arch 1933 t o D ecem b e r 1934 North M a le s : B r e a d _____ ___________ _____________ C a k e , s w e e t g o o d s , a n d p ie , in c lu d in g c a k e s p e c ia lt ie s ________________________ B r e a d s p e c ia lt ie s ....... ................................... T o t a l ____________________________ _____ 24.88 2 5 .1 2 F e m a le s : B r e a d _______________ ___________ _________ C a k e , s w e e t g o o d s , a n d p ie , i n c lu d in g c a k e s p e c ia lt ie s ________________________ B r e a d s p e c i a l t i e s ______ _________________ 15.10 15 .9 2 16.02 + 5 .4 + .6 + 6 .1 12.03 0) 12.91 0) 13.44 0) + 7 .3 0) + 4 .1 0) + 1 1 .7 0) T o t a l _____________ ______________________ 13. 75 14 .4 0 14 .6 6 + 4 .7 + 1 .8 + 6 .6 South M a le s : B r e a d ______________________________________ C a k e , s w e e t g o o d s , a n d p ie , in c lu d in g c a k e s p e c ia lt ie s _________________________ B r e a d s p e c i a lt i e s .. . . _________________ 19. 57 2 0 .97 2 1 .1 9 + 7 .2 + 1 .0 + 8 .3 15.83 ( 2) 18.15 (2) 18.02 ( 2) + 1 4 .7 ( 2) -.7 ( 2) + 1 3 .8 ( 2) T o t a l ____________________________________ 19.29 20. 74 2 0 .9 2 + 7 .5 + .9 + 8 .4 F e m a le s : B r e a d ________________ _______________ _____ C a k e , s w e e t g o o d s , a n d p ie , in c lu d in g c a k e s p e c ia lt ie s ________ ________________ B r e a d s p e c ia lt ie s — ______ ________________ 11.34 13.10 13.19 + 1 5 .5 + .7 + 1 6 .3 8 .3 8 ( 2) 11.44 ( 2) 11.25 ( 2) + 3 6 .5 ( 2) -1 .7 ( 2) + 3 4 .2 ( 2) T o t a l . _____ . . . _________________ _____ 10.32 12.44 12.38 + 2 0 .5 - .5 + 2 0 .0 1 Not enough workers to justify the computation of an average. 2Not available. 5; Excludes pie departments or establishments. Chapter YI.—Personnel Policies and Working Conditions58 The Bakery Worker W ith the rapid advances in technology in the bread-baking industry have come far-reaching changes in the conditions under which the bakery employees live and work. The bakery worker is no longer required to labor 16 hours or more a day in semidark and damp cellars, as was common in the nineteenth century. A s far as lighting, ventilation, and general sanitation are concerned, the typical bakery of today compares favorably with other industrial establishments. Likewise, hours of labor have been reduced and now closely correspond with the working time prevailing in other industries. Formerly conditions of employment discouraged family life among bakers, but today a large proportion are the heads of families and often home owners. There are still m any foreign-born bakers in some parts of the country. This is particularly true of the small local and specialty shops, catering to the racial or national tastes of the trade they serve. Considering the industry as a whole, however, bakery work ers are predominantly white native-born Americans,59 largely of Ger man extraction. Fewer than 4 percent of all employees covered in December 1934 were Negroes, and these were generally employed on maintenance work, although a few were employed as direct workers in some plants. T he employees in the industry are predominantly male, the number of female workers in Decem ber 1934 amounting to only 12.4 percent. M o st of the females reported, moreover, were retail-store clerks and office employees. Com paratively few female employees were en gaged in bread baking, mainly because the m ajority of bakeries still operate at night and in m any States legal restrictions prohibit night work for women. Another factor that has tended to limit the em ployment of women in the industry is that until recently the heavy work of bakeries demanded male labor. A considerable number of women are employed, however, in cake or pie departments and in establishments that do not operate primarily at night. Hiring Procedure T he hiring of employees is usually in the hands of the owner in the small shops and the superintendent or general manager in the larger establishments. In the larger plants, however, the function is fre68 When considering personnel policies in the bread industry, the bake-shop workers, maintenance em ployees, driver-salesmen, retail-store clerks, and office personnel must sometimes be treated as distinct groups. T he retail clerk and office groups are numerically unimportant in this survey. Except where specifically noted, therefore* the policies and conditions described apply generally to the bake-shop workers, maintenance employees, and driver-salesmen. The references contained here to provisions of union agreements are based on an analysis of 52 such agree ments, dated 1934 and 1935, in 30 cities of 18 States, between bread bakeries and the Bakery and Confec tionery Workers* International Union of America or the Amalgamated F ood Workers. 50 T lis was indicated b y about 91 percent of 152 bakeries reporting on the subject. 85 86 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY quently delegated to subordinates. Thus, the hiring was done by the foreman or department head in 59 of the bakeries surveyed, and most of these plants had more than 50 workers; they accounted for 36 percent of the employees covered. There were only eight establish ments, all of which belonged to the m ulti-State and chain-store groups, that had special employment departments. A classification of plants according to the agency used in hiring will be found in table 47. Companies recruited employees through direct personal application, trade-unions, private and governmental employment agencies, and occasionally through recommendation b y yeast companies or their representatives. T he relative importance of these methods was in the order named. The few plants that used private and governmental employment agencies to any extent depended on them principally for mechanics, unskilled help, office employees, and store clerks. The majority of shops that had working agreements with trade-unions relied upon the unions alm ost exclusively for the type of employees covered by the agreement, although 26 percent of the union shops reported that they hired chiefly from individual applicants. In 90 percent of the nonunion plants, hiring was upon direct application only. In small bake shops, such as comprise the m ajority of the trade, the employer is likely to consider the applicant according to his more obvious qualifications for the job. W ith increasing size of establish ments, however, more elaborate qualification policies are found, embracing such considerations as type and extent of previous service in the trade, age, marital status and dependents, physical condition as determined b y medical examination, citizenship, and education. T able 47 . — E m p l o y i n g a g e n c y i n 2 5 2 b a k e r ie s , b y s i z e o f p la n t , 1 9 3 4 . Bakeries with classified number of employees Em ploying agency Total A ll agencies________________________________ 252 Foreman nr department head Superintendent, owner, or other executive Em ploym ent or personnel department 59 185 8 20 100 250 10 50 Under and and and and and under under under under under 10 20 50 100 250 500 22 42 67 55 55 9 22 2 40 7 59 1 17 36 2 29 23 3 4 5 500 and over 2 2 Previous experience, and particularly satisfactory service in the plant of the employer, outweighs all other considerations when hiring an applicant. I t is, of course, based on the demand for experience in the work and the employee's record for dependability and merit. Hence it applies particularly to reliable employees who have been laid off because of slack demand. Alm ost three-fourths of the plants covered made it their policy to rehire, in preference to other applicants, former employees who had been laid off. Conversely, employees who left their jobs voluntarily are less favorably considered, since the mi gratory baker is expensive from the operating standpoint. I t is not uncommon for employers often to refuse to take back men who have previously left their employ voluntarily. Rewarding part-time or extra workers or “ jobbers” with full-time work when conditions PERSONNEL POLICIES AND WORKING CONDITIONS 87 permit is customary and is a requirement in some trade-union agree ments. T hat the baker's work is strenuous is indicated in part by the age composition of the workers employed in the industry. The union contends that “ the present methods of production impose such a strain upon the workers that * * * it is almost impossible for a man of 50 to secure any j o b ." 60 M ore than 43 percent of the male bakery employees, according to the Bureau of the Census, are under 30 years of age, and the age of 32.6 percent is from 30 to 44 years. In 1930, the age of nearly a third of all gainfully employed workers in the United States was 45 years or over, but only slightly more than a fourth of the bakers were over 45 years of age. There is a pronounced tendency to confine employment of the bakeshop workers (mostly males) to definite age limits. A higher mini m um hiring age than the 16 years imposed by the code was the rule in almost half of the shops. O f these, nearly 80 percent fixed the minimum at 18 years, and a number hired no one under 21. The highest minimum age reported was 25 years. Driver-salesmen were generally required to be 20 years old or over. The maximum age for new employees is less frequently fixed, as less than a fourth of the reporting plants imposed this requirement. These establishments, 61 in number, fixed the maximum ages as follows: 8 plants, 30 years; 14 plants, 35 years; 13 plants, 40 years; 15 plants, 45 years; 10 plants, 50 years; and 1 plant, 60 years. Several shops had a lower maximum hiring age for driver-salesmen than for bakers. Generally speaking, the hiring age for bake-shop employees ranged from 18 to 45 years and for driver-salesmen from 21 to 35 years. The prevalence of night work, the strenuous labor in hand bakeries, and the health hazards in shops not m odem ly equipped and ventilated are factors contributing to the limited years in which a person can work in this industry. M a m e d men and unmarried women are preferred in the m ajority of plants reporting marital status as a hiring consideration. The sta bility and responsibility of married men, particularly if they have dependents, was given as the reason. A few shops applied the same principle in hiring women employees, but the majority preferred single women and several barred married women entirely. American citizenship was a factor in the hiring policies of about 30 percent of the plants covered. The m ajority of these required full citizenship, even stipulating that employees be native-born, whereas a few required only a declaration of intention to become a citizen. Physical examinations are not usually required by the employer, although some companies provided medical examination and a few others insisted on an examination at the applicant's expense. Certifi cates of health are also required of their members by some union locals. The burden of this protection of the public, however, rests with the States and cities, some of whose statutes and ordinances require certificates of health for food handlers. Educational requirements for employment in the industry are not very stringent, only one-third of the plants investigated making literacy and a speaking knowledge of English prerequisites for employment. Some required a grade-school, high-school, or businessschool education, but this was chiefly for the sales and office force. so O ffic ia l R e p o r t a n d P r o c e e d in g s o f t h e T w e n t i e t h C o n v e n t io n t o t h e B a k e r y W o r k e r s ’ I n t e r n a t io n a l U n io n o f A m e r ic a , h e ld a t S^. L o u is , M o . , S e p t e m b e r 1929. and C o n fe c t io n e r y 88 W AGES AND H O U R S — B R E A D -B A K I N G IN D U S T R Y Training Policies Training is necessary for both bakers and driver-salesmen. Bakers learn their trade either through apprenticeship or by work as helpers. Generally, an apprenticeship system is used in unionized handicraft bakeries, and in machine and nonunion shops new employees receive their training as helpers. In some cities, however, the apprenticeship system prevails in all types of bakeries. O f the 259 plants investigated, only 7 percent trained apprentices. All of these were union shops and represented 25 percent of all the unionized bakeries covered. Actually, only 74 apprentices were found on the pay rolls of these shops. This low proportion is doubt less due both to the large number of unemployed journeyman bakers at the time of the survey and to the increasing mechanization of the industry which has curtailed the demand for skilled workers. Bakery workers beginning as helpers in plants where apprentice training is not required are advanced to work as machine or bench hands in accordance with ability or seniority, or both, usually with out a definite requirement as to length or extent of training. Union agreements frequently specify that advancement m ust have union approval. T he union locals that require apprentice training for journeyman bakers frequently do not permit helpers to do the work of apprentices or bakers. Advancem ent from apprentice to journeyman baker is generally attended by a more formal regulation than is the promotion from helper, but the practices vary widely between different cities and union locals. The requirements in 20 union agreements that pro vide for apprentice training are as follows: P e rio d o f a p p r en tic es h ip : 2 t o 4 y e a r s . In str u c tio n : I n e a c h m a n u fa c t u r in g d e p a r t m e n t u n d e r g u id a n c e o f a jo u r n e y m a n ba k er. M i n i m u m a g e: 16, 17, o r 18 y e a r s ( n o t a lw a y s r e q u ir e d ). M a x i m u m a g e: 2 0 t o 2 5 y e a r s ( n o t a lw a y s r e q u ir e d ) . N u m b er a llo w ed : F r o m 1 p e r s h o p t o 1 p e r 10 t o 15 jo u r n e y m e n . W a g e s : E n t r a n c e , $ 1 2 t o $ 2 0 .5 0 p e r w e e k , w it h a d v a n c e m e n t g e n e r a lly e v e r y 6 m o n t h s , a n d la s t w a g e p e r io d $ 1 8 t o $ 3 5 p e r w e e k . ( A fe w a g r e e m e n ts p e r m it t h e e n tir e a p p r e n t ic e s h ip t o b e s e r v e d a t t h e e n t r a n c e w a g e .) E x a m in a tio n : S o m e tim e s r e q u ir e d b e fo r e t h e a p p r e n t ic e is g iv e n h is jo u r n e y m a n 's c a r d . H e lp e r s : H e lp e r s a re n o t p e r m it t e d t o p e r fo r m th e w o r k o f a p p r e n tic e s o r b a k e rs . ( N o t a lw a y s sp e c ifie d .) Training for driver-salesmen, as given in some plants, consists only in the novice accompanying the route supervisor until he learns the route, becomes acquainted with the customers, and is capable of working ^ independently. T he larger organizations, however, usually require more extensive training of a student salesman, such as a course of a week or two in sales methods, under the direction of the sales manager or person in charge of sales promotion, and instruc tion in manufacturing processes and company organization and policies, as well as learning the particular route to which he is assigned. Student salesmen usually receive a straight salary during the train ing period. T h e length of training varies from 1 to 6 weeks, with 2 weeks the usual period. T h e more progressive shops hold periodical sales meetings, which serve to keep their salesmen instructed in new methods and progress. 89 P E R S O N N E L P O L IC IE S A N D W O R K IN G C O N D IT IO N S Lay-off and Firing Procedure As previously indicated, seasonal influences play a relatively minor part in the baking industry. Exigencies of the season, how ever, do cause moderate fluctuations in production, accelerated activity occurring generally during August and September with January as the m onth of lowest production. There are also the shorter rush periods during week-ends and before holidays. The slack periods generally result in part-time hours rather than lay-offs. B y this means, the employer is able to maintain his working force nearly intact. The methods of cutting the hours include the use of the stagger system , vacations without pay, reduction of hours and earnings proportionately, and the reduction of hours with main tenance of full-time weekly salaries. Some union agreements provide that 6 days or less shall constitute a week's work for employees on a salary basis, or that regular employees m ust have a full week's pay if the plant is in operation. Other agreements specify that, in order to share work (among members of the local), each regularly employed person m ust give 1 or 2 days' work a week to a substitute. b For the week-end and preholiday rushes, the general practice is either to lengthen the hours of regular employees or to hire extras or “ jobbers.” Union agreements sanction both methods. W hen lay-offs are necessary, the factor governing selection, after ability and merit, is usually seniority. Alm ost half of the employers reported that a worker's family responsibility was an important consideration. The practice of giving advance notifications of lay-off or paying a dismissal wage was reported by two-thirds of the bakeries surveyed. Of the 167 plants so reporting, 114 gave notice only, 22 granted both notice and a dismissal wage, 16 gave a dismissal wage only, and 15 gave either notice or a dismissal wage as circumstances warranted. The typical length of notice, reported by three-fourths of the shops, was 1 week. One week's pay was the dismissal wage reported b y virtually all plants using this method. O f 52 union agreements examined, about half required notice varying from 12 hours to 1 week and none men tioned a dismissal wage except as pay in lieu of notice. The rate of discharge for cause among bakeries closely parallels the average for “ all industries” , as reported m onthly to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. The following causes for discharge with prejudice were cited by the employers in 149 bakeries, inefficiency (reported by 88 plants), dishonesty (86 plants), and drunkenness (79 plants) being the outstanding causes. N u m b e r o f bakeries reporting ca u se I n e ffic ie n c y ____________________________________________________________ D is h o n e s t y a n d t h e f t ________________________________________________ D r u n k e n n e s s __________________________________________________________ C a re le ssn e ss a n d in d iffe r e n c e _______________________________________ A c c i d e n t s ______________________________________________________________ I n s u b o r d in a t io n _______________________________________________________ P e r s o n a l c o n d u c t _________________ U n c le a n lin e s s __________________________________________________________ I n f r a c t io n o f r u le s ____________________________________________________ F o m e n t i n g d i s c o r d ____________________________________________________ D e s t r u c t iv e n e g lig e n c e _______________________________________________ W a s t e fu ln e s s __________________________________________________________ P h y s ic a l u n fit n e s s ________________ 102745°—37------7 88 86 79 37 17 16 11 7 7 5 4 3 2 90 W AGES AND H O U R S — B R E A D -B A K I N G IN D U S T R Y In a majority of the plants the discharging official was the same person who hired employees. (See table 47.) Appeal from discharge to a higher official or a mediation board was provided in fewer than half of the 140 plants that reported on this point. O f the 62 plants that provided an avenue of appeal, 4 had an established mediation board, 10 reported recourse through the trade-union, and the remain ing 48 allowed a review of the case by the superintendent or a higher official. M a n y union agreements specify that a union representative must determine if the reasons for discharge are sufficient, some agree ments making provision for mediation boards. Methods of Wage Payment W ages in the baking industry are paid chiefly on a time basis, except in the case of driver-salesmen, who are usually paid wholly or in part by commissions. This m ay be seen by an examination of table 48. The weekly salary basis predominated among retail-store and office employees, and it was also the usual method for over half of all bakeshop workers covered by the survey. The remaining bake-shop employees were chiefly on an hourly basis. The weekly wage was used almost exclusively for the regularly employed bake-shop workers in approximately three-fourths of the establishments, and in virtually all of the smaller shops, but in the larger shops the hourly rate pre dominated. The widespread use of the week’s work as the basis of wage payments, even though weekly rates m ay be apportioned to the actual hours worked, connotes a measurement of production in terms of a daily task rather than of hourly output. I t also reflects the sta bility of employm ent in the industry.61 T a b l e 4 8 .— Distribution of employees by class, method of wage payment, type of distribution of products, and region, 1934 Number of employees who were paid— Class of workers, type of distribution, and region Straight-time rates Total Total All workers______________ 20,623 Class of workers: Bake-shop employees3. 13,592 Union____________ 2,876 Nonunion________ 10,716 T>rivflr-salftsmfin _ 5,484 Sales supervisory, etc.3_ 295 Retail-store clerks_____ 400 Office________________ 852 Type of distribution of product: Independent local4___ 11, 381 Multi-State................... 8,432 Chain store__________ 810 Region: North.......... ................. 17,276 South............................. 3,347 On production basis Salary (week Hourly or rate month) Daily rate Total 5,514 15,109 9,109 5,640 360 13,264 2,876 10,388 412 196 391 846 7,346 1,768 5,578 409 193 339 822 5,579 859 4,720 339 249 90 3 8,567 5,732 810 6,359 2,464 286 2,021 3,137 482 12,541 2,568 7,185 1,924 5,017 623 3 38 20 Salary Bonus1 Com plus or com mission piece mission rates 2,754 2,426 328 334 328 328 5,072 99 9 6 2,708 43 3 2,364 56 6 187 131 42 2,814 2,700 1,244 1,510 1,565 861 5 329 339 21 4,735 779 2,408 346 1,993 433 334 4 4 328 6 1 Includes 328 employees working under a production bonus system and 6 employees on piece work. 3 Includes both direct and indirect labor in processing, maintenance, and shipping departments. 3 Includes sales managers, route supervisors, solicitors, sales-class instructors, route riders (learners), and other miscellaneous sales-department employees. * Includes local retail and house-to-house, local wholesale, and multiple-unit retail establishments. See also p. 99 relative to paying employees for holidays and vacations. P E R S O N N E L P O L I C IE S A N D W O R K I N G C O N D I T IO N S 91 In two large bakeries, the Bedeaux62 system of wage payment was in operation for employees in the manufacturing departments. A few other plants reported piece-rate paym ent to miscellaneous em ployees. M ore than 90 percent of the driver-salesmen were paid on a com mission basis. O f these, about half were on a straight commission basis and the other half received a salary in addition to commissions. Only a small percentage (7.5 percent) were on a straight-time basis, and m ost of these were employed by 20 small plants. Various methods are used in computing the commissions of driversalesmen. The m ost common methods are as follows: Percentage on all sales, with or without straight salary; and salary plus commis sions on all sales over a specified amount. In several plants, the rate of commission percentage was raised as the sales increased, although a few worked on the opposite principle and decreased the commission percentage as sales increased. A minimum-wage guaranty was m andatory under the code. Nevertheless, a few shops that were not complying with code provi sions gave no minimum-wage guaranty to employees paid on a com mission basis. The survey revealed that numerous other shops did not guarantee a minimum wage to salesmen until the code became effective. Periodic sales contests with financial rewards, found chiefly among the larger bakeries, were common incentives to sales promotion. These contests were generally held at widely separated and irregular intervals, although a few bakeries used them as continuing incentives, giving prizes based on weekly performance and grand prizes over a longer period. Overtime Rates The term “ overtime” , as used here, embraces any time worked before an employee's regular starting time or after his regular quitting time on any day. This includes work on Sundays and holidays when the regular working schedule of the employee does not provide for work on those days. Daily and weekly hours of work were limited by the code during the period covered by this survey. Consequently, the subject of overtime during the period was of less importance than ordinarily, as a great many of the plants during the code period simply adopted as their regular hours the maximum allowable. Thus, the opportunity for overtime work, except by code violation, was limited to the extent of the tolerance allowed certain employees.63 The payment of punitive overtime rates (time and a third, time and a half, etc.) to all or part of the employees was the expressed policy of 145 bakeries, or 56 percent of the plants surveyed. Extra rates for overtime were allowed the bake-shop workers in 130 shops, maintenance and garage employees in 84, chauffeurs and deliverymen in 26, retail-store clerks in 26, driver-salesmen in 4, and office eme2 A premium or gain-sharing plan, the main purpose of which is to equalize the basis of pay throughout the plant. Work is rated in “ points" or “ B’s” , each point being a man-minute of work. Usually produc tion employees are paid 75 percent of the value of production above standard, the remaining 25 percent going to indirect labor and supervision. 63The code allowed a tolerance in daily hours for bake-shop employees, within the regular weekly hour limitation, on days immediately preceding and following Sundays and holidays and on other occasions of unusual demand due to local conditions; it permitted an annual tolerance in hours of work of office em ployees to cover peak times; and it allowed work beyond the regular maximum hours for emergency repair or maintenance, provided the employees so working were paid for the excess hours by at least 1H their regular rates. 92 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY ployees in 3 bakeries. A m ajority of the remaining shops paid only straight time for overtime. In m any establishments salaried em ployees were allowed only compensatory time off, and often no compensation whatever. Table 49 shows the apportionment of employees among the plants compensating for overtime by the various methods used. T he figures given in the table include a substantial number of workers reported as never being required to work overtime, and consequently not affected b y policies fixing overtime pay. Driver-salesmen and other outside employees were omitted, as employees in these occupations customarily control their own hours of work, which means that over time for them could not be accurately measured. Three bakeries in California, however, had agreements with a drivers' union requiring punitive overtime rates for driver-salesmen, and a fourth plant there paid an extra overtime rate to sales supervisory employees. In one of these shops the salesmen were on a salary basis, and in the others they were paid partly by commissions. T a b l e 4 9 .— Distribution of employees 1 according to method of compensation for overtime, 1934 Class of workers Number Number of employees who were compensated of em by— Total ployees number working under of em Puni Pro No ployees “ no over All Time off compen tive rata time” methods rates pay sation policy All employees................ ....................... 13,713 Bake-shop employees..... ..................... 11,292 2,375 Union_________________________ 8,917 Nonunion_____________________ 1,145 Maintenance and garage workers____ 320 Chauffeurs and delivery men___......... 356 Retail-store clerks____ ______ _______ 600 Office employees— ............................. 1,084 790 157 633 48 20 98 128 12,629 10,502 2,218 8,284 1,097 300 258 472 7,961 7,024 1,429 5,595 753 118 54 12 2,426 2,098 675 1,423 165 56 79 28 1,458 934 32 902 95 70 78 281 784 446 82 364 84 56 47 151 1 Driver-salesmen and sales supervisory employees excluded. Tim e and a third was the usual overtime rate, being paid b y 101 of the 145 plants that reported punitive rates. Tim e and a half was the rate in 32 shops, and in 7 plants bake-shop employees were paid time and a half and other employees time and a third. One of the remaining five bakeries paid double time, and the other four a flat overtime rate. Double time was paid by a few plants for work on holidays and on regular days off, whether Saturday or Sunday. The normal week was the unit beyond which overtime was com puted for payment of extra rates in about two-thirds of the plants, and the normal day was the unit in the remaining. A few based overtime for bake-shop employees on the normal day, and for main tenance employees on the week. Bakery union agreements usually exact penalty rates for overtime, fixing the “ day” as the unit and providing for time and a half. The practice of paying penalty rates for overtime work shows a substantial increase compared with conditions found in the fall of 1931, when only 24 percent of the 503 bakeries surveyed paid extra overtime rates. This shows another phase of the progress towards shorter hours of work, which was given impetus by the codes. There P E R S O N N E L P O L I C IE S A N D W O B B L IN G C O N D I T IO N S 93 has been, however, a lowering of the level of penalty rates, as pre viously the customary rate was time and a half (occasionally double time for Sunday and holidays). B y contrast, in December 1934 the time and a third rate named by the code had been adopted by twothirds of the industry surveyed. Special Bonuses and Penalties Bonus and penalty systems covering safe driving, reduction o f returned merchandise, economy of materials, and length of service, were found in several establishments. Seven bakeries rewarded drivers for low accident rates, and 27 plants imposed penalties for accidents. Four of the bakeries that penalized drivers also gave bonuses. The safety bonuses varied from $4 to $25 per year, payable at intervals of 1, 3, 6, or 12 months, as long as the driver’s record remained clear. Penalties for chargeable accidents took the form of fines in 3 plants, deductions for all or part of the damage in 16, and suspension without pay in 2. The penalties in the remaining 6 establishments were not reported. In a few establishments, the fines collected were put into the bonus or athletic funds of the plant. The practice of allowing the drivers representation on the boards charged with fixing responsibility for accidents was frequent. Returned-merchandise bonuses or penalties were found in 12 bakeries, some of which gave bonuses for the reduction of loss through returned merchandise, and others levied penalties for exceeding a minimum allowance. A t four plants bonuses of from 50 cents to $5# per week were paid if the return of stale bread or cake b y the driver fell below 2 to 6 percent of his net sales. The bonus advanced in two of these establishments as the percentage of returned mer chandise decreased. T he bonus in a fifth plant was 1 percent of net weekly sales for returned “ stales” of less than quota; in the sixth it was 5 percent of net weekly sales for no stale returns; and, in the seventh it was one-half the wholesale value of the saving over the quota of stale goods. Penalties, deducted from commissions only, were similarly computed, the driver-salesmen being charged a per centage either of net sales or of the total cost of stale goods returned. In all bakeries where penalties were levied, the salesmen were re sponsible for making up their own orders and were not assigned quotas. In fact, in only six plants was it the reported practice for the bakery to assign a specified amount of bread to the salesmen, and four of these paid their salesmen on a salary basis and the other two paid them salaries plus commissions on net sales. Econom y of materials was the basis for bonus paym ent to foremen in the production department of one large bakery. Service bonuses were paid in three plants, all employees benefiting in two and only department heads in the third. Payments in Kind Supplying employees with bakery products for family use, free or at a discount, is a common practice in the industry. In fact, some 94 WAGES AND H O U R S — B R E A D -B A K I N G IN D U S T R Y union agreements specify the amount of free product that each unionmember employee shall be allowed. The practice varies widely. Some plants covered in this survey gave 2 pounds per day to each employee, others gave as much as the employee's fam ily could use, and still others gave employees discounts of from 5 to 25 percent. T he practice of supplying free lunches for employees, and at some shops two meals a day also was# reported. The extent of these practices, however, was not determined. Employee Expenses Licenses for bakery driver-salesmen or chauffeurs, or both, are required in the m ajority of States, as well as special licenses b y some cities. The cost varies from a few cents to $6 per year and is usually paid b y the driver, as only 35 companies out of the 183 reported the item as a firm expense. Bonds, furnished at their own expense b y driver-salesmen and sometimes also b y chauffeurs and deliverymen, were required b y 38 percent of 226 plants reporting. M o st of these were multi-State and house-to-house bakeries. The bond was^ usually a cash deposit, ranging from $25 to $250. Am ong establishments requiring bonds, more than half required $100 and a third required $50. Insurance bonds were rare, costing the applicant from $1 to $4 per year. In terest was paid b y a third of the companies requiring cash bonds. The m ost common interest rates ranged from 3 to 7 percent, but 5 and 6 percent were the rates usually reported. The responsibility for the collection of authorized or approved accounts is usually assumed b y the firm, but the driver-salesman is generally responsible for any credit that he extends on his own account. M a n y of the firms reported that their sales were on a cash basis, and any credit extended b y a driver-salesman was at his own risk. Others extended company credit only on a few large accounts, such as those of hotels and restaurants. A few did not permit the salesman to extend credit that was not approved, and the company assumed all responsibility. A t some establishments, the firm’s responsibility was only for the first few weeks of new accounts. A t others, only a limited amount of credit was extended. Some reports^ indicate that the driver’s cash bond is held, in the event of termination of his employment, as security for outstanding accounts. The item of uniforms is one to be considered b y the bakery em ployee, since in the m ajority of shops he must stand the entire or part expense of buying and laundering them. T he requirement of special uniform clothing is general throughout the industry, except in the very small bakeries. O f the plants that employed each type of worker, 73 percent required uniforms for bake-shop employees, 55 percent for driver-salesmen (and some chauffeurs), and 18 percent for retail-store clerks. The requirement for bake-shop employees is 10 percent higher in nonunion than in union shops. I t is also higher in m ulti-State than in independent bakeries, the ratios being, respectively, 94 and 66 percent for bakers and 72 and 50 percent for salesmen. Cost of purchase and maintenance is borne chiefly by the employee, as shown in table 50. Courtesy of Connecticut Pie C o. P la t e 5.—C a k e -B a t t e r M ix i n g . Courtesy of Connecticut Pie Co. P la te 6.—P ie -M a k in g M a c h i n e , S h o w in g B o t t o m M a k i n g , b o t t o m La y i n g , F il l in g , a n d T o p M a k i n g . P ER SO N N EL T able 50 . — N u m ber of P O L IC IE S p la n ts AN D W O R K IN G re q u irin g u n ifo r m s m a in ten a n ce Class of workers Bake-shop employees_____________________ Driver-salesmen and chauffeurs____________ Retail-store clerks_______________________ Num ber of plants 189 111 25 and d i s t r ib u t io n Cost of uniform borne by— Em ployee 16 12 8 28 53 6 of cost and Cost of maintenance borne by— Com Jointly Em pany ployee 145 46 11 95 C O N D IT IO N S Com pany Jointly 22 18 5 26 11 5 141 82 15 In several of the plants shown as sharing the cost, the firm and employee each supplied certain articles. In a few, the firm paid the entire cost for female employees, but only a part or none of the cost for male employees. The cost of providing and servicing uniforms varies widely with the type of clothing worn, ranging from a few dollars to more than $100 a year. Tw o types of service are used, one being service from rental agencies which includes maintenance of the clothing, and the other outright purchase of the uniforms by the employee or firm, with separate maintenance. A t most plants, particularly for the male workers, the uniforms are purchased. This is apparently the more costly method if uniforms are laundered outside the home. ^ A com parison of average annual cost per employee of providing uniforms by the two types of services is shown in table 51. T a ble 51 . — E s t i m a t e d a n n u a l p e r -c a p it a c o st o f u n i f o r m s a n d th eir m a i n t e n a n c e f o r ea ch c la ss o f w o r k e r , 1 9 3 ^ Average estimated annual per-capita cost of— Class of workers Uniforms All uni rented and forms plus maintained Purchase of mainte uniforms through nance 1 laundry service Bake-shop employees, male_________________________ $33. 69 _______________________ 24.80 Bake-shop employees, female 45. 97 Driver-salesmen and chauffeurs_____________________ 25. 69 Retail-store clerks___________________ ______________ $29.48 33.34 43.12 24.52 $8.35 4.03 24.04 7.18 Mainte nance of uniforms $25.26 11.40 21.83 20.28 * This includes both the cost of uniforms rented and maintained through laundry service and those purchased and maintained separately. Each estimated annual figure was weighted by the number of employees represented. The initial expense of white cotton clothes of the type used in bake Bhops is small, but the cost of keeping them clean is of some impor tance. T he cost of laundering such uniforms was estimated at 50 cents or more per week for approximately half of the bake-shop employees, and at 25 cents or more for very nearly all classes of work ers. Table 52 shows the distribution of employees according to weekly per-capita maintenance cost of uniforms. 96 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY T able 52 .— D istr ib u tio n o f e m p l o y e e s a c c o r d in g to w e e k l y u n ifo r m m a in ten a n c e, 1 9 8 4 p e r -c a p i t a co s t o f Number of employees whose weekly per-capita cost of uniform maintenance was— Total Class of workers 4, 553 2,295 2,228 30 All workers.......... Bakers..... ............. Driver-salesmen.. Retail-store clerks. cents $1.00 and 50 and 75and Under 25 and under under under under 25 cents 50 cents 75 cents $1.00 $1.25 $1.25 and under $1.50 140 136 108 108 530 133 394 3 2,134 1,205 906 23 1,159 649 510 457 39 418 $1.50 and over 25 25 "T Working Time and Shifts Unlike the even distribution of man-hours found in m any indus tries, the baker’s time m ust follow the order of manufacture of the product. H is hours vary widely in different plants, and even in the same shop on busy or slack days of the week. The number of bakings per day, duration of fermentation (which is faster or slower with different methods used), type of plant equipment, and peculiarities of the firm’s particular market all go to place a demand on the indus try for constant variability and adaptation. Because of the extreme irregularity of the starting and quitting hours of individual bake-shop employees and the overlapping of processes in terms of operating time, it is difficult to arrive at a weighted or composite average of daily peak load or slack for the industry, or even for individual plants. There is, of course, in each shop a work schedule of hours, which is adhered to more or less regularly. T he schedules of three small bake shops, given in table 53, illustrate the wide variations among shops. T a b l e 53 . — S t a r t i n g t i m e b y k in d o f w o r k i n 3 b a k e s h o p s Item Hour of beginning work Shop no. 1, mechanical bakery, with 1 shift. 1:30 p. m................. .... 2:00 p. m....... .............. 7:30 p. m____________ 8:00 p. m ..................... 8:30 p. m___....... ......... 10:00 p. m_................... 9 a. m. and 9 p. m....... 2 p. m. and 2 a. m....... 4 p. m. and 4 a. m....... 6 p. m. and 6 a. m____ 8 p. m. and 8 a. m....... 1 p. m. and 8 p. m___ 2 p. m. and 9 p. m___ 3 p. m. and midnight.. Shop no. 2, mechanical bakery, with 2 shifts. Shop no. 3, handicraft bakery, with 2 shifts. Class of workers Ingredient scalers. Mixers. Dividers. Molders and bench hands. Ovenmen. Wrappers. Mixers. Machine hands. Ovenmen. Wrappers. Packers. Second hands (mixer). First hands (foreman and ovenman). Third hands (bench men). In large bakeries where there is more division of work and several doughs are baked each day in continuous operation, the typical sched ule is an extreme use of the stagger system , with employees coming to work and leaving for home in a continuous procession with each hour of the day and night. A number of the larger bakeries have worked out a fairly uniform shift system. T he use of shifts of workmen, who report for work in reasonably uniform relays, was reported by 36.5 percent of the bak eries. In these shops, the two-shift basis was the rule, but a few PE R SO N N E L P O L IC IE S AN D W O R K IN G C O N D IT IO N S 97 operated three and four shifts. These do not include plants in which workmen in the same occupations start work at irregular hours throughout the day, nor those in which a cake department m ay work one set of hours, a pie department another, and a bread department still another, even though the plant is operating 24 hours per day. Such shops are considered as working one shift of staggered hours. R ota tion of hours for workmen on shift and staggered-hour systems is apparently not practiced extensively. A s already mentioned, daily hours in bake shops vary with week ends, holidays, and the midweek slack periods. A n effort has been made by the industry, however, to iron out these weekly peaks and lows. A sample of 44 different weekly schedules, taken from bakeries of m any kinds, large and small, union and nonunion, showed that half of them were able to maintain uniform daily work schedules throughout the week. Some of the 44 shops worked regular em ployees 5 days a week, arranging a schedule of regular relief men, or “ jobbers” , to cover the sixth employee-day as well as the extra hours of rush periods. The survey offered abundant evidence of broken shifts and chang ing hours from day to day, but the extent of these practices was not determined. T he code provisions governing maximum daily and weekly hours and a 6-day week doubtless had some effect, and numer ous union agreements were also of influence in standardizing working time. The union agreements have been helpful in stabilizing the workman’s day by defining his hours of starting and finishing, to be altered only on specified days, by providing for 1 day off per week which is not subject to change, by regulating the amount of permissible overtime, and by prohibiting excess overtime when “ jobbers” are available. T hey have been influential in abolishing “ split shifts” by requiring that the baker’s hours of labor be consecutive and fixing a minimum length of time between shifts. Driver-salesmen’s workdays are long, often beginning at dawn or earlier in bakeries requiring them to put up their orders and load their trucks. Off-duty periods during the day, however, afford some com pensation for the long hours. I t will be remembered that, with the exception of providing a 6-day week, the code did not restrict the hours of driver-salesmen (if paid on a commission basis). B u t in m any bakeries their hours are defined and the schedule closely ad hered to. Night Work N ight work is still common in the baking industry, although a struggle has been waged against it for a century. Some progress has been made, however, and in a number of countries night work in bakeries is now prohibited. The prevalence of night work in American bakeries is evident from the accompanying graph 9 which shows the hours of bake-shop oper ation 64 in 93 plants located in 28 States. These establishments em ployed 7 ,5 6 9 65 bake-shop employees. Their night hours of.operation comprised 51.2 percent of total operation, and 45.9 percent of these night hours were between midnight and morning. M ore than 25 64T h e hours during w hich an y production w ork w as performed in the shop. 65 Although this sample covers less than 5 percent of all bake-shop employees as shown by the 1930 Census the plants are well distributed with respect to location, size, kind of product, type of distribution, and unionization. 98 W A G E S A N D H O U RS— B R E A D -B A K IN G IN D U S T R Y percent of them were on 24-hour operation and an additional 30 percent operated 18 hours or more, while fewer than 11 percent of them operated less than 12 hours. Approximately 82 percent of the plants operated 6 or more hours between 6 p. m . and 6 a. m . In only about one-third of the plants did the work end between 6 o'clock in the morning and 6 o'clock at night. A large proportion of those not on a 24-hour operating schedule stop work between midnight and morning. Considering the fact that the majority of workmen do not start their work until several hours after operations for the day begin, it is evident that a very large proportion of bakers work while the average person sleeps. Only 31 of 248 shops reported premium rates for night work. These included about half of the union shops. The extra rate paid to the employees varied, ranging from 3 percent to 30 percent over the day rate. In m any shops, the differential was paid only to certain processing occupations m the bake shop. None of the nonunion shops were paying punitive wages for night work. The definition of “ night work” for purposes of paying the differential varies between cities and between shops in the same city. M o s t plants considered from 6 p. m . to 6 a. m . as night work, others from 8 p. m . to 4 a. m ., 9 p. m . to 5 a. m ., and 10 p. m . to 6 a. m . Rest Periods, Holidays, Vacations, etc. Approximately three-fourths of the bakeries made provision for rest during a lunch period of definite length for at least a part of their workmen, although only two-thirds of the shops extended this privilege to bake-shop employees. Bakers in the other shops re mained on duty for the entire unbroken^ period of their workday, and ate lunch “ on the jo b .” This practice was found in all types of plants, but it was m ost prevalent in the smaller independent nonunion shops, of which only 67 percent allowed the time free from duty, as compared with 83 percent of the union shops and 77 percent of all bakeries. M a n y union agreements provide for a lunch period and usually specify whether or not the time shall be counted as a part of the employee's regular hours of work. This survey did not yield information with regard to plant practice in paying for lunch periods. T he usual length of the lunch period for the shop, maintenance, and service workmen was one-half hour, this length allowed by twothirds of the plants, and m ost of the others allowed 1 hour. Office employees have regular lunch periods of 1 hour in the m ajority of plants. Driver-salesmen are usually free to fix the time and length of their noon-day rest as their work permits, although a few shops fixed the amount of time they should take. Short formal rest periods, aggregating from 20 to 30 minutes a day, in addition to the lunch time were allowed production and shipping employees in one plant, woman workers in two, and office employees in one. A ll of these rest periods were on company time. P E R SO N N E L P O L IC IE S AN D W O R K IN G C O N D IT IO N S 99 H oliday observance is general throughout the baking industry. The extent to which the principal holidays were observed is indicated by the following tabulation: N u m b er o f b a k eries ob servin g C h r is t m a s D a y _____________________________________________________ 230 T h a n k s g iv in g D a y _____________________________________________________ 2 0 4 I n d e p e n d e n c e D a y _____________________________________________________ 2 0 2 N e w Y e a r ’ s D a y ____ 1 _________________________________________________ 192 L a b o r D a y ______________________________________________________________ 160 D e c o r a t io n D a y ________________________________________________________ 132 The reports indicate some 13 additional holidays observed to a lesser degree. N o holidays were observed in 19 shops, only Christmas D a y in 16, and only Labor D a y in 1. The remaining plants allowed their employees from 2 to 11 holidays annually. T he baker’s holiday is usually celebrated the day, or night, before the holiday, and, if it falls on a Saturday or M on d ay, he m ay lose the day off entirely or have another day substituted. Sometimes the bakery operates a short day, usually a half day, or runs with a reduced force of employees alternating holidays or being given other days off instead. A s every holiday is normally a rush period among bakeries, it is not strange that m any plants are unable to grant the day off to all employees. In union agreements holiday observance is usually provided for specifically. Practices with regard to paying employees for time off on holidays vary considerably. In 93 percent of the shops included in the survey, payment to part or all of the force was found. Salaried employees generally suffered no deduction, and regular bake-shop workers received their full-time wage in 60 percent of the shops. The composite average for all bakeries shows that approximately half of all employees were paid in full for holidays and half took the time off at their own expense. Vacations with pay for wage earners are more common in the baking industry than in m any other industries. This is no doubt largely due to the permanence of employment and the closeness of personal contact between workmen and management. Vacations for all employees were provided by 12 percent of the plants reporting, and an additional 36 percent gave vacations to certain groups. These were for the most part vacations with full pay. Processing employees were granted vacations by 16 percent of the bakeries, driver-salesmen by 21 percent, retail-store clerks by 16 percent, and supervisory and office employees by 44 percent. The practice of giving vacations was relatively more prevalent in chain-store bakeries than in either the m ulti-State or independent local shops. Two-thirds of the chain-store plants gave vacations to all of their employees, whereas this was true of only 9 percent of the bakeries in the m ulti-State and local independent groups. H ow ever, 70 percent of the m ulti-State and 29 percent of the local inde pendent shops gave some vacations. Northern plants in general were more liberal in this respect than southern establishments, 14 percent giving vacatious to all and 41 percent to part of their employees. A m on g the southern shops canvassed, only 5 percent gave vacations to all and 21 percent to a part of their workers. The length of vacation was 1 week in approximately 60 percent of the plants, and the majority of the others gave 2 weeks. Graded 100 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY plans, with the length of vacation based on length of service, were used in 11 plants. ^ A minimum service of 1 year was the usual eligibility requirement for vacations in 83 firms reporting. Other service requirements ranged from 1 to 5 years, but 12 percent of the plants made no service requirement. Continuation of wages during short periods of illness was the practice in 37 percent of the bakeries surveyed. A ll employees bene fited in one-eighth of the shops, and only certain groups, usually the office and supervisory employees, in one-fourth of them. A s with vacations, this practice was followed by a larger proportion of the multi-State and chain-store establishments than local independent bakeries. Similarly, the northern plants were more liberal than those in the South. Policies regarding maximum length of sick leave and minimum service for eligibility were not so well defined as were those for vaca tions. T he m ajority of plants decided each case on its merits. In shops having a definite policy, however, the maximum^ sick leave usually allowed was 1 week. T he reports regarding service require ments were too few to warrant conclusions, but the range of service reported was from 1 m onth to 1 year. Welfare Work Elaborate welfare programs are not common among plants in the bread-baking industry, except in larger establishments and branches of large organizations like the m ulti-State and chain-store groups. T h e welfare activities include safety programs, employee insurance, and social or recreational work. Safety programs, additional to the usual provision of first-aid kits, safety posters, and machine guards, were found in 77 percent of the multi-State plants, 42 percent of the chain-store bakeries, and in 19 percent of the local independent establishments. The programs were directed by executives or foremen (in four plants by safety engineers), were subject to regular committee meetings of super visors and employees, and called for periodic inspections, investiga tion of accidents, and recommendation for elimination of hazards. Several programs provided for special instruction of employees in safety and in some instances rewards for the avoidance of accidents. A bout 60 percent of the employees surveyed were protected by insurance under company plans. For virtually all of these workers, the protection was provided by means of group life insurance. M a n y of the policies provided nonoccupational accident, disability, and health benefits. Insurance plans were found in 36 percent of all plants surveyed, m ost frequently in m ulti-State and chain-store organizations. T he costs were borne jointly b y company and employees at m ost establishments, only 4 plants in 94 requiring the employees to bear the entire expense. The firm paid the whole cost in 13 plants. In some establishments, the company paid for the life insurance and the employee for the other benefits, such as health and accident. A n insurance-pension plan was reported by one multi-State bakery, supported jointly b y the company and employees. Another plant, a local independent, had an endowment savings plan, likewise contributed to b y the firm and employees. 101 PERSONNEL POLICIES AND WORKING CONDITIONS Table 54 shows the occurrence of insurance plans by type of bakery and form of insurance. T able 54 . — In su r a n c e fo r ba k ery e m p lo yee s, 1 9 3 4 Total number of— Kind of bakery Number with insurance Number of plants having each specified kind of insurance .Em Em Com ploy Com ploy pa Plants ees pa Plants ees Life nies cov nies cov ered ered En Dis dow Pen ment abil Acci Health sions dent ity sav ings All bakeries_________ 222 258 20,814 64 94 12,420 93 36 40 41 1 Independent local *__ Multi-State................. Chain store................. 189 24 9 193 11,385 53 8,619 12 810 44 15 5 46 4,632 40 7,100 8 f 688 45 40 8 10 21 5 9 27 4 7 30 4 i 1 1 * Includes local retail and house-to-house, local wholesale, and multiple-unit retail establishments. Mutual-benefit associations were found in 17 plants. Some of these were partially supported by the company. Their services embraced such features as hospitalization and other health benefits, emergency financial aid, and social and recreational activities. Some also engaged in group insurance. Social and recreational activities, usually in the form of entertain ments, outings, banquets, dances, and subsidized baseball and other athletic teams, were included in the welfare programs of 45 of the plants surveyed. Appendix I.—Technological Processes and Glossary of Occupations P art 1 Technological Processes The description of technological processes given here is intended to make for a better understanding of the various occupations involved in the making of bread, cake, and pies. Due to the fact that bakeries vary all the way from the handicraft shop, with a minimum amount of machinery, to the highly mechanized plant, where virtually all opera tions are done by machines, it is difficult to present a description that will fit every establishment. Accordingly, an attem pt is made here only to trace in a general way the manufacture of bread, cake, and pies from the initial to the final stages, pointing out in each of the processes the methods used in hand and machine baking. (See chart 10.) B re a d M a k in g The processes involved in the making of bread are flour blending, mixing, fermentation, dividing or scaling and rounding, proofing, molding or shaping, baking, cooling and wrapping, and delivery. The description of each of these processes is as follows: Flour blending.— Blending consists of mixing two or more kinds of flour, usually those made from hard and soft wheats but often also those of varying qualities of the same wheat. The old-tim e baker used only one kind of flour, not knowing the value of blending several varieties, but at present this process is almost universal. Small bakeries ordinarily buy blended flour, but the larger ones do their own blending. The blending is done on the basis of a desired formula, which has been evolved from previous tests of various kinds of flour, showing the chemical and physical reactions of the several grades when combined with other ingredients. In the larger bakeries, the sacks of selected kinds of flour are brought from storage by hand truckers, opened, and then dumped into the various hoppers of the blending machine, under the direction of the blender. This machine thoroughly mixes the various kinds of flour, after which the blended flour is conveyed to the sifting machine. The purposes of sifting are to remove any foreign particles such as cord or string, lint, and splinters, to break up any lumps, and to lighten and aerate the flour. Upon completion of the sifting, the flour is conveyed to the storage bins, which are usually located directly above the mixing room. Mixing.— In the old days the flour was weighed by hand scales and then mixed with other ingredients (lard, eggs, yeast, sugar, water, etc.) in troughs by hand or with hand paddles. A t the present time, a mixing machine is used. The blended flour is drawn off from the 102 Flow of F lour and Oth e r In g r e d ie n t s T hrough a Bakery PIE Bread cake — ez fret//? Stopace I I S lE N D D V G 1 S /E T /A /G r" I I 1 Sa t t e p A Z /x / a/ g I o PODGP A f/X /A /G P P O O E /A /G — n: — 0 M D /A /G . S C A U A /O A N D P o G A /D /A /G P /L l/A /G P f/X /A /G B E A /C N P/E M A,-------------X /A /G --------------- 1P A C N /A /E 1 S cAJL/A/G Secon d i , .... P p o o f /a/g i 3E I A fo ip /A /e za. 1P a c n / a/ e 1 ; I E/AA/D ................ ................... 8 a /</NG \M£CPAA//CAl \ pJa/d APPENDIX I i 1D E P O S /T /A /G J A /d P / x / a/ I-........................................ ...... I D ump/n d i /C /N G M /X /N G COQj/A/G 1 P/A//S8/A/G \AfrC/ / / M f 1 P /fA /D S l /C /N G a fND M >JP P /A /G IVPAPP/N G I PACX/A/G W P A P P /N G PA CK /A /G 0 4 C M A /G ------------- " r Sell /a/ g and De l / p e p /n g U. S. B u r ea u o f L a b o r S t a t is t ic s o 00 104 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY storage bins b y the mixer, who sets the automatic scales for the desired quantity, thus permitting the correct amount of flour to drop into the dough-mixing and kneading machine. The other ingredients are then added b y the mixer, or the helper under his direction, in accordance with the prescribed formula. T he necessary period of operation of the mixing machine is controlled by the mixer, the length of time being based either on his experience and judgm ent or on a definite number of revolutions, as determined b y laboratory tests for specific kinds of bread. Certain machines m ay be set, so that they will automatically stop after a given number of revolutions. Some mixing machines are also equipped with water jackets, which are heated to a specific tem perature suitable to start yeast fermentation during the mixing opera tion, thus reducing by several hours the usual period of fermentation. In some bakeries, instead of adding each of the other ingredients separately, they are combined into an emulsion or sponge b y a special worker known as the sponger. The sponging is done in a v at other than the mixing machine, after which the proper amount is dumped into the latter. D ue to the more thorough kneading the dough receives in the m e chanical mixer, the absorption is increased and more loaves of bread per barrel of flour are produced than when mixed by hand. The mechanical mixer also increases m any times the quantity of output per man-day. Lastly, it eliminates the unsanitary conditions prevailing under hand kneading. Fermentation.— A study of yeast and its effect on dough under various temperatures and humidity has changed the process of fer mentation from the former “ trust to luck” plan, under which flour sacks or a blanket were thrown over the dough, to a system whereby the dough is placed in a specially constructed fermentation room with control of temperature and humidity. The fermentation room is usually constructed with double walls and windows. The temperature is controlled b y means of a thermostat, and humidifiers are used to maintain the desired moisture content of the air. In certain plants there has been installed equipment for washing the air, which transfers the air from the outside into the dough room at the precise degree of temperature and humidity necessary to assure perfect fermentation and rising. The dough in the mixing machine is mechanically dumped by the mixer into a long trough set on rollers which m ay be hand-pushed or conveyed b y an overhead-trolley system into the fermentation room. In some bakeries, however, the fermentation room is located ju st below the mixing room, and the dough is dumped through an opening in the floor directly into a trough located underneath. In the fermentation room, the dough is allowed to rise for a definite period of time. Dividing, scaling, and rounding.— In handicraft days, when the work of kneading a batch of dough and the fermentation or rest period was completed, the bench hands or hand bakers, as they were called, used cutters to divide the dough into pieces of correct size (determined b y scales) for a loaf of bread. Other bench hands rounded these pieces into shape and placed them in pans. T hey were assisted b y helpers, whose job consisted of putting the pans on racks, pushing them into a proofing room for the dough to rise again, and bringing other em pty pans to the bench hands. Some bench APPENDIX I 105 hands are still employed, particularly in bakeries making specialty goods. The duties of the above workers, however, have been virtually eliminated by a combination of two machines, known as the divider or scaler and rounder, which are connected by belt conveyors. The dough from the fermentation room is directed through a metal chute into the automatic dividing machine, which cuts it into pieces of uniform weight and size for each loaf of bread. Each dough piece is then carried along by a belt conveyor to the rounding machine, which gives it a kneading and turning action similar to that given by a hand worker. The pieces are automatically dusted with flour while in the machines. The operator of these machines is known as the divider or scaler and rounder. Proofing .—As the dough pieces come out irom the rounding ma chine, they are next subjected to another rest period for rising or proofing, in order that the cells ma^ develop. One method involves the use of a proofing room which is maintained at a specific tem perature and humidity. The dough pieces are first placed in pans, which task is performed by the proofer. The latter is assisted by a helper, whose job consists of supplying the racks with empty pans and pushing the racks of filled pans in and out of the proofing room. Another method consists of the use of a cabinet, pivoted to a base so that it may be revolved, and with drawer compartments on all sides arranged one above the other. The proofer picks up the pieces of dough, as they fall from the rounding machine, and places them in the drawers of the proofing cabinet. The work of the helper con sists here of opening and closing the drawers. When the proofing is completed, the dough is removed by the proofer to pans on movable racks, which are pushed by the helper to the molding machine. A third method involves the use of an automatic proofer. The pieces of dough from the rounding machine are delivered automatically in buckets by a conveyor to a traveling proofing cabinet, where they are carried back and forth through an enclosure maintained at a specific temperature and humidity. The speed controls of this system may be varied to any desired time of proofing. At the end of the process, the dough pieces are automatically delivered to the molding machine. M old in g or shaping .—Molding consists of giving the final shape to the dough in forming the loaf. This shaping was done by the hand bakers under the handicraft system, but it is now carried out almost universally by a special molding machine. The shaping in the machine is accomplished by means of feed rolls, spaced at specified distances apart, which flatten the dough and remove some of the gas from it. The dough next passes along to other rolls that further flatten and shape it to correct loaf form. The pieces of dough are now ready to go to the steam-proofing room, where they remain for a short rest period before being removed to the oven. The machine is operated by a molder and helpers. B a kin g .—The baking may be done in one of several types of ovens, which are described as follows: P e e l o v e n s o f a s t a t i o n a r y t y p e are so constructed that the heat in the back of the oven is less intense than in the front, because the dough placed in the rear is the first to be put in and the last to be taken out. The heat in these ovens is sometimes regulated by control dampers. An implement with a long handle 102745°—37---- 8 106 WAGES AND HOURS— DREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY and broad, thin, shovel-like end, known as a peel, is used by the baker to place the dough into the oven and to remove the baked bread. P e e l o v e n s o f a r o t a r y t y p e consist of a circular baking platform, which is rotated in a circular wall of masonry, with an opening through which the dough pieces, pies, cakes, etc., are placed inside by use of a peel and when baked removed by the same means. Some types of rotary ovens are provided with a mechanical device to assist in unloading. Any bakery products in the oven may be rotated to the oven door for inspection or removal at any time. R e e l o v e n s usually contain from 4 to 12 swinging shelves, rotating in the oven in a manner similar to a Ferris wheel. They are generally used for such products as cakes, cookies, pies, etc., which are usually placed into the oven as well as removed from it by means of a short-handled peel or asbestos gloves. D r a w p la te o v e n s are equipped with sliding plates or trays mounted on wheels, which rest on the floor of the room outside of the oven. The trays are drawn out with the end resting on the edge of the oven, loaded with pans of dough, and returned into the oven for baking. T r a v e l in g o v e n s are used for large production. The dough is fed in at one end on an endless conveyor, which pafcses slowly through a heated compartment and discharges the baked bread from the rear. These ovens may be fed by hand or an automatic conveyor, depending on the equipment of the plant. In the hand-fed type of oven, racks of dough-filled pans are pushed to the oven, after which the pans are placed on the apron of the conveyor in front of the oven, which automatically carries them through the oven. As the pans are discharged from the oven at the back, the bread is dumped by hand on conveyor belts for the cooling process. Under the automatic conveyor each dough piece is carried from the molder machine by a belt conveyor and dropped into a waiting pan. The pan is mechan ically pushed along, and another empty pan takes its place in position to receive the next piece of dough. This process is continued until a specified number of these pans have been pushed to a place directly in front of the opening of the steamproofing compartment, where the dough gets another short rest period for rising purposes, after which the mechanical device pushes each group of doughfilled pans into the oven. The oven conveyor carries the dough-filled pans through a space of 100 or more feet heated by gas or other means. Steam injectors are used in some ovens near the place where the dough enters to prevent too rapid drying. The temper ature of the oven and speed of the conveyor are under thermostatic control, so arranged that the dough will be thoroughly baked when it reaches the rear of the oven, where it is automatically pushed out. Each type of oven is usually attended by an ovenman and helpers. Cooling and wrapping.— In a handicraft or partially mechanized plant, the freshly baked bread is removed by peel from the oven, dumped from the pans on a table, and placed by hand on racks to cool before being taken to the wrapping room. In a thoroughly mechanized plant the freshly baked bread is discharged in a con tinuous stream from the rear of the traveling oven and dumped from the pans by hand on the apron of the cooling conveyor, which auto matically carries it back and forth a specified number of times through the cooling air of the plant or through a specially con structed air-cooled compartment. This conveyor then discharges the load of cooled bread in the wrapping room. The em pty pans are placed on another conveyor, which carries them to a machine by which the pans are automatically cleaned and greased, after which they are carried by a conveyor belt back to the molding machine to start another journey. A large amount of the bread is now sliced and wrapped. There is very little slicing and wrapping done by hand, most of it being per formed by automatic machines, although some of the machines are hand-fed. In the highly mechanized bakery, however, the bread from the cooling conveyor system is carried by a conveyor belt APPENDIX I 107 directly into a machine, which automatically slices, wraps, and seals each loaf at a speed of 3,000 or more per hour, or only wraps and seals it, depending on the requirements of the customer. Delivery.— In the early days bread was carried by delivery boys on foot from door to door in hand baskets. Later the delivery of bread was made by horse and wagon, but this method has now been largely displaced by the automobile. W ith the building of improved roads, bakery products of all kinds are at present delivered daily by driversalesmen to surrounding towns and cities and many miles into country districts. In a highly mechanized bakery, flour enters the blending hoppers, and, with water and other ingredients, goes through the mixer, divider or scaler and rounder, conveyor proofer, molder, and oven, all connected and operated by synchronized motors with chain belts so speeded that the pieces of dough from each machine will automatically pass into the next, and finally come out of the traveling oven in the form of bread, which is sliced, wrapped, and eventually delivered to the consumer, practically free from the touch of human hands. In such a bakery, producing 600 or 700 loaves of bread per hour and employing only one person at the feed end of the traveling oven and one or two at the delivery end, with an occasional person at other automatic machines to see that they are operating correctly, with a few helpers scattered here and there, it can readily be seen that, although some skilled workers are employed, m any others have been eliminated. Cake Making In the early days of cake making, as in the case of bread, the flour, sugar, butter, etc., were each weighed out on hand scales, placed in mixing bowls, and stirred with wooden paddles or b y hand. Under present methods, the various ingredients are weighed or measured according to formula and poured in their proper order into a powerdriven mixing machine. This material, when thoroughly mixed, is known as batter. The next process is that of batter scaling. The newly mixed batter is poured into the hopper of a machine, which is operated by two persons, one placing the em pty pans under the batterdepositing device, and the other regulating the machine to deposit a specified quantity of batter in each pan. The correct working of the machine is checked by occasionally weighing a filled pan. The filled pans are removed and placed on movable racks, which are pushed to the ovens. The methods of baking are the same as that for bread. The icing for a cake is prepared in a similar machine as that used in mixing cake batter. The work of spreading this icing smoothly upon layers of cake, or over the tops and around the sides, is known as finishing. This is done by hand, with the aid of a frosting spatula, although machines are used for spreading the icing over the tops of some grades of cake or bread. Pie Making One of the m ost skilled, as well as m ost difficult, operations in the making of pies, is that of rolling by hand, with the aid of a rolling pin, the bottom and top crusts to the correct thickness. The difference 108 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY between hand and machine work is strikingly illustrated by a state ment inserted in the catalog of a pie-crust-rolling-machine manu facturer, which reads as follows: “ A n experienced, high-priced baker can roll only about 125 crusts per hour. W ith the rolling machine any boy or girl at low wages can do this work at the rate of at least 1,200 per hour.” Another of the problems of pie making is the depositing of the “ filling” , for some types, such as custard and pump kin pies. This is done after the pie shells are placed in the oven. B y the old method, the baker used a long handled dipper, frequently spilling part of the contents on the oven floor. Under the newer method, pie “ filling” is supplied to the pie shells in the oven through a long pipe, connected by hose from a supply tank, the contents of which are kept in circulation b y a motor-driven pump. The supply pipe is equipped with a valve controlled b y a trigger, which when pressed discharges the correct amount of “ filling” for each pie. Other special machines are used to trim and mark the edge of the pies much more rapidly than can be done b y hand. In some pie plants an automatic machine is used for rolling the crust, crimping, trimming, etc. This machine is operated by five attendants, each being stationed at a given point about the machine and performing specific duties as it rotates. T he bottom crust is rolled on the first crust roller, the pan containing the bottom crust is placed in the carrier of the machine, and the edge of the bottom crust is automatically moistened. “ Filling” is then put in, and, as the pie passes the second or top roller, the top crust is rolled, stamped, and put in place. The edges of the pie are next automatically trimmed and crimped, and the completed pie, which requires one full rotation of the machine, is discharged onto a conveyor or turntable, ready for the oven. The speed of these machines is such that they have a capacity of as m any as 15 to 30 pies per minute, or an average of approximately 1,500 to 3,000 pies per attendant in an 8-hour day, as compared with an estimated output of 350 to 450 pies for the same period by a skilled hand worker. P art 2 Glossary of Occupations N ew occupational terminology emerges with each division of labor. This is especially true during periods of rapid mechanization. A l though occupational terms have a tendency toward uniformity, quite often they will differ not only from one locality to another but also from one plant to the next. This accounts for the multiplicity of terms in the baking industry. T he occupational terms listed below have been found in the various plants visited by the field representatives of the Bureau. For glossary purposes, nearly all of these have been described here, irrespective of the number of employees found under each term. In those instances where the same work was performed under two or more occupational names, the description is given under the m ost common term, with the proper cross-references made under the other terms. The last column in the glossary gives the occupational class in which the occupation was included in the compilation of the wages and hours data. W hen an individual occupation was used, the name of the APPENDIX I 109 occupation is given; otherwise, there is presented the grouping in which the occupation was included. This is done by means of a key, which is as follows: Direct labor, male: Miscellaneous: Skilled, D L -I. Semiskilled, D L -II. Unskilled, D L -III. Indirect labor, male: Maintenance and repair: Skilled, M R -I. Semiskilled, M R -II. Service, unskilled, SE-III. Supervisory, skilled, SU. Miscellaneous: Skilled, IL -I. Semiskilled, IL -II. Unskilled, IL -III. Skill not specified. Direct and indirect labor, female: Miscellaneous, skill not specified, MS. Occupational Terms, Definitions, and Classification in the Baking Industry Plant occupational term Accountant. Apprentice. Assistant foreman, work ing. Assistant mixer................ Auditor__________ ______ Automobile mechanic____ Automobile mechanic’s helper. Batter depositor_________ Batter mixer. Batter scaler. Batter scaler’s helper. Belt man, conveyor.. Belt man, repairer----------Belt man’s helper, con veyor. Bench baker’s helper_____ Description of work performed Classified by Bureau under— Coordinates accounting records, prepares profit and loss statements and balance sheets, and com piles reports required by executives of firm. May also be in charge of accounting force. A learner of direct labor, usually under contract for specified number of years, performing work of various bakery occupations under supervision of journeyman baker. A supervisor who also performs actual work, usually direct labor. (See Mixer’s helper).......... .........__________________ Makes investigations, revisions, and installations in connection with new accounting systems; super vises work on cost accounting problems, inven tories-, and equipment records; and prepares fiscal statements and reports. Makes major and minor repairs to delivery trucks of firm. Semiskilled workman who assists automobile me chanic. Assists in operation of batter depositing machine, which automatically measures correct amount of batter poured into each cake pan. This machine is tended by two persons, one placing empty pans beneath depositing device, and other regulating quantity of batter going into pans, removing filled pans, and placing them on racks. Occasionally, the latter also weighs unit of batter deposit to determine whether or not machine is scaling correctly. These men may alternate on jobs. (See Batter scaler.) (See Cake maker.) Male: Auditors, book keepers, etc.1 Fe male: (MS). Supervises operation of batter depositing machine, which automatically measures correct amount of batter poured into each cake pan; regulates quantity of batter going into pans; and occasion ally weighs or scales filled pans as batter is dropped into them from depositing machine, to determine whether latter is scaling correctly. Assisted by batter scaler’s helper. These persons take the place of two batter depositors found in certain shops. (See Batter depositor.) Supplies batter scaler with empty pans, places filled pans on a rack and pushes rack to oven. Works at end of belt or conveyor, which carries bread from oven to wrapping room, removing each loaf of bread from conveyor and placing it on bread rack to cool before wrapping. Installs and repairs power transmission belts throughout plant. Pushes racks, on which bread has been placed for cooling, to wrapping table. (See Bench hand’s or hand baker’s helper.)_______ Bench hand or hand baker. Kneads or pounds dough used in making rye or Vienna bread or rolls; divides dough into pieces of required weight for loaves of bread or rolls; rounds, rolls, and molds these pieces into shape; and places them in bread pans for baking. Bench hand, pastry_____ (See Cake maker.).......................... ............................. Male: (DL-II). Male: (SU). Male: Mixer’s helpers.2 Male: Auditors, book keepers, etc.1 Fe male: (MS). Male: (MR-1). Male: (MR-II). Male: Cake makers. Male: Cake makers.3 Female: (MS). Male: Cake makers.3 Male: General helpers. Male: (IL-III). Male: (MR-II). Male: General helpers. Male: Bench hands’ or hand bakers’ help ers.2 Female: (MS). Male: Bench hands or hand bakers. Fe male: (MS). Male: Cake makers.3 Female: (MS). Supplies bench hands or hand bakers with empty Male: Bench hands’ or hand bakers’ help bread pans, racks the dough-filled pans, and ers.2 Female: (MS). shoves them into the steam proofing room. Billing clerk_____________ Makes out bills and statements to customers, Male and female: Office clerks.4 keeps daily record of shipments, and may also post accounts, See footnotes at end of table. Bench hand’s (or hand baker’s) helper. 110 111 APPENDIX I Plant occupational term Blacksmith. Blender___ B le n d e r ’ s h e l p e r . . .............. B o o k k e e p e r , c le r ic a l_______ B o o k k e e p e r , e x p e r t _______ B o o k k e e p in g -m a c h in e o p era tor. B o x m a k e r o r r e p a ir e r ______ B o x r e p a ir e r _________________ B r e a d d u m p e r ______________ B rea d d u m p e r an d r a c k e r .. B r e a d d u m p e r ’ s h e lp e r _____ B r e a d ic e r ___________________ B r e a d p a c k e r ________________ B r e a d p a c k e r ’ s h e lp e r ........... B r e a d r a c k e r ________________ B r e a d slic e r , a u t o m a t ic ____ B r e a d slice r, h a n d __________ B re a d w ra p p er, a u to m a tic. B r e a d w r a p p e r , h a n d ______ B r ic k m a s o n _________________ B u n p a n n e r ___________ _____ B u y e r ________________________ C a b in e t m a n ________________ C a b in e t m a n ’ s h e lp e r ______ C a b in e t p r o o fe r _____________ C a k e d e c o r a t o r _____________ Description of work performed Welds metal parts of machinery by hand, does horse shoeing on animals used for delivery, and some times repairs wagons. Tends power-driven blending machine, which mixes or blends different kinds of flour to secure required mixture. Opens bags and dumps flour into ma chine, or operates slide which releases flour from storage bins on floor above and allows it to pass through chute into machine. May be assisted by helpers. Assists blender by placing bags of flour conveniently near and helps dump them into hopper of ma chine. Enters transactions in cash and ledger books, prepares monthly statements to charge customers, makes daily settlements with driver-salesmen, etc. Coordinates records, makes general ledger entries, prepares profit and loss statements and balance sheets, and writes checks in payment of bills owed by company. Keeps record of charge accounts on bookkeeping ma chine, prepares monthly statements to be sent to customers, etc. Makes and repairs crates and boxes in which bread is packed and shipped. (See Box maker or repairer)____ ______ ___________ Dumps bread from pans as they come out of oven, places empty pans on belt conveyor for return to cleaning room, and frequently places bread on racks for cooling before being wrapped. (See Bread dumper)....... .................... ........................ Places loaves of bread on cooling rack and pushes lat ter into wrapping room after bread has cooled. (See Icing-machine tender)..................................... . Makes up orders of bakery products for driver-sales men or for shipment from bakery and places them on racks, in baskets, or in shipping boxes. (See Packer’s helper)____________________________ Places baked bread, after it has been dumped out of pans, on rack or slow-moving conveyor for cooling and shoves racks to wrapping room after bread is cooled. Feeds loaves of bread into machine, which automati cally slices, wraps and seals them, watches opera tion, and straightens loaves that are not going through properly. Feeds loaf of bread into slicing machine, which he operates by hand. Another employee wraps and seals each sliced loaf by hand, as it comes from ma chine. Feeds loaves of bread into wrapping machine, which may automatically slice as well as wrap and seal them; watches operation; and straightens loaves not going through properly. Places each loaf of bread on sheet of paper of specific size, and wraps and seals it by hand. Uses stone, brick, or cement to form or repair floors, foundations, walls, walks, etc. Places rounded and molded pieces of bun dough, as they come from molding machine, in pans for baking. Makes purchases of materials and supplies used in operation of bakery. Places pieces of dough, as they come from rounder, in drawers of cabinet for proofing. Assists cabinet man by opening and closing drawers of proofer, loading dough on movable racks, and pushing racks over to m older. (See Cabinet man)______________________________ (See Decorator, cake)____ _______________________ Cake dumper___ ________ (See Dumper, cake)____ ____ ___________________ Cake finisher, hand______ Spreads filling and icing on cake by means of a flat broad-bladed knife, known as spatula. Cake finisher, machine___ (See Icing-machine tender).................... ............... . See footnotes at end of table. Classified by Bureau under— Male: (MR-I). Male: (DL-II). Male: General helpers. Male and female: Office clerks.4 Male: Auditors, book keepers, etc.1Female: (MS). Male and female: Office clerks.4 Male: (MR-II). Male: (MR-II). Male: Ovenmen’s help ers. Male: Ovenmen’s help ers. Male: Ovenmen’s helpMale: (DL-II). Fe male: (MS). Male: Bread packers.6 Female: (MS). Male: (IL-III). Male: Ovenmen’s help ers. Male: Bread wrappers, automatic. Female: (MS). Male: (DL-III). Fe male: Bread wrap pers, hand. Male: Bread wrappers, automatic. Female: (MS). Male: (DL-III). Fe male: Bread wrap pers, hand.6 Male: (MR-I). Male: Molders.3 Fe male: (MS). Male: Auditors, book keepers, etc.1 Male: (DL-II). Male: General helpers. Male: (DL-II). Male: (DL-II). Fe male: Cake finish ers.5 Male: Ovenmen’s help ers. Male: (DL-II). Fe male: Cake finish ers.5 Male: (DL-II). 112 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY Plant occupational term Cake froster_____________ Description of work performed (See Cake finisher, hand) Cake icer, hand................ . (See Cake finisher, hand) Cake icer, machine_______ (See Icing-machine tender)------------------------- --------Cakeicer’s helper------------ (See Finisher’s helper, cake)______________________ Cake ingredient mixer....... (See Cake maker)_______________________________ Cake ingredient mixer’s (See Cake maker’s helper)_______ ________________ helper. Cake ingredient scaler....... (See Ingredient scaler)................... .............. .............. Cake maker....... ................ Measures or weighs according to formula materials used in preparation of cake, such as flour, sugar, eggs, milk, etc., when this work is not done by in gredient scaler, and feeds them in proper order and quantities into power-driven mixing machine. Cake maker’s helper_____ Supplies cake maker with cake ingredients and empty cakepans, places pans filled with batter on racks, and shoves them over to oven. Cake mixer______________ (See Cake maker)..................................... ................... Cake ovenman__________ Cake ovenman’s helper— (See Peel, reel, or draw-plate ovenman)----------------(See Peel ovenman’s helper)________________ _____ Cake packer_____________ (See Cake wrapper and packer) Classified by Bureau under— Male: (DL-II). Fe male: Cake finish ers.® Male: (DL-II). Fe male: Cake finish ers.® Male: (DL-II). Male: General helpers. Female: (MS). Male: Cake makers.3 Female: (MS). Male: Mixer’s helpers.* Female: (MS). Male: (DL-I). Male: Cake makers.3 Female: (MS). Male: Mixers’ helpers.* Female: (MS). Male: Cake makers.3 Female: (MS). Male: Ovenmen. Male: Ovenmen’s help- Male and female: Cake wrappers and pack ers.4 Cakepan cleaner-------------- (See Pan cleaner, hand)__________________________ Male: (IL-III). Fe male: (MS). Cakepan greaser_________ (See Pan greaser)________________________________ Male: Pan greasers.® Female: (MS). Cakepan liner___________ (See Pan liner)__________________________________ Male: (DL-II). Fe male: (MS). Cakepan washer_________ (See Pan washer)____ ___________________________ Male: (IL-III). Cakepeeler______________ (See Peeler, cake)_______________________________ Male: General helpers. Female: (MS). Cake wrapper and packer. Wraps cake in waxed paper, places label on package, Male and female: Cake puts several packages in a box, stamps name of wrappers and pack cake on latter and sends it to stock room. ers.4 Car greaser______________ Oils and greases automobiles and changes motor oil__ Male: (MR-II). Car washer______________ Washes and polishes bakery trucks and passenger Male: (MR-II). Repairs and makes changes in structure of bakery and constructs and repairs shipping boxes. Assists carpenter in repair and upkeep of buildings and does other related work under supervision. Carton assembler------------- Opens and assembles cartons that are folded flat when purchased. Cashier_________________ Receives cash from driver-salesmen and credits same to salesmen’s accounts; receives also order sheets from driver-salesmen and assists in figuring quotas. Cement finisher__________ Lays or repairs cement or concrete walks, floors, etc.; may also make repairs or aid in erection of bases for machinery. Chauffeur, driver________ Makes deliveries on rush orders, when no regular special delivery driver is immediately available, and drives officials on trips in passenger cars. Checker_________________ Checks record showing kind and quantity of bakery products that are taken out by driver-salesmen for delivery to customers. Cleaner, floors___________ Cleans and sweeps floors of plant_________________ Carpenter_______________ Male: (MR-I). Carpenter’s helper_______ Male: (MR-II). Cleaner, pan, hand_______ (See Pan cleaner, hand)__________________________ Cleaner, pan, machine____ (See Pan cleaner, machine)_________________ ___ Clerk, factory____________ Checks kinds and amount of materials and products entering and leaving the various departments and keeps individual time and production records. Clerk, office_____________ (See Office clerk)___________ ____________________ Male: (MR-II). Male: Auditors, book keepers, etc.1 Fe male: (MS). Male: (MR-I). Male: Chauffeurs and drivers.1 Male and female: Of fice clerks.4 Male: (SE-III). Fe male: (MS). Male: (IL-III). Male: (IL-II). Male and female: Of fice clerks.4 Coal wheeler____________ Male and female: Of fice clerks.4 Male: (IL-II). Fe male: Store clerks. Male: (IL-III). Collector, route__________ Male: (IL-I). Clerk, store____ _________ (See Store clerk)________________________________ Wheels coal from dump to boiler or may shovel it onto conveyor. Collects for sales of bakery products delivered by driver-salesmen and not paid for at time of de livery. Comptometer operator___ Operates comptometer to make or check computa tions in connection with time cards, bonus sheets, and pay rolls, accounts receivable, etc. See footnotes at end of table. Female: Stenographers, typists, telephone operators, etc.® APPENDIX I Plant occupational term Description of work performed Conveyor man, belt_____ Conveyor man’s helper, belt. Cookie maker___________ (See Belt man, conveyor)_______ (See Belt man’s helper, conveyor). Cookie maker’s helper___ (See Cake maker’s helper) (See Cake maker)______________ 113 Classified by Bureau under— Male: (IL-III). Male: General helpers. Male: Cake makers.3 Female: (MS). Male: Mixers’ helper.2 Female: (MS). Cooling-machine operator. Places loaves of bread in automatic cooling machine.. Male: (IL-III). Cost accountant_________ Figures and tabulates cost of production in various Male: Auditors, book departments and determines production bonuses. keepers, etc.1 Cost clerk................. .......... Prepares, under supervision of cost accountant, Male and female: Of daily, monthly, or other detailed cost statements fice clerks.4 from data supplied by various departments and keeps cumulative records for checking costs against current expenditures. (See Box maker or repairer).............................. .......... Male: (MR-II). Crate maker. Crate repairer. (See Box maker or repairer)_____________ _________ Male: (MR-II). Cruller maker. (See Doughnut-machine operator)....................... ...... Male: Cake makers.3 Female: (MS). (See Doughnut-machine operator’s helper) Cruller-maker’s helper. Male: General helpers. Female: (MS). Custard or soft-fillin g (See Pie-filling mixer)...................... .......................... Male: (DL-I). mixer. Cut-off dough man............ (See Dough cut-off man)............................................ Male: Mixers’ helpers.3 Decorator, cake.................. Uses cone-shaped bag fitted with nozzle or syringe, Male: (DL-II). Fe from which is squeezed icing to form decorative male: Cake finish designs on cake. ers.5 Deliveryman, not sales___ (See Special-delivery driver)...................................... Male: (IL-II). Deliveryman, sales______ (See Driver-salesman).......... ......................... ............ Male: Driver-sales men. Demonstrator, advertising. Posted temporarily in store of retailer to give small Male: (IL-II). Fe samples to customers, explain ingredients of prod male: (MS). ucts, and distribute sales literature. Depositor, batter________ (See Batter depositor)_____ _____ ________________ Male: Cake makers.3 Divider or scaler and Sets dividing or scaling machine for desired weight Male: Dividers or scal rounder. of loaf of bread, turns on and off power that oper ers and rounders.3 ates machine, and occasionally weighs scaled pieces of dough to ascertain whether machine is working correctly; also tends conveyor and rounding ma chine, as each piece of dough is automatically dropped by dividing machine onto conveyor, which carries it to rounding machine to be rolled and rounded. Divider’s and molder’s (See Divider’s or scaler’s or rounder’s helper)______ Male: General helpers. helper. Divider’s or scaler’s and Assists divider or scaler and rounder in any capacity Male: General helpers. rounder’s helper. required, such as cleaning and keeping machines in operating condition. Dough cut-off man....... . Cuts dough in troughs into convenient-sized pieces Male: Mixers’ help and dumps latter into the chute leading to divid ers.2 ing machine or make-up room. (See Dough puncher)___________ ___________ ____ Male: Mixers’ help Dough kneader. ers.2 Puts molded dough into oven pans and places latter Male: Molders.3 Fe Dough panner.. on racks. male: (MS). Punches down and kneads dough in troughs before Male: Mixers’ help Dough puncher. it is dumped down chute leading to dividing ma ers.2 chine or make-up room. Picks up pieces of dough from conveyor leading to Male: Molders.3 Fe Dough twister.. molding machine, twists them by hand to desired male: (MS). shape, and places them in oven pans for baking. Dough-brake-machine op Feeds dough through various automatic rolls of Male: Molders.3 erator. dough-brake machine, putting it each time into machine at a different angle to even and strengthen grain of mixture. (See Doughnut-machine operator)............................ Male: Cake makers.3 Doughnut fryer. Female: (MS). Doughnut-machine opera Feeds sweetened dough into hopper of automatic Male: Cake makers.3 tor. machine, which stamps out doughnuts; drops Female: (MS). latter into molten fat to fry; dumps them into basket to cool and drain before wrapping and packing. Doughnut-machine opera Removes doughnuts from draining baskets, where Male: General helpers. they have been dumped by machine, and delivers Female: (MS). tor’s helper. them to wrappers and packers. Doughnut man................. (See Doughnut-machine operator).............................. Male: Cake makers.3 Draw-plate ovenman____ Places pans of dough in drawers of oven, closes Male: Ovenman. drawers, and, after baking is completed, pulls out drawers and removes pans. See footnotes at end of table. 114 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY Plant occupational term Description of work performed Classified by Bureau under— Pushes racks of panned dough from proofing room Male: Ov enman’ s to oven, takes pans of baked bread from ovenman helpers. to dump bread onto conveyor or place it on racks for cooling, and sets empty pans on racks or con veyor for return to cleaner. Driver-chauffeur, not sales. (See Chauffeur, driver)_______ ____________________ Male: Chauffeurs and drivers.1 Driver-salesman_________ Travels over specified route or territory delivering Male: Driver-salesmen. orders, collecting for sales, and soliciting new busi ness. Driver-salesman’s helper. - Assists driver-salesman in loading truck and deliver- Male: (IL-III). ing goods to customers. Driver, truck________ . . . Loads truck with supplies or products and drives it Male: Chauffeurs and from or to shipping terminal. drivers.1 Dumper, bread__________ (See Bread dumper; also traveling-oven dumper) . . . Male: O v e n m e n ’ s helpers. Dumper, cake_____ ____ Dumps cake from pans, after cooling, onto conveyor Male: O v e n m e n ’ s or table around which wrappers and packers or helpers. finishers work. Dumper, rolls____ _______ (See Roll dumper)________________ _____ _________ Male: O v e n m e n ’ s helpers. Dumper, traveling oven... Stands back of traveling oven, dumping bread from Male: O v e n m e n ’ s pans onto conveyor belt, which carries it to cooling helpers. racks, and places empty pans on another conveyor, which takes them to cleaners. Dumper’s helper_________ (See Bread dumper’s helper)_____________________ Male: O v e n m e n ’ s helpers. Egg breaker_____________ Breaks eggs by hand, separating yolks from whites, Male: (DL-1I). and places each into machine, which beats them for cake batter or icing. Electrician______________ Installs and repairs electric apparatus and main- Male: (MR-I). tains wiring system for lights and power. Elevator man______ ____ _ Operates elevator used to convey up or down em- Male: (SE-III). ployees and materials. Engineer_____ ____ ____ _ Supervises operation and maintenance of electric- or Male: (IL-I). steam-power equipment and stands regular watch; may also do repair work. Engineer, machinery re Repairs and maintains plant equipment other than Male: (MR-I). pair. electric motor-power machinery. Errand boy._____ _______ Carries repair parts, supplies, orders, or instructions Male: (SE-III). to and from various departments as directed. Factory clerk____ _____ _ (See Clerk, factory)________ ______ _______ _ _ Male and female: Office clerks.4 Feeder, traveling oven.. (See Oven feeder) Male: O v e n m e n ’ s helpers. File clerk_______________ Indexes and files correspondence, reports, requisi Male and female: Office tions, etc.; may also do typing and assist in minor clerks.4 clerical duties. Finisher, cake, hand___ . (See Cake finisher, hand)__________ . ______ . . . Male: (DL-II). Fe male: Cake finishers.® Finisher, cake, machine__ (See Icing machine tender).. ____________________ Male: (DL-II). Finisher, pie_____ _______ Mixes meringue by hand or machine and spreads it Male: (DL-I). on pies; may also spread strips of dough across face of open pies. Finisher’s helper, cake___ Supplies icing from mixing machine to finishers and Male: General helpers. places finished cakes on racks or conveyors for de Female: (MS). livery to wrapper and packer. Fireman, oven___ _______ (See Oven fireman).............. ................. ... Male: (DL-II). Fireman, power-house. . . . Maintains steam pressure in boiler by hand firing, Male: (IL-II). automatic stoking, or oil-burner operation; may also maintain water level in boiler, which is ordi narily done by water tender. Flour blender___ _ _____ (See Blender)................... ....................................... Male: (DL-II). Flour blender’s helper.. . . (See Blender’s helper)_____ __________________ Male: General helpers. Flour sifter______________ Operates power-driven sifting machine to remove Male: (DL-II). any foreign substances from flour and to aerate it, usually in connection with blending. Foreman, assistant, work (See Assistant foreman, working)............................... Male: (SU). ing. Foreman, working_______ A supervisor who also performs actual work at any Male: (SU). one of various machines; is frequently assisted by a helper. Fried-cake maker.............. (See Doughnut-machine operator)............ ........... Male: Cake makers.3 Female: (MS). Fried-cake maker’s helper. (See Doughnut-machine operator’s helper)_________ Male: General helpers. Female: (MS). Froster, cake... ________ (See Cake finisher, hand) Male: (DL-II). Fe male: Cake finishers.® Fruit cooker_____________ (See Pie-filling mixer)____________ ________ Male: (DL-I). Fruit mixer______________ (See Pie-filling mixer)________ . _ _ Male: (DL-I). Gang pusher................... . Sets pace for work and supervises gang in repairing, Male: (SU). maintaining, or constructing equipment. Draw-plate helper. ovenman’s S ee f o o tn o te s a t e n d o f ta b le . 115 APPENDIX I Plant occupational term Description of work performed Gasman, filling station___ Services delivery trucks with oil and gasoline before each trip of driver-salesman. General all around helper.. Has no specific duties but assists at any machine or in any job where help is needed. (See General all around helper),__________________ Has no specific duties, but performs such work as washing, cleaning, and racking pans and placing racks conveniently for cake makers. General helper___________ (See General all around helper)___________________ General machine helper___ (See General all around helper)___________________ Greaser_________________ (See Pan greaser or machine pan cleaner and greaser). General bakery helper-----General cake-maker’s helper. Grinder , sugar___________ Hand baker----------- -------Hand baker’s helper. Handyman, semiskilled.. . Handyman, unskilled-----Helper, belt man’s, con veyor. Helper, dough mixer_____ Horseshoer______________ leer, bread...... ................... Classified by Bureau under— Male: (SE-III). Male: General helpers. Male: General helpers. Male: General helpers. Female: (MS). Male: General helpers. Male: General helpers. Male: Pan greasers.® Female: (MS). (See Sugar grinder)______________________________ Male: (DL-II). (See Bench hand or hand baker)__________________ Male: Bench hands or hand bakers. Fe male: (MS). (See Bench hand’s or hand baker’s helper) Male: Bench hands’ or hand bakers’ helpers. Female: (MS). (See Utility man, semiskilled)____________________ Male: (MR-II). Assists labor gangs where needed; and may sweep Male: (MR-II). floors, wash windows, etc. (See Belt man’s helper, conveyor)________________ Male: General helpers (See Mixer’s helper)______ (See Blacksmith)_________ (See Icing-machine tender) Male: Mixers’ helpers.2 Male: (MR-I). Male: (DL-II). Fe male: (MS). leer, cake, hand-------------- (See Cake finisher, hand).. Male: (DL-II). Fe male: Cake finish ers.® (See Icing-machine tender)_______________________ Male: (DL-II). leer, cake, machine... (See Finisher’s helper, cake)______________________ Male: General helpers. leer’s helper, cake---Female: (MS). (See Icing maker)________________ ____ ____ ______ Male: (DL-I). Icing beater________ Tends icing machine, which deposits layer of icing Male: (DL-II). Icing-machine tender. on bread, rolls or cakes; or may spread filling on layer cakes as they pass on conveyor under aper tures of machine. Feeds sugar, eggs, and other ingredients in proper Male: (DL-I) . Icing maker. order and quantity into a power-driven mixing machine. Places ingredients used in preparation of icings con Male: General helpers Icing maker’s helper. veniently near icing maker and takes prepared icings to icer. (See Icing maker)..................................... ............... Male: (DL-I). Icing mixer_______ (See Icing maker’s helper)— .................................... Male: General helpers Icing mixer’s helper. Weighs or measures, according to formula, ingredi Male: (DL-I). Ingredient scaler— ents, such as eggs, flour, sugar, milk, etc., used in making batches of cake batter or icing. Ingredient scaler’s helper.. Places ingredients, which are to be weighed or Male: Mixer’s help measured, conveniently near the ingredient scaler. ers.2 Inventory clerk--------------- Keeps stock records, investigates discrepancies in Male: Office clerks.4 receipt of materials, and orders transfer of materials from one plant to another; may have charge of salvage sales. Does general cleaning around plant, such as sweeping Male: (SE-III). Janitor________ and scrubbing. (See Dough puncher)------------- ----------------------------- Male: Mixers’ help Kneader, dough. ers.2 Places union and trade-mark labels on loaves of Male: (IL-III). Fe Labeler________ bread in union shops, and, in other shops, attaches male: (MS). trade-mark seals on loaves of wrapped bread at a point where the edges of the paper are brought together. Supervises work of unskilled laborers; may also do Male: (SU). Laborer, boss. actual work. Laborer_____ Performs general unskilled work about plant, such as Male: Laborers.1 unloading supplies, stacking them in warehouse, hand trucking, etc. Liner, pan______________ (See Pan liner).____________________________ ____ Male: (DL-II). Fe male: (MS). Loader, truck------------------ (See Truck loader)_________________________ _____ Male: (IL-III). Machine cleaner-------------- Uses cotton waste to clean machine equipment; may Male: (MR-II). also oil and grease machinery. Machine mixer................. (See Mixer)...................................... ................... ........ Male: Mixers.3 Machine molder................ (See Molder)........................ ............... ....................... Male: Molders.3 Machine molder’s helper. _ (See Molder’s helper)__________________ __________ Male: General helpers. Machine pan cleaner and Tends machine that scrapes from bread pans dried Male: (IL-II). crusts, which form in them during process of bak greaser. ing, and greases pans in one operation. See footnotes at end of table. 116 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY Plant occupational term Description of work performed Machine pan cleaner and washer. Tends machine equipped with revolving brushes shaped to fit bread pans, which cleans out crust and washes pans in one operation. Sets up, adjusts, and repairs machinery and other operating equipment. Assists machinist in installation and adjustment of machinery. (See Brickmason)......... ........................ ....................... (See Machinist)_________________________________ (See Machinist’s helper)____ _____________________ (See Finisher, pie)----------------------------------------------(See Errand boy)_______ ________________________ Machinist______________ Machinist’s helper_______ Mason__________________ Mechanic_______________ Mechanic’s helper_______ Meringuer, pie__________ Messenger______________ Classified by Bureau under— Male: (IL-II). Male: (MR-I). Male: (MR-II). Male: (MR-I). Male: (MR-I). Male: (MR-II). Male: (DL-I). Male: (SE-III). male: (MS). Male: (DL-II). Male: Mixers.3 Fe (See Blender)------------- ------ -------------------------------Weighs or measures, according to formula, all in gredients that go into batch of dough, dumps them into mixing machine, closes machine, turns on power, and, after batch is mixed, turns off power. In small bakeries, where no mixer’s helpers or apprentices are employed, also punches down and kneads dough and dumps it into chutes leading to dividing machine or make-up room. (See Cake maker.).................................... .......... ........ Male: Cake makers.3 Mixer, batter___ Female: (MS). (See Icing maker)......... . . ......... ...... ..................... ...... Male: (DL-I). Mixer, icing____ (See Mixer’s helper)_______ ____ ___ _______ ______ Male: Mixers’ helpers.2 Mixer’s assistant. Assists mixer in dumping dough from mixing ma Male: Mixers’ helpers.2 Mixer’s helper... chine into troughs, in punching and kneading dough in troughs, and in dumping it into chute leading to dividing machine or make-up room. Mixing-machine operator. _ (See Mixer)............................................ ........... .......... Male: Mixers.* Mixing-machine operator’s (See Mixer’s helper).................................................... Male: Mixers’ helpers.3 helper. Molder or panner________ Tends molding machine and watches pieces of dough Male: Molders.* falling from proofer into moulding machine and from latter into baking pans, placing properly those pieces which do not fall correctly. In bak eries not equipped with automatic machinery, feeds pieces of dough by hand into molding ma chine, and, after molding, picks them up and places them in baking pans. Molder’s helper_________ Places empty bread pans conveniently near molder, Male: General helpers. sets dough-filled pans on racks, and shoves loaded racks into steam proofing room. Multigraph operator_____ Operates multigraph machine to produce form letters Female: Stenogra and reports in large numbers; may also keep neces phers, typists, tele sary stocks of stationery, ink, etc. phone operators, etc.« Office boy______________ (See Errand boy)------ --------------------- ------------------- Male: (SE-III). Office clerk_____________ Does general office work, such as filing, typing, oper Male and female: Of ating adding or calculating machine, etc. fice clerks.* Office manager__________ Supervises clerical routine of office; may also have Male: Auditors, book charge of office personnel, make incidental pur keepers, etc.1 chases, etc. Oiler, machinery________ Oils motors, conveyors, and other plant machinery.. Male: (MR-II). Operator, multigraph____ (See Multigraph operator)_____ ________________ _ Female: Stenogra phers, typists, tele phone operators, etc.* Order clerk______________ Takes telephone orders, assembles, wraps, and packs Male: (IL-II). them for delivery. Oven dumper___________ (See Dumper, traveling oven)____________________ Male: Ovenmen’s help ers. Oven feeder_____________ Under supervision of traveling ovenman, places pans Male: Ovenmen’s helpof dough on conveyor of traveling oven, which carries them through the oven as they are being baked. Oven feeder, traveling (See Oven feeder)............................................ ............ Male: Ovenmen’s help oven. ers. Oven feeder’s helper_____ Pushes racks of dough-filled pans to oven and places Male: Ovenmen’s helpthem conveniently near oven feeder. Oven fireman___ _______ Starts and maintains fires under oven; keeps burners Maie: (DL-II). clean, if oil or gas is used; shovels coal into furnace, if coal is used. Ovenman.... ...................... (See Draw-plate ovenman, peel ovenman, reel oven Male: Ovenmen. man, and traveling ovenman.) Ovenman’s helper............. (See Bread dumper, bread racker, oven feeder, oven Male: Ovenmen’s help ers. dumper, and peel ovenman’s helper.) Packer, bread........... ........ (See Bread packer)..................................................... Male: Bread packers.® Female: (MS). Packer, cake____________ (See Cake wrapper and packer)................................. Male and female: Cake wrappers and pack ers.4 See footnotes at end of table. Mill operator____________ Mixer__________________ 117 APPENDIX I Plant occupational term Classified by Bureau under- Description of work performed Packer’s boy__ __________ Performs light work about packing department, such as running errands, placing cartons, baskets, etc., conveniently for packing, etc. Packer’s helper.______ Supplies packer with baskets or shipping boxes and, after they are filled, trucks them to delivery truck loader or shipping room. Packing-box maker______ (See Box maker or repairer)________ Packing-box repairer- __ (See Box maker or repairer)__________ _ Painter"__________ _ . _ Paints woodwork and equipment in plant; may also paint and letter delivery trucks. Painter’s helper_____ _. _ Removes old paint, cleans surfaces, passes materials and equipment, etc.; may also do some painting. Pan catcher_____________ Removes empty bread pans from conveyor as they are returned from bread dumpers, and racks them for delivery to pan cleaners and greasers. Pan cleaner, hand_______ Uses scraper to remove dried crusts formed in oven pans during baking. Pan cleaner, machine. __ (See Machine pan cleaner and washer) _ _ ________ Pan greaser..______ ______ Greases pans to prevent dough from sticking while baking and places pans on racks, either shoving racks to molder or placing them on conveyor for de livery to molder. Pan liner________ _____ Places in bottom and around rim of each pan a layer of waxed paper to prepare pan for cake batter. Pan paperer____________ (See Pan liner). ______ __________ ______ _______ Pan racker__________ _ _ Pan setter__________ __ _ Pan washer... _______ _ Panner, bun... _________ (See Molder’s helper) _ _ __ (See Pan catcher) __ _ _ _ _ . .................... ... Washes bread pans by hand... (See Bun panner) .................... ................. Panner or molder. _ . _. .. (See Molder)_________________ _______ _ Paper peeler, cake_______ (See Peeler, cake)_________________ _____ Pastry maker__________ _ (See Cake maker) Pastry maker’s helper.__ _____ __ __ ______ ____ (See Cake maker’s helper)________________________ Pastry mixer____________ (See Cake maker)____________ ______ _____ ___ ___ Pastry mixer’s helper____ (See Cake maker’s helper)__ _ __ ______ _ Paymaster. _ .......... Male: (IL-III). Male: (IL-III). Male: (MR-II). Male: (MR-II). Male: (MR-I). Male: (MR-II). Male: (IL-III). Male: (IL-III). Male: (IL-II). Male: Pan greasers.® Female: (MS). Male: (DL-II). Fe male: (MS). Male: (DL-II). Fe male: (MS). Male: General helpers. Male: (IL-III). Male: (IL-III). Male: Molders.3 Fe male: (MS). Male: Molders.3 Fe male: (MS). Male: General helpers. Female: (MS). Male: Cake makers.3 Female: (MS). Male: Mixers’ helpers.2 Female: (MS). Male: Cake makers.3 Female: (MS). Male: Mixers’ helpers.2 Female: (MS). Male: Auditors, book keepers, etc.1 Checks pay roll from each department, draws money, and distributes it to employees; may also do cler ical cost work. P. B. X. operator________ (See Telephone operator)________ _____________ _ Female: Stenographers, typists, telephone op erators, etc.5 Peel ovenman, rotary or Places pans of dough or batter in oven by means of Male: Ovenmen. stationary. “ peer', and likewise removes baked products from oven, rotating when necessary oven platform by hand control. Peel ovenman’s helper___ Shoves racks of pans filled with dough or batter to Male: Ovenmen’s help oven, removes pans from racks and places them on ers. “peer’, and, after baking, dumps products from pans to table in preparation for cooling. Peeler, cakes____________ Removes by hand paper pan lining which adhered Male: General helpers. to cakes when dumped from oven pans. Female: (MS). Pie-filling mixer_________ Crushes or cooks fruit, prepares custard or milk pie Male: (DL-I). filling, etc., and assists generally in pie making. Pie maker, hand_________ Engaged in various skilled operations, usually in Male: (DL-I). small handicraft bakery, pertaining to pie making, such as blending, mixing and dividing of pie dough, rolling pie crust, laying pie bottom, putting in filling, setting pie top, and crimping and trimming edges. Pie maker, machine Works as one of group of five persons, operating ma Male: (DL-I). Fe chine which by line conveyor or rotating table male: (MS). carries pie through five consecutive stages from rolling of bottom crust to completion of pie, except baking. First worker in line feeds piece of dough between two-way rollers, which squeeze it to cor rect thickness for bottom crust; second worker places this piece of thin dough in pie pan on moving carrier and may moisten the edge of this dough; third worker places the filling on dough in pan as it passes; fourth worker rolls a piece of dough to form the top crust, similar to that used for the bottom; and fifth worker places top on pie. Completed pie is then automatically crimped and trimmed around the edge and discharged from machine to conveyor. See footnotes at end of table. 118 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY Plant occupational term Description of work performed Pie maker's helper, hand_. Keeps pie maker supplied with ingredients, assists in preparing and putting in filling, trims surplus dough around edges, and cleans and greases pans. Pie maker’s helper, ma May do any of jobs in pie making, under supervision. Usually washes, trims, racks, etc. chine. Pie washer______________ After top crust of pie has been sprayed automatically by machine with egg solution, uses hand brush to spread solution uniformly, punches several holes in top to provide for expansion, and places pies in rack for convenience of ovenman. (See Steam fitter)------ ----- ------ ---------------------------Pipe fitter____ Plumber_____ Repairs and makes replacements in plumbing equip ment of plant. Porter, cleaner. (See Cleaner, floors)-------------------------------------------Porter, material handler. __ (See Laborer)___________________________________ Private secretary________ Takes dictation, transcribes notes on typewriter, handles routine duties for executives, etc. Proofer, cabinet____ Proofer, steam-room. Proofer’s helper-----Puncher, dough-----Racker, bread-------- (See Cabinet man)_____________ (See Steam-room proofer)_______ (See Steam-room proofer’s helper). (See Dough puncher)____ _____ _ (See Bread racker)...................... . Paeker, pans.. Raisin cleaner. (See Molder’s helper)____________________________ Washes and sorts by hand raisins used in bread, cakes, or pies, eliminating imperfect ones, stems, and other foreign material. Receives incoming bakery stock, checks invoices, issues stock, and keeps inventory of stock on hand. In bakeries where no common labor is employed, he dumps flour into hopper or chute leading to blend ing machine, cleans empty sacks, and sweeps and cleans storeroom. Places pans of dough in trays of revolving oven (re sembling ferris wheel), and, after baking, removes pans from trays as they rotate to oven door. Operates any of various machines in bakery in ab sence of regular operator. (See Mixer's helper, divider’s or scaler’s and round er’s helper, and molder’s helper.) (See Relief machine hand)_______________________ (See Belt man, repairer)_________________________ (See Box maker or repairer)______________________ (See Box maker or repairer)______________________ (See Carpenter, machinist, steam fitter, etc.)______ Dumps baked rolls from pans either as they are re moved by ovenman or as they are automatically delivered from back of traveling oven. (See icing-machine tender)_______________________ Receiving clerk. Reel ovenman. Relief machine hand_____ Relief machine hand’s helper. Relief man______________ Repairer, belt man______ Repairer, boxes__________ Repairer, crates_________ Repairer, general________ Roll dumper-----------------Roll icer. Roll maker. Rounder. Rounder’s helper. Route boss_____ Route rider_____ Route salesman.. Route supervisor. Rye bread baker. Feeds sheets of roll dough to machine, which auto matically cuts them into pieces of proper size and rounds them; then places pieces in pans and racks pans, ready for proofing. In bakeries not equipped with machines, he cuts and rounds dough by hand. (See Divider or scaler and rounder)_______________ (See Divider’s or scaler’s and rounder’s helper)____ Lays out routes for driver-salesmen, checks service over various routes, and changes routes as necessity arises. (See Route boss)________________________________ (See Driver-salesman)___________________________ (See Route boss)________________________________ (See Bench hand or hand baker)__________________ Rye bread baker’s helper. _ (See Bench hand’s or hand baker’s helper) Sales girl________ Salesman_______ Salesman’s helper Scaler, batter____ Scaler, dough____ (See Clerk, store)________________ (See Driver-salesman)____________ (See Driver-salesman’s helper)____ (See Batter scaler)_______________ (See Divider or scaler and rounder) Scaler, ingredient, cake___ (See Ingredient scaler, cake)._____ __________ Scaler’s helper___________ (See Divider’s or scaler’s and rounder’s helper) Scaler’s helper, batter____ (See Batter scaler’s helper)................. ............ See footnotes at end of table. Classified by Bureau under— Male: Mixers’ helpers.^ Female: (MS). Male: General helpers. Female: (MS). Male: General helpers. Male: (MR-I). Male: (MR-I). Male: (SE-III). Fe male: (MS). Male: Laborers. Female: Stenographers, typi st s, telephone operators, etc.6 Male: (DL-II). Male: (DL-I). Male: General helpers. Male: Mixers’ helpers.2 Male: Ovenmen’s helpMale: General helpers. Male: (DL-II). Fe male: (MS). Male: (IL-I). Male: Ovenmen. Male: (DL-I). Male: General helpers. Male: (DL-I). Male: (MR-II). Male: (MR-II). Male: (MR-II). Male: (MR-I). Male: Ovenmen’s helpers. Male: (DL-II). male: (MS). Male: (DL-I). Fe Male: Dividers or scal ers and rounders.3 Male: General helpers. Male: (SU). Male: (SU). Male: Driver-salesmen. Male: (SU). Male: Bench hands or hand bakers. Fe male: (MS). Male: Bench hands’ or hand bakers’ help ers. Female: (MS). Female: Store clerks. Male: Driver-salesmen. Male: (IL-III). Male: Cake makers.3 Male: Dividers or scal ers and rounders.3 Male: (DL-I). Male: General helpers. Male: General helpers. APPENDIX I Plant occupational term Scaler's helper, ingredient, cake. Scraper, pans___________ Scrubber, floors_________ Description of work performed Male: Mixers’ helpers.2 (See Pan cleaner, hand)______ (See Cleaner, floors)_________ Male: (IL-III). Male: (SE-III). Fe male: (MS). Male: (SU). Male: Office clerks.4 (See Foreman, working)_________________________ Makes up orders, packs products in cases, bills ship ments to out-of-town customers, supervises tagging and loading of shipment, and keeps records of ship ments. Shipper, supervisory_____ Supervises packing and shipping of product and keeping of necessary records. Shipper’s helper_________ (See Shipper, clerk)_____________ ______ _________ Sifter, flour______________ (See Flour sifter)_______ _______ _________________ Sign or display card painter Paints signs or display cards for use in or about plant or on delivery equipment to advertise products. Slicer, bread, automatic__ (See Bread slicer, automatic).............................. ....... Solicitor. Special-delivery driver___ Sponger. Stableman_____ Stale-bread man. Stale-bread man’s helper. _ Steam fitter_____________ Steam-room proofer______ Steam-room proofer’ s helper. Stenographer____________ Stock clerk, material han dling. Stock clerk, office________ Stock handler, warehouse.. Store clerk---------------------Store salesman__________ Straw boss______________ Stripper, pie_____________ Sugar grinder____________ Sweeper_________________ Taker off, conveyor. Telephone operator. Timekeeper. Tinsmith_______ Tinsmith’s helper. Toaster_________ Traveling-oven dumper.. . Traveling-oven feeder Traveling-oven man. Male: Auditors, book keepers, etc.1 Male: Office clerks.4 Male: (DL-II). Male: (IL-I). Male: Bread wrappers, automatic. Female: (MS). (See Bread slicer, hand) Male: (DL-III). Fe male: Bread wrap pers, hand.« Canvasses possible customers for driver-salesmen. __ Male: (IL-I). Female: (MS). Delivers special orders after driver-salesmen have Male: (IL-II). started on routes; also delivers bakery goods to driver-salesmen while they are on routes. Mixes flour, yeast, and water for an emulsion known Male: Mixers.3 as sponge, which is used in mixing dough. In most bakeries this is part of mixer’s job. Feeds and takes care of horses and has charge of Male: (MR-III). stables. Receives unsold bread from driver-salesmen, checks Male: (IL-II). against stock taken out, and credits driver-sales man with amount of returned bread. Puts stale bread in place for future disposition_____ Male: General helpers. Cuts, fits, and joins steam pipes in connection with Male: (MR-I). plant equipment and building maintenance. Male: (DL-I). and determines when raised cfough is ready to be delivered to baking ovens. Assists steam-room proofer in placing dough racks in Male: General helpers. steam room and shoves loaded racks in or out. Takes dictation, transcribes notes on typewriter, and Female: Stenographers, typists, telephone op may assist in office work. * erators, etc.5 Trucks stock into storage room or warehouse, issues Male: (IL-III). materials on order, etc. Keeps inventory records of stocks and supplies and Male and female: Of fice clerks.4 does other general office work, such as filing, typ ing, etc. (See Laborer)___________________________________ Male: Laborers.1 Fe Sells products in stores directly connected with bak Male: (IL-II). male: Store clerks. eries. (See Store clerk)________________________________ Male: (IL-II). (See Assistant foreman, working)_________________ Male: (SU). (See Finisher, pie)______________________________ Male: (DL-I). Feeds and tends sugar-grinding machine__________ Male: (DL-II). (See Cleaner, floors)_____________________ ________ Male: (SE-III). Fe male: (MS). Removes loaves of bread from conveyors in wrapping Male: General helpers. room. Operates switchboard; may also take orders for bak Female: Stenographers, typists, telephone op ery products and do some clerical work. erators, etc.5 Makes up daily time records, compiles job charge Male and female: Of fice clerks.4 slips for production clerks, prepares pay-roll sheets for cashier’s department, and may deliver pay-roll checks to employees. Repairs bread and cake oven pans________________ Male: (MR-I). Under supervision of tinsmith, repairs bread and Male: (MR-II). cake oven pans. Feeds slices of bread to toasting machine and, after Male: (DL-II). toasting, removes slices and wraps them in waxed paper. (See Dumper, traveling oven)-------- --------------------- Male: O v e n m e n ’ s helpers. Male: O v e n m e n ’ s (See Oven feeder) helpers. laces pans of dough on feed apron of traveling oveD, Male: Ovenmen. regulates heat of oven, and controls speed of con veyors which carry dough through oven. See footnotes at end of table. Classified by Bureau under— (See Ingredient scaler’s helper) Shift foreman, working___ Shipper, clerk___________ Slicer, bread, hand. 119 120 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY Plant occupational term Trayman_______________ Trimmer, pies___________ Truck driver.. . ................. Description of work performed Classified by Bureau under— Assists ovenmen by placing filled pans of dough on trays ready for baking. Trims pie edges by hand, scalloping and perforating pie at same time. (See Driver, truck)______________ _______________ Male: Ovenmen’s helpers. Male: General helpers. Male: Chauffeurs and drivers.* Assists driver-salesmen in loading their trucks with Male: (IL-III). bakery products. Trucker, hand............. ...... Conveys supplies, materials, or products from one Male: Laborers.* room or department to another or from one sec tion of a room or department to another. Typist................................ Operates typewriter and may do some clerical work. Female: Stenograph ers, typists, tele phone operators, etc.8 Unloader, supplies_______ (See Laborer)---------- ------ ----------------------------------- Male: Laborers.* Utility man, semiskilled—. Performs miscellaneous duties throughout bakery; Male: (MR-II). may substitute for general workers. Utility man, unskilled----- (See Handyman, unskilled)______________________ Male: (MR-II). Vienna bread baker______ (See Bench hand or hand baker)_________________ Male: Bench hands or hand bakers. Fe male: (MS). Vienna bread baker’ s (See Bench hand’s or hand baker’s helper) Male: Bench hands’ or helper. hand bakers’ helpers. Female: (MS). Watchman______________ Makes periodical rounds of plant and yard to pro Male: (SE-III). tect plant from damage by fire, thieves, etc.; may also check employees and trucks in and out at gate. Washer, pans____________ (See Pan washer)______________________________ Male: (IL-III). Water tender____________ Maintains proper water level in boiler____________ Male: (IL-II). Wax-paper liner_________ (See Pan liner).._____________ ______ ____________ Male: (DL-II). Fe male: (MS). Window trimmer________ Arranges bakery products in attractive display for Male: (IL-I). advertising purposes. Working foreman________ (See Foreman, working)-------------------------- ---------- Male: (SU). Working foreman, assist- (See Assistant foreman, working)_________________ Male: (SU). ant. Wrapper, bread, auto (See Bread wrapper, automatic) Male: Bread wrappers, matic. automatic. Female: (MS). Wrapper, bread, hand. (See Bread wrapper, hand) Male: (DL-III). Fe male: Bread wrap pers, hand.8 Wrapper, foreman, work Supervises work of wrappers and performs some Male: (SU). Female: ing. actual work. (MS). Wrapper and packer, cake. (See Cake wrapper and packer)---------------------------- Male and female: Cake wrapper and pack ers.4 Removes loaves of bread from back of wrapping Male: General helpers. Wrapper’s helper. machine and places them on truck to be sent to Female: (MS). packing room. Yard foreman. Supervises work done by yard hands or outside crew Male: (SU). and regularly works with them. Truck loader.................... * This applies to the North; in the South, it was classified as indirect labor, miscellaneous, skill not speci fied. 2 This applies to the North; in the South, it was classified as DL-II. 3 This applies to the North; in the South, it was classified as DL-I. 4 This applies to the North; in the South, if male it was classified as indirect labor, miscellaneous, skill not specified, and if female it was classified as MS. 8 This applies to the North; in the South, it was classified as MS. 8 This applies to the North; in the South, it was classified as DL-III. A ppendix II Detailed Statistical Tables 121 1 0 2745°- -37- -9 A .-— -D i s t r i b u t i o n o f e m p l o y e e s a c c o r d in g to a vera g e h o u r ly e a r n in g s b y o c c u p a t io n a l c l a s s e s , a s to r e g io n a n d s e x , f o r th ree se le c te d p e r i o d s 122 T able Number of employees whose average hourly earnings were— Total—United States: Males: March 1933_____________________ September 1933_________________ December 1934__________________ Females: March 1933.. _ September 1933_________________ December 1934______ ______ ____ Males and females: March 1933_____________________ September 1933_________________ December 1934--------------------------Total—North: Males: March 1933--------------------- ---------September 1933________________ _ December 1934-------------------- -----Females: March 1933_____ ______ September 1933__ ___ December 1934................................ Males and females: March 1933______ _____________ September 1933. _____ _________ December 1934— _ __________ Total—South: Males: March 1933___ ____ ___ September 1933____ ____ _________ December 1934_____ _ __________ Females: * March 1933............................ ......... September 1933.. . _ _ „ December 1934_. . _ ____ __ Males and females: March 1933., September 1933_________________ December 1934_____ ____________ 12.5 17.5 22.5 27.5 and and and and under under under under 17.5 22.5 27.5 32.5 cents cents cents cents 32.5 37.5 42.5 47.5 and and and and under under under under 37.5 42.5 47.5 52.5 cents cents cents cents 52.5 and under 57.5 cents 57.5 and under 62.5 cents 62.5 and under 67.5 cents 67.5 72.5 77.5 85.0 and and and cents under under under and 72.5 77.5 85.0 under cents cents cents $1.00 14,685 16,609 18,348 $0.471 .524 .570 46 2 1 208 22 6 476 73 14 444 745 647 376 754 1,221 1,836 2,038 1,825 1,662 1,052 985 877 711 391 1, 508 1,686 2,305 1, 710 1,806 1,656 1,170 1,853 1,698 1,169 1,052 2,615 2,325 1,387 1,418 148 509 1,517 1,895 2,173 2,614 .307 .354 .379 17 117 1 1 357 28 3 409 208 165 16,480 18, 782 20,962 .455 .507 .549 63 2 1 325 23 7 12, 534 14, 054 15, 501 .491 .540 .590 16 1 86 9 2 1, 566 1, 771 2,115 .321 .364 .392 3 65 14,100 15,825 17,616 .475 .523 .569 19 2,051 2,555 2,847 .360 .436 .462 329 402 499 2,380 2,957 3, 346 260 924 635 273 391 746 194 228 545 106 151 205 89 113 138 20 54 69 23 30 34 14 19 32 5 6 10 7 7 9 564 402 531 798 876 1,148 4 5 6 $1.00 $1.20 and and under over $1.20 186 284 465 103 94 147 7 13 1 3 833 1,163 1,481 2,109 2,232 1,931 1, 751 1, 072 449 768 661 383 883 718 101 599 2,432 2,077 2,533 1,861 1,919 1, 710 1,200 1,004 1,144 313 2,263 3,160 2, 530 1,991 1,767 1,421 1,179 1,061 1, 450 17 564 406 805 536 882 1,161 186 285 468 103 94 147 280 39 6 971 425 683 506 901 1,531 1,780 1,620 1, 551 597 823 213 1,007 1, 266 1,938 1,453 1,602 1,480 1,067 878 293 784 2,171 1,983 1, 594 1,501 1, 291 1, 284 1, 062 35 385 556 482 766 827 1,092 185 272 450 103 90 135 1 243 23 1 349 95 41 5 6 10 7 7 9 151 9 3 523 62 7 989 704 855 1,115 1,787 1, 962 1, 718 1, 638 611 430 829 308 1,745 1,606 2,145 1, 596 1, 707 1,529 1,095 896 743 1, 415 2,688 2,167 1, 719 1, 566 1, 324 1,311 1,072 76 365 676 999 30 2 122 13 4 196 34 8 248 178 113 320 501 216 305 420 733 258 367 444 205 257 342 111 204 259 81 176 197 62 103 96 50 107 134 .240 .311 .325 14 52 1 114 5 2 60 113 124 46 186 185 17 51 115 12 21 28 8 8 21 2 8 13 2 5 4 2 2 1 1 5 .346 .421 .445 44 2 174 14 4 310 39 10 308 291 237 366 687 401 322 471 848 270 388 472 213 265 363 113 212 272 83 181 201 64 105 97 50 108 139 1 214 738 450 256 340 631 182 207 517 98 143 184 87 105 125 18 49 65 21 28 33 14 18 27 19 54 107 358 669 990 18 42 62 4 5 6 6 12 1 3 389 556 487 772 833 1,104 185 273 453 103 90 135 1 12 15 4 12 1 12 15 4 12 17 49 49 8 32 56 1 1 19 54 107 18 42 62 17 49 49 8 33 57 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY Region, sex, occupational class, and period Num Aver age ber of hourly Un em earn der ployees ings 12.5 cents 1 8 12 22 1 38 20 1 48 63 47 70 43 36 103 76 61 77 108 99 51 101 66 39 73 99 26 79 143 11 34 55 18 27 59 25 29 48 22 24 77 32 17 15 4 7 1 7 9 27 21 7 24 17 27 53 34 24 80 51 51 49 77 59 29 52 67 24 40 70 20 28 47 13 42 49 14 25 35 23 24 31 6 7 27 3 1 1 6 10 4 18 11 23 43 20 31 30 20 41 34 41 24 39 29 13 38 27 18 26 40 7 24 39 7 18 31 11 2 17 8 9 20 12 9 13 6 6 7 3 8 15 5 30 14 11 52 28 8 53 46 26 40 45 40 46 63 37 26 37 57 21 39 61 20 39 38 15 28 47 25 27 61 12 12 33 8 13 10 4 9 15 14 1 40 23 35 53 45 32 36 47 39 30 47 13 50 27 9 27 39 19 14 39 4 14 20 7 10 26 10 10 18 5 5 12 13 13 18 2 2 2 5 8 12 12 22 13 1 38 35 21 63 26 22 85 66 35 46 51 57 47 63 62 31 74 49 40 62 70 25 53 74 18 48 65 38 36 85 26 36 52 23 21 35 3 2 2 5 8 12 1 19 11 13 19 12 19 31 14 23 6 23 25 12 10 16 9 7 16 9 13 7 12 3 1 7 5 2 6 1 2 7 4 18 43 1 66 66 2 168 105 10 217 236 184 320 209 176 432 317 284 255 393 336 207 354 314 166 271 370 118 255 393 83 203 285 89 141 248 129 132 263 92 103 227 2 6 4 1 15 23 7 35 29 5 35 30 62 27 50 48 18 43 39 10 20 20 2 10 22 4 6 22 1 1 3 2 3 5 10 5 4 1 1 2 581 716 807 .563 .601 .677 384 429 494 .551 .598 .647 236 293 304 .543 .577 .654 374 396 429 .587 .656 .725 258 301 341 .487 .534 .605 2 528 596 628 .599 .662 .738 1 120 115 158 .501 .533 .601 2,481 2,846 3,161 .559 .609 .677 168 221 246 .413 .453 .501 1 379 497 608 .364 .419 .458 4 299 351 437 .388 .434 .484 1 10 38 4 1 32 6 54 108 24 61 81 43 75 109 200 28 52 144 43 48 67 10 54 45 9 13 24 7 5 26 7 17 1 7 1 4 5 1 7 1 33 5 4 47 52 9 65 55 18 50 81 1J5 28 49 113 19 36 54 15 29 52 12 14 28 12 11 12 8 6 3 7 14 3 2 8 3 5 4 3 6 A P P E N D IX II Males—North rect labor: Skilled: Bench hands or hand bakers: March 1933 ________ _____ September 1933 ____________ December 1934 ______ ____ _ Cake makers: March 1933 __________ _____ September 1933 ____________ December 1934 . ________ Dividers or scalers and rounders: March 1933 . _ _____ September 1933 _ _ December 1934 Mixers: March 1933 September 1933 December 1934 Molders: March 1933 _______________ September 1933 December 1934 __ _________ Ovenmen: March 1933 _______________ September 1933 _ _ ___ _____ December 1934 ____________ Miscellaneous, skilled: March 1933 _____________ ___ September 1933 ____________ December 1934 __________ Total: March 1933 _____ __ __ September 1933 _____ _ December 1934 _____________ Semiskilled: Bench hands’ or hand bakers’ helpers: March 1933_____________ ____ September 1933_____________ December 1934.._ _ _ _______ General helpers: March i<1933_________________ September 1933 _ _ ________ December 1934._ _______ ___ Mixers’ helpers: March 1933_____________ ____ September 1933_____ _________ December 1934_____ _______ 74 60 69 1 1 4 bO 00 T able A. — D i s t r i b u t i o n o f e m p l o y e e s a c c o r d in g to a vera g e h o u r ly e a r n in g s b y o c c u p a t io n a l c la s s e s , a s to r e g io n a n d s e x , f o r th ree selecte d p e r i o d s - to C o n tin u e d Number of employees whose average hourly earnings were— Un der 12.5 cents 12.5 17.5 22.5 27.5 and and and and under under under under 17.5 22.5 27.5 32.5 cents cents cents cents 32.5 and under 37.5 cents 37.5 42.5 and and under under 42.5 47.5 cents cents 47.5 and under 52.5 cents 52.5 and under 57.5 cents 57.5 and under 62.5 cents 62.5 and under 67.5 cents 67.5 and under 72.5 cents 72.5 and under 77.5 cents 77.5 and under 85.0 cents 85.0 cents and under $1.00 $1.00 $1.20 and and under over $1.20 AND Males—North—Continued $0.403 .449 .511 127 170 198 .434 .458 .512 1,417 1,775 2,106 .394 .439 .489 314 415 459 7 14 27 7 1 59 63 9 82 78 13 73 120 151 59 68 124 56 73 91 27 65 47 13 21 76 12 9 49 2 10 21 6 11 12 2 3 9 4 7 11 1 1 3 8 7 7 14 3 28 26 7 28 33 50 14 18 34 19 20 31 6 28 20 4 10 20 8 3 12 2 3 6 2 5 6 1 1 1 1 6 1 2 5 6 13 24 1 65 5 1 104 26 5 182 260 52 271 269 86 261 373 578 156 237 463 155 220 282 68 196 184 40 68 170 43 34 121 5 29 53 13 27 44 6 7 32 12 17 22 .404 .455 .495 2 18 19 3 1 53 45 11 44 66 50 53 95 101 43 50 81 42 61 50 13 43 57 8 18 32 15 6 34 18 16 3 6 13 1 3 12 1 1 368 506 569 .350 .412 .457 10 23 2 37 2 108 80 22 66 117 80 48 137 134 44 55 156 10 58 62 7 17 55 4 19 18 4 5 18 1 4 9 6 10 3 11 1 92 105 145 .384 .425 .460 1 7 1 5 6 21 6 17 21 24 26 16 28 14 8 29 9 12 23 4 12 14 1 7 15 2 6 2 1 1 2 1 107 129 154 .333 .403 .461 1 6 7 1 1 16 5 19 19 6 17 24 15 21 27 29 6 20 47 10 19 19 4 12 18 2 9 5 5 110 125 158 .412 .452 .492 2 2 11 4 12 14 41 18 20 15 32 8 13 28 5 10 18 13 5 11 6 14 6 4 8 9 4 1 12 3 11 1 5 3 5 5 2 5 1 2 3 2 IN D U S T R Y 444 536 617 H O U R S — B R E A D -B A K I N G Direct labor—Continued. Semiskilled—Continued. Ovenmen’s helpers: March 1933______________ September 1933__________ December 1934__________ Miscellaneous, semiskilled: March 1933_____________ September 1933. _.......... .. December 1934____ _____ Total: March 1933______________ September 1933__________ December 1934.................. Unskilled: Bread packers: March 1933-------------------September 1933................. December 1934__________ Bread wrappers, automatic: March 1933_____________ September 1933_________ December 1934--------------Cake wrappers and packers: March 1933______________ September 1933_________ December 1934__________ Pan greasers: March 1933_____________ September 1933_________ December 1934--------------Miscellaneous, unskilled: March 1 9 3 3 ..................... September 1933_________ December 1934.................. W AGES Kegion, sex, occupational class, and period Num Aver age ber of hourly em earn ployees ings 1 1 3 1 991 1,280 485 .374 .430 .473 3 4,341 4,410 4,609 .492 .545 .601 1 127 130 141 .701 .762 .795 173 183 228 .483 .525 .559 138 185 206 .366 .428 .454 422 458 479 .548 .618 .639 349 417 437 .394 .459 .476 331 376 397 .463 .502 .547 413 501 578 .353 .407 .436 704 748 814 .706 .759 .811 164 164 165 .589 .640 .684 305 367 413 .421 .465 .514 21 9 2 89 10 2 200 206 63 164 243 201 156 288 320 112 143 331 84 155 165 34 98 150 17 54 83 25 18 71 1 25 *42 11 16 19 2 9 28 5 6 5 1 1 3 1 58 16 159 116 8 214 257 31 460 348 327 732 442 446 720 528 411 516 510 452 359 425 469 213 336 472 123 297 406 213 315 361 107 191 353 153 124 269 285 444 523 13 47 67 6 12 14 1 1 1 1 6 3 3 7 2 4 14 8 4 13 12 7 11 7 7 16 18 22 5 11 12 12 13 13 9 14 15 18 21 29 10 14 18 4 6 7 4 10 18 3 5 14 2 4 5 3 2 15 1 3 5 8 4 2 4 3 1 9 10 9 29 20 8 19 17 41 23 6 28 20 11 16 14 34 38 •28 41 8 11 18 26 2 1 1 7 2 10 7 4 74 29 15 20 65 67 12 22 62 8 35 18 2 16 22 6 7 1 4 5 1 5 1 3 1 1 11 5 1 36 15 17 50 26 27 89 71 59 76 63 67 43 53 64 47 71 62 19 62 39 22 46 67 8 28 39 9 11 28 4 7 14 3 1 57 23 11 57 41 11 92 118 134 49 71 99 39 72 75 13 46 48 6 23 28 4 5 14 5 5 5 7 5 1 1 5 1 2 1 1 6 1 1 7 32 18 6 67 46 11 54 72 65 39 60 71 27 48 67 19 34 39 17 29 24 26 14 27 7 13 31 22 25 19 4 9 26 2 6 9 1 1 1 10 2 2 25 3 1 28 19 11 65 57 51 123 65 56 89 195 130 30 67 183 25 54 77 8 20 35 3 7 19 5 7 8 4 1 4 1 1 6 5 19 9 3 33 18 5 58 26 22 67 54 37 71 55 41 99 87 73 44 65 69 64 104 122 95 121 .132 79 104 165 53 87 103 14 12 42 4 7 7 7 11 4 8 8 6 4 13 6 16 28 12 8 16 20 13 13 12 18 16 20 19 5 11 12 9 13 16 13 19 16 12 19 26 7 7 7 2 1 2 20 5 30 43 13 58 53 25 50 68 95 37 43 64 40 40 53 20 51 41 7 12 22 12 16 44 3 14 19 7 15 25 3 4 6 5 1 1 3 1 2 66 8 1 2 ' 1 3 13 2 1 A P P E N D IX II Total: March 1933____________________ September 1933_______________ December 1934________________ Indirect labor: Driver salesmen: March 1933________________________ September 1933____________________ December 1934-----------------------------Other: Auditors, bookkeepers, etc.: March 1933____________________ September 1933_______________ December 1934________________ Chauffeurs and drivers: March 1933____________________ September 1933----------------------December 1934-----------------------Laborers: March 1933----------------------------September 1933----------------------December 1934-----------------------Maintenance and repair, skilled: March 1933___________________ September 1933_______________ December 1934-----------------------Maintenance and repair, semi skilled: March 1933____________________ September 1933_______________ December 1934-----------------------Office clerks: March 1933----------------------------September 1933----------------------December 1934________________ Service, unskilled: March 1933___________________ September 1933----------------------December 1934-----------------------Supervisory, skilled: March 1933. _______ ___________ September 1933----------------------December 1934-----------------------Miscellaneous, skilled: March 1933...................... ............. September 1933..................... .. December 1934-----------------------Miscellaneous, semiskilled: March 1933.................................... September 1933. .......................... December 1934............................. 1 to Oi T able A .'— D i s t r i b u t i o n o f e m p l o y e e s a c c o r d in g to avera ge h o u r ly ea r n in g s b y o c c u p a t io n a l c l a s s e s , a s to r e g io n a n d s e x , f o r th ree s electe d p e r io d s • — Continued fcO 05 Number of employees whose average hourly earnings were— Un der 12.5 cents 12.5 17.5 and and under under 17.5 22.5 cents cents 22.5 and under 27.5 cents 27.5 and under 32.5 cents 32.5 and under 37.5 cents 37.5 and under 42.5 cents 42.5 and under 47.5 cents 47.5 and under 52.5 cents 52.5 and under 57.5 cents 57.5 and under 62.5 cents 62.5 and under 67.5 cents 67.5 and under 72.5 cents 72.5 and under 77.5 cents 77.5 85.0 $nd cents under and 85.0 under cents $1.00 $1.00 $1.20 and and under over $1.20 AND Males—North—Continued $0. 364 .407 .437 4 7 3 15 1 1 20 20 7 25 50 50 31 32 25 22 31 84 19 15 43 15 23 12 7 18 15 7 10 14 4 1 17 1 4 3 3 4 1 4 1 2 1 3, 304 3, 743 4,140 .512 .562 .596 7 1 28 6 2 73 10 4 111 60 20 239 218 145 468 301 160 415 599 643 312 336 602 363 400 411 255 368 362 206 255 252 240 258 316 88 199 213 144 232 289 135 201 250 125 167 279 74 115 140 61 51 111 . 272 . 341 .350 5 17 12 11 28 37 8 16 58 1 7 1 3 7 5 2 4 170 195 262 .270 .325 . 362 8 288 401 501 .263 .314 .359 15 519 647 874 .266 .319 .359 28 253 269 .388 .431 5 1 1 3 1 1 1 36 2 54 18 2 27 115 78 29 30 96 6 6 52 9 17 18 1 2 12 2 3 •1 1 74 8 109 11 36 281 145 38 88 204 12 7 126 1 18 1 2 4 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 127 10 175 29 2 74 424 260 75 134 358 18 14 185 9 19 39 9 9 18 3 3 8 3 2 1 2 1 1 12 2 18 6 34 21 46 53 49 64 36 38 29 37 6 21 9 15 4 5 2 2 2 2 1 21 18 51 IN D U S T R Y Females—North Direct labor: Unskilled: Bread wrappers, hand: March 1933______________ September 1933__________ December 1934__________ Cake finishers: March 1933______________ September 1933_________ December 1934____ _____ Cake wrappers and packers: March 1933......................... September 1933.................. December 1934............ ...... Total: March 1933______________ September 1933__________ December 1934.............. .. Indirect labor: Other: Office clerks: March 1933______________ September 1933.................. 178 214 282 H O U R S — B R E A D -B A K I N G Indirect labor—Continued. Other—Continued. Miscellaneous, unskilled: March 1933______________ September 1933_________ December 1934__________ Total: March 1933_____________ September 1933_________ December 1934__________ W AGES Region, sex, occupational class, and period Num Aver age ber of hourly em earn ployees ings December 1934__________ ____ Stenographers, typists, telephone operators, etc.: March 1933_________________ September 1933________ _____ December 1934__________ ____ Store clerks: March 1933__.______________ September 1933 ___________ December 1934____ ____ _ Miscellaneous: March 1933_________________ September 1933. ________ December 1934______ ______ Total: March 1933___ ______________ September 1933_______ . . . . December 1934___ ______ _ .458 136 158 167 .418 .462 .486 310 300 360 .317 .340 . 349 348 397 437 2 32 103 41 40 24 14 9 4 1 2 3 17 18 11 59 45 103 59 90 127 181 206 273 27 38 36 59 63 53 29 28 140 164 193 332 35 28 35 11 34 36 7 24 33 89 124 145 23 37 38 11 4 11 15 18 18 78 96 107 3 17 21 1 4 2 5 4 10 15 46 57 4 5 9 1 3 4 8 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 7 5 8 21 25 31 6 7 9 13 16 26 2 3 4 5 6 10 5 5 6 7 7 8 1 2 2 4 5 6 2 7 1 2 6 12 1 3 16 33 34 21 11 8 39 35 51 76 79 93 15 42 41 19 25 19 30 32 49 64 99 109 16 11 35 12 19 23 25 37 34 53 67 92 4 10 21 11 16 15 22 35 35 37 61 71 5 8 13 8 21 19 13 32 32 26 61 64 2 2 5 14 10 13 18 17 16 34 29 34 6 9 9 1 7 3 5 13 6 13 27 9 19 47 1 3 2 5 3 5 9 19 7 15 25 1 5 1 2 6 2 2 11 1 12 25 66 12 29 53 6 20 54 4 13 9 5 24 34 1 20 30 1 9 14 3 7 23 6 3 11 1 1 3 7 6 3 7 2 6 11 4 8 I 2 3 6 2 12 1 32 11 1 64 43 33 .315 .363 .412 1 18 69 86 17 4 1,047 1,124 1,241 .348 .387 .413 3 37 116 13 1 174 66 39 127 155 170 .344 .392 .460 4 11 1 19 14 122 139 146 .409 .495 .550 4 4 8 4 241 298 316 .412 .484 .527 5 1 21 18 11 3 490 592 632 .394 .463 .515 13 1 36 1 45 29 3 75 115 116 .255 .329 .348 6 1 14 2 2 12 15 8 70 143 147 .278 .342 .386 10 1 10 1 14 18 68 100 131 .251 .345 .387 7 1 20 13 13 1 5 2 1 1 6 3 14 24 12 27 26 18 50 59 1 1 1 A P P E N D IX II Males—South Direct labor: Skilled: Bench hands or hand bakers: March 1933_________________ September 1933______________ December 1934______________ Ovenmen: March 1933_________________ September 1933.______ _______ December 1934.______________ Miscellaneous, skilled: March 1933_______ ____ _ . September 1933______________ December 1934............. ............. Total: March 1933____ _____________ September 1933_________ ____ December 1934_____ ______ _ Semiskilled: General helpers: March 1933_________________ September 1933______________ December 1934______________ Ovenmen’s helpers: March 1933_________________ September 1933___________ _ December 1934______________ Miscellaneous, semiskilled: March 1933_________________ September 1933 _______ __ . December 1934.......................... 277 1 2 4 3 9 14 3 11 19 1 1 1 1 T able A. — D is t r ib u t io n o f e m p l o y e e s a c c o r d in g to a verage h o u r ly e a r n in g s b y o c c u p a t io n a l c l a s s e s , a s to r e g i o n a n d s e x , f o r th re e s e le c te d p e r i o d s - to C o n tin u e d 00 Number of employees whose average hourly earnings were— Un der 12.5 cents 12.5 17.5 and and under under 17.5 22.5 cents cents 22.5 27.5 and and under under 27.5 32. 5 cents cents 32.5 and under 37.5 cents 37.5 and under 42.5 cents 42.5 and under 47.5 cents 47.5 52.5 57.5 62.5 and and and and under under under under 52.5 57.5 62.5 67.5 cents cents cents cents 67.5 and under 72.5 cents 72.5 77.5 85.0 and and cents under under and 77.5 85.0 under cents cents $1.00 $1.00 $1.20 and and under over $1.20 AND Males—South—Continued $0. 262 .339 .376 7 100 143 155 .262 .337 .376 1 99 138 161 .253 .339 .370 7 199 281 316 .258 .338 .373 8 671 711 800 .378 .475 .477 2 1 478 613 705 .369 .441 .473 13 1 92 131 196 .198 .295 .304 8 23 3 44 4 3 39 46 17 47 130 44 30 74 173 10 57 73 10 19 48 3 14 17 8 15 13 2 17 3 1 22 5 6 24 66 14 13 39 68 6 15 32 4 3 22 9 6 6 17 18 5 23 21 19 14 59 23 5 19 66 9 17 18 4 6 17 5 8 4 6 30 2 35 8 1 45 26 25 38 125 37 18 58 134 15 32 50 8 9 39 14 14 4 12 13 2 20 8 1 55 24 17 115 47 61 132 108 137 131 118 131 89 110 122 49 75 97 33 63 69 43 5 4 61 13 3 64 53 51 53 132 70 49 101 196 38 61 81 45 52 41 22 40 60 22 40 37 21 36 20 25 43 6 104 111 2 40 I 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 13 59 37 12 26 34 2 20 31 1 12 16 15 20 3 10 11 1 9 6 10 13 15 22 20 29 38 8 12 28 10 15 20 14 23 10 3 19 34 2 9 1 2 Females—South Direct labor: Unskilled: March 1933___________________ . September 1933_______ _______ December 1934__________ ____ ___ 1 1 4 IN D U S T R Y 213 358 394 H O U R S — B R E A D -B A K I N G Direct labor—Continued. Semiskilled—Continued. Total: __ March 1933____________ September-1933.. ___________ December 1934 _________ ____ Unskilled: Bread wrappers, automatic: March 1933_________________ September 1933______ _____ December 1934_ ............... . Miscellaneous, unskilled: March 1933_ _________ ___ . September 1933_____________ December 1934___ __ ___ _ Total: March 1933_________________ September 1933_______ __ _ December 1934..... ............ ........ Indirect labor: Driver-salesmen: March 1933_____________ _____ September 1933------- --------- -----December 1934________ Other: March 1933___ ____ ____________ September 1933_________________ December 1934.. _______________ W AGES Kegion, sex, occupational class, and period Num Aver age ber of hourly em earn ployees ings Indirect labor: Other: Store clerks: March 1933___ September 1933. December 1934. Miscellaneous: March 1933___ September 1933. December 1934. Total: March 1933___ September 1933. December 1934. T able 83 90 102 . 220 .274 . 286 1 154 181 201 .273 .342 .365 5 16 1 237 271 303 .255 .318 .337 6 31 1 19 56 60 9 24 31 3 3 6 1 2 2 2 43 1 2 21 32 21 31 58 43 14 46 69 11 19 25 8 8 18 2 8 13 2 4 3 1 2 1 1 5 1 1 78 5 2 40 88 81 40 82 74 17 49 75 12 21 27 8 8 20 2 8 13 2 5 4 1 2 1 1 5 1 1 35 4 15 1 1 B .— Distribution of employees according to weekly hours by occupational classes, as to region and sexy for three selected periods Region, sex, occupational class, and period Total—United States: Males: March 1933____________________ September 1933________________ December 1934_________________ Females: March 1933___________________ September 1933_______________ December 1934___ ______ ______ Males and females: March 1933____________________ September 1933._____________ December 1934_________________ Total—North: Males: March 1933____________________ September 1933________________ December 1934_________________ Females: March 1933____________________ September 1933. .......................... . December 1934_________________ 16 and 24 and 32 and 36 and 40 and 44 and 48 and 52 and under under under under under under under under 32 44 52 24 36 56 48 40 hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours 56 and 60 and 64 and under under under 72 60 64 hours hours hours A P P E N D IX II Number of employees whose weekly hours were— Num Aver ber of age em 8 and Under under ploy weekly hours 8 hours ees 16 hours 72 hours and over 14,585 16,609 18,348 51.1 46.7 44.3 63 114 198 380 365 357 233 222 285 286 305 416 180 255 479 194 333 1,175 372 1, 534 6,936 636 5,875 1,433 4,246 3,238 2,855 3, 726 1, 703 1,464 883 364 503 2,378 1,647 1,682 714 440 369 294 214 196 1,895 2,173 2,614 42.8 39.7 37.5 22 23 45 82 96 86 68 61 80 108 135 192 45 72 206 104 176 361 175 581 1, 202 276 562 95 732 447 343 214 20 2 33 23 12 1 16,480 18, 782 20,962 50.2 45.9 43.5 85 137 243 462 461 443 301 283 365 394 440 608 225 327 685 298 509 1, 536 547 2,115 8,138 912 6,437 1, 528 4,978 3,685 3,198 3,940 1,723 1,466 916 364 505 2,401 1,647 1, 682 726 440 369 295 214 196 12,534 14,054 15,501 50.7 46.5 44.1 59 96 172 318 318 311 195 189 238 263 266 355 171 222 419 175 303 1,083 338 1,286 5, 678 593 4,900 1, 245 3,835 2,874 2, 581 3,166 1, 465 1,235 767 265 360 1,931 1,397 1,435 535 352 289 188 121 100 1, 566 1, 771 2,115 42.8 39.6 37.4 19 21 36 59 78 67 62 43 62 79 117 157 39 59 178 88 165 341 158 475 947 253 440 70 614 353 254 132 20 1 31 19 12 1 2 2 130 T a b l e B . — D i s t r ib u t io n o f e m p l o y e e s a cc o rd in g to w e e k ly h o u rs b y o c c u p a tio n a l c l a s s e s , a s to re g io n a n d s e x , f o r th ree selecte d p e r i o d s — Con. Number of employees whose weekly hours were— Total—North—Continued. Males and females: March 1933_______________________ September 1933___________________ December 1934________ __________ Total—South: Males: March 1933_______________________ September 1933___________________ December 1934___________________ Females: March 1933_______________________ September 1933______________ ____ December 1934___________________ Males and females: March 1933_______________________ September 1933___________________ December 1934__________ ________ Aver- 14,100 15,825 17,616 49.8 45.8 43.3 78 117 208 377 396 378 257 232 300 342 383 512 210 281 597 263 468 1,424 496 1, 761 6, 625 846 5,340 1,315 4, 449 3, 227 2, 835 3, 298 1, 485 1,236 798 265 362 1,950 1,397 1, 435 547 352 289 189 121 100 2,051 2,555 2,847 53.7 47.6 45.2 4 18 26 62 47 46 38 33 46 23 39 62 9 33 60 19 30 92 34 248 1,258 43 975 188 411 364 274 560 238 229 116 99 143 447 250 247 179 88 80 106 93 96 329 402 499 43.0 40.0 38. 2 3 2 9 23 18 19 6 18 18 29 18 35 6 13 28 16 11 20 17 106 255 23 122 25 118 94 89 82 2 4 2,380 2,957 3,346 52.2 46.5 44.2 7 20 35 85 65 65 44 51 64 52 57 97 15 46 88 35 41 112 51 354 1, 513 66 1,097 213 529 458 363 642 238 230 118 99 143 451 250 247 179 88 80 106 93 96 581 716 807 42.1 38. 4 35.1 6 15 44 57 59 55 40 32 32 29 34 37 26 32 57 16 30 102 28 126 382 49 254 46 152 105 52 108 27 28 1 28 1 14 384 429 494 47. 5 42.9 40.5 13 18 14 10 9 6 16 4 12 7 5 16 9 10 56 22 74 237 20 189 72 139 82 66 93 33 11 18 3 1 27 2 10 236 293 304 48. 6 43.0 39.1 5 2 10 9 12 7 7 14 11 3 8 45 15 65 204 15 141 16 98 44 8 54 7 1 12 9 6 3 2 374 396 429 49.9 43. 9 39.8 2 2 6 4 3 7 10 8 25 12 8 53 16 59 278 23 208 21 145 83 35 99 14 1 18 3 27 1 7 6 8 and Under under 8 hours 16 hours 16 and 24 and 32 and 36 and 40 and 44 and 48 and 52 and under under under under under under under under 32 36 44 24 40 48 52 56 hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours 56 and 60 and 64 and under under under 60 64 72 hours hours hours 72 hours and over 1 Males—North Direct labor: Skilled: Bench hands or hand bakers: March 1933___________________ September 1933---------------------December 1934------- --------------Cake makers: March 1933___________________ September 1933.......................... December 1934_______________ Dividers or scalers and rounders: March 1933___________________ September 1933_______________ December 1934......................... Mixers: March 1933.......... ........................ September 1933........................ December 1 934-,,,,............... 1 5 3 4 2 3 WAGES AND HOURS---- BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY Region, sex, occupational class, and period Number of employees 13 18 21 22 25 37 6 2 5 91 104 172 258 301 341 48.6 41.6 37.9 2 4 528 596 628 47.8 42.2 38.5 3 2 8 120 115 158 46.4 42.9 39.5 2,481 2,846 3,161 46.8 41.6 38.2 10 27 60 168 221 246 43.1 38.5 36.4 5 12 10 379 497 608 45.2 40.3 35.8 7 8 22 299 351 437 45.8 42.1 38.7 2 2 5 444 536 617 44.8 40.3 36.9 2 4 9 127 170 198 50.3 43.2 39.5 1 5 19 10 13 36 7 7 29 13 24 41 1 3 9 1,417 1, 775 2,106 45.4 40.7 37.1 16 26 47 36 52 134 314 415 459 47.7 41.5 38.1 9 4 7 2 11 6 368 506 569 50.0 42.0 38.2 1 4 3 7 24 5 6 7 80 7 25 95 3 6 32 56 94 463 8 64 189 19 102 354 7 16 91 115 506 1, 735 22 148 15 37 247 33 12 66 18 178 1, 253 221 104 30 4 47 10 16 1 16 9 2 189 117 40 57 12 3 884 473 208 120 25 5 19 5 1 540 121 19 25 2 1 6 39 2 13 4 123 7 4 146 6 61 3 5 19 14 31 109 10 12 66 15 15 144 14 107 11 22 262 12 24 175 16 43 272 20 8 102 27 111 918 86 54 25 24 109 50 26 96 53 44 140 50 10 61 28 6 460 206 110 26 6 11 8 3 65 8 3 ■ 60 17 1 62 9 1 27 5 1 240 45 6 46 1 16 7 8 17 2 21 1 7 1 30 1 3 11 29 10 5 3 5 42 66 343 13 31 133 17 68 311 14 51 243 22 101 311 4 21 137 70 272 1,135 8 1 82 1 1 1 2 28 16 4 13 35 7 8 59 2 31 335 10 59 400 21 287 20 28 344 14 120 33 18 109 35 11 100 3 1 125 10 5 115 4 3 2 15 13 1 18 3 1 25 2 30 i 2 1 1 8 APPENDIX II Molders: March 1933________________ September 1933_____________ December 1934__________ Ovenmen: March 1933------------------------September 1933------------------December 1934_____________ Miscellaneous, skilled: March 1933 _ _ _____ _ September 1933 _ _____ December 1934 __ __ Total, skilled: March 1933________________ September 1933_____________ December 1934_____________ Semiskilled: Bench hands’ or hand bakers’ helpers: March 1933________________ September 1933_____________ December 1934_____________ General helpers: March 1933________________ September 1933_____________ December 1934_____________ Mixers’ helpers: March 1933________________ September 1933_____________ December 1934 __________ Ovenmen’s helpers: March 1933________________ September 1933_____________ December 1934 _________ •_ Miscellaneous, semiskilled: March 1933________________ September 1933______ ______ December 1934_____________ Total, semiskilled: March 1933______________ September 1933_______ _____ December 1934. ___________ Unskilled: Bread packers: March 1933________________ September 1933_____________ December 1934_____ _____ _ Bread wrappers, automatic: March 1933________________ September 1933_____________ December 1934-.......... ........... T able B.— 'D is trib u tio n o f e m p l o y e e s a c c o rd in g to w e e k ly h o u r s b y o c c u p a tio n a l c l a s s e s , a s to r e g io n a n d s e x , f o r th re e selecte d p e r i o d s — Con. 00 to Number of employees whose weekly hours were— ber of Aver age em 8 and Under under ploy weekly hours ees 8 hours 16 hours 16 and 24 and 32 and 36 and 40 and 44 and 48 and 52 and 56 and 60 and 64 and under under under under under under under under under under under 32 52 24 44 64 • 36 40 48 60 72 56 hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours 72 hours and over W AGES AND Region, sex, occupational class, and period Males—North—Continued 42.4 38.3 37.3 1 4 6 11 5 7 2 4 3 5 4 5 10 5 9 11 4 9 79 12 52 24 40 6 5 9 1 7 1 1 107 129 154 49.1 42.7 38.0 1 1 3 5 2 2 2 6 1 6 6 2 1 8 3 1 24 4 18 86 7 72 11 34 21 8 27 5 6 12 2 3 110 125 158 45.3 41. 3 39.5 3 1 4 2 5 2 8 4 1 7 10 5 2 3 3 16 7 11 77 2 68 28 31 15 12 33 7 4 2 1 8 1 1 9 991 1,280 1,485 47.9 41.8 38.2 10 17 25 47 41 41 20 24 30 23 42 52 6 29 52 17 34 145 27 128 977 70 823 97 334 110 54 294 26 10 53 4 69 1 1 8 1 1 13 4,341 4,410 4,609 55.9 55.2 54.8 1 2 2 21 13 10 7 12 16 11 15 17 7 2 5 25 33 20 32 43 46 66 119 208 1,020 1,215 1, 265 1,131 1, 060 1,042 286 225 317 1,292 1,240 1,294 344 320 272 98 111 95 127 130 141 48.2 44.4 42.6 1 1 1 2 2 8 42 100 28 45 7 55 29 20 23 8 8 7 1 4 2 3 173 183 228 48.6 46.6 44.1 3 138 185 206 45.3 41.7 38.7 2 1 5 5 1 4 3 2 7 1 4 2 9 2 3 16 4 6 2 60 8 36 20 67 87 113 52 22 13 5 3 1 8 3 7 3 9 7 4 3 6 7 6 3 3 1 1 7 2 12 7 2 32 152 9 103 14 42 11 10 49 8 1 7 2 1 1 1 1 IN D U S T R Y 92 105 145 H O U R S — B R E A D -B A K I N G Direct labor—Continued. Unskilled—Continued. Cake wrappers and packers: March 1933______________ September 1933_________ December 1934__________ Pan greasers: March 1933______________ September 1933_________ December 1934__________ Miscellaneous, unskilled: March 1933______________ September 1933_________ December 1934__________ Total, unskilled: March 1933______________ September 1933_________ December 1934__________ Indirect labor: Driver salesmen: March 1933__________________ September 1933........................ December 1934--------------------Other: Auditors, bookkeepers, etc.: March 1933--------------------September 1933__________ December 1934__________ Chauffeurs and drivers: March 1933______________ September 1933__________ December 1934__________ Laborers: March 1933--------------------September 1933__________ December 1934__________ 6 1 41 3 4 42 1 5 8 6 1 4 2 9 108 14 11 26 4 10 46 3 2 8 3 13 1 250 240 258 226 107 94 39 6 9 137 109 118 15 16 12 9 4 12 70 45 56 35 30 40 4 7 15 4 27 21 9 1 20 37 167 10 160 65 74 91 84 15 7 33 4 1 23 2 10 5 2 1 101 3 5 34 8 32 154 18 99 18 74 42 27 28 7 3 10 1 3 14 3 2 1 1 31 35 56 35 76 112 94 337 1, 785 168 1, 787 633 137 870 944 961 213 158 190 25 36 342 149 139 94 31 16 46 10 5 3 3 23 3 12 19 3 5 41 3 18 3 27 11 1 13 11 20 17 6 10 24 11 11 44 14 42 125 14 61 11 21 422 458 479 50.4 44.2 44.2 8 7 4 2 2 7 7 5 2 5 3 3 4 1 6 18 116 17 285 160 161 123 159 158 9 14 22 1 11 29 1 1 349 417 437 52.0 42.6 42.4 4 2 3 9 11 9 4 10 9 3 9 15 4 6 7 4 7 10 6 26 84 8 251 150 93 85 145 102 5 24 1 1 331 376 397 47.5 42.8 39.0 5 5 4 10 7 12 4 6 9 6 5 6 2 1 3 7 9 8 21 78 301 24 177 29 134 72 24 91 14 1 413 501 578 49.0 41.8 38.5 3 7 13 22 25 36 7 10 12 11 12 9 3 4 7 5 3 10 8 29 357 22 331 54 131 55 57 704 748 814 53.5 50.0 48.3 1 2 1 1 4 3 1 2 3 1 1 1 9 4 23 233 12 230 71 164 164 165 51.5 46.3 43.4 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 2 1 1 2 4 4 5 18 61 305 367 413 47.8 42.8 40.7 2 6 5 11 9 10 11 8 14 9 11 12 9 5 6 8 14 23 178 214 282 46.4 41.7 39.2 3 3 6 8 11 4 3 4 4 6 5 9 1 2 18 3,304 3,743 4,140 50.0 44.5 42.5 22 24 38 83 80 84 39 47 68 62 59 66 61 51 111 43.0 38.7 34.8 3 3 4 2 6 1 4 170 195 262 39.9 36.8 35.3 6 8 11 17 18 14 3 2 7 1 14 2 F em a les— N orth Direct labor: Unskilled: Bread wrappers, hand: March 1933___________________ September 1933_______________ December 1934_______________ Cake finishers: March 1933___________________ September 1933_______________ December 1934......... ................... 8 2 68 8 1 1 18 2 1 1 1 APPENDIX II Maintenance and repair, skilled: March 1933___________________ September 1933_______________ December 1934_______________ Maintenance and repair, semi skilled: March 1933___________________ September 1933_______________ December 1934_______________ Office clerks: March 1933___________________ September 1933_______________ December 1934_______________ Service, unskilled: March 1933___________________ September 1933_______________ December 1934_______________ Supervisory, skilled: March 1933___________________ September 1933_______________ December 1934............................ Miscellaneous, skilled: March 1933___________________ September 1933_______________ December 1934_______________ Miscellaneous, semiskilled: March 1933___________________ September 1933_______________ December 1934_______________ Miscellaneous, unskilled: March 1933___________________ September 1933_______________ December 1934_______________ Total, other: March 1933___________________ September 1933_______________ December 1934_______________ B.— D i s t r ib u t io n o f e m p l o y e e s a c c o rd in g to w e e k ly h o u r s b y o c c u p a t io n a l c la s s e s , a s to r e g i o n a n d s e x , f o r th ree s elec te d p e r i o d s — Con. 134 T able Number of employees whose weekly hours were— Avera?.6, 288 401 501 41.6 37.5 34.7 4 8 11 9 13 19 17 16 20 32 53 61 16 28 63 17 48 168 22 91 154 52 118 5 73 21 30 5 6 5 5 519 647 874 41.2 37.4 34.9 10 16 25 29 35 35 26 19 31 46 76 101 22 38 100 31 71 231 39 138 320 69 197 19 168 50 10 59 7 1 7 6 6 253 269 277 44.3 41.0 38.6 1 5 4 3 2 2 4 2 3 7 29 40 39 33 133 210 65 50 3 97 34 6 4 1 1 14 3 4 136 158 167 45.2 40.7 39.8 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 20 9 18 88 156 50 39 1 55 7 7 1 1 310 300 360 43.4 42.7 42.2 2 X 3 17 18 20 5 6 10 13 11 10 7 6 16 6 5 7 27 31 44 22 32 23 181 187 226 23 3 3 4 348 397 437 42.5 39. 5 36.8 5 4 4 7 19 9 28 15 16 18 26 39 10 15 61 21 29 55 41 85 217 47 122 24 113 75 12 29 7 16 7 6 1, 047 1,124 1, 241 43.5 40.9 39.2 9 5 11 30 43 32 36 24 31 33 41 56 17 21 78 57 94 110 119 337 627 184 243 51 446 303 244 73 13 24 13 6 8 and Under under 8 hours 16 hours 16 and 24 and 32 and 36 and 40 and 44 and 48 and 52 and 56 and 60 and 64 and under under under under under under under under under under under 24 32 44 36 48 40 52 56 60 64 72 hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours 72 hours and over Females—North—Continued Direct labor—Continued. Unskilled—Continued. Cake wrappers and packers: March 1933_____ _____________ September 1933_______________ December 1934_______________ Total, unskilled: March 1933___________________ September 1933............................ December 1934_______________ Indirect labor: Other: Office clerks: March 1933_____ _____________ September 1933_______________ December 1934_______________ Stenographers, typists, telephone operators, etc.: March 1933___________________ September 1933_______________ December 1934_______________ Store clerks: March 1933___________________ September 1933_______________ December 1934_______________ Miscellaneous, other: March 1933___________________ September 1933_______________ December 1934_______________ Total, other: March 1933___________________ September 1933_______________ December 1934________________ 1 1 I 1 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY Region, sex, occupational class, and period Number of employees 127 155 170 122 139 146 241 298 316 490 592 632 50.5 44.6 37.4 53.1 45.4 40.8 52.9 45.0 41.2 52.4 45.0 40.1 75 115 116 70 143 147 68 100 131 213 358 394 38.4 35.6 35.5 49.8 41.9 38.2 48.8 42.7 39.6 45.5 40.1 37.9 100 143 155 99 138 161 199 281 316 671 711 1 5 3 8 1 4 6 3 14 2 7 30 2 18 103 3 13 99 5 49 231 10 80 433 4 65 14 3 80 11 7 164 25 14 309 50 33 44 12 38 32 14 75 49 30 146 125 56 3 24 66 4 32 108 1 25 64 8 81 238 2 42 5 3 80 4 1 45 10 6 167 19 13 9 1 4 6 2 2 12 1 8 2 4 5 6 1 10 19 10 3 8 1 2 5 3 3 5 8 11 6 8 18 12 7 2 7 1 7 3 3 27 22 1,1 2 5 6 2 4 10 3 1 5 7 10 21 9 21 1 6 12 2 1 11 1 3 13 4 10 36 49.0 41,. 2 37.5 44.9 40.5 38.2 47.0 40.8 37.9 3 4 2 3 1 2 6 5 9 5 4 6 5 9 15 10 13 2 4 6 2 5 10 4 9 16 1 3 3 2 4 7 3 7 10 2 3 5 3 3 12 5 6 17 1 15 119 7 8 101 8 23 220 88 8 2 72 5 2 160 13 60.2 58.8 1 1 I 2 3 2 1 4 4 6 6 4 1 2 6 5 2 1 6 5 3 8 8 40 3 5 1 20 9 6 1 3 41 5 6 75 6 1 156 14 7 5 1 19 2 9 1 1 1 7 3 1 17 5 1 37 7 4 76 9 4 20 7 5 1 38 14 7 5 18 10 1 14 1 4 1 11 1 6 1 2 35 2 11 2 2 12 2 8 1 12 8 1 2 1 24 2 16 2 2 1 216 216 87 62 88 80 5 13 13 2 20 18 21 46 40 28 23 1 13 1 54 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 25 21 14 51 34 14 36 2 1 17 2 1 53 4 2 3 1 2 3 1 36 48 146 203 84 82 26 13 APPENDIX II Males—South Direct labor: Skilled: Bench hands or hand bakers: March 1933____________ September 1933_________ December 1934................. Ovenmen: March 1933____________ September 1933_________ December 1934_________ Miscellaneous, skilled: March 1933________ ____ September 1933_________ December 1934_________ Total, skilled: March 1933_____________ September 1933_________ December 1934_________ Semiskilled: General helpers: March 1933_____________ September 1933_________ December 1934_________ Ovenmen’s helpers: March 1933,_____________ September 1933_________ December 1934_________ Miscellaneous, semiskilled: March 1933_____________ September 1933_________ December 1934_________ Total, semiskilled: March 1933_____________ September 1933_________ December 1934_________ Unskilled: Bread wrappers, automatic: March 1933_______ _____ September 1933---....... . December 1934_________ Miscellaneous, unskilled: March 1933..... ................. September 1933.......... ...... December 1934___ ______ Total, unskilled: March 1933_____________ September 1933_________ December 1934_________ Indirect labor: Driver-salesmen: March 1933________________ September 1933_____________ T able B .— D i s t r ib u t io n o f e m p l o y e e s a cc o rd in g to w e e k ly h o u r s b y o c c u p a t io n a l c l a s s e s , a s to r e g io n a n d s e x , f o r th ree selected p e r io d s — Con. CO O) Number of employees whose weekly hours were— 16 and 24 and 32 and 36 and 40 and 44 and 48 and 52 and 56 and 60 and 64 and under under under under under under under under under under under 44 48 52 56 60 64 72 32 36 24 40 hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours hours 72 hours and over W A G E S Kegion, sex, occupational class, and period Num- Aver ber of age em8 and under ploy- weekly hours 8Under ees 16 hours hours Males—South—Continued 59.0 2 1 1 17 12 56 193 127 219 79 478 613 705 52.2 44.5 41.7 1 5 11 10 11 14 6 7 20 5 9 12 6 5 10 8 6 8 4 60 350 15 333 94 132 117 120 151 17 26 11 7 12 96 21 24 27 8 1 92 131 196 41. 0 38.3 36.3 1 1 4 7 7 7 4 9 7 13 5 20 3 6 25 3 8 15 6 29 97 10 59 16 18 7 5 26 1 83 90 102 43.0 42.3 41.9 2 1 3 7 5 6 4 4 2 3 1 2 4 4 16 3 5 3 48 64 67 12 4 3 1 154 181 201 44.3 40.1 38.0 9 6 6 2 5 8 12 9 13 3 4 2 11 3 5 7 73 142 10 58 6 52 23 17 44 2 2 2 237 271 303 43.8 40.8 39.3 2 1 5 16 11 12 2 9 11 16 13 15 3 7 3 13 3 5 11 77 158 13 63 9 100 87 84 56 2 3 93 fj 7 3 I 1 1 IN D U S T R Y 800 H O U R S ------ B R E A D - B A K I N G Females—South Direct labor: Unskilled: March 1933-_____ _____________ September 1933....... ...................... December 1934______ _____ _____ Indirect labor: Other: Store clerks: March 1933.. ______________ September 1933_____________ December 1934......... ........... . Miscellaneous: March 1933________________ September, 1933____________ December 1934____ _________ Total, other: March 1933—______ _________ September 1933_____________ December 1934............ . __ A N D Indirect labor—Continued. Driver-salesmen—Continued. December 1934_________________ Other: March 1933____ ______________ September 1933________________ December 1934_________________ T able C. — D i s t r i b u t i o n o f e m p l o y e e s a cc o rd in g to w e e k ly e a r n i n g s b y o c c u p a t io n a l c l a s s e s , a s to r e g i o n a n d s e x , f o r th re e s elec te d p e r i o d s 102745 Aver Num age Region, sex, occupational class, and period ber of weekly em Under earn ployees ings $4 $8 and $12 and $16 and $20 and $24 and $28 and $32 and $36 and $40 and $44 and $48 and $56 and under under under under under under under under under under under over $24 $28 $32 $36 $40 $44 $48 $56 $12 $16 $20 14,585 16,609 18,348 $24.10 24.45 25.24 264 227 235 392 359 382 6G6 346 430 1,437 2,261 1,828 1,856 2,675 3,202 2,700 2,631 2,943 2,676 2,634 2,569 1,869 1,791 2,121 1,205 1,535 1,717 493 776 1,236 692 764 896 217 333 390 1,895 2,173 2,614 13.15 14.04 14.23 114 87 101 216 115 116 497 303 384 477 1,080 1,186 312 314 512 196 195 215 55 52 67 17 10 11 5 11 12 5 4 6 1 1 3 1 1 16,480 18,782 20,962 22.84 23.24 23.86 378 314 336 608 474 498 1,103 649 814 1,914 3,341 3,014 2,168 2,989 3,714 2,896 2,826 3,158 2,731 2,686 2,636 1,886 1,801 2,132 1,210 1,546 1,729 498 780 1,242 693 765 899 12,534 14,054 15,501 24.88 25.12 26.03 197 170 186 286 304 312 427 259 284 1,074 1,528 1,141 1,513 2,251 2,658 2,279 2,248 2,488 2,400 2,329 2,235 1,732 1,595 1,923 1,123 1,410 1,563 453 687 1,138 1,566 1,771 2,115 13.75 14.40 14.66 84 73 79 141 79 80 383 249 279 411 828 914 289 289 474 182 179 197 49 48 60 16 10 11 5 10 11 14,100 15,825 17,616 23.65 23.92 24.66 281 243 265 427 383 392 810 508 563 1,485 2,356 2,055 1,802 2,540 3,132 2,461 2,427 2,685 2,449 2, 377 2,295 1,748 1,605 1,934 2,051 2,555 2,847 19.29 20.74 20.92 67 57 49 106 55 70 179 87 146 363 733 687 343 424 544 421 383 455 276 305 334 137 196 198 329 402 499 10.32 12.44 12.38 30 14 22 75 36 36 114 54 105 66 252 272 23 25 38 14 16 18 6 4 7 1 2,380 2,957 . 3,346 18.05 19.61 19.64 97 71 71 181 91 106 293 141 251 429 985 959 366 449 582 435 399 473 282 309 341 138 196 198 144 224 289 34 53 110 217 334 391 144 224 289 34 53 110 664 714 848 209 313 366 143 204 264 34 42 95 6 4 6 1 1 3 1 1 1,128 1,420 1,574 458 691 1,144 665 715 851 209 314 367 143 204 264 34 42 95 82 125 154 40 89 98 28 50 48 8 20 24 1 20 25 11 15 40 89 98 28 50 48 8 20 24 1 20 25 II $4 and under $8 A P P E N D IX Total—United States: Males: March 1933______________________ September 1933-----------------------December 1934-----------------------Females: March 1933,-- ________________ September 1933_________________ December 1934______________ ___ Males and females: March 1933--------------------------------September 1933---------------------------December 1934-------------------- ------Total—North: Males: March 1933______________________ September 1933---------------------------December 1934---------------------------Females: March 1933____________________ September 1933_____ _________ December 1934 _________________ Males and females: March 1933------ --------------------------September 1933. ......... ........... ........ December 1934__________________ Total—South: Males: March 1933__________________ September 1933 --------------- ---------December 1934---------------------------Females: March 1933______________________ September 1933______________ . . . December 1934______ ___________ Males and females: March 1933.. _____ _____________ September 1933.................. .............. December 1934........ ......................... Number of employees whose weekly earnings were— 1 1 82 126 155 II 15 00 able C . — D istrib u tio n o f em p lo yees according to w eekly earnings by occup ation al cla sses , as to region and sex , f o r three selected p eriod s — C o n . Males—North Direct labor: Skilled: Bench hands or hand bakers: March 1933________________ September 1933_____ _______ December 1934_____________ Cake makers: March 1933 September 1933_________ .. . December 1934___ _____ .. Dividers or scalers and rounders: March 1933___________ ... September 1933.______ ____ _ December 1934_________ . . . Mixers: March 1933____ . _____ September 1933.. ... December 1934____________ Molders: March 1933________________ September 1933____________ December 1934________ . . . Ovenmen: March 1933_________ „ . . September 1933.. . _____ December 1934__________ . Miscellaneous, skilled: March 1933________________ September 1933 ________ . December 1934_____________ Total: March 1933________________ September 1933_____________ December 1934_____________ Semiskilled: Bench hands’ or hand-bakers’ helpers: March 1933________________ September 1933_____________ December 1934_____________ 581 716 807 $23.69 23.07 23. 77 11 384 429 494 26.19 25.64 26.23 3 3 236 293 304 26. 39 24. 78 25.53 374 396 429 29.28 28.80 28.83 258 301 341 23.59 22. 25 22.91 1 2 2 528 596 628 28.59 27.93 28. 41 3 4 120 115 158 23. 25 22.89 23. 75 2,481 2,846 3,161 26.19 25. 35 25.84 168 17.78 17.46 18.24 221 246 6 3 16 25 28 32 46 25 44 63 93 129 130 137 170 191 113 118 163 48 53 54 16 3 68 25 20 10 15 3 13 15 17 19 19 16 34 42 48 58 74 81 95 109 135 51 68 44 46 45 23 18 29 15 16 16 7 8 10 10 6 1 4 10 2 50 59 10 101 8 7 4 2 30 59 50 41 54 59 61 71 74 41 45 65 26 23 9 3 3 18 9 9 2 22 10 12 8 2 5 2 4 3 3 4 11 22 1 2 6 53 55 59 78 109 123 79 71 78 50 52 70 23 34 36 32 17 14 10 8 8 6 6 3 7 3 18 38 26 45 52 67 34 30 46 19 17 17 4 7 3 5 2 3 90 69 70 67 6 68 18 27 14 33 45 51 63 79 78 116 113 129 95 135 135 91 76 89 34 37 59 10 11 16 25 34 34 26 44 24 26 32 13 17 23 6 2 2 12 3 426 484 600 284 272 309 108 116 171 7 13 2 2 2 8 8 2 34 25 48 5 13 13 8 6 5 4 1 1 1 2 16 10 12 80 108 93 64 51 53 118 159 101 227 336 391 419 487 518 556 650 751 9 16 12 12 12 8 2 18 41 30 35 56 86 59 54 51 19 38 15 5 12 12 5 2 2 3 5 22 21 31 33 2 4 1 1 12 12 90 11 11 3 3 7 1 2 13 19 15 10 6 1 1 1 4 1 98 98 78 50 50 56 1 1 35 20 24 6 3 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY Number of employees whose weekly earnings were— Num- Average of Region, sex, occupational class, and period ber em weekly Under $4 and $8 and $12 and $16 and $20 and $24 and $28 and $32 and $36 and $40 and $44 and $48 and under under under under under under under under under under under under $06 sod ployees earn ings $4 over $16 $24 $12 $20 $28 $32 $8 $48 $36 $40 $44 $56 138 T 379 497 608 16.46 16.88 16.40 22 15 20 28 27 31 39 24 42 81 153 127 77 128 249 79 86 90 32 44 33 19 16 12 1 4 4 1 299 351 437 17.75 18.29 18.72 12 7 8 13 15 10 26 10 11 75 91 77 54 100 164 59 65 97 36 38 40 14 17 19 7 7 10 3 1 1 444 536 617 18.05 18.09 18.86 5 14 10 38 25 24 48 24 21 80 126 86 85 140 244 93 119 108 54 52 86 26 27 26 10 7 10 5 2 1 1 127 170 198 21.85 19.80 20.22 1 2 1 3 4 3 9 3 11 23 19 34 55 75 33 40 46 21 26 29 12 7 11 9 6 6 2 1 2 1 1,417 1,775 2,106 17.87 17.87 18.18 49 52 52 92 82 84 128 75 79 265 434 339 285 479 818 323 364 392 155 179 226 78 80 80 29 26 30 13 4 4 2 314 415 459 19.26 18.92 18.87 20 14 17 6 8 11 15 15 15 48 93 82 66 110 133 63 82 101 62 57 63 22 24 25 vio 9 11 2 2 1 368 506 569 17.47 17.33 17.48 10 12 8 11 16 19 30 13 33 94 169 115 95 158 235 77 87 106 31 32 30 9 9 12 10 10 10 1 4 3 5 13 28 32 28 36 46 20 20 33 8 6 10 1 2 1 3 6 10 6 33 41 32 33 33 61 15 31 32 11 11 14 1 14 4 8 20 42 46 17 26 31 12 14 23 14 12 18 7 6 12 7 2 5 1 4 3 2 2 3 239 363 506 187 234 295 126 118 135 39 39 53 29 22 29 4 6 5 299 354 79 804 551 605 1,069 857 570 755 628 824 494 755 782 170 387 747 92 105 145 107 129 154 110 125 158 16.30 16.26 17.18 16.34 17.19 17.50 18.69 18.67 19.46 ' 7 4 3 5 2 3 6 6 5 99 7 10 4 1 5 8 5 3 991 1,280 1,485 17.34 17.88 18.09 48 38 36 38 37 48 69 45 67 208 373 307 4,341 4,410 4,609 27.47 30.09 32.96 11 3 6 10 15 12 52 18 10 217 149 27 3 APPENDIX II General helpers: March 1933___________ September 1933________ December 1934............... Mixers’ helpers: March 1933.................... September 1933-----------December 1934___.......... Ovenmen’s helpers: March 1933___________ September 1933-----------December 1934________ Miscellaneous, semiskilled: March 1933-............ September 1933-----------December 1934___.......... Total: March 1933___________ September 1933-----------December 1934 -----------Unskilled: Bread packers: March 1933___________ September 1933________ December 1934------------Bread wrappers, automatic: March 1933___________ September 1933________ December 1934________ Cake wrappers and packers: March 1933___________ September 1933________ December 1934________ Pan greasers: March 1933— ------------September 1933-----------December 1934------------Miscellaneous, unskilled: March 1933___________ September 1933________ December 1934________ Total: March 1933____________ September 1933________ December 1934............... Indirect labor: Driver salesmen: March 1933_______________ September 1933____________ December 1934____ ____ — 1 1 1 2 1 2 3 3 1 2 1 394 440 570 45 156 200 17 77 126 1 1 4 20 51 O CO Males—North—Continued Indirect labor—Continued. Other: Auditors, bookkeepers, etc.: March 1933_______________ September 1933____________ December 1934____________ Chauffeurs and drivers: March 1933_______________ September 1933____________ December 1934____________ Laborers: March 1933_______________ September 1933____________ December 1934------------------Maintenance and repair, skilled: March 1933_______________ September 1933____________ December 1934____________ Maintenance and repair, semi skilled: March 1933_______________ September 1933____________ December 1934____________ Office clerks: March 1933_______________ September 1933____________ December 1934____________ Service, unskilled: March 1933________ ____ _ September 1933..... ........... December 1934____________ Supervisory, skilled: March 1933_______________ September 1933____________ December 1934......... .......... . 127 130 141 $33. 77 33.86 33.83 1 173 183 228 23.48 24.47 24.62 5 1 6 138 185 206 16.59 17.84 17.56 422 458 479 27.65 27. 33 28.22 2 349 417 437 20.48 19. 59 10 11 331 376 397 1 1 1 2 1 3 4 5 10 10 12 19 19 23 26 25 21 12 13 25 17 21 16 13 12 18 13 11 8 2 5 1 6 19 20 12 20 32 46 35 36 27 33 24 46 33 41 34 14 16 24 3 8 19 5 4 5 1 13 4 4 5 5 7 10 6 6 10 27 28 60 89 103 26 38 43 13 14 10 1 2 5 1 7 5 5 1 6 9 8 3 15 22 28 58 80 70 102 121 118 125 120 115 64 *67 78 25 23 30 7 5 18 2 2 5 3 3 4 3 5 1 1 93 86 87 65 83 96 1 ......... 2 7 10 11 10 10 32 51 32 69 126 135 123 130 140 70 63 73 26 12 23 2 4 4 2 3 2 1 21.47 21.32 9 6 8 10 9 13 7 5 9 35 51 20 63 92 114 69 84 99 57 61 69 38 30 26 36 30 30 3 5 5 4 3 4 413 501 578 17.28 17.04 16.80 18 18 34 20 26 20 12 75 101 115 128 213 224 89 92 132 45 29 30 8 5 6 3 4 3 1 704 748 814 37. 74 37.91 39.15 3 1 6 6 1 23 27 17 58 71 48 103 69 83 115 156 184 89 96 122 20.20 22.02 19 22 1 1 128 136 137 9 10 9 2 2 3 22 17 38 WAGES AND HOURS— BREAD-BAKING INDUSTRY Number of employees whose weekly earnings were— Num Aver age Region, sex, occupational class, and period ber of weekly and $8 and $12 and $16 and $20 and $24 and $28 and $32 and $36 and $40 and $44 and $48 and em Under $4 and under under under under under under under under under under under under $56 ployees earn over ings $4 $24 $28 $32 $12 $16 $36 $40 $56 $20 $44 $8 $48 140 T a b l e C . — D istrib u tion o f em p lo yees according to w eekly earnings by o ccu p ation al cla sses, as to region a nd sex, f o r three selected period s — C o n . Miscellaneous, skilled: March 1933________________ September 1933_____________ December 1934_____________ Miscellaneous, semiskilled: March 1933________________ September 1933_____________ December 1934_____________ Miscellaneous, unskilled: March 1933________________ September 1933_____________ December 1934_____________ Total: March 1933________________ September 1933_____________ December 1934_____________ 164 164 165 30.32 29.64 29.67 14 15 12 21 20 27 25 34 31 39 26 21 17 23 30 14 14 14 11 12 7 305 367 413 20.14 19.91 20.95 45 73 117 61 70 78 56 63 77 23 26 23 20 18 31 4 4 3 1 178 214 282 16.89 16.98 17.10 40 47 79 31 25 33 16 26 28 12 8 9 4 4 4 3,304 3,743 4,140 25.60 25.02 25.30 463 719 864 546 612 678 494 525 553 434 364 366 287 335 413 158 174 211 61 51 111 11.72 13.20 12.21 12 1 11 5 5 1 170 195 262 10. 76 11.94 12.79 23 10 40 5 9 5 2 288 401 501 10.92 11.79 12.47 27 16 58 3 3 2 2 2 1 519 647 874 10.96 11.95 12. 53 62 27 109 13 17 8 2 4 1 1 253 269 277 17.18 17.69 17.68 70 79 113 58 59 60 17 19 19 4 3 3 2 3 3 3 136 158 167 18.90 18.80 19. 37 42 58 72 50 48 57 10 10 13 4 2 2 3 3 310 300 360 13. 75 14.49 14. 71 76 72 92 32 35 43 7 5 8 1 7 6 9 11 8 5 "I 1 1 _ 89 106 114 24 19 43 4 1 1 170 173 195 114 106 110 F e m a le s — N o rth APPENDIX II Direct labor: Unskilled: Bread wrappers, hand: March 1933________________ September 1933____________ December 1934_____________ Cake finishers: March 1933________________ September 1933____________ December 1934_____________ Cake wrappers and packers: March 1933________________ September 1933____________ December 1934____ ________ Total: March 1933________________ September 1933____________ December 1934_____________ Indirect labor: Other: Office clerks: March 1933__________ ______ September 1933_____ _____ December 1934_____________ Stenographers, typists, telephone operators, etc.: March 1933________________ September 1933____________ December 1934_____________ Store clerks: March 1933________________ September 1933_____________ December 1934_____________ 1 1 1 1 1 1 T able C .— Distribution of employees according to weekly earnings by occupational classes, as to region and sex, for three selected periods— C o n . 35 27 16 99 39 53 98 219 204 39 53 88 29 20 29 13 10 19 6 5 5 5 7 6 2 1 3 2 1 1 1,047 1,124 1,241 15.13 15.81 16.16 44 34 35 66 43 34 176 83 97 292 470 431 227 262 365 169 162 189 47 44 59 15 10 10 5 10 11 5 4 6 1 1 3 1 1 127 155 170 17.39 17. 51 17.19 3 3 5 7 2 9 9 6 6 35 45 44 31 56 57 18 22 22 15 13 20 5 6 6 3 2 1 1 127 139 146 17.39 22.49 22.46 3 7 9 1 1 35 16 14 31 37 36 18 29 37 15 29 31 5 16 10 3 5 9 1 7 7 241 298 316 21.80 21.82 21.68 1 6 2 1 11 4 4 35 62 64 48 67 76 43 47 60 43 58 51 25 27 27 18 16 22 6 9 5 4 5 5 1 1 490 592 632 20. 64 21.26 20.65 5 3 5 14 4 11 26 10 11 80 123 122 111 160 169 85 98 119 85 100 102 44 49 43 26 23 32 8 16 12 5 5 5 1 1 75 115 116 9.80 11.71 12.37 17 15 9 14 11 7 16 13 19 15 59 63 10 14 17 1 1 1 2 1 1 70 143 147 13.85 14.34 14. 75 3 4 2 5 3 2 17 12 26 19 80 63 15 33 41 9 8 11 2 2 2 1 12.26 a 7 15 22 10 7 1 1 1 IN D U S T R Y 22 15 11 B R E A D -B A K IN G $13.39 14.34 15.17 H O U R S— Males—South Direct labor: Skilled: Bench hands or hand bakers: March 1933_____________ September 1933_________ December 1934_________ Ovenmen: March 1933____________ September 1933------------December 1934_________ Miscellaneous, skilled: March 1933------------------September 1933_________ December 1934_________ Total: March 1933____________ September 1933-------------December 1934_________ Semiskilled: General helpers: March 1933-------- ---------September 1933-------------December 1934........... ..... Ovenmen’s helpers: March 1933________ ____ September 1933............. December 1934......... ....... Miscellaneous, semiskilled: March 1933.................. 348 397 437 AN D Females—North—Continued Indirect labor—Continued. Other—Continued. Miscellaneous: March 1933_____ _______ September 1933.------------December 1934........... ...... Total: March 1933____________ September 1933_________ December 1934........... ...... fcO W A G E S Number of employees whose weekly earnings were— Num age ber of Region, sex, occupational class, and period and $8 and $12 and $16 and $20 and $24 and $28 and $32 and $36 and $40 and $44 and $48 and em weekly Under $4 and under under under under under under under under under under under under $56 ployees earn over $4 ings $12 $24 $32 $40 $44 $48 $56 $8 $16 $20 $28 $36 September 1033_______ December 1934.............. Total: March 1933___________ September 1933----------December 1934________ Unskilled: Bread wrappers, automatic: March 1933___________ September 1933----------December 1934________ Miscellaneous, unskilled: March 1933___________ September 1933________ December 1934________ Total: March 1933___________ September 1933________ December 1934________ Indirect labor: Driver-salesmen: March 1933_______________ September 1933___________ December 1934____________ Other: March 1933_______________ September 1933___________ December 1934____________ 100 131 14.73 15.35 2 3 3 3 3 10 60 59 22 38 9 14 1 3 1 213 358 394 11.92 13.60 14.25 26 21 14 26 17 12 48 28 55 56 199 185 35 69 96 17 18 26 5 4 5 2 1 143 155 12.87 13.88 14.13 7 7 5 13 6 9 10 9 10 45 83 77 15 26 45 10 10 9 2 99 138 161 11.37 13.72 14.17 13 9 6 20 11 6 22 9 24 22 76 79 10 18 30 8 10 12 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 199 281 316 12.12 13.81 14.15 20 16 11 33 17 15 32 18 34 67 159 156 25 44 75 18 20 21 2 4 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 671 711 800 22.80 27.93 28.13 1 2 3 4 2 18 6 1 58 29 7 106 62 92 234 162 196 132 120 169 62 140 128 32 74 76 17 46 57 5 26 26 2 12 13 1 17 21 11 12 478 613 705 19.27 19.63 19. 72 15 15 19 30 13 30 55 25 45 102 223 217 66 89 112 67 85 93 52 59 57 29 24 24 24 27 46 15 26 28 18 19 17 5 7 11 3 3 3 92 131 196 8.10 11.28 11.04 12 7 8 31 13 18 40 19 60 8 92 107 3 83 90 9.45 11.56 12.00 9 3 8 18 9 5 29 14 10 25 62 73 1 1 2 1 1 4 201 154 181 12.11 13. 72 13.88 9 4 6 26 14 13 45 21 35 33 98 92 22 24 33 13 15 14 6 4 7 1 1 237 271 303 11.18 13.00 13. 25 18 7 14 44 23 18 74 35 45 58 160 165 23 25 35 14 16 18 6 4 7 1 1 100 Females—South Direct labor: Unskilled: March 1933_______________ September 1933___________ December 1934____________ Indirect labor: Other: Store clerks: March 1933____________ September 1933________ December 1934________ Miscellaneous: March 1933___________ September 1933________ December 1934________ Total: March 1933____________ September 1933________ December 1934________ 102 >5 SZJ e M X 1 1 O CO