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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS
ROYAL MEEKER, Commissioner

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES )
( WHOLE
BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS) ‘ ' * ( NUMBER
M I S C E L L A N E O U S

S E R I E S

No .

162
7

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

AUGUST, 1915

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1916

CONTENTS.
Page.

Foreword..................................................................................................................
Facts about Richmond..........................................................................................
The public schools of Richmond..........................................................................
Public-school enrollment...............................................................................
Children in private and parochial schools...................................................
School attendance.................. ........................................................................
Compulsory education....................................................................................
Effect of compulsory education upon school attendance...........................
Child labor prohibited...................................................................................
Ages at which pupils leave school................................................................
Grades at which pupils leave school.............................................................
Data in regard to 13 and 14 year old children and their families..............
Part-time schooling of young people at work..............................................
Correspondence courses..................................................................................
Duration of employment of young people at work.....................................
Number of positions held by young people at work...................................
Wages of young people at work.....................................................................
Occupational choice of young people at work.............................................
Present status of technical and vocational education................ .......................
Financial support of the public schools...............................................................
The industrial survey............................................................................................
Fields of employment in Richmond.............................................................
Survey concerned with wage earners, especially industrial workers........
Method of industrial survey..........................................................................
Analysis of occupations..................................................................................
Analysis of findings based on the individual schedules secured from
workers in printing, building, and metal trades.....................................
Points covered by individual schedules...............................................
No children under 14 found employed.................................................
Most of the workers trained in Richmond............................................
Hours of work...........................................................................................
Regularity of employment.....................................................................
Age at beginning work......................................... .*.................................
Apprenticeship........................................................................................
Misfits in the trades.......................................... ...................................
Physical and nervous strain of occupation, and occupational diseases.
Adequacy of shop instruction................................. ..............................
Education of Richmond workers...........................................................
Educational courses taken since leaving school...................................
Part-time courses desired by workers....................................................
Analysis of findings based on the establishment schedules secured from
employers in the printing, building, and metal trades.........................
Scope of the investigation.......................................................................
Seasonal fluctuations...............................................................................
Supply and demand of skilled workers.................................................
Apprenticeship................................................ .......................................
Lack of education a handicap to workers.............................................
Suggestions of subjects to be taught for the trades..............................
Analysis of individual schedules secured from women and girls in retail
stores.............................................................................................................
Scope of the investigation......................................................................
Types of establishments covered...........................................................
Skilled and unskilled work....................................................................

5-7
9,10
11-24
11
11
11,12
12
13
13,14
14
14,15
15-19
19
20
20
20
20,21
22-24
24-28
29,30
31-71
31
31, 32
32
33
33-38
33,34
34
34
34
34,35
35
35,36
36
36
36
36,37
37
37, 38
38-42
38,39
39
39
39,40
40
41,42
42-47
42
42,43
43,44

CONTENTS.

The industrial survey—Concluded.
Analysis of individual schedules, etc.—Concluded.
Page.
Labor supply................................................................ ..........................
44
Large proportion of women employed...................................................
44
Age at beginning work............................................................................
44,45
Fluctuation of employment....................................................................
45
Methods of selecting workers..................................................................
45,46
Promotion.................................................................................................
46
How workers are trained.........................................................................
46, 47
Analysis of information secured from employers and employees in regard
to the tobacco industry...............................................................................
47-49
Importance of the industry in Richmond....................................... .
47
Small amount of skilled labor employed..............................................
47
Wages and hours......................................................................................
47
Regularity of employment......................................................................
47,48
Education of tobacco workers................................................................
48
What the schools can do for tobacco workers.......................................
49
Recommendations of the general survey com m ittee.................................
51-71
Introduction.............................................................................................
51, 52
I. Problem of financing vocational education in Richmond..........
52-54
II. Compulsory attendance as a factor in a program of industrial
education......................................................................................
54-56
III. Types of schools and courses of study for boys and men............
56-62
IV. Types of schools and courses of study for girls and women........
62-67
V. Prevoeational education for boys..................................................
67-70
VI. Place of private institutions receiving city moneys in the gen
eral plan..................................................................... r ..............
71
Appendix A.—Statistical summary of information secured from employers
and employees in printing, building, and metal trades.................................
73-93
Appendix B.—Analysis of occupations in the printing trades in Richmond.. 94-140
Summary......................................................................................................... 94-106
Analysis of occupations in detail................................................................... 106-140
Tabular analysis......................................................................................... Facing 140
Appendix C.—Analysis of occupations in the building trades in Richmond. 141-182
Summary......................................................................................................... 141-146
Analysis of occupations in detail.................................................................. 147-182
Tabular analysis........................................................................................ Facing 182
Appendix D.—Analysis of occupations in the metal trades in Richmond___ 183-226
Summary......................................................................................................... 183-189
Analysis of occupations in detail.................................................................. 190-226
Tabular analysis........................................................................................ Facing 226
Appendix E.—Analysis of occupations in department stores in Richmond... 227-254
General summary of occupations.................................................................. 227. 238
Statistical summary of information secured from woman employees in
retail stores in Richmond........................................................................... 238-254
Appendix F.—Analysis of occupations in the tobacco industry in Richmond. 255-279
Summary........................................................................................................ 255-261
Operations in the tobacco industry............................................................. 261-269
Statistics of white female employees in the tobacco industry................... 269-279
Tabular analysis........................................................................................ Facing 278
Appendix G.—Plan for a division of industrial education in Richmond........ 280-301
Plan of organization........................................................................................ 280-284
Plan for a prevoeational industrial school.................................................... 284-289
Plan for continuation classes for printers’ apprentices............................... 289,290
Plan for elementary night schools for girls and women.............................. 290-301
Appendix H.—Organization and work of John Marshall Night High School. 302-311
Appendix I.—Organization and work of Virginia Mechanics’ Institute......... 312-321
Appendix J.—Schedules used in the industrial survey..................................... 322-326

BULLETIN OF THE

U. S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
WHOLE NO. 162.

WASHINGTON.

AUGUST, 1915.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.
FOREWORD.

In the spring of 1914, the executive committee of the National
Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education arranged with the
Richmond Board of Education to make a study of the schools and
occupations in that city, preliminary to the annual convention of the
society, which was to be held there in December of the same year.
The aims of the survey on the part of the National Society were:
1. To prove the necessity of a knowledge of industrial and school
conditions in the making of a program for industrial education in a
city.
2. To show the kind of facts about industry and about the schools
which need to be gathered.
3. To develop a proper method for studying the industries and
the schools for purposes of industrial education.
4. To secure the cooperation of national and local public and
private agencies in the making of a type survey and to bring to bear
upon the task the best expert service and advice that could be
secured.
5. To make the annual convention of the society more helpful to
the convention city by focusing much of the discussion on its problem,
and leaving with it not only information as to conditions and possi
bilities but also wide discussion and expert advice through the
membership of the National Society and others as to the development
of industrial education in the city.
The purposes of the Richmond authorities in having the National
Society make the survey were these:
1. To make the annual convention in Richmond most helpful to a
city interested in providing practical education for its people.
2. To give the city a knowledge of the industrial and school facts
and conditions which must be considered in developing a program
of industrial education and the best expert advice as to what Rich
mond should do and how she should do it, in order that, as one Rich
mond school official expresses it, “ Richmond may not be working in
the dark.”

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

Arrangements with the city of Richmond.—Richmond met the local
expenses of the annual convention of the society for 1914 and the cost
of making the school and industrial surveys. The National Society
met the usual general convention expenses and in addition the ex
pense of printing the bulletins of the society bearing on the survey,
of its office force while engaged in the work of the survey, and of the.
general survey committee.
The general survey committee.—The agreement between the Rich
mond authorities and the National Society provided for a general
survey committee to have direct charge of the survey, and a local sur
vey committee made up of citizens of Richmond to cooperate with it.
At the outset the general survey committee, which directed the con
duct of the survey, consisted of the following: Dr. Leonard P. Ayres,
director, Russell Sage Foundation, chairman; Mr. Charles H. Verrill,
chief editor, United States Bureau of Labor Statistics; Mr. L. W,
Hatch, chief statistician, New York Bureau of Labor; Dr. J. A. C,
Chandler, superintendent of schools, Richmond, Va.; Prof. C. R. Rich
ards, director of Cooper Union, New York; Mr. Charles H. Winslow,
special agent, United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, and Mr. C. A.
Prosser, secretary of the National Society.
For the purpose of dealing with the “ Recommendations of the
survey” there were added to the general survey committee the fol
lowing persons: Mrs. Mary Schenck Woolman, formerly director,
Manhattan Trade School for Girls, and professor of domestic art,
Teachers’ College, New York City; Miss Laura Drake Gill, president,
College for Women, University of the South, Sewanee, Tenn.; Dr. P. P.
Claxton, United States Commissioner of Education; Prof. R. W. Selvidge, Peabody College, Nashville, Tenn.; Mr. Arthur D. Dean, chief,
division of vocational schools, Albany, N. Y.; Mr. M. P. Shawkey,
State superintendent of free schools, West Virginia; and Dr. William
M. Davidson, superintendent of schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.
The local survey committee consisted of the following: Mr. Frank
W. Duke, chairman; Mr. James B. Doherty, Mr. John Hirschberg,
Mr. W. T. Dabney, Mr. W. H. Owen, Mr. A. H. Hill, Mr. K. J. Hoke,
Mr. J. G. Corley, Mr. L. H. Jenkins, Mr. J. D. Crump, Mr. John Stuart
Bryan, Mr. Alvin Smith, Mr. E. C. Pelouze, Mr. F. C. Ebel, Mr. H.
F. Smith, Mr. R. B. Greenway, Mr. J. J. Creamer, and Mr. Preston
Belvin.
Director of the school survey.—Dr. Leonard P. Ayres, director of the
division of education of the Russell Sage Foundation, was secured as
director of the school survey. He was assisted in this work by
R. R. Lutz, assistant director, and the regular staff of the division.
Director of the industrial survey.—Mr. Charles H. Winslow, expert
on industrial education for the United States Bureau of Labor Sta
tistics, was secured as director of the industrial survey. He was

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

assisted in this work by Dr. John Cummings, statistician and re
search expert, formerly of the United States Census Bureau and later
research expert with the United States Commission on National Aid
to Vocational Education; Miss Cleo MurHand7assistant secretary for
women’s work- of the National Society for the Promotion of In
dustrial Education; Dr. William T. Bawden, specialist in vocational
education for the United States Bureau of Education; and an office
and field force of workers.
Cooperating agencies.—The society has been fortunate in securing
the hearty cooperation of many helpful agencies in the work of the
survey. Perhaps its largest service has been that of bringing to
bear upon the Richmond problem so much expert assistance from
many different sources, much of which was given entirely without
cost and the value of which can not be estimated in money. It
would be impossible to acknowledge here all the aid which has been
given in various ways.
Special acknowledgment, however, is due the following:
The United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, which gave six months'
leave of absence to Mr. Charles H. Winslow so that he might serve as
director of the industrial survey, is to issue the full report of the
findings and recommendations of the survey as one of its publications,
and has, through Dr. Royal Meeker, United States Commissioner of
Labor Statistics, and Mr. Charles H. Verrill, its chief editor, cooperated
with the survey by every legitimate means within its power.
The United States Bureau of Education, which through its commis
sioner, Dr. P. P. Claxton, gave wide publicity to the work of the sur
vey and the convention.
The Russell Sage Foundation, which through its director of edu
cational work, Dr. Leonard P. Ayres, conducted the school survey
and met a large part of its cost.
The Richmond school people, who from the outset gave their earnest
support and hearty cooperation to the work. Without their assis
tance the results achieved would have been impossible.
The citizens of Richmond, who aided in many ways. Special ac
knowledgment is due for the help given by the local survey com
mittee, the local program committee, and the employers and em
ployees who have made the survey a success by their willingness to
furnish all the information requested.
Type classes.—The findings of the survey and the interest awak
ened in industrial education have made possible the organization of
certain type classes in industrial education. The organization of
these classes was under the general direction of Mr. Charles H. Wins
low, Miss Cleo Murtland, Dr. William T. Bawden, and Mr. Alvin E.
Dodd.

PACTS ABOUT RICHMOND.

Richmond, the capital of Virginia, is situated in the eastern part
of the State at the head of navigation of the James River.
Population increasing rapidly.—The estimate of the United States
census for 1914 gives the city 134,917 inhabitants. Between 1900
and 1910 the increase in population was 50 per cent, more than onefifth of the total increase for the State being in Richmond. In 1900
it was the forty-sixth city in size and in 1910 the thirty-ninth city.
Only 9 of the 50 cities having a population in 1910 of 100,000 or
more show a percentage increase for the previous 10 years as high as
that shown by Richmond.
Population massed in a relatively small area.—Only 6 of the 47
large cities covered by the census data of 1910 regarding area and
population reported a population per acre within city limits as great
as that of Richmond, each of these six cities having more than 300,000
inhabitants. The annexation of large suburban areas since 1910 has
brought within the city limits considerable sparsely settled territory
but has not reduced the density of the business and industrial sec
tions. Richmond possesses a distinct advantage for industrial
education over those cities whose industrial establishments are more
widely scattered and necessarily more remote from any school center.
Richmond the rapidly growing manufacturing center of Virginia.—In
the 10 years previous to 1909 the number of manufacturing estab
lishments increased from 276 to 380 and the value of products from
$24,670,000 to $47,358,000. Thirty-ninth in population among the
cities of the country, Richmond ranks fifty-fourth in the value of its
products, which outrank in value those of six different States. One
out of every six persons in the State of Virginia who are engaged in
manufacturing industries is employed in Richmond; one out of every
seven dollars of the State's total capital invested in industry is used
in Richmond, which produces one-fifth of the State's total manufac
tured product.
One out of every two persons is employed.—In 1910 approximately
63,000 persons were engaged in various employments. Out of every
100 of these 40 were employed in manufacturing and mechanical
industries, 23 in domestic and personal service, 14 in trade and
commerce, 8 in transportation, 8 in clerical occupations, 4 in pro
fessional service, and the remaining 3 in miscellaneous pursuits.
The problem primarily one of training a native population.—Less
than 4 out of every 100 of Richmond's inhabitants are foreign born.

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

About 70 out of every 100 of the native inhabitants were born in
Richmond and 86 out of every 100 in Virginia. Only two (Charles
ton, S. C., and Wheeling, W. Va.) out*of the 109 cities of 50,000 or
more inhabitants in the United States, according to the census of
1910, returned a larger portion of their population as born in the
State in which the oity is located.
The number of females greatly exceeds the number of males.—While
in the State of Virginia the number of males is practically equal to
the number of females, in Richmond the proportion of males to
females is as 91 to 100, the excess of females over males being par
ticularly marked among the Negroes. With the single exception of
Nashville the ratio of males to females is lower than in any other
large southern city.
More than one-third of the inhabitants are Negroes.—During the last
30 years the ratio of Negroes to whites has been slowly decreasing.
With the exception of Memphis and Birmingham, Richmond has a
larger proportion of Negro population than any other southern city
of more than 50,000 people.
Illiteracy, while large, is on the decrease.—One hundred and ninetysix out of every 1,000 Negroes 10 years of age and over in Richmond
are unable to read and write, the average for cities of 100,000 and
over in the country as a whole being 126, and for Virginia almost 300.
During the past 30 years illiteracy among the Negroes in Richmond
has declined rapidly, 457 out of every 1,000 of them being reported
as illiterates in 1890. On the other hand, only 12 out of every 1,000
native whites can neither read nor write, which is just one-half the
number who were so reported 30 years ago. The proportion of
illiterates among the native whites in cities of 100,000 and over for the
entire country is 4 out of every 1,000 and in the State of Virginia 80.
The educational problem of Richmond.—The significant factors are
two: (1) The large proportion of native whites of native parentage
in the white population; (2) the large proportion of Negroes in the
total population. Richmond is not confronted with the task of
assimilating a large foreign element, but rather with that of training
its native population for efficiency.

THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF RICHMOND.

The puUic-school system.—The public schools of Richmond are
administered by a school board of nine members appointed, three
each year, by the city council. The annual expenditures are approxi
mately three-quarters of a million dollars, of which about one-tenth
comes from the State and nearly nine-tenths must be voted each year
as appropriations of the city council. Thus the school board has
only indirect control over the amount and in some measure over the
distribution of its funds. There are 35 school buildings, of which 22
are occupied by white children and 13 by colored children.
Public-school enrollment over 22,000.—The total enrollment in the
public schools in 1913-14 was 22,459, divided as shown in the table
following:
T a b l e 1 .—T O TAL EN R O LL M EN T A N D A V E R A G E A TTEN D A N C E IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS

IN 1913-14.

Enrollment.
Class of school.
White.

Colored.
33

Total.

Kindergarten......................................................
Special.................................................................
Elementary........................................................
High....................................................................
Normal................................................................
Night...................................................................

783
203
9,768
1,593
21
2,571

5,916
358
38
1,175

816
203
15,684
1,951
59
3,746

Total.........................................................

14,939

7,520

22,459

Total aver Per cent of
age attend
attend
ance.
ance.!

443

80.9

12,760
1,509

94.0
95.6

1,701

80.0

1 Based on average monthly enrollment.

Three thousand six hundred and sixty children in private and parochial
schools.—Compared with most other cities of similar size, Richmond
has few children in private and parochial schools. The number
reported for the city for 1913-14 was 3,660.
School attendance.—Previous to November, 1914, school attendance
in Richmond was not compulsory, and previous to this year children
had not been admitted to the public schools before the age of 7.
For these reasons this city has a smaller proportion of children in
school than is the case in cities admitting children at 5 or 6 years of
age under compulsory attendance regulations. According to the
data presented by the United States census for 1910, 88 per cent of
the white children and 77 per cent of the colored children between the
ages of 10 and 15 had attended some school during the previous year.1
1 United States census 1910.

Population, Vol. I, pp. 1160-1184.

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OP LABOR STATISTICS.

As compared with the five other southern cities of more than 100,000
population, this city made an average showing with respect to the
proportion of children in school attendance between the ages of 10
and 15. Memphis, Nashville, and Birmingham have a slightly
larger proportion of their white children of these ages in school,
while Atlanta and New Orleans make somewhat poorer showings.
With respect to their colored children of these ages, Birmingham and
Nashville do a little better than Richmond, while the records of
Atlanta, Memphis, and New Orleans are not quite so good. A similar
situation exists when Richmond is compared with four other cities
of Virginia. Norfolk and Portsmouth have a slightly smaller pro
portion of their colored children of these ages in school, while Lynch
burg and Roanoke do somewhat better. With respect to the propor
tion of white children of these ages in school, all of the four other
Virginia cities make somewhat better showings than does Richmond.
Compulsory education recently adopted.—Section 138 of the State
constitution provides that the General Assembly may “ provide for
the compulsory education of children between the ages of 8 and 12
years, except such as are weak in body or mind, or can read and write,
or are attending private schools, or are excused for cause by the district-school trustees.”
In accordance with this provision, section 95 of the school laws
provides that any county, city, or town may establish compulsory
education when the school board submits the question to a vote of
the people at any general election, and the resulting vote is in favor
of the proposition. Provision is also made for securing the referen
dum vote by means of a petition.
In November, 1914, the establishment of compulsory attendance
was submitted to the voters of Richmond and adopted by a heavy
majority. The State law provides that in communities which
establish compulsory education, parents or guardians having control
of any child between the ages of 8 and 12 years must send it to the
public school for at least 12 weeks in each school year, at least six
of which shall be consecutive, unless the school trustees excuse the
child, or unless he be weak in body or mind, or can read and write, or
is attending a private school, or lives more than 2 miles from the
school, or more than 1 mile from the free school-wagon route.
Clearly more effective compulsory education is essential within the
near future. An amendment to the law so as to provide for attend
ance during the full school term could be enacted legally at any
session of the general assembly. To secure an amendment to the
constitution would probably require about five years. The past
session of the general assembly appointed a codification commission
which may recommend changes in the law or the constitution, or both.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

Compulsory education should increase school attendance by about
1,050.—The adoption of compulsory education by the city of Rich
mond should bring into school all the children aged 8, 9, 10, and 11
years who are not now in attendance. A computation has been made
based on the figures for age distribution and school attendance of
the census of 1910 to discover the number of boys and girls, white and
colored, at each of these four ages as well as the number attending
school and the number not attending school.1 These figures, as
increased to indicate conditions in 1914, and corrected by reference
to the present age, sex, and color figures of the public schools, show
that there are approximately 1,050 children of these four ages who
are not in school and who would presumably attend were compulsory
education enforced. The distribution of these children is shown in
the following table:
T a b l e 2 .—CH ILDREN B E T W E E N TH E AGES OF 8 A ND 12 W H O AR E NOT N O W IN PUBLIC

OR PR IVAT E SCHOOLS.

White.

Colored.
Total.

Age.
Boys.

Girls.

Boys.

Girls.

8 years....................................................................................
9 years....................................................................................
10 years................................................................................ .
11 years..................................................................................

22
2
65
62

33
33
70
62

96
93
105
137

70
47
82
71

221
175
322
332

Total...........................................................................

151

198

431

270

1,050

It must be remembered that the figures of Table 2 are at best only
a careful estimate derived from the census data. It is nearly cer
tain, for example, that there are more than two white boys 9 years of
age out of school. Nevertheless it is believed that the figure 1,050
fairly represents the number of children of these ages who will be
brought into school by the enforcement of the compulsory-education
law. The figure is probably an underestimate rather than an over
estimate.
Child labor 'prohibited.—The Virginia child-labor law became
effective July 1, 1914. It prohibits the employment in industrial
and mercantile establishments of children under 14 and requires
employment certificates issued by a notary public for children be
tween 14 and 16. Employers of such children must post a list of
their names near the entrances of their establishments. In cities of
5,000 population or over, boys under 10 and girls under 16 may not
sell periodicals on the street and children under 14 may not be em
ployed in messenger service. The law exempts mercantile estab
lishments in towns of under 2,000 population and fruit and vegetable
packing establishments between July 1 and November 1. Parents

i United States census, 1910.

Population, Volume III, p. 947.

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OP LABOR STATISTICS.

are permitted to work their own children in their own establishments.
The school authorities have nothing to do with the enforcement of
the law or the issuance of employment certificates.
Ages at which pupils leave school.—Relatively few children perma
nently leave school in Richmond before the age of 13. After 14 they
begin to fall out rapidly. It is approximately true that of each 1,000
boys and girls, white and colored, the number remaining in school at
each age is as indicated in Table 3. This and the following computa
tions of elimination are based on the age and grade distribution tables
for the years 1911-12, 1912-13, and 1913-14.
T a b l e 3 .—A PPR O XIM ATE NUM BER OF SCHOOL CH ILD REN AMONG EACH 1,000 BEGIN

NERS R EM AINING IN SCHOOL AT EACH AGE.

White.

Colored.

Age.
Boys.
11 y9ars......................................................................................
12 years......................................................................................
13 years......................................................................................
14 years......................................................................................
15 years......................................................................................
16 years......................................................................................
17 years......................................................................................
18 years......................................................................................
19 years......................................................................................
20 years......................................................................................
21 years......................................................................................

Girls.

1,000
977
901
737
478
267
141
49
11
2

Boys.

1,000
1,000
914
792
560
376
215
94
26
5
1

Girls.

1,000
1,000
837
617
343
161
64
33
11
2
1

1,000
1,000
918
777
493
319
191
115
65
24
5

It is to be noted that among both the white and the colored, the
girls stay in school considerably longer than the boys.
Grades at which pupils leave school.—More than half of the white
children, but considerably less than half of the colored ones, complete
the elementary grades. It is approximately true that of each 1,000
boys and girls, white and colored, the number remaining in school at
each grade is as indicated in the following table:
T a b l e 4 .—APPR O XIM ATE NUMBER OF SCHOOL CH ILDREN AMONG EACH 1,000 B E G IN

NERS REM AINING IN SCHOOL AT EACH GRADE.

White.

Colored.

Grade.
Boys.

Girls.

Boys.

Girls.

Elementary school.
Second........................................................................................
Fourth............................................................ ..........................
Fifth...........................................................................................
Sixth...........................................................................................
Seventh......................................................................................

1,000
1,000
1,000
990
945
781
568

1,000
1,000
998
991
975
881
738

1,000
1,000
959
842
673
448
272

1,000
999
983
954
866
621
439

428
232
134
94

495
276
180
156

132
67
34
26

269
182
123
110

High school.
First............................................................................................
Second........................................................................................
Fourth........................................................................................

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

The figures indicate that during their years of schooling the colored
children make distinctly less progress than the white ones. It is most
significant that in Richmond among both white and colored children
the girls stay in school longer and make better progress than the
boys. This condition is so marked that the proportion of colored
girls completing the high-school course is greater than the proportion
of white boys completing the high-school course.
Data secured through IS and 14 year old children.—A considerable
portion of the work of the school inquiry consisted of a study of
certain facts concerning all of the 13 and 14 year old boys and girls
in the public schools, their fathers, and their older brothers and
sisters. The study was confined to the 13 and 14 year old children
because those are the last years before many of them drop out of
school. Moreover, since children of these ages leave school in large
numbers to go to work, they may fairly be considered the raw mate
rial of vocational education.
In all, information was gathered from 6,591 persons, the data being
secured by means of schedules filled out by the 13 and 14 year old
school children, assisted by their teachers or principals, and from
schedules filled out by the older brothers and sisters of these children.
These cases were not selected in any way. They include data for all
of the 13 and 14 year old children in the public schools for whom the
facts could be secured and for the fathers and older brothers and
sisters of these children. In all, data were gathered from 6,591 per
sons, as follows:
White boys 13 and 14 years old..........................................................
839
White girls 13 and 14 years old..........................................................
930
Colored boys 13 and 14 years old .......................................................
295
526
Colored girls 13 and 14 years old......................................... .............
Fathers of 13 and 14 year old white children................................... 1,769
Fathers of 13 and 14 year old colored children.................................
821
Older brothers of these white pupils—gainfully employed and
under 21 years of age.......................................................................
618
Older sisters of these white pupils—gainfully employed and under
21 years of age...................................................................................
350
Older brothers of these colored pupils—gainfully employed and
under 21 years of age.......................................................................
297
Older sisters of these colored pupils—gainfully employed and under
21 years of age...................................................................................
146
Total............................................................... ........................... 6,591

Thirteen and fourteen year old children in all grades from first ele
mentary to third high.—The first data secured showed the school grades
of the children and brought to light three significant facts. The first
is that although these boys and girls are of nearly the same ages, they
represent almost every stage of school advancement and are scattered
through the grades from the first elementary to the third high. The

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

second fact is that one-half of these white boys and girls are in the
sixth grade or below. The third significant fact is that more than
half of the colored boys and girls are in the fifth grade or below.
These figures indicate that large numbers of these boys and girls may
be expected to leave school soon and go to work with an educational
preparation so inadequate as to hamper them in their vocations and
seriously to reduce their value to the community. This situation is
important from the point of view of vocational education. The fig
ures showing how these 2,590 boys and girls are distributed through
the grades are presented in Table 5.
T a b l e 5.—GRADES OF 13 AND 14 Y E A R OLD BOYS AND GIRLS IN M AY, 1914.

White.

Colored.

Grade.
Girls.

Boys.

Girls.

Elementary school.
Special........................................................................................
F irst...*....................................................................................
.......................................................................
Second .
Third..........................................................................................
Fourth.......................................................................................
Fifth...........................................................................................
Sixth..........................................................................................
Seventh.....................................................................................

5
1
2
27
79
150
205
212

15
56
156
221
285

123
31
4
839

4
28
30
55
74
58
36

s
20
54
98
126
117
63

161
34
2

37
3

930

295

526

High school.

Total................................................................................

Birthplaces of fathers and children.—The next facts secured were
data giving the birthplaces of the children and their fathers. They
showed that about nine-tenths of the Richmond school children and
more than five-sixths of their fathers were bom either in the city of
Richmond or elsewhere in Virginia. This statement is based on
data concerning the birthplaces of 1,769 white children, 1,769 white
fathers, 821 colored children, and 821 colored fathers. The percent
age figures showing the birthplaces are presented in the next table.
T a b l e 6.—BIRTHPLACES OF 13 AND 14 Y E A R

OLD SCHOOL CHILDREN AND T H EIR
FATH ERS.

White.

Colored.

Birthplace.
Children.

Fathers.

Children.

Fathers.

City of Richmond....................................................................
Elsewhere in Virginia.............................................................
Other States in United States..............................................
Foreign countries.....................................................................

Per cent.
70
17
11
2

Per cent.
37
38
16
9

Per cent.
81
14
5

Per cent.
48
36
15
1

Total................................................................................

100

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

Most other cities of similar size have far more migratory popula
tions than Richmond. The data indicate that if present conditions
maintain in the future, Richmond may safely train a larger proportion
of her children for future participation in her local industries than
would be wise for the average city.
Occupations of fathers, older brothers, and older sisters of school
children.—Data were secured as to the occupations of all of the older
brothers and sisters and nearly all of the fathers of these school
children. Their occupational distribution is shown in the table
which follows:
T a b l e 7 .— OCCUPATIONAL D ISTR IBUTIO N OF F ATH ER S A N D O LDER B R O T H E R S A N D

SISTERS OF 13 AN D 14 Y E A R OLD SCHOOL CH ILD REN .

White.
Occupational group.
Fathers.

Older
brothers
at work.

Extraction of minerals...................................
Building trades................................................
Manufacturing, metal.....................................
Manufacturing, other......................................
Transportation..................................................
Trade.............................................................i - Public service...................................................
Professional service.........................................
Domestic and personal service......................
Clerical occupations........................................

24
243
229
248
205
358
78
64
59
85

4
59
70
122
34
131
17
10
8
163

Total........................................................

1,593

618

Colored.
Older
sisters
at work.

Fathers.

Older
brothers
at work.

7
1
139

8
80
44
73
127
54
21
17
274
25

3
12
9
31
63
24
6
1
127
21

7
112
5

350

723

297

146

121
25
57

Older
sisters
at work.

Occupations of older brothers and sisters educationally important.—
It is important to consider the nature of the occupations in which the
older brothers and sisters of these school children are engaged because
they furnish probably the most reliable available index to the sorts of
occupations which the boys and girls now in school may be expected
to enter during the next few years.
Most numerous occupations of the white older brothers.—Nearly twothirds of the white older brothers are engaged in 13 occupations.
These occupations, which include all engaging 10 or more, are listed
below:
Older brothers of IS and 14 year old white school children engaged in all occupations
including 10 or more workers.
Occupation.

Workers.

Clerks....................................................................................................
115
Salesmen...............................................................................................
99
Machinists..................................................... ...................................
27
Plumbers.................................................................................................. 22
Printers and pressmen......................... ...............................................
21
Messengers............................................................................................
16
Teamsters.............................................................................................
16
Iron and steel workers....................................................................
13

6071°—Bull. 162—16----- 2

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

Older brothers of 13 and 14 year old white school children engaged in all occupations
including 10 or more workers—Concluded.
Occupation.

Workers.

Electricians...........................................................................................
Stenographers....................... ................................................................
United States sailors............................................................................
Operatives, tobacco.............................................................................
Painters.................................................................................................

13
13
13
10
10

Total in these occupations.......................................................
Total reporting..........................................................................
Per cent in these occupations..................................................

388
618
63

It is noteworthy that more than one-third of all the white older
brothers for whom we have information are engaged as clerks or sales
men. The first seven occupations listed include more than one-half
of all the cases.
Four-fifths of white older sisters in seven occupations.—Four-fifths of
the white older sisters are engaged in seven occupations. These occu
pations, which include all engaging 10 or more, are shown below:
Older sisters of IS and 14 year old white school children engaged in all occupations
including 10 or more workers.
Occupation.

Workers.

Stenographers.......................................................................................
Operatives, tobacco.............................................................................
Saleswomen..........................................................................................
Clerks............................. .......................................................................
Telephone operators.......................................................... .................
Operatives, pap er...............................................................................
Bookkeepers.........................................................................................

78
69
55
24
24
18
11

279
350
80

It is significant that more than one-fifth of all these young women
are stenographers, another fifth operatives in tobacco factories, and
nearly one-sixth of them saleswomen.
Two-thirds of colored older brothers in five occupations.—Two-thirds
of the colored older brothers are engaged in five occupations. These
occupations, which include all engaging 10 or more, are as follows:
Older brothers of IS and 14- year old colored school children engaged in all occupations
including 10 or more workers.
Occupation.

Workers.

Porters, trade........................................................................................
Teamsters..............................................................................................
Laborers................................................................................................
Messengers................................................................................................
Operatives, tobacco.............................................................................
Total in these occupations.......................................................
Total reporting..........................................................................
Per cent in these occupations..................................................

74
49
44
15
14
196
297
66

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

Four-fifths of colored older sisters in four occupations.—Four-fifths
of the colored older sisters are engaged in four occupations. These
occupations, which include all engaging 10 or more, are listed below:
Older sisters of IS and 14 year old colored school children engaged in all occupations
including 10 or more workers.
Occupation.

Workers.

Servants................................................................................................
Laundresses..........................................................................................
Nurse girls............................................................................................
Operatives, tobacco.............................................................................

48
37
19
11

115
146
79

Reasons for leaving school.—Among the 620 older brothers and
sisters at work, reasons were given for leaving school as shown below.
The distribution of these reasons is about the same for the boys
and the girls, the white and the colored.
Reasons given for leaving school.

To go to work........................................................................................
Wanted to..... .......................................................................................
Poor health...........................................................................................
To support family................................................................................
Had to go to work......................................................................... .
Graduated.............................................................................................
To learn a trade....................................................................................
Failure in studies.................................................................................
Moved...................................................................................................
Disagreement with teacher.................................................................
To accept position...............................................................................
Miscellaneous.......................................................................................
Not stated................................................................................ ............

260
62
56
50
31
26
22
16
9
8
6
14
60

Total...........................................................................................

620

Age at beginning work.—The ages given for beginning work range
from 8 to 20, with an average of a little over 15 years for white and
colored boys, and not quite 16 for white and colored girls.
Schooling received before children went to work.—The amount of
schooling which these young people claim to have received before
they went to work ranges from the first grade to the complete highschool course. The average amounts were as follows:
Colored boys................................................................................... 4th grade.
Colored girls............................................................ ....................... 5th grade.
White boys......................................................................................6th grade.
White girls..................................................................................... 7th grade.

Part-time schooling of young people at work.—Among these 620
young people at work, 365 say they have never attended evening
school. The remaining 255 claim to have attended for periods
ranging from three nights to seven years, with an average of about
three months.

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

Correspondence courses.—Among the 620 young people at work, 36
state that they have taken correspondence courses, the majority
being taken by white boys.
Duration of employment of young people at worTc.—The 620 young
people at work furnished information as to the number of years since
they had first gone into any form of gainful occupation. This infor
mation is presented in the table which follows:
T a b l e 8 .—OLDER BR OTHER S AND SISTERS OF 13 AN D 14 Y E A R OLD SCHOOL C H ILD REN

W H O H A V E BE E N A T W O R K EACH SPECIFIED NU M BER OF Y E A R S .
White.

Colored.

Years at work.
Older
brothers.
1 year..........................
2 years........................
3 vears........................
4 years........................
5 years........................
6 vears........................
7 vears........................
8 years.......................
9 years........................
10 years......................
11 vears......................
12 years............. ......

72
76
55
36
19
9
3
1

Total................

271

Older
sisters.
59
39
23
13
5
2
2

143

Older
brothers.

Older
sisters.

35
30
24
16
14
5
6
1
1

22
15
13
14
6
i

1
1

134

Number of positions held by older brothers and sisters.—The same
number of the older brothers and sisters supplied data as to the num
ber of different positions they had held since going to work. These
range from one to seven positions apiece, as shown in the table
following:
T a b l e 9 .—OLD ER BR OTH ER S AND SISTERS OF 13 AN D 14 Y E A R OLD SCHOOL CH ILD REN

W H O H A V E H ELD EACH SPECIFIED NUM BER OF POSITIONS SINCE GOING TO
W ORK.
White.

Colored.

Number of positions.
Older
brothers

Older
sisters.

Older
brothers.

Older
sisters.

One..............................
Two.............................
Three..........................
Four............................
Five............................
Six...............................
Seven..........................

140
61
56
10
3
1

99
32
9
3

76
23
17
12
3
2
1

56
9
4
2
1

Total................

271

143

134

An analysis of the figures shows that the four groups differ but
little in the average number of years they have been at work and in
the average length of time they have been employed in each position.
Ages and wages of young people at work.—Data were secured show
ing the ages and wages of 496 older brothers and sisters of the school

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

children. All of them were employed and they were all under 21
years of age. These data are presented in the following table:
T a b l e 1 0 .—W E E K L Y W A G E S OF OLDER BR O TH ER S AN D SISTERS OF 13 A N D 14 Y E A R

OLD SCHOOL CH ILDREN .

Ages.

$2 to $4 to $6 to $8 to $10 to $12 to $14 to $16 to $18 to $20 to $22 to $24 to To
$3.99 $5.99 $7.99 $9.99 $11.99 $13.99 $15.99 $17.99 $19.99 $21.99 $23.99 $25.99 tal.

White brothers.
14 years..........
15 years..........
16 years..........
17 years..........
18 years..........
19 years..........
20 years..........
T otal...

4
4
1

1
7
16
11
3
1
2

1
4
8
17
15
3
2

1
2
6
8
8
3

1
9
1
8
12
5

1
8
12
5
4
4

3
6
5
4
7
4

2
1
9
7
3

2
1
2
1

2
1
3

2
8
4
6
6

1
1
4
6
6

2
2
1

1
1

3
16
35
45
45
39
28
211

White sisters.
14 years..........
15 years..........
16 years..........
17 vears..........
18 years..........
19 years..........
20 years..........
T otal...

1
1

1
5
8
4
2
2
22

1
11
24
25
24
23
15

123

Colored
brothers.
12 years..........
13 years..........
14 years..........
15 years..........
16 years..........
17 years..........
18 years..
19 years..........
20 years..........

1
2
4
4
3
3

2
5
6
6
6
5

3
4
1
6
2

12 years..........
15 years______
16 years..........
17 years..........
18 years..........
19 years..........
20 years..........

1
1
11
6
4
5
4

2
3
2
6
3
4

T otal...

Total...

1
2
2
9
25
18
19
16
11

1
3
12
4
7
4
3

1
1

1
2

103

Colored sis
ters.
1
3
1

15
8

2
1

14
10
S

These data reveal four significant conditions:
1. The earnings of the boys are larger than those of the girls,
especially at the upper ages.
2. The earnings of the whites are larger than those of the colored,
especially at the upper ages.
3. Among white boys and girls earnings show a marked increase
at the age of 18.
4. Among the colored boys and girls, earnings show little increase
with advancing age, and this is especially true among the girls.

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

Occupations older brothers and sisters wish to follow.—Of these
young people at work, 439 stated not only the occupations in which
they were engaged at the time of the survey, but each one indicated
in addition the occupation he or she wished to follow as a life work.
These data are valuable, as they indicate in a general way the kinds
of instruction the continuation and evening schools will be called
on to give. The data have been classified, so as to show how many
workers are already engaged in the occupation chosen or in work re
lated to it, who will require only supplementary training, and how
many desire to take up work entirely unrelated tp their present
occupations.
Nearly half of the white older brothers desire to engage in commercial
and clerical worTc.—The range of choices includes 60 occupations.
About the same number expressed a preference for industrial pursuits,
and less than 10 wished to enter professions. More than two-thirds
are employed in the occupations chosen or in related work. The
distribution is shown in the table following:
T a b l e 1 1 . — OCCUPATIONAL CHOICES OF OLD ER BR O TH ER S OF 13 AN D 14 Y E A R OLD

W H IT E SCHOOL CH ILDREN.

Occupation chosen.

Engaged
Engaged
in en
in same or tirely
related different
work.
kind of
work.

Clerk..............................................
Bookkeeper..................................
Merchant.......................................
Electrician............ ......................
Office work...................................
Salesman.......................................
Plumber........................................
Printer...........................................
Commercial traveler...................
Boiler maker................................
Stationary engineer....................
Banker..........................................
Locomotive engineer..................
Painter..........................................
45 other occupations...................

4
50

22
18
13
10
10
9
8
7
7
6
5
5
4
4
4
68

Total.................................
Percent..........................

139
70

61
30.

200
100

10
15
9
10
4
8
7
5
5
3
4
1
4

12
3
4

Total.

6
1
1
2
2
3
1
4
4

Three-fourths of the white older sisters desire to follow commercial and
clerical pursuits.—Clerical work, principally stenography and book
keeping, was selected by two-thirds of the girls, the choices of the
remainder being distributed among commercial, industrial, and teach
ing occupations. Over three-fifths are employed in the occupations
chosen or in related work. The most important of the 19 occupa
tions chosen are listed in Table 12.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND* VA.

T able 12.—OCCUPATIONAL CHOICES OF O LD ER SISTERS OF 13 AND 14 Y E A R OLD
W H IT E SCHOOL CH ILDREN,

Occupation chosen.

Stenographer...............................
Bookkeeper..................................
Saleswoman.................................
Office work...................................
Tobacco operative......................
Telephone operator.....................
13 other occupations...................
Total...................................
Percent..............................

Engaged
Engaged
in en
in same or tirely
related different
work.
kind of
work.
20
7
6
3
4
3

17
10

Total.

37
17
6
4
4
3
18

55
62

34
38

89
100

Nearly three-fifths of the colored older brothers are engaged in work
entirely unrelated to the occupations chosen.—About two-fifths of the
colored older brothers desire to follow industrial occupations. Onesixth selected various kinds of domestic or personal service. The
preference for occupations entirely different from the ones they are
now engaged in is noticeable. The range of choices includes 44 occu
pations, the more important of which are listed in the table following:
T a b l e 1 3 . — OCCUPATIONAL CHOICES OF O LD ER BRO THERS OF 13 AND 14 Y E A R OLD

COLORED SCHOOL CH ILD REN .

Occupation chosen.

Engaged
Engaged
in en
in same or tirely
related different
work.
kind of
work.
2
7
2
3

Total.

Carpenter......................................
Teamster.......................................
Barber...........................................
Porter............................................
Clerk..............................................
Blacksmith...................................
Machinist.....................................
Bricklayer....................................
Shoemaker...................................
Physician.....................................
Cleaner and presser....................
33 other occupations..................

3
19

11
7
5
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
42

Total...................................
Per cent................ ...........

38
42

53
58

91
100

3
1
4
3
3
3
1
3

Two-thirds of the colored older sisters are engaged in work entirely
unrelated to the occupation chosen.—As in the case of the colored older
brothers, there is a marked tendency to select occupations quite differ
ent from the ones in which they are employed. Nearly one-half wish
to be seamstresses or dressmakers. The range of choices includes 12
occupations. The distribution is as follows:

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

T a b l e 1 4 .—OCCUPATIONAL CHOICES OF OLDER

SISTERS OF 13 AN D 14 Y E A R
COLORED SCHOOL CH ILD REN .

Occupation chosen.

Engaged
Engaged
in en
in same or! tirely
related different
work, j kind of
work.

j
j

2 ;

Seamstress....................................
Dressmaker..................................
Teacher.........................................
Nurse.............................................
Servant.........................................
7 other occupations....................

5
2
5

Total........... .......................
Per cent..............................

20
34

i1
S
j

OLD

Total.

12
10
5
1
2
9

14
11
10
6
4
14

39
66

59
100

Relation between present occupations and those the worTcers wish to
follow.—The results presented in Tables 11,12,13, and 14 differ sharply
for the four groups and inspection of the per cents at the bottom of
the tables shows that it is approximately true that, out of every 10
of these young white men at work, 7 wish to engage permanently in
the lines of work in which they are now engaged. Among the young
white women, about 6 in each 10 desire to continue permanently in
their present kind of work. Among the young colored men, only'
about 4 in each 10 hope to make their present sort of work their life
work, while among the young colored women the number is only a
little more than 3 in 10.
PRESENT

STATUS

OF TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL
EDUCATION.

Manual training and domestic science from fifth grade up.—In all
the schools of Richmond, both white and colored, courses in manual
training and domestic science are offered from the fifth grade up.
This work had its inception 11 years ago. About half of the schools
are well-equipped centers, in which these classes are carried on and
to which children go from the other schools for this work. Of the
20 buildings for white children, 10 are equipped as manual-training
centers and 9 as domestic-science centers. Of the 11 buildings for
colored children, 5 are equipped as manual-training and domesticscience centers. All of the classes meet once a week, the period for
the fifth-grade children being 45 minutes, for the sixth grade 60
minutes, and for the seventh grade 90 minutes. This manual-training and domestic-science work, while of conventional type, is of dis
tinctly better than average quality. Most of the instructors are un
usually practical and progressive. During the past two years there
has been in existence an ungraded prevocational class composed of
about 20 boys of upper-elementary-school ages, one half of whose
time has been given to classroom work and the other half to manual
work.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

Classes in evening elementary schools.—There are four white and
two colored evening elementary schools giving instruction in wood
working and domestic science. The session of these classes ranges
from one to two hours per week during the 30 weeks that the schools
are open.
Classes and courses in day high schools.—The white and the colored
high schools both maintain commercial courses and courses for the
training of teachers. In addition, both schools offer courses in
domestic science, shopwork, mechanical drawing, and applied art.
The material equipment and teaching personnel in the John Marshall
High School for white students are particularly good. The popu
larity of these courses in this school is steadily increasing. During
the second session of the school year 1913-14 the total enrollment in
the manual-arts course was 126, in the commercial course 187, and
in the short commercial course 129. In addition, a considerable por
tion of the 468 pupils in the elective course and the 59 special pupils
were taking work in manual arts or commercial subjects.
The John Marshall night high school.—The John Marshall night
high school is in the John Marshall High School Building and has been
in operation three years. It offers courses in general education, shopwork, commercial branches, and household arts. Thirty-one of the
44 members of the teaching staff are college students or teachers in
the public schools. The remainder are engaged during the day in
commercial and professional pursuits, excepting two millinery teachers
and four housekeepers. The school is open six and one-half months,
from October to April, three nights each week. About two-thirds of
the students attend three nights a week and the remaining third one
night a week. The sessions are from 7.30 to 9.30. The minimum
entering age is 14 years and the average age is between 16 and 17 years.
The student body is nearly equally divided between the two sexes.
Over one-half of the total time is devoted to general education—
that is, work of the upper-elementary and high-school grades. About
36 per cent is devoted to commercial subjects, 11 per cent to house
hold arts, and less than 3 per cent to industrial subjects. The total
enrollment for the past year was 1,521, while the average attendance
was 615. Sixty per cent of the pupils attended less than half the
number of nights the school was open. With the teaching force as it
existed at the close of the past school year a much larger number of
pupils could be effectively cared for than were then in attendance.
The Virginia Mechanics1 Institute.—The Virginia Mechanics’ Insti
tute was founded in 1854 and receives an annual subsidy from the
city, amounting in 1914 to $11,500, which, combined with moneys
received from other sources, makes a total income of about $15,000.
The present value of the building and equipment is estimated at
about $125,000. The institute is governed by a practically self-per

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

petuating board of 24 members composed of prominent business and
professional men. A superintendent, appointed by the board, is in
immediate charge of the school. The institute is entirely independ
ent of the local public-school organization. No detailed reports are
made to the school board or to the city council as to the financial
and educational administration.
The institute offers courses in general, engineering, shop, and com
mercial subjects. Six of its 29 teachers are employed by day in
mechanical work and the building trades and 6 are mechanical or
civil engineers. Ten of them hold other teaching positions.
The school is open seven months in the year, five nights a week,
from 7.30 to 9.30. It is open only in the evening. With the present
teaching force the maximum capacity of the school is about 340
students per night, which would be equal to a yearly output of
95,200 student hours on the present basis of 140 sessions of two hours
each. An estimate based on the available data gives as the actual
output for the past year 57,820 hours. It thus appears that with
the present financial resources the output of the school could be con
siderably increased. With more ample resources the year might
be extended to 40 or 50 weeks, and, if conditions warranted, day
sessions could be established. By such changes the output of the
school could be increased anywhere up to ten times the present
amount. It is not suggested that this should be done, but the possi
bility exists should the need arise.
Males only are admitted, and their ages range from 15 years up, the
average being about 19. About one-seventh of the students are over
24 years of age. Each student pays $3 for the first course and $1 for
each subsequent course. The average enrollment during the past
year was 387, but this does not represent the number attending or
expected on any one night. Part of these students receive instruc
tion two nights a week and the remainder three. Less than one
student in five attended more than one-half of the nights that the
school was in session during the past year.
The machine-shop equipment was largely donated by the Rich
mond Locomotive and Machine Works, and is mostly too big and too
old for the most effective use. The institute has a library of some
thing over 5,000 volumes.
Vocational work in Richmond during the past year.—A close approxi
mation of the potential output of the schools during the past year is
given in the next table. Accurate attendance figures were not avail
able for some of the schools, and the total number of student hours
for the year is computed on the basis of enrollment. Owing to irregu
lar attendance, the actual output was considerably less.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

T a b l e 1 5 .—EN R O LLM EN T AND T O TAL STU DENT HOURS OF INSTRUCTION H A D EACH

PUPIL A T T E N D E D TH E F U LL TER M , 1913-14.

Enroll
ment.

Student
hours
for year.

Trade and industrial education.
John Marshall High School:
55
12
27
8
116

11,000
2.400
5.400
1,600
18,560

Total..........................................................................................................................

218

38,960
42

Armstrong High School (colored): Shopwork-................................................................
Per cent, of total trade and industrial education..... .................................. ............

1,800
2

Prevocational school................................................................................................................
Per cent of total t-rad« and industrial education T...............................................

9,900
11

16
12
36

832
1,248
3,744

5,824
6

87
32
13

3,840
1,920
570

132

6,330
7

Pattern work......................................................................................................................
Machine work.................................. ..................................................................................

Night high school:
Machine work.. , ..................................... ..........................................................................
Meflhfinical drawing........................... ..........

............................................

Total..........................................................................................................................
Per Cent of total tTadft and industrial education.............................................
Elementary night schools:
Shopwork (white schools)................................................................................................
Shopwork (colored schools).............................................................................................
Mechanical drawrng (white schools).................................................................. .........
Total..........................................................................................................................
Per cent of total trade and industrial education.................................... ........

Virginia Mechanics’ Institute (night):
36
3,024
Automobile.............................................. - ........................................................................
9
1,008
Plumbing.............................................................................................................................
16
1,792
Machine work.....................................................................................................................
8
896
Cabinetmaking............................................................................................. - ....................
8
896
Pattern making.................................................. ...............................................................
36
4,032
Practical electricity...........................................................................................................
Estimates of building.......................................................................................................
784
60
6,720
Instrumental drawing.......................................................................................................
28
3,136
Mechanical drawing.......................... ................................................................................
16
1,792
Architectural drawing......................................................................................................
3,920
35
Free-hand drawing............................................................................................................
Total........................................................ .......... ......................................................
Per cent of total trade and industrial education.............................................

259

28,000
30

20
2,400
Railroad Y . M. C. A . (night).................................................................................................
Per cent of total trade and industrial education....................................................
2
Total trade and industrial education........................................................................

728

93,214

Commercial education.
John Marshall High School:
Phonography......................................................................................................................
19,800
149
Typewriting........................................................................................................................
48,040
Bookkeeping.......................................................................................................................
22,760
171
651
90,600
Total..........................................................................................................................
Per cent of total commercial education.............................................................
56
A rm strong High School (colored): Bookkeeping..............................................................

11,100
7

187
187
234
304
35
28

9.724
9.724
12,168
15,808
1,820
1,456

975

50,700
32

Per cent of total commercial education......................................................... ..........
Night high school:
Stenography........................................................................................................................
T y p e w r itin g ....................................................................................................................................

Bookkeeping........................................................................................................................
W r it in g ..................................................................................................................... ........................

Rapid calculation..............................................................................................................
Banking...............................................................................................................................
Total........................................................ .................................................................
Per cent of total commercial education.............................................................

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

T a b l e 15.— ENR OLLM EN T AN D T O T A L STU DENT HO U R S OF INSTRUCTION H AD EACH

PUPIL A T T E N D E D T H E F U LL TERM, 1913-14—Concluded.

Enroll
ment.

Student
hours
for year.

Commercial education—Concluded.
Virginia Mechanics’ Institute (night):
Bookkeeping........................................................................................................................
Telegraphy...........................................................................................................................

59
8

6,608
1,344

Total...........................................................................................................................
Per cent of total commercial education.............................................................

7,952
5

Total commercial education........................................................................................

1,730

160,352

88
53
165

17.600
10.600
30,720

Total.........................................................................................................................
Per cent of total household arts education.......................................................

306

58,920
43

Armstrong High School (colored): Domestic science......................................................
Per cent of total household arts education...............................................................

200

47,520
35

75
89
111

3,900
4,628
5,772

275

14.300
10

118
67
8
68

7,620
3,660
480
3,870

Total...............................................................................................................
Per cent of total household arts education......................................................

261

15,630
12

Total household arts education...................................................................................

1,042

136,370

Household arts education.
John Marshall High School:
Cooking.................................................................................................................................
Sewing.................................................................................................................................
Art work..............................................................................................................................

Night high school:
Cooking......... ......................................................................................................................
Sewing..................................................................................................................................
Art work..............................................................................................................................
Total..........................................................................................................................
Per cent of total household arts education........................................................
Elementary night schools:
Cooking (white)..................................................................................................................
Cooking (colored)...............................................................................................................
Sewing (white)...................................................................................................................
Sewing (colored)................................................................................................................

Trade and industrial instruction constituted less than one-fourth
of the total output, commercial instruction over two-fifths, and train
ing in household arts a little over one-third. The public day schools
furnished considerably over one-half of the total amount of instruction
in trade and industrial subjects, the Virginia Mechanics’ Institute nearly
one-third, and the public night schools about one-eighth. The day
high schools have done the greater part of the work. Seventy-eight
per cent of the instruction in household arts, 67 per cent of the
instruction in commercial subjects, and 65 per cent of the instruc
tion provided by the public-school system in trade and industrial
subjects have been furnished by the two day high schools.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS.

Richmond a relatively wealthy city.—According to the report of
the United States Census on Financial Statistics of Cities for 1913;
there are 40 American cities of from 100,000 to 300,000 population.1
With respect to population, Richmond is in the middle of this group,
20 of the cities being larger and 19 smaller. The per capita wealth
of the people living in these 40 cities is $1,245. In Richmond the
per capita wealth is $1,489, and the city ranks seventh in this com
parison. Richmond possesses decidedly more taxable property for
each inhabitant than the average of the cities of her class.
Richmond’s expenditures for schools are low.—The census report
on cities for 1912 listed 38 cities of from 100,000 to 300,000 popula
tion. In this group of 38 cities the annual expense for schooling
for each child in average attendance in elementary schools was $35,
whereas in Richmond it was only $24. The corresponding figures
for the high schools were $77 for the group and $55 for Richmond.
In the night schools the corresponding figures were $16 for the group
and $12 for Richmond.2 The corresponding data for 1913 are not
yet available.
School expenditures low as compared with wealth.—According to the
census report on cities for 1913, these cities of from 100,000 to 300,000
population spend annually $3.64 on the support of public schools
for each $1,000 worth of taxable property that they possess. Rich
mond, on the same basis, spends only $1.94.3 This may be stated
in another way by saying that in proportion to wealth the expendi
tures of this group of cities for school support is $1.88 for each $1
that Richmond spends.
RanTc in per capita and percentage expenditures.—The census report
on Financial Statistics of Cities for 1913 gives the expenditures per
capita of population for the support of the different divisions of
municipal government.4 It also gives figures showing the per cent
of the total municipal expenditures devoted to each of these pur
poses. These two sets of figures enable us to discover how Richmond
compares with her sister cities in the amount spent for each inhabit
ant on the support of each branch of municipal government and also
how she compares in the per cent of her total annual expenditures
for running expenses devoted to each separate purpose. The stand
ing of Richmond among these 40 cities of from 100,000 to 300,000
population is shown in the following table, in which the figures
represent the rank of this city among the 40 cities.
3Bulletin 126, Financial Statistics of Cities, Bureau of the Census, pp. 18-25.

2 Bulletin 118, Financial Statistics of Cities, Bureau of the Census, pp. 66-68.
3 Bulletin 126, Financial Statistics of Cities, Bureau of the Census, pp. 18-25,45.
4Idem, pp. 44-47.

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

The figures of this comparison show that both absolutely and rela
tively the expenditures of Richmond for the support of public educa
tion are low.
T able 16 .—TH E R A N K OF RICHMOND AMONG T H E 40 CITIES OF 100,000 TO 300,000 POPU
LATIO N IN PER CAPITA E X P E N D IT U R E S A N D IN PER CENT OF T O TA L E X P E N D I
T U R E S D EV O T E D TO EACH BR ANCH OF M UNICIPAL GOVERN M EN T IN 1913.

Object of expenditures.

Highways..............................................................
Sanitation.... .........................................................
Charities and correction.....................................
Police......................................................................
Recreation.............................................................
Fire.........................................................................
General...................................................................
Schools...................................................................

Rank in per capita expenditures.

Third...........................................................
Fourth........................................................
Fifteenth....................................................
Seventeenth...............................................
Twenty-second..........................................
Twenty-sixth.............................................
Twenty-seventh........................................
Thirty-eighth.............................................

Rankin
per cent of total
expenditures.
First.
Fourth.
Sixteenth.
Nineteenth.
Twentieth.
Twenty-ninth.
Twenty-seventh.
Fortieth.

No State aid for industrial education.—Richmond now receives no
State aid for industrial education. Under the Virginia vocational
education law, the legislature is authorized to appropriate, and the
State board of education to distribute funds appropriated, for the
support of industrial, agricultural, household arts, and commercial
education. The same law authorizes any school district to establish
all-day, part-time, continuation, or evening classes designed to meet
the vocational needs of persons over 14 years of age of less than
college grade. Under this law the State appropriates $30,000 a year
for the support of agricultural education in the rural districts. Thus
far no appropriation has been made for the other three forms of
practical training or for work of any kind in the cities. While the
law authorizes the employment of supervisors for vocational schools,
the State board has as yet employed none.
State funds could be wisely appropriated in aid of vocational educa
tion in Richmond.—The city of Richmond pays into the State treas
ury far more than it receives for educational purposes. For every
$5 the city pays into the general school fund it receives back only $2
for school support. The State gives each year from the general fund
$275,000 for rural elementary schools, $100,000 for rural high schools,
$30,000 for agricultural schools, and $20,000 for normal high schools.
The Richmond schools receive no part of this money. It seems ap
parent that the State might with great propriety and wisdom ap
propriate money in partial support of vocational education in the
cities. This would be particularly fitting in the case of Richmond,
the capital city, which should and does serve as an experimental
station and practical demonstration for the other cities of the State.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

THE INDUSTRIAL SURVEY.

Fields of employment in Richmond.—According to the United States
census volume on occupations for 1910 the following are the occupa
tional groups of Richmond in the descending order of the number of
workers which they include:
T a b l e 1 7 .—PERSONS 10 Y E A R S OF AGE AN D OVER ENGAGED IN EACH SPECIFIED OCCU

PATION IN CITY OF RICHMOND, CLASSIFIED B Y S E X .
[Source: Thirteenth United States Census, 1910, Vol. IV, pp. 194-206.)

Sex.

Total employed.

Occupational groups.
Male.

Female.

Number. Per cent.

Manufacturing and mechanical industries.......................................
Domestic and personal services...........................................................
Trade.........................................................................................................
Transportation........................................................................................
Clerical occupations...............................................................................
Professional service.................................................................................
Public service..........................................................................................
Agriculture, forestrv, and animal husbandry..................................
Extraction of minerals..........................................................................

19,214
3,391
7,862
5,047
3,470
1,444
913
310
76

5,886
10,909
1,183
159
1,589
1,273
7
7

25,100
14,300
9,045
5,206
5,059
2,717
920
317
76

40.00
22.79
14.42
8.30
8.06
4.33
1.47
.51
.12

All occupations............................................................................

41,727

21,013

62,740

100.00

The report primarily concerned with wage earners, particularly
industrial workers.—It is not concerned with the training of persons
in Richmond who, according to the census, are engaged in transpor
tation, professional service, public service, agriculture, or the extrac
tive industries, but is either directly or indirectly concerned with
those who are engaged in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits,
domestic and personal service, and department-store employment.
The scope of the survey includes analyses of four large mechanic*!
industries of Richmond and, in addition, the department stores.
The four industries embrace 108 occupations, distributed as follows:
Twenty-six in the printing trades, 35 in the building trades, 30 in the
metal trades, and 17 in the tobacco industry. These 108 occupa
tions and the department stores represent more than 15,000 workers,
embracing the principal well-defined skilled occupations and a very
considerable number of semiskilled and unskilled employments*
Other industries, such as box making, paper and pulp works, canning
and preserving, and baking-powder industries, while important,
employ relatively few skilled workers, their product being produced
largely by automatic machines. The leather industry employs a
large number of workers, but is to a considerable extent a jobbing
industry, except in the shoe factory where the work is done on
automatic machines, and in the harness works where the skilled
workers are few in number.
As regards the women workers in Richmond the survey is concerned
primarily with those employed in stores and in tobacco manufacturing.

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

It does not include analyses of dressmaking and millinery, the tradi
tional skilled trades for women, owing partly to the limited time
available, partly to the fact that a knowledge of these trades is already
in hand, and partly to the fact that the need for information with
reference to semiskilled and unskilled employment is, at this time,
much greater. The tobacco industry was studied as typical of the
industries employing largely semiskilled and unskilled workers as
well as because it is one of the largest employers of women in
Richmond.
The information concerning these groups of trades and occupations
was secured through two types of schedules: (1) The establishment
schedules, representing concerns, as noted above, employing more
than 15,000 workers; (2) the individual schedules obtained from more
than 700 workers representing all the important occupations in the
five groups noted.
Method of the industrial survey.—Eight months’ time was given
to the survey, which was directed by Mr. Charles H. Winslow and a
corps of 20 workers, of whom 17 were men and 3 were women. In
addition there was an office force of 5 clerks and stenographers. The
field work required six months, during which time at least 6 people
were continuously employed. All the agents were regularly employed,
no volunteer help being utilized in this portion of the survey. Much
night work was done.
Interviews were held with employers to explain the purpose of the
survey and the filling out of the schedules and to secure their coopera
tion. Interviews were held also with workers in the shops or at their
regular meeting places for the same purposes. Each interview
represented a personal conference of about 20 minutes. Visits were
made to shops and factories to study industrial processes and condi
tions, and numerous conferences were held with men and organiza
tions familiar with the industrial and commercial conditions of Rich
mond. Occupations were studied by trade groups and a complete
analysis of each occupation prepared which summarizes the informa
tion given by employers and employees in Richmond under 11Find
ings about the trade/’ which bear more or less upon the problem of
training for it, and “ Findings about education for the trade,” which
bear directly upon the problem. These “ findings,” it should be
emphasized, are simply summaries of the statements of employers
and employees in the trades and do not necessarily represent the
conclusions of the survey committee. All the statements of the
“ findings” based on the data gathered were submitted to employers
and workers for criticism. This analysis is presented for each trade
group briefly in chart form and in text. The statistical information
gathered from the workers’ and employers’ schedules is presented in
tables in Appendix A.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

Descriptive analysis of occupations.—As has already been stated,
the occupations studied were those belonging to the five industry or
trade groups—printing, metal, building and woodworking, depart
ment store, and tobacco. A description of each of these occupations
within a trade group has been prepared, which explains the processes
or operations as carried on in Richmond, the physical, hygienic, and
economic conditions of the work, the requirements upon workers,
and the kind of schooling needed. The text for this descriptive
analysis, covering many different occupations, is published in the
appendixes at the close of this report. (See pp. 94 to 279.)
A tabular analysis of occupations by industry or trade groups has been
prepared on charts which give for each group a brief tabulation cover
ing all the points about each occupation within the group which admit
of tabulation. The purpose of this is to present brief summaries of
the full description of each occupation as found in Richmond and to
show the characteristics of the occupations in comparative form.
A chart for each trade group presents the analysis under two general
heads—“ Findings about the trade ” and “ Findings about education
for the trade.”
ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS BASED ON THE INDIVIDUAL SCHEDULES
SECURED FROM WORKERS IN PRINTING, BUILDING, AND METAL
TRADES.

Points covered by the individual schedules.—The individual schedules
secured from 509 workers in the various occupations of the printing,
building, and metal trades supplied valuable data, which have been
tabulated and are presented in Appendix A. From this material
information is furnished on such important points as the following:
Age distribution of apprentices and workers and the nativity of
workers, by trades; the regular hours of daily and weekly labor, by
trades; time lost by workers, by trades; causes of loss of time;
extent of part-time employment, by trades; extent of overtime
worked, by trades; years of experience of workers as wage earners;
years of experience in present occupation and in other occupations;
age of entrance upon wage-earning occupations, by trades; period
of apprenticeships served in years by workers in different trades;
relation of years of experience to hourly wage; change of place of em
ployment during apprenticeship, and reasons for changing, by trades;
extent to which workers received proper instruction in the shop
while learning the trade; highest, lowest, and average wages, within
trades, by occupations; locality in which workers learned trades;
change of occupations of present workers, by trades; misfits in present
positions, as to natural ability, training, and experience, by trades;
employees working under conditions causing strain or impairing
6071°— Bull. 162— 16------ 3

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

health; possibilities of learning different trades completely in the
shop; age of leaving school of apprentices and workers, by trades;
lack of general school training of apprentices and workers; hourly and
weekly wages of apprentices and workers, by trades.
This analysis can only undertake to summarize briefly the informa
tion secured in the individual schedules, which must be considered
in the formulation of any program of industrial education for Rich
mond. These follow:
No children under 14 were found employed in the printing, building,
and metal trades. The apprentices in these trades, who are very few
in number, are almost without exception between 16 and 20 years of
age. About 14 out of every 100 of the total number of workers
covered by the individual schedules were under 21 years of age,
71 out of every 100 were between 21 and 45 years of age, and 12 out
of every 100 were between 46 and 65 years of age.
Most of the city workers trained in Richmond.—Out of every 100 of
them 68 were born in Richmond, 15 elsewhere in Virginia, 14 in‘other
States of the Union, and only 3 in foreign countries. An unusually
large proportion of the city’s workers were born and educated in the
city and State. Since it seems probable that this condition will con
tinue in the future, Richmond and Virginia seem justified in training
a larger proportion of workers for local industries than most other
localities.
More than half work less than nine hours.—An eight-hour day was the
shortest reported. Out of every 100 workers reporting, it is approxi
mately true that 52 work less than 9 hours, 36 work 9 hours and less
than 10 hours, and 12 work 10 or more hours. Two-thirds of the
workers have a short-time Saturday. The employers commonly
report a tendency toward a shorter day.
Time lost from employment relatively inconsiderable.—Out of every
100 of these workers, 53 reported no time lost during the year, 18
lost from 1 to 4 weeks, 11 from 5 to 9 weeks, and the remaining 18
lost 10 weeks or more. The least time was lost by men in the print
ing trades, considerably more time by those in the metal trades, and
the largest losses were reported by the building trades. With the
exception of the building trades, there are few if any seasonal occu
pations, and there are few if any violent fluctuations in employment.
Little time reported lost by accidents.—Of the workers reporting lost
time, the largest number gave temporary lay off as the reason. The
next largest cause was the shutting down of factories; the third in
importance was sickness, with accidents a comparatively small
fourth.
Part-time and overtime employment small.—The facts about part
time and overtime show once again the comparative regularity of
employment.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OP RICHMOND, VA.

Workers shift employment but little.—The total years of experience
of these workers as wage earners range from 1 to 60 years. Nearly
40 per cent of them have been at work from 6 to. 15 years. The
relative infrequency with which Richmond’s workers shift from occu
pation to occupation is shown by the fact that the data as to years of
experience in their present occupations differ but slightly from
those showing years of experience in any sort of gainful occupation,
the per cent of those who have been in their present occupations
from 6 to 15 years being 42. Two out of every three have never been
in any other occupation than the present one.
Few of these workers began under 14 years of age.—Practically none
of these workers in the printing, building, and metal trades became wage
earners before the age of 14. Seven out of every eight began work
after they became 15 years of age. More than half entered employ
ment after this age and under 18. Apparently these three highly
skilled trades in Richmond *do not employ young workers under
14, and the success of the artisan is not dependent upon his entering
the trade at an early age. Apparently the age at which workers in
these industries leave school to enter employment has little bearing
upon their subsequent earning capacity.
Four years the average of a variable period of apprenticeship.—Out
of every 100 of these workers, 93 reported that they had served some
period of apprenticeship to the trade, ranging in duration from less
than three to more than seven years. Exactly one-half of those who
have served any apprenticeship gave four years to it. The appren
ticeship in the printing trades averaged somewhat longer than in the
other two.
Wage increased with experience.—Wage began in each of these three
trades at about 15 cents per hour and rose steadily with experience
and age for the first 10 years of service when it reached about 40
cents per hour and thereafter remained relatively stationary.
Apprentices shift employment but little.—Further evidence of the
stability of Richmond’s workers is furnished by the fact that 69 out
of every 100 learned their trade in one shop only, while most of the
rest learned it in two shops, and only three in each hundred worked
in two or more communities.
Reasonsfor shifting among apprentices.—The 151 out of 509 workers
who changed their place of employment while learning their trade
gave the following reasons for doing so which are listed in the descend
ing order of the frequency with which they are alleged: To get wider
experience; to get more money; shop closed; laid off; disliked
employer; family moved away; discharged; strike.
Seven out of ten learned the trade in Richmond, and one out of every
four elsewhere in the United States. The number of foreign trained

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

workers was negligible. The printing trades contain the largest per
cent of workers trained in Richmond and the building trades the
smallest.
Few misfits in the trades.—Out of each 100 of the workers answering
the question as to whether or not they were working in the occupation
for which they were best fitted by natural ability, 61 answered in the
affirmative and the remaining 39 in the negative. When the same
question was asked them as to training and experience, 89 out of each
100 answered in the affirmative and only 11 answered in the negative.
It must be remembered that these answers represent only the personal
opinions of the men themselves.
More than one-third reported physical or nervous strain.—One out of
every three workers said that his occupation involved peculiar
physical or nervous strain or both. The proportion does not differ
greatly for the three groups of trades.
More than one-fourth reported occupational diseases in their trades.—
One out of every four workers said that he worked in a trade in which
there were diseases peculiar to the occupation. This was most fre
quently reported in the printing, less frequently in the metal, and
least frequently in the building trades.
Difference in opinion as to adequacy of shop instruction.—Out of every
four men in the printing trades reporting, three say skill in the trade
processes can be acquired thoroughly in the shop, while the fourth is
of the contrary opinion. For the building trades only one out of every
three reporting answered in the affirmative and the remaining two in
the negative. In the case of the metal trades, two out of every five
reporting answered in the affirmative, the remainder in the negative.
It must be emphasized that these answers do not refer to either
general education or knowledge related to the trade.
Richmond workers come from the elementary schools.—About one-half
of these workers left school at the age of 14 or younger. Ninety-two
out of every 100 of them left school before reaching the age of 18. Con
trary to the usual impression those in the printing trades withdrew
from the schools at an earlier age than those in either the building
or metal trades. However, the tendency in late years in all the above
trades is to remain hi school longer. This is shown by the fact that
out of 54 apprentices reporting, only 3 had entered employment under
13 years of age, and only 12 under 14 years of age, while 36 did so
between 14 and 16 years of age. Practically none of these workers
had received any high-school training, and most of them much less
than a complete grammar-school training.
The typical Richmond worker has had less than seven years of school
ing.—Out of every 100 of these workers, 5 had attended school 3 years
or less, while 80 had received not over 7 years of any sort of school
training. Only 6 workers out of 509 had received as much as 11 years

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

of schooling and none more than that. Much of this school attend
ance was in ungraded classes in rural districts. The amount of
schooling of the workers in the printing, building, and metal trades
in Richmond is practically the same.
Lack of school training hampers progress of workers.—Sixty out of
every 100 of these workers reported that because of lack of schooling
they were hampered in becoming efficient in their several trades. All
workers having three years or less of schooling said they had been
handicapped. More than 62 out of every 100 of those who had
received seven years or less of instruction so declared. Out of 54
apprentices reporting, 22 said they had been held back in their work
by insufficient education. Of these, 18 had attended school not more
than seven years.
Many workers have taken courses since leaving the regular schools.—
Out of every 100 of these workers, 37 had tried to improve their
economic condition by securing schooling after they became wage
camel’s. Six out of every 10 apprentices reporting had taken addi
tional courses. Seventy-four out of every 100 of these student work
ers took courses in night school and 22 in correspondence classes, while
4 attended day school. Sixty-eight took courses bearing upon their
trades for every 32 who took work unrelated to their occupations.
Out of 509 workers reporting, 135 said they had paid tuition for
instruction either in day, evening, or correspondence courses since
going to work. The total amount paid was $5,465.05, of which
$3,176.80 was spent by 52 students in correspondence schools, an
average of $61.09 per student. The largest sum paid by any student
was $340.
Other benefits of schooling greater than thefinancial one.—Foui* out of
every 10 workers answering the question as to whether they had
received an increase in wages as the result of taking courses answered
yes, the remaining 6 answering no. Nine out of every 10 workers
answering the question as to whether they had received benefit other
than an increase of wage replied in the affirmative and only 1 in the
negative.
Wages in the building trades highest.—Out of every 100 of the work
ers in the groups selected, 11 earned under $10 per week, 10 earned
from $10 to $15, 67 earned from $15 to $25, and 11 earned $25 or
more. The wages in the building trades range slightly higher than
in the printing and metal trades, in which they are about the same.
Workers ask for certain courses.—Approximately 50 subjects for
evening or part-time school instruction were suggested by these
workers to help them in their present occupations. These requests
came from both apprentices and journeymen. These subjects ranged
all the way from such elementary school work as reading, writing,
spelling, and arithmetic, and such regular high-school work as algebra,

BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

geometry, and physics to such practical work as shop mathematics,
mechanical drawing, plumbing and steam fitting, and gas engineering.
About three out of every five subjects suggested were very practical
courses helpful to the worker’s employment. In the printing trades
the characteristic demand was for trade chemistry, design, color har
mony, and ink mixing. In addition, there was a pronounced demand
for English and composition. In the building trades the characteris
tic demand was for mechanical drawing, architectural drawing, shop
mathematics, and estimating. In the metal trades the characteristic
demand in much larger proportion was for shop mathematics, mechan
ical drawing, and arithmetic.
ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS BASED ON THE ESTABLISHMENT SCHEDULES
SECURED FROM EMPLOYERS IN THE PRINTING, BUILDING, AND
METAL TRADES.

The employers7 schedules cover the following important points not
dealt with in the individual schedules:
Products of the different establishments represented.
Busy and slack seasons of the various trades.
Difficulties in securing competent workers in specific occupations,
with the reasons.
Period of maximum productivity in various occupations.
Years of experience necessary to minimum wage.
Probable increase and decrease in the demand for workers.
Relative demand and supply for skilled and unskilled labor.
Frequency and line of promotion from occupation to occupation in
use.
Shifting of workers from process to process to give wider experience
and training.
Opportunities for untrained beginners in specific occupations.
Relative efficiency of foreign and domestic trained workers.
Relative instability of employment of trained and untrained
workers.
Conditions affecting the welfare of the worker.
Character of instruction received by workers in the shop.
Relative advantages of indentured and unindentured apprentice
ship.
Character of apprenticeship agreements.
Relation of general school training to efficiency.
Extent of the educational deficiencies of beginners.
Types of schools and kind of training necessary in the judgment
of employers to increase the efficiency of workers.
Willingness of employers to cooperate in part-time schooling.
Kind of part-time and evening schooling favored.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

Practical tests used in determining the efficiency of applicants aad
workers.
Willingness of employers to make the shop experience of young
workers more educative.
Field covered by schedules.—In printing, 50 shops with 1,244 workers,
covering practically the entire field. In metal trades, 17 shops with
4,924 people. In building trades, 20 concerns with 875 people.
Size of establishments covered.—Printing trades, 31 out of 50
employ 20 people or less; remainder 31 to 110. Metal trades, 9 out
of 16 employ under 100; remainder 100 to 1,000. Building trades
from 3 to 100, the average per concern being 43.
Seasonalfluctuations are smallest in the printing trades, according to
employers’ statements, the difference between maximum and mini
mum number employed being only 12 per cent. There is almost
steady employment in railroad shops. General machine shops and
foundries lay off about one-third of their workers employed in the
busy part of the year. Rolling mills and ornamental iron works are
affected more than the others of the metal-trades group, being com
pelled to reduce working force by almost one-half in dull seasons.
The building trades are affected more by seasonal fluctuations than
any other of the trades mentioned.
Supply of efficient journeymen reported inadequate.—Employers
almost unanimously maintain that the supply of efficient journey
men in all the groups of trades mentioned is inadequate.
Larger demand for skilled workers in the near future.—Most of the
employers, but particularly those in the metal trades, say that there
will soon be a greatly increased demand for skilled workers in Rich
mond.
Chances of promotion slight.—In the metal and building trades em
ployers say chances of promotion from one occupation to another
are slight. Where an affirmative answer was received, the statement
was invariably made that the specific occupation open to promotion
was that of foreman. All these trade groups suggest, of course, the
promotion from apprentice to journeyman.
The amount of systematic instruction given in the shops apparently
small.—If given at all it is given by the foreman alone, who is, of
course, burdened with many other responsibilities. In most of the
trades, beginners other than apprentices are used only in unskilled
work. In spite of the fact that practically none of the metal, building, or printing trades can be learned properly without systematic
instruction, the number of apprentices reported is small.
The amount of apprenticeship small.—Most apprenticeship agree
ments when made are verbal. Few employers indenture their ap
prentices in any of the trades. No regular apprenticeship system

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

exists in the metal trades, only 3 firms out of 16 reporting any.
Written agreements for apprenticeship exist only in trades well or
ganized and the terms are usually regulated by the union. Condi
tions similar to those in the building trades are found in the printing
trades.
Three hundred and twenty-six “ apprentices and young learners”
were reported by the firms returning schedules, distributed among
the trades as follows: Two hundred and twenty-three in the metal,
62 in the printing, and 41 in the building trades. Out of every 100
workers employed in the metal trades, 8 were apprentices and young
learners. In the printing trades and in the building trades there
were 5 in each 100.
The period of apprenticeship varies for the different trades.—Where
agreements are reported, the period of apprenticeship for the printing
trades is most frequently given as five years, for the building and
metal trades as four. An automatic upward sliding scale of wages
is provided for the apprentice in all these trades where written agree
ments are in force.
Employers, on the whole, report conditions under which worTc is per
formed as causing no particular strain to the workers.—Some of those
in the building trades, chiefly contractors and builders, mention lead
poisoning in the painting trades and tuberculosis in the stonecutting
trades. In the metal trades, the rolling mill and ornamental iron
establishments say that sudden changes in temperature usually asso
ciated with their work might possibly affect the physical and nervous
condition of their employees. Only 2 of the 50 firms representing
the printing trades mentioned any conditions that might affect the
health of the workers, these being found in the bronzing and photo
engraving departments.
The lack of general schooling reported as a handicap of workers in all
trades.—This is particularly true of printing. In the metal and build
ing trades, employers reported in addition the great need of a better
knowledge of shop mathematics and drawing. When asked specifi
cally what the schools should do for the worker before he enters the
shop, the almost invariable answer of all employers was that they
should give him more general education.
Distribution of workers among occupations within trades.—Out of
every 100 workers in the various trades of building, there are 26
carpenters, 13 plasterers, 10 bricklayers, 9 mill workers in wood, 8
cabinetmakers, 7 cement finishers, 4 plumbers, and 4 wood finishers,
the remaining 19 being distributed among 17 other occupations, mak
ing a total of 25 occupations; the proportion of apprentices is 5 out
of every 100 workers. Out of 100 in the metal trades there are 24
machinists, 11 boilermakers, 9 molders, 4 rolling mill hands, 4 black
smiths, 2 stove erectors and mounters, 1 pipe fitter, 1 pattern maker,

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

and 1 nickel plater and finisher, the remaining 43 being distributed
among 11 occupations, making a total of 20 occupations. Out of
every 100 workers in the printing trades there are 18 bookbinders,
12 press feeders, 12 hand typographers, 9 cylinder and platen press
men, 7 unclassified workers, 4 linotype operators, 3 paper cutters, and
2 proof readers, the remaining 33 being distributed among 21 other
occupations, making a total of 29 occupations.
Subjects needing to be taught for the various trade groups.—In print
ing, employers emphasize the following in the order given: English,
arithmetic, punctuation, to be supplemented by courses in design,
drawing, history of printing, chemistry, color harmony, color mixing,
and physics. The suggestions made for courses for workers in the
metal trades are chiefly of a strictly vocational character, such as
“ steps of the trade,” “ whys of the trade,” “ theory of the trade,”
in addition to mathematics, free-hand and mechanical drawing,
chemistry, physics, and in some instances metallurgy. In the build
ing trades the suggestions vary according to the particular line of
work done by the employer. The leading suggestions are shop mathe
matics, drawing, and blue-print reading, adapted to specific trades
or occupations, such as plumbing or carpenter work. Subjects pro
posed for painters are color harmony, designing, modeling, lettering,
and the chemistry of the trade. Only one employer in the building
trades suggested that general education be given.
Courses suggested for evening classes for journeymen.—In printing,
employers gave the following in the order of their frequency: Eng
lish, design, drawing, history of the trade, estimating costs, arith
metic, color harmony, chemistry of the trade. For the metal trades :
Mathematics and drawing, mechanical designing, electrical mechan
ics and estimating, fundamentals of the trade, and general education.
Seventeen out of 20 employers in the building trades suggest free
hand drawing and mechanical or architectural drawing; 11, shop
mathematics; 4 (chiefly painters and decorators), color harmony,
paint mixing, chemistry of the trade, modeling, designing and letter
ing; and 4 mention general education.
Most employers favor evening in preference to part-time industrial
schoolsfor apprentices.—Sixteen out of 20 firms in the building trades,
8 out of 16 in the metal trades, and a considerable majority in the
printing trades so reported.
Many firms report a willingness to cooperate with part-time day
schools for their workers.—The question was asked as to whether the
employer would be willing to enter into an agreement providing for
a definite period of attendance of apprentices at a part-time day
school for a definite number of hours and pay them the usual wage
while in school. Twenty-four out of 50 firms in the printing trades
answered in the‘affirmative, as did 5 out of 16 in the metal trades,

BULLETIN OF TH E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

and a majority of the establishments who employ apprentices. The
usual suggestion as to the number of hours per week to be given to
part-time schools is from six to eight, usually in two-hour periods
per day.
No written records of individual efficiency of workers are reported as
being used in any of the shops. No entrance tests of the worth of
applicants for positions are used except “ actual trial on the job.”
Most of the employers report a willingness to cooperate with the schools
by organizing the shop practice for the better training of workers. In
answer to the question as to whether they would be willing to cooper
ate with the schools in an effort to organize shop practice so as to
develop interest and efficiency on the part of the worker, 15 out of
20 firms in the building trades, 13 out of 16 in the metal trades, and
24 out of 50 in the printing trades answered in the affirmative.
ANALYSIS OF INDIVIDUAL SCHEDULES SECURED FROM WOMEN AND
GIRLS IN RETAIL STORES.

Scope of the investigation.—Data relating to the employment of
women and girls in retail stores, especially those engaged in the buying
and selling of goods, were secured from 11 stores employing workers
in various capacities. The inquiry reached practically every store
in the city in which dry goods, specialties in women’s wear, and
general merchandise are sold, and was confined in the main to stores
of this type. This kind of work employs women in large numbers,
the number of women employees in Richmond being 1,185 and of
men employees 344.
The study concerned itself with the education of employees, years
of experience, wages, training for the work, and promotion. These
facts were supplemented with an inquiry into what the employee
and the employer consider the requisites for a well-trained and suc
cessful worker in the various kinds of employment in the store.
For this study, two kinds of schedules were used, one for each
employee and one for each employer (both of which contained many
points in common) for the purpose of getting the two points of view
on the same problems.
Types of establishments.—Unlike factories, which are characterized
by their product, stores which handle a few exclusive things, or
practically all the things needed for clothing, for shelter, and food, as
is many times the case in the large department store, are best classi
fied by types of store organization. Those included in this inquiry
in Richmond fall under the following classification: (1) Department
stores, (2) specialty stores, and (3) general dry-goods stores.
Five and ten cent stores, which represent still another type, were
not included in this study. The neighborhood store, found in great

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

numbers in large cities, practically does not exist in Richmond.
The general dry-goods store takes its place.
The department store.—Richmond has three department stores,
though specialty stores have adopted a departmental system to some
extent. These stores are organized on similar lines, the type now
being pretty generally established. In these stores each department
is practically what may be termed a unit store, with its buyer and
sales people; its stock bought, cared for, and sold only by employees
of that department. It also has its own system, for which the buyer
is usually responsible, for ascertaining costs, amount of sales, and
profits, thus making the department organization a complete store
within a store. Under such a system, the workers in one department
remain in the one place for all their work.
The general store.—The general store, known in the past as the dry
goods store, still holds an important place in the city. This type
includes stores which carry exclusive, high-priced merchandise, and
cater to exclusive patronage, and the stores which carry cheaper,
popular-priced merchandise, and, like the department store, serve
practically all classes of customers. The general store, as a rule, does
not use the department system, but has the merchandise arranged
in sections, the sales persons passing from one section to another to
supply all the wants of the customer. In some stores the generalstore plan is still adhered to somewhat, but has some modern depart
ments. This is true of stores which have added to their general
merchandise such stock as millinery or suits and dresses, etc.
The specialty store.—The specialty store represents still another
type which is more or less departmental. This type of store is
characterized by the stock it carries, which is almost exclusively
ready-to-wear clothing, dresses, and millinery. One or more depart
ments, where the store is not large, may be under the charge of one
buyer, who, like the head of a department in the store which is
strictly departmental, has charge of a store within a store.
This classification does more than show the different types of
stores. It becomes, later in the study, the basis for classifying and
analyzing the kinds of work to be done in the stores and the kind of
experience and training necessary for each.
Skilled and unskilled work.—For store occupations there are no
terms equivalent to “ skilled” and “ unskilled,” which in the work
shops and f actories apply to work done with the hands. Yet there is
required of store employees in various ways some manual skill which
is an important feature of the work, but more important, especially
in selling goods, is the skill in dealing successfully with people.
Rarely, except for traveling salesmen and a few others engaged in
special lines, is this quality or power consciously sought for and
developed.

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

There are very few if any really unskilled occupations in store
work. The relation of one position to another in the various kinds
of work is clearly defined, the less skilled work in each instance being
distinguished by the amount and quality of knowledge about the work
and of experience required, rather than a different kind of knowledge
and experience. The description and analysis of the types of occupa
tions in a later chapter1will discuss this point more fully.
Labor supply.—Practically all the employees in the stores are native
Americans, the larger proportion being natives of Virginia.
Men and women in the buying and selling departments and to
some extent in the office departments enter the stores under practi
cally the same conditions, both younger boys and girls beginning in
the lower occupations in the lines open to them and advancing as
experience or opportunity admits. There are, however, some depart
ments given over exclusively to women and girls, such as notions,
ribbons, neckwear, leather goods, dresses and suits, millinery depart
ments, and others; some exclusively to men, as men’s clothing, men’s
furnishings, men’s shoes, carpet and rug departments, and others;
and some employ both men and women, as shoes, domestics, china,
linens, silks, household furnishings, and others.
Young boys and girls enter the stores without training for the
work they are taking up, and frequently without sufficient rudi
mentary education.
Experienced workers, when they can be secured, are usually
employed in preference to inexperienced boys and girls. These are
obtained for the most part by a shifting of workers from one place
of employment to another, either because of dissatisfaction, desire
for change, promotion, or higher wages, for the supply of experienced
men and women is much smaller than the demand. Buyers, and to
some extent managers, are secured from distant cities, though these
are relatively few as compared with the total numbers employed.
Colored people are not employed except as porters, cleaners, and
elevator men. The number of people so employed is very small.
Sex of employees.—The census of 1910 shows 1,239 men and 650
women employed as sales persons in the stores of Richmond.2 In
the employers’ schedules secured from the 11 stores included in the
study, 344 were men and 1,185 were women. Women and girls, there
fore, form the greater proportion of store employees, though positions
of responsibility and the higher salaries are, with some exceptions,
held by men.
Age of entrance to retail store employment.—Virginia has not had
until recently a compulsory education law which enforced school
1 See page 227.
2The number of clerks in stores was given as 709 males and 221 females. The Census report notes that
many of the tl clerks” are probably salesmen or saleswomen. See Thirteenth Census of the U . S. Vol.
IV , Occupation Statistics, pp. 202,204.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

attendance, but the child-labor law has within recent years for
bidden the employment of boys and girls under 14 years of age.
The merchants of Richmond, with no exception, report that boys
and girls under 16 years of age are of no value to the business, and
that gradually those under 16 are not being employed. Of the 358
employees interviewed, 106 had been employed before they were 16
years of age. The greater proportion of these people are older
workers who began to work before any restrictions as to age and
schooling were placed upon employment.1
Fluctuation of employment.—Employment in store work probably
fluctuates less than in some of the factory industries in this city,
notably the tobacco industry, which, from the standpoint of numbers
employed and wages paid, may be considered the rival of the retail
stores. With the exception of a few weeks during the summer
months, which are considered a vacation, though except in a few
instances wages are not paid for this time, employment is reported
practically constant for the greater proportion of the workers. There
are, however, a number of people employed for the holiday season and
for special sales who do not become permanent employees at once.
These “ supplies,” as they are frequently called, are engaged for a
short time only, the employer retaining for regular employment those
who show the greatest aptitude for the work. The others may be
employed again during the busy season.
Methods of selecting workers.—This choice from the “ supplies” is
the chief method of selecting employees when the demand is not too
great. At other times when the rush of the holiday season is on,
little attention beyond the filling out of the application blank and
the personal interview is given to the selection of workers. Some
stores do not use the application blank, so have no record of the
employees’ home addresses, previous employment, experience, and
education. This haphazard method is occasionally the boast of the
one who does the employing, for he says, “ I can tell when a girl
walks into my office whether she is worth anything to the store or
not.” Inquiry into how he knows her value elicits such answers as:
“ I can tell by the way she walks, by the way she carries herself” ;
“ I can tell by the way she speaks to me and answers my questions” ;
“ I cai> tell by her bearing; if she looks well and strong and rosy, I
know she can stand the work.” All this in spite of the fact that the
first and loudest complaint against her later on may be that she
makes mistakes daily, though in the interview nothing was done to
test the girl's accuracy or ability to meet the details of her work.
There is practically no doubt that the way in which the younger
people are selected for the work could and should be greatly

1 See Table 77, p. 240, for further details as to entrance age.

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

improved and more study and attention given to placing them in
suitable work or shifting to another line if not successful in the first.
Conditions under which worTc is done.—Although chairs or stools
are provided for employees, many of the occupations of the store
require much and often constant standing, and in small depart
ments where there is practically no opportunity to walk back and
forth the restriction of movement and position causes fatigue,
which amounts in some cases to nervous strain, backache, aching
feet, and fallen arches. Reaching for stock boxes or the cash carrier,
when a little above the ordinary reach, also causes some physical
strain, though to what extent could not be determined. Poor venti
lation in some departments, notably the basement departments, also
causes discomfort, if not real harm. The general ventilation of the
stores, however, seemed good. Where buildings have, as they do in
many instances, windows on two or more sides and many doors to
the streets, also on one or more sides, fresh air is admitted freely.
Artificial ventilation is used in several stores for departments not
otherwise ventilated.
Promotion.—Promotion in store work is largely a matter of increased
wages or rate of commission based on the amount of sales. Prac
tically all stores recognize selling ability in this way. In the depart
ment stores promotion on this basis exists in all departments, and to
some extent workers are transferred from one department to another.
To be a promotion, however, change from one department to another
must be to a line for which higher wages are paid, or higher commis
sion returns certain. Practically no attempt has been made to put
interdepartmental promotion on more than an incidental and some
what accidental basis. “ A faithful worker/’ “ a clever sales person,”
“ the biggest sales, ” and “ the right personality for the new work’ ’ are
among the chief points reported as determining promotions.
This does not mean that merchants are indifferent to promotion
or desire to keep their workers in one place without change, but it
does mean that no plan for interdepartmental promotion has been
worked out. The necessity for providing for it is coming to be rec
ognized.
How the workers are trained.—With the exception of the book
keepers, stenographers, auditors, and to some extent cashiers, the
workers acquire their training “ on the job.” One store has classes
for the training of junior sales girls, cash and bundle girls, but no
other training is given except what is gained in the department.
Under a good buyer and associated with capable, successful sales
persons, a young person can pick up a good deal of information,
knowledge of stock, and many points on handling customers. While
this method works fairly well with the brighter young people, it is at
best an uncertain method. There is no list of things to be learned,

■VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

no sure means of knowing what things have been learned or not
learned. The person in charge of the department or other workers
show the newcomer where the stock is to be found; suggestions
about the work are given from time to time. This introduction and
the incidental suggestions constitute in the main the training for
the work.
Analysis of the occupations in the store (see Appendix E) shows as far
as possible from the data obtained the extent to which training for
the various occupations could and should be carried. The proposed
organization of courses for sales people, stock girls, and bundle girls,
and the courses of study1 indicate some of the methods and the sub
ject matter which may be incorporated into vocational courses in
salesmanship and allied occupations.
ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS ABOUT THE TOBACCO INDUSTRY.

Size and importance of the industry.—The tobacco industry is the
largest industry employing women in the city of Richmond. There
are relatively few workers under 16 years of age employed. Many
of the workers are native-born Americans and country bred. They
compare favorably in general intelligence and health with operatives
in other factory industries. Younger workers are mostly city chil
dren, some of them working in the factory during the summer and
going to school in the winter.
Not a sTcilled industry.—The industry is made up of a number of
semiskilled and unskilled operations which can be learned in periods
ranging from two or three days to six or eight weeks. There is,
therefore, no apprenticeship for women in the industry. This is also
true of men, except in a few shops where cigars are made by hand.
Wages.—Much of the work is done as piecework, which naturally
makes the earnings variable. Some of the shops pay on an hourly
basis. This study did not attempt to go into the actual earnings
in detail.
Hours.—The hours for work are 8J to 9\ hours per day and 5J
hours on Saturday, making a total of 48 to 53 hours per week.
Work not seasonal.—The work is practically constant, there being
no rush except for the Christmas trade and no period without work,
as stock is accumulated during the time when merchants make less
demand upon the factories’ output.
Overtime and nonemployment—Overtime is rare; “ lay offs'; are
unusual, though in a few cases brief vacations are voluntarily taken
in the summer because of the heat. It is reported that little time is
lost through illness and accident; machinery for the most part is
reported as of the nondangerous type and sufficiently guarded to
1 Organization of classes and courses of study for store employees, page 290 et seq.

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

insure safety. In some of the factories a doctor inspects against
illness and infectious disease.
Shifting of worTcers.—The study shows some shifting of workers,
but with few exceptions the shifting is from factory to factory within
the industry and not from one trade to another. Shifting seems to be
due to the quality of the skill—the less skilled workers finding their
way into the less skilled operations and vice versa.
No recognized line of promotion within the industry.—Operations in
the tobacco industry vary little in their demands upon general intel
ligence and skill, the two exceptions to the general rule being rolling
and packing. Since packing is largely a matter of color sense, which
is inherent rather than acquired, the opportunities for promotion
to this position are few.
Education of tobacco workers.—The education of women in the
tobacco industry is, except for very few workers, a little below gram
mar grade, the amount and quality being difficult to measure because
of country schooling which lacked uniformity and standardization.
Little illiteracy is found among white workers, except among the
older women who went to work when rural schools were scattered
and few in number and child labor the accepted custom.
Extra schooling of the tobacco workers.—Although it is difficult to
obtain complete data upon the extra schooling of the entire body of
tobacco workers, records from the night high school show 98 women
in attendance in the past year, fully 75 per cent of whom were taking
commercial courses, the remainder being students in the general
academic and household arts departments. Workers themselves
reported that general education was not demanded by their work in
the industry, though many expressed a desire for academic subjects
which would broaden their minds and advance their social standing.
Training tobacco operatives not a school problem.—All operations in
the tobacco industry are learned in the factory. The amount of
specific trade information and technical training demanded of the
worker is too meager to warrant the establishment of classes for
their training in the public schools.
Workers engaged in the industry need and desire additional edu
cation, some along the lines of general education, others in cooking,
sewing, and household management. The forewomen and so-called
teachers, whose duty it is to look after the efficiency of the depart
ments, need some training in industrial relationships. Their ideas
about what they need in this direction are rather unformed.
The industry sees to it that its workers produce the standard
quality and quantity of product; it does not concern itself, however,
with any form of general or specific education that contributes to
raising the standard and efficiency of its workers beyond the require
ments of the job.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

What the schools can do for the tobacco workers.—No direct voca
tional training can be given tobacco workers in schools, and owing to
the specialized type of factory organization and division of labor,
part-time instruction is practically out of the question. Night
classes, however, can and should provide: (1) General education for
workers who desire to extend their academic training; (2) household
arts courses, carefully planned so as to insure effective practical
training; and (3) recreational and physically reactive gymnastics,
folk dancing, etc., designed to meet the needs of women engaged in
monotonous and restricted occupations. Of these the last is of
greatest importance for the tobacco worker. Her work is debili
tating because it is monotonous, hence to keep herself in the best
condition she must have proper physical training and recreation.
This will make her a more efficient worker.
6071°—Bull. 162— 16------ 4

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE GENERAL SURVEY COMMITTEE.
INTRODUCTION.

Vocational education is a local not a general issue. It must be
adapted in its content and method as well as in its organization and
administration to the social, industrial, and educational conditions
of the community. Hence the need of a survey making a careful
analysis of these conditions before any system of vocational training
is undertaken. The survey upon which these recommendations are
based has made this analysis for Richmond. These recommenda
tions represent the effort of the committee to suggest the best remedy,
the best program of which it is capable for the development of voca
tional training under the given conditions as shown by the findings
of the survey.
They are in no sense the opinions or theories of the individual
members of the committee, of the organizations they represent, or of
the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education as to
abstract principles and policies, but an attempt to deal in a con
structive way with a local situation by suggesting the things that
need to be done, which Richmond can accomplish.
The recommendations are presented under the six following heads:
I. The problem of financing vocational education in Richmond.
II. Compulsory attendance as a factor in a program of industrial
education.
III. The types of schools and courses of study for boys and men
as determined by the findings of the industrial survey.
IV. Types of schools and courses of study for girls and women
as determined by the findings of the industrial survey.
V. Prevocational education for boys.
VI. The place of private institutions receiving city moneys in
the general plan.
At the annual convention of the National Society in the city of
Richmond, one day of the proceedings was given to a discussion of
the findings and recommendations of the survey. The morning ses
sion considered the findings under three topics: The organization of
the survey, led by C. A. Prosser, secretary of the society; the scope
and method of the survey, led by Charles H. Winslow, director of
the Richmond survey; the method and findings of the school survey,
led by Dr. Leonard P. Ayres, of the Russell Sage Foundation.
The afternoon session took up the recommendations proposed by
the general survey committee under the heads which are given
51

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

above and which were discussed at the convention by different mem
bers of the committee as follows: No. I, Mr. M. P. Shawkey, State
superintendent of public instruction, West Virginia; No. II, Dr. P.
P. Claxton, United States Commissioner of Education; No. Ill, Mr.
Arthur D. Dean, chief of the division of vocational schools for New
York; No. IV, Mrs. Mary Schenck Woolman, formerly president of
the Boston Women’s Educational and Industrial Union; No. V,
Prof. R. W. Selvidge, professor of manual training and industrial
education, Peabody College, Nashville, Tenn.; No. VI, Dr. William
M. Davidson, superintendent of schools, Pittsburgh, Pa.
All the foregoing discussions are printed in full in the proceedings
of the annual convention of the society for 1914, copies of which can
be secured by writing to the office of the National Society for the Pro
motion of Industrial Education, No. 140 West Forty-second Street,
New York City.
Preliminary to the convention, two pamphlets were distributed
among its members, the first being a synopsis of the findings of the
purvey and the second a statement of the recommendations proposed
by the general survey committee. Only very slight changes were
necessary to bring these two documents from a preliminary status
when printed for the Richmond meeting to their permanent status
as part of this final report. These preliminary reports constitute
the body of this final report.
I. THE PROBLEM OF FINANCING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN RICHMOND.

Richmond is a wealthy and prosperous city growing at a rapid
rate and therefore is able to support a more extensive educational
system.
Because of her rapidly expanding mercantile and manufacturing
interests, Richmond especially needs to begin now the development
of a system of vocational education fitting young people for efficient
service in commercial and industrial pursuits. The survey has shown
that this opinion is held almost universally, not only by the employ
ing and employed interests of the city but by its citizenship generally.
Any effective program of vocational education for the city of Rich
mond must require an increase in the expenditures of public moneys
for school purposes. This added revenue can easily be provided by
a redistribution of the city’s revenues so as to give to its schools as
large a proportion of public funds as is given on the average by cities
of the same class for the support of their schools. Of the 40 cities
having a population from 100,000 to 300,000, according to the sta
tistics of the United States census, the city of Richmond gives for
school purposes the smallest per cent of total revenue.
While the larger part of the expense of providing vocational train
ing for the workers of Richmond should, as in the case of every other

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

locality in the Commonwealth, be met by the community, the State
should, for a time at least, pay a part of the cost of the new and im
portant work of developing industrial and commercial education.
The State of Virginia has already recognized this principle in grants
for agricultural education in rural high schools, but thus far the policy
has not been extended to the work of fitting young people for the
office and the shop in the cities and towns. Many States have
already made grants for commercial and industrial training, in addi
tion to agricultural education. These grants for vocational educa
tion have been made to accomplish five ends, which your committee
believes apply to Virginia as well: (1) To encourage local commu
nities to give vocational education as a new and needed kind of
training, beneficial and desirable in the interest of the State as a
whole; (2) to aid local communities with their varying resources to
provide effective vocational training; (3) to secure for the State the
right to a reasonable participation or voice in the development of
vocational education in the State; (4) to make it possible to secure
a “ State minimum of efficiency” in the conduct of vocational edu
cation; (5) to pay the just share of the State in a kind of education
which, comparatively speaking, must be expensive but which is of
State-wide benefit.
The committee does not believe that the present system of
annual appropriations, more or less variable and uncertain, made
by the city government to the school board for the public schools
of Richmond is conducive to the best results, either in the ade
quate support or in the effective administration of the school
system. Every consideration seems to make desirable the plan
generally followed in this country of a special levy for public school
purposes in the annual tax budget—the resulting revenue to be
expended by the school board for such education as the community
demands. The present State law permits the city government to
set aside 5 mills of its annual tax rate for school purposes. If this
were done by the Richmond authorities the school system would
secure support more nearly equal to that of other cities of the same
class in the country.
Should the Richmond authorities deem it wise on the other hand
to continue the present system of annual appropriations, the com
mittee recommends that, beginning with the next school year, a
special appropriation be made for vocational education; that this
appropriation be in addition to the amount given for general educa
tion; and that it be increased from year to year in proportion as the
demand for practical training makes it necessary.
The committee recommends that the cooperation of the State
board of education be enlisted in an effort to secure from the General
Assembly of Virginia a special appropriation for commercial and in

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

dustrial education to be used by the State board of education in the
cities and towns of the Commonwealth. This appropriation should
be made with the understanding that the State board of education
shall not use any moneys for the building or equipment of schools or
classes but only for the salaries of teachers of commercial or indus
trial subjects, and that for every dollar distributed to any community
for vocational education the State board shall require at least another
dollar to be spent by the community.
The committee most heartily advocates the continuance of the ap
propriation for agricultural schools, but believes that Virginia has
now reached the stage where, like other States, it will wish to develop
simultaneously agricultural, commercial, and industrial education.
The laws of Virginia already provide for the development through
the State board of education of all of these forms of vocational train
ing, but thus far the general assembly has made grants for the en
couragement only of one. State grants for commercial and industrial
education by which Richmond would benefit in part seem particu
larly equitable in this hour of the city’s need, in view of the fact that
for every $5 of State school tax raised in the city of Richmond not
more than $2 is returned to the city to be spent for school purposes.
When the State makes a distinct appropriation for any form of
vocational education, it ought also to provide grants for State super
vision of such work. Pending action by the General Assembly of
Virginia for the benefit of commercial and industrial education, we
respectfully urge the State board of education to appoint such an
assistant or assistants to the State superintendent of public instruc
tion as may be necessary in order that the board may, under the au
thority and responsibility already conferred upon it by law, investi
gate and aid in the introduction of these forms of practical education
and aid local authorities to initiate schools and departments for such
education.
II. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE AS A FACTOR IN A PROGRAM OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCA
TION.

General intelligence lies at the base of all efficiency in work as well
as citizenship. Mere literacy is no longer an adequate preparation
for life or for labor. Therefore a program of vocational education for
any State must include such legislation as may be necessary in order
to insure to each child at least the minimum general education which
common experience shows is necessary for his success and happiness.
The best economic, social, and educational thought of our day
agrees that no child should be employed as a wage earner under 14,
and that all children should be required to attend school continu
ously until they are at least 14.
The present constitution of Virginia, adopted in an earlier day be
fore the present growth of the free public-school system was antici

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

pated, makes it impossible to require children under 8 or over 12 years
of age to attend school. The legislature is permitted by the constitu
tion to require all children between these ages to attend school except
those who are weak in body or mind, or who can read and write, or
are excused for cause by the district school trustees. Under this
authorization, the legislature has in turn permitted the local com
munities of the State to vote as to whether they will require such
children to attend school at least 12 weeks in each school year, 6 of
which must be consecutive. The city of Richmond is to be con
gratulated, because last November by an overwhelming vote her
citizens decided to adopt compulsory education for children between
8 and 12 years of age, thus making Richmond the fifth city in the
State so to vote.
The Virginia child-labor law which has just gone into effect pro
hibits the employment of children under 14 in industrial and mercan
tile establishments. The constitutional restriction just described
made it impossible to accompany this prohibition of employment of
children under 14 with any law requiring them to attend school up to
that age. To permit children under 14 who are barred from the
factories to roam the streets in idleness and ignorance is to open up
possibilities of injury and evil to the child and society fully as great
at least as that resulting from premature employment. With the
exception of five communities, including Richmond, no child in Vir
ginia, whatever may be his age, is required to attend the schools, and
any child may remain out of them altogether. In these five commu
nities most children 8 to 11 years of age, inclusive, must attend
school for about one-third the term. Children over 12 and under 14,
while they can no longer go to work, may remain out of school. This
situation is a most unfortunate one.
There are two large steps to be taken in remedying this situation.
The first is to secure from the legislature the largest possible school
attendance which the constitution permits. What is needed here
and now is a vigorous campaign which will result in a State-wide
compulsory attendance act requiring children from 8 to 12 years of
age to attend school for the full term.
The second step is to press forward an amendment of the Virginia
constitution (at the earliest possible date), so as to remove all restric
tion upon the legislature in dealing with the subject of compulsory
school attendance.
The constitution (sec. 138) provides that the general assembly
may “ provide for the compulsory education of children between the
ages of 8 and 12 years, except such as are weak in body or mind, or
can read and write, or are attending private schools, or are excused
for cause by the district school trustees.” Necessary or advisable as
this section may have appeared in a simpler day, the educational and

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

social conditions have so changed as to make it at the present time an
insurmountable barrier across the path of the State in dealing with
the problems of compulsory attendance and of vocational education.
A constitutional amendment to remove these difficulties could well
strike out the present section and substitute in its place some such
simple clause as this: “ The general assembly may enact such com
pulsory education regulations from time to time as may be deemed
advisable.”
It will probably require at the best five years to secure constitu
tional permission for the legislature to deal freely with compulsory
education. Should this be granted by the people of the State, the
first step should be of course to pass a law, State-wide in its scope,
requiring children over 7 and under 14 years of age to attend school
each year for the full term.
Following the trend of similar legislation in other States, the
general assembly in obedience to the will of the people of Virginia
would, in course of time, find it advisable to add to the age requirement
of 14 years such further requirements as the attainment of a certain
grade standing before leaving school and compulsory continuation
classes for young wage earners over 14 and under 16 years of age, who
leave the regular schools without the general or the vocational
preparation they need for citizenship and for industry.
in. THE TYPES OP SCHOOLS AND COURSES OP STUDY FOR BOYS AND MEN AS DE
TERMINED BY THE FINDINGS IN THE INDUSTRIAL SURVEY.

Richmond, as the capital of Virginia, has the opportunity of setting
the pace for vocational education and may serve as an experimental
station and practical demonstration for other cities in the State in the
proposed development of courses for industrial workers.
Preparation for the industrial efficiency of her workers means a
lead over other cities now negligent when, after this European conflict,
material prosperity comes overwhelmingly upon us.
Richmond has stable vocational habits. The findings of the
survey show that a majority of her workers learned their trade in the
city or in the immediate environment. Evidence points that Rich
mond may safely train a larger proportion of her children for future
participation in the local industries than might be wise for an average
city. Richmond is not confronted with the task of assimilating a
large foreign element, but rather with that of training a native
population for efficiency.
Any plan for educating industrial workers in Richmond must be
moderate, at least at present, for the reason that the city takes, com
paratively speaking, a low rank in educational expenditure as
compared with other cities of a similar size.
The findings of the survey show a definite need for the offering of
educational facilities for men and boys already employed. It is evi

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

dent that the supply of efficient journeymen is inadequate, that the
amount of systematic instruction in the shops is small, and that the
amount of apprenticeship training is limited.
The findings indicate that the men themselves seek further educa
tional advantages and that they are personally interested in trade
education. Many workers have taken courses at their own expense
since leaving the regular school. The facts show that the majority
of these workers have taken courses bearing directly upon their trade.
The minority have taken day, evening, or correspondence work
unrelated to their trade.
A study of the individual schedules points out that the typical
'Richmond worker is handicapped by lack of the elements of general
education. The men and their employers agree with this finding and
have expressed a desire that many of the trade-extension classes to be
organized shall take this element into full consideration.
It is deemed inadvisable to offer the trade extension work—a
type of work which includes technical knowledge relating to the
trade—without first giving facility in the ordinary tools of expression.
The trade extension classes already started have demonstrated that
the students in these classes are not able to deal easily and intelli
gently with technical processes and their related knowledge without
having the basic elements of a general education.
While, in general, manipulative skill is best developed undex actual
practice, it is noted that the development of dexterity will be pro
moted through the manual training courses now given in the early
grades of the elementary school as well as by the scheme for prevocational training herein recommended.
The question of health training appears to be of fundamental
mportance. Everything possible should be done before these work
ers leave school to develop healthy young people in order that they
may successfully combat diseases incident to certain occupations.
The trade extension courses and other continuation courses should
include a study of the relationship of physical health to occupational
diseases.
It is recommended that schools and courses for boys and men
already employed should find expression in two great groups: (1)
Evening schools, {a) of the industrial order and (b) of the general
order; (2) part-time schools, (a) of the industrial order, (6) of the
general order. Schools of the industrial order should take most de
cidedly the trade extension aspect. The work which the men and
boys elect in the school, whether it be of the part-time or evening
order, should supplement the day employment, and the courses of
study should be built upon the shop experience of the employed boys
and men who attend.
Schools or courses of the general order should take varying forms.
Some will give merely further general education to those whose daily

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

experience offers no basis upon which to build trade extension
courses. Others will give shop or drawing or laboratory experiences
of various types and to a varying degree to those who hope through
such work to find an occupational purpose in life more satisfying
than their present employment. Evidence points clearly to the fact
that while there is a need for evening school work both of the general
order and of the trade extension order, at the same time these two
fields of educational effort are to be kept distinct and the purposes
and methods are not to be confused.
The committee sets aside consideration at this time of the all-day
trade school not only because of its initial expense to the city, but
also because the participants in such instruction must sacrifice time
and wages, and this sacrifice will be less as the prevocational training
develops and helps young people to know what particular trade they
care to study. Furthermore, the industries of Richmond do not re
quire a long training as a requisite to entrance to the industries, and
the trade training that can not be obtained in industry can be split
up into relatively short units which can be given progressively either
in the evening school or the day part-time school. These units may
be given in the order of their need and at the time most necessary.
The evidence points out that the evening trade extension courses
constitute the best approach to the full program of schools and
courses which may finally be established for men and boys. The
employers favor evening work in preference to part-time work for
their apprentices. The workers themselves have indicated a desire
for evening instruction which will supplement their daily shop ex
perience. Both state that promotion will result from these evening
supplementary courses.
The committee urgently recommends that steps be taken at once
by the Richmond school authorities to establish the part-time day
school or classes for those industries and plants where employers have
expressed a willingness to cooperate in this way. In some instances
these employers have expressed a willingness to enter at a later date
into an agreement providing for a definite period of attendance of
apprentices at the part-time school for a definite number of hours,
and to pay these apprentices the usual wage while in school. The
committee believes that this plan furnishes the only satisfactory
method of dealing with the proper training of apprentices in the city
of Richmond.
The committee is clear in its own mind that cooperation between
school and shop is a condition which must be met and satisfied. The
outgrowth of this relationship must be an agreement that will clearly
define certain conditions surrounding the work of the school, the
length of apprenticeship training, credit for work done in school, and
rate of pay during such apprenticeship. At present no written

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

records of individual efficiency of workers are reported as being used
in the shop. There are no entrance tests of the worth of the appli
cants except the actual trial on the job. There is at present little
organization of shop practice which might fit in with the proposed
plan for trade extension classes. It is evident that the basis of all
successful vocational teaching whether in evening school or in parttime day school must rest upon a close cooperation between the
school, the employee, and the employer.
Account must be taken of seasonal fluctuations when the parttime day school plan is established. Obviously it would be unwise
to establish such instruction in the building trades during the busy
season. The class for molders which has already been established
is now meeting on Saturday mornings as well as two evenings a week,
in view of the fact that these men practically never work on Sat
urday. The committee recommends that the teachers be practical
men to carry out the recommendations of the findings. The find
ings show clearly that practical teachers are desired. The trade
instructors require knowledge of the craft and a general experience
which equips them to teach. The teachers of related subjects
require knowledge of the crafts and adequate academic training,
while the teachers of general or nonvocational subjects require
adequate academic training and contact with life.
The committee wishes to emphasize particularly the type of even
ing instruction which will make a direct appeal to employed men and
boys. The following points need special consideration: (1) Instruc
tion must deal with twp rather distinct classes: (a) Students proper—
consisting of the small minority who seek both general and specific
education with a definite student purpose, but often under rather un
usual personal conditions; (b) the nonstudent class consisting of the
large majority, who by suggestion and counsel need educational
help in the solution of some present problems which will fit them for
special service. (2) The scheme of work offered must make various
features of the course of study elective to a maximum degree. (3)
The work must be flexible enough in its adaptation to meet individ
ual, special, and even transient needs and conditions. (4) The sub
jects must be presented in small and varying units. (5) The variousunits of work must be so scheduled that sequential arrangement of
courses is possible when it is desired. (6) All forms of work must
glow with the socialized element. (7) The work must seek to in
crease the student’s capacity to live efficiently and largely as well as
to promote the accumulation of technical knowledge and the develop
ment of manipulative skill. (8) Much stress must be laid on the
teaching itself. By suggestion and personal cooperation the teachers
can awaken and develop to a wonderful degree the mind rendered
mentally inactive by former disassociation with educational forces.

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

(9) The work must have its own distinct ideals, methods, and esti
mates of value. It must be based upon the current conditions and
individual needs of the nonstudent class rather than on regular school
standards which are primarily applicable to the student class.
Recommendation as to courses for specific trades: The findings
indicate that the number of workers employed, their desire, and their
need for instruction, warrant the establishment of courses of study
covering the subject matter listed under the following occupations.
In cases where two or more similar occupations call for practically
the same range of instruction the occupations are grouped.
Printing Trades.

Compositors, linotype and monotype.
Evening courses in English, with special reference to spelling,
punctuation, and syllabication; page arrangement of words;
principles of design as related to typography; color harmony.
For the linotype and monotype operators special instruction
in the construction and mechanism of linotype and monotype
machines.
The course in English should be open to all in the printing
trades, whether occupied in the groups mentioned or not, and
for all those engaged in the printing trades courses offering
instruction in the history of the printing trade, modern methods
of printing, and trade news should be organized.
Cylinder pressmen and press feeders.
Evening courses in the mechanism and operation of presses;
composition of inks, rollers, and paper; elements of the repro
ductive processes; modern methods of presswork.
Metal Trades.

Molders, including brass molders.
Evening courses in shop mathematics; properties and com
position of irons and alloys, with special reference to furnace
fixtures; outlines of history of iron making; first aid for burns
and care of health in foundry conditions.
Machinists.
Evening courses in shop mathematics, with special reference
to calculations of working speeds, feeds, and measuring instru
ments; mechanical drawing, with special reference to machine
parts; elements of mechanism; properties of metals, with special
reference to high and low carbon steels; design of jigs and shop
appliances; theory and practice of cutting tools; construction
of various specialized machine tools.
If the demand proves sufficient and the resources can be pro
vided, it is further recommended that evening classes in practical
work be established in order to give breadth of experience.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

Blacksmiths.
Evening courses in mechanical drawing; shop mathematics;
theory and practice of hardening, tempering and annealing of
metals; outline history of metallurgy of iron making; first aid
for burns.
In case there proves to be a sufficient number of horseshoers
in this group, a course might be organized offering instruction in
anatomy and ailments of the hoof.
Boiler makers.
Evening courses in mechanical drawing, with special reference
to pattern development and different types of boilers; shop
mathematics, with reference to the more simple calculations
involved in computing strength of boiler shells and riveted
joints; physical principles involved in steam boiler operation.
It is recommended that mechanical drawing courses which
give at first the common elements of the working drawing and
which differentiate later into instruction fitting the special needs
of each group, should be offered to all workers in the metal
trades.
Building Trades.

Carpenters, including bench and machine woodworkers and cabinet
makers.
Evening courses in architectural drawing covering detail
drawing and sketching, frame and trim construction; shop
arithmetic, covering fractions in 2-foot rule and as related to
mensuration and to simple geometric problems involved in
mitering and beveling; qualities of wood; modern methods of
construction and the construction and operation of woodworking
machines.
Bricklayers.
Evening courses in architectural drawing covering methods
of brick construction, plans, and elevations; figuring of draw
ings; courses in trade mathematics and specification making
and estimating.
Sheet-metal workers and tinsmiths, with which are combined tinsmiths
and sheet-metal workers in the metal trades.
Evening courses in mechanical drawing dealing with the
development and intersections (pattern drafting) comprising
geometric and architectural forms and those used in tinware.
If the demand is sufficient, practical classes giving experience
in construction of the more complex forms might be offered.
Plumbers.
Evening course in blue-print and specification reading;
physical and sanitary principles underlying plumbing practice;
legal regulations concerning plumbing installations.

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

Inside wiremen.
Evening courses in the elements of electrical theory with
particular relation to Ohm’s law, calculations of wire capacity
and testing of circuits; provisions of underwriters’ code as to
details of electrical installations; blue-print and specification
reading.
Plasterers.
Evening courses for blue-print and specification reading;
properties of materials used; arithmetic as related to measure
ments and estimating of quantities.
In the building trades, one of the distinct possibilities pre
sented is the development at some future time of classes in
which workers attend for part time or all day during the slack
season.
The numbers and demand in several of the occupations indicate
that in many of these classes it may be possible to form divisions
between the younger and more advanced workers.
It is further recommended, if future resources permit and the
numbers applying are sufficient, that a second group of courses be
organized—
In the printing trades for:
(а) Group of workers in steel and copper photo-engraving.
(б) Group of workers in lithographic processes.
(c) Group of workers in photo-reproduction processes.
In the metal trades for:
Pattern makers.
In the building trades for:
(а) Stonecutters.
(б) Cement finishers.
(c) Steam fitters.
IV. TYPES OP SCHOOLS AND COURSES OP STUDY FOR GIRLS AND WOMEN AS
DETERMINED BY THE FINDINGS OP THE INDUSTRIAL SURVEY.

The large effort of vocational education for the girls and women
of any community should be to prepare them as far as possible for
economic independence. Instruction in home economics, except in
specialized courses planned and followed for the purpose of earning
a livelihood, should not be regarded as vocational education for wage
earning, but as a necessary and valuable part of general education
to which every girl is entitled as a part of her adequate preparation
for living.
With the exception of the offices and department stores the white
girls and women of Richmond are, on the whole, employed in manu
facturing and mechanical pursuits in which the operations can be
learned more quickly and more satisfactorily in the factory than in

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

the school, largely because the amount of technical training and trade
information is too meager to warrant the expenditure of public money
for the equipment and instruction.
Colored girls and women are for the most part employed in domestic
and personal service as cooks, housemaids, nursemaids, home laun
dresses, laundry operatives, manicurists, hairdressers, to some extent
as factory operatives and laborers, and as dressmakers and seamstresses.
The high school already offers opportunities for girls to secure
training in stenography, filing, bookkeeping, and clerical work. The
limitation of this survey prevented any study of this feature of the
work of the Richmond schools similar to the study made of the
industries and of the industrial training undertaken by the schools.
The committee is under the impression, however, that the commercial
training of the John Marshall High School compares favorably with
such work in other high schools in large cities, and is probably open
to the same improvements, not the least of which might be the
introduction of part-time cooperative classes for young people who
are employed in commercial pursuits in Richmond.
There is a need in Richmond, as shown by the proposal of the
Retail Merchants7Association and the reports of the workers through
interviews, for evening classes in salesmanship which shall very
largely give their attention to training mature young people who are
already employed during the day in the stores. There is also a
great need for department store and salesmanship training, through
part-time and continuation classes.
Some steps have already been taken in this direction. There are,
in a number of cities, some beginnings in department store educa
tion which not only differ widely from each other in their organiza
tion and method, but in their necessary adaptation to local condi
tions. The work everywhere is in its beginning stages, and the com
mittee believes that the best way to handle it is for local people to
engage a competent trained person to take charge of the problem
who will be able to study the needs of the local stores and their
employees; to take the best points from the schemes in force else
where and adapt them to the conditions and problems of depart
ment stores which must be met in Richmond.
There is at the present time no need or possibility of a girls' trade
school for Richmond. There does exist, however, a need or a de
mand for courses of training in the practical arts as a part of the
general education of girls over 13 years of age. This training should
begin withprevocational courses in the upper grades of the elementary
school. Should the plan of a junior high school for pupils 13 to 16
years of age be adopted, this prevocational training for girls should
be made a large feature of the work of this school.

BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OP LABOR STATISTICS.

Practical arts courses of a more advanced and specialized character
should be offered in the regular high school for girls who have gradu
ated from the elementary school or the junior high school and entered
'the high school for the purpose of getting some more general training
together with the instruction in the ordinary home trades which they
may be able to use to advantage either commercially or in their own
homes.
It is recommended that there be established schools or classes
in prevocational work for girls, covering the period corresponding
to the last two years of the elementary school. These courses should
be operated with the following purposes in mind: (a) To serve as a
self-discovery and vocational guiding course, giving to the girl who
must leave school early a better basis for selecting the vocation
which she may enter; (b) To give those girls who go on to the high
school an opportunity to choose in the high school the more intensive
practical course for which they are best fitted. Should a junior high
school be established, as seems probable, the third year of the course
in the school might well be given to a more intensive pursuit of some
one line of practical work. The prevocational training of the first
two years would prepare her to make an intelligent choice of this
course, (c) To offer a course of study which will make a strong appeal
to the interest of the pupil, thus tending to hold her longer in school.
The course of study must be a varied one if it is to help the girls
to find themselves, enable them to make an intelligent choice of work
in the future, and appeal to the interests of all in such a way as to
keep them longer in school. The committee recognizes that there
are few precedents to guide it in making recommendations for pre
vocational courses for girls. The suggestions herein made represent
some of the possibilities.
What is needed is not longer courses in cooking, sewing, or type
writing, but an organized training which will include a variety of
experiences drawn from the occupations which are open or should
be open to the girls in the life of the community.
The course of study should give the girl an opportunity to try
herself out in such activities as cooking, serving, first aid to the
injured, household decoration, plain and machine sewing, simple
garment making, printing, bookbinding, novelty work, typewriting,
elementary stenography, and the keeping of simple accounts.
The experiences taken from these activities must be real and not
imitative, and offer actual practice in assuming responsibility. For
example: Cooking and serving should center about the preparation
of the school lunch for pupils and teachers; sewing should be done
on marketable garments and vary in style and fabric sufficiently to
give a general knowledge of materials as well as of processes in sew
ing and garment construction.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

All practical courses should be made intensive enough to insure
serious, purposeful work on the part of the pupil and discourage the
dawdling and waste of time which is so often seen in handwork
courses.
One-half of the time in school should be given to the so-called
academic branches which should be made of diroct application to
the practical work and every-day problems of the girl. Among the
subjects which should be taught are English, arithmetic, history,
civics, commercial geography, and an elementary treatment of the
personal, social, and economic problems of the girl which would
include such topics as personal hygiene and health, conduct in social
and business relations, wages, hours of employment, use of leisure
time, personal and family budgets, savings, insurance, and efficiency.
The study of art and design should be taught so as to develop the
artistic sense often called “ good taste,” which is so essential in
women’s activities, in order that special abilities along the lines of
industrial arts may be discovered.
The school day for the prevocational classes should be lengthened
from the present five-hour day of the elementary school to six or more
hours per day, and one session of three or more hours should be devoted
to academic work, and one session of three or more hours to the prac
tical courses recommended. The proposed plan herein outlined for
the prevocational work is adapted to fit in with the reorganization
of the Richmond schools, which looks forward to the establishment
of a junior high school.
In the high school the training in practical arts which has already
been started to some extent in sewing, cooking, serving, applied design
for embroidery and stencils, needs to be extended to cover more
advanced specialized work in all the branches named, as well as other
lines of practical training. Sewing should include courses in the mak
ing of plain blouses and waists, plain cotton dresses, plain woolen
diesses and to a limited extent lingerie; remodeling and alteration;
embroidery should be related to both art and garment making. Each
course should deal with a definite problem and not attempt to include
all kinds of garments and materials in one course.
Cooking and serving should center about the preparation of meals
for the teachers and pupils, and cookery classes should contribute, as
far as possible, the foods that are served. A number of small kitch
ens, built in a row like booths, open on one side, with the usual stove
and cooking utensils of the home, and accommodating from three to
five girls, should replace the individual laboratory equipment. This
arrangement facilitates the preparation of foods, and gives the pupils
an opportunity to cook in family or standard quantities under condi
tions which very largely duplicate the home surroundings.

6071°—Bull. 162—16------5

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

Individual or fractional recipes should not be used except for labora
tory experimentation in chemistry courses. The school luncheon used
as an outlet for foods reduces the cost of raw materials and guards
against waste of product.
Opportunities arc opening up in Richmond, as in other large cities,
for numerous wage-earning and salaried callings, which are based
upon a very practical as well as scientific knowledge of home eco
nomics, such as invalid cookery, special cookery, catering to a special
demand for such things as cakes, candy, pickles, preserves, etc.—
caterers, heads of tea rooms, lunch rooms and gift shops, dietitians
and boarding-house and institutional managers. This opens a field
for promising and talented girls to put to commercial use the training
which might be given in a good practical arts department of the
regular high school.
The practical courses in high school should be given in a separate
department of the school, to be known by some such title as the depart
ment of practical arts. This department should have for its control
ling purpose the preparation of girls for the commercial as well as the
home pursuit of these arts and should consist of a separate organiza
tion of courses, pupils, and teachers, under a distinct head for this
purpose. Nothing short of a departmental organization of this char
acter will insure to these girls the proper correlation of their shopwork
and related subject matter. Those taking the work in this depart
ment might well pursue some of their studies, such as English, history,
and civics, in the same classes with pupils of other departments, but
their shopwork, their art, and their science should be specially adapted
to their needs in. the practical courses they are taking. Fundamental
to the efficiency of the shopwork of such a department is the use of
commercial methods, that greater thrift and energy may result, that
the expense of materials to school or student body may be reduced,
and that the judgment of the product may come from outside the
school rather than from the teacher.
The regular high school of Richmond should recognize the prevocational training of the kind herein recommended, whether given in a
junior high school or in the upper grades of the regular grammar
school, as full and satisfactory preparation for its work. They should
also fully recognize the work in the practical arts done by the girls in
the regular high school. These girls should be regarded as taking a
special or separate course known as the practical arts course. Four
years’ work in this course should entitle them to graduation and to a
diploma for the completion of the practical arts course of the institu
tion. The work in the practical arts department should be standard
ized and credits should be given for the work to count for graduation
just as credits are given for any of the regular academic subjects of
the school.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

As has already been pointed out, it is impossible under the present
Virginia constitution to require children over 12 years of age to attend
any kind of school. Because of the great need of further training for
the large army of girls under 16 years of age who become wage-eamers
before completing the elementary schools, the school authorities
should make a special effort to induce employers to cooperate volun
tarily by giving their young workers time to attend a part-timo or con
tinuation school or class for at least four hours per week during the
regular school term. Such a school or class should take these girls
where it finds them and give them whatever will help them to efficiency
and happiness.
Among the possibilities of service to girls by such classes are these:
Regular school studies vitalized by their adaptation to the inter
ests and needs of the pupils, elementary civics and economics,
problems in health, dress, and social conduct and responsibility,
elementary training in the practical arts growing out of the home
life of the girl, and, whenever possible, industrial or trade training
supplementary to the daily work.
There is a pronounced demand for special classes in the regular
branches and in practical courses for the colored girls and women
of the city. These practical courses, some of which have already
been started, should lay the larger emphasis upon the practical side
of the work rather than the purely scientific. The instruction
should be given by teachers who have themselves had actual home or
commercial experience in the branches to be taught. The training
offered should give an opportunity to choose from among such
courses as the following: Sewing, garment making, simple dressmak
ing, cooking, first aid to the injured, care of the sick, care of children,
personal hygiene, home sanitation, problems of marketing, nursing,
manicuring, and hairdressing.
The evening classes for colored girls and women have a splendid
chance to give, through trade extension courses, supplementary
instruction improving the efficiency of those who are engaged as
wage earners during the day in such practical arts as cookery, serving, garment making, dressmaking, care of children, nursing, mani
curing, and hairdressing. These evening courses should be given
in the form of a series of short units, each of which is designed to
meet a specific need of the class. The pupils should, as far as pos
sible, be so grouped as to bring together in the same class those
having similar previous experience in the work undertaken.
V. PREVOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR BOYS.

The findings of the survey show Richmond to be a city of widely
diversified industries, employing people most of whom were born
and reared in Richmond or elsewhere in Virginia. The children

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

of Richmond who enter the industries, therefore, have an oppor
tunity to choose a calling from among a large number of possible
occupations of many different kinds.
In the schools of Richmond the children of 13 and 14 years of
age are found scattered through the grades from the first elementary
to the third year in the high school, more than half the children of
these ages being in or below the sixth grade. These children will
soon leave school to go to work, although the findings show that the
low wages paid to those under 16 indicate that employers do not
regard the services of immature workers as desirable.
The survey shows that there is a demand in Richmond for prevocational training for children over 13 years of age and no demand
at present for any type of all-day industrial or trade school, preparing
relatively few for special occupations or trades. In view of the com
paratively small cost of prevocational work and the limited resources
which at the present time seem available, the prevocational school
will reach and serve the needs of a much greater number of boys and
girls than will the special industrial or trade school.
The committee, therefore, recommends that the Richmond schools
develop, as rapidly as possible, schools or classes in prevocational
training, admitting boys who have completed the work of the 5B
grade and who look forward to leaving school at a relatively early
age in order to go to work, and who need the help of the school in
reaching a decision as to what line of work they may enter with the
greatest prospect of success. In no sense is this school to be con
sidered as a provision for defective, delinquent, or incorrigible boys.
The rank of the proposed school should correspond to the last two
years of the regular elementary school course, and should require
the same amount of time for the completion of its work.
If at any time in the future the public-school system of Richmond
should be reorganized so as to provide for intermediate or junior
high schools, covering the last two years of the elementary-school
period and the first year of the present high-school period, the plan
proposed herein for the prevocational school is adapted to fit in with
such an organization admirably.
Prevocational training for Richmond should present a course of
study that will appeal to boys who have lost interest in the work of
the regular graded school, and who have either left school because
of such dissatisfaction or who are contemplating early withdrawal.
Prevocational training should provide vocational direction and
guidance for ctdldren who are likely early to face the complexities of
our modem industrial and commercial life. It must give them an
experience and a knowledge which will serve as a basis upon which an
intelligent choice of a life career may be made.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

Results of experiments in prevocational training made in Richmond
last year suggest what may be accomplished in these directions. The
results duplicate the experience of other cities in which similar work
has been undertaken.
The course of study must be a varied one if it is to help boys to
find themselves and enable them to make an intelligent choice of
work in the future. What is needed is not a course in woodworking
or a course in metal work, but rather an organized training in practical
arts which will include a variety of experience in the industries funda
mental to the life of the community. Woodworking, metal work,
printing and bookbinding, and electrical construction are some of the
industries in Richmond which give an opportunity for experience in
certain fundamental processes which are most valuable to boys, with
out respect to the occupation in which they may later engage. A plan
for such industrial work should consist of a series of jobs, projects, or
enterprises which in their accomplishment will give the boy an appre
ciative understanding of the more important industries.
One-half of the time in school should be given to related work in
language, mathematics, industrial geography, industrial history, and,
in general, to preparation for active and intelligent understanding of
civic and social responsibilities. If the interests and capacities of the
boys are to be properly tested, the experience in the shops must be
as real as possible. In this connection it is important that they have
an opportunity to become acquainted to as great an extent as possible
with the actual operations of the industry.
Instructors must be men who not only possess a general acquaint
anceship with and knowledge of the industries represented in the
courses of study, but also give evidence of ability to make intelli
gent research into and study of the progress in methods and proc
esses of work in the industries.
The committee feels that while the desire to make these recommen
dations brief prevents any detailed discussion of a program for pre
vocational training for Richmond, the best way in which to set forth
in concrete form the above statement of principles is through brief
suggestions as to the course of study and the program of classes
which might be put into effect with profit in Richmond. These sug
gestions are in line with the prevocational work which has just been
established in the city.

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
P r o p o s e d C o u r s e o f St u d y .

A. Academic work—approximately half-time.
1. English.—Language work based on reading, much of the reading to bear upon
the industries. Composition, dealing with the occupational work of the
school, business correspondence, business forms; spelling and penmanship.
Aim to cultivate a love for reading.
2. Arithmetic.—To be of a very practical nature, including fundamental processes,
short methods used in business, business and trade arithmetic, with emphasis
on immediate application to the industrial work of the school.
3. Geography.—Chiefly industrial, and closely related to history.
4. History.—Closely related to geography and dealing with the industrial and
commercial development of the city, State, and country.
5 . Civic and social duties.—Relation of the individual to the community, State,
and country; relation of the worker to his work, to his employer, and to his
fellow workmen; duties and responsibilities, both civic and social, with special
reference to sanitation, personal hygiene, etc.
B. Industrial work—approximately half-time.
1. Woodworking.—To consist principally of carpentry, including such other forms
of work as may be called for by the projects undertaken. Study of tools;
machines, and structures, such as garages, poultry houses; problems in fram
ing, truss construction, and repair work, with emphasis on the latter.
2. Metal working.—To consist of work in hot and coJd bar metal and sheet metal.
Practical problems in repairs and construction which develop in the equip
ping of the school will supply work for some time to come. This will include
such work as the making of brace and angle irons, bolts, machine and bolt
guards, simple tools, pipe cutting and threading, metal parts of electrical and
other apparatus.
In addition to this the students should take apart and assemble the old
machines, endeavoring to find out how they work and why they work. Study
carefully the principles of the automatic machines and the method of con
veying power through machines to the point of doing the work, the inten
tion of this work being to familiarize the students with the general principles
of machine construction.
S. Printing and binding.—To consist of the simpler forms, mainly the printing of
forms, cards, announcements, etc., required for the school; this work to be
supplemented by special work in English, proof reading, design, and color
harmony.
4. Electrical construction.—To consist of elementary work in battery construction,
magnetism, induction, small motor and dynamo construction, wiring, elec
trical measurements, and testing. Experiments with batteries, induction
coils, and the wiring of bell, telegraph, telephone, and other circuits will be
worked out on specially constructed frames.
5. Drawing.— To be elementary in character, but practical and related directly
to the projects undertaken by the pupils in the various shop courses.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

VI. THE PLACE OF PRIVATE INSTITUTIONS RECEIVING CITY MONEYS IN THE GENERAL
PLAN.

After a full consideration of the facts presented by your com
mittee concerning the status of the Virginia Mechanics' Institute, the
committee recommends that the institute be merged with the publicschool system of Richmond in accordance with the following plan:
That the corporate name of the Virginia Mechanics' Institute shall
be preserved, but that the ownership of its property shall be vested
in the city of Richmond.
That an ordinance be passed by the city council of Richmond which
shall provide that the immediate direction of the affairs of the Virginia
Mechanics' Institute shall be under an advisory board of five members,
one member from each city school district, and two members at
large; and that the management of the institute shall be under the
general direction of the city school board, to be used for publicschool purposes in connection with both the day and evening school
work.
That the city school board of Richmond shall agree to make this
plant the vocational center of the public-school system and open
the institute in the daytime as soon as practical after this merger
shall have been accomplished.
In the event that this merger can be brought about in accord
ance with the above plan, it will be possible to make the Virginia
Mechanics Institute serve the public-school system of the entire
city for both day and night school classes for practically the whole
year, and the institute would be eligible, as an institution supported
and controlled by the public, to participate in the distribution of
the funds which will be available in the event of the granting of
State moneys for industrial or commercial education to the local
communities of Virginia, or in the event of the passage of the in
dustrial education bill now pending before the Congress of the
United States.

APPENDIX A.— STATISTICAL SUMMARY OF INFORMATION
SECURED FROM EMPLOYERS AND EMPLOYEES IN PRINTING, BUILDING, AND METAL TRADES IN RICHMOND.
T a b l e 1 8 . — PLACE OF B IR T H OF W O R K E R S IN PR INTING, B U ILD IN G , A N D M ETAL

TRADES.

Printing trades. Building trades.

Metal trades.

Total.

Place of birth.
Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

Richmond................................................
Virginia, outside of Richmond............
United States, outside of Virginia___
Foreign countries....................................

82
19
19
3

66.7
15.4
15.4
2.4

Ill
50
30

Total...............................................

123

100.0

Per
cent.

Num
ber.
155

56.3
25.4
15.2
3.0

197

100.0

189

6
22
6

Per
cent.
82.0
3.2

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

3.2

348
75
71
15

68.4
14.7
13.9
2.9

100.0

509

100.0

11 .6

T a b l e 1 9 . — AGE OF JO URNEYM EN , APPRENTICES, AN D SEM ISKILLED W O R K E R S , B Y

TRA DE GROUPS.
Number.
Printing trades.
Age groups, years.

14 to 15.......................................................
16 to 17......................................................
18 to 20 ......................................................

Jour
ney
men.

Ap
pren
tices.

Building trades.

Semi
skilled.

Total.

Jour
ney
men.

Ap
pren
tices.

Semi
skilled.

2
10

Total.

Total, under 21............................

21 to 25......................................................
26 to 30......................................................
31 to 35.......................................................
36 to 40......................................................
41 to 45......................................................

20
20

35
39
31
19
25

149

10
12

34
39
31
19
25

15
9

12
2

Total, 21 to 45..............................

148

46 to 50.......................................................
51 to 55.......................................................
56 to 60......................................................
61 to 65......................................................

5
5

8
8

Total, 46 to 65...............................

1
1

66 to 70.......................................................
81 and over...............................................
Total, 66 and over.......................
Total, all ages...............................

2
92

123

183

197

67.4
9.8

22.8

3.3
80.9
14.8

100.0

50.0
50.0

9.6
75.6
13.7

100.0

Per cent.
Under 2 1 ...................................................
21 to 45.......................................................
46 to 65......................................................
66 and over..............................................

4.3
82.6
13.0

90.9
9.1

44.4
55.6

Total, all ages...............................

100.0

1 .1

1.0

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

T a b l e 1 9 .—AG E OF JO U R N EY M EN , APPR EN TICES, AN D SEM ISKILLED W O R K E R S , B Y

T R A D E GROUPS—Concluded.
Number.

2.6

Under 21....................................................
21 to 45.......................................................
46 to 65........................... ...........................
66 and over. . . . . . . . . .... .........................

77.6
16.7
3.2

Total, all ages...............................

100.0

95.0
5.0

30.8
61.5
7.7

68.8

100.0

!
100.0

14.3
14.3

2.6

3.2
80.0
15.1

94.4
5.6

37.5
58.3
4.2

14.5
71.1
13.0
1.4

100.0

1.6
. 100.0

TABLE 2 0 .—R EG U LA R HO URS OF L ABO R PER D A Y IN PRINTING, B U ILD IN G , AND
M ETAL TRADES.
Workers reporting specified working day.
Full-time working day.

Building
trades.

Printing
trades.

Metal
trades.

Total.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

Under 8 hours..........................................
8 or 8J hours.............................................
8J or 8$ hours...........................................

1
17
52

13.8
42.3

39
79

19.8
40.1

60
16

0.5
31.7
8.5

116
147

28.9

Total, 8 and under 9 hours........

56.1

118

59.9

40.7

264

51.9

23.6
19.5

17
42

8.6

21.3

35.4
3.2

113
72

22.2

9£ or 9'i hours...........................................

29
24
53

43.1

29.9

38.6

185

36.3

20.1

9.6
.5

11.4
.4

Grand total....................................

123

100.0

197

100.0

189

100.0

509

100.0

Saturday:
Short time.........................................
Full time...........................................

67
56

54.5
45.5

175

88.8
1 1 .2

84
105

44.4
55.6

326
183

64.0
36.0

Total, 9 and under 10 hours—

10 hours and over...................................
Hours not reported.................................

Per
cent.

0.2
22.8

14.1

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

T a b l e 2 1 .—R EG U LA R HOURS OF LABO R PER W E E K IN PR IN TIN G , B U ILD IN G , AND

M ETAL T R A DE S.

Workers whose full-time week was specified number of hours.
Printing
trades.

Full-time week.

Building
trades.

Metal trades.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

62
3

50.4
2.4
6.5
40.7

17.3
43.7

36
46

2.0

1.5
26.4
7.1
1.5
.5

10
8

197

100.0

Per
cent.

Under 48 hours........................................
48 hours.....................................................
48J to 50J hours.......................................
51 to 53|n ours.........................................
54 hours.....................................................
54| to 59§ hours.......................................
60 hours.....................................................
Hours not reported.................................

123

Total...............................................

4
3
52
14
3

100.0

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Total.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

70
194
17
19
151
43
13

13.8
38.1
3.3
3.7
29.7
8.4

10
1

19.0
24.3
5.3
4.2
25.9
15.3
5.3
.5

189

100.0

509

100.0

49
29

2.6
.4

T a b l e 2 2 .—TIME LOST D U R IN G TH E Y E A R EN D IN G JUNE 1, 1914, B Y JO U RN EYM EN ,

APPRENTICES, AN D SEM ISKILLED W O R K E R S, B Y T R A D E GROUPS.

Time lost.
Trade groups.

Total
2
4
3
5to9
None. lw k . wks. wks. wks. 1 to4 wks.
wks.

15
20
25 Total.
to
to
wks.
to
24
14
19
and
wks. wks. wks. over.

Journeymen:
Printing trades..............
Building trades..............
Metal trades...................

2
6
6

8
11

15
3

9
33
30

35
18

27
14

14
9

4
7

92
183
156

Total ..........................

217

431

2
1

22
12
20

1
1

Apprentices:
Printing trades
Building trades
Metal trades
Total

2
1

....
..........

1
1

.................

Semiskilled workers:
Printing trades
Building trades
Metal trades

___

6
2

...................

269

1
4

Grand total.................

Total

1
1%
12

13
24
509

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

T able 2 3 .—NUM BER AN D PER CENT OF W O R K E R S R EP O R TIN G SPECIFIED TIM E LOST
D URING T H E Y E A R END IN G JUNE 1, 1914, B Y T R A D E GROUPS.

Number.
Workers reporting specified time lost.
Time lost.
Printing
trades.

Building
trades.

Metal
trades.

Total.

No time......................................................................................

101

269

1 week........................................................................................
2 weeks.......................................................................................

4
4
4

U
15

3 weeks.......................................................................................
4 weeks.......................................................................................

4
16

27
18

Total, 1 to 4 weeks.......................................................

5 to 9 weeks...............................................................................
10 to 14 weeks...........................................................................
15 to 19 weeks...........................................................................
20 to 24 weeks...........................................................................
25 weeks and over....................................................................

3
4

35
28
15
4
4

18
15

56
47
25

7
7

12
11

Grand total....................................................................

123

197

189

509

No time......................................................................................
1 to 4 weeks...............................................................................
5 to 9 weeks...............................................................................
10 weeks and over....................................................................

82.1
11.4
2.4
4.1

38.6
17.8
17.8
25.9

48.7

Total................................................................................

100.0

Per cent.
52.8
17.5

21.2

11.0

9.5

20.6

18.7

100.0

T able 2 4 .—CAUSES OF LOST TIME DURING TH E Y E A R ENDING JUNE 1,1914, B Y T R A D E
GROUPS.

Printing
trades.
Num
ber.
Workers losing time on account of—
Sickness.............................................
Accident............................................
Factory shut down.........................
Temporarily laid off.......................
Other causes.....................................

All causes.......................................

12 2

Number reporting two causes___
Number reporting three causes

Workers who lost no time.....................

101

Total number reporting.............

123

Per
cent.

Building
trades.
Num
ber.

Per
cent.

21
1

17.9

1 121

61.4

21
1
82.1

76
197

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

27
5
36
33
15

19
60
43

Metal
trades.

1 97

189

Per
cent.

101

51.3

1240

47.2

1
92

Num
ber.

17
38.6

Total.

2
48.7

269

52.8

509

1 Some workers are reported as losing time for more than 1 cause, therefore this total is not the sum of
the items in the 5 causes above.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

T a b l e 2 5 .—NUM BER OF JO U RN EYM EN , APPR EN TICES, AN D SEM ISKILLED W O R K E R S

W H O W O R K E D PAR T TIM E DU R IN G T H E Y E A R E N D IN G JUNE 1 , 1914, B Y T R A D E
GROUPS.

Weeks during which part time was worked.
25
1 to 4
5 to 9 10 to 14 15 to 19 20 to 24 weeks
and
weeks. weeks. weeks. weeks. weeks.
over.

Trade groups.
None.

Journeymen:

,__

P rin tin g tradfts
Rni1r|rng trad es_____

Apprentices:
Printing trades, , ___

Total.

2
8

1
2

32
82

92
183
156

238

114

431

12
6
11

9
1

22
12
20

Semiskilled:
Printing trades...............
Building trades...............
Metal trades.....................

6
2

.....................

Grand total...................

282

Total

57
93

Not re
ported.

1
10

132

509

T a b l e 2 6 .—NUM BER A N D PER CENT OF W O R K E R S W O R K IN G PART TIME DURING

Y E A R ENDIN G JUNE 1, 1914, B Y T R A DE GROUPS.

Printing
trades.

Weeks during which part time was
worked:
None...................................................
1 to 4 weeks.......................................
5 to 9 weeks.......................................
10 to 24 weeks...................................
25 weeks and over............................
TSTnt. rfmnrtp.rl____________

____

T ota l w ork ers.................

Building
trades.

Metal
trades.

Total.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

75
4

61.0
3.3

51.3

106
4

56.1

282

55.4

10
10

10
12
12

2.0

5.3
5.3
31.2

61
132

12.0

25.9

100.0

189

100.0

509

100.0

35.8

101
2
2
2
2
88

123

100.0

197

1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0

2 .1

44.7

Per
cent.

2.4
2.4

T a b l e 2 7 .—NUM BER AN D PER CENT OF W O R K E R S W O R K IN G OVERTIM E DURING TH E

Y E A R END IN G JUNE 1, 1914, B Y T R A D E GROUPS. .

Printing
trades.

Weeks during which overtime was
worked:
None......................... ........................
1 to 4 weeks.......................................
5 to 9 weeks.......................................
10 weeks and over............................
Not reported.....................................
Total workers................................

Building
trades.

Metal
trades.

Total.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

67.5

159
26

80.7
13.2
3.0

167
13
7

88.4
6.9
3.7

409
49
15

1.0
2.0

1.1

197

100.0

189

100.0

8 .1
1.6

10
2
6
22

4.9
17.9

123

100.0

6
2

Per
cent.

80.4
9.6
2.9

2.0

5.1

509

100.0

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

T a b l e 2 8 .—NUM BER AN D PER CENT OF W O R K E R S H A V IN G SPECIFIED Y E A R S OF

E X P E R IE N C E AS W A G E E AR N ER S, B Y T R A D E GROUPS.

Number.
Printing
trades.

Years of experience as wage earners.

1 year............................... ..........................................................
2 years............................. ..........................................................
3 years........................................................................................
4 years.......................................................................................
5 years............................. ..........................................................

4
3

Building
trades.

Metal
trades.

Total.

12
11
21

5
7

5
3
5
9

Total, 1 to 5 years........................................................

6 to 10 years..............................................................................

29
19
14
16

43
35
31
15
23

28
42
28
18
13

100

4
7

14
14

189

509

17.0
14.8

16.7
19.6
18.9
14.3
9.6

11 to 15 years............................................................................
16 to 20 years.................... ........................................................
21 to 25 years.................... ........................................................
26 to 30 years.................... ........................................................
31 to 35 years............................................................................
36 to 40 vears............................................................................
41 to 45 vears.................... ........................................................
46 years and over.....................................................................
Total...............................................................................

4
3
3

10
2

123

197

23.6
23.6
15.4
11.4
13.0
13.0

12 .2
21.8

7
7

14
27

96
73
49
42
25

11
6

Per cent.
I to 5 years...........

6 to 10 years.........
I I to 15 years.......
16 to 20 years.......

21 to 25 years.......
26 years and over.

17.8
15.7
7.6
24.9

22.2

14.8
9.5
21.7

20.8

T able 2 9 .—NUM BER AND PER CENT OF W O R K E R S H AV IN G SPECIFIED Y E A R S OF
E X P E R IE N C E IN PRESENT OCCUPATION, B Y T R A D E GROUPS.
Number.

Years of experience in present occupation.

1 year................................. ........................................................
2 years........................................................................................
3 years........................................................................................
4 years........................................................................................
5 years........................................................................................

Printing.
trades.

7
7

Building.
trades.

Metal
trades.

Total.

7
5
7

11
8

21
21

23
17
27

Total, 1 to 5 years.........................................................

109

6 to 10 years...............................................................................

11 to 15 years.............................................................................
16 to 20 years.............................................................................
21 to 25 years.............................................................................
26 years and over......................................................................

28
18
13
17
14

44
46
18
15
41

31
44
26

103
108
57
44

Grand total....................................................................

123

197

189

509

I to 5 years...........

26.8

6 to 10 years.........

22.8

16.8
22.3
23.4
9.1
7.6

22.8

21.4

Per cent.

II to 15 years.......
16 to 20 years.......
21 to 25 years.......
26 years and over.

14.6

10.6

13.8
11.4

20.8

16.4
23.3
13.8
6.3
17.5

20.2
2 1.2
1 1 .2
8.6
17.3

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

T a b l e 3 0 .—Y E A R S

OF EXP E R IE N C E IN SOME OCCUPATION O TH ER T H A N T H E IR
PR ESEN T ONE FOR W O R K E R S IN P R IN T IN G , B U ILD IN G , AN D M E TAL T R A D E S, B Y
Y E A R S OF E X P E R IE N C E AS W A G E EA R N E R S.

Workers employed at—

Experience as wage earn
ers (in years).

Total
num
ber.

No
occupa
tion
other
than
their
present
one.

Some occupation other than their present one.

1 year. 2 years. 3 years. 4 years. 5 years. 6 years. Total.

1....................

2 ..............................
3

4
5
Total, 1 to 5 years

6 to 10 ...............................

100

11 to 15..............................
16 to 20 ..............................
21 to 25..............................
26 to 30..............................
31 to 35..............................
36 to 40..............................
41 to 45..............................
46 and over......................

96
73
49
42
25
11
14
14

Grand total...........

509

31
33
34

21
16

10
5
5

6
330

179

T a b l e 3 1 .—A V ER AG E W A G E S PER H O U R , B Y Y E A R S OF E X P E R IE N C E IN PR ESENT

OCCUPATION AND B Y TR A D E GROUPS.

Number.
Experience in present occupation
(in years).

1 to 5..........................................................

6 to 10 .........................................................

U to 15.......................................................
16 to 20 .......................................................
21 to 25.......................................................
26 and over...............................................
No report of wage...................................
Total...............................................

Average wages per hour.

Print Build Metal
ing
ing
trades.
trades. trades.

33
28
18

16
13
3
123

33
44
46
18
15
40

43
31
43
26

Total.

109
103
107
56
43
85

197

189

509

Print Build Metal
ing
ing
trades. trades. trades.
Cents.
18.2
33.1
43.1
45.1
40.3
43.3

Cents.
26.2
39.5
41.9
41.8
44.1
40.3

Cents.

22.6

39.5
44.3
41.4
39.6
41.8

Total.

Cents.
22.3
37.7
43.1
42.3
41.4
41.7

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

T able 3 2 .—AGE AT ENTRANCE UPON W AG E -E A R N IN G

OCCUPATION, B Y

TRADE

GROUPS.

Number.
Workers who entered upon a wase-eaming occu
pation at age specified.
Age at entrance upon wage-earning occupation.
Printing
trades.

Building
trades.

Metal
trades.

Total.

21 years...................
12 years...................

3
7
13

53 years...................
14 years...................
15 years...................
16 years...................
17 years...................
18 years...................
19 years...................
20 years..................
21 to 30 years.........
31 years and over.

102

101

55
37
16
40

Total.

123

197

189

509

23.6
65.9
26.0
17.1

13.2
76.6
13.2
19.8
24.9
10.7

5.8
78.8
14.8

13.0
74.9
16.9

Per cent.
14 vears and under
15 to 19 years.........
15 years...................
16 years...................
17 years...................
18 years...................
19 years...................
20 years and over..

10.6
8.9
3.3

22.2
20.6
12.2

8 .1
10.2

10.6

20.0

19.8
10.9
7.3

9.0
15.3

12.2

T able 3 3 .—Y E A R S OF APPRENTICESHIP OF W O R K ER S, B Y TRADE GROUPS.
Printing
trades.

Building
trades.

Metal
trades.

Total.

Length of apprenticeship.
Num
ber.
Workers who had served an appren
ticeship of—
Less than 3 years.............................
3 years................................................
4 years................................................
5 years................................................
6 years.................... ...........................
7 years................................................
8 years................................................

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

11.4

13
56
91

8 .1

31
53
5

25.2
43.1
4.1

1.6

21
1
2
1

Per
cent.

6.6

28.4
46.2
10.7
.5

Num
ber.

114
15

Per
cent.

12.2
10.6

60.3
7.9

Num
ber.

236
89

9.8
1G.9
46.4
17.5

1 .2
.8
.2
92.8

1.0

Per
cent.

Total...............................................
Workers who had served no appren
ticeship..................................................

115

93.5

185

93.9

172

91.0

472

6.5

6 .1

9.0

7.2

Total workers................................

123

100.0

197

100.0

189

100.0

£09

100.0

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

T able 34 .—NU M BER AN D PER CENT OF W O R K E R S W H O W O R K E D IN T W O OR MORE
SHOPS OR COMMUNITIES W H IL E LEAR N IN G T H E IR TR A D E , B Y T R A D E GROUPS.

Printing trades. Building trades.

Number of shops or communities.
Num
ber.

Workers who worked in—
1 shop only........................................
2 or more shops:
2 shops........................................
3 shops........................................
4 shops........................................
5 or more shops.........................

Per
cent of
total
report
ing.

Metal trades.

Total.

Num
ber.

Per
cent of
total
report
ing.

Num
ber.

Per
cent of
total
report
ing.

Num
ber.

Per
cent of
total
report
ing.

59.3

130

66.0

144

76.2

347

68.2

29
U

23.6
8.9

38
14
4

19.3
7.1

16.4
4.2

1.1
1.1

98
33
7
13

19.2
6.5
1.4

22.8

151

29.7

4.1

3.1

2.0

8
2
2

Total, 2 or more shops........
Workers not reporting number of
shops......................................................

37.4

31.5

3.3

2.5

1.1

2 .1

Total workers........................

123

100.0

197

100.0

189

100.0

509

100.0

Workers who worked in 2 or more
communities.........................................

2.6

T able 3 5 .— REASONS FOR CHANGING PLACE OF EM PLOYM ENT W H IL E

LEAR N IN G

T R A D E , B Y T R A D E GROUPS.

Printing Building
trades.
trades.

Reasons for changing place of employment.

Total number of workers............................ .........................................

123

Metal
trades.

197

Total.

189

509

Workers who changed place of employment while learning
trade—
To get wider experience................................................................
To get more money_______________________________________
Shop closed; employer failed, moved away, went out of
business, or died..........................................................................
Laid off, work slack, or to get employment............................
Dislike of employer, or because not well treated....................
Family moved or apprentice went to another town...............
Discharged........................................................................................
Strike.................................................................................................
Miscellaneous...................................................................................

45
42
30

10
6
6
3
7

146

Number of workers who changed place of em pl^m ent...

162

143

1151

No report as to change of place of employment..............................

i Since a number of workers changed their place of employment 2 or more times the sum of the number
of workers who changed for reasons specified exceeds the total number of workers who reported changes.

Table 3 6 .—N U M BER OF W O R K E R S W H O R EPO R TED T H A T T H E Y RECEIVED , OR DID
NOT R ECEIVE, PR O PER H ELP AND INSTRUCTION, B Y T R A D E GROUPS.

Items.

Workers who—
Received proper help and instruction while learning
their trade......................................................................
Did not recei/e proper help and instruction while
learning their trade......................................................
Made no report as to instruction..................................
Total number of workers............................................

6071°— Bull. 162— 16------ 6

Printing
trades.

Building
trades.

Metal
trades.

Total.

142

117

348

119
42
509

55
17

123

197

189

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

T able 3 7 .—LO W E ST , HIG H EST, AND AVE R A G E W AG ES P E R H O U R AN D P E R W E E K ,
B Y T R A D E GROUPS AND OCCUPATIONS.

PRINTING TRADES.
Wages—
Per hour.

Work
ers.

Occupations.

Printing:
Printers, foremen............................................
Compositors......................................................
Linotype operators........................................
Printers' apprentices............... ......................
Proof reading:
Proof readers....................................................
Presswork:
Pressmen.................................... ......................
Press feeders.............................. ......................
Pressmen’s apprentices..................................
Photo-engraving:
Photo-engravers........................ ......................
Halftone finishers..................... .....................
Photographers........................... .....................
Routers..................................... .......................
Steel and copper plate engraving:
Engravers.........................................................
Plate printers..................................................
Engravers' apprentices..................................
Stereotyping:
Stereotypers......................................................
Lithographing:
Lithograph pressmen, foremen...................
Designers.................................. .......................
Press feeders.....................................................
Transferrers......................................................
Engravers.........................................................
Transferrers’ apprentices..............................
Bookbinding:
Bookbinders, foremen...................................
Bookbinders.....................................................
Finishers...........................................................
Gilders...............................................................
Paper rulers......................................................
Paper cutters...................................................
Bookbinders' apprentices.............................

3
U6
4
9

Per week.

Low
est.

High
est.

Aver
age.

Low
est.

High
est.

$0.37
.27
.45
.07

$0.65
.45
.52
.19

$0.49
.35
.49
.13

$20.00
15.00
24.00
4.00

$35.00

Aver
age.

27.50
9.00

$26.60
18.24
26.00
7.27

22.00

.35

19.00

125
4
9

.19
.14
.06

.50

10.50

24.00

.20

.31

.37
.18
.17

11.00
15.00

17.57
9.75
9.21

.45
.52
.52
.37

.65
.52
.52
.37

.54
.52
.52
.37

25.00
25.00
18.00

31.20
25.00
25.00
18.00

26.02
25.00
25.00
18.00

.62
.28
.08

.62
.35

.10

.62
.30
.09

30.00
14.00
4.00

32.50
17.00
5.00

31.25
15.33
4.50

.28

20.00

1
1
1

.52
.48
.18
.31
.30
.13

.52
.48
.18
.47
.62
.13

.52
.48
.18
.42
.42
.13

25.00
23.40
9.00
15.00
14.40
6.63

25.00
23.40
9.00
23.97
30.00
6.63

25.00
23.40
9.00
20.80

.37
.13
.25
.43
.37
.17
.14

.37
.35
.46
.43
.40
.31
.14

.37
.37
.35
.43
.38

20.00

22.00
21.00
22.00

7.00

15.00
7.00

21.00
21.00

1
1
1
2

7
4

.22

.14

8.00
3.50

21.00

7.00
15.00

21.00
20.00
10.00

18.00

20.22

6.63

14.22
18.50

11.93
7.00

BUILDING TRADES.

Steam fitting:

Steam litters.............. .........................
Pipe fitters................. .........................
Apprentices................. ........................

136

$0.22

$0.62

$0.38

$13.50

$30.00

$18.70

.25
.25

.70
.25

.64
.25

11.25
11.25

31.20
11.25

29.07
11.25

18
4

.33
.07

.40
.29

.34
.13

18.00
4.00

21.60
16.00

18.72
7.50

1
10

.45
.31

.45
.45

.45
.44

19.80
13.64

19.80
20.25

19.83
19.20

.27

.20

.42
.30
.42

.31
.25
.37

15.00

20.10

15.53
14.25
17.37

.30

.22

1
12
2

Carpentering:
Carpenters............................................
Bricklaying:
Bricklayers...........................................
Apprentices.........................................
Plastering:
Plasterers.............................................
Plasterers' apprentices......................
Granite cutting:
Tool dressers........................................
Granite cutters....................................
Sheet-metal working:
Sheet-metal workers..........................
Sheet-iron workers.............................
Tinners........................................................
Steel erecting:
Steel erectors (structural workers).
Plumbing:
Inspectors............................................
Plumbers.............................................
Plumbers’ apprentices......................

10
1

12.00

13.50

16.50

20.00

.35

.31

12.37

19.15

16.90

.48
.48

.10

.48
.50
.14

.12

24.00
16.00
5.00

24.00
24.00
6.50

24.00
23. 21
5.75

.35
.32
.13

.50
.43
.13

.48
.35
.13

19.25
16.00
7.00

24.00
22.50
7.00

23.10
18.80
7.00

.29

i Includes 1 who made no report of wages.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

T able 3 7 .—L O W E ST , HIGH EST, AND A V E R A G E W AG ES PE R H O U R A N D PE R W E E K ,
B Y TR A D E GROUPS AND OCCUPATIONS—Concluded.

BUILDING TRADES—Concluded.
Wages—
Work
ers.

Occupations.

Electrical work:
Electrical engineers.........................................
Electrical wiremen.. . ...................................
Battery men....................................................
Electricians’ helpers......................................
Electricians’ apprentices..............................
Painting:
Sign painters....................................................
House painters................................................
Paper hanging:
Paper hangers..................................................
Cabinetmaking:
Cabinetmakers................................................

Per hour.

Per week.

Low
est.

High
est.

Aver
age.

Low
est.

High
est.

1
6
1
2

$0.21
.29

$0.21
.43

$0.21
.38

.13
.14

.20

.2 1

.16
.17

$11.24
15.00
14.35
7.50
7.50

$11.24

.20

14.35
9.00
10.50

$11.24
18.45
14.35
8.25
8.50

.28
.27

.62
.37

.44
.33

15.00
15.00

30.00
18.00

23.05
16.78

.35

.44

.42

18.00

21.00

20.57

.26

.35

.31

14.40

18.90

16.89

$0.41
.17

$0.38
.16

$18.96
7.50

$29.24
9.18

$20.89
8.34

.20

.19

21.00

Aver
age.

METAL TRADES.
Wood pattern making:
Wood pattern makers........ ..............
Wood pattern makers’ apprentices
Metal pattern making:
Metal pattern makers.......................
Machine shop work:
Machinists, foremen..........................
Machinists...........................................
Machine hands.: ................................
Toolmakers.........................................
Diesinkers............................................
Tool room boys............ ......................
Machine hands’ helpers...................
Machinists’ apprentices.....................
Molding (iron):
Molders, foremen................................
Molders, machine castings...............
Molders, stove castings.....................
Core makers.........................................
Holders’ helpers................................
Molders’ apprentices.........................
Stove mounting:
Stove mounters................... .............
Blacksmithing:
Blacksmiths........................................
Boiler making:
Boiler makers, foremen.....................
Boiler makers.....................................
Boiler makers’ helpers.....................
Car repairing:
Car repairers, foremen......................
Passenger-car repairers.....................
Ireight-ear repairers.........................
Steel-car repairers..............................
Car repairer’s apprentices...............
Millwork, wood:
Benchmen...........................................
Machinemen........................................
Millworkers’ apprentices.................
Coach painting:
Coach painters....................................
Coach painters’ apprentices.............

$0.38
.16

.28

.35

.31

11.00

21.00

17.96

.63
.25
.23
.28
.37

.63
.45
.30
.28
.37

.63
.39
.27
.28
.37

30.00

12.00

22.00

.11

10.00
11.00

30.00
19.77
13.92
15.12
20.38
5.94
8.87
8.32

1
1
2

.45
.36
.35
.30
.18
.18

.45
.50
.63
.30
.18
.18

.45
.43
.52
.30
.18
.18

25.00
17.85
13.75
16.50
8.30

25.00
25.00
32.40
16. 50
8.30

25.00
22.28
25.07
16.50
8.30

8.00

.17

.36

.28

9.00

20.00

15.12

.28

.70

.40

13.50

35.00

20.84

1
1

.58
.41

.20

.58
.39

.20

34.50
16.50

34.50

.58
.30

34.50
17.86

.26
.31
.40

.34
.31
.40
.16

47
3

1
1
1
4

11
1

3
34

il
7

1
12

.14
.13

.19
.18

.17
.16

12.42
15.12
20.38
5.94
6.48
5.85

15.93
15.12
20.38
5.94

11.00

21.68
11.00

.30
.31
.40
.13

14.04
13.95
18.00
5.94

18.36
13.95
18.00
8.37

16.17
13.95
18.00
6.94

11.00

.11

.28
.27

.33
.30

.30
.28

.10

14.58
12.96
5.50

18.00
16.03
5.50

16.29
15.01
5.50

1
1

.35
.16

18.90
8.37

18.90
8.73

i Includes 1 who made no report of wages.

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

T able 38 .—NUMBER AN D PER CENT OF W O R K E R S W H O LEA R N E D T H E IR TR A D E IN
RICHMOND AND IN O TH ER COMMUNITIES, B Y T R A D E GROUPS.

Printing
trades.

Building
trades.

Metal
trades.

Total.

Place in which trade was learned.
Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

74.8

120

Richmond................................................
Elsewhere in United States..................
Foreign country......................................
No re port..................................................

20
1

2 1 .1
.8

Total.................................... 1.........

123

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

80.4
16.4

304

<‘>0.9
33.0
3.1
3.1

152
31
5

3.3

6
6

100.0

197

100.0

189

2.0

122
12
11

100.0

509

Per
cent.
71.5
24.0
2.3

2.2
100.0

T able 3 9 .—NUM BER AND PER CENT OF W O R K ER S W H O HAD W O R K E D AT ONE AND AT
TW O OR MORE OCCUPATIONS, B Y TRADE GROUPS.

Printing
trades.

Building
trades.

Metal
trades.

Total.

Number of occupations.

Workers who had worked at—
1 occupation only............................
2 or more occupations:
2 occupations.............................
3 occupations.............................
4 occupations.............................
5 occupations. . . . ___________
C occupations.............................

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

105

85.4

125

03.5

100

52.9

330

64.8

9
5

7.3
4.1

48
15

2
1
1

1.6
.8
.8

8
1

24.4
7.0
4.0
.5

09
15
3

30.5
7.9

1.6
1.1

126
35
13
4

24.8
6.9
2.5

47.1

179

35.2

100.0

509

100.0

Total, 2 or more occupations:

14.0

Total workers........................

123

100.0

197

30.5 |

100.0

89'
189

Per
cent.

.8
.2

T able 40.—NUM BER AND PER CENT OF W O R K E R S W O R K IN G AT A N OCCUPATION FOR
W H IC H T H E Y A R E , OR A R E NOT, BEST FITTED B Y T R A IN IN G AND E X P E R IE N C E , B Y
TRA DE GROUPS.

Printing trades. Building trades.

Total.

Num
ber.

Per
cent of
total
report
ing.

Num
ber.

Per
cent of
total
report
ing.

Num
ber.

Per
cent of
total
report
ing.

Num
ber.

Per
cent of
total
report
ing.

84.0

90.7

105

90.7

330

89.2

Items.

Workers reporting that Iheir occupa
tion—
Is that for which they are best
fitted by training and experi
ence.................................................
Is not that for which they are best
fitted by training and experi
ence................................................. i

Metal trades.

10.0

9.3

10.8

Total reporting........................
Workers not reporting as to training
and experience.....................................

100.0

107

100.0

182

100.0

370

100.0

134.1

i 45.7

13.7

139

127.3

Total workers................................

123

197

1 Per cent of total workers.

189

509

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY

RICHMOND, VA.

TABLE 4 1 . — N UM BER AND PER CENT OF W O R K E R S W O R K IN G A T A N OCCUPATION FOR

W H IC H T H E Y A R E , OR A R E NOT, BEST FITTED B Y N A T U R A L A B IL IT Y , B Y T R A D E
GROUPS.
Printing trades. Building trades.

Metal trades.

Num
ber.

Per
cent of
total
report
ing.

Num
ber.

Per
cent of
total
report
ing.

Num
ber.

Per
cent of
total
report
ing.

64.2

57.9

112

35.8

42.1

Total reporting.........................
Workers not reporting as to natural
ability....................................................

100.0

107

134.1

Total workers...............................

123

Items.

Workers reporting that their occupa
tion—
Is that for which they are best
fitted by natural ability.............
Is not that for which they are best
fitted by natural ability.............

Total.

Num
ber.

Per
cent of
total
report
ing.

61.5

226

61.1

38.5

144

38.9

100.0

182

100.0

370

100.0

145.7

13.7

139

127.3

197

189

509

1 Per cent of total workers.
T a b l e 4 2 . — NU M BER A N D PER CENT OF W O R K E R S W O R K IN G U N D E R CONDITIONS

IN VO L VIN G PECULIAR PHYSICAL OR N ER VO U S STRA IN , OR T H A T TE N D TO IM PAIR
H E A L T H , B Y T R A D E GROUPS.*

Printing trades. Building trades.

Num
ber.

Per
cent of
total
report
ing.

Items.

Num
ber.

Per
cent of
total
report
ing.

Metal trades.

Num
ber.

Total.

Per
cent of Num
total
ber.
report
ing. '

Per
cent of
total
report
ing.

Workers working under conditions
that—
Involve physical or nervous strain
Do not involve physical or nerv
ous strain.......................................

•12

35.6

38.3

35.8

183

36.7

64.4

116

61.7

124

64.2

316

63.3

Total reporting as to physical
or nervous strain...................

118

100.0

188

100.0

193

100.0

499

100.0

Tend to impair health....................
Do not tend to impair health........

45
73

38.1
61.9

51
135

27.4
72.6

43
144

23.0
77.0

139
352

28.3
71.7

Total reporting as to impairment
of health.............................

118

100.0

186

100.0

187

100.0

491

100.0

1 For specifications in detail of the nature of these conditions that involve strain or that tend to impair
health, see tabular analyses of trades, facing pp. 140,182, and 226.

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

T able 4.3.—NU M BER AN D PER CENT OF W O R K E R S W H O R E P O R TE D T H A T T H E IR
T R A D E COULD B E , OR COULD N O T B E , L E A R N E D T H O R O U G H L Y IN THE SHOP, B Y
T R A D E GROUPS.

Printing trades. Building trades.

Total.

Num
ber.

Per
cent of
total
report
ing.

Num
ber.

74.7

29.6

39.9

166

44.3

25.3

70.4

113

60.1

209

55.7

Items.

Workers reporting that their trade—
Could t>e learned thoroughly in
the shop.........................................
Could not be learned thoroughly
in the shop.....................................

Per
cent of
total
report
ing.

Metal trades.

Num
ber.

Per
cent of
total
report
ing.

Num
ber.

Per
cent of
total
report
ing.

T able 4 4 .—NU M BER OF JO URNEYM EN , APPRENTICES, AN D SEM ISKILLED W O R K E R S
W H O L E FT SCHOOL AT AGE SPECIFIED, B Y TRADE GROUPS.

Number of workers who left school at age specified.
Printing trades.

Age at leaving school.
Journey
men.

10 years........................
1 1 years........................
12 years........................

13 years............. ..........
14 years........................
15 years............... .........
16 years........................
17 years........................
18 years........................
19 years........................
20 years and over. . . .
Not reported...............
Total..................

Appren
tices.

Building trades.

Semi
skilled.

10
12

2
2
1

Journey
men.

Total.

2
2
2

7
4

18
31
32
18
3

2
1

1
92

1
22

123

7
5
17
16
36
34
31

20
8
2

Appren
tices.

Semi
skilled.

183

Total.

7
5
17
18
40
35
35

21
8
2
9

197

Number of workers who left school at age specified.
Metal trades.

Age at leaving school.

Total.

Journey
men.

Appren
tices.

Semi
skilled.

8
12

1
1
1

13 years.......................
14 years........................
15 years........................
16 years........................
17 years........................
18 years........................
19 years........................
20 years and over........
Not reported...............

16
30
29
33

3
4
5
3

1
1
1
2

Total..................

10 years........................
1 1 years........................
12 years........................

Journey
men.

Appren
tices.

Semi
skilled.

1
1
1

1
1

9
13
13
3

8
2

16
16
39
44
89
85
78
32
16
3

2
2

91
37
18
3

Total.

34
35
38
13

3
4
3
4
3

Grand
total.
18
18
43
57
105

10
6
2

1
2
2
2

2
11

156

189

431

509

102

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

T able 4=5.—N U M BER OF JO U R N E Y M E N , A PPR EN TICES, A N D SE M ISK ILLE D W O R K
ERS W H O H A D T A K E N COURSES OF SPECIFIED C H AR A CT ER SINCE L E A V IN G
SCHOOL, B Y T R A D E GROUPS.

Number who had taken courses.

Trade group and class of workers.

By
By
By
attend attend Bear
corre ance at ance at ing on
spond night
day
ence. school. school. trade.

Printing trades:
Journeymen......................................
Apprentices.......................................
Semiskilled........................................
Total................................................
Building trades:
Journeymen......................................
Apprentices.......................................
Semiskilled. .....................................
Total................................................
Metal trades:
Journeymen.....................................
Apprentices......................................
Semiskilled........................................
Total................................................
Total, 3 trade groups:
Journeymen......................................
Apprentices.......................................
Semiskilled.......................................
Grand total....................................

W ork
ers who Total
had
taken work
ers.
no
courses.

Not
bear
ing on
trade.

Total.

15
3

33
9
3

59
13

26
9
3

123

34
5

22
1

127

183

6
1

12
2

6
1

6
2

134

197

1
1

61
16

95
4

156

10
2

46
15

110

189

108
25

98
26
4

52
5

150
31

281
23
18

431
54
24

139

128

187

322

509

6
6

T able 4 6 . —N U M BER OF W O R K E R S R EPO R TIN G R ESU LT OF T A K IN G COURSES SINCE
L E A V IN G SCHOOL, B Y T R A D E GROUPS.

Result of taking courses.

Printing
trades.

Building
trades.

Metal
trades.

Total.

Workers who had taken courses since leaving school—
Reporting results as to wages:
Increased wages.........................................................
No effect on wages....................................................
Not reporting results as to wages.................................

19
18

14
27

18
44
17

48
77
62

187

22
8

Total................................................................................

Reporting as to benefits other than increase in wages :
Some benefit...............................................................
No benefit...................................................................
Not reporting benefit other than increase in wages..

104

Total................................................................................
Workers who had taken no courses since leaving school.

45
78

63
134

110

187
322

Total workers................................................................

123

197

189

509

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

T able 4 7 .—AVE R A G E W A G E PER H O U R OF A D U L T W O R K E R S W H O H A D , A N D OF
THOSE W H O H A D NO T, T A K E N
SCHOOL, B Y T R A D E GROUPS.

COURSES OF

INSTRUCTION

Items.

Printing
trades.

Average wages per hour of adult workers who—
Had taken courses of instruction since leaving school...........
Had not taken courses of instruction since leaving school. . .

Cents.
38.8
37.2

Build
ing
trades.
Cents.
40.0
39.8

SINCE

Metal
trades.

Cents.
39.3
38.8

LE A V IN G

Total.

Cents.
39.5
38.9

^ T a b l e 4 8 .—N UM BER

OF W O R K E R S INDICATING SPECIFIED COURSES AS N EE D E D
TO M AKE THEM MORE EFFICIENT IN T H E IR PRESENT OCCUPATION, B Y TRA D E
GROUPS.

Number of workers who indicated specified
subjects for evening courses.
Subjects.
Printing
trades.
Advertising.....................
Agriculture..................... .
Air-brake instruction___
Algebra.............................
Arithmetic...................... .
Business courses.............
Carpentry..........................
Chemistry of the trade. .
Color harmony.................
Design...............................
Drawing:
Free-hand..................
Mechanical................
Architectural............
Electricity........................
Emblems and heraldry..
Engineering:

Building
trades.

Metal
trades.

Total.

2
6
29

1
1

25
4
14

3
109

1
1

2
7
85
3

61
32
36

195
51
7

Gas............................

Heating......................
Mechanical................
Steam.........................
English..............................
Estimating..

Sres..
ion..

Geography.
Geometry..................................
Grammar..................................
History....................................
History of trade......................
Hydraulics................................
Ink mixing...............................
Lettering..................................
Machine-shop practice...........
Mechanics.................................
Metallurgy................................
Modern methods.....................
Pattern making......................
Physics.....................................
Plumbing and steam fitting.
Reading....................................
Salesmanship...........................
Sanitation................................
Shop mathematics.................
Spelling.....................................
Theory of the trade................
Trade news..............................
Ventilation..............................
Writing.....................................
No report..................................

2
30
16

40
5
11

8
2
3

5
4

2
5
14
36
4
5

2
153
19
39

10
79

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

T able 49 .—NUM BER OF W O R K E R S E AR N IN G SPECIFIED W A G E S PER H O U R , B Y
T R A D E GROUPS.

Workers earning specified wage per hour.
Wages per hour.
Printing
Building
trades. ; trades.
!
Under 10 cents..........................................................................
10 to 14 cents..............................................................................
15 to 19 cents.............................................................................
20 to 24 cents.............................................................................
25 to 29 cents.............................................................................
30 to 34 cents.................................................................. ..........
35 to 39 cents.............................................................................
40 to 44 cents.............................................................................
45 to 49 cents.............................................................................
50 to 54 cents.............................................................................
55 to 59 cents.............................................................................
60 to 64 cents......................................................... ....................
65 to 69 cents..............................................................................
70 to 74 cents........................ *.................................................
Not renorte.i.................... ........................................................

13
5
15

23
U

12
10

2
6

Total.

5
25
32
19
45
75
97
83
32
50

9
15
9
13

4
5
17
45
36
27
16

38
45
4
18

22
1
2
8
5

1
2

10
6
6

123

197

189

509

3
3

Tota.1_____

Metal
trades.

T a b l e 5 0 .—NU M BER AND PER CENT OF W O R K E R S EA R N IN G SPECIFIED W A G E PER

H O U R , B Y T R A D E GROUPS.

Workers earning specified wages per hour.

1
Wages per hour.

Printing trades. Building trades.
Num
ber.

Per
cent.

2 1 .1

Num
ber.

12
22

19 cents and under.................................
20 to 29 cents............................................
30 to 39 cents............................................
40 to 49 cents............................................
50 to 59 cents............................................
60 to 69 cents............................................
70 cents and over.....................................
Not reported.............................................

33
23
13
5

16; 3
26. 8
18. 7
10. 6
4.0

81
43
23

2.4

Total...............................................

123

100.0

Per
cent.

6 .1
1 1 .2

Metal trades.
Num
ber.

Per
cent.

12. 7

58
49

41.1
21 . 8
11. 7
5.1
2. 5
.5

30. 7
25.9
10 . 6
6.9
.5

197

100.0

189

1
2

11 .6

Total.
Num
ber.
62
64
172
115
56
28

1.1

6
6

100.0

509

Per
cent.

12.2

12.5
33.8

22.6
11.0
5.5

1.2
1.2
100.0

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

T a b l e 5 1 .—NUM BER A N D A V E R A G E W A G E S PER H O U R OF W O R K E R S OF SPECI

F IED AG E, B Y T R A D E GROUPS.

Number of workers.

Age periods.

Print Build
Metal
ing
ing
trades.
trades. trades.

Average wages per hour.

Total.

Print
ing,
Print Build
build
Metal.
ing
ing
ing, ,
trades. trades. trades.
and
metal
trades.
Cents.
10.5

Cents.
19.1

Cents.
17.1

Cents.
17.4

30.2
40.2
45.0
39.0
41.6

39.4
40.7
41.4
41.9
43.7

38.8
39.3
43.0
39.0
39.2

36.4
40.0
42.8
40.3
41.2

Under 21 years.........................................

21 to 25 veal’s............................................
26 to 30 years............................................
31 to 35 years............................................
36 to 40 years............................................
41 to 45 years............................................

20
20
11
10
12

35
39
31
19
2o

24
41
30
17

100

81
40
43

Total, 21 to 45 years.....................

149

129

COO

38.0

41.2

40.2

40.1

46 to 50 years............................................
51 to 55 years............................................
56 to 60 years............................................
61 to 65 years............................................

4
5

15
7

39.0
47.2
41.0

37.7
39.0
32.9
32.2

39.8
36.7
33.0
37.5

39.1
40.8
35.1
34.8

Total, 46 to 65 years.....................

43.1

35.8

38.2

38.0

36.0

34.8

2
2

20
20
12
6

No report of wages..................................

1
1

6
6

Total, all at?es................................

123

197

189

509

66 years and over.....................................

8
8

1
............. 1..............

T able 5 2 .—NUM BER A N D PER CENT OF W O R K E R S EAR N IN G SPECIFIED W A G E S
PER W E E K , B Y T R A D E GROUPS.

Printing trades. Building trades.

Metal trades.

Total.

Wages per week.
Num
ber.
Under $10 ..................................................
$10 to $14.99..............................................
$15 to $19.99..............................................
$20 to $24.99..............................................
$25 to $29.99..............................................
$30 to $34.99..............................................
$35 and over..............................................
Not reported.............................................
Total...............................................

22
18
37
27

1
3
123

Per
cent.
17.9
14.6
30.1

Num
ber.

Per
cent.

Num
ber.

5.6
7.1
50.3
28.4
2.5
5.6

37
83
16
7

2.4 ..........1 .........’ 5*

1
2

22.0
8.9
3.3

100.0

14
99
56
5

197

100.0

189

Per
cent.

12.2
10.6

19.6
43.9
8.5
3.7
.5

Num
ber.
56
52
173
166
32

1.0

22
2
6

100.0

509

Per
cent.

11.0
10.2

34.0
32.6
6.3
4.3
.4

1.2
100.0

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

T able 5 3 .—NUM BER OF JO U RNEYM EN , APPR ENTICES, AN D SEM ISK ILLE D W O R K E R S
W H O L E F T SCHOOL A T AGE PERIOD SPECIFIED, B Y T R A D E GROUPS.

Workers who left school within age period specified#
Age at leaving school.

All workers.
Journey Appren
men.
tices.

Semi
skilled.
Number. Per cent.

Printing trades:
50
10
6
14 years and under.......................................................
12
38
3
15 to 17 years.................................................................
4
18 years and over.........................................................

53
4

53.7
43.1
3.2

Total............................................................................

123

100.0

Building trades:
14 years and under.......................................................
15 to 17 years.................................................................
18 years and over.........................................................

81
85
17

5
5

1
1

87
91
19

44.2
46.2
9.6

Total............................................................................

183

197

100.0

Metal trades:
14 years and under................................................. .....
15 to 17 years.................................................................
18 years and over.........................................................

73
72

5
5
3

88
86
15

46.6
45.5
7.9

Total............................................................................

156

189

100.0

Total, printing, building, and metal trades:
14 years and under...............................................
15 to 17 years.........................................................
18 years and over.................... ............................

204
195
32

25
26
3

9
3

241
230
38

47.3
45.2
7.5

Grand total.....................................................

431

509

100.0

T able 5 4 .—NU M BER OF JO U R N EYM EN , APPR EN TICES, AND SEM ISKILLED W O R K E R S
W H O ATTE N D E D SCHOOL SPECIFIED PERIODS OF Y E A R S , B Y T R A D E GROUPS.

Years of schooling.

Journey
men.

Printing trades:
3 years and under........................................................
4 to 7 years.....................................................................
8 to 11 years...................................................................
N ot reported.................................................................

3
65
16

Total............................................................................

All workers.
SemiAppren slcilled
tices.
workers. Number. Per cent.

19
3

3
93
19

2.4
75.6
15.5
6.5

123

100.0

Building trades:
3 years and under.........................................................
4 to 7 years.....................................................................
8 to 11 years...................................................................
Not reported.................................................................

14
138
24
7

1
8
1
2

1
1

15
147
26
9

7.6
74.6
13.2
4.6

197

100.0

9
138
30

4.8
73.0
15.9
6.3

Total............................................................................

183

Metal trades:
3 years and under........................................................
4 to 7 years.....................................................................
8 to 11 years...................................................................
Not reported...............................................................

112

9
17

1
«. 2

2
2

Total............................................................................

156

189

100.0

Total, printing, building, and metal trades:
3 years and under.............................................
4 to 7 years..........................................................
8 to 11 years........................................................
Not reported......................................................

26
315
67
23

44
5
4

19
3

27
378
75
29

5.3
74.3
14.7
5.7

Grand total.................................................

431

509

100.0

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

T able 5 5 .—N U M BER OF JO U R N EYM EN , APPR ENTICES, AN D SEM ISKILLED W O R K E R S
REPOR TING LACK OF SCHOOL TR A IN IN G AS A H IN D RAN CE TO PROGRESS, B Y
Y E A R S OF SCHOOLING AN D B Y T R A DE GROUPS.

Journeymen.

Semiskilled
workers.

Apprentices.

All workers.

Report
Report
Report
Report
ing them
ing them
ing them
ing them
selves
selves
selves
selves
Num
Num
Num
Num
ber. hampered ber. hampered ber. hampered ber. hampered
by lack
by lack
by lack
by lack
of school
of school
of school
of school
ing.
ing.
ing.
ing.

Years of schooling.

Printing trades:
3 years and under.............
4 to 7 years..........................
8 to 1 1 years........................
Not reported......................

3
65
16

Total.................................

Building trades:
3 years and under.............
4 to 7 years..........................
8 to 11 years........................
Not reported......................

3
93
19

123

14
138
24
7

14
91
7

1
8
1
2

Total.................................

183

124

Metal trades:
3 years and under.............
4 to 7 years..........................
8 to 1 1 years........................
Not reported......................

112

9
84

Total................................

156

Total, printing, build
ing, and metal trades:
3 years and under..
4 to 7 years...............
8 to 1 1 years.............
Not reported...........

26
315
67
23

202

29
14

44
5
4

17
3

Grand total___

431

270

19
3

27
5

33
7

1
1

15
147
26
9

15
94
13
7

197

129

2
2

6
1

9
138
30

9
99
13

1
2

110

189

127

19
3

27
378
75
29

26
226
33
15

509

300

T a b l e 56 .—A V E R A G E W A G E S PER HOUR OF A D U L T W O R K E R S W H O L E F T SCHOOL

A T SPECIFIED A G E , AN D OF A D U L T W O R K E R S W H O
FIED NUM BER OF Y E A R S, B Y T R A D E GROUPS.

A T T E N D E D SCHOOL SPECI

Average wages per hour of
adult workers who at
tended school specified
number of years.

Average wages per hour of
adult workers who left
school at age specified.

Age.

12 years and under. . .

13 to 14 years...............
15 to 17 vears...............
IS years and over........

Print
ing,
Print Build Metal build
ing
ing
trades. ing,
and
trades. trades.
mrtal
trades.
Cents.
34.2
38.1
38.7
30.7

Cents. Cents. Cents.
40.4
37.6
36.7
42.5
40.6
40.7
39.0
40.8
39.7
2P,. 3
38.3
32.1

Years of schooling.

3 years and under___
4 to 7 years..................
8 to 1 1 years.................

Print
ing,
Print Build Metal build
ing
ing trades. ing,
and
trades. trades.
metal
trades.
Cents. Cents. Cents.
34.2
38.2
49.8
39.7
86.8
40.3
40.6
40.0
35.8

Cents.
38.4
39.3
40.0

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

T able 57.—A V E R A G E W A G E S OF AD U L T W O R K E R S, B Y Y E A R S OF SCHOOLING A N D
OF E X P E R IE N C E IN PR ESENT OCCUPATION, B Y T R A D E GROUPS.

Workers of specified years of schooling and of experience as workers in their
present occupation.
Number.
Years of schooling.

Printing trades:
3 years and under..........
4 to 7 years......................
8 to 1 1 years....................
Building trades:
3 years and under..........
4 to 7 years......................
8 to 11 years....................
Metal trades:
3 years and under..........
4 to 7 years......................
8 to 1 1 years....................
Total, printing, build
ing, and m e t a l
trades:
3 years and under.
4 to 7 years...........
8 to 1 1 years.........

5
years’ 6-10
expe- years’
expeence
or ence.
less.

10
1
1

16
4
17
4

43
9

1
21

11-15 16-20
years’ years’
expe expe
ri
ri
ence. ence.

Average wages per hour.
26
5
21-25 years’ years’ 6-10 11-15
years’ expe- expe years’ years’
expeexpe- experi
ence ence
ence.
or
or ence. ence.
more. less.
Cts.

as.

6
2

23.3
31.0

51.0
31.6
35.2

Cts.
37.5
43.8
42.7

42.0
48.6
36.0

9
28

25.0
34.8
24.0

42.3
38.7
41.1

43.0
42.3
40.1

41.0
37.6
43.0

42.7
44.3

35.9
41.6
50.0

31.5
24.0

38.1
38.9
42.8

59.5
44.0
37.4

52.0
40.4
40.3

38.0
42.7
26.5

38.8
39.5
35.7

15
56
7

25.0
30.8
24.8

43.2
32.7
51.1

47.4
43.2
39.4

45.6
41.1
40.7

38.6
41.7
41.0

37.1
40.8
39.7

13
3

1
8
1

1
11

3
31

1
22

5
74
18

5
81
19

13
3

26
16-20 21-25 years’
years’ years’ expeexpe- exr
ence
ence. ence.
or
more.

12
1

19
4

5
40

5
32

6
22

as.

Cts.
27.0
38.2
48.2

Cts.
*42.3
42.5

APPENDIX B.—ANALYSIS OF OCCUPATIONS IN THE PRINTING
TRADES IN RICHMOND.
SUMMARY OF THE INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF THE PRINTING TRADES.
The printing trades of Richmond form a very important part of the industrial life
of the city. Both the number of shops and the value of the product are increasing
steadily from year to year. According to the United States census, the capital invested
in the printing trades was $1,596,000 in 1899, $1,802,000 in 1904, and $2,281,000 in
1909. The value of the product was $1,082,000 in 1899, $1,747,000 in 1904, and
$2,786,000 in 1909. No figures are available to show the increase subsequent to 1909,
although the printers all agree that the industry is still growing as rapidly as in previous
years.
SCOPE OF THE INQUIRY.

Practically the entire field of the printing trades was covered by the schedules
obtained from 50 plants employing white workmen In May and June, 1914. The
printing trades embrace printing, bookbinding, steel and copper plate engraving,
photo-engraving, and lithography. On the schedules of the survey 1,244 workers,
of whom 860, or 69 per cent, were males, and 384, or 31 per cent, were females, were
returned as employed in these plants, exclusive of office help, laborers, and all other
help not directly concerned with the occupations peculiar to the printing trades.
These workers are grouped in the different trades as shown in the following table:
T a b l e 5 8 .—EM PLOYEES

IN TH E PRINTING TRA DE S, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO
CH ARACTER OF T H E ESTABLISH M EN T IN W H ICH E M P LO Y ED .

Employees.
Character of work done.

Estab
lish
ments.

Males.

Printing only........................................................................
Bookbinding only...............................................................
Printing and bookbinding2..............................................
Steel and copper plate engraving....................................
Lithography and photo-engraving.................................

i 28
4
3
4

359
37
359
15
90

Total............................................................................

860

Females.

77
53

Total.

Per cent
in each
class.
35.0
7 2
45.1

436
90
561
27
130

384

1,244

100.0

202
12

2.2

10.5

1 Includes 1 establishment engaged in printing bags and wrapping paper which did not report number
of employees.
2 One printing and bookbinding firm does also steel and copper plate engraving and lithographing, print
ing and bookbinding being its most important line of business.

PRODUCT OR SPECIALTIES.

The answers to the question, “ What are your specialties?” show that practically
all kinds of printing, from the lowest grades to the highest, are done in Richmond.
The specialties reported include the printing of books, labels, advertisements, pam
phlets, catalogues, railroad time-tables, bank forms, daily papers, periodicals, and
bags and wrapping paper; the making of calendars, plate and plioto engraving, litho
graphing, and bookbinding. Some firms specialize on practically one kind of work,
such as boxes, wrappers or labels for tobacco, railroad time-tables, druggist* labels,
book printing. One firm alone prints an average of 350,000 cigarette boxes per day
94

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

for one brand of cigarettes, and another establishment makes weekly from 2,500,000
to 4,000,000 books of cigarette papers of one brand. Several firms do a large amount
of three-color work. Thus the field in Richmond is rich with opportunities for
trained workers in various branches of the trade.
SIZE OF ESTABLISHMENTS.

As regards the maximum number employed at any time during the year 1913, the
50 printing trades establishments varied in size from 3 to 150 employees. More than
half of the plants reported as their maximum between 5 and 20 workers. In the
following table the establishments are classified according to maximum number of
employees reported. It will be seen that the trade is composed not of a few very
large plants, but of a considerable number of small and medium size ones.
T a b l e 5 9 .—PRINTIN G TRA DE S ESTABLISH M ENTS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO

M AXIM UM N UM BER EM P LO Y E D .

Maximum number employed.

Under 5............................................................................................................................................
5 to 10...........................................................- ..................................................................................
H to 20.............................................................................................................................................
21 to 5 0 .................................................................................... - ............................................. .......
51 to 100...........................................................................................................................................
Over 100............................................................................................................. .............................
Not reported..................................................................................................................................
Total...................................................................................................................................

Estab
lish
ments.
3

16
13
4
3

1
50

Employ
ees.

75
241
415
283
382
1,407

The great variety of work done in Richmond shops, as well as the fact that the
shops are mostly small, are conditions favorable to the development of competent
journeymen, since these are conditions under which any considerable degree of
specialization is impossible. In small shops generally the worker must shift fre
quently from one sort of work to another.
FLUCTUATION IN EMPLOYMENT.

The fluctuation in employment in the printing trades in Richmond is for all plants
combined inconsiderable. While there is considerable fluctuation in the case of
individual establishments, it happens that the stun of the numbers reported by 49
plants as being in each case the minimum number employed during the year 1913,
exclusive of office help, is exactly equal to the aggregate number employed at the
date of the investigation, i. e., May and June, 1914, this number being 1,244. Tlie
maximum number of employees reported by these plants was 1,407. These numbers
represent approximately the extreme limits of fluctuation during the year according
to the returns, assuming that all plants were employing their maximum and their
minimum numbers coincidently. To the extent that this was not the case the
amount of fluctuation would be less than is indicated by the figures. The total for
the maximums exceeds the total for the minimums by 163, or 13.1 per cent.
The fluctuations in the printing trades are not markedly seasonal, although the
summer months are generally considered the slackest of the year. It is thus seen
that the trade is very stable as regards permanent employment the year round.1
i In answer to the question “ To what extent did the total number of employees, other than office help,
vary in 1913 ? ” one establishment replied that it does not decrease the number of employees during the
dull months of April and May, but shortens the hours of labor; another that it keeps practically all
girl help in the dull season by having them mail circular letters and samples of the work done by the
establishment; another that it employs its help by the year and keeps it regardless of conditions so
long as it proves efficient.

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

The fluctuation by establishments is shown by the following table:
t a b l e 6 0 .—N UM BER OF EM PLO YEES IN 50 PR INTIN G TRA D E S ESTABLISH M ENTS IN

M A Y A N D JUNE, 1914, A N D M AXIM U M A N D MINIMUM N U M BER E M PLO YED IN 1913 B Y
ESTABLISHM ENTS.

Number employed.
Estab
lish
ment
No.

Character of work clone.

May and June, 1914.

Males.

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37

Book and job printing.....................................
Commercial.........................................................
Commercial advertising...................................
Photo-engraving................................................
Commercial pamphlets.....................................
Job and boolc printing......................................
Steel engraving...................................................
Commercial.........................................................
Photo-engraving.................................. ..............
Commercial.........................................................
Book and job printing......................................
Newspaper publishing......................................
Commercial.........................................................
Bookbinding................................. .....................
Steel engraving...................................................
Lithograph work................................................
Pamphlet and job work...................................
Commercial and label.......................................
Newspaper publishing......................................
Book and job printing......................................
Church envelopes...............................................
Newspaper publishing......................................
Printing on folding boxes................................
General work and periodic als..........................
Commercial, label, and stationery.................
Bookbinding.......................................................
........do.............................................................. .
Printing and binding........................................
Railroad printing...............................................
Printing on bags and wrapping paper..........
Bookbinding.......................................................
Job printing and publishing............................
Commercial and office stationery...................
Steel engraving...................................................
General commercial work................................
Book and job printing......................................
Druggists’ labels........ .......................................
Lithograph work................................................
Bookbinding and printing...............................
Calendars and druggists’ labels.....................
Commercial work...............................................
Printing, bookbinding, engraving, litho
graphing...........................................................
Book and job printing......................................
Commercial work...............................................
Pamphlet arid job work...................................
Publications and job work..............................
Bookbinding and job printing........................
Tobacco labels and commercial work...........
Railroad printing...............................................
Newspaper publishing......................................

Total.-

Females.

4
9

12
5

2
8

5
14
5
5
28
5
24
40
13
19
4
13
4
47
52

12
20

4
5
3

1
12
2
1

20
8

20
12
10

14
16
3
25
3

7
14

9
28
5
77
40
16
23
4
38
7
67
92

. 53
3
4
25
3

20
4

13
50
58

11
12
7

14
13
3
25

Total.

6
2

1913.

40
52
7

13
90

110

Maxi
mum.
9
4
14

15
30

14
14

5
25
3

7
14

10
20

31
7
80
42
35
23
7
51
7
70

120
12

20
5

3
25
3

4
14
4
14
31
4
80
42
25
23
5
40
7
65

120
12
20
20
5

8
2

9
15

112

96
31
17

137
38
23

115
28
16
44
38
60
24
1,244

43
14
38
57

47
16
38
80
30

860

384

1.244

1,407

37
7
3
3
5

4
9

112

59
24
14
9
31
9
38
37

Mini
mum.

12
12

SUPPLY OF EFFICIENT JOURNEYMEN.

About three-fourths of the firms interviewed experienced difficulty in obtaining
efficient workers. This would seem to indicate one of two things: (1) That there is
not a sufficient number of apprentices being trained from year to year, or (2) that the
demand for skilled workers has suddenly gone above the normal condition.1 Sig
nificant replies were received in answer to the question, ‘‘ To what do you attribute
i Fifty answers were received to the question, “ Is difficulty experienced in obtaining efficient workers?”
37 being “ Yes” and 13 “ No.” The answers are divided as follows: Of those answering “ Yes,” 17 are
printers, 13 bookbinders, 3 plate engravers, and 4 lithographers or photo-engravers. Of those answering

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OE RICHMOND, VA.

this difficulty?” Some of the reasons given are as follows: Scarcity of trained help;
organized labor; shiftlessness, laziness, lack of ambition; tendency to float from shop
to shop; lack of general education; lack of opportunity for beginners to learn trade;
unwillingness to spend five years to learn trade; absence of cooperation between
journeymen and apprentices.
One employer of a large number of workers gives intoxicating drinks as his reason
for the difficulty in obtaining efficient workers, and another answers that it is his
experience that most girls do not have to work because of economic reasons and are
therefore more independent than they otherwise would be. In concluding the
summary of this very important question, extracts may be quoted from the answers
given by two printers. One replies as follows:
The seeming antipathy of the native, with few exceptions, to manual labor, due, I
suppose, to false training in home and school and the example of comrades who are
supported by indulgent, misguided parents, and shun the boy who will and must work,
practically ostracising him socially.
Again, the average boy’s lack of appreciation (due again in great measure to the
aforementioned false training) of the fine future and the possibilities open to the
master mechanic in this country; the shortness of vision evident in this section; the
utter lack of idealism of almost every kind, every impulse of individualism being
strangled by our ofttimes oversystematized systems.
Another employer replies:
The high rent for homes for working people is a great drawback. The litho work
man from the North expects a home to be heated with hot water, to have hot and
cold water, electric lights, cellar, cupboard, and so forth, and to rent for $18 or $20
per month. We have lost many men because such homes could not be had at
low rent.
CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH WORK IS PERFORMED.

The printing trades establishments of Richmond are generally well located, well
lighted, and well ventilated. The men and women employed in them are of a high
degree of intelligence, and are with few exceptions of American birth. Since, as
has been shown in a preceding section, the work done in these establishments covers
the whole field of printing and of such allied trades as, for example, engraving, litho
graphing, and bookbinding, the conditions in the city are exceptionally favorable
for acquiring an all-round knowledge of the industry as a whole. In this respect the
local conditions in the printing trades, as has been noted, provide good opportunity
for the development of general efficiency and intelligence on the part of workers.
The rapid growth of the industry in recent years gives assurance of future develop
ment, and is in itself an important condition favorable to the advancement of efficient
workers in accordance with individual merit. Under the conditions obtaining in the
shops it is not sufficient for the workman to know how to operate one machine, or how
to perform some one simple process. To meet the conditions of the shop the workman
must have a considerable degree of facility, enabling him to shift from one occupation
to another. In other words, the conditions are favorable for advancement of those
who know their trade as against those who know only one process. A further condi
tion favorable to advancement of efficient workmen lies in the personal relationship
which obtains between employers and workers, the employers in most cases knowing
their men personally and their individual qualities as workmen to an extent that is
impossible where the industry is concentrated in a few very large establishments.
“ No,” 11 are printers and 2 are bookbinders.

It is thus seen that 74 per cent of the establishments report

difficulty in obtaining efficient workers.
Of the 37 answers to the question, “ In which occupation is difficulty experienced in obtaining efficient
workers?” 10 specify compositors; 12, pressmen; 13, all occupations; 9, feeders; 3, girl help; 1, skilled
man help; 1 , stonehands; 1 , machine hands; 1 , all except girls; 2 , engravers; 1 , photo-engravers; 1 , rulers.
These answers indicate that more difficulty is experienced in getting compositors, pressmen, and feeders
than any other kind of help. Of those who answered “ all occupations,” 7 are printers, 1 is a bookbinder,
2 do printing and bookbinding, 1 is a plate engraver, and 2 are lithographers or photo-engravers.

6071°— Bull. 162— 16------ 7

BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

In order to reveal the conditions under which work is performed in the printing
trades establishments of Richmond, five questions were included in the schedule,
as follows: (1) “ What conditions involve peculiar physical or nervous strain?”
(2) “ What conditions tend to impair health?” (3) “ What conditions especially
stimulate the intelligence of the workers?” (4) “ What conditions, if any, narrow
and restrict the mental development of the workers ?” (5) “ What conditions, if any,
are to be guarded against as exerting morally unwholesome influences?”
In the following summary each of the principal allied printing trades—i. e., printing,
bookbinding, stereotyping, photo-engraving, lithographing, and steel and copper
plate engraving—is considered separately, and when the wide variety of occupations
included in each of these trades is taken into account, the replies to the above inquiries
are remarkably uniform. In any one establishment one or more of these trades may
be carried on conjointly. The number of replies pertaining to any one trade does
not, therefore, necessarily correspond with the number of establishments covered
by the printing trades schedule.
Of 38 printers, 33 reply that no occupations involve peculiar physical or nervous
strain; 1 that composition produces such strains; 2 that linotype operating should be
so characterized, and 1 includes proof reading. The 15 firms engaged in bookbinding
all reply that none of the occupations of bookbinding involves strains of this character,
1 stating, however, that there are some machines which girls of a nervous temperament
are unable to learn to operate. Eight stereotypers reply “ no strain. ” The 3 firms
engaged in photo-engraving and the 3 engaged in lithographing reply in each case
that their work involves no peculiar physical or nervous strain. Three out of the
4 steel and copper plate engravers state that their work does produce physical or
nervous strain; 1 replies in the negative.
The replies to the question, “ What conditions involve peculiar physical or nervous
strain? ” are therefore nearly unanimous, and are to the effect that, except in the
case of steel and copper plate engravers, no serious strains of this character are pro
duced by the various occupations in the printing trades, although hand composition
and linotype work are reported as exacting in their demands, especially on the eyes.
The steel and copper plate engravers, however, are subject to an unusual eyestrain,
and any nervousness caused by weak eyes would undoubtedly react in the form of an
unsteady hand.
In answer to the question, “ What conditions tend to impair health?” 48 out
of the 50 firms engaged in the printing trades state that there are no unhealthy
conditions peculiar to their business. One printer states that bronzing is injurious
to the health, and 1 photo-engraver that etching is injurious. It is doubtful if the
small amount of hand bronzing done in an average Richmond printing establishment
would be a factor of sufficient importance for special consideration, but the operation of
the bronzing machines used b y lithographers and by some printers involves conditions
that are unhealthy. Opinion is divided as to whether an etcher in a photo-engraving
plant is subject to peculiarly unhealthy conditions, but it would seem that when ordi
nary precautions for proper ventilation are taken there is no serious menace to health.
It is also true that the printer is usually compelled to work in a somewhat higher
temperature than is considered best for health owing to the fact that pressrooms must
be warm enough for the ink to spread properly.
The printing trades shops of Richmond are generally well lighted and ventilated and,
according to a number of printers, in much better condition than existed a few years
ago. This is the reason the printing trades are not now considered unhealthy, as was
the general opinion formerly. The shop located in a basement or in a dark and dingy
room is fast passing, with the result that the ventilation, light and general sanitary
conditions have all improved.
The workers in the printing trades are fairly well organized. This is especially true
of photo-engravers, compositors, linotype and monotype operators, and stereotypers.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

Some occupations in lithography and bookbinding are organized,, but there is 110 organ
ization at present in Richmond for steel engravers and press feeders.
In the replies to the question, “ What conditions especially stimulate the intelligence
of the workers? ” there seems to be a greater variety of opinion. Twenty-nine out of the
38 printers reply that all occupations stimulate the intelligence of the worker. Three
add that composition especially stimulates. Seven reply that only composition
stimulates the intelligence. Three state that only composition and proof reading
stimulate the intelligence. Eight of the 15 bookbinders reply that all branches of
their work stimulate the worker’s intelligence; 4 say that their work is not stimulative;
3 that only finishing and forwarding stimulate the intelligence. Five of the 8 stereotypers state that the work is such as to stimulate the intelligence of the worker; 3 do
not think so. The 4 steel and copper plate engravers unite in saying that all occupa
tions in their line are stimulative. Two out of the 3 photo-engravers answer that the
work is stimulating to the intelligence; 1 does not think so. The 3 lithographers reply
that all branches of their work stimulate.
From the foregoing it would appear that all occupations under the head of printing
tend to stimulate the intelligence to some extent, that of hand typographer or com
positor being easily in the lead. While a majority of the answers from the book
binders would indicate that in the opinion of the employers all of the occupations
of bookbinding are stimulative, such occupations as folding, pasting, gathering, col
lating, and sewing can not, it would seem, tend to stimulate mental development
to any considerable extent. Forwarding and finishing, however, undoubtedly afford
opportunity for development of the worker’s intelligence. All of the occupations of
lithographing, photo-engraving, and steel and copperplate engraving trades require
a considerable degree of intelligence and are therefore stimulative to the worker.
Forty-seven out of the 50 firms reply that no occupations restrict mental develop
ment. Two answer that press feeding is restrictive and 1 makes no reply.
In answer to the question, “ What conditions, if any, are to be guarded against
as exerting morally unwholesome influences ? ” 49 of the 50 firms reply that there are
not any, 1 making no reply. On the schedules no mention is made of lead poisoning,
to which, it is generally conceded as a result of scientific investigations, hand and
machine compositors are exposed.
HOW WORKERS ARE TRAINED.

Of the 50 firms reporting how their workers are trained, 45 reply that their workers
do receive instruction in addition to what would ordinarily be picked up on the job;
3 reply that such special instruction is given to apprentices; 1 that press feeding is
taught; and 1 states that no instruction is given. In the majority of cases, 36 out of
49, this special instruction is given by the foreman; in 5 establishments the employer
instructs the workers; in 4 establishments the manager or superintendent gives
instruction, and in 3 cases instruction is given b y journeymen. One firm makes
no reply. In 3 cases the employer is assisted by the foreman and in several cases old
journeymen assist in giving instruction. One firm issues a monthly bulletin which
gives shop news, items of general interest and general instruction. Another firm
makes use of trade literature in instructing its employees.
The above replies seem to show (1) that the need of instruction other than that
ordinarily received in the routine work of the shop is almost unanimously recognized,
and (2) that in nearly all cases the foreman is called upon to give instruction. Owing
to the many calls on his time and attention, the instruction given by the foreman
must of necessity be limited in a majority of cases to the immediate needs of the
workman. Under this system the possibilities for the growth and development of the
apprentice along the line of his chosen vocation depend almost entirely on the trade
knowledge, and the ability to impart the same, possessed by his foreman.

100

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
TRADES THAT CAN BE LEARNED IN THE SHOP.

To the question ‘ £What occupations in your shop can be learned in the shop with
little or no instruction?” 36 out of 50 employers reply “ none” ; 6 firms specify press
feeding and folding; 1, machine work; 1, collating envelopes; 1, straight composition
and press feeding; 1, bookbinding. One replies “ very little, ” and 2 make no reply.
APPRENTICESHIP.

The replies to the above question again emphasize the necessity of special instruction
during apprenticeship. Twelve establishments out of 50 have no apprentices, 9
other establishments have no apprenticeship agreements of any kind, and 4 make no
reply. The remaining 25 firms have some kind of understanding with their appren
tices, either verbal or written. In the majority of cases the understanding is verbal
only. A considerable number of apprentices are listed with the union. In only one
case, however, is a regular recorded apprenticeship indenture reported.
Among those firms having written or verbal agreements the majority require a
five-year apprenticeship, though several bookbinders require only a four-year
apprenticeship. In general the beginning wage is from $3 to $4 per week. Five
establishments increase the wages of the apprentices every six months. One firm
gives, at the end of the apprenticeship period, a bonus of $100 to each apprentice who
has worked 200 consecutive weeks without unexcused absence except sickness.
Because of the lack of definite apprenticeship system the replies to the question
“ Do you find that those who are apprenticed have a better attitude toward their
work than those who are not? ” are not so illuminating as might be expected. Thirtyone establishments make no reply; 10 employers reply that apprentices have a better
attitude toward their work; 8 state that apprentices do not have a better attitude,
and 1 employer says that they sometimes have a better attitude.
The lack of an organized system of apprenticeship is, to some extent at least,
responsible for the floaters who go from shop to shop. A number of printers stated
that this floating from shop to shop is one of the chief difficulties in training or keeping
efficient help. This is especially true of apprentices or learners who, after working
for one printer six months or a year, leave his employ to work for any other printer
who will pay him more than he has been earning. Since an employer probably loses
money on an apprentice the first year of the apprenticeship period, it is discouraging
to him to have his apprentice leave under such conditions and work for another printer
for a small increase in wages. The second printer has paid nothing for the training
the boy received when he was a loss to the first employer, and he therefore gets all
the benefit from the change. This does not mean that there are printers in Richmond
who make a practice of encouraging apprentices to float from job to job, but that there
is no agreement among the employers about employing such help. One printer made
the statement that this difficulty is the result of there being no uniform apprentice
wage and also because the printers have not acted as a unit in this matter. One solu
tion of the problem would seem to be an agreement among printers on a scale of
wages for apprentices and to abide by it whenever a boy comes from another printer.
Besides the inconvenience and embarrassment given the employer, the other
serious aspect of the case is the result to the boy himself. If he works for a number
of printers while he is supposed to be learning his trade, he is compelled to receive
instruction from several instead of one. His training is therefore broken up into
installments, with the chance of not being made a well-rounded journeyman if he
continues to the end. He is apt to become discouraged by the frequent changes,
although he himself is responsible, decide that the printing industry is not for him,
and enter some other line of employment. He must then begin anew in whatever he
takes up, and the time spent in the printing trade is lost in so far as it applies to the
trade he has selected to learn.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

101

It is the opinion of some printers that the lack of proper encouragement from the
parents of the boys during the apprenticeship period is responsible sometimes for the
boy not serving his time. Instead cf encouraging him to finish his apprenticeship,
although he must of necessity work for a low wage while doing it, they allow him to
stop and pick up a job that pays more at the start, but which never leads anywhere.
Of course in all the discussion it is understood that some boys who enter the printing
trades are lazy and shiftless and will not stick to any one job very long at a time.
They even float from shop to shop without any increase in wages and would never
serve an apprenticeship no matter how attractive it be made.
The replies received to the foregoing five questions reveal several important facts:
(1) The need of some systematic instruction other than what the apprentice can
pick up on the job; (2) the fact that the duty of giving such instruction is generally
intrusted to the foreman; and (3) that a true apprenticeship system practically does
not exist in Bichmond. There are few establishments which have more than a verbal
understanding regarding apprenticeship. As a consequence of this lack of a definite
formal indenture boys entering the trades do not feel bound in any way to their em
ployers when a chance to leave and earn larger wages with another printer presents
itself. This is one cause of the floating from shop to shop which is a cause of common
complaint among master printers. The effect upon the boy himself is necessarily
demoralizing, since he does not stay in one shop long enough to learn his trade. It
may be noted further that ambitious boys might generally be held during the appren
ticeship period if a definite system of progressive training in various lines of work were
provided for under an agreement. “ Employers, as a rule, have not been very much
interested in the apprenticeship question and most of them have been content to let
the other fellow handle the problem, regardless of how unsatisfactorily it may have
worked out. As has been noted, this policy has resulted in a scarcity of men quali
fied to fill the higher positions.” In speaking of this scarcity of all-round skilled
men, one Richmond employer says:
The meager inducements held out to our boys to “ learn a trade,” the almost utter
lack of individual instruction given them in the shops by the journeymen or foremen
(the reason for this is the common, brutally frank statement of many mechanics: “ If
I teach my boy, he’ll get my job ” ), the lack of an apprentice system, of sensible,
broad, and fair laws covering such contracts. Most indentured boys under these con
ditions realize their mistake in less than the first year and “ skip.” The indentured
apprentice seems to feel it to be a condition of slavery—un-American—and the result
in every instance under my observation appears to be unsatisfactory. I do not know
of an indentured printer’s apprentice of my generation to have “ come out” a finished
workman. I know of a number of specialty men, make-up men, ad. men, and straightmatter men, all fairly efficient in their particular branch, but not a single all-round
man, who could step into any branch of printing, take of? his coat, and pitch in.
SCHOOLING REQUIRED BEFORE ENTERING THE TRADE.

Employers very generally report that they have difficulty in getting beginners who
have a good elementary or grammar-school education, and specify this as the most
common deficiency. Special mention is made of such elementary subjects as read
ing, writing, arithmetic, spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Two employers men
tion drawing and designing, and two—photographers—-mention chemistry. The
replies received would seem to indicate that the beginners who enter the printing
trade in Richmond leave school before completing seven years of school work or that
the course of study offered in the first years of school is not of such a nature as to give
adequate preparation for entrance to the printing trades. If the present seven-year
course does not, in fact, give adequate preparation for the printing trades, that in
itself might largely account for boys leaving school before completing the course.
As regards the advantage of school training beyond the seventh or final grade of the
grammar school, 35 out of 46 employers report that experience would seem to indicate
that a complete high-school course is of advantage to the worker in the printing trades.

102

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

One employer qualifies his answer by saying that it depends upon the curriculum of
the high school. “ If it teaches nonessentials—things that will never be of use to the
boy in the shop—a high-school training would indicate no particular advantage.”
In explaining why they are of this opinion, one employer observes that in considering
the value of a high-school course he also 44takes into account the fact that four years
of time is required to complete such a course, ” another that “ a boy graduated from
high school would not be willing to stick until he learned. ’11
AGE OF BEGINNERS.

The average age of beginners in the printing trades in Bichmond, as indicated by
replies from 37 firms, is 15J years. Even assuming that boys are going to enter the
trade at this age, the average boy would have time to do one or possibly two years of
high-school work before entering the shop.
KIND OF SCHOOLS FAVORED FOR APPRENTICES.

About one-half of the firms interviewed favor a night school and approximately
one-third favor a part-time day school for apprentices. Nineteen firms think some
kind of school should be provided for workers in all occupations and a large number
specify compositors, engravers, proofreaders, and pressmen. As to the subjects that
should be taught in such schools, English easily heads the list, followed by arithmetic,
reading, spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Other subjects specified are design,
drawing, history of printing, chemistry, color harmony, physics, and color mixing.2
With regard to the number of hours the apprentice should attend a part-time
school the answers vary from 3 per week to 15, with more favoring 6 hours than any
other arrangement.3
EMPLOYERS WELL COOPERATE IN ESTABLISHMENT OF PART-TIME SCHOOLS.

Twenty-four employers state that they are willing to enter into an agreement to
employ workers for a definite period of apprenticeship at a fixed scale of wages, and to
permit the attendance of apprentices at a part-time day school for a definite number
of hours per week. The employers who do not agree to such an arrangement favor, in
most cases, a night school. Of the occupations for which the employers are willing to
enter into such an agreement, hand composition leads, followed bypresswork, engrav1 Of the 45 establishments replying to the question, “ In what occupations, if any, is general school train
ing beyond the seventh grade of value in increasing efficiency as workers?” 19, representing all the print
ing trades, state that such training is of value in all occupations. Of the replies specifying in what par
ticular occupations school training beyond the seventh grade is of value, 14 include compositor, 8 include
proof reading, 2 engraving, 2 design, 1 finishing, and 1 photo-engraving. Five firms reply that general
school training beyond the seventh grade is not of special value in any occupation.
2 In reply to the question, “ What kind of a school would most help workers in the various occupations
during the apprenticeship period?” 23 employers state that a night school would be most desirable; 11
prefer a part-time day school; 5 reply that either a part-time day school or a night school is needed; 1 firm
answers “ trade school” and another “ high school” ; 9 express no preference. Of those employers who
specify individual occupations that schools could be provided for to best advantage, 16 include composi
tion, 5 presswork, 3engraving, 2 proof reading, and 1 linotype operating; 12 make no reply. In giving their
opinion as to what should be taught in such part-time day or night schools 20 employers include English;
17,arithmetic; 12, reading, writing, and spelling; 11, grammar; 7, design; 6, drawing; 5, history of printing;
5, higher mathematics; 4, punctuation; 3, chemistry; 3, color harmony; 2, physics; 2, machine operation;
2, hand composition; 1 , manipulative skill; 1 , color mixing; 1 , bindery handwork; 1 , proof reading, and 3 ,
general education; 5 make no reply.
3 Twenty-one replies were received to the question, “ If a part-time day school were established, in your
opinion how many hours per week should an apprentice attend?” Three of the 21 employers favor 3
hours per week; 2 ,4 hours; 4,5 hours; 5,6 hours; 1,8 hours; 4,10 hours; 1,12 hours; and 1,15 hours. Twentynine employers make no reply. The large number making no reply is accounted for to a considerable
extent by the fact that the employers who prefer a night school naturally do not answer this question.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RIC H M O N D / VA.

103

ii?g, bookbinding, and designing. Seven firms are willing to enter for all occupations.
Practically the same occupations are specified as being those for which such an agree
ment would be most valuable.
EVENING-SCHOOL COURSES FOR JOURNEYMEN.

In specifying subjects which should be covered in evening-school courses for jour
neymen, drawing and design, history and chemistry of the trade, modern methods,
and ink mixing are mentioned. The employers feel that the new features and ideas
that are constantly being brought forward in the trades should be covered in evening
lectures, demonstrations, and courses.1
HOURS, WAGES, AND OCCUPATIONS.

In the tables following are presented statistics relative to regular hours of labor per
day and week in the printing trades establishments; number of beginners employed
aged 14 to 22 years; usual and preferred age of beginners; wages of beginners, and usual
wages the second year; number reported as employed in the summer of 1914, classi
fied by sex and occupation; and range of wages paid workers, classified by sex, in
reported occupations.
The hours of labor vary from 46 to 54 per week with practically all establishments
working a short Saturday of from 4 to 6 hours. The newspaper plants work either
45 or 48 hours, with no short Saturday.
The minimum wage reported for males, exclusive of apprentices and fiyboys, is
$4, which is received by one employee who packs cards, letterheads, stationery, etc.
Aside from this one instance, the minimum is $6, reported for press feeders; the
maximum, $35, is reported for steel engraver and photo-engraving operator. For
females, exclusive of apprentices, the minimum is $4.08, this wage being reported
for cigarette-book makers, while the maximum wage, $17, is received by a proof
reader.
As Is shown in Table 65, classifying workers by occupation, bookbinders, composi
tors, and press feeders constitute the largest occupational groups. Of the 384 females,
224 are bookbinders, 54 press feeders, 14 hand and power stampers, 5 monotype
operators, 5 proof readers, 1 is a linotype operator, 1 a ruler, and 80 are employed in
miscellaneous occupations. It is thus seen that a majority of the girl help is em
ployed in bookbinding, and that practically all die stamping done in the city is
performed by girls.
iThirty-nine replies were received to the question, “ What do you believe a night school should teach
to help the journeyman who wants to advance in his trade?” Following is a list of the ^subjects suggested
and the number of employers specifying each subject: English, 12 employers; design, 9; drawing, 6 ; history
of trade, 6; estimating and cost finding, 5; arithmetic, 5; color harmony, 4; chemistry of the trade, 4; lec
tures and demonstrations, 4; modern methods, 4; grammar, 3; higher mathematics, 3; punctuation, 2;
reading, 2; writing, 2; spelling, 1; physics, 1; ink mixing, 1. One employer who replies that “ such a school
should keep the journeyman abreast of the progress of the time both at home and abroad/ 7 aptly expresses
the sentiment of 6 employers who make replies along this line.

104

BULLETIN OF THE BT7BEAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

TABU3 6 1 ,—REG ULAR HOURS OF LABOR IN PRINTING TRA DE S ESTABLISHMENTS.

Employees work
ing s p e c ifie d
number of hours
per day.

Hours per day.

Employees work
ing sp e c ifie d
number of hours
per week.

Hours per week.

Number. Per cent.

2.0

Number. Per cent.

1.8

71 and under 8 ........
8 and under 85 ........
8i and under 9........
9*and under 9^........
9J and under 10 ___

24
91
435
238
438

7.4
35.5
19.4
35.7

45.............................
48..............................
50..............................
51..............................
54..............................

90
575

43.9
.9
7.2
46.2

Total............

11,244

100.0

Total............

1,244

100.0

546

1 This is not the sum of the items because of the 49 establishments reporting number of employees all
did not report on this particular question. The percentages are based on the number reported, 1,226.
T a b l e 6 2 .—BEGINNERS R EPO R TED IN TH E PRINTING TR A D E S ESTABLISHM ENTS, B Y

AGE GROUPS.

Number.

Age.
14 and 15 years...................................................................
16 and 17 years...................................................................
18 to 22 years......................................................................

37
71
70

Total, 14 to 22 vears.............................................

178

T a b l e 6 3 .—XTSUAL AND

P R E F E R R E D AGE OF BEGINNERS IN PRINTING
ESTABLISHMENTS.

Age.

Number of em
ployers report
ing specified arre
at which begin
ners—
Usually
enter.

13 years.............................................................
14 years............................................................
14 to 15 years...................................................
14 to 16 vears...................................................
15 to 16 years...................................................
15 to 17 years...................................................
15 to IS vears...................................................
14 to 18 years...................................................
15 years.............................................................
16 years.............................................................
18 vears............................................................
16 to 18 years...................................................
Total....................................................

Are pre
ferred.

1
2

1
2
3

6
2

2
1
1

1
1
11
12

2
1

1
37

27
j

TR A D E S

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA-

105

T a b u : 6 4 . — W AG ES PER W E E K OF BEG IN N ERS IN PRIN TIN G T R A D E S ESTABLISH

MENTS AND USU AL W A G E S SECOND Y E A R .

Number of establishments reporting
specified wage.
Photo
Book engraving Plate
Printing
and
binding
engraving
establish
litho
ments. establish graphing establish
ments.
establish ments.
ments.

Wages per week.

Beginner:
$2.50 .............................................................................
$3.00................................................................................
$3.50 .............................................................................
$4.00.................................................................................
$4.50
........................................................................
*5 no
________________________ _____________
Total
Second year:

$4.00.................................................................................
$4.50 .............................................................................
$5.00................................................................................
$5.50 ...........................................................................
$6.00 ...................... .....................................................
$6.50 .............................................................................
$7.00.................................................................................
$7.50 .............................................................................
*8.no

1
6
1
1

2 |

1
1

............. i ‘

I
i
I

i!
l1

7
3

8
1
2

2
1

22
1
4
4
4

1
1

______ ____________________

Total

4
3

Total.

ii
10

T a b l e 6 5 . — EM PLOYEES IN PRINTING TRA DE S ESTABLISHMENTS, B Y

S E X AND

OCCUPATION, M AY AN D JUNE, 1914.

Estab Employees in shops reporting.
lish
ments
reporting. Males.
Females.
Total.

Occupation.

Hand typographers...............................................................................
Monotype operators...............................................................................
Linotype operators.................................................................................
Proof readers............................................................................................
Make-up men............... .........................................................................
Stonehands..............................................................................................
W e b r>r«ssmen _ _______ ______ _______ ______________________________

Cylinder pressmen.........................................................
P laten n ressm en ..................................... ........................

........... 11

37
7
9

22
11
10
5

27
U
28
9

147
16
51
30
19
13

8
68

147

52
35
19
13

8
68

46
24

46
24
154

Pressmen’s helpers.................................................................................
Press feeders..........................................................................................
54
100
Stereotypers............................................................................................
21
21
Photo-engravers (artist)........................................................................
2
10
10
Photo-engravers (mechanic)................................................................
3
17
17
Bookbinders (hand)..............................................................................
15
171
57
228
Bookbinders (machine)........................................................................
2
12
65
53
1
Rulers.......................................................................................................
9
17
18
Paper cutters...........................................................................................
16
37
37
Lithograph engravers............................................................................ 9
Lithograph pressmen............................................................................
3
12
12
3
Lithograph designers.............................................................................
2
3
3
9
9
Lithograph transferrers........................................................................
Lithograph press feeders......................................................................
2
15
15
3
7
7
Lithograph flyboys...............................................................................
Steel engravers........................................................................................
4
7
7
Plate printers..........................................................................................
4
8
8
1
Hand and power stampers...................................................................
4
14
15
Miscellaneous...........................................................................................
12
12
92
80
Annrentices_____ ______________________________________________
24
84
84
Total.......................................................................

860

384

1,244

106

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

T a b l e 6 6 .—RANGE OF W E E K L Y W A G E S IN PR INTING T R A D E S ESTABLISH M EN TS, B Y

OCCUPATION AN D S E X , 1914.

E mployees in shops
reporting.

Males.
Males.

Females.
Low
est.

Hand typographers.................... ...................
...........................................
Monotype operators
Linotype operators.............................................
Proof readers........................................................
Make-up men.......................................................
Stonehands...........................................................
Web pressmen.....................................................
Cylinder pressmen..............................................
Platen pressmen..................................................
Pressmen's helpers.............................................
Press feeders........................................................
Stereo typers.........................................................
Photo-engravers (artist)....................................
Photo-engravers (mechanic)............................
Bookbinders (hand)...........................................
Bookbinders (machine).....................................
Rulers....................................................................
Paper cutters.......................................................
Lithograph engravers........................................
Lithograph pressmen.........................................
Lithograph designers.........................................
Lithograph transferrers.....................................
Lithograph press feeders..................................
Lithograph flyb o y s.............................. ...........
Steel engravers........ ...........................................
Plate printers......................................................
Hand and power stampers...............................
Miscellaneous.......................................................
Apprentices.........................................................
Total...........................................................

21
10

137
16
51
28
19

9
4

34
7
9

8
2
2

21
10

17
57

9
16
3
3

17
37
9

3
9
15
7
7

2
5
4
4
4

Females.

8
1

815

est.

$12.50 $32.00
19.00 26. 75
12.50 27.00
5 18.00 30.00
17.00 27.00
17.00 27.00
10.00 27.00
11.00 22.50
9.00 25.00
5

6.00
6.00

9.00
18.00
18.00
171
53

10.00
12.00

15.00

10.00

26.00
15.00
28.00

9
62

High Low High

22.00

7.14
4.00
15.00

14
78

12.00
10.00
4.00
2.50

est.

$8.16

$16.00

11.00
10.00

17.00

5.00

12.00

11.00

22.00

16.00

21.00

30.00
35. 00
25.00

21.00
21.00
20.00

30.00
25.00
30.00
30.00

Number
of shops
report
ing.

Occupation.

Weekly wages.

i 14.00
7.00

..... !......
!

10.00

5.10
35.00
27.00

10.00
22.00
12.00

5.50
4.08

10.00
12.00

382

1 This wage is paid to apprent ices.

ANALYSIS OF OCCUPATIONS IN DETAIL.
HAND COMPOSITION.

Processes.—Composition is the art of assembling type for the purpose of making
printed reproductions of the characters so assembled. The work of the hand com
positor falls into three distinct lines—straight composition, tabular matter, and display
work. By straight composition is meant such work as book and pamphlet composition
or newspaper reading matter. Tabular and rule and figure matter consists of such
work as railroad time-tables, tabulations, price lists, etc. Display or job composition
embraces such work as cards, labels, letterheads, title-pages, posters, and all work in
which the element of display enters.
It is obvious that the straight-matter compositor has to concern himself chiefly
with the correct setting of the type, the proper spacing, and length of line. The
tabular-matter compositor, although he has a more or less definite copy form to follow,
must exercise considerable mechanical skill and ingenuity in spacing, and cutting
and fitting rules, etc. The elements of proportion and design also enter somewhat into
his work. Display or job composition requires a knowledge of the principles of design,
especially with reference to balance, proportion, shape and tone harmony, arrange
ment of lines and masses for the filling of space, etc. A knowledge of color harmony
is also necessary. On the mechanical side, the job compositor must also possess con
siderable skill in accurate spacing and correct alignment, etc., in order that the
execution of his work shall accurately follow the design.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

107

The composing or setting of type is done as follows: The compositor selects the
desired type one at a time from a case and places it in a small frame or container called
a ‘ ‘ composing stick” which he holds in his left hand. One side of this “ stick” is
slidably mounted so that it can be adjusted to the length of the line of type to be set
up. If straight or tabular matter is being set, line after line is thus set up until the
stick is full, when it is carefully removed from the stick and placed in a shallow tray
or frame with upright sides called a galley. Display matter is generally set up in
the stick, though for some very large work it may be set in the galley or even on an
imposing stone. The display compositor also generally “ makes u p ” his own forms.
Product or specialties.—The product of the hand compositor includes bodies of type
composed or assembled for reproduction but not necessarily made up into the final
forms.
Importance of the trade.—According to the returns on the survey schedules, which
are practically complete for the trade, there are in Richmond 147 hand compositors,
all males.
Conditions of employment.—The hand compositor’s work does not involve any
peculiar physical or nervous strain. All of the work stimulates the interest, the
finer grades especially. No peculiar occupational diseases were reported in Rich
mond, although dust from type metal may cause lead poisoning. While tubercu
losis is known to be common among printers, no Richmond figures are available.
Economic conditions.—The seasonal fluctuation in demand for workers is approxi
mately 13 per cent. Owing to the many kinds of printing done, the busy and slack
seasons vary throughout the trade, but in general the period from September to June
is considered the busy season and July and August the slack season. Regular hours
of labor per day and week vary. In newspaper offices hours are from 7 } to 8 per day,
45 to 48 per week; in other plants from 8 to 10 hours per day, 46 to 54 per week; practi
cally all establishments, except newspapers, work a short Saturday of from 4 to 6
hours.
A compositor’s apprentice receives from $3 to $4 per week during his first year of
apprenticeship, $4 to $5 per week in the second year. No regular scale of wages is
maintained for the third, fourth, and fifth years, the wage being dependent on indi
vidual proficiency. Journeymen receive from $12 to $32 per week, the union scale
being 33J cents per hour or $16 per week. The trade is about 80 per cent organized.
Age of maximum productivity.—Boys enter the trade between the ages of 15 and 16
and serve an apprenticeship of about five years. The period of maximum produc
tivity is between the ages of 21 and 50.
Demand for labor.—The demand for labor is increasing. The supply of highly
skilled workers is inadequate, that of medium grade labor is ample. Workers are
recruited from boys in the grammar grades and transient journeymen.
Educational and technical requirements.—The compositor should have a good gen
eral elementary education, especially in English, with emphasis on punctuation
and spelling. A very considerable amount of trade and technical knowledge is nec
essary. The compositor should be familiar with the principles of design, color har
mony, and lettering; the composition of forms for letterheads, business cards, covers,
title-pages, and other display matter, and have some knowledge of proofing and
impobition. The manipulative skill required in picking up and handling type
rapidly and accurately is very considerable. Accuracy is of first importance to the
compositor, while initiative, a quick memory, and artistic sense are very necessary.
What the industry gives.—The period of apprenticeship is five years. Wages are
generally increased every six months, and in some cases a bonus is given at the ter
mination of the apprenticeship. This five-year apprenticeship should give the boy
the necessary facility in handling type and in composition; sufficient trade knowl
edge to make him a profitable producer, but not enough for the greatest possible
efficiency.

108

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS*

Ab there is no-provision made in the shop for systematic instruction of either ap
prentices or journeymen the extent to which the trade can be learned in the shop is
limited, and is becoming more limited each year, owing not so much to the fact that
less information is available or that specialization has narrowed opportunity, as to
the fact that more and more is demanded of the compositor if he is to meet success
fully the modern requirements as to artistic and harmonious composition. That
this demand has not been fully met is evidenced by the rising influence on the
trade of the commcrcial artist and designer. The line of promotion is from journey
man to foreman.
Deficiencies of workmen.—The common deficiency of compositors is lack of suffi
cient knowledge of English, punctuation, and spelling, and especially of the princi
ples of design and color harmony.
What the school ought to give.—Before entering the shop the boy should have received
a complete elementary school education and prevocational courses, with emphasis
on English, spelling, and punctuation. Apprentices and journeymen should receive
specialized courses dealing with the principles of design, color harmony, lettering;
composition of forms for letterheads, business cards, title-pages; i. e., fundamental
principles of typography, including the history of the trade; modern methods and
trade news.
LINOTYPE COMPOSITION .1

Processes.—The linotype method of composition differs from that of the monotype
in that a solid line of composed and justified type is cast in one piece (slug) by one
machine, instead of casting individual type through the agency of two machines, as
is the monotype method.
The linotype operator works at a keyboard something like that of a typewiiter.
Above and at the back is located a magazine which holds hundreds of flat brass plates
called matrices, having inserted in one edge a female letter or character. The de
pression of a key on the keyboard causes a matrix to be released. Whereupon it is
conveyed to a suitable holder. When sufficient matrices are assembled to form the
desired line of type the line of matrices is automatically transferred to a mold, of
which it forms the face. The line of type is cast in this mold in one piece or slug,
which is automatically conveyed to its proper place in the galley, and the matrices
after being used are automatically returned to their proper location in the magazine.
While linotype work may be divided into three distinct occupations— operator,
machinist-operator, and machinist—the general demand is for machinist-operatois,
men who can operate and at the same time keep the machine in good running order.
Product or specialties.—Galleys of composed and justified type, each line of which
is in one piece, constitutes the product of the linotype operator.
Importance of the trade.—According to the returns on the survey schedules, which
are practically complete for the trade, there are 52 linotype operators in Richmond.
Conditions of employment.—The close and long-continued application to his work,
required of the operator, induces nervous strain. All of the work tends to stimulate
the intelligence, provided there is sufficient variety. No peculiar occupational dis
eases were reported in Eichmond, although fumes from the pot of melted type metal
may be injurious. No figures were available to show the extent of tuberculosis among
printers.
Economic conditions.—The economic conditions governing linotype composition
are practically the game as for hand composition (see p. 107), except as to the wages
received. Journeymen receive from $12.50 to $27 per week. The union scale is 41J
cents per hour, or $20 per week.
i This outline is based on the assumption that the linotype operator has also been trained in hand compo
sition.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

109

Age of maximum productivity.—Boys enter the trade between the ages of 15 and 16,
and serve an apprenticeship of five years. The period of maximum productivity is
between the ages of 21 and 50.
Demand for labor.—The demand for labor is increasing. High-grade workmen are
difficult to obtain, but the supply of medium-grade workmen is ample. Workers are
recruited from among the apprentices and journeymen hand compositors.
Educational and technical requirements.—The linotype operator should have a good
general elementary education, especially in English, with emphasis on punctuation
and spelling. Linotype composition consists of straight matter and tabular work, and
therefore does not require the very considerable amount of technical knowledge
necessary to a display-matter compositor. The operator should know how to care for
and repair his machine. Accuracy is of first importance to the linotype operator, as
well as dexterity and a quick memory.
What the industry gives.—The period of apprenticeship is five years. Wages are
generally increased every six months. This five-year apprenticeship, which in
cludes training in hand composition, should give the boy the necessary facility in
operating the linotype machine, and sufficient trade knowledge to make him a profit
able, if not a most efficient, producer. There is no provision made in the shop for
systematic instruction of either apprentices or journeymen. The line of promotion
is journeyman to foreman.
Deficiencies of ivorkers.—The common deficiencies of linotype operators are lack of
sufficient knowledge of English, punctuation, and spelling, and lack of rapid and
efficient manipulative skill.
What the school ought to give.—Before entering the shop the boy should have received
a complete elementary-school education and prevocational courses, with emphasis on
English, punctuation, and spelling. Apprentices and journeymen should receive
specialized courses dealing with the fundamental principles of typography, including
history of the trade, modem methods, and trade news.
MONOTYPE COMPOSITION .1

Processes.—Machine composition by the monotype method is done with the aid of
two machines, a composing machine and a type-casting machine. The composing
machine has a keyboard very similar to that of a typewriter, except that there are
many more keys. In fact the general appearance of the composing machine is not
unlike that of a large typewriter mounted on a pedestal. On the back of the
machine are two spools, from one of which a paper ribbon is automatically un
wound, passed above a row of punches, and rewound on the other spool. The manipu
lation of the keys causes the punches to perforate the ribbon as it passes above them,
giving it a very similar appearance to that of the music roll used in a self-playing
piano. When the roll is full it is taken off the machine and sent to the monotype
caster.
The monotype caster operates a machine which automatically casts and sets type.
The spool of paper ribbon is placed in position on the casting machine, and as it un
winds compressed air is forced through the perforations, each of which corresponds
to the letter or typographical symbol of the “ copy. ” This jet of air sets in motion
the machinery which places the proper type matrix, or mold, in position, and com
pletes the work of casting the type and placing it in position in the galley. The
operation of the machine is entirely automatic, except for the occasional replenish
ing of the type metal in the melting pot and the taking away of the full galleys of
type. The machine automatically stops if any mistake or accident occurs. The
i This outline is based on the assumption that the monotype operator has also been trained in hand com
position.

110

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

chief duties of the caster man, or monotype machinist as he is coming to be called,
are to set the machine for work to be done and to keep it in running order. A t least
one skilled man is required to take charge of the caster machines, although boys are
usually employed if assistants are needed.
Product or specialties.—Monotype composition consists of straight matter and tabular
work, and its product is galleys of composed and justified type.
Importance of the trade.—According to the returns on the survey schedules, which
are practically complete for the trade, there are 21 monotype operators in Richmond.
Conditions of employment.—The close and long-continued application to his work
required of the monotype operator induces nervous strain. All of the work tends to
stimulate the intelligence, provided there is sufficient variety in copy. No occupa
tional diseases were reported in Richmond, although the lead dust necessarily means
danger of lead poisoning. No figures were available to show the extent of tuber
culosis among monotype operators.
jEconomic conditions.—The economic conditions governing monotype composition
are practically the same as for hand composition (see p. 107), except as to wages received.
Both males and females are engaged in monotype operating. Journeymen receive
from $19 to $26.75 per week; women from $8.16 to $16 per week. The union scale is
41f cents per hour, or $20 per week.
Age of maximum productivity.—Boys enter the trade between the ages of 15 and 16
and serve an apprenticeship of five years. The period of maximum productivity
is between the ages of 21 and 50.
Demand for labor.—The demand for well-equipped skilled workers is increasing.
The supply of high-grade labor is insufficient, while that of medium-grade labor is
ample. Workers are recruited from hand-composition apprentices and journeymen.
Educational and technical requirements.—The monotype operator should have a good
general elementary education, especially in English, with emphasis on spelling and
punctuation. Monotype composition consists of straight matter and tabular work
and therefore does not require the very considerable amount of technical knowledge
necessary to a display compositor. The operator should know how to care for and
repair the machines. Accuracy is of prime importance to the monotype operator, as
well as dexterity and a quick memory.
What the industry gives.—The period of apprenticeship is five years. Wages are
generally increased every six months. This five-year apprenticeship, which includes
training in hand composition, should give the boy the necessary facility in operating
the composing machine; sufficient trade knowledge to make him a profitable pro
ducer, but not enough for the greatest efficiency. There is no provision made in the
shop for systematic instruction of either apprentices or journeymen. The line of
promotion is journeyman to foreman.
Deficiencies of tvorhers.—The common deficiencies of monotype operators are lack of
sufficient knowledge of English, spelling, and punctuation, and lack of rapid and effi
cient manipulative skill.
What the school ought to give.—Before entering the shop the boy should have re
ceived a complete elementary-school education and prevocational courses, with
emphasis on English, punctuation, and spelling. Apprentices and journeymen should
receive specialized courses dealing with the fundamental principles of typography,
including history of the trade, modern methods, and trade news.
STEREOTYPING.

Processes.—Stereotyping is the process of making metal plates, reproducing in fac
simile the surface of engravings or type set up as for direct printing. The stereotype
plate is made in the following manner: The form of type which is to be reproduced
is imposed in an ordinary chase in the same manner as for direct printing except that

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

ill

iron bearers, type high, are placed all around the type matter before the form is
locked up. The material for the matrix, by the papier-mache process, is formed by
spreading paste on a sheet of moderately thick unsized paper and covering it with
successive sheets of tissue paper, each carefully pasted and rolled down smooth.
This prepared sheet is saturated with water, laid on the form, tissue side next to the
type, and then is thoroughly beaten into the form with a stiff brush. By another
method, used especially in newspaper offices, the material is forced into the form by
means of a power roller exerting great pressure. After being beaten in, the form and
sheet, covered with a blanket, are conveyed to a drying press or steam table to be
“ cooked,” which consists of applying heavy pressure while at the same time sub
jecting them to considerable heat. The matrix thus becomes dry and hard very
quickly. It is then taken from the drying press, removed from the form, its edges
trimmed, and then placed face up on the bottom of a casting box, where it is held
firmly in position while the lid is fastened down. Molten metal is then poured in at
one end of the casting box, after which the plate thus formed is removed, trimmed,
and sent to the pressroom.
Product or specialties.—Metal plates reproducing in facsimile the surface of engrav
ings or type and called stereotype plates are the product of the stereotyper.
Importance of the trade.—According to the returns on the survey schedules, which
are practically complete for the trade, there are 21 stereo typers in Richmond.
Conditions of employment.—The stereotyper is compelled to work in a very high
temperature, especially in the summer. The work also involves considerable heavy
lifting. The molten metal gives off fumes that are injurious to the health, and there
is also liability of being burned by the hot metal. The knowledge that the good
appearance of the finished print depends largely upon his skill and ability naturally
tends to stimulate the interest of the stereotyper.
Economic conditions.—There is very little seasonal fluctuation in the demand for
workers. The busy and slack seasons and hours of labor are practically the same as
for compositors. No information is available as to the wages paid during the appren
ticeship. Journeymen are reported as receiving from $9 to $21 per week. The union
scale is 35.42 cents per hour, or $17 per week.
Age of maximum productivity.—Boys enter the trade between the ages of 16 and 18
and serve an apprenticeship of five years. The period of maximum productivity is
between the ages of 21 and 50.
Demand for labor.—The supply of labor is sufficient to meet the present demand.
High-grade labor is always in demand. Workers are recruited from among boys in
the grammar schools and from casual labor.
Educational and technical requirements.—The stereotyper should have a good elementary-school education. Very little technical knowledge is required. The trade
knowledge consists of the necessary information in regard to the preparation of mats,
how to “ beat in ” in forming matrices, the proper length of time to ‘ •'cook,” proper
temperature of type metal for casting, how to prepare matrix and casting box for
casting, and how to correct errors in stereotype plate. A very considerable amount
of manipulative skill in handling the brush in “ beating in,” and in handling and
pouring hot metal, is necessary. The essential qualities are accuracy, strength,
patience, and endurance.
What the industry gives.—The term of apprenticeship is five years. Under favorable
conditions practically all of the necessary trade knowledge may be acquired in the
shop, as well as the required manipulative skill. However, there is no provision
made for the systematic instruction of either apprentices or journeymen. There is
little opportunity for promotion, except in the large shops and newspaper officcs
where the promotion is to foreman.
Deficiencies of workmen.—The most common deficiency of stereotypers is lack of
sufficient trade knowledge.

112

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

What the tchool ought to give.—Before entering the shop the boy should have received
a complete elementary-school education and prevocational courses. Apprentices and
journeymen should receive specialized courses dealing with theory and history of
the trade, modem methods and practices.
PROOF READING.

Processes.—The proof readers duty is to read the proof, comparing it with the orig
inal copy, and to note all errors made in composition, whether mechanical or in punc
tuation and spelling. The proof reader may be assisted by a copy holder, whose duty
is to read aloud to the proof reader. After the compositor has made the corrections
as indicated by the proof reader another proof is “ pulled,” and if necessary further
corrections are made. When the proof is reasonably correct and the proof reader has
“ queried” to the author any doubtful points to which it is desirable that the latter s
attention should be drawn, it is known as the first revise and is ready to be sent,
along with the original manuscript, to the author for correction or alteration. When
the proof is returned and the final corrections are made, the galleys of type and the
proofs are turned over to the “ make-up ” man. After the matter has been made up
into pages another proof is made and corrections noted. In bookwork a final or (F)
proof is made after the forms have been imposed.
Products or specialties.—Revised proof; the duties of a proof reader practically
make him the author’s representative in the composing room.
Importance of the trade.—According to the returns on the survey schedule, which
are practically complete for the trade, there are 33 proof readers in Richmond.
Conditions of employment.— Constant reading induces eyestrain, which in turn often
produces nervous strain. Proof reading not only stimulates the interest, but is unusu
ally widening and broadening to the intelligence. There are no peculiar occupa
tional diseases.
Economic conditions.—The seasonal fluctuation in demand for workers is approxi
mately 13 per cent. Owing to the many kinds of printing done, the busy and slack
seasons vary throughout the trade, but in general the period from September to June
is considered the busy season and July and August the slack season. Regular hours
of labor per day and week vary. In newspaper offices hours are from 7\ to 8 per day,
45 to 48 per week; in other plants, 8 to 10 per day and 46 to 54 per week. Prac
tically all establishments except newspapers work a short Saturday of 4 to 6 hours.
So far as reported, there is no formal apprenticeship. Both males and females are
employed in proof reading. Journeymen receive from $18 to $30 per week. There is
no union scale.
Age of maximum productivity.—Boys or girls enter the trade between the ages of 17
and 20 and are advanced according to individual proficiency. The period of maxi
mum productivity is between the ages of 21 and 50.
Demandfor labor.—The demand for efficient proof readers is increasing. Workers
are recruited from boys and girls who have completed the grammar school or have
done high-school work.
Educational and technical requirements.—The proof reader should have a good ele
mentary education and in addition a high-school English course or a special course
giving thorough training in English, with emphasis on punctuation and spelling.
The trade knowledge required consists of a knowledge of the use of the conventional
signs, symbols, and markings used in correcting proofs. Accuracy, keenness of sight,
and quick perception are qualities very essential to the proof reader.
What the industry gives.—There is no formal apprenticeship, nor is there any provision
made in the shop for systematic instruction. Increase in wage depends on individual
proficiency. The only promotion possible is from proof reader to head proof reader.
Deficiencies of workers.—The common deficiencies of proof readers are insufficient
education and lack of special adaptability.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

113

What the school ought to give.—Before entering the shop the boy or girl should have
received an elementary and high-school education or, in place of the high-school
course, a special course in English with emphasis on punctuation and spelling.
Those already in the shop should receive specialized courses in English, and in his
tory and modem practices of the trade.
MAKE-UP AND IMPOSITION.

Processes.—While the occupation of the make-up man is distinct from that of the
Etonehand, the work is similar in nature, and in Richmond the make-up, imposition,
etc., are generally done by one man, as few establishments are large enough to require
both a make-up man and stonehand.
The make-up man receives the galleys of composed type or linotype slugs and a
proof of the same. He divides this matter into page lengths, inserts the cuts, puts in
the running titles and folios, spaces the pages out to equal lengths, and then ties
them up with strong cord to prevent them becoming “ pied.” Proofs are then
pulled and corrections made, and a set of proofs is sent to the stonehand, in case
there is a separate man for this work.
The pages of type are then ready for imposition, which consists of laying them in
their proper order on a smooth even surface, generally a table with an iron or marble
top, which is called an imposing stone. A strong iron frame called a chase is put
around the pages, the margins are properly spaced, the type leveled down with a mallet
and planer, and the form securely locked up by means of sets of double wedges called
quoins. Any number of pages may be imposed in one form according to the size of
the page and press to be used, but the usual number is from 4 to 32 pages in units of
four pages. In bookwork a final or (F) proof is then made and the forms are ready to
be electrotyped, stereotyped, or sent directly to the press, according to the method
to be used.
Product or specialties.—The assembling of galleys of type into suitable form for repro
duction by the electrotype or stereotype methods or for direct use in the printing
press constitutes the product of make-up and imposition work.
Importance of the trade.—According to the returns on the survey schedules, which
are practically complete for the trade, there are 32 make-up men and stonehands in
Richmond.
Conditions of employment.—There is nothing in the make-up or imposition work that
subjects the worker to any unusual physical or nervous strain. The work stimulates
the interest to a moderate extent, especially the higher grade. So far as known, there
are no peculiar occupational diseases.
Economic conditions.— Seasonal fluctuations in hours of labor are the same as for
hand compositors (see p. 107). Journeymen receive from $17 to $27 per week. The
make-up men and stonehands are not organized independently, but a considerable
number of them belong to the typographical union.
Age of maximum productivity.—Boys enter the trade between the ages of 15 and 16.
No information was received indicating a definite apprenticeship. The period of
maximum productivity is between the ages of 21 and 50.
Demand for labor.—The demand for labor is increasing. The supply is inadequate
for the present demand. Workers are recruited from boys in the grammar grades
and transient journeymen.
Educational and technical requirements.—Both the make-up man and the stonehand
should have a good general elementary education. The trade knowledge required
is not of an extremely varied nature. It is necessary to be familiar with the best
methods of handling bodies of type, inserting cuts, folios, and running titles, and
tying up pages; also to know how to impose forms, space margins, and lock up. No
special technical knowledge is required.

6071°—Bull. 162— 16------ 8

114

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

What the industry gives.—There is no available definite information as to the appren
ticeship, but wages are advanced according to individual proficiency. Sufficient
trade and technical knowledge may be gained in the shop to make the worker a
profitable producer, but not enough for the greatest efficiency. The necessary dex
terity in handling bodies of type rapidly and accurately can be gained in the shop.
No provision is made in the shop for the systematic instruction either of apprentices
or journeymen, and in fact the greater part of the required trade knowledge could
be learned to good advantage outside of the shop. So far as Richmond shops are con
cerned there is practically no opportunity for promotion, except by changing occu
pations.
Deficiencies of workmen.—The common deficiency is lack of general and trade
knowledge.
What the school ought to give.—Before entering the shop the boy should have received
a grammar-school education and prevocational courses until the sixteenth year.
Journeymen as well as those learning the trade should take specialized courses deal
ing with imposition, and the theory and history of the trade. On the manipulative
side dexterity in handling bodies of type rapidly and accurately is very necessary.
Strength, accuracy, and initiative are among the essential qualities.
PRESSWORK.

Before describing in some detail the occupations in the pressroom, it may be of
advantage to give a brief description of the methods of printing and of the presses or
machines employed in these methods.
There are three methods employed in printing, each one separate and distinct
from the others. They are:
1. The relief method, consisting chiefly of typography, but including printing
from wood blocks, halftones, and etchings, which are carved or engraved in relief.
2. The intaglio method, or printing from plates that have been etched or engraved,
the etched part being filled with ink and printed on some medium by pressure. This
includes steel and copperplate engraving, photo-engraving, etc.
3. The lithographic method, consisting principally of lithography, or printing
from stone or from zinc or aluminum plates.
Regardless of the method used the end is accomplished by transferring, by contact
and by pressure, the ink or color from the form or design to the medium to be printed.
The presses employed are somewhat similar, although differing in some minor points.
The first printing press was the “ wooden-screw ” press, in which the pressure was
applied, after the form had been inked and the paper put on, by lowering the screw.
After each impression the screw was raised and the printed sheet taken out. This
was the form of press used by Gutenberg. The first improvement in this machine
was made in 1620, when a device was installed for rolling back and forth the bed on
which was fastened the type, thus obviating the necessity for lifting the bed out by
hand. Various other improvements were made from time to time until there are
now in use machines for all classes of work from job work to the printing of news
papers. These presses fall under two general heads, platen and cylinder. In the
platen press the form and the platen, or impression surface, are both flat, the impres
sion being made by bringing both surfaces together under pressure. This machine
is used mostly for small work, such as printing cards, handbills, labels, etc.
The cylinder presses are of two general classes—(1) those in which the bed carrying
the form is flat and passes back and forth beneath a revolving cylinder or impression
surface; and (2) those where the paper is fed between two cylinders revolving in
opposite directions, one carrying the form and the other forming the impression sur
face. The former is the press in more general use, while the latter is used for news

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115

paper and book work where large editions are printed. Very few hand-power presses
are in operation now, except in country offices and in small home plants. The
method of driving direct from a motor is becoming more popular all the time, be
cause of the ease of starting and stopping the presses and the convenience of having
each press separate from all others by having individual motors.
In the pressroom the different occupations are pressmen, press feeders, and press
men’s helpers. Some plants have no helpers, in which case the work is done either
by the pressman or the feeder, or both.
Cylinder Pressman.

Processes.—The operations that generally fall to the pressman are as follows: To
make ready forms, to mix inks, to keep color uniform, to avoid imperfect sheets, to
register forms, to emboss, and to take care of presses and rollers.
Probably the most important duty of the pressman is to make ready the forms. By
this is meant the adjustment of the form on the bed of the press to make the impres
sion clear and even. When the first impression is pulled it may be too weak or
too strong in spots, and the pressman regulates this in one or more of three general
ways—(1) by applying more pressure, (2) underlaying, and (3) overlaying. If the
general tone of the impression is weak, it may be regulated by applying more pres
sure, but care must be takeli not to injure the paper. If this does not suffice, either
underlaying or overlaying must be resorted to. By underlaying is meant the raising
of the form at the point where the impression is weak, and by overlaying is meant
the adding to or building up on the tympan the weak spot and removing from the
cylinder some of the paper where the impression is strongest. This is especially
difficult on halftone work, where the impression from the halftone is flat and lifeless.
One of the tests of a good pressman is his ability to make ready halftone work.
Another very important part of a pressman’s duty is his ability to keep the colors
uniform. He must not only be able to regulate the amount of ink to be used but to
detect the slightest change in color that may occur. This is especially difficult and
important when matching colors on work which may have been printed for some
time.
A pressman must detect instantly any imperfections in the sheets as they come
from the press. Sometimes the forms get dirty and clogged up and the impression is
not clear, or particles of foreign matter may get on the tympan or plate and cause a
blur. Whatever the cause, it must be quickly detected and remedied. The press
man must be able to mix inks and match colors, and he should therefore develop, if
possible, a sense of color harmony. The pressman must see that the forms register
and that the margins are correct. This is especially important in bookwork, where a
very unpleasing effect is caused by lack of uniformity in the margins. This is rem
edied by adjusting the form until it registers correctly.
The care of the press is of prime importance. If it is not properly oiled and
cleaned and watched for any sign of mechanical disorder it will finally become unfit
for good work, so that no matter how carefully the pressman makes ready, mixes
the inks, or feeds the press the best results can not be obtained.
The chief difference between the work done by the pressman on the platen and
flat-bed cylinder machine and that done on the web or newspaper press is in the makeready, due to the difference in the forms. The form on the web press is cast in one
piece to fit the cylinder that holds it, and the impression is regulated altogether by
underlaying. Since newspapers must be printed in a very short time, the question
of rapidity of production is important. Hence web pressmen are required who can
produce the work in the limited time allowed. There is generally a presbman in
charge in a newspaper plant who has general oversight of the machine and work.

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BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

Product or specialties.—The product or specialty of the pressman is the production
of printed matter from type forms in one or more colors. These forms may be made
of type, or may be electrotyped or stereotyped.
Importance of the trade.—According to the information obtained on the schedules,
there are 68 cylinder pressmen in Richmond. This does not include, however, the
platen pressmen, who number about 45.
Conditions of employment.—The most serious strain the pressman is subjected to is
that caused to the eyes by making ready difficult forms. Constant scrutiny of the
printed sheets as they come from the press in order to detect any imperfections
sometimes causes an eyestrain, and the noise and vibration of the press affect some
men. Some pressmen suffer because of the lack of ventilation in a pressroom that
must be closed at times to avoid drafts and dampness and to make the ink flow
properly.
Most all work of the pressman is of a nature to stimulate interest , and this is espe
cially true of color work, high-grade advertising, and catalogue work. There is
nothing to restrict the mental development, even if work lacking variety does not
stimulate. It is a debatable question whether or not the inks are injurious, some
pressmen holding to the view that they are and others that they are not.
Economic conditions.—The beginning wage of a pressman’s apprentice is generally
from $3 to $4 per week, with an increase of 50 cents per week each six months. This
scale is not uniform in all the shops, for there is no understanding among the printers
regarding the employment of apprentices or the wages paid. The minimum wage
for a pressman reported on the schedules is $11 per week and the maximum $22.50.
The union scale is $14 per week.
The hours of labor per week are from 45 to 48 in newspaper plants and from 46 to
54 in all other establishments. Hours per day vary from
to 8 in newspaper plants
and from 8 to 10 in all other shops. Practically all establishments, except news
papers, work a short Saturday of from 4 to 6 hours. The busy season is generally from
September 11 to June 1 and the dull season during the summer months. The fluctua
tion in employment during 1913 was about 13 per cent, an approximation secured
from the maximum and minimum number of employees during that year.
Age of maximum productivity.—Boys generally enter the printing trade between the
ages of 15 and 16, and the time required to learn the trade varies from four to five
years, being generally five. The age period of maximum productivity is so de
pendent upon the worker that no definite conclusion can be drawn. It is the opinion
of a number of printers, however, that this period i3 between the ages of 21 and 50.
Demand for labor.—The supply of skilled, efficient pressmen is somewhat limited,
but there seems to be an abundance of pressmen of the ordinary type. One reason
for the shortage of skilled pressmen is the lack of a definite apprenticeship system.
The demand for them seems to be increasing.
Educational and technical requirements.—A pressman should have a good general
education, at least through the grammar grades, with emphasis on colors, free-hand
drawing, and English. He needs to know the chemistry of inks, color harmony,
different methods of make-ready, proper speeds of press for different classes of work,
adjustment of ink flow, and how to detect and remedy imperfect sheets. He should
also know something of the processes of lithography, engraving, stereotyping, and
electro typing, and of all the modern methods used in an up-to-date pressroom. He
must be able to detect any changes of color in the impression and to correct same.
Because of the very nature of some of the work a pressman must be accurate, quick,
patient, and possess some initiative.
What the industry gives.—There is no regular period of apprenticeship in most Of
the print shops in Richmond, blit the majority of those reporting gave it as from four
to five years. Practically none of the shops give systematic instruction to the appren
tice or journeyman, and only a little technical knowledge can be acquired without

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some instructions. The manipulative skill required to run the press and the trade
knowledge necessary for turning out the work can be learned in the shop. It is very
difficult, however, for a boy to learn ink mixing, color harmony, and the kindred
subjects there.
The line of promotion is generally from an apprentice boy to a pressman; from a
press feeder, who is given a chance to learn the work of the pressman, to a pressman.
From a pressman the only line of promotion is to a foremanship.
Deficiencies of workmen.—The most common deficiencies of the pressman are his
inability properly to make ready all forms of work and his limited knowledge of
anything pertaining to printing outside of his own shop. Another deficiency quite
common is the pressman’s lack of knowledge of the mechanism of the press, being
therefore unable'to make simple repairs and adjustments when anything goes wrong.
What the schools ought to give.—The schools should give a boy a good general edu
cation supplemented by a prevocational course to determine his aptitude for
printing. After a boy has entered the shop and decided to become a pressman he
should be given an opportunity in a day or night school to study the technical features
of his work that can not be learned in the shop, such as the theory and history of
the trade, mechanism of printing presses, chemistry of inks, color harmonizing, elec
trotyping, stereotyping, engraving, and lithography. This work should be carried on
in connection with courses in English and arithmetic as applied to the printing trade.
This course of work is applicable to day or night classes and to apprentices or journey
men.
Press Feeder.

Processes.—A press feeder is primarily one who feeds paper to the presses, but he
also has some other duties to perform. They are (1) to make general wash up of press
and rollers; (2) spot up sheet; (3) help make ready; (4) oil press and (5) assist press
man whenever needed.
Platen feeder.—The chief difference between the platen-pre3s feeder and the feeder
on a cylinder press is that since on a platen press only small work, such as cards, labels,
etc., is done, and the press does not deliver, the feeder must feed with one hand and
remove the printed work with the other. He places a stock of paper by his right
hand, feeds a sheet at a time with that hand, and after the impression has been made
he removes the finished product with his left hand. He must therefore be always on
the alert in order to feed the machine, remove printed product, and watch for any
imperfections in the impression.
Cylinder feeder.—The cylinder press feeder stands on the side of the press and feeds
the sheets of paper, one at a time, to the press. The bed, with a reciprocating motion,
moves under the cylinder which forms the impression surface and the impression is
made. The sheet is then delivered automatically at one end of the press. The
sheets are generally large and hard to handle, and the feeder must acquire the knack
of placing the paper, without wrinkles, against the guides in order that it may be
fed straight into the press. Otherwise the sheet will go through the press wrinkled
or get on to ink rollers and be ruined. The feeder is also expected to watch for any
defect in the impression or in the operation of the press and report same to the pressman.
The feeder helps the pressman hang the make-ready, regulate the impression, care
for the machine, and make a general wash up of the press and ink rollers. The forms
are washed with a solution of lye and water or gasoline and the rollers cleaned with
gasoline or oil, or any of the modem noncombustible wash-up fluids.
On some of the latest presses, both cylinder and platen, self-feeding devices for
feeding the sheets into the machines are in use, and these of course obviate the neces
sity of having a feeder for each press. A man is required, however, to furnish the
paper to the machine. One man can thus handle several machines.

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BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

As stated above, there are no press feeders in the newspaper offices using web presses.
The paper is fed from a roll of paper, is printed on both sides as it goes through the
press, and comes out in the form of a newspaper, counted, folded, and ready for de
livery, at the rate of 60,000 12-page papers an hour, and even faster than that on some
of the larger presses.
In some establishments where the feeder is kept busy all the time feeding the press
a pressman’s helper does such work as assisting the pressman, washing up, oiling the
machine, etc. He helps hang the make-ready, cares for the presses, and helps when
ever needed on any kind of work incident to the pressroom, except that of feeding the
machines.
Importance of the trade.—According to the information obtained on the schedules
there are 154 press feeders in Richmond—100 males and 54 females.
Conditions of employment.—Some press feeders are affected by the purely mechan
ical movement required and by the noise and vibration of the press. Others suffer
from long-continued standing at the press. Where much bronzing is done the press
feeder may be seriously affected. Confinement and lack of ventilation may also tend
to debilitate the feeder. A press feeder’s work is not especially stimulating, unless
it is color work or there is variety in the class of work he does.
Economic conditions.—The maximum wage per week reported on the schedules for
males is $16, for females $12. The minimum wage for males is $6 and for females $5.
The press feeders are not organized at present. They were affiliated with the press
men, but withdrew to form an organization of their own. This organization has since
been disbanded. The feeders work from 48 to 54 hours per week, 8 to 10 per day, and
practically all work a short Saturday of from 4 to 6 hours. The busy season for feeders
is generally from September to June and the dull season in the summer months. The
fluctuation in employment is about 13 per cent.
Age of maximum productivity.—Boys and girls generally take up press feeding at
the ages of 15 or 16. Because of the nature of the work the age period of maximum
productivity is indeterminate.
Demand for labor.—The supply of skilled labor is somewhat limited; the number
of beginners and of semiskilled workers is adequate. Since the printing trade in
Richmond seems to be growing each year, the demand for feeders will also increase.
The feeders are recruited from the ranks of the boys and girls who stop school at an
early age to go to work and also from the floaters who go from shop to shop.
Educational and technical requirements.—Very little school training is necessary for
the mere purpose of feeding a press, but should the feeder expect to become a foreman
he should have the school training necessary to become an efficient pressman. Even
if he does not become a pressman, he could hardly afford to have had less than a few
years’ training in elementary schools to make him a better citizen in being able to
read and write and talk intelligently on topics of the day.
The feeder should be able to feed the press so that the paper registers properly; to
help the pressman make ready; to make a general wash up of press and rollers. He
must necessarily be fast and accurate in feeding, possess a certain amount of strength
to be able to stand at the press all day, and have a keen eye to help the pressman
discover imperfect sheets.
What the industry gives.—There is no apprenticeship for press feeding. A boy soon
learns to feed a press well enough to do simple rough work, and as he becomes more
proficient he is given work of a more difficult character. Unless a boy is serving an
apprenticeship to become a pressman, press feeding leads nowhere. There are
cases, however, where a feeder who has helped the pressman to the best of his ability
has gained enough knowledge to become a pressman. This does not happen unless
there is close cooperation between the pressman and press feeder. There is no regular
line of promotion for a feeder after he has reached his maximum earning power as a

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feeder. As stated above, he may have the chance to become a pressman, but unless
he is an apprentice this is the exception to the rule.
Deficiencies of workers.—The most common deficiency of a press feeder seems to
be carelessness in feeding a press, thereby producing imperfect sheets. Another
one is the lack of a color sense, in which case the feeder is not able to detect any change
of color that may occur on the impressions.
What the school ought to give.—The school should give enough general knowledge
to keep the press feeder from being illiterate, even though there is little need for
much education in press feeding. After entering the shop the feeder should be
taught in a day or night school those subjects in general education which seem nec
essary and those that apply to a pressman, if the feeder should by any chance become
a pressman. No special trade or technical knowledge is necessary for a feeder, and
the manipulative skill required must be obtained in the shop.
STEEL AND COPPERPLATE ENGRAVING.

Engraving is the process of reproducing a design by means of sunk lines on a copper
or steel plate in order that impressions may be made. The art of engraving on metal
is undoubtedly of very ancient origin, the desire to ornament swords, knives, and
tools of metal leading the owner to decorate them by means of carving, incised lines,
and other forms of ornamentation. The art of engraving in metal for the purpose of
printing, however, is of more recent origin, the first known print from an engraving
having been made in 1452 by a goldsmith named Finiguerra of Florence, Italy.
He made an impression from a silver pax he had engraved for a church. Both the
pax and print are now priceless treasures, the former being in the Church of St.
John, Florence, Italy, and the latter being in the French National Library at Paris.
Engraving is done in two general ways, by making the depression or sunk lines (1)
with a steel tool called the burin or graver and (2) by means of acids. The latter
method is called etching. Under the first head may be classed line engraving, mez
zotint, and dry point work and under the second etching and aquatint work.
Until recently, portraits and illustrations were, to a large extent, engraved. With
the advent of photo-engraving, however, the work that had formerly been engraved
has now largely been superseded by half tones and photogravures. This is a much
quicker method and less expensive, and for ordinary commercial work is just as good.
For fine portrait work, though, the print from the engraved plate is far superior to
everything that has ever been done by any other process or method.
Steel and copperplate engraving is now mostly confined to the printing of personal
cards, wedding invitations, announcements, stationery, bank notes, and stamps.
Because the printing is done almost entirely by hand and the output per day is limited,
the work is necessarily expensive. Very few power machines are in use, except in
stamp and bank-note work, and they require much attention and handwork.
It is the purpose of this article to deal especially with the side of engraving most
commonly seen, that of making calling cards, invitations, stationery, etc., and this
description will thus cover, to a large extent, the processes used in other engraved
work, the minor differences being omitted. In an engraving shop where work of this
character is done the following workers may be seen: Engravers, plate printers, die
stampers (hand and machine), and packers.
Processes.—The first step in making an engraving is to have a design, which may be a
drawing, painting, or lettering. In some very large shops a designer may be employed
for this work, but in most plants it is done by the engraver. It is therefore necessary
that the engraver should be able to create original designs and modify those sent him
for suggestions until they are artistic and pleasing to the eye. This is also true of
lettering, and his working knowledge of different alphabets and styles of letters
should not be too limited. Photography has helped the engraver to a large extent in

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BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

recent years, for instead of reducing or enlarging by liand a picture of a building, say,
he photographs it the exact size it is to appear on the engraving and makes a trac
ing of it on gelatin with a sharp-pointed instrument called a scribe or marking-in
point, just piercing the gelatin. This enables him to transfer the design to the metal
simply by brushing some powder over the gelatin until the lines have become filled.
Then by laying the tracing face down on the die or plate, which has a coating of wax
on its surface, the powder adheres to the metal and the design is transferred. This
is a great improvement over the old way, wherever a photograph of the exact size can be
made. All designs are not made on gelatin first; some are drawn directly on the metal.
This is true of simple card work of a few lines.
Assuming the engraver has his design either 011 gelatin 01*in mind, he next decides
whether to use a copper or steel plate. If the plate is to be used just a few times, he
generally selects a copper plate, but in case the plate is to be used over and over again,
steel is used, because it lasts longer. For very fine lines, such as are used in portraits,
steel is generally used. A method of applying a coat of steel to the copper plate after
it has been engraved has proved very successful. The film of steel is heavy enough to
protect the copper, and it does not fill up the engraving to any extent. Whichever
metal is used, the plate must be perfectly smooth and iiighly polished until it resem
bles a mirror. Tills was formerly done by the engraver, but most plants now buy the
plates the proper size, already polished. Some large plants have engravers who make
a specialty of either metal or copperplate work, for it is difficult to work on copper and
then on steel, because of the difference in the behavior of the metal under the graver.
The steel requires much more strength than the copper. A competent engraver must
be able to engrave on both copper and steel, because most plants are too small to
specialize.
When the plate has been selected the engraver proceeds to transfer or draw the
design. If it be on gelatin, he transfers it in the manner mentioned above and then
marks in with a scribe the powder lines to prevent any possibility of losing the design.
If the design is to be placed directly on the plate, he puts a film of grease on it and by
means of a T square, triangle, or parallel ruler, and a scribe, draws the design. The
plate is then ready to be engraved, and for this purpose a burin or graver is used.
This is simply a four-sided piece of steel either square or rhomboidal in cross section,
with one end cut off at an angle to form a good cutting edge. The other end fits in a
handle which the engraver holds in the palm of his hand. The plate is placed on a
pad so that it may be easily handled and the engraver cuts or engraves the lines of the
design by pushing the graver in the metal and taking off small chips or ribbons. The
parts of the design to be printed must be engraved or cut out. By using gravers with
edges of different sizes and shapes, different portions of the design may be engraved,
from hair lines to broad, fiat, or round work.
The graver raises a burr or edge on each side of the engraved line, and this is taken
off with soapstone. It is worked along the lines of the design and the roughness
removed. If steel, the plate is next smoothed with a burnisher, a piece of steel oval
in section. This restores the plate to a good even condition and makes it suitable
for printing. It is possible to make corrections or alterations on copperplates by
scraping out the required part with a three-edge-shaped tool called the scraper and
then placing the plate on an anvil and hammering on the back of the plate exactly
opposite the part to be corrected. This brings it to a level and the plate can be made
smooth and the correction made. After the plate has been cleaned with cheesecloth
to remove all traces of grease, rubbed with charcoal and buffed to restore its polish
and remove any scratches, it is ready for the plate printer. The engraver may have
to go over the plate, when he sees a proof, to strengthen some lines or lighten others,
in which case the plate is sent him from the plate printer.
If the plate is to be etched and not cut with a graver, the engraved line must be
sunk or bitten with acids. The plate is covered with an etching ground or acid

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121

resisting substance, made in several ways, but generally of wax, resin, pitch, and
asphaltum. These are mixed together, worked into a ball, and wrapped in a piece
of silk. This ball is warmed and rubbed over the plate and the plate rubbed carefully
with a dabber or ball of cloth until the etching ground is evenly distributed. The
plate is next smoked with a wax candle, in order to render it easier to work. With an
engraving needle the engraver draws the design on the plate, piercing the etching
ground wherever the lines are to be engraved until the metal is exposed. He has
several needles of varying sizes to enable him to draw fine or coarse lines. When the
design has been drawn and the back of the plate covered with the ground to protect
it from the acid the plate is ready for the acid bath. There are several acid baths
in use, but the one most generally used is a solution of nitric acid and water. The plate
13 put in the bath and allowed to stay until the metal has been bitten the proper
depth, when it is removed and cleaned. Should some part need more etching, the
plate is again covered with the ground and all the lines of the design stopped up that
are not to be bitten any more, leaving bare only the part that needs more etching.
This may be repeated several times until the lines are all of the proper size and depth.
The etched line is not of the same character as the one made by the graver, for it is
the same throughout, while the graver makes lines that end in a fine point. An
engraved plate may be gone over with a graver and touched up, which adds greatly
to it sometimes. An acid bath known only to the trade is now being used, and it
has the advantage of being able instantly to stop the etching process. The plate is
hanked up around the side, after it is ready for the bath, and this acid bath poured on
the plate. The plate will not be affected by the bath, however, until a piece of zinc
is used, one end being placed in the bath and the other end on the plate. Thus, to
stop the etching, the engraver simply removes the zinc. Sometimes part of a plate
is engraved with a graver and the remainder etched. This is especially true when
large areas are to be engraved and time may be saved by the etching process.
Another line of work the engraver must know is that of making steel dies for stamp
ing or embossing on stationery. A good quality of soft steel is used. The engraver
makes a female die much the same as he engraves a card plate. After the die has
been engraved it is sometimes hardened to withstand the wear.
Product or specialties.—The product of an engraver in Richmond does not differ
materially from that in other cities.
Importance of the trade.—According to the schedules, there are seven steel and copper
plate engravers in Richmond.
Conditions of employment.—An engraver is subjected to a severe strain on the eyes,
produced by the close application required on all work. Some engravers also suffer
from lack of exercise and from close confinement caused by having to sit at the bench
all day. The work is highly stimulative and none of it can be said to restrict mental
development in any way.
Economic conditions— The beginning wage of an apprentice varies from $3 to $4
per week, with no fixed scale of increase. This increase is generally 50 cents per week
each six months. The maximum wage reported is $35 per week ancl the minimum
wage $15. The engravers are not organized in Richmond; hence no union scale.
Engravers in Richmond work from 48 to 52 hours per week, 8£ to 9£ per day, and
from 4 to 5 on Saturdays. The busy season is generally from October to June and
the dull season during the summer months. The fluctuation in employment among
engravers is about 13 per cent.
Age of maximum productivity.—The entrance age of boys who serve apprenticeship is
generally 16, and it takes five years to learn the trade. It is difficult to state the age
period of maximum productivity of an engraver. As soon as his eyes become weak,
however, he becomes less efficient until the point is reached when he can not do
accurate work.

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BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

Demandfor labor.—There is always a demand for an efficient engraver, although the
field is very limited. This is probably due to the fact that some talent is necessary
for the best work, and it is difficult to find such engravers. The demand for efficient
engravers is likely to continue to increase because of the popularity at present of
engraved or die-stamped work. The apprentices are generally boys from school who
feel they have a talent for that work or else believe it to be a profitable means of
employment and try it without any special fitness.
Educational and technical requirements.—Because of the high-class work an engraver
is called upon to do, he can hardly afford to have less than a good common-school
education. A knowledge of grammar, punctuation, and spelling is especially import
ant to prevent mistakes being made in engraved plates. Free-hand drawing and
design are very essential. Besides being able to engrave a plate properly an engraver
should know something of the action of acids on metals, of the chemistry of inks for
die stamping, and should have a working knowledge of alphabets, emblems, insignia,
of the different methods used in printing, and of modern methods in engraving.
He should have special adaptability, patience, keenness of sight, accuracy, and origi
nality in making designs.
What the industry gives.—The regular apprenticeship period is five years. Because
of the nature of engraving, which necessarily requires some talent in originating
designs and alphabets, some boys do not finish their trade because they find they
have no particular fitness for it. Generally speaking, there is no systematic instruc
tion of apprentices or journeymen. The apprentice is taught the tool manipulation
necessary to engrave a plate and he eventually masters some alphabets, but most of
the technical knowledge he must pick up for himself or not get it at all. The only
line of promotion is to the foremanship of the engraving department.
Deficiencies of ivorkers.—Probably the most common deficiency of an engraver is
his lack of originality in making designs and drawing alphabets. Another deficiency
is the lack of knowledge of forms of printing other than engraving and of any trade other
than his own. This may be true also of men in other trades, but it is given as a draw
back to an all-round journeyman.
What the school ought to give.—A boy before he begins to serve an apprenticeship as
engraver should have a training at least through the elementary schools, with special
emphasis on grammar, spelling, punctuation, free-hand drawing and design, and a
knowledge of what the trade has to offer. After he enters on his apprenticeship he
should continue his education by attendance at either a day or night school, studying
subjects of general education in which he is deficient. At the same time he should
have courses in free-hand drawing and design, with special reference to his work; a
study of the theory and history of engraving, and of the different methods of printing,
the chemistry of the trade as applied to ink and the action of acid on metal in etching
should be offered.
Plate printer.

Processes.—When the engraver finishes the plate it is sent to the plate printer,
who proceeds to make ready the plate for printing. The press used is not at all like
the ordinary printing press. It consists of an iron frame on which is mounted hori
zontally two cylinders or drums, the top one of which is in the form of a D. A
plate or bed, upon which is put the engraved plate, slides back and forth between the
cylinders under pressure. The cylinders are revolved by handles or levers at the
side and the pressure on the plate is varied by screws at the top of the frame of the
press. A gas flame is kept under the bed to render the ink easier to wipe off. This
is practically the form of the first press used for plate printing, except that it may be
a little heavier and stronger. The same methods are also used in printing as were
first used, no improvement having been made in all this time. In order that all the
pressure on the plate may be on the engraved part only, the printer takes an impres

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sion on a card, cuts out the printed part, and pastes this on the back of the plate
exactly opposite the engraving. This relieves the pressure on all except the part to
be engraved. If this were not done, the card would become smooth and the texture
injured. After the printer finishes this part of the make-ready, he pastes a piece of
paper over the back of the plate, rubs a form of soap over it, and places the plate on
the bed of the press. This soap serves as glue and fastens the plate securely to the
bed. The next operation is to put the guide marks on the plate. He makes a mark
on the plate where the end of the card is to go and also on the side, thus locating the
proper position. After adjusting the pressure the printer is ready to print. The
method on all hand machines is as follows: The plate is inked by rollers which pass
over it. The ink is thick and sticky and is softened by the flame under the plates.
When the plate has been inked, it is wiped off with the hand, then wiped with whiting
or some powder to further clean it. It is of extreme importance that the plate be clean,
for under the pressure used all the ink is taken up by the card. After the plate has been
inked and wiped, the card or paper is placed on the plate even with the guide marks.
This is one of the most difficult operations of the plate printer, for he has no raised
guide to feed against as has the typographical printer. When the card has been
placed, the printer grasps a handle on the left of the machine, turns it until the plate
has been moved between the cylinders and back again, and then removes the card.
In this process the card is forced into the depressions of the engraving where it
receives the ink in fine, slightly raised lines, and with a clearness not possible in any
other form of printing. The reason for the D-shaped roller is obvious; it allows the bed
of the press to roll back without coming into contact with it. As the printer takes
the cards from the press he places them back to back in rows and puts sheets of paper
between the engraved sides to keep the ink from smearing. As may be seen, this
method of inking the plate, wiping it clean, placing the work, applying pressure,
and removing the work is a slow process, and a good printer will hardly average more
than 1,500 calling cards per day. This is why the scope of the work done in engrav
ing is limited.
Product or specialties.—The product of a plate printer in Richmond is like that in
other cities, the production of engraved material from a plate attached to a plateprinting press.
Importance of the trade.—According to the information collected on the schedules,
there are eight plate printers in Richmond.
Conditions of employment.—A plate printer may suffer physical strain from having
to stand at the press all day and operate it by means of hand power. This requires
endurance and some strength. He also suffers an eyestrain if he works at night or
under an artificial light during the day. Because engraved work is of a high class
there should be something stimulative about all of it. This is especially true of
wedding invitations and fine stationery.
Economic conditions.—Most apprentices are given from $3 to J>4 per week at the
start and are increased 50 cents each six months. The maximum wage paid journey
men was reported as $17 per week and the minimum as $12. The hours of labor vary
from 48 to 52 per week. 8J to 9J per day, and 4 to 5 on Saturday. The busy season is
generally from October to June and the dull time from June to October. There is
very little fluctuation in employment among plate printers in Richmond. The men
are not organized.
Age of maximum productivity.—Apprentices generally enter the trade at the age of
16, and five years are required to learn it. The age of maximum productivity was
not reported.
Demandfor labor.—There is a demand for the efficient plate printer and this demand
is likely to increase in the future. The field is limited, but very few enter the trade.
The demand is supplied by boys who serve an apprenticeship and by journeymen from
other cities.

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BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

Educational and technical requirements.—As in the case of the press feeder only a
small amount of general education is necessary for the process of operating a plateprinting press. But should the plate printer aspire to a foremanship or even to be an
alert, efficient workman, he should have enough education to enable him to take an
interest in the things outside of his own sphere of work and to discuss intelligently
current topics and matters of general interest. It would be of advantage to him to
know something of free-hand drawing and design to appreciate more fully the work
of the engraver. He should know something of the action of acids on metals. He
must be able to make ready forms quickly and accurately and to regulate the proper
amount of pressure and ink required. He must be able to handle all materials with
out smearing. This requires him to be careful, accurate, and patient. A certain
amount of strength and endurance is also necessary.
What the industry gives.—The period of apprenticeship is five years. There is, gen
erally speaking, no systematic method of instruction for the apprentice or journeyman
in Richmond. The trade knowledge necessary to operate a press is readily learned
in the shop, but very little other than that can be learned. The apprentice can learn
to make ready the plate, to ink and clean the plate, to feed and remove the work
properly and all other points necessary for the production of printed work. There
seems to be no line of promotion for a plate printer, except in a large plant where he
may become foreman of that department.
Deficiencies of workers.— Plate printers are most deficient in the proper way of feed
ing work to the press and in the manner of handling material without smearing.
What the school ought to give.—The school should give the boy who intends to serve
an apprenticeship an elementary school education, supplemented by some prevo
cational work, to find out if possible whether the boy has a liking for mechanical work.
After he begins to learn his trade, he should have instruction in the general subjects
and in the theory and history of the trade, and in the chemistry of the trade as applied
to inks and action of acids on metals. Some free-hand drawing and design would be
of advantage to him in appreciating the work of the engraver. This same line of
instruction would apply to the journeyman who was lacking in those subjects.
Die Stamper.

Processes.—Closely allied to plate printing in some of its operations is die stamping,
or the process of stamping or embossing letters or designs in relief, which may or may
not be printed. Both hand and power machines are in use. In the hand machines
the engraved or female die is placed on a die box that can be easily slipped off the
press. The pressure is applied by turning a handle fastened to a large screw, which
lowers and raises the die.
When the die is sent to the stamper she glues it on the die box and makes an
impression of it on tag or tar board. This male or counter die, which is raised like
type form, is trimmed or tapered on the sides until just the face of it comes in contact
with the paper. This counter is then fastened firmly on the counterplate or station
ary bed of the press directly beneath the engraved die and a proof is taken of the
work. If the proof is accepted, the stamper locates the exact position of the paper
to be stamped and places pins or other guides on the bed to feed against. The
stamper places the paper against the guides, grasps the handle with one hand and
turns it until the pressure has been sufficient to cause the counter to force the paper
in the upper die, and then releases the handle. The paper is taken out and the
operation repeated. If color work is required, the stamper removes the die box con
taining the steel die, paints the face of the die with ink, using a small brush, and
then rubs the surface of the die on paper to remove all traces of ink except that in the
engraved lines. The die box is then placed in its position and an impression made.
The sheets must be handled carefully until the ink dries. The ink contains a large
quantity of varnish to give it a gloss after it is printed.

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In the case of power machines the inking and operation of the machines are done
by power and not by hand. The plate is wiped by means of paper and the stamper
simply feeds the paper to the press and receives it after the impression has been made.
Product or specialties.—The product of a die stamper in Richmond does not differ
materially from that work done elsewhere. It is the production of printed designs
or letters in relief on stationery, cards, etc.
Importance of the trade.—There are 15 die stampers employed in Richmond, 1 male
and 14 females.
Conditions of employment.—As in plate printing, there is a strain caused in die
stamping by the continual standing required. If there is any variety in the work
it should be stimulative.
Economic conditions.—The minimum wage reported for females was $5.50 per week
and the maximum wage $10. The one male worker makes $10 per week. The die
stamper works the same hours as the plate printer, 48 to 52 per week, 8J to 9J per day,
and 4 to 5 on Saturday. The busy season is from October to June and the dull season
during the summer months. The fluctuation in employment is very slight. There
is no organization among the die stampers.
Age of maximum productivity.—The entrance age is 16 years, and no apprenticeship is
necessary. The worker soon learns enough to do simple stamping, and as she becomes
more proficient she is given work of a more difficult character. The age of maximum
productivity was not reported.
Demandfor labor.—There is not much demand for die stampers as a whole, but
limited as the field is, an efficient stamper is always in demand. Because of the
growing popularity of stamped work the demand for workers of this character should
increase in the future. The workers are generally girls who stop school at an early
age to go to work.
Educational and technical requirements.—It is not absolutely necessary for a die
stamper to have a complete elementary-school education, but it is desirable for the
broadening influence on the worker. She should possess some knowledge of how the
die is made, be able to make the counterdie, adjust dies to press, regulate proper
amount of pressure, ink and wipe clean the die, and handle the printed sheet without
smearing. A knowledge of the different methods of printing would be of benefit in
broadening the scope of the worker’s knowledge in other lines of work.
What the industry gives.—The trade knowledge necessary for the production of
printed matter is learned in the shop, but none of the general or technical part that
would be of benefit. There is no apprenticeship necessary to become a die stamper
and there is little chance for promotion to any higher position.
Deficiencies of'workers.—The most common deficiency among die stampers seems to
be their carelessness in handling printed sheets, resulting in smeared, defective work.
What the school ought to give.—The school should give these workers a training
through the elementary schools, if possible, with some training in color harmony.
After entering the shop they should continue their training in a day or night school
in the subjects in which they are deficient and in other subjects mentioned above,
to make more efficient, alert workers.
The Packer.

Processes.—After the ink has dried, the cards are packed in boxes by packers, who
place sheets of tissue paper between the printed surfaces to prevent any possible
chance of smearing. In the case of invitations or work requiring envelopes, the
packer also places the finished work in the proper envelopes, with tissue paper next
to the printed side. The packer is held responsible for the condition of the work as
it leaves the shop, so that she must quickly detect any defective work and cast it aside.
This work is generally done by girls.

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BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

Product or specialties.—The product of a packer is essentially the examination and
packing of engraved material in boxes or packages. There is no difference in the
methods used in Richmond and those used elsewhere.
Importance of the trade.—Thirteen packers are employed, according to the employ
ers’ schedules, 1 male and 12 females.
Conditions of employment.—There is no physical or nervous strain caused b y pack
ing and no occupational disease to be guarded against. The work is stimulative to a
certain degree, for the packer is held strictly to account for the condition of the work
that leaves the plant.
Economic conditions.—The minimum wage reported for females is $4.50 per week
and the maximum $6.50. The male worker receives $10 per week. The hours of
labor are the same as for die stampers, 48 to 52 per week, 8£ to 9J per day, and 4 to 5 on
Saturday. The busy season is also the same, from October to June, and the dull
season from June to October. There is very little fluctuation in employment. The
packers are not organized.
Age of maximum productivity.—The usual entrance age of beginners is about 16, and
no apprenticeship is necessary. As in die stamping, the beginner is given simple
work at first and gradually led into harder and more responsible work. The age of
maximum productivity was not reported.
Demand for labor.—As the demand for engraved and stamped work grows, more
packers will be needed, for increased demand affects this occupation as well as those
of engraver, plate printer, and die stamper, all of whom are necessary to work of this
character. The packers are generally girls from the schools who stop to go to work,
whether from choice or because of necessity.
Educational and technical requirements.—The packer should have an elementary
school education, not so much for use in her work as for her own general improvement
and to equip her more fully for some higher position. She should know something
of the materials used in engraving and the sizes and kinds of stationery for all
occasions. She must be careful and neat and have a quick eye to discern any defective
work. She must also be accurate in sorting out the amount in each order.
What the industry gives.—The purely trade part can be picked up in the shop, but
the technical part, as a rule, can not.
Deficiencies of workers.—The most common deficiencies of packers are (1) careless
handling of printed work; (2) inaccuracy in counting; and (3) inability to detect
imperfect sheets.
What the school ought to give.—The school can hardly afford to give less than an
elementary school education to any worker, regardless of whether it is required in
her daily work. After the worker has left school, she should have instruction, day or
night, in those subjects in which she is most deficient and in other subjects that apply
to the engraving business.
LITHOGRAPHY.

Lithography is the art of drawing on stone or some substitute, with chemically pre
pared ink or crayon or engraving with a needle or diamond point, and printing there
from with lithographic ink. It differs from relief and intaglio printing in two ways—
(1) it is surface printing and (2) it is chemical printing. The other methods of printing
are both mechanical. The theory of lithography depends entirely upon the principle
of chemical affinity, the attraction of greasy substances to each other, and the antipathy
or repulsion of grease and water.
History.—The art of lithography was discovered in 1796 b y Aloys Senefelder, an
actor of Bavaria, Germany. He had been trying for some time to make etched copper
plates that would take the place of type-printing forms. He used a stone for mixing
his ink and an acid-resisting preparation to protect the stone from the acids used in
etching. It is interesting to note that the preparation he made has ever since been

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the foundation for all lithographic crayons or ink. It is also interesting to note that
the art of lithography was partly discovered by accident. One day Senefelder’s
mother asked him to copy down his laundry list before it was sent out, and, having
no paper on which to write it, he dipped a pen in the acid-resisting preparation and
wrote the list on the stone he was inking with. The thought occurred to him imme
diately to apply acid to the stone and etch it, thereby leaving the writing in relief.
He did this and was successful in taking a few impressions. If he had only wiped the
acid off immediately after it was put on the stone and applied water and ink, he could
have made as many copies of his laundry list as he wanted and the art would have
been discovered and in operation years before it was. He did not give up, however,
and it is not surprising to find that he kept doggedly at his work for years. When he
did discover the means of lithography he covered the field so thoroughly that few
improvements have been made except in the method of pulling impressions b y power
presses.
The chief materials used in lithography are (1) the stone, (2) crayon or chalk, (3)
lithographic touche, (4) lithographic printing ink, and (5) paper.
The stone.—The best stone that has ever been found comes from Solnhofen, Bavaria.
It is a fine-grained limestone, and varies in color from a dull gray to a light creamy
gray. It is cut at the quarry in slabs varying in thickness from 3 to 4 inches and in
size from 6 b y 8 to 44 by 64 inches, the large sizes being hard to obtain free from im
perfections. The stones are sawed this thickness because of the great pressure ap
plied to them in printing. In recent years aluminum or zinc plates have taken the
place of the stone for commercial work because of the ease with which these plates
may be handled and because of their adaptability to the offset press. For extra fine
wofk, though, most lithographers still prefer the stone.
Crayon.—The crayon or chalk used for drawing the design on the stone is composed
of wax, turpentine, shellac, soap, tallow, and lampblack. It is hard when dry and is
molded into pencil forms that are sharpened from the point upward. This greasy
mixture repels the water and attracts printing ink.
Lithograph ink.—Lithograph ink is used for making the transfers and is composed
of practically the same ingredients as the crayon, although it is in pasty form.
Printing ink.—The ink used for printing is like ordinary printing ink, except that
it is of a much better quality.
Paper.—The paper used in lithograph work contains a little sizing. When used for
making labels it is finished on one side only. The paper must be strong in order to
withstand the frequent handling received in color work, and the less it stretches or
shrinks because of atmospheric conditions the better adapted it is for lithograph work.
Processes.—The processes in lithography may be stated as follows: (1) Design is
made; (2) design is engraved or lithographed; (3) engraving is proofed; (4) transfers
are made; (5) impressions are made; (6) printed work is allowed to dry; and (7) sheets
are cut up into proper sizes and forms.
Occupations.—The occupation may be classed as follows: Designers, engravers,
lithographers, proofers, transferrers, printers (feeders and fiyboys), and cutters (colla
tors, numberers, folders, perforators, bookmakers, and padders).
Engraver and Lithographer.

Processes.—The designer in a lithograph plant either originates the design himself
or reproduces it from the ideas given him by the customer. Very few designs are sent
to the plant already worked out and ready for the engraver. The designer makes the
design on drawing paper, which may or may not be the size of the finished product.
He must be able not only to execute the drawings but to suggest the proper colors,
if it be color work, to make the design more attractive and useful for its purpose.
After the design has been made and accepted it goes to the engraver or color artist
to be put on stone. There are two methods of applying design to stone—(1) by

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BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOB STATISTICS.

engraving and (2) by drawing with a piece of lithograph crayon. For color work the
crayon is generally used, but for fine line work the stone is always engraved. This
is not a fast rule, for it makes no difference in the finished product which method is
used. The object is to get the design on the stone in lithograph ink, and this is accom
plished by either means. If the stone is to be engraved, it may be treated with a
weak solution of nitric or muriatic acid and gum arabic before the design is put on.
This etches the face of the stone and makes it grease proof. The stone can then be
handled with impunity. However, the lithographer or color artist must work with
crayon on the stone before it has been etched, and he must therefore keep it free
from grease. Even a finger print would absorb ink and would print when the stone
went through the press.
The engraver uses a sharp-pointed steel tool or a small diamond point for engraving.
This stone, after it has been engraved or lithographed, is called the key or drawing
plate, and from it all transfers are made. It is filed away and kept for any subsequent
orders of work. If the design has more than one color, a plate must be made for each
color and all must tally with the key plate. Hence, if a label is to have six colors,
the key plate is made by the engraver or lithographer first, and then five additional
stones prepared in the same way from the key plate, each so that it will print the
proper color in the required place on the design. If the finished work registers properly,
the register marks on the six stones will coincide on the impression, making a single
line.
Proof'er.—After the drawing on stone has been made it goes to the proofer for a try out.
This is to make sure that the colors are right, and to reveal any imperfection in the
work or any mistakes that have been made and allowed to pass unnoticed. The progfer
generally uses a small hand press to make the impression. He first takes the stone,
which is of course perfectly true and flat and has a properly prepared surface, and
treats it with a weak solution of nitric or muriatic acid and gum arabic in order to pre
pare for printing, and to keep the design from spreading. He next moistens the surface
of the stone with water which adheres to the blank part of the stone but not to the
design, since the lithograph ink used is greasy and repels water. Next he runs an
ink roller over the plate depositing ink only on the design and leaving none on the
moistened pait of the stone. Then he puts a piece of paper on the stone, applies pres
sure as in a letterpress and takes his first impression. The ink that adhered to the
design is thus transferred to the paper and the proofer is able to detect mistakes; or he
may send the impression to the office, where corrections are sometimes made. If the
work be of several colors, the proofer uses the same piece of paper to take an impression
from each color plate. After the last impression he can tell whether or not the colors
register. The last impression should show the finished product with each color in its
proper place and of the proper shade. The customer is generally sent one of these
impressions to make any correction or criticism he may desire before the printing is
done. When the proofer obtains an impression that is correct in design and color it is
attached to the order and all impressions afterwards are compared with it to see that
the colors match and the work registers.
Product or specialty.—The product or specialty of a lithograph engraver is the
preparation of designs on lithograph stone, from which impressions may be printed.
Importance of the trade.—There are approximately 15 lithograph engravers in Rich
mond; none were reported on the schedules.
Conditions of employment.—An engraver is subjected to a severe eyestrain because
of the nature of the work, and he may also suffer because of a lack of exercise, his work
confining him very closely all the time. His work is highly stimulative, and none of
it can be said to narrow or restrict in the least his mental development.
Economic conditions.—The apprentice is started on a wage of from $3 to $4 per week,
with an increase of about 50 cents each six months. The minimum wage reported for
journeymen was $26 per week and the maximum $30. The hours of labor vary from

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48 to 51 per week, 8J to 9 per day, and from 4J to 6 on Saturday. The slack time is
generally during the summer months, but there is very little fluctuation in employ
ment. The engravers in Richmond are not organized.
Age of maximum productivity.—Apprentices are generally taken at the age of 16, audit
takes abotit five years to learn the trade. The age period of maximum productivity,
although varying and indeterminate, may be said to be between 21 and 50.
Demandfor labor.—The efficient engraver is always in demand, because of the lim
ited scope of the field; the trade could easily be overrun by inefficient workers. It
does not seem that the demand will increase in the future, but will remain about sta
tionary. The supply of journeymen is generally obtained from boys who serve their
time as apprentice to lithoengraver.
Educational and technical requirements.—The lithograph engraver does work that
requires a great deal of skill and also of time. Consequently, if a mistake is made, it
may cause hours of work to be thrown away; for that reason, if for no other, the
engraver should possess a good education, to prevent m istakes in spelling, punctuation,
and grammar. Where an engraver is also the designer he should use original ideas in
design and be able to execute those ideas on the stone. As the principle of lithography
is based on chemistry, he should know the chemistry of the trade and also the history.
A knowledge of alphabets and insignia is also beneficial, and the efficient engraver
should have at least an understanding of the different methods of printing.
What the industry gives.—It takes a boy about five years to learn the trade. He is
taught the trade requirements mentioned above and is therefore able to engrave on a
stone, but very little of the technical part is taught him. There is, generally speaking,
no systematic instruction for apprentices or journeymen.
Deficiencies of toorhers.—rThe deficiencies most commonly reported are (1) lack of
general education, especially in spelling, punctuation, and grammar; (2) lack of
originality and ability to design; and (3) inability to do different classes of work
required.
What the school ought to give.—The school should give the engraver at least an ele
mentary schooling, with emphasis on free-hand drawing and design. After the boy
enters the trade, he should continue his schooling, by attendance at either a day or
night school, in those subjects in general education in which he is deficient, together
with such technical subject as the efficient engraver needs. These subjects include
chemistry, history and theory of the trade, knowledge of materials used, free-hand
drawing, and others mentioned above. These courses would apply with equal fitness
to apprentices and journeymen.
Transferrer.

Processes.—After the work of the designer, engraver, and proofer has been accepted,
the order then goes to the transferrer. When the art of lithography was first discovered,
all impressions were taken from the original or key plate. As the demand for the work
grew, means of duplicating were found necessary and the system of transferring was
invented. B y this method as many duplicates of the original impression are made
as are desired. This corresponds in printing to electrotyping. A new occupation was
thus made necessary—that of transferrer. He makes as many impressions from the
key plate with lithographic ink as are needed, on a specially prepared paper, coated
on one side with a sizing of starch, flour, and glycerin. These impressions are then
placed on a sheet of paper, with the coated side out, in the order they are to appear
on the finished product, using the register marks from the key plate to adjust them
properly. The transferrer next places this paper with the prepared side next to
the stone or aluminum plate, and by applying pressure in a press transfers the
ink from the paper to the stone. The paper is washed off and the stone, treated
with acid as in the case of the key plate, is ready for printing. Thus a number of
impressions of the original are printed at one time, instead of one at a time from the
0071°— Bull. 162— 16------ 9

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BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS*

key plate as had been the custom. This saves the key plate for all future work
and keeps it in good condition. The transferrer must be very careful and accurate
in order to have the work register when it is placed on the stone, for an error
unchecked at this point would mean a mistake in each sheet printed. This is espe
cially true of work of more than one color, for the colors must register after each
printing and a difference of one thirty-second of an inch would render them valueless.
Product or specially.—The product of a transferrer in Richmond does not differ mate
rially from that of transferrers in other towns.
Importance of the trade.—There are approximately 15 transferrers in Richmond.
Conditions of employment.—Most transferrers suffer from an eyestrain caused by the
extreme care needed to place the transfers properly on the stone, in order that the
impressions register. Some also suffer from the close confinement caused by having
to keep the windows closed to prevent drafts and dust which are injurious to the work.
All the work a transferrer does is very skilled and it tends therefore to stimulate and
arouse his interest. There are no occupational diseases in the work of a transferrer.
Economic conditions.—An apprentice boy is generally given from $3 to $4 per week
at the beginning of his apprenticeship and his pay is increased at the rate of about 50
cents per week each six months. The minimum wage for journeymen reported was
$22 per week and the maximum $30 per week. The union scale is $22.50 to $25.
The hours of labor are the same as for engravers, 48 to 51 per week, 8£ to 9 per day, and
from 4\ to 6 on Saturday. There is little fluctuation in work or employment except
during the summer months, the dull season in lithograph work. The transferrers and
printers have an organization and they are well organized.
Age of maximum productivity.—Apprentices generally enter the trade between the
ages of 15 and 16, and it takes about five years to learn the trade. The age period
of maximum productivity may safely be said to be between the ages of 21 and 50.
Demandfor labor.—Although the field of this work is limited there is always demand
for the efficient transferrer, but not the medium-grade worker. It is not likely that
the demand will increase in the near future. The journeymen here generally come
from the ranks of the apprentices or from other cities.
Educational and technical requirements.—A transferrer needs a good elementaryschool training with special emphasis on arithmetic. He should know something of
the history, theory, and chemistry of the trade and of the materials used. He should
have a knowledge of the different methods in printing and any modern method in
lithography. An efficient transferrer will arrange the design on the stone in such
manner as to use the least paper in printing.
What the industry gives.—An apprentice can learn all that is necessary for the pur
pose of making transfers, but he does not get the general education he may be lack
ing in nor any of the technical part of the trade that is necessary for an alert, efficient
transferrer.
Deficiency of ivorlcmen.—Some workmen are unable to place the transfers accu
rately on the stone and to arrange them in the most economical way. This seems to
be the most common deficiency of the worker.
What the school ought to give.—An apprentice boy should have a good elementaryschool training, with emphasis on arithmetic, before he enters the trade. After
entering on his apprenticeship he should have courses of instruction in a day or night
school in the general subjects in which he is deficient, and at the same time in sub
jects pertaining to the technical part, as the theory, history, and chemistry of the
trade, different methods of printing, and others mentioned above.
Lithograph Printer.

Processes.—After the transfers have been made the stone or plate is sent to the
printer for printing. The presses used are of the flat-bed cylinder type similar to
those used in other printing, with the difference that lithograph presses contain the

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means for moistening the stone before each inking. The stone is placed on the bed
and moves with a reciprocating motion under the impression cylinder, which carries
the paper. Ink rollers are at one end and water rollers at the other. As the stone
passes the water rollers it is moistened and immediately afterwards is inked by pass
ing under the ink rollers. Ink adheres only to the design or transfer so long as the
stone is kept wet because of the antipathy of water and grease, and when the paper
on the impression cylinder is brought in contact w ith the stone an impression is made
This process of moistening and inking the stone and oiling the impression must be
done for every impression that is made.
Because of the size and weight of the stone used and the slow speed of the flat-bed
press, which makes about 8,000 impressions a day, the rotary offset press, making
4,000 an hour, is becoming more popular. This press has three cylinders, one of
which holds the aluminum plate containing the transfers. This plate prints on a
rubber blanket around the surface of the second cylinder, and this in turn prints on
the paper carried by the third or impression cylinder. As this offset press runs at
a much greater speed than the flat-bed press, it seems destined to replace it to a
large extent.
The printer in a lithograph plant corresponds to the pressman in a printing shop.
He is given the stone or plate from the transferrer and the blank paper and is then
held responsible for the finished product. He has just one press, as a rule, to be
responsible for, but he is held rigidly responsible for that. His duties are as follows:
(1) To make ready the stone or plate, (2) to mix inks until he matches the color on
the impression sent him by the proofer, (3) to watch for any change of color on the
printed sheets, (4) to watch for imperfect sheets, (5) to see that the finished sheets are
taken from the press and put on the proper piles, and (6) to see that the press is oiled
and properly cared for.
A printer makes ready the stone by seeing that the impression is printed evenly
all over. He levels the stone on the bed and makes any other adjustments necessary
to remedy the impression should it be faulty. As the stones are polished on the face
time and time again, they necessarily become thinner. The presses are constructed
to take care of this difference by adjusting the distance between the bed and the
cylinder.
The printer must mix his inks to match the colors on the impression made by the
proofer. This is one of his most difficult operations, for if it be a job of several colors
and one of the colors varies from the original, the finished product will have the wrong
color effect.
The printer must watch for any change of color in the sheets and for any imper
fection that may occur from various causes. If the paper, after one printing, should
shrink or stretch, the colors will not register when the paper is put through the press
the second time. The printer puts the finished sheets as they collect at the end of
the press on the proper stacks, unless the sheets are small and can be handled by the
flyboy. As the paper is delivered from the press it is hard to handle and much care
must be exercised.
Another very important duty of the printer is to take the proper care of his press.
The rollers, both ink and water, must have attention, the press oiled and cleaned at
regular intervals, and care taken in every way to keep it as efficient as possible.
Product or specialties.—The production of impressions from a lithograph stone after
the proper make-ready has been made.
Importance of the trade.—There are about 20 lithograph printers in Richmond.
Conditions of employment.—The printer may be affected by the noise and vibra
tion of the presses and by confinement in a room with doors and windows closed to
exclude drafts and moisture. Bronzing, if done in large quantities, may be injurious.
All work should be stimulative, especially that in colors.

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BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

Economic conditions.—Apprentices are paid from $3 to $4 per week at the beginning
of apprenticeship, with an increase of about 50 cents per week each six months. The
minimum wage reported for journeymen was $15 per week and the maximum $25.
Lithograph printers in Richmond work from 48 to 51 hours per week, from
to 9
per day, and from 4\ to 6 on Saturday. The busy season is generally from September
to June and the dull time during the summer months. The lithograph printers are
organized with the transferrers.
Age of maximum productivity.—Beginners generally enter the trade between the
ages of 15 and 16, and it takes five years to learn the trade. The period of maximum
productivity is probably between the ages of 21 and 50.
Demandfor labor.—There is always a demand for the efficient lithograph printer,
but this demand will probably be stationary in the near future. The journeymen
printers are recruited from the ranks of the apprentices and occasionally from a press
feeder who is given a chance to learn the trade.
Educational and technical requirements.—A lithograph printer needs at least an
elementary-school training, with a sense of color harmony. He should be able to
make ready all kinds of work, to make adjustments to press, to mix inks, to detect
imperfect sheets, and to do anything required to turn out good work. He should have
a knowledge of the theory, history, and chemistry of the trade, of material used, and
of the mechanism of the press.
What the industry gives.—The apprentice can acquire the trade knowledge necessary
for the production of the required work, but he can not obtain the technical part in
the shop.
Deficiencies of %
oorkers.—The most common deficiencies are (1) inability to make
ready all kinds of work, (2) to make adjustments to press, and (3) to detect changes
in color.
What the school ought to give.—Before a boy enters on his apprenticeship, he should
have a complete training in the elementary schools. After entering on his trade he
should attend either a day or night school and take those subjects he is deficient in,
together with such work as the theory, history, and chemistry of the trade and other
subjects needed to make an alert efficient printer.
Lithograph-press Feeder.

Processes.—The lithograph-press feeder, primarily, does nothing but feed the press.
He must learn to feed the paper exactly where it belongs, for in color work a slight
variation will cause the colors not to register. He stands at the back of the machine,'
grasps the paper with one hand and places it in the proper position with the other.
He must be on the lookout for imperfect sheets, as far a3 possible, although he is up
high at the end of the machine and must observe the work as it goes through the press.
The feeder helps the printer to care for the machine and to make ready, if he is
not engaged in feeding another press. All offset presses have a self-feeding service
and, although no feeder is required to feed the presses, a man is required to furnish
paper to the presses. One man, though, is not required to each offset press.
Flyboy.—The flyboy catches the printed sheets as they come through the press,
keeps them in a straight pile and throws out any that may become torn or injured by
coming through the press crooked. He keeps the feeder supplied with blank paper,
and helps the printer to handle the finished sheets, if help is needed. If the work is
small and the flyboy can manage the sheets, he does that for the printer. The flyboy
helps to clean the machine and to do at all times whatever the printer may require
of him.
Product or specialties.—The product of a lithograph-press feeder is primarily the
feeding of paper to a lithograph press.
Importance of the trade.—There are about 25 feeders in Richmond.

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133

Conditions o f employment.—Standing all day at the press causes a physical strain
and the noise and vibration of the presses may cause a nervous strain on some. Bronz
ing may be injurious if done to a great extent. There is nothing specially stimulating
about press feeding, but there seems to be no reason to believe it narrows or restricts
in any way.
Economic conditions.—The lowest wage reported was $7.14 per week and the maxi
mum $10 per week. The hours of labor vary from 48 to 51 per week, 8J to 9 per day,
and 4J to 6 on Saturday. The busy season is from September to June, the dull time
during the summer. There is, however, very little fluctuation in employment. The
lithograph-press feeders are not organized.
Age of maximum productivity.—Feeders generally enter their work between the ages
of 15 to 16 and no specified time is required to become proficient.
Demandfor labor.—The supply of skilled, efficient press feeders is limited, but
there is an abundance of medium-grade men. The supply of feeders is obtained from
the boys who leave school to go to work, and from transient workers.
Educational and technical requirements.—A lithograph-press feeder does not need
much schooling to be able to feed a press, but if he expects to get a better position he
needs to have an elementary-school training. Very little trade knowledge is neces^
eary for a press feeder. He should have the manipulative skill to feed the paper to
the press and to help the printer make ready. It would be to his advantage to
have a knowledge of the theory, history, and chemistry of the trade. A feeder must
possess good eyesight* be quick, and have some endurance.
What the industry gives.—-There is no apprenticeship in press feeding. The workers
are either apprentice boys serving to become printers or feeders who do not expect
to go any higher. A feeder soon becomes proficient enough to handle simple work
and he is given work of a more difficult character to do as he improves. The feeder,
therefore, learns enough of the work to produce, but he learns nothing of the technical
side of the work. There is not much chance of promotion after a feeder earns his
maximum wage as a feeder, unless he has been given a chance by the printer to learn
gome of Ms duties. In that case he may in time become a printer.
Deficiencies of workers.—Careless feeding of paper is the most common deficiency,
together with inability to detect imperfect sheets.
What the school ought to give.—Before a boy begins to feed a press he should have
had a training in general education, through the grammar grade, if possible; after
entering on his work lie should take up a course of instruction, day or night, that will
help him to advance and make of him a good citizen.
PHOTO-ENGRAVING.

Owing to the small number of workers engaged in photo-engraving in Pdchmond,
the similarity in general trade conditions and requirements and the fact that the
worker sometimes engages in more than one occupation, the four occupations of the
photo-engraver have been considered under one head.
Processes.—Photo-engraving is a photomechanical process of engraving in which
the printing surface is in relief. It includes zinc etching and other processes of mak
ing line cuts, and the halftone and other processes.
Operator.—The photographer in a photo-engraving establishment is known as the
“ operator.” The picture or drawing to be reproduced by the halftone process is
placed on a support in front of a specially designed copying camera. Wet plates are
made instead of the dry plates of ordinary photography. Just in front of the dry plate
is placed the “ screen, ” which is a gelatin film on which a series of black lines have
been photographed. This film is cemented between two sheets of plate glass. In
place of the gelatin film a mechanically engraved sheet of glass may be used. After
exposure to light in the usual manner, the resulting print or negative consists of

134

BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

the subject appearing in half tone on a ground of lines; that is, the surface of the
negative is broken up by lines or dots in regular series. The operator develops his
own negative, which is in the form of a collodion film on a glass plate. In making a
negative for a zinc etching the process is the same except that the screen is not used.
Etcher.—The etcher receives from the operator a developed film or negative which
has been stripped from the original glass plate; this lie cements to another sheet of
plate glass. A sheet of copper is highly polished and prepared by being coated with
chemicals which are sensitive to light. This sheet of sensitized metal is brought in
close contact with the sheet of glass having on its surface the negative. The whole
is then exposed to an intense light which renders the surface of the plate resistant to
acid in a varying degree, dependent on the amount of light which has been admitted
by the negative. The process for line etchings is somewhat different, but the prin
ciple is the same. The sheet of copper is then placed in an acid bath so arranged that
by means of a rocking motion the acid is carried back and forth over the surface of the
copper. When the plate has been etched deep enough it is removed from the bath
and washed off. It is generally necessary to re-etch to bring out certain portions of
the halftone to the best advantage. This consists of coating with asphaltum—which
is resistant to acid—all those portions of the plate which are etched deep enough and
etching deeper the remaining parts. When the etching process is complete, the half
tone is turned over to the finisher. In some plants the finisher does the re-etching
instead of the etcher.
Router.—The router by means of a specially designed machine cuts out the etching
or halftone to proper size and bends the edges, cuts away or lowers such parts as
must be removed for multicolor work, and when the plate has been inspected and
corrected by the finisher, the router mounts it on a wood block, which makes the
cut type high. The router also does some hand engraving at times, such as cutting
out borders, etc.
Finisher.—The finisher is a hand engraver, and to him falls the work of correcting
small defects in the finished halftone or etching, such as cutting out spots and building
up. He also “ tools out” high lights, burnished shadows, vignettes, and outlines the
plates for the router to cut by. The finisher also does all the fine cutting out that can
not be done by the router. In Richmond the finisher also makes his own proofs on a
hand proof press. A proofer is sometimes employed for this purpose in larger estab
lishments.
Product or specialties.—The production of halftone and zinc line etchings,
Importance of the trade.—According to the returns on the survey schedules, which
are practically complete for the trade, there are 11 photo-engravers in Richmond.
Conditions of employment.—The operator is compelled to work in intense light,
which results in considerable eyestrain. The work is stimulative to both interest
and the intelligence because it varies from day to day, each job calling for special
treatment and a high degree of skill. The eyes are liable to injury from the intense
light. The fumes from the chemicals used are injurious to some.
The etcher’s work calls for careful and alert attention, and there are uncertainties
in regard to the action of the chemicals, etc., which tend to induce a nervous
strain. The work is highly skilled and is stimulating to the intelligence. The fumes
from some of the acids used are injurious and there is danger from poisoning, especially
from bichromate of ammonia.
The router’s work necessitates close application which may induce eyestrain. The
work is moderately stimulating and high grade, and multicolor work especially so.
There is danger of accidental injury from the fast-revolving, unprotected router knives.
The finisher’s work requires close application and the minute character of the work
induces eyestrain. All the work is stimulative.
So far as ascertained, there is no occupational disease peculiar to the photo-engraver,
unless the danger of poisoning to which the etcher is subjected, as already men
tioned, may be so called.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

135

Economic conditions.—There is practically no seasonal fluctuation in the demand
for workers. Each firm holds its full force throughout the year. The busy season is
from September to June, except January; the slack months are July, August, and
January. Photo-engravers generally work 8J hours per day and 5J hours on Saturday.
In all cases the hours worked per week are 48.
Apprentices receive $2.50 to $3.50 per week during the first year of apprenticeship,
$4.50 to $5.50 the second year, $7 to $10 per week the third year, $12 to $14 the fourth
year, and $14 to $16 per week the fifth year. Journeymen receive the following wages:
Operators, $18 to $35 per week—union scale, halftone operator, $23; line operator,
$18. Etchers, $18 to $27.50 per week; union scale, $22. Routers, $18 to $25 per
week; union scale, $18. Finishers, $22 to $30 per week; union scale, $22. The trade
is fully organized/
Age of maximum productivity.—Boys enter the trade between the ages of 15 and 16
and serve an apprenticeship of five years. The period of maximum productivity is,
generally speaking, between the ages of 21 and 50.
Demandfor labor.—The demand for labor is increasing. The supply does not more
than meet the present demand. Workers are recruited from among boys in the gram
mar and high school grades who show aptitude for the work after trial by the
employer. In the case of journeymen the supply is limited and new workers are
frequently obtained from other cities.
Educational and technical requirements.—All photo-engravers should have a good
general elementary education. The operator and etcher should also have high-school
or special courses in free-hand drawing and chemistry. The router should have a
special course in free-hand drawing, and the finisher courses in free-hand drawing and
the principles of design. The trade and technical requirements for each occupation
are as follows:
For the operator: Thorough knowledge as to the making and developing of wet
plates; proper handling of the camera, lights, filters, screens, etc.; the ability to
determine the proper lengths of exposure necessary for the best results; a knowledge
of chemistry, with special reference to the chemistry of the trade; free-hand drawing
and design; dexterity in handling expensive “ screens ” and in developing negatives,
accuracy, initiative, keenness of sight, and mental alertness.
For the etcher: Thorough knowledge as to the preparation of zinc plates (sensitizing)
for printing; preparing for and making the print on the sensitized metal surface;
preparation of zinc plates for etching (with “ dragon’s blood” powder); preparation
of the chemicals for etching and the process of etching; a knowledge of chemistry,
with special reference to the chemistry of the trade; some knowledge of free-hand
drawing; dexterity in handling and etching plates; accuracy, mental alertness,
initative, and keenness of sight.
For the router: Training in the care and use of the routing machine and how to
engrave by hand; free-hand drawing; dexterity in the use of the routing machine;
accuracy, keenness of sight, and initiative.
For the finisher: A thorough knowledge of how to engrave b y hand on copper and
zinc, and the best methods of correcting defects in halftone and zinc etchings; free
hand drawing; principles of design; some chemistry; dexterity in handling the
engraver’s tools; accuracy, initiative, and keenness of sight.
What the industry gives.—The period of apprenticeship is five years. Although
there is no provision made in the shop for systematic instruction for either apprentices
or journeymen, still under favorable conditions the necessary trade knowledge can
be gained in the shop. It, however, could be supplemented to good advantage by
outside work. Technical knowledge can be gained in the shop to a limited degree
only. The manipulative skill can be acquired fully in the shop. The line of promo
tion is from journeyman to foreman.
Deficiencies of workers.—The most common deficiency is lack of sufficient trade
and technical knowledge, such as free-hand drawing, the principles of design, and
chemistry.

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BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

What the school ought to give.—Before entering the school the boy should have
received a complete grammar-school education, special prevoeational course in free
hand drawing, the principles of design, and chemistry. Apprentices and journeymen
should receive specialized courses in drawing and design and trade chemistry; also
a course in modem methods and practices.
BOOKBINDING.
Folding, Pasting, Gathering, Collating, and Sewing.

Processes.—Folding, pasting, gathering, collating, and sewing, whilo they are sepa
rate and distinct operations, may properly be grouped under one head, as in many
binderies the occupations, with the possible exception of sewing, are interchangeable,
the operators, who are girls and women, working sometimes at one occupation and
sometimes at another.
The first process of making a book is folding. Large sheets of paper are generally
printed so as to fold in sections of 16 pages. Such a section, when properly folded, is
called a signature. The folding may be done by hand or by a folding machine. Ma
chines are generally used for large “ runs,” but for small editions, booklets, etc., it is
often cheaper to fold by hand, owing to the expense of the make-ready on the folding
machine.
In the making of the book there is a considerable amount of pasting to be done, but
the work included under this specific head is limited to the pasting operations required
for putting in inserts, such as plates, maps, illustrations, charts, etc. This work is
done before the sections are gathered.
After the sections or signatures have been folded they are collected in piles, all the
sections in each pile being the same. These piles are laid out in consecutive order so
that when one signature is taken from each pile a complete book will have been
made. The process of collecting these signatures is called gathering. Gathering
machines are also used in the larger binderies.
When the book has been gathered and pressed, it goes to the collator, by whom it is
examined to see if any signature is misplaced or omitted.
The book is then ready to be sewed. Practically all sewing is done by machine,
though in a few small binderies hand sewing is done. The machine not only sews
much more rapidly but also does better work. The signatures are sewed one at a
time and with from two to five stitches, so that if one breaks the signature is still held
fast by the other stitches, while in hand sewing the sewing is done in such a manner
that should the thread break the book is ruined. Small pamphlets are often bound
together with staples, while some larger pamphlets and small books are sometimes
stitched, which consists of stitching or sewing through all the sections of the book at
one time in much the same manner as two pieces of cloth are sewed together.
Product or specialties.—The product or specialty of a bookbinder in Richmond does
not differ materially from that of a bookbinder in other cities.
Importance of the trade.—There are about 225 females employed in this specific; kind
of work in Richmond.
Conditions of employment.—Some muscular effort is required in gathering and fold
ing, and collating and sewing require close attention, which in some may cause a strain
on the eyes. There is very little in this work to stimulate the interest or intelligence
if the worker is kept on one kind of work all of the time. On the other hand, the
worker is placed in the atmosphere of books and this is an incentive to some to read
good books. There are no occupational diseases and very little liability to accident.
Economic conditions.—The beginning wage is generally about $4, and the usual
wage from $7 to $9. The maximum wage reported was $14. The regular hours of
labor vary from 8-| to 9J per day, from 48 to 54 per week, and from 5 to 6 on
Saturday. The busy season is generally from September to June and the dullest
months July and August. This varies, however, for the class of work done. The

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

137

fluctuation of the year ending May, 10.M, was about 18 per rent. There is no organi
zation among the workers.
Age of maximum productivity.—The entrance age is generally between 16 and 18, and
no apprenticeship is served. The beginner is given more difficult work as she learns
and is soon able to earn her maximum salary. The age of maximum productivity
was not reported.
Demand for labor.—The supply of labor seems to be adequate at present, but the
prospects are that it will increase in the future. The workers are generally girls from
the graded schools and unskilled women.
Educational and technical requirements.—A bindery girl should have a commonschool education, although her work may not call for it. If she expects to advance in
her work or to be alive to the conditions around her. she certainly needs such training.
Very little trade or technical knowledge is required, although it would be of advan
tage to know something of the machine used every day and of the material used. A
knowledge of the history of bookmaking would be of importance. She must be
rapid in handling her work and also neat and accurate.
What the industry gives.—The necessary amount of manipulative skill can be obtained
in the shop. This includes pasting, handling folding stick, picking up signatures,
handling book, and sewing. There is no formal apprenticeship and the advancement
is due entirely to the accuracy and rapidity wilh which the work is done. Promo
tion is made a matter of money from one phase of work to another. .
Deficiencies of workers.—The common deficiencies of workers are lack of application
to the work, lack of speed, and inaccuracy.
What the school ought to give.—Before a girl enters on her work in a bindery she
should have had an elementary-school education and training in household arts; after
entering her work she should have training in a day or night school in subjects in
general education, as English, spelling, etc.. and also in household arts. A course in
the history of bookbinding would also be of advantage to her.
Forwarding.

Processes.—Under the head of forwarding there are a number of occupations as fol
lows: Trimming, rounding, backing, lining up, and casing in. The work is generally
performed by men, and, while the occupations are dissimilar, the workers are to a
certain extent interchangeable in all but the larger binderies, where a separate worker
is employed for each occupation.
After being sewed the books are gathered, or “ jogged u p ” in bunches and the
edges trimmed in cutting machines.
“ Rounding” consists of rounding the back of the book; tliis also results in con
caving the front of the book. Rounding may be done by hand with a hammer or
by a machine called a ' ‘ rounder and backer.”
“ Backing” is the process of putting in the groove on which the cover is hinged,
and is done in three ways. The oldest way is to clamp the book in a press between
“ backing irons” with the backs slightly projecting, the edges being then gradually
drawn over with a hammer. The groove may be made wi ih the machine called a
“ roller backer” or the book may be rounded and backed in a machine called a
“ rounder and backer.”
“ Lining up ” is the process of gluing to the back of ihe book a piece of coarse woven
cloth, wide enough to project about an inch each side of the back. Also cloth head
bands are sometimes put at the top and bottom of the back.
‘ •'Casing in ” or putting on the cover is done both by hand and by machine. In
either case the process consists of pasting the outside of the first and last leaves of
the book, putting the cover in the proper place against these pasted leaves and then
putting the book between boards, the back projecting, and applying pressure for
several hours.

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BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

Product or specialties.—The product or specialty of a forwarder in Richmond does
not differ materially from that of a forwarder in other places.
Importance of the trade.—There are about 69 forwarders and finishers in Richmond.
Conditions of employment.—Some of this work requires ]ong continued standing,
and this tends to produce a physical strain. All the work is moderately stimulative
and this is especially true of fine work. The binderies are small as a rule and oppor
tunity is given for variety of work. There seem to be no occupational diseases in this
work.
Economic conditions.—The minimum wage reported was $12 per week and the maxi
mum $25. The union scale is $15. The regular hours of labor per day vary from
8| to 9J, 48 to 54 per week, and practically all establishments have a short Saturday,
from 5 to 6 hours. The busy season is generally from September to June, and the dull
time in the summer, but this varies sometimes according to class of work done. The
trade is about two-fifths organized; to be more exact, 43 per cent.
Age of maximum productivity.—Indeterminate. The entrance age is about 16.
Demand for labor.—The supply of medium-grade workers is ample, but there is
always a demand for the skilled worker. Tins demand is likely to increase in the
near future. The workers are generally obtained from boys who leave school at an
early age, and from transient workers.
Educational and technical requirements.—A forwarder should have an elementaryschool education, with emphasis on English and literature, in order to appreciate
more fully the work in which he is engaged. This would stimulate him to read books
and take a pride in his work. He should know something of the materials used, as
glue, paste, paper, cloth, etc. A history of bookmaking would be of advantage to
him also. He must be able to handle the tools and machines with dexterity and to
be neat and accurate in gluing, pasting, etc.
What the industry gives.—A beginner can learn and acquire the manipulative skill
necessary for the accomplishment of the work, but he does not learn anything about
the theme of the trade. There is, generally speaking, no provision made in the
shop for the systematic instruction of the journeymen. The line of promotion is
generally from journeyman to foreman.
Deficiencies of workers.—Deficiencies most common among forwarders are (1) lack
of application to work, (2) inaccuracy, and (3) lack of dexterity.
What the school ought to give.—Before a boy enters the trade, he should have had
an elementary-school training with prevocational work until he is 16 years old. This
would tend to give him an idea of several lines of work and allow him to choose the
one he likes best. After he has entered the trade he should continue his training by
attendance in a day or night school, taking up courses in general education in which
he is deficient and supplementing this by work on the theoretical and technical part
of the trade, as the history of bookmaking, and knowledge of paper, glue, and paste.
Finishing.

Processes.— Finishing, which consists of placing the design and title on the cover, is
generally done in hand or power presses, special dies cut from hard brass being used for
the purpose. In fine leather-covered books the design, etc., is often “ tooled in ” by
hand. Finishing is done by men, though girls and women assist in a few operations,
such as laying gold leaf on the cover preparatory to stamping, inspecting, etc.
Product or specialties.—The product or specialty of a finisher in Richmond does
not differ materially from that of a finisher in the other cities.
importance o f the trade.—There are about 69 forwarders and finishers in Richmond
at the present time.
Conditions of employment.—Some of this work requires long-continued standing,
and this necessarily causes a physical strain. The work of a finisher is also stimula
tive and some of it to a very high degree. As the binderies are somewhat small, the

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139

worker is given work of a varied nature, and this tends to keep it from becoming
monotonous. There are no occupational diseases in the work of a finisher.
Economic conditions.—The lowest wage reported for a finisher was $12 per week
and the highest $25. The union scale is $15. The regular hours of labor vary from
48 to 54 per week, 8-| to 9J per day, and from 5 to 6 on Saturday. Practically all
establishments work a short Saturday. The busy season is generally from Septem
ber to June and the dull time during July and August. This varies somewhat, how
ever, according to the nature of the work. The fluctuation last year was about 18
per cent. About 43 per cent of the finishers and forwarders are organized.
Age of maximum productivity.—Indeterminate. The beginners generally enter the
work at 16 years of age.
Demandfor labor.—There is always a demand for the highly skilled, efficient work
ers, and this demand is likely to increase in the future. The workers are recruited
from the grade schools and from transient help.
Educational and technical requirements.—A finisher, to be efficient, could hardly have
less than an elementary-schooi education; he should have a working knowledge of
free-hand drawing and design, ink mixing, and color harmony. He must be able to
make ready for stamping, know how to apply gold leaf, and have the other trade knowl
edge necessary for the accomplishment of his work. It would also be of advantage for
him to know something of the history of his trade, and of the material used. He
needs accuracy, neatness, speed, and mental alertness.
What the industry gives.—The manipulative skill and knowledge necessary for the
accomplishment of the work can be acquired in the shop, but very little of the theo
retical or technical part. There is, generally speaking, no systematic instruction for
journeymen. The only line of promotion is from journeyman to foreman.
Deficiencies of workmen.—The most common deficiencies are (1) lack of applica
tion; (2) lack of knowledge of anything pertaining to the trade except the work
actually being done.
What the school ought to give.—Before a boy begins to learn this work, he should have
an elementary-schooi education with prevocational course until the sixteenth year.
After entering on his trade he should take courses in a day or night school in the sub
jects he is most deficient in and those of a theoretical and technical nature that can not
be obtained in the shop. These include the theory and history of bookmaking,
design, ornamentation, color harmony, and ink mixing.
Cigarette-book Makers, Collaters, etc.

Processes.—After the lithographed work has dried it goes to the cutting depart
ment to be cut up into labels, checks, book covers, etc. This department includes
cutters, collaters, perforaters, numberers, bookmakers. If the work happens to be
bank checks, for instance, the printed sheets go first to the perforating machine to
be perforated.
Perforators.—These machines are run by foot or motive power and the perforation is
done by means of a disk which has teeth around its circumference. These teeth run
over the paper and cut holes or perforations. Workers on these machines do nothing
but work of this character.
Numberers.—If the checks are to be numbered they are sent to a numbering machine,
run by foot or steam power, and the operator by adjusting the numbering device,
prints numbers in any order required, the numbers changing automatically after
each printing.
Collaters.—Where several different kinds of work are to be collated or put together,
workers known as “ collaters” are used. For instance, in calendar making, the
printed sheets for each month are put in separate piles and the collater gathers one
sheet at a time, in the proper order, until one of each has been collected, and places
them in a pile or passes them on to the next worker who may bind them together
with glue or tape.

FINDINGS ABOUT OCCUPATIONS IN THE PRINTING TRADES IN RICHMOND, VA.
[This chart is intended to summarize the statements and opinions of employers and employees in the trades in Richmond.
HAND COMPOSITOR.

LINOTYPE OPERATOR.

MONOTYPE OPERATOR.

STEREOTYPER.

PROOF READER.

MAKE-UP AND
STONEHAND.

CYLINDER PRESSMAN.

PRESS FEEDER.

STEEL AND COPPER
PLATE ENGRAVER.

Assembling type by hand in
cludes straight composition,
setting tables, ana display
work. The straight - mat
ter compositor, setting (as
he does) solid matter, such
as book text, concerns him
self with proper spacing and
length of line; the tabularmatter compositor must ex
ercise mechanical skill and
ingenuity in spacing and in
cutting and fitting rules;
the display or job composi
tor requires a knowledge of
the principles of design and
of color harmony, and must
possess skill in spacing and
aligning.

In linotype composition a line
of type is composed, justi
fied, and cast in one piece
(slug), the whole process
being performed by the
operation of a keyboard
machine.
The
operator
must have a thorough
knowledge of the mechan
ism cf a complicated ma
chine, and facility in its
operation; to this extent he
must be a, machinist and a
machine operator, as well as
a compositor.

Machine composition by the
operation o f a keyboard ma
chine, which produces a roll
of perforated paper copy.
The operation o f this ma
chine is somewhat similar
to the operation of a type
writer, except that the key
board contains many more
keys. The perforated paper
copy is run through an auto
matic type-casting machine
in whicn the mechanism for
selecting the matrices and

Casting metal plates of forms
of type or engravings made
up as for direct printing.
The process includes prep
aration of a matrix sheet
or mat, composed of unsized
paper covered with sheets
of tissue paper pasted on and
rolled down. This mat,
moistened, is imposed on
the type form and either
beaten in with a stiff brush
or subjected to pressure and
heat under a power roller.
From this matrix, placed in
the casting box, the plate is
cast.

Reading back first proofs to
manuscript copy, indicat
ing departures from copy,
and where more than one
proof is pulled sometimes
reading back second or third
proofs. The proof reader
queries doubtful points to
the author, to whom the re
vised proofis sent with orig
inal manuscript. The proof
reader may be assisted by a
copyholder, who reads aloud
from the copy. He must be
familiar with the conven
tional symbols used in
marking proofs.

Dividing galleys of type into
pages, inserting cuts and
running titles, spacing pages
to equal lengths, and tying
up page forms; page proofs
are pulled and corrections
made. The page forms are
then imposed by the stonehand in forms ordinarily of
from 4 to 32 pages upon an
iron or stone toppecf table;
the forms are inclosed in a
chase or iron frame, margins
spaced, type leveled, and
forms locked up. These
processes are closely related
and are frequently per
formed by one man.

Adjusting type forms or plate
received from composing
room to bed of press, prepar
ing tympan or impression
surface, regulating ink flow,
pulling proofs, underlaying
or overlaying to insure clear,
even impression, adjusting
for margins, and making
register. The pressman has
supervision over all presswork and cleaning of forms,
rollers, and press. In multi
color work care must be
taken that sheets whfch
must be fed through the
press more than once do not
stretch or shrink owing to
atmospheric conditions or
handling.

Feeding into the press paper
upon which an impression
is to be made. The platenpress feeder must remove
the printed sheet from the
press, whereas the cylinderpress feeder simply feeds in
the paper, the press deliv
ering the printed sheets
automatically. Small work
is done on the platen press,
hence the platen-press feeder
has small sheets to handle,
while the cylinder-press
feeder is required to feed
in large sheets.

2 . Product or specialties.

Primal compositions of type
into galleys, pages, or forms.

Tvpe slugs, composed, justi
fied, and cast by machine.

Type, cast, composed, and
justified by machine.

Stereotype plates..

Revised proofs.

Pages of type assembled and
locked up for printing or
plating.

Impressions from type forms
or plates in one or more
colors.

3 . Im portance of trade (number
employed).

147 males.

51 males; 1 female.

16 males; 5 females..................... 21 males..

28 males; 5 females.

32 males.

•4. Conditions of em ploym ent—
(a) That involve physical or
nervous strain.

None.........

Close and long-continued ap
plication induces nervous
strain.

Close and long-con tinucd ap
plication induces nervous
strain.

Heavy lifting, and working in
high temperature.

Constant reading causes eye
strain.

None.

(b) That stimulate intelligence
and interest.

Variety in copy and neces
sity for originality in de
signing make-ups, and in
selecting and composing
type.

Variety in copy and necessity
for exercising mechanical
skill.

Variety in copy.

Variety of processes and sense
of responsibility arising from
the knowledge that upon the
skillful work of the stereot^per depends the quality
of the finished prints.

Variety in copy and necessity
for quick detection of typo
graphical and other errors in
proofs.

None.

None..

None.............................................

None..

(d) That are in other respects im
portant as affecting the
welfare of workers (i. e.,
liability to accident; oc
cupational diseases).

Dust from type metal causes
lead poisoning; no cases re
ported by Richmond em
ployers or employees.

Fumes from the pot of melted
type metal are injurious; no
poisoning or impairment of
health from fumes is re
ported by Richmond em
ployers or employees.

Fumes from the melted metal
are injurious to health, as is
also the high temperature of
the stereotype room; there
is, also, some danger of get
ting burned in manipulating
the hot metal.

A N A L Y S IS O U TLINE .

J. Process.

5 . W ages:
Apprentices—
(a) Beginning wage . .
(b) Second-year wage,
(r) Third-year wage..
(d) Fourth-year wage.
(O Fifth-year w age...
Journeymen—

it in position!?operated by
jets of air forced through tho
perforations in the copy.

$3 to $4 per week........................ $3 to $4 per week.....................
$4 to $5 per week........................ $4 to $5 per week........... ;
No regular scale maintained... No regular scale maintained.
No regular scale maintained.. . No regular scale maintained.
No regular scale maintained... No regular scale maintained.
$12 per week..

(/) Minimum wage..

$12.50 per week..

(.j) Maximum wage..

$32 per week.

$27 per week-----

(/i) Union scale........

$16 per week.

$20 per w e e k ....

6 . H ours of labor (regular, per day;
per week: on Saturdays).

7 . Seasonal activity:
(a) Busy season----(6) Slack season............................. .

S3 to $4 per week...................
14 to $5 per week........................
No regular scale maintained.. . >Not reported.
No regular scale maintained...
No regular scale maintained...

LITHOGRAPH ENGRAVER.

TRANSFERRER.

LITHOG RAPH PRESS
MAN.

LITHOGRAPH PRESS
FEEDER.

PHOTO-ENGRAVING
OPERATOR.

Examining, counting, and
packing of engraved cards,
letterheads, and folded sta
tionery. The packer is held
strictly responsible for all
work sent out, and must
instantly detect imperfec
tions due to smearing, im
proper feeding, defective im
pression, or changes of color
of ink. The packer inserts
tissue paper between sur
faces to protect work, places
folded sheets in envelopes,
and packs cards (usually 100
in a box), letterheads (usu
ally 500 in a box), and folded
stationery (in small lots).
This work is done generally
by girls.

Lithography differs from ty
pography in that it is sur
face printing from stone.
The stone is chemically
treated to make its surface
impervious to ink except
where the design is etched or
drawn; the engraver etches
the design on the stone with
a diamond point or draws it
in with a lithograph crayon.
In each process the design
is given an affinity for ink
and prints, while the bal
ance of the surface, being
moistened in the press, does
not take the ink.

From the original key plate
prepared by the engraver
the transferrer pulls a num
ber of duplicate impressions
on paper coated with a mix
ture of starch, flour, and
glycerine. These duplicate
impressions are fastened to a
sheet of paper and applied
under pressure to a large
lithograph stone or plate of
alummum or zinc. The
inked design is thus trans
ferred in duplicate to the
stone or plate, from which
final impressions are taken.
The key plate is not used in
printing.

The work of the lithograph
pressman is essentially ma
chine operating, and is simi
lar to that of the cylinder
pressman in a letterpress
printing establishment. The
lithograph press, however,
which includes a mechanism
for moistening as well as for
inking the stone or plate, re
quires more attention tnan
tne letterpress printing
press, and the lithograph
stone is harder to handle
than the type form. The
inks must he watched for
color, and the printed sheets
for perfect register and for
imperfections.

The -duties of a lithograph
press feeder are practically
the same as those of a feeder
on a cylinder letterpress
printing press. He feeds the
press, helps the pressman
make ready, helps make a
general wash up o f press and
stone, and detects, as far as
possible, any imperfections
in the impressions.

Designs or letters in relief on
stationery.

Examining, counting, and
packing engraved cards or
sheets for shipment.

Designs on lithograph stone;
engraved, or drawn with
lithograpn crayon.

Inked impressions in dupli
cate on a lithograph stone, or
plate of aluminum or zinc,
from which prints can be
taken.

Lithographed impressions.,

Feeding in paper to lithograph
press.

8 males.

1 male; 14 females.,

1 male; 12 females..

15 males.

20 males...

25 males.,

Constant use of lens, especially
when work must be done
under artificial light, results
in eye strain.

Close inspection of work in
duces eye strain, especially
when work is done under
artificial light; some phys
ical strain rosults from con
stant standing.

Close inspection of work in
duces eye strain, especially
when work is done under
artificial light; some phys
ical strain results from con
stant standing.

Practically none.

The close application required
may result in eye stram.

None.

The close attention required to
make ready certain kinds of
work, to keep colors uni
form, and to detect imperfect
impressions, and the noise
ana vibration of the presses
may produce eye ana nerve
strain.

The purely mechanical move
ments required and the noise
and vibration of the presses
induce nervous strain in the
case of some feeders; others
report physical stram from
long-continued standing at
the press.

Variety of work, and in some
cases necessity for originat
ing the designs engraved.

As compared with printing
from type, the presswork in
plate printing involves a
greater variety of processes
which require manual dex
terity.

The preparation and adjust
ment of dies to the press
gives a variety to the work
and requires mechanical
skill and manual dexterity;
color woik is exacting, and
all work requires neatness.

Final responsibility for per
fection of work sent out to
trade.

The character of originality,
technical skill, and variety
attaches to all work.

The small amount of routine
and the requirement of
manual dexterity and tech
nical skill.

The character of the press re
quires for its successful oper
ation high-grade mechanical
skill,especially in multicolor
work.

Multicolor work especially re
quires skillful manipulation
of sheets.

Routine..

None.

None............................................. None.

None.

None..

Routine.,

Confinement in rooms closed
to exclude drafts and mois
ture and overheated to in
sure proper manipulation
and spread of ink is aebiltating; bronzing, where done in
large quantities, is injurious
to health of pressmen.

Confinement in rooms closed
to exclude drafts and mois
ture and overheated to in
sure proper manipulation
and spread of ink is debili
tating; bronzing, where done
in large quantities, is injuri
ous to health of press feeders.

Close confinement; sitting at
work, which gives practi
cally no physical exercise.

None.

Confinement in rooms closed
to exclude drafts and mois
ture, and overheated to in
sure proper manipulation
and spread of ink, is debili
tating; bronzing, where done
in large quantities, is inju
rious to health of pressmen.

No apprentices..

$3 to $4 per week....................
$4 to $5 per week....................
No regular scale maintained.
N o regular scale maintained.
[No regular scale maintained.

No apprentices.,

$3 to $4 per week........................
$4 to $5 per week........................
No regular scale maintained.. No regular scale maintained...
Bonus given at end of appren
ticeship sometimes.

$3 to $4 per week....................
$4 to $5 per week....................
No regular scale maintained... •No apprentices..
No regular scale maintained...
•No regular scale maintained.. .

No apprentices.................

f$3 to $4 per week........................
$4 to $5 per week........................
No regular scale maintained.. .
No regular scale maintained.. Y
No regular scale maintained.. J

$3 to $4 per week......................
$4 to $5 per week......................
No regular scale maintained.,
No regular scale maintained.
No regular scale maintained.,

$3 to $4 per week.....................
$4 to $5 per week.....................
No regular scale maintained.
No regular scale maintained.
No regular scale maintained.

kNTo apprentices...........................

$17 per week.

$11 per w e e k ....

Males $6, females $5, per week,

$15 per week

$12 per week.

$27 per week.

$22.50 per week.

Males ^ $16, females $12, per

$35 per week

$17 per week.

None............

$14 per w e e k ....

$7.50 to $10 per week...............

None............

PLATE PRINTER.

DIE STAMPER.

Engraving or etching on cop
per or steel. The engraver
may originate the design
which he cuts into the plate
or etching ground, working
under a magnifying glass.
The burr raised by the
graver is burnished off. In
etching, the plate is covered
with an etching ground of
wax or other acid-resisting
substance, in which the de
sign is cut, the plate being
subsequently subjected to
an acid bath until the lines
are bitten into the plate.

Printing from engraved plates.
To make ready an impres
sion is pulled, trimmed, and
pasted to back of plate to re
lieve pressure on plate mar; gins; the plate is then glued
to bed of press and guide
marks added. In printing a
sticky ink is ruboed over
the plate, wiped off. and the
surface polished with whit
ing; a card is placed on guide
marks and press operated to
bring the plate under pres
sure between cylinders,
causing ink-filled lines to
print.

Embossing or stamping in re
lief letters or designs on sta
tionery or cards by hand or
power press. The engraved
female die is glued on the
die box of the press; a
counter die is made by forc
ing tag board into the en
graved die. B y operating
the press the design is made
to appear in relief upon
paper placed between the
dies. The female die may
be filled with a vamislj ink,
and 2 or more colors may
be imposed by successive
stampings.

Feeding in paper to press in
operation.

Engravings on plates of steel
or copper.

Engraved cards or sheets.,

68 males.

100 males; 54 females.

7 males.

The close attention required
to make ready certain kinds
of work, to keep colors uni
form and to detect imper
fect impressions, and the
noise and vibration of the
presses may produce eye
and nerve strain.

The purely mechanical move
ments required and the
noise and vibration of the
presses induce
nervous
strain in the case of some
feeders; others report phys
ical strain from long-contin
ued standing at the press.

Frequent change in the char Responsibility for perfection
acter of the work calls for
o f presswork; high-grade
the exercise of technical skil 1
technical skill is required,
and of judgment in making
especially in color, book,
up and assembling page
and halftone printing.
forms.

None to
extent.

None.

No apprentices.,

any

considerable

Males $26.75, females $16, per
week.
$20 per week..........................

$21 per week.
$17 per week.

Males $18, females $10, per
week.
Males $30, females $17, per
week.
None............................................

In newspaper offices hours are
7\ to 8 per day, 45 to 48 per
week; in other plants 8 to 10
per day, 46 to 54 per week.
Practically all establish
ments, except newspaper,
work a short Saturday of 4
to 6 hours.

In newspaper offices hours are
7| to 8 per day, 45 to 48 per
week; in other plants 8 to 10
per day, 46 to 54 per week.
Practically all establish
ments, except newspaper,
work a short Saturday of 4
to 6 hours.

In newspaper offices hours are
7\ to 8 per day, 45 to 48 per
week; in other plants 8 to
10 per day, 46 to 54 per week.
Practically ajl establish
ments, except newspaper,
work a short Saturday of 4
to 6 hours.

In newspaper offices hours are
7$ to 8 per day, 45 to 48 per
week; in other plants 8 to
10 per day, 46 to 54 per week.
Practically all establish
ments, except newspaper,
work a short Saturday of 4
to 6 hours.

Hours 8 to 10 per day; 48 to 54
per week; on Saturday, ex
cept newspaper work, gen
erally 4 to 6.

September to June...................

September to June.

September to June..................

Males $19, females $8.16, per

$9 per week..

The chart does not, therefore, necessarily represent the views of the Survey Committee, nor conditions and opinions of the trade elsewhere, ]

Long-continued standing in
one place and position.

None.

The special treatment required
by each job stimulates in
terest; there is no routine
and all work is skilled.

Variety of processes involving
some knowledge of chem
icals, and calling for the
exercise of manual dexterity
and technical skill.

The work is varied and skilled,
especially ihe preparation of
plates for multicolor print
ing.

There is no routine and all
work is skilled.

In large binderies where the
work is highly specialized,
it is purely mechanical; in
small binderies the work
may be somewhat varied.

Fine work requires skill, and
in small binderies the char
acter of the work changes
frequently.

None.

None.,

None.

Routine..

None..

None.

Routine.

None..

The fumes from some of the
acids used are injurious to
health and there is danger of
poisoning, especially from
bichromate o f ammonia.

There is danger of accidental
injury from fast-revolving,
unprotected router knives.

Close confinement at work
which gives little physical
exercise.

None___

None.

$2.50 to $3.50 per week.........
$4.50 to $5.50 per week..............
No regular scale maintained...
No regular scale maintained.. .
No regular scale maintained...

$2.50 to $3.50 per week...........
$4.50 to $5.50 per week...........
No regular scale maintained.
No regular scale maintained.
No regular scale maintained.

$2.50 to $3.50 per week...............
$4.50 to $5.50 per week...............
No regular scale maintained...
No regular scale maintained...
No regular scale maintained.

$4 per week.................................
No regular scale maintained...
No regular scale maintained...
No regular scale maintained...
No regular scale maintained...

No apprentices..

No apprentices...........................

No apprentices.

Average, $4.08 per week.

$10 per week...............................

Average, $4.08 per week.

None.............................................

Halftone operator, $23; line
operator, $18.

$22 per week-----

$18 per week.

$22 per week.

None....................................

$15 per week.

$15 per week.............................. .

None.

Hours
to 9£ per day; 48 to 52
per week; 4 to 5, generally,
on Saturday.

Hours 8} to 9£ per day; 48 to
52 per week; 4 to 5, generally,
on Saturday.

Hours 8$ to 9£ per day; 48 to
52 per week; 4 to 5, generally,
on Saturday.

Hours 8£ to 9£ per day, 48 to
52 per week, 4 to 5, generally,
on Saturday.

Hours 8£ to 9 per day, 48 to 51
per week, u to 6 on Satur
day.

Hours 8& to 9 per day, 48 to 51
per week, 41 to 6 on Satur
day.

Hours S£ to 9 per day, 48 to 51
per week, 4£ to 6 on Satur
day.

Hours 8J to 9 per day, 48 to 51
per week, 4j to 6 on Satur
day.

Hours generally 8| per day
and 5J on Saturday; in all
cases 48 per week.

Hours generally 8£ per day
and 5J on Saturday; in all
cases 4S per week.

Hours generally 8-V per day
and 5£ on Saturday; in ail
cases 48 per week.

Hours generally 8£ per day
and 5| on Saturday; in all
cases 48 per week.

Hours 8J to 9£ per day, 48 to
54 per week, 5 to 6, generally,
on Saturday.

Hours 8£ to 9J per day, 48 to
54 per week, 5 to 6, generally,
on Saturday.

Hours 8§ to 9£ per day, 48 to
54 per week,5 to 6, generally,
on Saturday.

Hours 9 per day; 51 per week;
6 on Saturday.

September to June.

October to June.

October to June.,

October to June..

September to Juno....................

September to June..................... September to June.

September to June..................

September to June, except
January.

September to June, but varies
with class of work done.

All except summer months.

June to October........................

June to October..

June to October.#.

June to October.,

June to September....................

June to September..................... June to September...............

June to September..................
Approximately 13 per cent...

Some are in typographical
union.

So ne are in typographical
ui/.on.

Not reported.............................

Not organized........................

Not organized............................

Not organized___

Not organized.1.........................

Fully organized..........................

Fully organized.....................

Not organized...........................

15 to 16 years..

16 years........................................

16 years...........

15 to 16 years...............................; 16 years.....................

16 years...................................

16 years.......................................

15 to 16 years...............................

15 to 16 years..

15 to 16 years.............................

About 5 years.

No apprenticeship necessary;
a boy readily learns enough
to handle, certain classes of
work.

About 5 years.

About 5 years.............................

No apprenticeship.

No apprenticeship’neccssary.. 'About 5 year*<...........................

About 5 years.............................

About 5 years.

No apprenticeship................

From 21 to 50 years of age.

Indeterminate............................

Indeterminate.......................

From 21 to 50 y-ears of age____

From 21 to 50 years of age........

From 21 to 50 years of age.......

Indeterminate...........................

®. E n tr a n c e a g e ................................. .

15 to 16 years...

15 to 18years..,

16 to 18 years..

17 to 20 years..............................

1 0 . Years required to learn trade .

About 5 years.

About 5 years.,

About 5 years.

No apprenticeship....................

Not reported..- ......................

From 21 to 50 years of age____

From 21 to 50 f^rs of age

From 21 to 50 years of age___

Indeterminate............................

Good proof readers are in de
mand.

upply is inad<
Supply
inadequate for pres
demand.
ent ae

Supply of skilled labor is limited, also of apprentices.

Supply of skilled labor is
somewhatlimited; the num
ber of beginners and of semi
skilled workers is adequate.

There is a demand for efficient
all-round engravers; supply
of semiskilled workers is
adequate.

Always a demand for the
skilled, efficient plate print
er. The field is limited and
comparatively few enter the
occupation.

Skilled labor is in demand.. . .

Efficient packers are in de
mand, although the field is
small.

Demand for drilled workers
who can e n ^ v e and use
crayons.

There is a demand for skilled
transferrers, not for semi
skilled. The field is limited.

Supply of skilled labor is lim
ited, also of apprentices.

Supply of skilled workers is
limited.

Increasing.

Increasing, but limited.............

Increasing because of growing
popularity of die-stamped
work.

Increasing because of growing
popularity of die-stamped
and engraved work.

Relatively fix^d.

Increasing.

Increasing .

Increasing.,

Boys from the SJaded schools
and transient Journeymen.

Apprentices and press feeders,
who enter the snop from ele
mentary schools, and jour
neymen from other com
munities.

Boys from the schools and the
streets, and floaters from
shop to shop.

Boys from the elementary
schools, who serve an ap
prenticeship, and journey
men from other communi
ties.

Boys from elementary schools,
who serve an apprentice
ship, and journeymen from
other communities.

Girls from elementary schools. Giris from elemen tary schools.. Boys from tj le elementary
schools, whi • serve an apprenticeshijj and journeymen from <1;her communities.

B oys from elementary schools,
who servo an apprentice
ship, and transient joumey-

Apprentices and press feeders
and transient journeymen.

Boys from elementary schools
and transient workers.

Boys from elementary schools. Boys or girls who have done
some high-school work or
have at least completed ele
mentary school course.

Hand folding and gathering
requires considerable mus
cular effort, while collating
and sewing demand very
close attention.

None..............

Approximately 13 per cent___

Apprentices and journeymen
hand compositors.

The necessity for minute in
spection of plates and for
fine cutting causes eye
strain.

$22.50 to $25 per week..

Approximately 13 per cent___

Apprentices and journeymen
hand compositors.

Some eye strain may result
from tho close application
required to insure accuracy
in fine cutting.

None............................................

Approximately 13 per cent___

Vpprentices, recruited from
the elementary schools, and
transient journeymen.

The varying and uncertain
action of chemicals upon
plates necessitates alert at
tention, which may develop
into nerve strain.

None..............

15 to 16 years..........................

1 4 . W h a t is the source of supply?-

The intense light under which
the work must be done
causes eye strain.

} males, including forwarders. 26 females.

$25 per week.............................. .

Very slight..........

Increasing..................................... Increasing..

69 males, including finishers...

$12 per week...............................

Very slight..........

Increasing..

225 females.,

$25 per week.

Very slight..........

Increasing..

5 males.

$12 per week.

Approximately 13 per cent...

1 3 . Is d em and for labor increas
in g or decreasing?

5 males..

Females, $14 per w eek....

Approximately 13 per cent___

1 2 . Is supply of labor adequate to
m eet dem and? (Cause of de
ficiency, if any5)

5 males..

Females, $13.50 per week.

June to September...............

Supply is sufficient at present,
although highly-skilled la
bor is always in demand.

Books or packages of ciga
rette papers.

$22 per week.

June to September...................

The supply of highly-skilled
labor is insufficient; of semi
skilled labor is ample.

Decoration and lettering on
covers of bound books.

$30 per week.

Approximately 13 per cent. . .

From 21 to 50 years of age........ From 21 to 50 years of age........ From 21 to 50 years of age.

Bound book ready for finish
ing.

$25 per week.

July and AugUst......................

The supply of highly-skilled
labor is insufficient; of semi
skilled labor is ample.

Books and pamphlets sewed
or stitched, ready for for
warding and finishing.

$18 per week.

Approximately \$ per cent___

From 21 to 50 years of age.......

Correction of defects in and
the improvement of half
tone and line-etched plates.

$18 per w e e k ....

Approximately 13 per cent—

The supply of highly-skilled
labor is insufficient; of semi
skilled labor is ample.

Mounted halftone and lineetched plates.

$27.50 per week..

July and August........................

1 1 . Age of m a x im u m productivity.

In some lithograph plants the
making of books or packs of
cigarette papers requires the
employment of girls, known
as cigarette-book makers.
The book maker takes the
cover or folder, after it has
been lithographed, and folds
it in three sections, in which
is inserted the proper num
ber of sheets of cigarette
papers. These papers are
cut the proper size in the
cutting machine from large
sheets, and sent to the book
makers, who count and
arrange in packs the num
ber o f sheets required in each
book.

$35 per week...............................

July and August......................

Not reported..............................

Finishing, which consists of
placing the design and title
on the cover, is generally
done by hand or power
presses, special dies, cut
from hard Drass, being used
for the purpose. In fine
leather-covered books the
design is often “ tooled in”
by hand. Finishing is done
by men, though girls and
women assist in a few
operations, such as laying
gold leaf on the cover pre
paratory to stamping and
inspecting.

$7.14 per week............................ |$18 per week...............................

July and August..................

About four-fifths................. .

Forwarding consists of four
processes. B ooks are ‘ ‘ gath
ered” or “ jogged up” in
bunches and the edges
“ trimmed” ; put on a
‘rounder
and
backer”
where the back is rounded
and the front concaved.
Next comes “ lining up” or
gluing to the back a piece
of coarse woven cloth, which
projects an inch on either
side. “ Casing in” consists
of pasting the outside of the
first and last leaves of the
book to the cover, placing
it between boards ana
applying pressure.

$25 per week.

July and August.....................

About four-fifths.....................

Etched halftone plates and
zinc plates of line etchings.

Bookbinding includes the fol
lowing processes: (1) Fold
ing printed sheets into sig
natures or sections, usually
of 16 pages, by hand or
machine; (2) pasting in in
serts of maps, plates, illus
trations, or charts; (3) gath
ering signatures from piles
to compose a book, the
gathering being done some
times by hand, sometimes
by machine; (4) collating
or examining the gathered
signatures to discover mis
placements or omissions;
and (5) sewing or stitching
signatures.
These opera
tions, performed by girls or
women, are generally inter
changeable.

$15 per week.

July and August...................

About four-fifths...................

Developed and fixed films or
negatives for the engraver.

The “ finisher” is a hand en
graver, and to him falls the
work of correcting small
defects in the finished half
tone or etching, such as
“ cutting out spots” and
“ building up.” He also
“ tools out” high lights,
burnishes shadows, vign
ettes, and outlines the plates
for the router to cut by.
The finisher also does all
the fine cutting out that
can not be done by the
router.

$30 per week................. .

September to June................... September to June.

8 . Extent to w hich the trade is
organized.

The router, by means of a
specially designed machine,
cuts out the etching or half
tone to proper size and
bevels the edges, cuts away
or lowers such parts as must
be removed for multicolor
work, and when the plate
has been inspected and cor
rected by the finisher the
router mounts it on a wood
block which makes the cut
type-high; the router also
does some hand engraving
at times, such as cutting out
of borders.

FINISHER.

$30 per week.............................

September to June.

Approximately 13 per cent-----

The etcher receives from the
operator a developed film or
negative which has been
stripped from the original
glass plate and cements it to
another glass plate. This is
placed on a sheet of highly
sensitized copper and ex
posed to intense light, which
renders the surface of the
copper sheet resistant to acid
in varying degrees, depend
ent upon the amount of light
admitted. The sheet of cop
per is then given a rocking
acid bath, to complete the
process of etching.

FORWARDER.

$26 per week............................. . } $22 per week................. .

September to June....................

Approximately 13 per cent..

The photographer in a photo
engraving plant is known as
the “ operator.” His work
is the operation of a specially
designed copying camera.
The picture or drawing to be
reproduced by the halftone
process is photographed on a
wet plate through a lined
screen, except that when the
negative is to be used for a
zinc etching no screen is
used. The operator devel
ops his own negative, in the
form of a collodion film,
which goes to the etcher.

CIGARETTE-BOOK
MAKER.

BOOKBINDER.

Males $10, females $6.50, per
week.
None...........................................

In newspaper offices hours
are 7$ to 8 per day, 45 to 48
per week; in other plants
8 to 10 per day, 46 to 54 per
week. Practically all es
tablishments, except news
paper, work a short Satur
day of 4 to 6 hours.

Approximately 13 per cent.

PHOTO-ENGRAVING
FINISHER.

Males $4, females $4.50, per

ROUTER.

Males $10, females $5.50, per
week.
Males $10, females $10, per
week.
None.............................................

Approximately 13 per cent.. .

ETCHER.

July, August, January.............

July, August..............................

July, August..........................

July, August..............................

Summer months.

Very slight..................................

Approximately 18 per cent___

Approximately 18 per cen t...

Very slight.

Fully organized.........................

Fully organized........................ .

Not organized............................

About two-fifths organized___

Not organized.

15 to 16 years..

15 to 16 years...............................

15 to 16 years............................. .

15 to 16 years...............................

16 to 18 years............................

16 years........................................

16 years.

About 5 years.

About 5 years.............................

A few months; no regular
apprenticeship.

No apprenticeship necessary.

few months; no regular
apprenticeship.

Indeterminate............................

From 21 to 50 years of age.......

From 21 to 50 years of age........ Indeterminate..........

Indeterminate............................

Indeterminate.

Supply does not more than
equal the demand.

Supply does not more than
equal the demand; expert
workers are scarce.

Supply does not more than
equal the demand.

Supply is adequate.

Supply is adequate, but
highly-skilled workers are
in demand.

Supply is # adequate, but
highly-skilled workers are
in demand.

Supply is adequate.

Increasing..

Increasing.,

Increasing.

Relatively fixed.

Boys from elementary schools,
vrho serve an apprentice
ship, and journeymen from
other communities.

Boys from elementary schools,
who serve an apprentice
ship, and journeymen from
other communities.

Girls from the elementary
schools and unskilled wo
men.

Boys from the elementary
schools and transient work
ers.

Boys from the elementary
schools and transient work-

Girls from
schools.

Boys from the elementary
schools, who serve an ap
prenticeship, and journey
men from other communi
ties.

the

elementary

FINDINGS ABOUT EDUCATION FOR OCCUPATIONS IN THE PRINTING TRADES IN RICHMOND, VA.
1 5 . W h a t does worker need to
properly equip h im for
trade?
(a) General education.................

(6) Trade and technical educa
tion.

A good general elementary
education,
punctuation,
spelling and English being
the more important subjects.

A good general elementary A good general elementary
education,
punctuation,
education,
punctuation,
spelling and English being
spelling and English being
the more important subjects.
the more important subjects.

An elementary school educa
tion.

English course in high school,
or a special course giving
thorough training in spell
ing, punctuation, and Eng
lish'.

An elementary school educa
tion.

An elementary school educa
tion and special training in
free-hand drawing and de*
sign.

Elementary school education.

Typesetting, proofing, and
imposition.
Principles of design; color har
mony, and lettering, in the
composition of forms for
1etterheads,
title - pages,
business cards, display ad
vertising, etc.

Typesetting, proofing, im
position; instruction how to
care for and repair the lino
type machine.
No considerable amount of
technical education is re
quired.

Typesetting, proofing, im
position; instruction how to
care for and repair the mono
type machine.
No considerable amount of
technical education is re
quired.

Instruction as to proper
method of preparing mats
and of “ beating-in” mats to
form matrices; as to proper
length of time to “ cook” the
matrix; as to proper tem
perature m type metal for
pouring; as to preparation of
matrix for casting box; and
as to method of correcting
errors in stereotype plate.
Some knowledge of composi
tion of type metal and of
mats, ana of printing proc
esses related to stereotyping.

The conventional signs, sym
bols, and markings used in
correcting proofs.
The technical knowledge in
dicated in 15 (a).

How to handle bodies of type,
insert cuts, folios, and run
ning titles, and to “ tie up”
pages; how to impose forms.
No special technical knowl
edge is required.

How to make ready and
adjust press forms for all
classes of work, including
halftone plates; regulation of
ink flow on press; knowledge
of ink rollers and the care of
them; knowledge of mech
anism, operation, and care
of press, and of speed at
which press should be run
on different classes of work.
Chemistry of inks; how paper
is made, and its behavior
under varying atmospheric
conditions; color harmony,
and knowledge of cost of
materials used in pressroom.

How to feed paper in order
that it may go through the
press properly and register;
an understanding of the du
ties of the pressman, in order
that he may be of the most
assistance to him; how to
make a general wash up of
the forms and rollers; how
to oil and clean press and
to make simple adjustments.
As a preparation for promo
tion, the trade and technical
knowledge required by the
pressman.

Special knowledge of tools,
metals, and acids used by en
gravers, and of processes to
which engravea plates are
subjected; a knowledge of
alphabets, of conventional
designs, monograms, and
insignia.
A general knowledge of all
processes used in printing,
1ithographing, photo-engrav
ing, ana of modern meth
ods; and history of steel and
copper plate engraving.

Special knowledge of method
of making ready, of in k in g
and wiping the plate, of
handling printed material,
and of regulating press to
give proper pressure re
quired by each class of work;
of the composition of inks,
and of the quantities of pa
per used in plate printing.

Dexterity in handling bodies
of type rapidly and accu
rately.

Mechanical skill, enabling
pressman to make adjust
ments and repairs to press
and to make ready for print
ing in the shortest and
quickest way.

Dexterity in feeding.

Dexterity in handling the
graver; skill in free-hand
drawing.

An elementary school educa
tion.

An elementarf school educa
tion.
’

An elementary school educa
tion.

Special knowledge of process
of making the counter die,
and of fixing dies in the
press; of inking and wiping
die; of adjust mg press to
give proper pressure for dif
ferent classes of work; and
of handling printed mate
rial.
Little technical knowledge is
required, although some
knowledge of various meth
ods of printing would be of
advantage in widening the
field of employment.

Instruction as to proper
methods of handling and
examining and packing en
graved materials.

Instruction *s to proper
method of preparing stone
for etching “or drawing; as
to principles of color har
mony and design; as to
action of acids and inks on
stone; and knowledge of
alphabet forms.

Instruction as to method of
pulling impressions from
keystone, as to economical
arrangement of duplicates
on sheet, and as to process
of transferring designs to
stone or plate.

Instruction as to method of
adjusting stone or plate on
bed of press; as to operation
and care of press and of
rollers; as to regulating flow
of ink* as to mi sJng inks and
selection of colors.
A thorough knowledge of
presses and of all materials
used in lithograph press
work.

Special dexterity is required
in making ready, in inking
and wiping plates, and in
feeding
and
removing
printed material from press.

Manipulative skill is required
in preparing and adjusting
dies and in printing.

Dexterity in counting, fold
ing, and packing engraved
cards or sheets.

The whole process requires
manual skill and manipu
lative dexterity of exceed
ingly high grade.

Transferring is a process re
quiring considerable manip
ulative skill.

Chemistry of the trade; knowl
edge of materials used in
lithography and of modem
trade methods-

Chemistry of the trade; knowl
edge of materials used in
lithography and of modern
trade methods..

Skill in picking up and han
dling type rapidly and ac
curately.

Facility in operating a key
board machine.

Facility in operating a key
board machine,

Dexterity in handling “ beat
ing-in” brush and in han
dling and pouring hot
metal.

None.

(d) Other requirements: Quali
ties essential, such as accu
racy, etc.

A quick memory, accuracy,
initiative, and artistic sense.

Mechanical ability, dexterity,
and accuracy.

Strength and endurance.,

Accuracy, keenness of sight,
and quick perception.

Strength, accuracy, and initia
tive.

Ability quickly to detect im
perfections in impressions
due to faulty presswork;
accuracy, keenness of sight,
dexterity, endurance, alert
ness, ana color sense.

Keenness of sight, dexterity,
endurance, and ability to
detect
imperfect
sheets
quickly.

Special adaptability, keen
ness of sight, patience, en
durance, accuracy, original
ity, and initiative in design
ing.

Keenness of sight, accuracy,
patience, dexterity, and en
durance.

Keenness of sight, accuracy,
endurance, dexterity, and
patience.

Keenness of sight and accu
rate color sense is required
for detection of imperfect
work.

Special adaptability, keen
ness of sight, endurance,
accuracy, and color sense.

Accuracy.

1 6 . W h a t the Industry gives: (a)
Conditions of apprenticeship.

Term of apprenticeship is
5 years; salary is generally
increased every 6 months;
and in some cases a bonus is
given at termination of ap
prenticeship.

Term of apprenticeship is 5
years; salary is generally in
creased every 6 months,
and in some cases a bonus is
given at termination of ap
prenticeship.

5 years’ apprenticeship.

No regular apprenticeship.

No regular apprenticeship.,

No uniform practice, except
that apprentices serve 5
years; very few establish
ments indenture appren
tices; beginning wage varies
from $3 to $4 per week, with
an increase of 50 cents per
week each 6 months; 1 es
tablishment indenturing ap
prentices gives a bonus of 25
cents per week for each week
the apprentice works while
serving his apprenticeship.

Strictly speaking, there is no
apprenticeship in press feed
ing; a learner is soon able to
feed simple matter to the
press, and, as he becomes
more proficient, to handle
larger and more difficult
work; a pressman’s appren
tice is taught to feed a press
and is kept on that work a
large part of his apprentice
ship, but he has a definite
aim in view-—to become a
pressman; sometimes a feed
er who has the initiative and
power to grasp opportuni
ties becomes a pressman if
given the proper help and co
operation by the foreman,
but this is the exception;
ordinarily, feeding leads to
no other occupation.

5 years’ apprenticeship; in
crease each 6 montns in
wages; some firms offer a
bonus of $100 to apprentices
who complete time under
certain conditions.

5 years' apprenticeship; in
crease each 6 montns in
wages; some firms offer a
bonus at end of apprentice
ship if certain conditions
have been fulfilled.

No apprenticeship.

No general agreement as to
wages of apprentice or the
length of tiuie to be served;
depend entirely on the boy.

No general agreement as to
wages of apprentice or the
length of time to be served;
depend entirely on the boy.

(6) Provision made for system
atic instruction of appren
tices.

No systematic instruction is
provided.

None.

In general no provision is made
for systematic instruction of
apprentices.

None, generally........................ None, generally.

Sufficient knowledge to make
the worker a profitable pro
ducer, but not enough for
the greatest possible effi
ciency. Very little ^ f the
technical knowledge “ given.

Sufficient knowledge to make
• the worker a profitable pro. ducer, but beyond this op
portunity is limited.

Sufficient knowledge to make
tho worker a profitable pro
ducer, but beyond this op
portunity is limited.

Under favorable conditions,
practically all n e c e s s a r y
trade knowledge.

Familiarity with the conven
tional proof correction marks
and some knowledge of com
position.

Sufficient knowledge to equip
the worker for immediate
productivity only.

Taught to feed and take care
of press; to make wash up of
press, forms, and rollers; to
make ready forms; in large
shops apprentice may work
on only one kind of press.

Enough to make of him a
feeder who can turn out
work; knowledge he picks
up from helping the press
man; in large shops he may
do nothing but feed the
press, not helping the press
man.

(d) Manipulative skill..

The necessary facility in han
dling type and in composi
tion.

Skill in manipulating and car Skill in manipulating and
caring for the monotype
ing for the linotype machine.
machine.

All necessary manipulative
skill.

Very little necessary.

Dexterity in handling bodies
of type rapidly and accu
rately.

Dexterity in making ready
forms.

(e) Extent to which trade can be
learned in the shop.

The extent to which the trade
can be learned in the shop is
limited, and is becoming
more limited each year, ow
ing not so much to the fact
that less information is avail
able or that specialization
has narrowed opportunity
as to the fact that more and
more is demanded of the
compositor if he is to success^
fully meet the modern re
quirements as to artistic and
harmonious
composition;
that this demand has not
been fully met is evidenced
by the rising influence on
the trade of the commercial
artist and designer.

The extent to which the trade
can be learned in the shop is
limited and is becommg
more limited each year, ow
ing to the fact that less infor
mation is available and that
specialization is increasing.

The extent to which the trade
can be learned in the shop is
limited, and is becoming
more limited each year, ow
ing to the fact that less in
formation is available and
that specialization is in
creasing.

Practically completely.

But a small part of the trade
can be learned in the shop if
economy of time and effort
is a factor.

The greater part can be learned
to good advantage outside
the shop.

(/) Provision made in the shops
for systematic instruction
of journeymen.

Practically none.......................

Practically none.

Practically none..

None.

Appr ent ice, j ourneyman, fore
man.
N o te .—The statements un
der 16 (a) and (e) are made
on the assumption that the
linotype operator is trained in
hand composition.

Apprentice, journeyman, fore
man.
N ote.—The statements un
der 16 (a) and (e) are made
on the assumption that the
monotype operator is trained
in hand composition.

Practically none, except to
foreman in large shops.

Proof reader to head proof
reader only.

(g) Line of promotion............. -. Apprentice, journeyman, fore
man.

7. C o m m o n deficiencies of w ork-

8. Suggestions from the trade as
to w hat school ou gh t to
give:
I. Before entering the shop___ _

II. After entering the shop—
(a) Trade and technical
knowledge.

(6) Manipulative skill.

III. Nature of part-time courses
needed.

IV . Nature of evening school
courses needed.

6071°—Bull. 162—16.

Elementary school education
and courses in chemistry.

Elementary school education,
courses in chemistry, and
free-hand drawing.

An elementary school educa
tion.

An elementary school educa
tion and courses in free
hand drawing.

How to feed paper in order
that it may go through the
press properly and register;
an understanding of the
duties of the pressman, in
order that he may be of the
most assistance to him; how
to make a general wash up of
the forms and rollers; how to
oil and clean press and to
make simple adjustments.
As a preparation lor promo
tion, the trade and technical
knowledge required by the
pressman.

Instruction as to the method
of operating a special kind
of camera; as to proper ad
justment of lights, screens,
and filters; as to proper time
for exposures in different
classes of work; and as to
process of making and devel
oping wet plates.
Chemistry of the trade and
knowledge of allied processes
in printing.

Instruction as to method of

Instruction as to care and
operation of the routing ma
chine, and as to the use of
engraving tools.
Some knowledge of processes
allied to hand engraving and
routing.

A knowledge of the tools and
methods of hand engraving.
A general knowledge of all
processes allied with engrav
ing, etching, and printing.

The make-ready and press-*
work, especially in multi
color work, calls for the exer
cise of a high degree of ma
nipulative skill.

Press feeding in lithography
calls for the exercise of a con
siderable amount of manipu
lative skill, especially in
multicolor work.

The adjustment of the screens,
which are expensive; the
handling of negatives, and
the operation of the camera
call for a high degree of ma
nipulative skill.

The process of etching calls for
the exercise of a high degree
of manipulative skill.

Manipulative skill of a high
order is required for the op
eration of the routing ma
chine.

All of the work calls for the
exercise of a high degree of
manipulative skill.

Manipulative skill in han
dling sheets and signatures
rapidly is most important.

Ability quickly to detect in>erfections in impressions
ue to faulty presswork and
to correct the same; keen
ness of sight and color sense.

Endurance..

of sight and artistic

Keenness of sight, alertness,
and accuracy.

Keenness of sight, endurance,
and accuracy.

Keenness of sight and artistic

No general agreement as to
wages of apprentice or the
length of time to be served;
depend entirely on the boy.

Strictly speaking, there is no
apprenticeship in press feed
ing; a learner is soon able to
feed simple matter to the
press and, as he becomes
more proficient, to handle
larger and more difficult
work; a pressman’s appren
tice is taught to feed a press
and is kept on that work a
large part of his apprentice
ship ?but he has a definite aim
in view— to become a press
man; sometimes a feeder,
who has the initiative ana
power to grasp opportunities
becomes a pressman if given
the proper nelp and coopera
tion by the foramen, but this
is the exception; ordinarily,
feeding leads to no other
occupation.

5 years’ apprenticeship.

5 years’ a p p r e n t ic e s h i p ,
with increase of salary de
pending on advancement in
proficiency.

5 years’ apprenticeship.

preparing (sensitizing) cop
per or zinc plates for print
ing; as to process of making
the print on tho sensitized
metal surface; as to prepara
tion of zinc plates for etching.
Chemistry of the trade and
knowledge of allied proc
esses in etching and print
ing.

A tion6meiltary sciw>0* educa-

An elementary school education.

An elementary school educaltion.

An elementary school educe
tion.

Some knowledge of simple
processes and machines.
No technical knowledge is
required, although a knowl
edge of all processes of
bookbinding may be of
some advantage.

How to adjust and use the
paper-cutting machines; the
proper handling of the ham
mer in rounding and back
ing, and the operation of the
rounder and backer; the
operation of the roller back
ing machine; the proper
method of lining up, putting
in headbands, and putting
on the cover.

How to make ready and oper
ate the stamping press; how
to apply gold leaf and
bronzes; and how to handle
special hand tools.
Principles of design and color
harmony, drawing, sketch
ing, and ink mixing; knowl
edge of all processes of bookmaking.

How to fold cover and inser
papers.

Dexterity in handling special
tools, in the operation of
machines, and in pasting
and gluing.

The application of gold leaf
and hand tooling call for the
e_x®rcise of manipulative
skill of a high degree.

Dexterity in folding covers an'
inserting papers.

Alertness, neatness, and fa
cility in the performance of
simple routine work.

Accuracy, neatness, endur
ance, and ability to work
fast in the performance of
more or less routine pro-

Dexterity, accuracy, neatness,
color and artistic sense.

None.

No apprenticeship; advance
ment is due entirely to the
rapidity with which skill is
acquired by the worker.

No apprenticeship.

None..

None.

Knowledge of the composition
of pastes and glues, and of
the qualities of book pa
pers and cloths.

None, generally.

None..

Practically none.................. .

No systematic instruction.

No systematic instruction.,

No systematic instruction........ No systematic instruction___

Taught to apply design to
stone, to etch plate prop
el ly, to make corrections.
In general, but little beyond
a knowledge of the mechan
ical processes.

Taught to pull impressions
from key plate, to arrange
them in proper order, and
to transfer them to stone.
In general, but little beyond
a knowledge of the mechan
ical processes.

Taught to feed and take care
of press; to make wash up of
press, forms, and rollers, and
to make ready forms.

1’roper method of feeding a
press and knowledge gained
in helping the pressman
make ready and clean up.

In general, but little beyond
a lmowledge of the mechani
cal processes.

In general, but little beyond
a knowledge of the mechani
cal processes.

In general, but little beyond
a lmowledge of the mechani
cal processes.

Is limited owing to the tend
ency to specialize rather
than train all-round workers.

All that is required.

Dexterity in packing..

Dexterity in applying design
to stone.

Dexterity in pulling and ar
ranging transfers.

Dexterity in making ready
forms and the care and oper
ation of press.

Dexterity in feeding press.,

Dexterity in handling screens
and in developing negatives.

Dexterity in handling films.

Dexterity in using routing
machine and in handwork.

Dexterity in handling
gravers’ tools.

Dexterity in handling the
folding stick, picking up
signatures, pasting, han
dling book while inspecting
same, and in operating sew
ing machine.

Dexterity in operating cutter,
rounder and backer, etc.,
and in pasting and gluing
linings and covers.

Dexterity in operation of
hand and power presses,
and to some extent m hand
tooling.

All that is required.

Practical part.

Practical part, very little of
the theoretical or the tech
nical part.

Practical part, very little of
the technical.

Practical part, but very little
training and technical in
struction that is of importance from the point of view
of promotion is commonly
given.

The practical and some of the
technical part.

Practically all of the trade___

All but the technical knowl
edge, except in large shops
where specialization mate
rially limits the possibilities.

Entirely.

None.

None.............................................. None.

None..

None.

None.,

None..

None.

From apprentice to journey
man; sometimes from jour
neyman to foreman of en
graving department in large
shops.

From apprentice to journey
man, sometimes from jour
neyman to foreman.

None.

Practically no line of promo
tion, except in very largo
establishments, where it
is possible to become a fore
woman.

From apprentice to journey
man; sometimes to foreman
of department.

From apprentice to pressman;
from pressman to foreman;
sometimes from feeder to
pressman.

Not much chance for promo
tion, unless apprenticeship
for pressman has been served;
in rare cases the feeder be
comes a pressman without
serving an apprenticeship
as pressman.

Operator to head operator........ In large shops to head etcher.. Practically no chance of pro
motion, unless router be
comes a finisher.

To head finisher only.,

From one operation to an
other that affords a better
wage or to one more inter
esting.

From journeyman to foreman.

From journeyman to foreman. Sometimes to forewoman of
department.

None, generally........................ None, generally

No systematic instruction....... None, gener'aily.

The mechanics of engraving,
and soma knowledge of al
phabets.

Taught to make ready, ink
and wipe plate; to feed and
remove material from press.

Enough to enable worker to
turn out work.

Taught to pack and to handle
work without smearing; to
detect imperfect work.

Dexterity in feeding press.......

Dexterity acquired in han
dling graver and making
designs on plate.

Dexterity in making ready
and pulling impressions.

Dexterity in preparing coun
ter die and in operating
press.

Practical part in most shops,
but only to a limited extent
tho technical part.

Entirely; but very little train
ing and technical instruc
tion that is of importance
from tho point of view of
p r o m o t io n is commonly
given.

Practical part, but very little Practical part,
of the theoretical or the tech- |
nical part.

None.

Apprentice, journeyman, fore
man.

Very little chance for promo
tion after becoming a profi
cient feeder unless a press
man’s apprenticeship has
been served, in which case
the promotion is to press
man; some few feeders be
come pressmen without serv
ing an apprenticeship.

Insufficient knowledge of the
principles of designing com
positions of types and cuts;
insufficient knowledge of
English composition, punc
tuation, and spelling.

Insufficient mechanical ability Insufficient mechanical abil
.and manipulative skill.
ity and manipulative skill.

Lack of trade knowledge.......... Insufficient knowledge of Eng
lish composition, punctua
tion, and spelling, and lack
of special adaptability.

Deficiency in trade knowledge. Insufficient knowledge of mod
ern methods, inability to
detect and to correct imper
fections of color or of impres
sion on printed sheets; insuf
ficient knowledge of mate
rials, such as, for example,
of the qualities of paper ana
of inks; insufficient mechan
ical ability.

Lack of color sense and inabil
ity to detect imperfections in
printed sheets.

Insufficient skill in free-hand
drawing and lack of original
ity in designing; insufficient
trade knowledge.

Inability to make ready
properly and carelessness in
handling printed material.

Inability to make ready prop
erly and carelessness m
handling stamped material.

Inability to detect imperfec
tions quickly and careless
ness in handling printed
material.

Insufficient skill in free-hand
drawing and lack of origi
nality in designing; insuf
ficient trade knowledge.

Insufficient m a n ip u la t i v e
skfll.

Insufficient
knowledge of
modem methods; inability
to detect and to correct im
perfections of color or of
impression on printed sheets;
insufficient knowledge of
the qualities of paper and
of the composition andproperties of inks; insufficient
mechanical ability.

Inability to detect imperfec
tions in prints, and lack of
accurate color sense; care
lessness.

Insufficient knowledge
trade chemistry.

General education throughthe
grammar grades; prevoca
tional courses, with empha
sis on English, spelling, and
punctuation.

General education through the
grammar grades; prevoca
tional courses, with empha
sis on English, spelling, and
punctuation.

General education through the
grammar grades; prevoca
tional courses until 16 years
of age.

General education through the
grammar grades and highschool training, or in place of
high school special course in
English and punctuation.

General education through the
grammar grades, with pre
vocational courses until 16
years of age.

General education through
grammar grades, with pre
vocational courses until 16
years of age.

General education through
grammar grades; prevoca
tional courses until 16 years
of age, with emphasis on
free-hand drawing.

General education throughthe
grammar grades, with pre
vocational courses until 16
years of age.

General education through the
grammar grades.

General education through the General education through the
grammar grades, with pre
grammar grades.
vocational courses until 16
years of age.

G eneral education through the
grammar grades, with pre
vocational courses until 16
years of age.

G eneral education throughthe
grammar grades, with pre
vocational courses until 16
years of age.

General education through the
grammar grades, with pre
vocational courses until 16
years of age; special courses
in chemistry and free-hand
drawing.

General education through the
grammar grades, with pre
vocational courses until 16
years of age; chemistry of
the trade; free-hand draw
ing.

General education through the
grammar grades; prevoca
tional courses, including
free-hand drawing.

General education through the
grammar grades; special
courses in free-hand draw
ing, design; prevocational
courses until sixteen years
of age.

General education through the
grammar grades; prevoca
tional courses until sixteen
years of age.

General education through the
grammar giades.

Principles of design, color har
mony, lettering, composi
tion of forms, such as letter
heads, business cards, titlepages; i. e., fundamental
principles of typography.

Mechanics of machine compo
sition and some of the trade
and technical knowledge re
quired for hand composi
tion.

Composition of matrix paper
and type metal, and modem
methods in stereotyping.

Special courses in English..

All of the trade and technical
knowledge underlying the
practice.

All of the trade and technical
knowledge underlying mod
ern methods in presswork;
knowledge
of
materials
used; an account of the
evolution of the printing
press.

All of the trade and technical
lmowledge underlying mod
ern methods in presswork;
knowledge of materials
used; an account of the
evolution of the printing
press

Free-hand drawing, design;
heraldry, emblems, alpha
bets; chemistry of the trade;
modem methods.

knowledge of materials
used, including the chem
istry of inks and the quali
ties of paper; some account
of allied processes.

Only such as may be of value
as a basis of transfer to more
skilled work.

Free-hand drawing, design,
color harmony, alphabets;
chemistry of the trade; his
tory and theory of the trade.

Chemistry of the trade; mod
em methods; history and
theory of the trade.

Chemistry of the trade; knowl
edge of materials used;
color harmony; modern
methods; theory and his
tory of the trade.

Chemistry of the trade; knowl
edge of materials used; color
harmony; modem methods;
history and theory of the
trade.

Chemistry of the trade; mod
em methods; history of tho
trade.

Chemistry of the trade; mod
em methods; history of the
trade.

Free-hand drawing; modern
methods; history of the
trade.

Free-hand drawing and de
sign; m o d e r n methods;
history of the trade.

A knowledge of materials used
and of modem methods;
history of book making.

Design, color harmony, free
hand drawing and princi
ples of ornamentation; his
tory of book making.

No trade or technical knowl
edge required.

None.............................................

None............................................. None............................ ...............

None..

None.................

None............................................

None.............................................

None............................................. None............................................

None.............................................

N one............................................ None.............................................

None.............................................. None..

None.............................................

None............................................

None..................................

None..........................................

None.............................................

None.

English, spelling, punctua
tion, design, color harmony,
lettering, modern methods,
and hygieno of the trade.

English, spelling, punctua
tion, modern methods, and
hygiene of the trade.

English, spelling, punctua
tion, modem methods, and
hygiene of the trade.

History and theory of stereo
typing and hygiene of the
trade.

Same as II (a).

Theory and history of trade;
imposition.

Mechanics of printing press
and dangers and diseases of
the trade; evolution of the
printing press.

Mechanics of the printing press
and dangers and diseases
of the trade; evolution of
the printing press.

Free-hand drawing, design,
alphabets, emblems, chem
istry of trade, materials
used.

Courses dealing with modem
methods and with the evo
lution of the trade.

None that are strictly voca
tional.

Free-hand drawing and design,
color harmony, alphabets;
chemistry of the trade; ma
terials used.

Chemistry of the trade; mate
rials used.

Chemistry of the trade; me
chanics of printing press;
dangers and diseases of the
trade.

Chemistry of the trade; me
chanics of the printing
press; dangers and diseases
of the trade.

Chemistry of the trade; free
hand drawing and design;
history of the trade.

Free-hand drawing and de
sign; history of the trade.

History of book making,

History of book making........

Free-hand drawing and de
sign; color harmony; mate
rials used.

None that are strictly voca
tional.

Same as III for beginners; ad
vanced special trade courses
for journeymen.

Same as III for beginners; ad*vanced special trade courses
for journeymen.

Same as II <a)..

Same as III..

Same as III for beginners; ad
vanced special trade courses
for journeymen.

Same as III.................................

Same as III for beginners, ad
vanced special trade courses
for journeymen.

Same as III for beginners; ad
vanced special trade courses
for journeymen.

Same as III.,

Same as III.

Same as III for beginners; ad
vanced special trade courses
for journeymen.

Same as III........................

Same as III for beginners; ad
vanced special trade courses
for journeymen.

Same as III.

Same as III for beginners; ad
vanced special trade courses
for journeymen.

Same as III......................

Same as III for beginners; ad
vanced special trade courses
for journeymen.

Same as III.

(To face page 140.)

knowledge of materials
used, including the chem
istry of inks and the quali
ties of paper; some account
of allied processes.

Insufficient knowledge
trade chemistry.

Insufficient manipulative skill. Insufficient manipulative skill. Insufficient manipulative skill.

Insufficient manipulative skill. Insufficient manipulative skill. Carelessness
counting.

folding

and

140

BULLETIN OF THE

BUREAU

OF LABOR STATISTICS.

Cutters.—The cutter takes the sheets when they are ready to ho cut, adjusts the cut
ting machine to make the proper cut, and by pushing a lever with the hand, on a foot
or power machine, cuts the work into the required size and shape. In the cutting
department girls are used almost without exception, except on the large cutting
machines, where the work to be handled is too bulky or too heavy for them.
Polizhers.—In the large lithograph plants there are some occupations that are not
found in the small plant. For instance, there are men who do nothing but polish
stones for the engra er and transferrer. The stone must first of all be even and true on
the face and it must have a properly grained or polished surface. The polisher puts
the stone on a table or support, puts on it water and sand of the proper grade for the
graining and rolls or rubs another stone over its surface. This polishes and at the
same time grains the face. A stone may thus be used many times for lithographing
work.
Paper stock.—In the paper-stock room there are men who take charge of the blank
paper. This paper must be laid out to dry, should it come to the plant in a damp con
dition or should it become damp by atmospheric conditions while in the stock room.
Specially prepared racks are constructed, each section of which holds a certain grade
or quality of paper.
Bookmakers.—When books of cigarette papers are made, the cigarette-book maker
folds the cover into the proper shape, inserts the required number of sheets of cigarette
paper, and then binds the whole together.
Product or specialties.—The product or specialty of a cigarette-book maker consists
of books or packages of cigarette papers.
Importance of the trade.—According to the schedules, there are 26 female cigarettebook makers in Richmond.
Conditions of employment.—There are no nervous or physical strains caused by this
work and nothing to stimulate. It can not be said, however, that this work retards
mental de , elopment.
Economic conditions.—The average wage reported was $4.08 per week. The hours
of labor are 51 per week, 9 per day, and 6 on Saturday. There is steady employment
practically the whole year, the only dull season being during the summer months.
There is no organization among the cigarette-book makers.
Age cf maximum productivity.—Indeterminate. The entrance age is generally 16,
and no apprenticeship is necessary to learn the work.
Demandfor labor.—The supply of labor is adequate for the demand and this demand
is apt to remain constant in the near future. The workers are recruited from the
grammar schools.
Educational and technical requirements.—A cigarette-book maker, like the press
feeder, needs very little education for the purpose of making cigarette books, but in
order to be in line for a better position she should have at least a good elementaryschool education, especially in arithmetic. She needs to be quick and accurate in
folding covers and inserting papers. A knowledge of lithography would be of advan
tage to any worker in that trade.
What the industry gives.—There is no apprenticeship in this work. A girl is soon
able to do the work required of her, but she ha3 no chance to learn anything of the
technical part of the trade to make her more intelligent as regards the lithograph work
as a whole.
Deficiencies of workers.—The most common deficiency is the inability to count the
papers accurately and to fold the covers correctly.
What the school ought to give.—The school should give the cigarette-book maker an
elementary-school education, to enable her to advance in her work. She should
attend a day or night school to study those subjects she is deficient in and those that
bear on her trade.

APPENDIX C.—ANALYSIS OF OCCUPATIONS IN THE BUILDING
TRADES IN RICHMOND.
SUMMARY OF THE INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF THE BUILDING TRADES.
SCOPE OF THE INQUIRY.

In all, 20 building trades establishments, employing at the date of the inquiry 875
workers, were covered by the survey, the number of workers employed by these
establishments being approximately 30 per cent of all persons engaged in the building
trades in Richmond, exclusive of those employed in the metal trades establishments.1
These latter workers are included in the survey of the metal trades establishments
and are covered in another section of this report.
PRODUCT OR SPECIALTIES.

The establishments from which schedules were secured represent every branch of
building trades that is found generally in cities having approximately the same
population as Richmond, the special lines being painting, decorating, sign painting,
construction of buildings, plumbing, heating and steam fitting, plastering, cement
and concrete work, wood mill work, furniture making, stonecutting. bricklaying, and
electrical work.
SIZE OF ESTABLISHMENTS.

The number of workers employed in individual establishments at the date of the
inquiry varied from 3 to 200. Inasmuch as the survey was taken in the summer,
which is the busy season for the building trades generally, the number reported
employed at the date of filling out the schedules is, in the case of a number of estab
lishments, their maximum for the year. In the following table the establishments
are classified according to size, the classification being based, as regards each estab
lishment, upon the maximum number employed at any time during the previous year.
It will be apparent that in this table the total number of workers, 1.034, does not
represent the number employed at any one time, but is approximately the number
which would be employed il' the busy seasons for the several establishments were
exactly coincident.
T a b le 6 7 .— BUILDING T R A D E S ESTABLISH M ENTS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO M A X I
MUM NU M BER EM PLOYED DURING TH E YE A R .*

ISaximum number employed.

Em
ilishments. ployees.

25 and under.................................................................................................................................................. f>
2(>to 50............................................................................................................................................................ 4
51 to 100...........................................................................................................................................i
8
101 to 200......................................................................................................................................... i
2
Total..................................................................................................................................... ■
!

136
540
303
1,034

* See United States Census of Occupations, 1910. The census classification by occupation does not
enable one to determine exactly the number of workers engaged in the building trades^ outside of the
metal trades establishments.
2 Four establishments employing, respectively, 63, 57, 31, and 10 workers, which made no report of
maximum and mirnimum number employed during the year, have boon classified on the basis of number
employed at the date of the inquiry.

141

142

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

In the table following the fluctuation in number employed is shown by individual
establishments.
T a b l e 6 8 .—NUM BER OF EM PLO YEES IN 20 BUILD IN G T R A D E S ESTABLISH M EN TS IN

JUNE, 1914, AN D M AXIM UM AN D MINIMUM NU M BER EM P LO Y E D IN 1913, B Y ESTAB
LISHM ENTS.

Number employed.
Estab
lishment
No.

Character of work done.
June,
1914.

Painting and decorating...................................
Millwork and house finishing..........................
Antique and colonial furniture........................
Marble and granite cutting..............................
Brick manufacturing and contracting............
Painting, decorating, and paper hanging___
Electric construction (inside work)...............
Painting, decorating, and paper hanging___
Building contractor............................................
Heavy construction (carpenter and builder).
Sign lettering and painting..............................
Plastering contractor.........................................
____ do....................................................................
Builder and contractor......................................
Heating contractor.............................................
Sheet-metal work, plumbing, and gas fitting
Building and ornamental stonework............
Concrete and cement work...............................
Plumbing and heating......................................
Office and store fixtures....................................
Total............................ ...............................

3
63
75

10
47
15
9
46

11
200
7
46
72
57
31
9

Maxi
mum
during
1913.

75
10
47
30

Mini
mum
during
1913.

75
4

Percent
age the
minimum
is of the
maxi
mum.

200

10
103
75

20
12

100
40
43
33
67
13
14
13
80
19
18

15
14
78

100

60
57

10
65

20
50

875

1 Not reported.
FLUCTUATIONS OF EMPLOYMENT.

Generally speaking, in the building trades of Richmond, as compared with the
printing and metal trades, the fluctuations in employment are in a greater degree
seasonal. This is not true, however, as regards certain important groups included in
the building trades, such as, for example, those employed in the making of furniture,
office fixtures and hardwood finish, in which employment is fairly steady all the year
round. The most marked seasonal fluctuations are to be found chiefly in trades
engaged in the actual construction of buildings. In this respect, conditions in Rich
mond do not differ materially from those obtaining in other cities, except for the fact
that the active season in building, owing to the milder climate, is longer in Richmond
than in cities situated farther north.
In the case of only 5 of the 16 establishments reporting maximum and minimum
number of workers employed during the year preceding the inquiry did the minimum
exceed 50 per cent of the maximum. In the case of 5 establishments the minimum
was less than 20 per cent of the maximum.
SLACK AND BUSY PERIODS.

Establishments engaged in actual construction work state that their slackest periods
occur during the winter months. Two establishments report the summer months of
July and August as being the slackest season; both of these were engaged in the manu
facturing of high-grade office furniture and fixtures. Establishments engaged in
heating, plumbing, and steam fitting report that their slack period is in the spring
months.
It is apparent from the report on the schedules that for a majority of the establish
ments the busiest months of the year are from March to November, inclusive.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

143

SUPPLY OF COMPETENT JOURNEYMEN.

Almost all of the employers state that difficulties are experienced in obtaining com
petent journeymen. The opinion is that these difficulties are to be traced chiefly to
lack of any system of regular indenture as regards apprentices in the building trades.
AGE OF MAXIMUM PRODUCTIVITY.

Though constantly qualifying their statements by saying “ it depends upon the
individual,” opinions of employers vary radically with reference to the age period of
maximum productivity. The lower age limits are variously estimated at from 21 to
25; the upper limit ranges from 35 to 60.
SUPPLY OF SKILLED AND UNSKILLED LABOR.

Although employers differ in their opinions as to the adequacy of the supply of un
skilled labor, they, with a surprising unanimity, agree that the supply of skilled
labor is becoming steadily more inadequate relatively to the demand, and the expla
nation given is, as has been already stated, the lack of any systematized apprentice
ship.
PROMOTIONS FROM ONE OCCUPATION INTO ANOTHER.

Chances for promotion in the building trades seem to be very slight. Only one out
of seven employers reports that such promotions take place in his establishment.
Employers reporting, in answer to the question “ What is the usual line of pro
motion for a journeyman?” answer invariably “ to foreman.” It should be noted,
however, that in the building trades the opportunity for experienced journeymen to
establish themselves independently is greater than it is in those industries which are
organized on a large scale. This fact goes far to offset the small opportunity for pro
motion so long as workers remain employees.
TRADES THAT CAN BE LEARNED IN THE SHOP.

In the establishments covered by this investigation, employers state that the follow
ing trades can be learned by practice in the occupations: Fainting, decorating, paper
hanging, general millwork, granite and marble cutting, bricklaying, carpentry, and
plastering. Two employers—electrical contractors—report that “ nothing” can be
learned in their establishments. The returns above noted, as regards the possibility
of learning the trade in the shop, should be interpreted in the light of answers to other
questions on the schedule bearing on the subject. For example, in answer to the
question “ What occupations can be learned in your shop with little or no instruc
tion?” employers invariably answered “ none.” In answer to the question as to
whether beginners get any instruction in their shops and by whom, if any, the instruc
tion is given, the answer was almost invariably, “ Yes, by the foreman.” It would
appear, therefore, that the extent to which instruction is given is measured by the
ability of the busy foreman to give it, and in most instances such instruction is un
doubtedly very inadequate, because the foreman has not in any case the time in which
to give instruction, and in some cases he lacks the ability.
UNTRAINED BEGINNERS IN THE SKILLED TRADES.

In three-fourths of the establishments visited no untrained beginners, save appren
tices, are employed. This again would seem to indicate that the trades can not be
learned “ on the job.”
FOREIGN AND AMERICAN TRAINED WORKERS.

Opinions of employers are equally divided on the question as to whether the foreigntrained mechanic is superior to the native American. Those who think that foreigntrained workers are superior say that this superiority is due to the more thorough

144

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

industrial and general schooling of the foreigners. The experience of Richmond
employers with foreign-trained mechanics is, however, as shown in other parts of
this report, inconsiderable.1 The deficiencies most commonly noted on the schedules
as characteristic of the native American are: (a) Lack of a thorough training in the
trade, (6) lack of general education, (e) lack of a desire to stick to the trade, and (<T)
“ whisky.” The following deficiencies are, however, specified: Laziness, lack of selfcontrol, and lack of ability to apply himself to business.
STEADY WORK FOR COMPETENT HELP.

A majority of the employers in the building trades report that they are in a position
to provide steady employment all the year round to their competent journeymen.
Others, however, state that they find it necessary when business slows down to lay
off some even of their most competent workers.
CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH WORK IS PERFORMED.

Employers deny the existence in their establishments of conditions that might
tend to cause nervous or physical strain to their employees, but do make mention of
the fact that there is danger of accident in certain lines of work, such as that on tall
buildings, and generally in the placing of heavy timbers and in the erection of steel
structures. Establishments employing painters and stonecutters make slight men
tion of well-known occupational diseases associated with those trades, such as lead
poisoning and various affections of the lungs and throat due to inhalation of dust.
These and other conditions which tend to impair the health of the workers are con
sidered in detail in the full text description of the several occupations to be found
elsewhere in this report.2
CONDITIONS THAT STIMULATE INTELLIGENCE OF WORKERS.

Employers agree that intelligence of workers is stimulated only by occupations
involving more or less skill, and by those which do not involve constant repetition.
In certain branches of the building trades there is a considerable amount of roughwork which can not appeal to the interest of the workers.
HOW WORKERS ARE TRAINED.

Although a number of employers state that in their shops some instruction is given
to beginners by foremen, the returns indicate that there is, in general, in the building
trades no provision for systematic training. Employers, nevertheless, generally
assert that none of the building trades can be learned in the shops without instruction
of a kind not now given carefully planned and carried out over a series of years.
TERMS OF APPRENTICESHIP AGREEMENTS,

Ten employers report that they have no apprenticeship agreements whatever;
seven state that they have “ verbal understandings” with their apprentices. Only
three have written agreements covering definite periods of apprenticeship, these
being in the organized trades in which the workers have collective agreements with
their employers regulating all matters, including apprenticeship.
Those reporting apprenticeship agreements state that the terms of these agreements
specify three or four years as the period of apprenticeship and a sliding scale of wages
determined in accordance with the acquired skill of the apprentice.
It is the general opinion of employers, more especially of those who have agreements
with their apprentices, that boys working under agreements take their work more
seriously than do boys working without any agreement.
i See Table 18, p. 73.

2 See pp. 147 to 182.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

145

INDUSTRY HAMPERED BY LACK OF ELEMENTARY TRAINING.

It is the unanimous opinion of employers that the efficiency and wage-earning
power of their employees is impaired by the lack of elementary education, and that
in consequence the building trades industries as a whole suffer. The employers
generally assert that school training beyond the seventh grade would be of great value
to the workers. In addition to a complete elementary-school training, subjects strictly
vocational in character are specified as particularly advantageous; such as, for exam
ple, drawing, shop mathematics, estimating, and reading of blue prints for workers
engaged in construction work, and color harmony and paint mixing for the painter.
KIND OF SCHOOL DESIRED.

Four-fifths of the employers favor evening industrial schools, very few of them
expressing preference for part-time day industrial schools. As regards each separate
occupation the subjects specified by employers to be taught in evening school classes
are included in the outlines of courses given in the analyses of occupations.
EMPLOYERS WILL COOPERATE IN ESTABLISHMENT OF PART-TIME SCHOOLS.

Employers suggesting part-time day industrial schools express willingness to enter
into an agreement providing for definite periods of attendance of their apprentices
at such schools, at the expense of the employers, apprentices to receive their Usual
wages while at school. From six to eight hours per week—not exceeding two hours
per day—it is thought would be adequate to meet the needs of apprentices for school
training.
WHAT WORKERS SHOULD BE TAUGHT BEFORE THEY ENTER THE SHOPS.

As has been noted, employers insist that a complete elementary general education
is an essential condition of success in the building trades. Eight of the employers
think that this general education should be supplemented by special courses covering
shop mathematics and drawing. A few of the employers suggest purely industrial
subjects pertaining to specific occupations, such as paint mixing, color harmony,
estimating, and “ trade knowledge.,, as subjects which should be taught the workers
before entering the shops.
NIGHT SCHOOLS FOR JOURNEYMEN.

Among the subjects suggested for advanced trade evening courses to be given for
journeymen to increase their efficiency are the following, each being recommended
with reference to the specific needs of particular occupations: Free-hand, mechanical,
and architectural drawing, shop mathematics, reading and making of blue prints,
methods of estimating of costs, paint mixing, color harmony, modeling, lettering,
history of the trade, and theory of electricity.
EFFICIENCY TESTS AND RECORDS.

In comparatively few cases do employers keep any written records of individual
efficiency, and the usual method of testing the fitness of applicants for employment is
by actual trial.
EMPLOYERS WILL COOPERATE IN SYSTEMATIZING SHOP PRACTICE.

Three-fourths of the employers expressed perfect readiness to cooperate with the
school authorities in organizing shop practice in order to develop the efficiency of their
workers.
In the two tables following, statistics are presented showing for the 875 workers em
ployed in the 20 building trades establishments covered by the survey establishment
6071°— Bull. 162— 16------ 10

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

146

schedules—(1) the number of journeymen, apprentices or beginners, and semiskilled
workers in each occupation; (2) the regular hours of labor per day; and (3) the regular
hours of labor per week.
T a b l e 6 9 . — N UM BER

OF JO U R N EY M EN , APPRENTICES OR BEG IN N E R S, AN D SEMI
SK ILLED W O R K E R S IN 20 BU ILD IN G TR A D E S ESTABLISH M EN TS, CLASSIFIED B Y
OCCUPATION, JUNE, 1914.

Number of workers.

Occupation.
Journey
men.

Bench hand..............................................................................................
Brick mason............................................................................................
Cabinetmaker..........................................................................................
Carpenter.................................................................................................
Carver.......................................................................................................
Cement finisher.......................................................................................
Cement worker........................................................................................
Decorator..................................................................................................
Draftsman................................................................................................
Electrician................................................................................................
Gilder........................................................................................................
Granite cutter..........................................................................................
Lather.......................................................................................................
Marble cutter...........................................................................................
Marble polisher.......................................................................................
Mill worker..............................................................................................
Painter......................................................................................................
Paper hanger...........................................................................................
Plasterer...................................................................................................
Plumber...................................................................................................
Sign painter.............................................................................................
Steam fitter..............................................................................................
Tinner and sheet-metal worker...........................................................
U phol sterer ..........................................................................................
W ood finisher..........................................................................................
Total number...............................................................................
Per cent.........................................................................................

17
58
67

Appren
tices
or be
ginners.

122

5
3

1
1

5
3

2
4
2
8
7
6
1

43
52

10
73
11

4
15
4

Semi
skilled
helpers
or la
borers.

Total.

100
60

1
2
4

2
1
6
4
1
2
1

2
30
32

20
2
3
1

557
63.7

17
85
72
225
5
63

2
4
3
9

2
11
7
8
1
77
54

11
111
35
7

20
6
8

32
41
4.7

277
31.7

875

100

T a b le 70.—R EG U LAR HOURS OF LABOR IN 20 BU ILD IN G TR A D E S ESTABLISH M ENTS.

Hours per day (ex
cept on Saturday).

Employees.
Number
of shops
reporting
specified
number Number. Per cent.
of hours.1

8
8

hours.......
£ hours___
9 hours.......
9b hours___
hours___

Total

114
61
420
142
138

13.0
7.0
48.0
16.2
15.8

875

100.0

Hours per week.

Employees.
Number
of shops
reporting
specified
number Number. Percent.
of hours.1

44 hours—
48 hours___
53 hours—
54 hours___
55 hours—
56 hours—
Total

52
123
65
497
75
63

5.9
14.1
7.4
56.8

875

100.0

1 Three shops are included twice, different hours being reported for different groups of workers.

8.6
7.2

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF RICHMOND, VA.

147

ANALYSIS OF OCCUPATIONS IN DETAIL.
CARPENTERING.

Processes.—The processes in carpentering are essentially simple. They embrace
such work as that of cutting timbers, boards, and finish to length and shape; framing
up structures; boarding in; weatherboarding; lathing; stair building; putting on
exterior and interior finish; and building frames for concrete.
These several processes require manipulative skill and trade and technical knowl
edge in varying degrees, and in many communities specialization has gone far in
establishing distinct trades within the general field of carpentering, such as, for
example, that of the framer, the joiner, the stair builder, the parquet-floor layer, and
the hardwood finisher. In Richmond, however, while there is some specialization
along these several lines, the carpenter is in general expected to be an all-round
carpenter and joiner, and to be more or less proficient in all lines of ordinary carpen
tering. He is expected on occasion to stake out a building from specifications; to
get out the frame, and in buildings of simple construction erect it from sill to peak; to
weatherboard, shingle, and lath; to build stairs having straight lines and square
turns; to do all simple outside and inside finishing in soft wood; and to fit and hang
ordinary sashes, doors, and blinds. The several lines of work which are more or less
specialized into distinct trades may be briefly described as follows:
The joiner puts in window frames, hangs sashes, doors, and blinds; does all kinds
of inside woodwork on doorframes, jambs, and trim, washboards, picture moldings,
wainscotings, and paneled ceilings; he sets mantels, builds the less difficult stair
cases, and does all kinds of interior finish, both in hard and in soft wood.
The stair builder makes a specialty of building the more difficult and ornamental
staircases, such as the double-turn and the spiral types. His work consists of building
and putting in place the stairs, the newel posts, and the handrailings, in the space
provided for them in the building, with due regard to safety, comfort, artistic design,
and ornamentation.
The parquet-floor layer lays parquet floors, which are of hard wood, inlaid usually
in geometrical patterns, often in different colors.
The hardwood finisher works on the finishing of hardwood interiors, scraping and
polishing them until perfectly smooth and ready for the stainer and vamisher.
The framer, in the construction of buildings and other structures of concrete, builds
wooden frames or forms for inclosing the concrete and holding it in place until hard.
In all of these lines the carpenter must work accurately from blue prints or specifi
cations, accuracy in following plans and specifications being fully as essential, for
example, in the rough work of framing up buildings, as it is in the finer work of inside
finishing or stair building. The carpenter's work is practically all of it bench or
hand-tool work, and requires the use of a great variety of more or less complicated tools.
Finally, a considerable amount of the carpenter’s time is occupied in caring for
and sharpening his tools—filing his saws, crosscut, block, and rip; sharpening his
chisels and bits of different sizes and shapes; and sharpening and adjusting the
knives of his planes.
Product or specialties.—The characteristic product of the carpenter, in Richmond
as in other communities, is a building or structure of wood, framed up, boarded in,
weatherboarded, shingled, with outside and inside wood finish put on, floors laid,
sashes, doors, and blinds hung, and all surfaces prepared for painting, or staining and
varnishing.
Importance o f the trade.—The total number of carpenters in Richmond in 1910,
according to the returns of the Federal census, was 1,281, of whom 1,121 were white
and 160 were colored. This total includes carpenters in the mills and car shops. The
number of carpenters in the building trades is at the present time approximately 600.

148

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

Conditions of employment.—Practically all of the work of the general carpenter calls
for the exercise of physical strength; some of it involves heavy lifting, as in the
placing of heavy timbers, and some, such as floor laying, may involve long continued
stooping. Generally, however, the work is sufficiently varied to avoid any serious
physical strain for the experienced, hardened workman. Even in such work as
floor laying, the carpenter alternates between the use of the saw and the hammer;
he must select his boards, and as the floor is laid it must be scraped, or planed, or
sandpapered smooth. The character and variety of the work, and the fact that the
carpenter must work from specifications, and must on occasion draw up his own
specifications, makes his work stimulative. For men engaged upon rough work, the
way of promotion is open in proportion as the worker acquires experience. In none
of its aspects, except possibly unvaried roughwork, does carpentering restrict the
mental development of the worker. While in certain lines of work as, for example,
in erecting frames there is some danger of accident, there are no occupational dis
eases, and in general the conditions of work are such as to insure the worker’s good
health.
Economic conditions.—During his first year the apprentice earns from $4 to $5 per
week, and his wage is increased from year to year, so that during the last year of his
apprenticeship he is earning from $7 to $8 per week. The minimum wage reported
on the survey schedules by journeymen is $15, the maximum wage $21 per week;
the union scale is $18. Carpenters work from 8J to 9 hours per day, with a short
Saturday of 5§ or 6 hours, making a full-time working week of from 48 to 54 hours.
While the fluctuation in employment from year to year depends largely upon activ
ity in the building trades, the carpenters average about 10 months of work in the
course of a year. In Richmond the climate is such that the active season in build
ing is prolonged, extending in general from the 1st of March to the end of December,
leaving a short slack season extending through January and February. Approx
imately one-half of the carpenters are members of the carpenters’ and joiners’ union.
Age of maximum 'productivity.—Boys enter the trade between the ages of 16 and 18
and serve an apprenticeship of four years. According to the returns on the schedules,
the productivity of carpenters is at its maximum during the age period from 25 to 55.
Demand for labor.—In Richmond the demand for workers is increasing, especially
for efficient skilled workmen who have served a full apprenticeship. The supply of
semiskilled workers is, however, fully adequate to meet the demand for such labor.
Apprentices are recruited largely from the lower grades of the grammar school. Casual
laborers enter the trade as unskilled workmen, and as they acquire experience are
employed on work requiring some degree of skill.
Educational and technical requirements.—Any deficiency in general education, such
as is represented by the lack of a grammar-school course, can not fail to be a serious
handicap for the carpenter who would advance in his trade to any position of inde
pendence. In addition to this he requires for success in his occupation a very con
siderable amount of trade and of technical knowledge, covering the uses of a great
variety of hand tools, the qualities of various kinds of woods, the various methods of
building construction, free-hand, mechanical, and architectural drawing, blue-print
reading of architects’ plans and specifications, and the mathematics required for
determining angles, heights, weights, and strains.
Tools and Their Use.

The degree and diversity of manipulative skill and of trade knowledge required by
the carpenter can best be indicated by a brief description of the principal tools in the
use of which he must become adept. These are as follows:
Saws: A carpenter’s handsaw consists of a thin piece of steel called the blade, upon
which teeth are cut along the edge. The handle end of the blade is called the head
and the other end the point. The blade is considerably wider at the head than at the

VO CATION AL EDUCATION SU RVEY OF R IC H M O N D , VA.

149

point. Handsaws are classified as rip and crosscut; the ripsaw is for cutting with the
grain of the wood and the crosscut is for cutting across the grain. They are also classi
fied according to the number of teeth per inch. The saw in order to cut well and move
freely must have what is called “ set.” Setting a saw consists of bending its teeth
alternately from side to side, thus making the cut wider than the blade is thick. The
amount of set varies according to the use of the saw. In sawing green or undried
lumber the saw requires a greater set than in sawing well-seasoned lumber, and a
crosscut saw requires more set than a ripsaw. The pitch of the saw tooth is the angle
formed b y the slanting edge of the tooth with a straight line drawn through the point
of the tooth at right angles to the edge of the saw blade. The amount of pitch depends
upon the kind of work for which the saw is to be used, ripsaws, for example, requiring
more pitch than do crosscut saws.
The crosscut saw is used for cutting across the grain, and the teeth are filed so that
the cutting edges are on the side. The teeth are sharpened to a point, one on one
side, the next on the other, leaving a V-shaped space between and giving two parallel
lines of sharp points. The ripsaw is used for cutting with the grain, and the teeth are
filed straight across at right angles to the line of the blade, making them chisel shaped.
The backsaw is a saw having a thin blade strengthened by a heavy steel backpiece
and is used upon work requiring accurate cutting. The teeth are such that it may be
used either as a rip or a crosscut saw. The compass saw has a thin narrow blade fitted
in a handle and is used for inside curved sawing. The turning saw, used to cut along
curved lines, has a thin narrow blade, fastened at each end in a frame in such a manner
that it may be loosened and the blade put through an auger hole and then refastened.
The carpenter must be skillful not only in the use of these various saws, but as well in
filing and setting them properly and in testing new saws for proper temper and quality.
Planes: The plane, used for straightening and smoothing the surfaces, consists of
a body in the bottom of which there is a slit called the throat, through which the
cutting piece called the plane iron or blade projects. The cutting part of the plane
consists of the plane iron the end of which is sharpened on a bevel to a cutting edge,
and the plane cap iron, a flat curved piece of steel which is fastened against the plane
iron about one-sixteenth of an inch from the cutting edge by a short heavy screw
called the plane-iron screw. This cap iron serves to stiffen the plane iron and also
bends and breaks the shaving, thereby preventing a splitting action in front of the
cutting edge. Just back of the throat of the plane is the frog, fastened to the bottom
by screws. The object of this frog is to hold the plane and cap iron in place and to
carry the thumbscrews by which the plane iron is adjusted. The plane iron and
cap iron are held firmly in place against the frog by means of a clamp worked by a
cam. The vertical adjustment of the blade for thickness of shaving is made by means
of a thumbscrew on the underside of the frog, and the horizontal adjustment of the
plane iron is by a lever just under the plane iron.
Planes are made in different sizes and lengths to suit the different kinds of work.
The jack-plane is about 13 inches long and is used for removing large quantities of
rough wood, leaving the piece fairly smooth. The smooth plane is used for smoothing
material which has been roughly smoothed and straightened. The jointer plane is
often 2 feet or more in length and is used for straightening long and uneven material—
most often for glue joints. The block plane is about 6 inches long and is used in
planing the end grain of the wood, where there is no vise handy for holding the piece.
A very considerable degree of skill is required for sharpening properly and adjusting
these planes for different classes of work.
The brace and bit: The brace is a tool used to hold and turn the various kinds of bits
used in boring, drilling, countersinking, or driving screws. They are made in two
kinds, the ordinary brace and the ratchet brace; the latter is fitted with a ratchet in
the grip so that the bit can be turned in one direction only. This brace is necessary
where an entire revolution of the brace can not be made, and also for boring in hard

150

B U L L E T IN OF T H E BU REA U OF LABOR STATISTICS.

wood, or turning large screws. The most common forms of bits used in the brace
are the following: The auger bit,which has a spur to draw the bit into the wood, two
nibs for cutting the fiber, and two lips to remove the waste which is brought by the
twist to the surface. The drill bit which has only the twist sharpened at the end
is made of tempered steel and is used in boring either hard wood or iron. The counter
sink bit has a large V-shaped cutting end for enlarging screw holes so that the screw
head will draw down even with or below the surface. The screw-driver bit is like
the blade end of a screw driver and is used for driving large screws.
Squares: The framing square is a large square made of one piece of metal; the long
arm, which is usually 24 inches long, is called the blade, and the short arm, usually
18 inches long, is called the tongue. The square is graduated to inches and frac
tions of an inch; also on the blade there is a board-measure scale, and on the tongue
a rafter-measure table. This is one of the most important tools the carpenter has
to use. The framing square, however, is used more often in getting board measures,
testing comers, and for setting the bevel to various angles. The try-square consists
of a blade—a thin piece of steel— with a handle of wood or steel, called a beam, at
tache? so that the edge of the beam forms a right angle with the edge of the blade.
The blade is graduated into inches and fractions of an inch. The try-square is used
in testing the end or edge of a piece of material to see that it is square with the ad
joining surface and also to test the thickness of the piece.
Chisels and gouges: Chisels are commonly made in two kinds: The framing chisel,
used for heavy work, which has the handle fitted into a socket on the end of the
chisel; and the firmer chisel used for lighter work, which has a tang upon which the
handle is fitted. Chisels are of varying widths, are used for cutting joints, and are
among the most useful of the carpenter’s tools. Gouges are similar tools except that
the cutting edges are curved, with an inside or an outside bevel.
Gauges: The marking gauge consists of a beam holding a marking point or spur of
metal, the beam being graduated to inches and fractions of an inch. There is a head
which slides over the beam, and in the head is a thumbscrew for holding it in place
at any desired distance from the spur. The marking gauge is used for laying out lines
along the grain of the wood. In the pencil gauge a pencil point is inserted in place
of the metal spur. In the slitting gauge the spur is made sharp and strong enough
to cut through thin material, and in some cases the gauge is constructed with a handle
like that on a plane.
Other tools in the use of which the carpenter must acquire manipulative skill are
the spoke shave, for smoothing curved surfaces; the mallet, for driving chisels in
heavy cutting; the bevel, with movable blade used in getting angles for cutting rafter
ends and other material; screw drivers of various types, such as ratchet and spiral;
hammers, flat and bell faced; miter boxes, levels, wrenches, awls, nail sets, rules,
files, rasps, pliers, hatchets, bench axes and vises.
A very important part of the carpenter’s trade knowledge relates to the care of his
tools. The carpenter’s bench, which is perhaps the most neglected of anything that
he uses—with the result that it is frequently rendered unfit for use—must be kept
free from nails, glue, and marred places in order not to scratch the work placed upon
it. Saws by constant use in all sorts of weather become dulled, rusted, and loose at
the handles, and must be properly repaired or they soon become useless for accurate
work. If wooden planes are used, the metal parts must be kept bright and the wooden
soles true and free from grooves caused b y nails or sand particles. Iron planes, which
rust easily, must be kept well oiled, especially in damp weather. Chisels must'be
kept bright and clean and the handles in good condition. The handle of a chisel
should always be struck with the mallet, as the hammer will split it, and when in
this condition it can not be safely used, nor can accurate work be done with it. All
edge tools must be kept sharp and free from rust, as a matter of economy of time and
labor and of quality of Workmanship.

VOCATION AL EDU CATION SU RVEY OF R IC H M O N D , VA.

151

In addition to his vocational equipment in the way of manipulative skill, and of
trade and technical knowledge the carpenter if he is to advance in his trade, must bo
a man of practical judgment, of good artistic sense and imagination, and with a capacity
for solving the practical problems that arise in every line of his work.
What the industry gives.—The apprenticeship period for the carpenter is four years.
During the first year the apprentice helps in moving lumber, carrying pieces to the
man on the job, sandpapering, cleaning, and making himself generally useful. He
learns something of the use of the different tools, and acquires some skill in sawing,
planing, beveling, leveling, and plumbing. In his second year he helps in cutting
flooring and ceiling joists, studding and plate timbers, and in framing up buildings.
He is also generally employed in other work as a helper. During his third year the
apprentice works at cutting and placing sills, joists, studding, and plates and also
helps in the construction of common, hip, and valley roofs, in cutting and placing
rafters, trusses, and braces, in weatherboarding, shingling, and lathing. In the fourth
year of his apprenticeship, in addition to doing Work as in the three proceeding years,
he is allowed to do inside work on ceilings, wainscotings, and floors; to fit and hang
sashes, doors, and blinds, and put on hardware. He is also given the more difficult
outside work, as building and finishing porches and cornices.
As a result of apprenticeship training under favorable conditions, the boy who has
served his full time may be expected to know the names and special uses of the carpen
ter^ tools and to have acquired a fair degree of technical skill. Whether or not he
will have acquired anything beyond this practical trade knowledge will depend upon
the conditions under which he has worked, but in comparatively few cases is it true
that the apprentice emerges from his apprenticeship with any adequate equipment
of technical knowledge. Unless the conditions are exceptional this sort of knowledge,
which is of greatest practical value, must be acquired in some other way than by prac
ticing the trade. It may be noted that there is in Richmond very little, if any, welldefined systematic training of apprentices or of journeymen beyond the requirements
of the work in hand. Some provision for such training would seem to be particu
larly important in the case of the carpenter, since the possibilities of advancement for
him are almost entirely dependent upon his individual skill and capacity for assum
ing the responsibilities that necessarily attach to independent work in any line.
Deficiencies of workmen.*—The common deficiencies of workmen, as noted on the
schedules, emphasize this lack of systematic training, since they embrace not only a
want of general elementary education, but also a lack of knowledge of such funda
mental requisites of the trade as mechanical drawing, shop mathematics, and ability
to read blue prints of architects’ plans and specifications.
What the school ought to give.—In order to supplement the knowledge gained by the
boy who is already working as a carpenter’s apprentice, the aim of a school should be
to give him a working knowledge of the scientific principles of the trade, which would
enable him eventually to rise to a position of responsibility. In general, the following
courses of study may be outlined. These courses are suggested by the schedule
returns as necessary to meet the needs and common deficiencies of workers in Rich
mond.
Courses of Study.

Mathematics: In this course emphasis should be laid upon that application of geo
metrical principles which is of practical value in such work as, for example, the con
struction of hipped or gabled roofs, and the determination of angles, heights, lengths,
and surfaces.
Blue-print reading: This course should enable the boy to read and to work from
architects’ plans and specifications.
Free-hand and mechanical drawing: In this course training should be given in making
free-hand sketches and mechanical drawings of building plans, tracings, and blue

152

B U L L E T IN OF T H E B U REA U OF LABOR STATISTICS.

prints. Architectural drawing is also very necessary for the worker who wishes to go
far in his trade.
Business practice in the trade: This course should cover such topics as the law of
business contracts, building codes, liens, notes, and discounts; the statute of limi
tations; the legal regulation of labor conditions; business English; bookkeeping;
and the kinds, grades, and markets of lumber.
Modem methods: An advanced trade course providing for shop talks on modem
methods of construction, on tools and materials, and, in general, on modem practice
in the trade.
BRICKLAYING.

Processes.—The bricklayer in Richmond is commonly expected to do any kind of
brickwork, whether plain or ornamental, required in the construction of buildings,
including the setting of window sills and caps of cut stone or other material. Cutstone doorsills and ornamental belts are, however, as a rule, set by stonemasons, while
sheet-iron cornices and cement brackets are set by men employed by the manufacturers
of these products.
The bricklayer is essentially a wall builder, and a first essential of his trade is a
knowledge of the various methods of bonding employed in the construction of walls.
Bonding is the art of binding brickwork together so that it will stand up well, by
properly alternating stretchers and headers, taking care that each joint is covered by
a solid center above and below and that enough transverse brick are laid to bind
together the back and front wall. There are many different kinds of bonds, but that
most used in Richmond is called “ 4-inch bond.” It consists of six or seven courses
of stretchers and then a course of headers, care being taken to break joints properly.
English and Flemish bonds are also used in Richmond to some extent. The English
bond consists of alternate courses of stretchers and headers; the Flemish bond of
alternate stretchers and headers in the same course breaking joints with the courses
above and below.
The bricklayer must be proficient not only in the building of straight walls, both
inside and outside, but also in the raising of inside and outside comers; in the carrying
up of chimney flues; in the building in of window frames; in the construction of
arches and gables, and in the laying of pressed brick, terra-cotta trimmings, and other
ornamental materials. All of this work requires skill in handling the tools of the trade,
which include trowel, chisel, hammer, plumb rule, level, line and pins, scutch,
jointer, brick saw and chopping block, and in manipulating the various materials
which are used—the brick and mortar.
Product or specialties.—Bricklaying includes any kind of brickwork required in the
construction of buildings, whether plain or ornamental, the laying of machinery
foundations, the construction of tunnels and sewers, the putting up of power-plant
chimneys, the setting of boilers, construction of bake ovens and of brickwork in blast
and open-hearth furnaces.
Importance of the trade.—A conservative estimate places the number of bricklayers
in Richmond at about 300.
Conditions of employment.—The bricklayer is usually strong and healthy. The
very nature of his work and the fact that it is mostly outdoor work are factors favorable
to the maintenance of a vigorous constitution. It is customary to allow an hour for
dinner, and, as the work does not involve either eyestrain or nervous strain, or any
special dangers from machinery or from handling poisonous materials, the occupation
may be classed as an extremely healthful one. There is nothing in the trade that
tends to narrow or restrict the mental development of the worker. On the contrary
as the work is of a varied character it is calculated to stimulate the worker’ s interest.
Economic conditions.—The maximum wage reported for journeymen in this trade
on the survey schedules is $31.20 per week; the minimum wage $29.25. The union
rate is $30.80. Apprentices receive a wage of $4 per week during the first year, $5

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in the second year, $6 in the third year, and $7 in the fourth year. Apprentices’ wages
are usually increased 50 cents per week every six months.
Bricklayers in Richmond work from 44 to 48 hours per week, working 8 to 9 hours
per day, and from 4 to 5 hours on Saturday. On account of the fluctuations in the
building industry only a comparatively small number are constantly employed.
The busy season is from March to November, inclusive, and the slack season from
December to February, inclusive. The bricklayers in Richmond are completely
organized.
Age of maximum productivity.—The workers in the trade enter at 17 or 18 years
of age as apprentices and are required to serve four years. It takes a journeyman
from two to five years after his apprenticeship to reach the point of maximum pro
ductivity. On the average this is then maintained until he has attained approxi
mately the age of 55.
Demandfor labor.—The number of bricklayers in Richmond is adequate to meet
the demand, which is at present stationary. Boys entering the trade come from
the lower grades of the grammar school.
Educational and technical requirements.—The bricklayer should have at least a com
plete grammar-school and prevocational training, and it may be noted that as a rule
he can not advantageously enter the trade as an apprentice until his sixteenth year.
Tools and Materials.

^ In the practice of the trade manipulative skill is required in the handling of the
tools and materials described in the following paragraphs:
Trowels: The trowel is a tool having a thin triangular steel blade fitted with a
crank-shaped handle. The trowels most commonly used are of two kinds—the large
brick trowel, with a blade about 12 or 14 inches long, used for handling mortar in
laying brick; and the pointing trowel, having a blade about 4 inches long, used for
finishing or pointing the mortar in the joints. The pointer is made in two styles—
one with a wide blade for pointing ordinary brick joints and one with a narrow blade
for finishing the joints in work where such materials as pressed brick or terra cotta
are used.
Chisels: Brick chisels are of the following kinds: The bolster or broad chisel is
made of one piece of hard steel and consists of a short handle about 5 inches long and
a blade between 2 and 3 inches wide by 2 inches long. This chisel is used in cutting
brick to size. The broad chisel is made in two styles—one with a cutting edge, which
is called simply the chisel, and the other with the edge a bevel, about one-fourth
of an inch wide and with very little angle. This chisel is called a “ set.” The
cutting chisel is round and made in any length which is desirable, usually from 12
to 14 inches. The cutting edge is ground from both sides. This chisel is used for
cutting holes in brickwork.
Hammer: The bricklayer’s hammer has a hard steel head about 6 inches long, with
a driving face on one end and a sharp peen for dressing brick on the other. The head
is fitted with a handle about 10 inches long and is used for breaking and dressing brick
to size.
The plumb rule or level: The plumb rule consists of a piece of wood about seveneighths of an inch thick, 4 inches wide and 4 feet long, perfectly square and straight.
A straight line is marked in the middle lengthwise of the piece, a string being fas
tened at one end of this line. On the other end of the line is a plumb bob which
hangs opposite a hole cut through the rule near the end. When the rule is placed
against the wall if the string hangs along the line through the middle of the rule the
wall is plumb. The plumb rule, however, is now usually made on the principle of
a level, having small vials filled with liquid containing an air bubble. When held
in a perfectly horizontal position the bubble stands in the middle between two small
lines marked on the vial. These vials are mounted both in the sides and ends of the

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rule so that it may be used either as a plumb or level and without the use of the line
and plumb bob.
The line and pins: Pins are made of steel about 6 inches long, with a thin, wedgeshaped point for sticking into the joints at the corners. Between the pins the line
is stretched, the brick being laid to this line.
Scutch: The scutch is a modified hammer, having a blade on one end of the head
and a pick on the other. It is used in dressing brick for arches, and in other work.
Jointer: The jointer is a round, curved piece of steel used to dress the joints in brick
work, giving the mortar in the joint a convex surface. One end is larger than the
other to suit the different kinds of joints.
Brick saw: This is a frame saw having a cutting edge made of two twisted steel wires.
It is used to cut soft brick for irregular work.
Chopping block: The chopping block used by bricklayers is a block of wood, with a
right-angled groove about the size of the brick cut in the top. The brick is laid in
this groove for dressing.
The principal materials used by the bricklayer are the following:
Lime: Lime is calcium oxide made usually by heating limestone, or shells, thus
drawing off the carbonic acid. It has the property of hardening when mixed with
sand and water.
Cement: The cement used in Richmond is usually either Portland or Rosendale, the
Portland being much the better grade. Rosendale is a natural cement made by cal
cining impure limestone containing sand and clay. Portland cement is a manufac
tured product made by grinding and mixing chalk and clay, drying and calcining the
product, thus forming a dark-colored mass. It is then ground to a fine powder, which
is slate gray in color. This cement has the property of hardening under water as well
as in air.
Brick: Bricks are rectangular blocks of clay usually 8J by 4J by 2 inches in size,
molded into shape, and burned to give hardness and durability. They are, however,
made in a variety of shapes as well as colors, and may be rough, pressed, faced, or
enameled.
Mortar: The mortar usually used for laying brick consists of 1 part Portland cement,
2 parts of lime, and 6 parts of sharp sand. If the mortar has to be colored red, Vene
tian red, a dry color, or more often a liquid color called Pecora, is used. If a dark
mortar is desired, Rosendale or Portland cement is mixed with lampblack. The
color is put in after the mortar is cool, otherwise it will bleach.
The following implements are used by the laborers who prepare and deliver mate
rials to the bricklayer:
The brick hod and mortar hod: The laborers in Richmond are all Negroes, and they
very seldom use the brick or mortar hod. They carry the brick on a board and the
mortar in a small wooden tub on their heads, thus leaving their hands free for climbing
ladders.
Mortar board: The mortar board, which is from 2J to 3 feet square, is used in carrying
the mortar to the bricklayer.
Mortar bed: The mortar bed, large or small as may be required, is constructed of
strong boards firmly fastened together. It should not be over 2 feet deep. The bed
is used to hold the mortar while mixing.
The sand screen: The sand screen is a coarse wire net upon a frame about 2 feet wide
by 6 feet long, used at an angle of 45°. The sand is thrown against the screen and
sifts as it rolls down.
The bricklayer should be not only skillful in handling the tools of his trade, and
well informed regarding the composition and qualities of the materials which he uses,
but should in addition be capable of working from blue prints of plans and specifica
tions. He should have a knowledge of building construction which will enable him

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to determine, for example, the proper thickness and structure of walls, flues, and
foundations, the formation of arches—upright or inverted segmental, circular, flat, or
gothic-^-and the design of cornices, gables, pilasters, panels, and fireplaces. It will
be apparent that these practical requirements presuppose a thorough training in cer
tain branches of applied mathematics and in other systematic subjects.
What the industry gives.—In most cases the only knowledge the boy acquires during
his apprenticeship is the manipulative skill required in the actual laying of the brick.
The boy receives some help in acquiring facility in practical work from the foreman
and journeymen on the job. During the first six months the apprentice works on
straight in&ide work, such as partitions. Then if he has become proficient in this, he
is allowed to do outside straight work, with the exception of front walls. By this
method he learns the use of the trowel, the handling and spreading of mortar, working
to the line, using line and pins, and pointing and finishing his work. During the
second year, besides doing work similar to that done in the first year, the apprentice
does “ plumb work,” learning to raise inside corners, as door and chimney jambs,
and to carry chimney flues. After he has mastered the raising of inside corners he
will be allowed to work on outside corners. Besides becoming more familiar with
the tools used the first year, this year he will become familiar with the use of the
plumb rule and level, and will also learn to use his eye in keeping his work straight.
In his third year the apprentice will be given work building in window frames, the
different kinds of arches and gables, and any kind of brickwork net involving pressed
brick or other ornamental material. In his fourth year he will be given pressed-brick
fronts, setting cut-stone window sills and caps, and terra-cotta trimmings. There
is, however, no provision made in the trade for the systematic instruction of either
apprentices or journeymen.
Deficiencies of workmen.—The common deficiencies of the bricklayers relate to the
practical requirements which have been specified. According to their own reports,
the workers feel that they are deficient in mathematics of the trade, in architectural
drawing, in ability to read architects’ plans and specifications, and in general
education.
What the school ought to give.—In the way of general preparation for his work the
bricklayer should have a complete elementary-school education. The character of
continuation work indicated by the results of the survey as needed by those who
have entered the trade is shown in the following topical outlines for instruction:
Practical work: Mixing mortar, spreading mortar, building the different kinds of
walls with return and intersection and with the different kinds of bond. Work on
comers, angles, fireplaces, chimneys, windows, building in window frames, brick
cornices, and the different kinds of arches and gables. Along with this work the
boy should learn the tools, their kinds and uses, and the kinds, preparations, qual
ities, and uses of the various materials. In general, this knowledge should be ac
quired outside the school while at work, but when it is not so acquired the oppor
tunity to acquire it should be provided by the school.
Mathematics: Shop mathematics, consisting of that part of arithmetic, algebra,
geometry, and trigonometry which can be applied to the trade in such problems as
arise in building construction and in the work.
Drawing: Both free-hand and mechanical drawing, the different kinds of bond,
building plans, details, etc.; the making of tracings and blue prints. Architectural
drawing is also necessary to the worker who wishes to go far in the building line.
Physics and chemistry: Physics and chemistry applied in a practical manner to the
strength, qualities, placing, and manufacture of materials used in the trade.
Shop lectures: On the tools, problems, and modem practice in the trade.

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STONECUTTING.

Processes.—The processes of stonecutting, as the trade is carried on in Richmond,
can best be described under the following headings: Granite cutting, soft-stone cut
ting, and block cutting.
Granite cutting: The granite cutter, as the name implies, is a worker and finisher
of granite or other hard stone, which is secured from the quarries by blasting and
shipped to the stoneyards or the building site. The stone block, as it comes from
the quarries, is of irregular shape, and the first processes in stonecutting have to do
with making it straight and true, i. e., with lining it up. The cutter lines up the
stone by cutting on its face or edge, with a machine or hand chisel or drill, a line
which, being straight and true, becomes his working mark. The stone is then pointed
or roughed off by the use of the peen hammer or a pointing machine tool. After being
roughed off or pointed as near the line as possible, the stone is smoothed up with the
hand or machine bush. The hand bush is a hammer whose face is composed of
4, 6, 8, 10, or 12 sharp pyramidal points, or cutters, the number being generally
specified in the agreement between contractor and builder. The stone is first worked
down with a coarse bush and is then finished with a fine bush.
If the stone is to be polished, it is placed under a grinding mill and ground down
with chilled shot, after which it is ground with carborundum. It is then ready for
glossing or polishing, which is accomplished by rubbing the surface with putty and
water.
If the stone is to have any inscription or design cut on, this work is then done,
after which it is ready to erect. The finished stone is set in mortar and the joints
pointed with a jointer or trowel. In monument work the bottom and top base are
worked as described above and then the shaft. Sometimes a cap is used, which is
placed between the top base and the shaft. These parts are placed one upon the other,
the bottom base first, then the top base, then the cap, the last to be placed in position
being the shaft. The several parts are set up without being tied together in any way.
In a monument of the cross design the lower end of the shaft has a shank cut on and
the base has a slot cut for the shaft to fit in; in some cases a hole also is drilled in
the base and shank and a galvanized-iron pin placed therein to help hold the pieces
together.
The granite cutter generally has no knowledge of lettering or designing, and this
class of work is done by some one who has perfected himself in this special line.
Soft-stone cutting: Soft-stone work is all done by machine tools. The stone is lined
up or marked off to straighten it and get out of the wind, and is then sawed by a ma
chine saw, planed by a machine planer, and is finally shaped up to form with either
a shaper or a slotter.
Block cutting: In getting out stone blocks for paving the stone is first drilled and
a line traced on both faces by the use of tracer and hammer. The block is then struck
with a hammer, broken along the traced line, and the joint faced off either with a drill
or side hammer, shaping it sufficiently to be set in sand for paving.
Product or specialties.—Very little block cutting is done in the city at the present
time, although this line of work has in the past given employment to a considerable
number of men. The product of the stonecutter is in the form of dressed stone, hard
and soft, for buildings and for ornamental monuments. The work includes the cutting
of letters and designs in stone, and it may be noted that the stonecutters of Richmond
do also a certain amount of marbl<>,working.
Importance of the trade.—The occupation gives employment at the present time to
approximately 70 men, although the census of 1910 returned the number of stone
cutters as being in that year 101. At the date of the census a considerable number
of block cutters were employed who have since left the city.
Conditions of employment.—The work of the stonecutter is physically exacting,
and in operating tha compressed-air machines the noise is a condition tending to

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cause nervous strain. In the relatively unskilled processes, moreover, such as rough
ing off che stone, Where the worker is kept continually on this work, there is little
that is calculated to appeal to the worker’s interest; where, however, the work is
sufficiently varied and of a high grade the occupation is one which provides some
opportunity for the development of a high degree of skill. The stonecutter in Rich
mond does not, however, under present conditions normally develop, in consequence
of the experience which he acquires in the practice of his trade, into a fine letterer
or stone carver.
Economic conditions.—The hours of labor for the stonecutter are 8 hours per day, 44
hours per week, and 4 hours on Saturday.
The apprentice enters the trade at the age of 17 and serves an apprenticeship of
three years. The apprentice’s wage for the first six months is $3 per week, and for
the second six months $4.50 per week. There is no regular apprentice wage for the
next two years, but the wage is increased from $4.50 to $12 per week, according to the
apprentice’s ability.
The trade is about 75 per cent organized and the journeyman’s wage is from $18 to
$21 per week, the union scale being $3.60 per day of eight hours. The busy season
for stonecutters is from March to October, inclusive, and the slack season from Novem
ber to February, inclusive.
Age of maximum productivity.—The period of maximum productivity is between
the ages of 20 and 55.
Demandfor labor.—The supply of labor is adequate to meet the demand, and in
the block-cutting occupation the demand for labor in this locality is decreasing. The
trade is recruited from the lower grammar grades of the public schools.
Educational and technical requirements.—The apprentice to this trade should receive
a complete grammar-school education and some industrial training. He should
receive instruction in free-hand drawing, design, and blue-print reading. The boy
should be specially adapted, have dexterity, patience, and be mentally alert.
What the industry gives.—The industry gives to the worker an apprenticeship of
three years, the manipulation of the tools of the trade, both machine and hand, and
a knowledge of the different classes of work with which he comes in contact. There
is no provision made in the trade to give the apprentice or journeyman anything but
the practical part of the trade.
What the school ought to give.—The school should give the worker an elementary
industrial education, special courses covering the trade and technical requirements
of the occupation, free-hand drawing and design, and modern practice in working
hard and soft stone.
STRUCTURAL STEEL AND IRON WORK.

Processes.—All structural iron and steel work belongs to one of two classes—orna
mental or structural—and the workers are known as ornamental or as structural steel
workers.
Ornamental work: Under the head of ornamental work comes the manufacture and
erection of outside and inside stairs, fire escapes, grill work, elevator inclosures,
balcony railings, fences, cellar caps, vault lights, and all forms of ornamental work
of a like character. In selecting the metal to be used, cold-rolled steel is always
chosen for work requiring sharp corners and clear lines, as balcony railings, doors,
and grill work, while iron is used for rougher work and on jobs that do not require
sharp edges. Sometimes castings are used, and in some jobs steel, iron, and castings
are necessary.
When an order for a piece of work is sent to the factory, detail drawings are made
in the drafting room and checked and then sent to the foreman of the ornamental
department, who divides the work among the workers. Some men can do one class
of work better than another, and the foreman picks these specialists for their line
of work.

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B U L L E T IN OF T H E B U REA U OF LABOR STATISTICS.

The layer out prepares the work for the other workers. He selects the iron of the
proper size and kind, lays out from the drawing the proper lengths of stock, marks
off all rivet holes, half-lap joints, drill holes, and all other laying out necessary for
the information of the helpers and mechanics. After the stock has been selected,
cut, and laid off, it goes to the helpers or mechanics in the various parts of the shop.
All punching is done on a punching machine, which punches the various-sized holes
for riveting, and the operator of this machine is classed as a mechanic. Other holes
that can not be punched are drilled either on the drill press or by portable hand
drills, and other work sawed and slotted on the backsaw and the slotter. Castings
are ground and filed by helpers. Curved and bent work is sent to the blacksmith,
who shapes it up according to forms or templates. If many duplicates are to be
made, a form is forged or cut to the exact size and shape of the finished product, and
all pieces are forged into shape around this form. Pieces of pipe are often needed
for railings, and they are bent to shape and the ends threaded by the blacksmith or
the helpers.
After all work has been punched, sawed, filed, drilled, and forged, it goes to the
finisher for assembling. From the detail drawing he is able to place the different parts
in their proper places and to fasten them together with screws, bolts, or rivets. When
the finisher has properly assembled the job, he passes it on to a helper, who paints
it. It is then ready for delivery to the customer or for erection. As a rule most of
the men employed as layers out and finishers are foreigners.
Structural-steel work: In structural-steel work after the draftsman has completed the
detail drawings they are sent to the foreman of the structural department, who assigns
the work to the layers out. The proper I-beam or channel iron is selected and cut
to lengths and the places for the rivet holes marked off. If any cutting to a certain
shape is required, this is marked on the steel. The work, after it is laid off, is sent
to the punchers, cutting-off machines, or drill presses, where the pieces are cut to
size and shape, holes punched or drilled, and everything done to put the work in
shape for the assemblers. When the parts are ready to be assembled, they are riveted
by means of riveting machines operated by compressed air. After the ends have
been faced off the work is ready to be painted and erected. Men known as steel
erectors put the beams in place and supervise the riveting of them by the riveters.
In structural work all layers out, punch hands, assemblers, and erectors are classed
as journeymen, and all riveters, drillers, heaters, and helpers are classed as helpers.
Product or specialties.—Structural-steel work in Richmond is not unlike that in
other cities. The same class of work is done, and practically the same methods are
employed.
Importance of the trade.—Because of the fluctuations in the building trades no
figures can be given for the number of people employed that will cover conditions the
entire year. It is safe to say that the average is about 26.
Conditions of employment.—There seem to be no unhealthy conditions in structuralsteel work unless it be the cold, bad weather that the erectors are subjected to at
times. This is rather inconsiderable, since very little work can be done during the
winter months. The erector is, however, exposed to the danger of falls and the
worker in the shop to the danger that attaches to all heavy machine work. There
are no occupational diseases and very little strain caused by heavy lifting, for most
of the lifting of the beams is done by cranes and hoists.
The work of the layer out, finisher, and assembler is especially stimulative because
of the very nature of it. They must have initiative to plan the work from the draw
ings, furnish work for the helpers, and see that the finisher’s job is satisfactory. There
is a certain amount of stimulative influence in punching and drilling, but less in
such work as heating rivets, grinding castings, and in general laborer’ s work.
Economic conditions.—There is no organized apprenticeship system in the struc
tural-steel plants in Richmond, although a few helpers are employed at a lower wage

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than the ordinary helper, with the understanding that they be given a chance to
learn the trade if they prove satisfactory. Such helpers or learners are given about
15 cents an hour, which is increased from time to time. There is, however, no regular
scale of increase of wage. Helpers are paid from $1.50 to $2 per day, and may earn
more if they advance from one grade of work to another. Riveters and punchers
are paid from $2 to $2.25 per day; assemblers, erectors, finishers, and layout hands
from $3 to $3.50.
Most structural workers work 55 hours per week, 10 hours per day, and 5 on Saturday.
The busy season is generally from April to August and the dull term from November
to February. At times it becomes necessary to lay off most all workers and the fluc
tuation is considerable. The trade is not organized, with the exception of the erectors,
who have a strong organization over the entire country.
Age of maximum 'productivity.—The entrance age is generally 18 years and over.
This is somewhat higher than other trades, but the work at times is heavy and a
well-developed boy is needed. No organized system of apprenticeship exists, but it
takes at least four years to learn the trade thoroughly, if the time has been served
under instruction. The age period of maximum productivity varies, of course,
with the man, but in general it seems to be from 30 to 45.
Demand for labor.—The supply and demand of labor is about the same except at
times in the case of erectors. These have to be brought to Richmond from other
cities when much work is being done. Because of the demand for structural-steel
buildings, the demand for workers in this trade is apt to increase in the future. The
journeymen are recruited from the ranks of the helpers in the shops who may be given
the chance to become mechanics, and from other cities.
Educational and technical requirements.—It is very essential that all workers have a
good general education with a working knowledge of arithmetic. The layer out,
finisher, assembler, and erector should have a working knowledge of mathematics,
strength of materials, riveted joints, mechanics, and free-hand drawing and design
in order to understand the reasons for using bars, I-beams, and channel iron of specified
sizes, and to be able to lay off and measure accurately for rivet holes, half-lap joints,
and the like on straight and curved work and to lay off forms for irregular shapes.
A knowledge of mechanical or architectural drawing and design is absolutely neces
sary for an efficient skilled worker. This is especially true of the layer out, finisher,
assembler, and erector. A knowledge of riveted joints and strength of materials
would be of much value to the erectors, and a knowledge of mechanics would be
of value to all workers. For the ornamental worker a knowledge of free-hand draw
ing and design is necessary. The ability to distinguish steel from iron and a
knowledge of the chemical and physical properties of both are very essential.
The manipulative skill required is the ability to quickly manipulate the various
machines in the shop, to handle with ease the heavy work, to properly fit and adjust
the pieces for assembling in ornamental work, and the manipulation of all the hand
tools not included in the above work. All mechanics must be very accurate and
possess some initiative. They should be careful in the work around the machinery.
What the industry gives.—No organized system of apprenticeship exists in Richmond,
but a few helpers are taken with the understanding that they will be given a chance
to learn the trade. No provision is made for the systematic training of these helpers.
The industry gives very little in trade and technical knowledge. Some men learn
to tell the difference between iron and steel, something of the strength of material
and a little of drawing, but no instruction is given in the shop in this work. What
ever manipulative skill is necessary to do certain classes of work, at least, can be
learned in the shop, but much of the theory can not. Helpers are promoted from one
class of work to another, at times, until they can run the various machines and some
of them become mechanics. There is no promotion for a journeyman unless he be
comes a foreman.

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Deficiencies of workmen.—The most common deficiency of the workers is a lack of
common-school education, especially in arithmetic. One drawback is the number of
men who drink and are not to be depended upon. This fault, however, is no more
common among steel workers than among other mechanics.
What the school ought to give.—All workers in the structural-steel work should have
an education* through the common school, with prevocational courses to help them
decide what line of work they like best. Special emphasis should be put on arith
metic and on the possibilities of the trade, and some work in drawing should also be
given. After the worker enters the shop, he should have instruction during his appren
ticeship in mechanics, strength of materials, drawing, design, and mathematics applied
to the trade. After he becomes a journeyman, he should continue the same studies
and take up such work as the new processes in the trade, advanced ideas in the
building trade, and any other work bearing on his trade. If possible, continuation
courses for the apprentices and helpers should be offered, and night classes for the
journeymen, where the subjects mentioned above could be taught.
CEMENT FINISHING.

Processes.—Cement finishing consists of “ floating” and “ troweling” the surface of
cement to the desired finish. The cement finisher, however, does a great variety of
work not indicated in the above description. In concrete floor, sidewalk, coping,
steps, and similar work the “ finisher” lays out the work, watches the composition of
the concrete mixture, “ strikes off” the surface of the concrete with a straightedge,
and “ floats” and “ trowels” the same. In concrete construction such as buildings,
bridges, subways, arches, etc., the finisher supervises the mixing of the concrete,
sees that the forms are properly set, and in general acts as a foreman. In the em
bellishing of concrete buildings the finisher applies the cement mortar to its walls,
runs cement base, molding, and caps, and does all composition and plastic work.
Owing to the relatively large proportion of helpers and laborers to each cement finisher
and the lack of trade knowledge on the part of the latter, the cement finisher acts
more or less in the capacity of a foreman.
Importance of the trade.—Based on the best available data it is estimated that there
are approximately 50 cement finishers in Richmond.
Conditions of employment.—The cement finisher is subject to no peculiar nervous
strain, but the work requires consideiable physical strength and endurance, especially
in some work where the finisher must work in a stooping position for long periods.
Cement working is comparatively a new trade, and as cement finishing is the most
skilled occupation in the trade all of the work done by the finisher should stimulate
the interest, and the better grades especially so. So far as known there are no peculiar
occupational diseases, and the liability to accident on structural work is inconsiderable.
Economic conditions.—Fluctuation in the demand for cement finishers is governed
more or less by the activity of building operations, but so far as the fluctuation is seasonal
the temperature is the governing factor. In this climate the period between November
15 and March 15 is generally too cold for carrying on the work to the best advantage.
In very cold weather practically all work ceases. Cement finishers work 9 hours per
day, 54 hours per week. In some few cases 8 hours on Saturday. A cement finisher’s
apprentice, generally called a helper in Richmond, receives $9 to $12 per week during
his first year’s work and $12 to $18 during the second year. Journeymen receive from
$21 to $30 per week. The trade is not organized and therefore there is no union scale.
Age of maximum productivity.—Boys enter the trade between the ages of 18 and 20,
and serve an apprenticeship of two to three years. There are no available data in
regard to the period of maximum productivity.
Demand for labor.—The demand for labor is increasing, especially for efficient
skilled finishers, and the supply does not meet the demand. Workers are recruited
from unskilled laborers.

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Educational and technical requirements.—A complete grammar-school education,
together with prevoeational courses, should, meet the requirements of the cement
finisher as to general education. The trade and technical knowledge required is not
of a very complicated or abstruse nature, and includes knowledge as to the kinds and
properties of cement; materials used in the aggregate, such as sand, gravel, and
crushed stone; the various methods of finishing, of setting forms and of reinforcing;
and some knowledge of architectural drawing and specifications. In the manipulative
processes a nice degree of skill is required in handling the float, trowel, and other
special finishing tools. Dexterity, mental alertness, initiative, and a fair degree of
accuracy are prime requisites of the successful finisher.
What the industry gives.—Owing to the fact that the cement finishers are not organ
ized, there is no definite term of apprenticeship, but the trade should be learned in
from two to three years. Boys learning the trade are not called apprentices, but
helpers. A three-year apprenticeship should give the boy a high degree of manipu
lative skill, but the trade and technical knowledge gained would be almost entirely
dependent on the individual efforts of the worker, as there is no provision made for
the instruction of either the apprentice or journeyman. The line of promotion is
from helper to journeyman and from journeyman to foreman.
Deficiencies of workmen.—The most common deficiency of the cement finisher is the
lack of a general education and an all-round knowledge of the trade.
What the school ought to give.—Before entering the trade the boys should have
received a complete grammar-school education, together with prevoeational courses.
Apprentices and journeymen should receive specialized courses covering the specific
requirements of the occupation. These would include a course on the kinds and
properties of cement and of the materials used in the aggregate, the setting of forms,
and the methods and theory of reinforcing; a course in mechanical and architectural
drawing, and a course in estimating.
TINSMITHING OR SHEET-METAL WORK.

Processes.—The work of the tinsmith or sheet-metal worker consists of the laying
out of tin or other sheet-metal utensils, the forming and making of waterspouts, and the
erecting of the same, the bending of lock joint by use of folder or brake, and the lay
ing of tin on roof and the closing of the joint by use of the mallet and seamers or roofing
tongs. The tinsmith or sheet-metal worker erects metal ceilings and side walls,
furring and sheathing same, makes crestings, awnings, hollow circular moldings, and
metal sash frames and skylights, and covers fire doors and windows.
Product or specialties.—The product of the tinsmith or sheet-metal worker in Rich
mond consists of all tin or sheet-metal work done in the building trades.
Importance of the trade.—There are about 140 journeymen and apprentices in this
occupation in Richmond.
Conditions of employment.—There is no strain on the worker, either physical or
nervous, but in some lines of work there is liability to accident. The high-grade
work has a tendency to stimulate the intelligence of the worker.
Economic conditions.—The apprentice to this trade receives for the first year $3
per week, the second year from $4 to $5 per week, the third year $5 to $7 per week,
and the fourth year from $6 to $9 per week. The wages of the journeymen range
from $20.10 to $21 per week. The hours of labor are from 8 to 8J per day—48 per
week—and in some cases a short day of 5| hours on Saturday. The seasonal activity
is about the same as for carpenters and the fluctuation of employment is inconsid
erable. In Richmond the trade is unorganized.
Age of maximum productivity.—The apprentice to this trade enters between the ages
of 16 and 17 and serves an apprenticeship of four years. The period of maximum pro
ductivity for tinners is from 21 to 65 years of age.

6071°— Bull. 162— 16------ 11

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B U L L E T IN OP T H E BU REA U OF LABOR STATISTICS.

Demand for labor.—The apprentices to this trade are recruited from the lower
grammar grades of the public schools. The demand for this class of labor seems to
be stationary and the supply is adequate to meet the demand.
Educational and technical requirements.—The apprentice to this trade should receive
an elementary industrial education. He should receive instructions in pattern draft
ing and cutting, free-hand and mechanical drawing, a knowledge of architectural and
geometrical forms and modern methods of the trade. Shop mathematics should be
given, to accompany the problems of drafting and cutting.
What the industry gives.—The industry gives an apprenticeship of four years and
a knowledge of the practical part of the trade, but there is no provision made for
instruction in the theory, either for apprentices or journeymen.
Deficiencies of workmen.—The common deficiency of the worker seems to be a lack
of general education and of knowledge of drawing, both free-hand and mechanical.
What the school ought to give.—The school should give the prospective apprentices
to the trade a complete grammar-school education, supplemented by imtruction
in sheet-metal pattern drafting and cutting, and free-hand and mechanical drawing;
instruction in shop mathematics, and courses covering the trade and technical
requirements of the occupation.
PLUMBING.

Processes.—The plumber s work in Richmond consists of the installation of all
fixtures for gas, water, sewerage, and drainage purposes and the making of necessary
pipe connections for the same. The joints most commonly used by plumbers are
the wiped and screw joints. The wiped joint is made by scraping and fitting the
parts together and then pouring molten solder upon the place. This solder while
still in a plastic condition is wiped by hand with a moleskin or cloth pad around the
joint, making a neat and reliable connection. The screw joint is made by cutting
threads upon the pipes with stock and dies, painting the threads with white or red
lead to make the joint tight, and then turning each piece of pipe half through a coup
ling by means of pipe wrenches.
Product or specialties.—In Richmond the work in the plumbing trade covers all
work on water, gas, and sewer systems from the street main to and beyond the house
line. This consists of setting up in buildings and residences all plumbing fixtures
and their appurtenances, such as water filters, water meters, hot-w ater tanks, suction
tanks, sump tanks, cold-water tanks, bathtubs, showers, washbasins, sinks, waterclosets, and urinals; all water, gas, and waste piping for laundry machines; all
compressed-air work; also all toilet and bathroom auxiliaries, such as paper holders,
glass shelves, medicine closets, towel racks, and soap and sponge holders. This also
includes all waste-water leaders, soil and vent lines, and sewerage drains within and
beyond the house line to the street main; all pipe for hot and cold water supplies
used for domestic purposes, cooling jackets, priming pumps, or for ice-machine work;
all thermostatic work connected with plumbing; all pipe work connected with
pneumatic vacuum-cleaning systems; all gas piping and connections for gas fire
logs, stoves, furnaces, driers, boilers, and heaters; all assembling, hanging, and
connecting of gas illuminating fixtures; all iron pipe for speaking tubes.
Importance of the trade.—The number of plumbers in Richmond at the present time
is approximately 70.
Conditions of employment.— There is nothing in the work of the plumber which
embodies physical or nervous strain, and as the work is extremely varied in character
it should stimulate the intelligence of the worker.
Plumbing can not be termed an unhealthy occupation, although there is some
danger from disease germs, gases, waste matter, dampness, etc., especially on repair
work. This danger, however, can be practically eliminated by taking proper pre
cautions.

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Economic conditions.—Plumbers’ apprentices are usually paid $4 per week during
the first year of the apprenticeship. During the last three years the apprentice is
paid according to the ability which he shows. The minimum wage in Richmond for
journeymen plumbers is $3.25 per day, the maximum wage is $4 per day, and the
union wage is $4 per day. The plumbers in this city work 8 hours per day, 48 hours
per week. The busy season for plumbers is from March to August, inclusive, and
the slack season from September to February, inclusive, but there is very little fluc
tuation in employment. About 50 per cent of the plumbers in Richmond belong to
the organization.
Age of maximum productivity.—Workers usually enter the plumbing trade between
the ages of 17 and 20. They serve an apprenticeship of four years and as junior jour
neymen for one year before becoming full-fledged journeymen. It takes the plumber
from two to five years after he is oat of his apprenticeship to reach the period of
maximum productivity, which is usually between the ages of 21 and 45 years.
Dema.tdfor labor.—The supply of plumbers in Richmond is adequate to meet the
demand, which is at present practically stationary. The workers in this trade are
recruited from the grammar grades and enter the trade as apprentices.
Educationav and technical requirements.—The workers in the plumbing trade should
have at least a grammar-school education. They need to know mathematics, blue
print reading, and modern theory and practice of the trade, and to have skill in
handling tools and wiping joints.
The tools most commonly used by plumbers are as follows: The shave hook, for
cleaning the tarnish from pipe in preparation for wiping the joint; the ladle, for han
dling molten lead; the cloths, for wiping joints; the tap borer, used to tap pipe for
branch lines; the calking tools, yarning iron, and right, left, and main facing tools;
the asbestos joint runner, for running molten lead into horizontal pipe joints; tools
for setting fixtures; 8,10,14, and 18-inch pipe wrenches; the strap wrench, for handling
nickel-plated fixtures; level; plumb bob; screw driver; brace and drills; 1£, H, and
2-inch springs for making bends in waste pipe; hammer and cold chisel, for cutting
soil pipe; hack, compass, and tenon saws; gasoline furnace, for heating lead; and
stock and dies, for threading pipe. The worker should also have strength, endurance,
initiative, and special adaptability if he is to be successful.
What the industry gives.—During the apprenticeship the training received is about
as follows: The first year and part of the second the apprentice serves as a handy man,
helping on the work in any way possible, and thus learning the tools and their
uses and the sizes and uses of the various kinds of pipe. In the last part of the second
year he will be allowed to calk soil pipe and do some little lead work. The third year
the apprentice will do any work of this kind of which he is capable, and the fourth
year he is put out on jobs by himself. The fifth year he serves as a junior journeyman,
doing regular journeyman’s work, and if this work is satisfactory he becomes a jour
neyman at the end of this time.
Deficiencies of workmen.—The common deficiency of workers in this trade is lack of
general education and knowledge of mathematics, drawing, and modern theory and
practice of the trade.
What the school ought to give.—The worker before starting to serve his apprentice
ship should have at least a grammar-school education and, as the only training he gets
while serving his apprenticeship is the actual practice in doing the work, this should
be supplemented by school courses as follows: Shop mathematics applied to the trade,
estimating, drawing, mechanical drawing of drainage systems, architects’ specifications,
etc., sanitary methods of installing drainage systems, etc., chemistry of the trade.
STEAM FITTING.

Processes.—The work of the steam fitter consists of the running of lines of pipe, the
cutting to length and threading of pipe in preparation for the necessary joints and

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B U L L E T IN OF T H E BU REAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

connections, the fitting together of these joints, and the placing and screwing on of
fixtures.
Product or specialties.—The work of the steam fitter in the city of Richmond consists
of the installation of steam and hot-water heating plants, the running of all lines of
pipes for ice refrigerator plants, all piping for pump and other power generators, the
installation of all piping for power plants of every description, and all thermostatic
work connected with steam heating and power plants except where lead is used.
Importance of the trade.—There are approximately 100 steam fitters employed in
Richmond.
Conditions of employment.—The occupation is a healthy one, but there is some
danger of pneumonia from becoming overheated and then cooling off too quickly,
or of burns and scalds from accidents. These, however, can not be said to be occupa
tional. There is nothing about this work to cause either physical or nervous strain,
and as it is of an extremely varied character and presents many problems to be solved,
there is nothing in it to narrow and restrict the mental development; all of it because
of this should stimulate the intelligence and interest.
Economic conditions.—The employment in this trade is steady, most of the work
men being employed practically the entire year. The fluctuation, which is small,
corresponds to that in the building trades, the busy season being from March to August,
inclusive, and the slack season from September to February, inclusive. The union
men in this trade work 8 hours per day, 48 hours per week. The nonunion men work
9 to 10 hours per day, 54 to 55 hours per week, and 5 to 9 hours on Saturday.
Journeymen's wages range from a minimum of $13.44 per week to a maximum of
$24 per week. The union wage is $24 per week. The workers in this trade are about
30 per cent organized.
Age of maximum productivity.—The workers in this trade enter as apprentices
usually between the ages of 16 and 19, and serve an apprenticeship of four years. The
period of maximum productivity is between the ages of 21 and 45.
Demand for labor.—The supply of workers meets the present requirements. The
demand, however, is increasing because of the growing need for steam and hot-water
heating in private homes. The workers enter as apprentices and are boys recruited
from the lower grammar grades.
Educational and technical requirements.—The workers should have grammar-school
education and prevocational training, knowledge of blue-print reading, modem prac
tices, and the technical requirements of heating, refrigerating, and power-plant instal
lation . They require manipulative skill in the handling of tools and equipment, also
strength, endurance, and special adaptability.
What the industry gives.—The apprentice to this trade serves an apprenticeship of
four years. During this period the first two years are spent in helping the journey
men on the job and making himself generally useful, and in this way becoming
familiar with the tools and their use and the names and use of all material used.
After this period, if the apprentice has been observant and has “ caught on,” be is
given some of the less skilled work, such as running a straight line of pipe and mak
ing joints and connections for same. After the third year of his apprenticeship, the
apprentice should be profitable to his employer by being able to do any of the ordinary
work of the steam fitter that does not require a great amount of experience and
initiative.
There is no provision made in the shop for the systematic instruction of either
journeymen or apprentices, and practically the only knowledge the worker gains is
that acquired in the actual performance of the work. He also acquires the manipu
lative skill necessary to perform the work.
Deficiencies of ivorkers.—The workers in this trade are deficient in general education,
blue-print reading, mathematics, and the technical knowledge required for the
installation of heating, refrigerating, and power plants.

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What the school ought to give.—The workers before entering the trade should have a
complete grammar-school education and prevocational training. After entering the
trade the workers should take school courses covering blue-print reading of architects’
plans and specifications, mathematics of the trade, and the technical requirements
for the installation of heating, refrigerating, and power plants.
ELECTRICAL WORK.

Processes.—The electrical worker in Richmond performs perhaps a wider variety

of operations than any other trade worker. Electrical work may be roughly divided
into three general classes—electrical apparatus work, outside wiring, and inside wiring.
Electrical apparatus work: Under electrical apparatus work is included the manufac
ture of all electrical machines, instruments, and devices. This work is so varied and
widely differentiated that no brief description can cover it in full detail; in general,
however, it may be said to consist of all the skilled electrical work required to be done
in the manufacture or repair of all forms of electrical apparatus, such as generators,
motors, electric meters, rheostats, telephones, switchboards, and testing and signal
apparatus.
Outside wiring: Outside wiring consists of the installation of all outdoor lines and
includes such work as general electrical power transmission lines, street lighting,
telephone, telegraph, and signal lines. There are two general types of outside w irin gaerial, in which the wires or cables are supported high in the air on poles or other
suitable devices, and underground, in which the wires or cables are laid in conduits.
Inside wiring: Inside wiring consists of the preparing for and putting up of electric
wires for all purposes, so long as the work is done within the confines of some struc
ture. The installation of the appliances and fixtures for which the wires are run is
also generally included in the inside wireman’s work. This includes such work as
lighting, heating, powder, telephone, bell, and signal installation. There are four
general types of inside wiring—open work, in which the wires are exposed to view
and are mounted on cleats or knobs; molding work, in which the wires are run in a
special molding, made either of wood or metal; concealed work (knob and tube), in
which the wires are run in partitions and other places not exposed to view and are
insulated by means of knobs and tubes; and conduit and armored cable work, in
which the wires are run in metal pipes called conduits or are themselves protected
by an integral metal coating or armor. The above classification does not include all
forms of electrical work, as there are some specialized occupations which do not fall
under the above heads, such as power-house work, for instance.
Importance of the trade.—According to the Federal census of 1910 there were in Rich
mond at that time 239 electrical workers, including electrical engineers. It is esti
mated that there are about 260 inside wiremen in the city at the present time.
Conditions of employment.—In general, electrical work does not involve any peculiar
physical or nervous strain, though work with high-tension currents may induce ner
vous strain. Practically all electrical work stimulates the interest in a more than
ordinary degree. This is due particularly to the newness of the trade, it being yet in
the formative stage.
So far as known there are no peculiar occupational diseases. Working with live
wires is dangerous, as is also line work on poles, but the majority of accidents due to
these causes are generally traceable to carelessness on the part of the worker.
Economic conditions.—There is very little seasonal fluctuation in the demand for
workers in the electrical trades. The busiest season is from August 15 to December 15.
Inside wiremen work 8J hours per day, 48 hours per week, and a short Saturday of 5J
hours. An inside wireman’s apprentice, generally called a helper in Richmond,
receives $5 per week during his first year of apprenticeship, and $7.50 per week dur
ing the remaining three years. Journeymen receive from $16 to $22 per week, the
union scale being 43f cents per hour, or $21 per week. The trade is about 20 per cent
organized.

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B U L L E T IN OF T H E BU REA U OF LABOR STATISTICS.

Age of maximum 'productivity.—Boys enter the trade between the ages of 16 and 18,
and serve an apprenticeship of about four years. The electrical workers at present
engaged in the trade in Richmond are all young men, and there are no available data
in regard to the period of maximum productivity.
Demandfor labor.—The demand for labor is increasing, especially for conduit workers.
The supply of labor seems adequate except that of highly skilled licensed workers.
Workers are recruited from the grammar grades.
Educational and technical requirements.—The worker in the electrical trades requires
a fairly good general education. In addition to an elementary-school education he
should have either a high-school education or special prevocational courses in mathe
matics, physics, chemistry, and mechanical drawing.
A very considerable amount of trade and technical knowledge is required by the
electrician. Electric wiring, requiring as it does careful insulation from all surround
ing material which might under any circumstances become a conductor of electricity,
has necessitated the establishment of certain definite and fixed rules for the installa
tion of all wires and appliances which are to convey electrical current. It is of more
than ordinary importance that these rules (electrical code) should be understood and
observed by the worker, since not only his business integrity and reputation are
affected by poor or slipshod work, but the safety of property and even life are depend
ent on the proper installation of electric wires and appliances.
As an illustration, the following are some of the details of which an inside wireman
must have ready and definite knowledge: The methods of installation of electric
wires and conduits, the making of electrical connections, fixture wiring, the installa
tion of electrical appliances, the testing of circuits, the methods of computing the
sizes of wires, connections and fuses required for specific electrical currents, as well
as estimating the amount of current required for the specified work. This work
presupposes a thorough knowledge of the code, together with some knowledge of the
theory of electricity, with emphasis on the definition of terms and electrical measure
ments. Some knowledge of building construction is also necessary.
The manipulative skill required of an inside or outside wireman is not of a very
difficult nature. The tools most commonly used are pliers, connectors, the . screw
driver, brace and bit, hammer, knife, and soldering torch. Conduit and pipe work
require the use of pipe fitters’ tools. Dexterity in handling tools and fittings, accu
racy in all the work done, and initiative in attacking the many difficult problems
that arise are among the qualities especially desirable.
What the industry gives.—Due to the fact that the electrical workers’ trade is not
organized sufficiently in Richmond, or perhaps due to the comparative newness of the
trade the conditions of apprenticeship are very indefinite. There seems to be a
general understanding that the period of apprenticeship should be four years. In
general, boys learning the trade are not called apprentices, but helpers. A four years’
apprenticeship should give the boy a very fair degree of manipulative skill and some
trade and technical knowledge.
The amount of knowledge acquired, however, depends very considerably on the
worker himself as there is no provision made in the shop or on the job for the systematic
instruction of either apprentices or journeymen. The line of promotion is from helper
to journeyman, to foreman. There is also a very considerable tendency for the elec
trical worker to go into business for himself, doubtless due to the fact that only a
small capital is necessary.
Deficiencies of workmen.—The majority of electrical workers have a fairly good ele
mentary education, but are deficient in advanced and technical education.
What the school ought to give.—Before entering the trade the boy should have re
ceived a complete grammar-school education and either a high-school education or
special prevocational courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and mechanical

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drawing. Apprentices and journeymen should receive specialized courses covering
the specific requirements of the occupation. These would include a course in the
theory and practice of electrical wiring, mathematics, physics, and reading of archi
tects’ drawings and specifications.
PLASTERING.

Processes.—Plastering consists of placing plaster upon walls, ceilings, and other
surfaces, using to do this the hawk, trowel, and other tools of the trade. Plastering
covers both the plastering of plain surfaces, such as walls and ceilings, and ornamental
work, such as cornices, moldings, panels, etc. Patent or prepared plaster is almost
entirely used in Richmond.
Three-coat work is usually used upon flat surfaces. The first coat consists of plaster
containing hair. This coat is put on, well “ scratched,” and roughly smoothed.
When the first coat is dry the second coat, which is like the first, except that it contains
no hair, is put on and floated. The third or finish coat, which consists of lime and
plaster of Paris, is put on very thin and the surface smoothly finished.
Cornice, molding, and other ornamental work is usually run in place, using plaster
consisting of lime and plaster of Paris, stucco, or other material.
Product or specialties.—Plastering covers all work, both plain and ornamental, when
done with stucco, cement, lime mortars, or patent materials, artificial marble work,
and compo work in all its branches.
Importance of the trade.—The number of plasterers in Richmond at present is esti
mated at about 50 white and 180 colored.
Conditions of employment.—Plastering is considered an extremely healthful occupa
tion, as the work is not excessively heavy and does not involve eyestrain or nervous
strain; neither is there danger from machinery nor from handling poisonous materials.
Nothing in modern plastering tends to narrow or restrict the mental development, as the
work is considerably varied in its character and the best class of work stimulates the
intelligence.
Economic conditions.—The maximum wage for journeymen plasterers in Richmond
is $24 per week and the minimum $18 per week. Apprentices start at $3 or $4 a week
and usually get an increase of 50 cents each succeeding six months. Nine and one-half
hours per day, 54 hours per week, and 6£ hours on Saturday is the prevailing time
worked in Richmond. The busy season is from March to November, inclusive, and
the slack season from December to February, inclusive. The plasterers in Richmond
are at present unorganized.
Age of maximum productivity.—Apprentices and learners usually enter the trade at
the ages of 16 to 18 and serve an apprenticeship of four years. The age period of
maximum productivity is usually from 25 to 55.
Demandfor labor.—The supply of ordinary plasterers appears sufficient to meet the
demand, but there is a lack of competent skilled workers, caused by the lack of
education and of a good apprenticeship system. The apprentices and learners are
from the lower grammar grades. The demand for plasterers is at present stationary.
Educational and technical requirements.—Plasterers should have a grammar-school
education and training in mathematics, drawing, and blue-print reading as applied
to the trade, manipulative skill in the use of the materials and the handling of the
following tools:
Trowel: The plasterer’s trowel is made of light springy steel, rectangular in shape
and about 4J inches wide by 12 inches long. It has a crank-shaped handle fitted on
to one face.
Hawk: The hawk is made of wood and is from 13 to 14 inches square, flat on top
but tapered from one-quarter of an inch thick at the edge to three-quarters of an inch
in the middle of the bottom. In the middle of the bottom is fastened a handle
about 5 inches long and 1J inches in diameter.

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B U L L E T IN OF T H E BU REA U OF LABOR STATISTICS.

Darby: The darby is made of wood one-half inch thick, 4 inches wide, and 3 feet 4
inches long. It has a handle similar to that on the hawk, fitted near one end, and
another made of a strip of wood usually about 8 inches long near the other end.
Float: The float is of wood about 5 inches wide, 12 inches long, and three-quarters
of an inch thick. The handle is a curved one, fastened at each end to the back of
the float.
Straightedge: The straightedge is of wood and consists of a piece about 2\ inches
wide by 6 feet long. In the middle is a handle 5 inches wide, tapering to 1 inch at
the end and fastened by the edge to the long piece.
Scratcher: The scratcher is made of wooden slats sharpened at one end and nailed
about 1 inch apart on two strips. The middle slat is left long, to be used as a handle.
Long rod: The long rod is of wood 1 inch thick, 6 inches wide, and about as long
as the ceiling is high in the room in which it is to be used. It must be perfectly
straight.
Pointer: This is a small trowel like that used by brick masons, having a blade
4 or 5 inches long.
Brush: The plasterer’s brush is made of good bristles and is about 8 inches wide.
Paddle: The paddle is of wood, about 5 inches long by 2 inches wide, with one edge
sharpened to an edge.
Molds: Plasterers’ molds are made in many kinds and shapes to suit the kind of
ornamental work for which they are to be used.
Trammel: The trammel consists of a cross and beam of wood and is used to lay out
ornamental plastering.
Mitering tools: Mitering tools are made of wood and steel in many sizes and shapes.
The following tools and appliances are used by the laborers in the trade:
Mortar hod: The mortar hod consists of two pieces of board about 1 foot wide by
2J feet long, nailed together at right angles, forming a trough. One end of this trough
is closed by nailing on a triangular piece and the other has the boards rounded toward
the angle. A round handle about 3 feet long and a pad are attached near the middle
on the under side.
Mortar board: The mortar board is about 3£ feet square, made of boards nailed
close together upon two cleats placed far enough apart to permit the head of a barrel
to fit between them.
Mortar bed: The mortar bed is made of a size to suit the job, and about 1 foot deep,
of boards strongly fastened together.
Sand screen: The sand screen consists of a frame about 2 feet wide by 6 feet long,
covered with wire net.
Other qualities necessary to a worker in this trade are initiative, accuracy, and
dexterity.
What the industry gives.—During the apprenticeship the learner progresses from
rough to ornamental work as his ability will permit. All that the boy acquires during
this time is the manipulative skill necessary to apply the plaster, no provision being
made for the systematic instruction of either journeymen or apprentices.
Deficiencies of workers.—The plasterers are deficient in general education, trade
mathematics, and drawing, all of which are necessary for them to become efficient
workers and enable them to advance in their trade.
What the school ought to give.—The schools should give a grammar-school education
and some training before the boy enters the trade. After entering the trade the boy
should be given mathematics of the trade, drawing and blue-print reading applied to
the trade, history and theory of the trade, and modern methods.
WOODWORKING (BENCH AND MACHINE).

Processes.—The machine work consists of operating band and circular saws, jointers,
planers, lathes, machines for making moldings, tenons, and mortises, and for sand

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papering. The more simple processes consist of “ knocking out cores,” which is
cleaning the mortises made by the mortise machine; wiring slats on rods for blinds
with hand-power machines; running small molding machines making slats and small
moldings for door paneling; and operating boring machines, which “ core out” holes
for blind slats. The bench work consists of the fitting and putting together of sash,
doors, frames, blinds, ornamental pieces, stairways, and other house finishings, b y
means of hand tools and using glue, screws, and brads.
Product or specialties.—This work covers all kinds of building material, such as
timbers for the frame, shingles, weatherboarding, sash, doors, blinds, window and
door frames, molding, flooring, ornamental pieces, stairways, and all other kinds of
interior and exterior finish.
Importance of the trade.—There are in Richmond 15 establishments engaged in the
manufacture of building materials. These plants employ approximately 309 journey
men and apprentices.
Conditions of employment.—This is not a healthful occupation, owing to the fact that
there is always much dust from the saws, planes, and other machines, which is con
stantly inhaled by the worker, and also the machines are extremely dangerous, owing
to the high speed at which they are run. There are very few men who have worked
at this trade for any considerable length of time who have not lost fingers or been
otherwise injured. There is some physical strain involved in the handling of heavy
material, but all of the work should stimulate the intelligence except in cases where
the worker is kept constantly upon one kind of rough work.
Economic conditions.—The journeymen’s wage in this trade ranges from a minimum
of $12.60 per week to a maximum of $20.62 per week. The apprentice’s wage for the
first year ranges from $3 to $6 per week; for the second year, from $6 to $7.25 per week.
After the second year there is no regular scale, the apprentice’s wage being increased
as his ability increases. Those employed in this trade work 9J to 10 hours per day,
54 to 55 hours per week, and from 5 to 6£ hours on Saturday.
The busy season in this trade is from April to October, inclusive, and the slack
season from January to April. There is, however, very little fluctuation of employ
ment, the establishments working short hours instead of laying off men during the
slack season. The men in this trade have no organization of their own at present, bat
some few belong to the carpenters’ and joiners’ union.
Age of maximum productivity.—The beginners in this trade usually enter between
the ages of 16 and 18, and usually serve an apprenticeship of four years. Some of the
occupations, however, are easily learned and not all workers are required to serve
specified periods of time, but are advanced at any time their services seem to justify it.
The period of maximum productivity for these workers is between the ages of 30
and 45.
Demand for labor.—The supply of labor in this industry is at present sufficient to
meet the demand. This demand, however, seems to be increasing. The workers
are recruited from the lower grammar grades and from the ranks of unskilled labor.
Educational and technical requirements.—Workers in this trade should have a com
plete grammar-school education and technical knowledge of the different kinds of
wood and their uses, the process of seasoning, the causes of warping, a knowledge
of drawing and mathematics applied to the trade, and manipulative skill in the use of
the hand and machine tools. This requires accuracy, patience, and extreme care
fulness.
What the industry gives.—The apprenticeship is generally four years, although
in the case of specialty men, who run only two or three machines, no formal appren
ticeship is served. Where the worker serves a four-year apprenticeship he starts
first at cleaning up shop, knocking out cores, wiring slats on rods for blinds, gradually
advancing to the more difficult hand and machine work as his ability increases.
There is no provision made in the shops for the systematic instruction of apprentices

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or journeymen, and because of this about all the knowledge that is acquired by the
worker is the manipulative skill required in handling the hand and machine tools.
The line of promotion is from apprentice to journeyman, to foreman.
Deficiencies of workers.—The workers in this trade are deficient in general educa
tion, drawing, mathematics, modem methods, knowledge of materials, and the history
and theory of the trade.
What the school ought to give.—The worker before he enters this trade should have
a complete grammar-school education and two years of prevocational training. After
entering the trade he should take school courses covering drawing and mathematics
of the trade, modem methods, materials used, and history and theory of the trade.
CABINETMAKING.

Processes.—In practically all of the establishments in Richmond the material for
cabinetmaking is cut to approximate size by machines. It then goes to the cabinet
maker to be made up into all kinds of fixtures for stores, offices, and buildings. In
the building of such fixtures the cabinetmaker makes all joints and parts, using such
tools as the plane, chisel, saw, hammer, and spoke shave. The shaped parts are
glued, assembled, sandpapered, and scraped, and the completed work is stained,
filled, and varnished. In large establishments the finishing is a separate occupation.
Product or specialties.—Hardwood, bank, office, and store fixtures, cabinets, and
furniture.
Importance of the trade.—There are approximately 64 journeymen and apprentices
employed in this trade in Richmond.
Conditions of employment.—The work involves neither physical nor nervous strain,
and owing to the variety practically all of it should stimulate the intelligence of the
worker.
Economic conditions.—The wages of journeymen in this trade range from a minimum
of $10 per week to a maximum of $18.20 per week. Those employed in this trade
work from 9J to 10 hours per day, 54 to 55 hours per week, and from 5 to 6£ hours on
Saturday. The busy season is from January to October, and the slack season from
October to January. Cabinetmakers have no separate organization of their own, all
being members of the carpenters’ and joiners’ union.
Age of maximum productivity.—The workers in this trade usually enter at about 16
years of age and serve an apprenticeship of four years. The age period of maximum
productivity usually covers the years between 30 and 45.
Demandfor labor.—The supply of cabinetmakers is at present sufficient to meet the
demand, which is, however, increasing. The workers in this trade enter as appren
tices and are recruited from the lower grammar grades.
Educational and technical requirements.—The worker needs a complete grammarschool education with two years of prevocational training in woodwork. He should
have a knowledge of woods and finishes, ability to work from drawings and sketches,
instruction in modern theory and practice of the trade, and in cabinet and furniture
design. He needs a high degree of manipulative skill in handling of the tools and
equipment and along with this the qualities of accuracy, patience, initiative, and
artistic sense.
What the industry gives.—The apprentices in cabinetmaking generally serve for four
years. The first two years the boy helps in various ways around the shop, spending
most of his time in helping on and learning the use of the various machines. During
the last two years the apprentice works gradually into the bench work, beginning on
such work as gluing up and getting better work as his ability increases. There is no
provision made for the systematic instruction of either apprentices or journeymen, and
about the only part of the trade which is learned in the shop is the manipulative skill
required in the use of the tools and the making and assembling of cabinetwork. The
line of promotion in this trade is from apprentice to journeyman, to foreman.

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Deficiencies of workers.—The deficiencies of the workers in this trade are in general
education and a knowledge of mathematics and drawing of the trade, of cabinet and
furniture design, and of modem theory and practice of the trade.
What the schools ought to give.—The worker in this trade should have a complete
grammar-school education with two years of elementary industrial training in wood
working. After entering the trade the worker should take courses covering drawing
and mathematics applied to the trade, cabinet and furniture design, and modem
theory and practice in the trade.
PAINTING.

Processes.—The painter performs a variety of operations, some of which are only
indirectly or remotely related to the work of laying on coats of oil paint, varnish,
water color, stain, or kalsomine. These operations may be characterized briefly as
follows: Preparation of wood, plaster, and metal surfaces to receive the finishing coats;
removal of old finishes; preparation and mixing of spirit or oil vehicles, and lead, zinc,
and color pigments; rubbing down coats; and in certain classes of work, graining,
laying gold leaf, gilding, lettering, free-hand drawing, stenciling, rigging scaffolds,
and setting glass with putty or moldings in windows, doors, and skylights, constructed
of wood, metal, or stone. These processes, which must be performed under a variety
of conditions—in the pai it shop, in manufacturing plants of miscellaneous character,
or on the outside or inside of dwellings or other buildings—can best be considered with
reference to each of the several classes of work which the all-round painter must be
prepared to undertake.
House painting: House painters may be divided into two classes—bmsh hands, who
do only rough outside work, and whose only trade qualification is ability to cover
extensive surfaces; and skilled artisans, who understand the mixing of paints and can
do any sort of inside or outside work.
The first step in house painting, as in other painting, is preparation of the surface
to be covered. In new work this consists in cleaning and smoothing the surface with
sandpaper and duster. In old work the first step is removal of old finishing coats of
paint or varnish, which is commonly done by burning with a Bunsen burner and
scraping, or by applying paint or varnish solvents and scraping. Surfaces from which
old finishes have been removed must then be sandpapered until perfectly smooth.
When the wood has been laid bare, smoothed, and cleaned, it is ready for the priming
coat of white lead, ocher, or other pigments mixed with linseed oil to the proper con
sistency. The color is selected for the priming coat with reference to the color of the
coats that are to follow.
The priming coat is worked well into cracks and nail holes to protect these broken
surfaces and is allowed to dry, after which cracks and holes are filled with putty,
which adheres well to the paint. Two or more coats of the required color are then
applied, the number and composition of the final coats depending upon the class of
work.
Staining, filling, and varnishing: Dyes dissolved in water, oil, or spirits are applied
to the bare wood to give color and to bring out the grain. Another method of staining
is that of exposing the surface to ammonia fumes in a closed receptacle, the fumes by
chemical action turning the wood nut brown.
The pores of the natural or stained wood are filled with a liquid or paste filler, liquid
fillers being used on close-grained woods, such as pine, and on large surfaces; paste
fillers on coarse-grained woods, such as oak or chestnut. A coat of filler is applied
evenly, allowed to stand 24 hours, and then sandpapered lightly. On fine cabinet
work in close-grained wood white shellac is often used as a filler, since shellac makes a
good foundation and does not darken the wood as does varnish. Paste fillers, the best
of which are made of ground rock crystal mixed with raw linseed oil, japan, turpen
tine, and some color suitable for the wood, are applied to the surface, worked into the
pores, and left in a thin layer on the wood. When the filler has become dull and

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chalk ish} it is rubbed off at once, rubbing first across the grain to fill the pores thoroughly,
and then with the grain to bring out the high lights. Twenty-four hours are then
allowed for the filler to harden. One application is usually sufficient, but two are
sometimes necessary.
Copal or oil varnish is usually flowed on, the brush being dipped deeply and flowed
.on in a heavy coat. The surface is then gone over lightly with the brush as free from
varnish as possible until the work is left with only a thin coating. Three or four coats
are generally applied, allowing time after each coat for drying. The first coats are
rubbed with haircloth or curled hair. For a dull finish the last coat is rubbed until
smooth with powdered pumice stone and water, and the pumice removed with a
damp sponge and chamois skin. When a gloss finish is desired, the last coat is not
rubbed. For a polished finish the last coat is rubbed with pumice stone and water,
then with water and rottenstone, and, if a very fine surface is desired, it is finished
with oil and a little rottenstone rubbed with a soft flannel or even with the bare hand.
Shellac or spirit varnish, made by dissolving shellac in alcohol, does not flow freely.
It must be applied thin, with long, even strokes of the brush. A surface finished with
shellac varnish is given five or six coats, each coat being rubbed down with fine steel
wool, curled hair, or oiled sandpaper.
These processes are performed in the order in which they have been described, the
stain being applied first, then the pores of the wood being closed with filler, and last
the varnish coats being put on according to the finish desired.
Kalsomining: In kalsomining the first process is that of cleaning and preparing the
walls. All grease or lime spots are scraped and smoothed, and all nail holes and
cracks filled with a putty or whiting or plaster of Paris. The walls are then given
a sizing of thin glue, which causes the kalsomine to hold well to the wall, and at the
same time prevents it from striking in. Sometimes a coat of oil paint or hard oil is
used for this purpose, and also to prevent dampness from striking through the walls
and discoloring the kalsomine.
Kalsomining mixture, which consists of dissolved glue, whiting to give body, and
some coloring material, such as is used in oil painting, to give the desired color, must
be prepared with reference to the work to be done, more glue being required, for
example, on side walls to prevent rubbing, than is required on ceilings.
In fresco painting the kalsomine is applied while the wall is still damp, making
the color a part of the fresco work, but in cases where the walls are not decorated they
are allowed to become thoroughly dry before the kalsomine is applied.
' Any desired color may be obtained by the mixing of the primary colors, red, yellow,
and blue, lampblack being added in some cases. Kalsomine is applied with a large
brush, working the ceiling first and then the side walls.
Sign painting: Sign painting, which includes all kinds of advertising painting,
from small lettered signs on cardboard or wood to large pictorial work on walls and
large signboards, requires on the part of the painter a special aptitude for fine color
work, designing, free-hand drawing, and lettering. Some classes of work are done in
the shop, but much of the work must be done away from the shop.
In small lettered signs the ground is prepared by laying on several coats, usually
of white paint consisting of white lead mixed with equal parts of turpentine and oil.
When these coats have dried thoroughly the letters are sketched off with white chalk
and are then carefully traced with charcoal. The surface is then brushed over,
leaving only a dim layout, and the letters cut in, by outlining with lampblack mixed
with linseed oil, using for fine work a small red sable pencil brush, and for large work
a small bristle brush. When the surface to be lettered is of metal it is first pickled
with vinegar in order to make the paint hold well, the other processes being the same
as in the case of wooden surfaces.
The letters are then filled in with paint—black paint being most commonly used
on a white background—or are further prepared for gold leaf.

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In gold-leaf work the letters are coated over with a good oil gold size which is allowed
to stand usually about 24 hours until it has reached that degree of dryness which is
called “ tacky,” in which state the gold leaf 'will adhere to it strongly. The gold leaf
is then applied, as much of a leaf being uncovered as is necessary to go on a certain
part of the letter, and then cut by running the finger nail across it. Then, without
removing the leaf from the book and keeping the rest of the leaf covered, the portion
cut is pressed firmly against the size on the part of the letter to be covered. The
gold leaf adheres to the size when the book is withdrawn. When all of the letters
have been covered in this manner they are cut in with a size made of fat oil, lamp
black, and a little white lead. Generally, to complete the work, the sign is laid in
a horizontal position and smalt or ground black glass is sifted on. When the size
has dried enough to retain the smalt the sign is raised to a vertical position and the
superfluous smalt is brushed off with a soft brush.
In sign painting where there are several signs of the same kind to be made stencils
are used. The letters or designs are first drawn on a sheet of stiff heavy paper and
then carefully cut out. The sheet of paper is tacked to a light wooden frame and
well coated with shellac. Where the sign is to be made in two or more colors several
stencils are made, one for each color. After the sign has had two coats of ground
color and has thoroughly dried the stencil is laid upon the sign and the paint applied
through the opening cut in the stencil. The paint used is mixed with benzine and
is applied with a stiff bristle brush. After the letters are dry they are all secondcoated without the use of the stencil.
Gold lettering on glass: In gold lettering on glass the letters are first outlined with
chalk on the outside of the glass. They are then covered on the inside with a size
made by placing in cold water Russian gelatin, sometimes called Russian isinglass,
and boiling for about three minutes. The size will become “ tacky ” in from 15 min
utes to 3 hours. The gold leaf is then put on by handling it with what is called a
“ tip,” which is a brush consisting of a thin layer of camel’s hair glued between two
pieces of cardboard. The hair of the tip should be slightly oily, so that the gold leaf
will adhere to it until placed against the size on the letter. After the gold leaf is
placed on the letters, the chalk lines which show through the gold are carefully out
lined on the inside with black paint. When this paint is dry the gold leaf which
projects beyond the lines is removed with a piece of cotton and water. The letters
are usually outlined with paint in such a manner as to give them the appearance of
thickness. After this work is dry the whole is given a coat of varnish.
Graining: In imitating the grain of various woods the surface is first given at least
two coats of paint, tinted according to the kind of wood to be imitated. The second
coat of ground color is made to dry with a gloss, so that the graining mixture will not,
by being absorbed, make the grain appear dingy. After the ground color is thor
oughly dry the graining mixture, of a color to suit the kind of wood to be imitated, is
applied, and before drying the coarse grain is made by drawing a graining comb of
leather or gutta-percha over the surface. The surface is then worked over with a
fine steel graining comb in the same direction. The heavier figures of the grain are
made by wiping out the graining mixture with the thumb covered by a piece of cloth.
A fine bristle brush is finally passed lightly over the surface to blend or soften the
heavy lines, imitating as nearly as possible the grain of the natural wood.
Railwayrcar painting: In Richmond railway-car painting constitutes a branch of
the trade of sufficient importance to warrant separate treatment.
Car painting is classified under two distinct heads—i. e., passenger-car and freightcar painting. Passenger-car painting is a very high grade of work, requiring much
experience and skill in all the processes of painting, varnishing, and finishing, while
freight-car work can be done by any ordinary painter, since no special skill is required
for painting freight-car bodies and trucks.

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Passenger-car painting may be subdivided as follows: Exterior painting of new
cars, interior finishing, and refinishing of old cars.
New cars when brought into the shop are first rubbed down with coarse and then
with fine sandpaper. After this is done the wood filler is applied, the filler being
a pigment mixed with oil and turpentine to the consistency of a thick cream.
After the coat of filler come three coats of body color, each one being rubbed down
with pumice stone and water. The exterior decorations, such as lettering and strip
ing, are then applied and the entire car revamished.
In interior finishing the new interior woodwork is rubbed down with sandpaper
and a coat of clear shellac applied. This forms a foundation for the three coats of
varnish which follow. The interior varnish coats are each smoothed by rubbing
with pulverized pumice stone and water.
The first process in refinishing old cars is the removal of all old paint by heating it
with the flames from a Bunsen burner, gasoline being mostly used for this purpose.
This having been done, the entire car is scraped, scrubbed down with water, and
sandpapered. Wood filler is not applied to old work, as the pores of the wood are
already filled. Each body coat is rubbed down with pumice and water and the
decorations and varnish applied, as in the case of new cars.
It requires about six days to paint a car completely, much of this time being, of
course, consumed in allowing the several coats of paint and varnish to dry.
All window and door glass is put in in the car shop, although this work does not
come directly under the supervision of the foreman of the paint shop and is not done
by the car painters.
With the introduction of steel cars a new method of applying paint has been found.
This method consists of spraying paint upon the surface with a spraying machine.
A t the present writing this method has not been introduced in Richmond, all of the
paint being applied by hand.
The steel-car painting done in Richmond is all repainting and refinishing. The
car is given five or six coats of a body color, each coat being rubbed down with pumice,
and then decorated and varnished.
Freight-car and truck painting requires no special comment, as this is the most
common form of painting done in the car shop and does not differ from other rough
painting.
Product or specialties.—The work of the painter in Richmond is not materially differ
ent from that done by painters in other communities, although railway-car painting
may be designated as a line of work employing a considerable number of men. In
general, the work of the trade embraces inside and outside painting of buildings;
decorating, sign painting, painting of wagons, carriages, automobiles, steam and
street railway coaches, painting of bridges, tanks, and structural-iron work, of agri
cultural implements, and of furniture.
Importance of the trade.—According to the Federal census of 1910, there were in
Richmond in that year 543 painters, glaziers, and vamishers, of whom 447 were em
ployed in the building trades and 96 in factories. Of the painters in the building
trades, 421 were white and 26 were colored. The number of painters in the city at the
present time is estimated to be approximately 600.
Conditions of employment.—The work of the painter is not generally such as involves
any peculiar physical or nervous strain beyond that involved in any sort of manual
labor. Moreover, the work of the all-round well-trained painter is sufficiently varied
to stimulate interest, much of it requiring the exercise of high-grade skill and of artistic
sense. In some Richmond shops, however, the work is to a very considerable extent
specialized, one man doing the rough work of burning and scraping off old finish, sand
papering and putting on body coats, another filling, staining, and varnishing, and
another striping and lettering. In house painting, also, one set of men may be em
ployed entirely on rough work. For the relatively unskilled men who are kept on the

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rough work, there is comparatively little in the occupation that is stimulative, although
there is in some cases a chance of promotion to the finer work of inside painting and
decorating, sign painting, lettering, and finishing. In some classes of work there is
danger of accident from imperfect construction or rigging of scaffolds.
Hygiene of the occupation.—The condition of employment which most seriously
involves the welfare of the painter is that which exposes him to the danger of poisoning.
It has been scientifically demonstrated that many of the materials with which the
painter works are poisonous, and it is true that many of the processes are such that it
is difficult, especially under certain conditions, to avoid contact with the poisons.
There are, however, certain simple precautions by which much of the danger can be
avoided. A brief summary of the findings of scientific investigations and of the
present survey as regards the hygiene of the trade follows. In general, it may be
said that the returns on the schedules of the survey, and the information gathered in
personal conferences with painters, are entirely consistent with the findings of scientific
research as regards the injurious effects which follow the use of certain materials and
which result from carelessness or improper procedure in various lines of work.1
Either or both the pigment and the vehicle of paint may be poisonous and either
or both may be perfectly harmless. The higher-priced paint usually contains white
lead, linseed oil, and turpentine. Both the white lead and the turpentine are poison
ous. The pigment in cheap paint may be something perfectly harmless, as chalk or
barytes, while the vehicle may contain so great a percentage of petroleum compounds
that it is extremely poisonous, especially when used on inside work in inclosures
poorly ventilated.
The pigments which cause poisoning are the lead salts, white lead, or basic carbonate
of lead, sublimed white lead or basic lead sulphate, chrome yellow, or yellow chromate,
chrome green (a mixture of chrome yellow with Prussian blue), red lead and orange
mineral. Lead carbonate and lead sulphate are used in the higher-priced paints,
usually separately, but sometimes together, and the carbonate much more commonly
than the sulphate. Chrome yellow is used for tinting in house painting and in coach
painting; chrome green for painting window shutters; red lead in painting structuraliron work, and orange mineral for painting wagons:
Of these constituents lead carbonate is considered the most poisonous; but when
sandpapering, mixing, or chipping off old paint, the red lead is the most dangerous
because it is lighter and floats in the air more easily. Chrome yellow is considered to
be about as harmful as the red lead. Lead sulphate is not as dangerous as the lead
carbonate, red lead, or the chrome yellow. It has been determined b y scientific ex
periment that in human gastric juice the lead carbonate is a little more than twice as
soluble as the sulphate; that the lead carbonate is distinctly more toxic than the sul
phate, and that both produce acute lead poisoning.
Experiments conducted to determine the effect which milk, when combined with
the gastric juice, has upon the amount df lead dissolved brought the conclusion that
when the milk and gastric juice are in equal proportion the hydrochloric acid of the
gastric juice is so completely fixed by the milk proteins, or neutralized by the car
bonates in the milk, that the mixture has virtually no solvent action on the lead salts.
On the basis of scientific investigations three practical suggestions have been made
for safeguarding painters against poisoning: (1) That since lead carbonate is so much
more toxic than the lead sulphate, lead workers as well as the State should aim at the
elimination of the use of the carbonate in all the industries where this is possible; (2)
that since basic lead sulphate, or sublimed lead, is poisonous, none of the precautions
usually advocated for the protection of workers in lead be neglected by those handling
lead sulphate; (3) that, in addition to taking other important prophylactic measures,
workers in lead salts should drink a glass of milk between meals (say at 10 a. m. and
1 As regards the nature and physiological effects of paint and varnish poisons, the following text is
largely summarized from Bulletin No. 120, U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, by Alice Hamilton, M. D.

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4 p. m.) in order to diminish the chances that the lead they have swallowed be dissolved
by the free hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice, as in some persons there is r nsiderable secretion of gastric juice in the empty stomach.
Dust from the sandpapering of lead-painted surfaces is one of the most important
causes of lead poisoning. The dust thus raised is inhaled and lodges on the nasal
and pharyngeal mucous membrane and is then swallowed. Investigation has shown
that the great bulk of this dust finds its way into the stomach and not into the lungs.
This causes the poisoning of the workman, as the lead in the dust is dissolved by the
free hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice and is easily absorbed. This dust is danger
ous not only to the man doing the sandpapering but also to the others working near.
The danger can be entirely eliminated by the use of pumice stone and water in rubbing
down coats, or, if it is a first coat where this is apt to raise the grain or on metal where it
may cause rust, by moistening the sandpaper with some cheap mineral oil. Sand
paper so oiled lasts as well as when used dry, and the results so far as the work is con
cerned are as good when oiled paper is used as in dry sandpapering.
When metal surfaces are to be repainted they are usually chipped clean, and often
the work is done by a machine using compressed air. This work is very dangerous,
and a much better way, whether on wood or metal, is to burn the paint, causing it to
curl and shrivel up, after which it can be easily scraped off. Some authorities speak
of lead poisoning being acquired by the use of the burning method; but this is not
apt to happen -* iless the painter should hold the flame long in one place, and thus
cause considerable smoke which might carry mechanically small particles of lead.
The boiling point of lead is so high that the danger from evaporation from the heating
required is very slight. Danger of poisoning from this method arises, however,
when the burned paint is allowed to lie upon the floor of the shop until ground to dust.
This dust is stirred up by the feet of the workmen or by moving materials, and is con
stantly inhaled and swallowed by the workmen. The scraps of paint should in every
instance be cleaned up before they become dry.
The painter should be extremely careful in handling his food or tobacco, and should
avoid wearing dusty and paint-soaked clothing.
The dangerous vehicles are turpentine, benzine, naphtha, benzol, wood alcohol,
and amyl acetate. Turpentine used as a dryer and for thinning is a constituent of
many paints and varnishes. It sometimes makes up the entire vehicle. The inhaling
of much turpentine-laden air causes headache, dizziness, and irritation of the throat
and of the urinary system. If the workman is exposed for long periods to turpentine
fumes, it often causes chronic inflammation of the bladder and kidneys. These fumes
cause also inflammation of the skin and often affect the nervous system, as is evident
in the typical symptoms of staggering and in extreme cases loss of consciousness.
Benzine and naphtha are used in hard oils as dryers, and very often constitute a
large percentage of the vehicle in cheap quick-drying paints. Fumes from these
liquids affect the nervous system much as does alcohol, causing staggering, defects
of memory, and disturbance of sight and hearing. Where the workman is long exposed
to these fumes, chronic poisoning takes place, causing skin diseases, weakness, nervous
ness, and sometimes even impaired mentality.
Benzol is used in priming and as a paint and varnish remover, because of its pene
trating and solvent qualities. The benzol fumes are very dangerous and may be fatal.
They cause changes in the blood, hemorrhages of the organs and mucous membranes,
and degeneration of the organs. The symptoms of this poisoning are a flushed face,
dizziness, and headache followed by a blue appearance of the skin, nervous excite
ment or stupor, accompanied by sickness. If the poisoning is chronic, ulcers appear
on the gums and lips.
Wood-alcohol poisoning comes mostly from inhaling the fumes while using varnish.
This causes headache, hoarseness, twitching of the muscles, weak heart, unconscious-

VOCATION AL ED U CATIO N SURVEY OF R IC H M O N D , VA.

177

ness, and temporary or permanent impairment of sight, even to the point of complete
blindness.
Amyl acetate, derived from fusel oil and acetic acid, is used in varnishes, gilding
fluids, and as a'^^int solvent. The fumes cause headache, uncertain movements,
difficulty in breathing, sleepiness, bad heart action, and poor digestion.
Poisoning from the various paint vehicles may be avoided in most cases by insuring
good ventilation, either natural or artificial, of shops or rooms where work is being done.
When this is not possible the men should be changed as often as possible on work, so
that no one of them will become enough poisoned for permanent injury.
Although the vehicles in the various leadless paints are usually much more poison
ous than those used in lead paint, the introduction of these paints into the industry
is a great help toward the betterment of hygienic conditions in the trade, as it is much
easier to avoid poisoning from the vehicle than it is from the various lead pigments
in the paint.
It may be noted that the paints used in railway-car painting are almost entirely the
new leadless or almost leadless kind. The smoothing of all paint surfaces is done
either by the use of pumice stone and water, or with oiled emery cloth or sandpaper.
All paint is removed by burning and scraping, and the work is done in large open
buildings where the ventilation is such that there is very little, if any, danger from the
volatile substances in the paint. Railway-car painting in Richmond is, therefore, to a
very large extent free from the dangers of poisoning above cited.
Economic conditions— House and sign painters are to a very considerable extent
free lances, working first for one contractor, and then for another, or independently
on their own account. The character of the work done by them varies greatly from
job to job, and partly because of the miscellaneous character of their work, and partly
because of the nature of the climate in Richmond, employment is not markedly sea
sonal. The slack season is from the first of January to the end of February, and the
men are employed on the average about 10 months during the year. The sign painter,
when weather does not permit outside work, usually has on h^nd work which can be
done in the shop. As regards painters in the car shops and in manufacturing plants,
employment is generally steady, and the seasonal fluctuations inconsiderable. Hours
of labor range from 8 to 9 hours per day, or 48 to 54 hours per week, full time being
worked on Saturdays. Skilled journeymen earn $3 to $5 per day, the minimum wage
for unskilled labor being $1.50. Wages are low as compared with wages paid in other
trades. The trade is about 10 per cent organized.
Age o f maximum 'productivity.—Boys enter the trade between the ages of 16 and 18,
and serve a four-year apprenticeship. The age period designated as the period of
maximum productivity is from 22 to 55.
Demandfor labor.—House painting is a field in which the demand for labor is increas
ing, but the occupation is, nevertheless, somewhat overcrowded, especially with semi
skilled workers. The demand for sign painters is increasing, and there is a scarcity
of skilled high-grade workmen. In the car shops and in manufacturing plants the
demand for labor is fairly stationary. In general the supply of medium-grade labor
seems adequate for the present demand; the supply of high-grade labor is insufficient
to meet the increasing demand in special lines. Workers are recruited from the lower
grammar grades and from casual labor.
Educational and technical requirements.—In the way of general education, the occu
pation of the painter makes no special demand upon the worker, beyond that
degree of general education required for all workers to insure to them advancement in
proportion as they acquire, in practice, trade and technical excellence.
The trade and technical knowledge required by the skilled artisan is, however, very
considerable. The nature of tins knowledge will be apparent from the foregoing
account of the processes and hygiene of the occupation. Some trade knowledge per
6071°— Bull. 162— 16-------12

178

B U L L E T IN OP T H E BU REA U OF LABOR STATISTICS.

tains even to the simplest processes, as, for example, to the process of rubbing down
surfaces, where sandpaper of a proper grade of fineness must be selected, or some other
material, such as ground pumice stone, rottenstone, fine steel wool, or curled hair.
The painter must know which of the many varieties of fillers, sizes, or foundations
should be used on woods of different qualities, and in different classes of work. He
must know something of the preservative qualities of different finishes. He must
know how to mix oils, pigments, and varnishes, for body coats, for flat and for glass
finishes, for inside and for outside work. In all color work he must have a knowledge
of color mixing and harmony.
The degree of manipulative skill required by the painter varies from the small
amount required to lay on rough body coats to the very considerable amount required
for flowing on varnishes, and for the fine work of striping, lettering, and decorating.
The characteristic tool of the painter is the brush, which varies from the small round
pencil and sash tool of camel’s hair, to the large, round or flat brush of hog bristles.
In the handling of these tools a very high degree of manipulative skill is required for
certain classes of work. In all classes of work the skilled hand economizes time, labor,
and material.
In addition to the above qualifications, the painter should possess an accurate color
sense; an artistic sense, which will enable him to harmonize colors in inside decorating,
and to do original work in designing; a knowledge of alphabets for lettering; and a
natural talent and skill in free-hand drawing. Finally, it is vitally important that
the painter shall have a thorough knowledge of the hygiene of his occupation.
What the industry gives.—The workers in the skilled class enter the trade through an
apprenticeship, usually of four years. During this four years the apprentice is occu
pied as follows: In the first year he helps by running errands and cleaning brushes,
and picks up such information as he can from observing the workmen; he learns to
mix paints, and to rig scaffolds; he does inside and outside painting, and learns to
remove stains by the use of lime and acids. In his second year the apprentice is put
on the scaffold, and works with the journeymen putting on finishing coats; he learns
how to remove old finish by burning and scraping, or by the use of solvents, and how
to prepare work for new finish. In his third year the apprentice is put on inside work,
such as graining and varnishing, and is in general allowed to do such work as he is able
to do. During his fourth year he is given such work as he has not already done, and
by constant practice becomes more proficient in all lines of work. This apprentice
ship gives the boy a small amount of trade knowledge, and enables him to acquire a
fair degree of manipulative skill.
No provision is made in the shops for systematic instruction either of apprentices or
of journeymen. The line of promotion is from apprentice to journeyman and from
journeyman to foreman. The skilled painter may go into business on his own account.
Deficiencies of workmen.—The deficiency most commonly acknowledged by the
painters is in the general education which they believe to be a condition of advance
ment in their trade. Nearly all painters have a very inadequate knowledge of the
hygiene of their occupation. Few possess the trade knowledge necessary for esti
mating costs and qualities of material, and few possess an adequate knowledge of
the principles of color mixing, color harmony, or design.
What the school ought to give.—Before entering the shop the painter should have
received in the public school a complete elementary general education and prevoca
tional training in drawing, design, and color harmony.
A serious obligation rests upon the school as regards instruction of apprentices and
journeymen in the shops. This obligation arises from the fact that a thorough knowl
edge of the hygiene of the occupation is absolutely essential as a safeguard against
poisoning. Such instruction, it would seem, should take precedence over every other
sort of continuation work. Assuming, however, that this instruction is given, the
school may properly undertake to give instruction organized with reference to the

VO CATION AL ED U CATIO N SURVEY OF R IC H M O N D , VA.

179

technical requirements of the painter, by offering courses covering free-hand drawing,
lettering, design, color harmony, composition of paints, varnishes, and other materials,
and modern practice in special lines of work.
These courses may be grouped under the following heads:
Trade hygiene: Diseases and dangers of the trade.
Art: Color harmony, free-hand drawing, and design.
Chemistry: Chemistry of color pigments.
Mathematics: Estimating.
Business practice: Methods of doing business; bookkeeping.
PAPER HANGING.

Processes.—In papering a room which previously has been papered all old paper

should be removed, unless there is only one thickness and in good condition, in which
case the new paper is put on over the old. After old paper has been removed and the
wall scraped all cracks and depressions are filled and smoothed up with a mixture of
plaster of Paris and patent plaster, and all angles pointed up; the wall is sized by
covering with a coat of thin liquid glue, which is allowed to dry before the paper is
hung. Preparation of the new paper is first made by cutting off the blank space along
the edge of the paper with a machine knife in tne case of cheap papers and with a
small hand knife and straightedge when heavy expensive paper is used.
The new paper is now laid on a table and the paste applied with a paste brush.
This paste is made of cheap wheat flour, alum, and water. After the paper is pasted
it is folded and allowed to soak for a short time. If this is not done, the paper will
blister when put up. The paper is now placed in position on the wall and pressed
down smooth with a dry brush, beginning at the top and working toward the bottom.
The paper on the side wall is cut a little long so that it may be cut off neatly at the base
board and also be allowed to project over the space covered by the border; that on the
ceiling is allowed to run down the side walls a short distance; then when the border is
put on it makes a good joint with both.
Product or specialties.—This trade includes the hanging of all paper or other fabrics
used for covering walls, the preparation of walls to receive the same, and the placing
in position of finished wall moldings.
Conditions of employment.—Paper hanging is considered a healthful occupation,
although there is some danger from working on scaffolds and handling poisonous
colored papers. Because of its varied character it in no way narrows or restricts
mental development.
Economic conditions.—At present there are about 70 paper hangers in Richmond,
about 60 per cent of whom are members of the local organization. This is not what
could be called a seasonal occupation, for although the busiest season is from May to
October the work holds fairly steady throughout the year. Paper hangers in Rich
mond work 8 hours per day and 48 hours per week. The maximum wage is $27 per
week and the minimum $18 per week. The union scale is $3.50 per day.
Age of maximum productivity.—The workers in this trade enter as apprentices usually
between 16 and 18 years of age and serve for four years. The period of maximum
productivity is usually between the ages of 21 and 55.
Demandfor labor.—The field for this work is growing and at present is not over
crowded. The workers in this trade enter as apprentices and are recruited from the
lower grammar grades.
Educational and technical requirements.—The paper hanger should have a complete
grammar-school education with two years of elementary training, a knowledge of the
proper tools and methods used, color harmony and design, estimating and mathe
matics of the trade. He needs color and artistic sense, special adaptability, keenness
of sight, dexterity, and accuracy. Manipulative skill is necessary in applying paper
and handling the following tools:

180

B U L L E T IN OF T H E BU BEA U OF LABOR STATISTICS.
Tools.

Paste hmish: This is a large flat brush used to apply the paste to the paper.
Dry brush: This brush is thin and flat and from 10 to 12 inches wide, used for smooth

ing and pressing the paper to the wall.
Seam roller: This is a handled roller from 1 to 3 inches wide, which is u^ed to press
down the paper at the seam or lap.
Knife: This knife has a curved blade about 3 inches long and is used for trimming
edges, etc.
Scissors: These scissors have a 10 or 12 inch cut and are used for trimming.
Straightedge: The paper hanger’s straightedge is of steel or wood, with a metal edging,
and of various lengths.
Paper-cutting machine: This machine has two rollers, one to hold the roll of paper
and the other to reroll as it is trimmed. Between these rollers are two circular knives
which make a shearing cut, one pair for each edge. The machine is operated by a
crank. When this crank is turned the paper is unrolled from one roller to the other,
the knives in between cutting the blank strip from one or both edges as desired. Only
cheap paper can be trimmed in this machine.
Other things which the paper hangers use are ladders, a plank for scaffolds, and a
table with trestles to lay the paper on while pasting.
What the industry gives.—During his apprenticeship the worker does work as follows:
During the first six months he will help on the job by cutting down seams, removing
old paper, filling cracks in walls, sizing walls, and pasting paper. After this he will be
allowed to hang cheap paper under the direction of a journeyman, gradually advancing
to the better grade work as his ability increases, until about the beginning of the second
year when he will be sent out on cheap jobs by himself. By the end of the third year
the boy is able to measure the room and hang any kind of paper. Practically all that
the worker acquires during this time is the manipulative skill required in performing
the work.
Deficiencies of workmen.—The workers in this trade are usually deficient in general
education, in knowledge of color harmony and design, in mathematics of the trade, and
in modern theory and practice.
What the school ought to give.—The boy should have a grammar-school education and
two years’ prevocational training before entering the trade. The practical knowledge
which the boy gains while working at the trade should be supplemented b y the follow
ing courses in school:
Art: Color harmony and design covering the proper selection of paper to suit the
kind of room to be papered and the person who is to use It.
Mathematics: Shop mathematics relating to the trade, on estimating, etc.
Modern practices in the trade.
UNSKILLED LABOR IN THE BUILDING TRADES.

Processes.—Under the head of building laborers are included hod carriers, cement

laborers, saw and planing mill hands, carpenters’ and stonemasons’ helpers, struc
tural-steel laborers, and all others in the building trades who do the rough, heavy,
unskilled work.
Because of the character of the work a laborer may be with one contractor to-day
and with another one in a different line of work to-morrow. The laborer goes from
job to job and from one kind of work to another. The hod carrier, however, changes
jobs and class of work probably less frequently than other laborers in the building
trades. As long as there is a demand for that class of work, he generally sticks to it.
This may be due to the fact that some degree of skill and training is required in his
work. He mixes the ingredients for the mortar and carries the mortar in a hod to the
plasterer or bricklayer. In Richmond most of the laborers carry the brick and mortar
on a board on their heads.

VO CATION AL EDU CATION SU RVEY OF R IC H M O N D , VA.

181

In general, laborers are used around buildings under construction to do such heavy
work as moving stones and heavy timbers, to do odd jobs for the carpenter and the
structural-steel worker in so far as unskilled labor can be employed. In other words,
the laborer around a building does the heavy unskilled work that would otherwise
occupy the time and exhaust the strength of the mechanic.
In cement or concrete work the laborers mix the ingredients and haul it to the fin
ishers in wheelbarrows. Other helpers assist in pulling the load up inclines, while
others spread the concrete, working directly with the finisher.
In sawmills the logs and timber are moved to and from the saws and machines by
laborers, who are employed also in stocking the timber in the yard and in hauling it to
the customers.
There are other lines of work in the building trades that require laborers, but in all
cases it is generally unskilled and heavy work.
Product or specialties.—The product or specialty of the building laborer is the same
in Richmond as elsewhere, although the manner of accomplishing the result in some
cases may vary. For instance, the Negro, whenever possible, carries his load or bur
den on his head instead of in his arms or across his shoulder.
Importance o f the trade.—A close approximation of the laborers in the building
trades of Richmond shows about 2,400. This includes the laborers in all the work
mentioned above.
Conditions of employment.— Generally speaking, the work of the laborer is very
healthftd, as most of it is outside work. There is always the danger, however, of fall
ing from ladders and walks on unfinished buildings and from lifting too much on heavy
work. Laborers around saw and planing mills are also exposed to the dangers that
always attend work about machinery.
There is nothing especially stimulative about the work of the laborer, but it can not
be said that his mental development is stinted.
Economic conditions— There is no regular wage for a laborer, but generally the wa^e
is from $1.50 to $2 per day. In some classes of work the minimum may be lower and
the maximum higher than the above rate. Hod carriers for brickmasons work from
44 to 48 hours per week, the regular working time being 8 to 8| hours per day, and with
a short Saturday of from 4 to 5J hours; a plasterer’s hod carrier generally works 54 hours
per week, 10 per day, with a short Saturday of 4 hours; laborers in saw and planing
mills work 55 to 60 hours per week, 10 hours per day, with, in some cases, a short
Saturday of 5 hours.
The busy season for these laborers corresponds in general with that in building
trades, extending from March to the end of September; the dull season is during the
winter months; sawmill hands, however, generally have steady work through the
year, with a reduction in the number of hours per week during the slack season.
The fluctuation in employment is considerable at times, for during the winter
months, when outside work can not be done, the laborers are laid off unless they can
be shifted to inside work. The laborers are not at the present time organized in
Richmond, an organization of hod carriers formed at one time having gone out of
existence.
Age of maximum productivity.—As a rule laborers are not employed under 18 years
of age, because of the nature of the work, which requires more than any other quality
fully matured physical strength. As the work is generally unskilled, but little time
is occupied in learning the processes, although in the case of hod carriers some prac
tical experience and instruction are necessary.
The age period of maximum productivity is indeterminate, depending in general on
the individual. It is safe to assume, however, that it is relatively short, extending
approximately from the ages of 25 to 40 or 45.
Demand for labor.—While there seems to be an abundant supply of laborers in all
classes of work, it may be noted that the demand for laborers in brick and concrete

182

B U L L E T IN OF T H E B U REA U OF LABOR STATISTICS.

work will probably be an increasing one in the future. The source of supply is gen
erally the unskilled men who float from one job to another, working first for one con
tractor and next for another.
Educational and technical requirements.—Obviously the employments of the un
skilled laborers in the building trades do not call for any special vocational training,
if it be assumed that the workers are to remain permanently in the class of the un
skilled. They, of course, should have received that degree of general education
which is a common condition of good citizenship. To the extent that they are defi
cient in this respect it is true, also, that their efficiency as workmen is generally im
paired. The obvious condition of any considerable increase in their efficiency as
workers is, however, a course of training which will lead them into some class of rela
tively more skilled labor.
What the industry gives.—Because of the nature of the work there is do apprentice
ship system, and whatever manipulative skill is necessary is soon acquired in practice.
For these workers there is no regular line of promotion, although in some plants new
workers are started on a minimum wage and are given an advance in wage as they
become experienced, the maximum being, as has been noted, about $2 per day.
Deficiencies o f workmen.—It seems the most common deficiency of the laborer is
his desire to shift from one employer to another. In other words, the employer
does not know from day to day how many laborers he may depend on, for they often
quit without giving any notice. The excessive use of intoxicating liquors is
reported as a common cause of irregularity and unreliability.
What the school ought to give.—As in the case of all workers, the building trades
laborers need as a condition of practical well-being a good education. If possible,
however, prevocational courses should be offered to them in order that some cf those
who would otherwise drift into unskilled work may choose some trade and be en
couraged to follow it. Drift classes in general education would be of an advantage
to these laborers and would undoubtedly increase their efficiency even in their un
skilled occupation. Such courses might lead some to become interested in a higher
grade of work and encourage them to fit themselves to undertake it.

FINDINGS ABOUT OCCUPATIONS IN THE BUILDING TRADES IN RICHMOND, VA.
[This chart is intended to summarize the statements and opinions of employers and employees in the trades in Richmond. The chart does not, therefore, necessarily represent the views of the Survey Committee, nor conditions and opinions of the trade elsewhere.]
STRUCTURAL-IRON
WORKER.

STONECUTTER.

BRICKLAYER.

CARPENTER AND JOINER.

A N A L Y S IS O U T LIN E .

CEMENT FINISHER.

SHEET-METAL WORKER
AND TINSMITH.

PLUMBER.

STEAM FITTER.

INSIDE WIREMAN.

PLASTERER.

W OODWORKER (BENCH
AND MACHINE).

PAINTER.

PAPER HANGER.

Smoothing and cleaning new
surfaces with sandpaper and
duster; removing old fin
ishes by burning and scrap
ing, or with paint or varnish
solvents. Where the sur
face is to be painted, a prim
ing coat is laid on, all
imperfections in the surface
filled with putty, and the
final coats applied, each be
ing rubbed down; where the
surface is to be stained and
varnished the stain is ap
plied, the pores of the wood
filled, and the several coats
of varnish flowed on and
rubbed down. Other proc
esses performed by the
painter are graining, letter
ing, stenciling, gold lettering
on glass, and kalsomining.

First the old paper is removed,
the wall scraped, cracks and
d e p r e s s i o n s filled and
smoothed up with a mixture
of plaster of Paris, and all
angles pointed up; then the
wall is sized by giving it a
coat of thin liquid glue; the
blank margin of the paper is
cut off, either by a machine
or with a knife and straight
edge, and the paper cut to
the proper length; the paper
is now laid on a table and
asted and folded; after it
as “ soaked” sufficiently it
is placed in position and
pressed down smooth with
a dry brush.

Laborers in the building trades
are constantly shifting as
helpers from one occupation
to another. They are em
ployed carrying brick and
mortar to the bricklayer, or
plaster to the plasterer; mix
ing concrete by hand or ma
chine, and carrying concrete
from mixer to workers; han
dling heavy timbers and logs
in sawmills and woodwork
ing plants; lifting and moving
stone in quarries or buildings;
helping the carpenter on
heavy work and in work re
quiring no skill; carrying lad
ders and paints for painters,
and rigging up scaffolds;
helping structural-iron work
ers handle beams, channel
iron, and all heavy work.

CABINETMAKER.

LABORER.

The carpenter-joiner puts Laying brick as required in
in window frames, hangs
the construction of build
sashes, doors, and blinds;
ings, engine foundations, or
does all kinds of inside wood
for
other
purposes. In
Richmond the bricklayer
work on doorframes, jambs,
trim, washboards, picture
sets window sills and caps
moldings, wainscotings, pan
of cut stone. The more
eled ceilings, and mantels;
skilled work is required in
builds staircases of simple
building corners, window
construction and puts on all
frames,
arches,
gables,
kinds of interior finish, both
pressed-brick fronts, and in
in hard and soft woods.
ornamental work. In the
The carpenter-framer builds
construction of walls various
frames for inclosing and
sorts of bonds are used, the
holding concrete in place
most common bond in Rich
until hard. The carpentermond being what is called
stair-builder builds the more
locally
the
“ four-inch
difficult and ornamental
bond*'; English and Flem
staircases. A fe w m en
ish bonds are used to some
specialize in such lines of
extent. In the characteris
work as the laying of par
tic processes of bricklaying
quet floors an d interior
skill is required in the use of
finishing of hard wood.
the trowel, plumb line, and
pin.

Hard-stone workers first line
up the stone by cutting lines
on face, to work by in squar
ing up*, straightening, and
getting out the winds. The
sequent processes are point
ing or roughing off with
peen hammer or pointingmachine tools, and smooth
ing up with hand or ma
chine bush. After bushing,
if it is to be polished, the
stone is placed on the
grinding mill and ground
with chilled shot and rubbed
down with putty and water.
Soft stone is worked up to
shape by machine tools en
tirely. the processes consist
ing oi sawing, planing, slot
ting, shaping, and jointing.
In block cutting for paving
the stone is drilled and
traced, broken to lines, and
joints dressed off.

The work of the stiucturaliron worker consists of the
laying out and cutting to
proper length of angle iron,
channel iron, and T-iron
beams used in the construc
tion of buildings,bridges,and
viaducts; the erecting and
fastening the same to
gether by the use of bolts,
rivets, and plates; the laying
out and assembling of grills
and other ornamental iron
work, the assembling and
erecting of fire escapes,
vaults for banks, advertising
signs, smokestacks, ventila
tors, and all iron and steel
construction work used in
the building trades.

In sidewalk, pavement, and
coping construction the “ fin
isher” lays out the work,
watches the subgrade work
and the composition of the
concrete mixture, strikes off
the surface of the concrete
with a straightedge, and
floats and trowels the same;
in building and other simi
lar construction the finisher
supervises the mixing of the
concrete, sees that the forms
are properly set, and in gen
eral acts as a foreman.

The tinner’s work consists of
the laying out, forming, and
assembling of tin or other
sheet-metal utensils; the
making of waterspouts and
erecting the same; the roof
ing of buildings; the attach
ing of metal to ceilings and
side walls, and furring and
sheathing ceilings and walls;
the making of crestings,
awnings, hollow circular
moldings, and metal sash,
frames, and skylights, and
the covering of fire doors and
windows.

The work of the plumber con
sists of laying lines of pipes
for water, gas, and sewer
systems from the street
main to and beyond the line
of house; the installing in
buildings and residences of
plumbing fixtures and their
appurtenances, such as fil
ters, meters, tanks, bath
tubs, showers, washbasins,
sinks, water-closets and
urinals, and all connections
for toilets; fixtures and pipes
for gas, sewerage, and drain
age purposes. The pipe
metal most commonly used
in Richmond is lead, which
necessitates a high degree of
manipulative skill in wiping
joints.

The work of the steam fitter
consists of installing steam
and hot-water heating, and
refrigerating plants of every
description. This work in
volves the cutting of pipes to
length and the threading of
ends, making connections
and running lines of pipe;
making connections for ice
and refrigerating plants,
installing power pumps
and making all necessary
connections.

The preparing for and putting
up of electric wires for all
purposes within buildings,
and the installation of elec
tric appliances and fixtures
for which the wires must be
run; this includes such work
as wiring for lighting, heat
ing, powerj telephone, bell,
and signal installations. In
Richmond the inside wireman does the work which in
some other communities is
done by the fixture fitter;
he also does some outside
wiring and repairing.

Plastering of walls, ceilings,
and other surfaces, by the
use of the trowel, hawk, and
other tools; the plasterer
also does ornamental work
such as cornices and mold
ings with stucco, cement,
and other materials. “ Threecoat work” is generally done
upon flat surfaces; the first
coat, consisting of plaster
containing hair, is well
scratched
and
roughly
smoothed; the second coat,
which is like the first, except
that it contains no hair, is
put on and floated; the
third, or finish coat, con
sisting of lime and plaster of
Paris, is put on very thin
and the surface smoothly
finished.

Operating band and circular Constructing furniture, bank,
saws,
jointers,
planers,
and office fixtures, cabinets,
lathes, machines for making
and similar work of a high
moldings, tenons, and mor
grade. In large establish
tises, and for sandpapering.
ments all material is cut to
Logs are cut into timbers
approximate size by ma
and boards and seasoned
chine hands and given to the
and worked into sash,
cabinetmaker, who makes
doors, blinds, frames, stairs,
all joints and parts accord
and columns; timber is sea
ing to plans furnished. The
soned, if necessary, sawed
cabinetmaker uses bench
on band saw, planed to
tools, such as planes, chisels,
proper thickness on planer,
saws, hammers, and spokecut to size on circular saw,
shaves; the shaped parts are
edges trued on jointer,
glued, assembled, sandpa
pered t and scraped, and the
mortises and tenons cut by
m ac hine , and work
work is finished by staining,
smoothed on sandpapering
filling, and applymg several
machine; turned work, such
coats of varnish. In large
as columns and rails, is
establishments finishing is a
turned on lathe; grill and
separate occupation.
scroll work is done on jig-saw
and saw table; parts are
glued and assembled by
bench hands.

2. Product or specialties.

Buildings and other structures
of wood.

Buildings and other structures
of brick.

Dressed stone, both hard and
soft, for b u ild in g s and
monuments; blocks cut for
paving.

Construction and erection of
ornamental and structuraliron work.

Concrete structures, pave
ments, sidewalks, ana cop
ings.

Tin and sheet-metal work in
the building trades.

Complete pipe systems for
sewerage, water, and gas.

Complete pipe systems for
heating, refrigerating, and
power plants.

Installations of electric wires
in buildings.

Plain and ornamental plaster
ing.

Stock sawed, planed, turned,
smoothed, and assembled
for buildings.

Hardwood, bank, office, and
store fixtures, and cabinets
and furniture for dwellings.

Inside and outside paintingand decorating; sign, wagon,
carriage, automobile, coach,
implement, and furniture
painting.

Hanging paper or other fabrics
used for covering walls.

Unskilled heavy work in all
branches of building trades.

3 . Im portance of trade (number
employed).

Approximately 6
600
Duilding trades.

Approximately 300..

Approximately 70..

Approximately 26..

Approximately 50..

About 140 journeymen and
apprentices.

Approximately 70 .

Approximately 100..

Approximately 260..

Approximately 215 journey
men and 15 apprentices.

Approximately 309..

Approximately 64.

Approximately 600..

Approximately 70 .

About 2,400, mostly colored
men.

4 . Conditions of em ploym ent:
(a) That involve physical or ner
vous strain.

None.

The constant noise of the ma
chines causes nervousness.

Noise made when riveting
causes a nervous strain on
some workers.

In some finishing the worker
is required to work in a
stooping position, which in
duces considerable strain.

None.

Practically none.

Work is generally heavy and
laborious, but does not nec
essarily
cause
physical
strain.

In general none, though work
with high-tension currents
may induce nervous strain.

None.

Necessity for lifting and han
dling logs and heavy pieces
of timber.

None.

Close, long-continued applica
tion to fine work, such as
coach painting, lettering,
and interior decorating.

None.

Some work in sawmills, quar
ries, and on buildings re
quires much heavy lifting
which may cause strain.

(6) That stimulate intelligence
and interest.

Variety in high-class work.

Variety in high-grade work-----

Variety in best class of work,
- especially monument work.

All high-class work is stimula
tive.

The better grades of work re
quire skill and intelligence.

Variety in high-grade work.. .

All plumbing requires judg
ment and skiU.

Practically aU operations re
quire judgment and skill.

Practically all work is stimu
lative.

Variety in high-class work..

The making of moldings and
high-grade millwork:.

All high-grade work requires
skin and is stimulative.

Decorating, sign painting,
lettering, and finishing.

Variety in high-class work___

Little, if anything.

Unvaried rough work.

None.

Specialization in low-grade
work, such as roughing.

None, if there is any variety of
work.

None.............................................

None.

None...........................................

None.

None.......................................

Constant application to one
kind of rough work.

None........................................... .

Rough outside work or con
stant exterior painting.

Continuous employment at
low-grade work.

None of the work requires skilL

(d) That are In other respects im
portant as affecting the
welfare of workers (i. e.,
liability to accident; occu
pational diseases).

Danger of accident is consider
able in some lines of work,
from imperfect scaffolding.

Some danger of accident from Inhaling the dust that arises,
imperfect scaffolding.
especially from the com
pressed-air machines, is in
jurious.

Liability to accident is consid
erable.

Practically none.

Liability to accident in some
lines of work.

Possibility of contracting dis
ease from germs in waste
matter and from gases that
arise from sewerage, espe
cially on repair work.

Liability to burns and scalds
from accident and danger of
contracting pneumonia from
exposure after becoming
overheated.

Danger from working with
“ live” wires.

None.......................................

Practically all woodworking
machines are very danger
ous, owing to the speed at
which they are run; the
dust from planes and saws
is injurious.

None.

Danger from imperfect scaf
fold ringing; danger of lead
poisoning from uncleanly
habits and methods of dry
sandpapering; danger from
use In poorly ventilated
spaces of some quick-drying
fiat-finish paints containing
benzine and turpentine.
Use of varnishes ana shellac
containing wood alcohol
may cause blindness and
even death.

Danger from imperfect scaf
folds and of poisoning from
colored paper.

Danger of accident in the work,
which is heavy and often
more or less hazardous.

$4 to $5 per week.
$5 to $6 per week.
$6 to $7 per week..
$7 to $8 per week..

$4 per week.................................

$9 to $12 per week...,

$3 per week.......... «

$4 per week.................................

$4 per week................................ . $5 per week___

$3 to $4 per week......................

/$3 to $6 per week......................
\$6 to $7.25 per week.................

$3 to $6 per week___
$6 to $7.25 per week.

$3 to $4 per week........................ $4 per week.................................
$5 per week................................. $5 per week.................................

$12 to $18 per week..

[$4 to $5 per week..
$5 to $7 per week-.
[$6 to $9 per week-.

iNo set wage for this period;
\ depends on the ability of
I the apprentice.

No fixed wage; depends en
tirely on the ability of the
apprentice.

$4 to $5 per week......................
$5 to $6 per week......................

(

Increased as ability increases;
no regular scale.

Increased as ability increases; f$6 to $7 per week........................ $6 per week.................................
t$7 to $9 per week........................ $7 per week.................................
no regular scale.

$20.10 per week.
$21 per week----No union............

$3.25 per day.
$4 per day___
$4 per day___

$13.44 per week......................... . $16 per week.
$24 per week............................... $22 per week.
$24 per week............................... $21 per week.

$12.60 per week.
$20.62 per week.
No union............

$10 per week___
$18.20 per week.

$1.50 per day............................... $18 per week...............................
$3 to So per day.......................... $27 per week...............................
$3 per day.................................... $3.50 per day............................. .

8 to 8£ hours per day; 48 hours
per week;
to 8 hours on
Saturday.

8 hours per day; 48 hours per
week; 8 hours on Saturday.

9 to 10 hours per day (non
union); 8 hours per day
(union); 54 to 55 hours per
week (nonunion); 48 hours
per week (union); 5 to 9
nours on Saturday (non
union) ; 8 hours on Saturday
(union).

8£ hours per day; 48 hours per
week; 5fchours on Saturday.

9£ to 10 hours per day; 54 to 55
hours per week; 5 to 6£ hours
on Saturday.

9i to 10 hours per day; 54 to 55
hours per week; 5 to 6Jhours
on Saturday.

8 to 9 hours per day; 48 to 54
hours per week; 8 to 9 hours
on Saturday.

March to November, inclusive. Millwork, April to October;
furniture, January to Octo
ber.
December to February, inclu Millwork, January to April;
furniture, October to Jan
sive.
uary.
Fluctuation only as indi Very little fluctuation in
cated in the busy and slack
furniture work; the mills
seasons.
work shorter hours in the
dull season.

January to October

March to December, inclusive. May to October, inclusive.......

October to January,

January and February.............

November to April, inclusive.

The winter months.

Very little................

Regulated somewhat by build
ing activities, but men
work on the average about
10 months in the year.

Inconsiderable.......................... .

Fluctuation in employment
among laborers is very great
from busy to slack season.

Not organized.............................. Not organized..

Not organized as cabinet
makers; belong to carpen
ters’ and joiners’ union.

About one-tenth........................

About three-fifths..

Not organized.

1 , Process.

In the

5. Wages:
Apprentices—
(a) Beginning wage..........

(b) Second-year wage____
(c) Third-year wage..........
(d) Fourth-year wage.......
Journeymen—
(e) Minimum wage............
( /) Maximum wage...........
(g) Union scale................. .

$5 per week................................
$6 per week.................................
$7 per week: usually 50-cent
increase every six months.

($3 first six months; $4.50 sec
ond six months.
Increase from $4.50 per week
to $12 per week, according
to boy’s ability.

No apprenticeship system..

$21 per week.
$30 per week.
No union___

$7.50 per week.

$6 to $7 per week......................

■No apprenticeship.

16§ cents per hour.
25 cents per hour.
No union.

$15 per week.
$21 per week.
$18 per week.

$29.25 per week.
$31.20 per week.
$30.80 per week.

$18 per week.
$21 per week.
$3.60 per day.

22\ cents per hour.
35 cents per hour..
Not reported..........

8J to 9 hours per day; 48 to 54
hours per week; 5£ to 6
hours on Saturday.

8 to 9 hours per day; 44 to 48
hours per week; 4 to 5 hours
on Saturday.

8 hours per day; 44 hours per
week; 4 hours on Saturday.

10 hours per day; 55 hours per
week; 5 hours on Saturday.

March to December, inclusive,

March to November, inclusive. March to October, inclusive... April to August.

Mar. 15 to Nov. 15.

March to December, inclusive

March to August, inclusive...

March to August, inclusive___

Aug. 15 to Dec. 15..

(6) Slack season.............................

January and February........... .

December to February, inclu
sive.

November to February, in
clusive.

Winter months..

Nov. 15 to Mar. 15.

January and February........... .

September to February, inclu
sive.

Dec. 15 to Aug. 15.

Regulated somewhat by build
ing activities, but men work
on the average about 10
months in the year.

Other than the usual seasonal
fluctuation depends upon
building activities.

City contracts during dull sea
son prevent any consider
able fluctuation.

Considerable.......

Very considerable,

Inconsiderable...........................

Inconsiderable..........................

Inconsiderable.........................

Inconsiderable........

8 . Extent to which trade Is or
ganized.

About one-half...........................

Completely.........................

About three-fourths..

About four-fifths.

Not organized......................... .

Not organized..

About one-half...........................

About one-third................

Not over one-fourth..........

9 . Entrance age..................................

16 to 18 years.

17 to 18 years......................

17 years.

18 years....................

18 to 20 years............................. .

16 to 17 years.

17 to 20 years............................. .

16 to 19 years.....................

16 to 18 years......................

16 to 18 years...............................

16 to 18 years.

16 years...................................... .

16 to 18 years...............................

16 to 18 years..

18 to 30 years.

4 years.............

4 years.................................

3 years..

4 years.................................

3 to 4 years..................................

4 years.............

4 years........................................ .

4 years..........................................

4 years.............

Not skilled work; very little
time required.

1 1 . Age of m a x im u m productivity. 25 to 55 years of age...................

25 to 55 years of age..........

20 to 55 years of age.

1 2 . Is supply of labor adequate to
m eet dem and? (Cause of de
ficiency, if any.)

Supply of medium - grade
workers i<? sufficient.

Supply reported adequate

Yes; at present.........

1 3 . Is dem and for labor increas
ing or decreasing?

Increasing for efficient, skilled
workmen.

Stationary.

Not increasing in building;
decreasing in the block-cut
ting industry.

Apprentices, recruited from
the lower grades of the
grammar schools.

6 . H ours of labor (regular, per day
per week; on Saturday).

7 . Seasonal activity:
(a) Busy season...

1 0 . Years required to learn trad e..

1 4 . W h a t is the source of su p p ly?. Apprentices, recruited from
the lower grades of the
grammar schools and casual
laborers.

9 hours per day; 54 hours per
week; 9, and, in some few
cases, 8 hours on Saturday.

No apprenticeship.

4 years........................................

$18 per week..............................
$24 per week..............................
No union....................................
9J hours per day; 54 hours per
week; 6* hours on Saturday.

8 hours per day; 48 hours per
week; 8 hours on Saturday.

8 to 10 hours per day; 44 to 60
hours per week; 4 to 10 hours
on Saturday.

In general, March to October.

2 to 3 years................................. .

4 years.............

30 to 45 years of age................. .

Not reported...............................

21 to 65 years of age.

21 to 45 years of age.................

21 to 45 years of age..........

Not reported.....................

25 to 55 years of age...................

30 to 45 years of age.

30 to 45 years of age...................

22 to 55 years of age...................

21 to 55 years of age................. .

Indeterminate.

No; send to other cities at
times for workers.

The supply of efficient skilled
finishers does not meet the
demand.

Yes.............................

Y es..............................................

Meets demand at present.

Yes; except licensed men

Supply ot ordinary plasterers
is sufficient; of highly-skilled
porkers insufficient, owing
to lack of a good appren
ticeship system.

Y es..............................

Y es...............................................

Supply adequate for present
demand for medium-grade
workers, but the supply of
high-class workmen is not
sufficient to meet the de
mand.

Yes; except during the busy
season.

Yes.

Increasing.

Increasing for efficient fin
ishers.

About stationary.

Increasing.

Increasing, especially for con
duit workers.

Stationary.

Increasing.

Increasing, especially for efficient, skilled workers.

Increasing.

Helpers in the trade and jour
neymen in metal trades.

Unskilled labor.

Apprentices, recruited from
grammar schools.

Apprentices, recruited from
tne lower grades of the grammer schools.

Apprentices, recruited from
the grammar schools.

Apprentices and learners, re

Apprentices, recruited from
grammar schools and un
skilled laborers.

Apprentices, recruited from
grammar schools.

Apprentices, recruited from
the lower grades of the
grammar schools and casual
laborers.

Floaters and unskilled help.

cruited

grades
schools.

from the lower
of the grammar

FINDINGS ABOUT EDUCATION FOR OCCUPATIONS IN THE BUILDING TRADES IN RICHMOND, VA.
15. What does worker need to equip
him properly for the trade?
(a) General education..................

An elementary school educa
tion.

An elementary school educa An elementary school educa
tion.
tion.

An elementary school educa
tion.

Elementary and high-sehool
education; courses in mathe
matics, physics, chemistry,
and mechanical drawing.

An elementary school educa
tion.

Some elementary education.

(ft) Trade and technical educa
tion.

Instruction in modern meth
ods and in proper use of tools;
in free-hand, mechanical,
and architectural drawing
and blue-print reading, and
in mathematics of the trade.

Instruction as to different
methods of bonding; the con
struction of arches, gables.
cornices, and ornamental
work; architectural draw
ing and blue-print reading,
and shop mathematics.

Instruction in free-hand draw
ing, designing, and blue
print reading.

Instruction in mechanical and
architectural drawing; me
chanics; as to strength of
—*materials and as to modern
methods of steel construc
tion in buildings, bridges,
and other structures.

Instruction as to kinds and
properties of cement, the
materials used in the aggregate, such as sand and
gravel; the various methods
of finishing, of setting forms,
and of reinforcing, and some
knowledge of architectural
drawing.

Knowledge of the tools of the
trade; mathematics of pat
tern drafting and cutting;
free-hand, mechanical, and
architectural drawing; a
knowledge of architectural
and geometrical forms.

Instruction in mechanical and
architectural drawing, as to
methods of making joints,
installing systems in accord
ance with legal provisions
and with the requirements
of modem plumbing hyiene; modem trade pracice.

Instruction in mechanical and
architectural drawing, and
in modem practice; a tech
nical knowledge of the re
quirements of heating, re
frigerating, an d p o w e r plant Installations.

Instruction in the handling
and splicing of insulated
wires, the installation of
conduits, the making of
electrical connections, fix
ture wiring, the installation
of electrical apparatus and
the testing of circuits;
knowledge of the electrical
code and the methods of
computing the sizes of
wires, fuses, and connec
tions required for specific
electrical currents; some in
struction in the theory of
electricity, with empha
sis on definition of terms and
electrical measurements.

Drawing applied to the trade;
practice in reading blue
prints of architects’ plans
and specifications.

Knowledge of trees and woods;
of the process of seasoning;
of the causes of warping; of
the theory and operation of
woodworking machinery; of
drawing and of shop mathe
matics.

Knowledge of woods and fin
ishes; ability to work from
drawings and sketches; in
struction in modempractice,
and in cabinet and furniture
designing; mechanical and
architectural drawing.

Instruction as to proper rig
ging of scaffolds; how to keep
brushes
clean;
proper
method of spreading colors;
neatness in application of
colors, especially in inside
decorating and lettering;
color harmony and design;
chemistry of colors and color
mixing; mechanical and
architectural d r a w i n g ;
sketching; estimating; hy
giene of the trade.

Knowledge of the proper tools
and methods used to do the
work; of color harmony and
design; of methods of esti
mating; mechanical a n d
architectural drawing; hy
giene of the trade.

Practically none.

Dexterity in handling a great
variety of tools.

Skill in handling the trowel
and other tools of the trade
and in placing the bricks.

In the handling of stonecutting tools and machines.

Dexterity in laying out and
erecting.

Dexterity in handling the
straightedge, float, trowel,
and other finishing tools.

Much of the work requires a
high degree of manipulative
skill.

In handling of tools and in
wiping of joints.

In the handling of tools and
equipment.

In handling tools, splicing
wiret installing conduits,
and in ‘‘ fishing*’ wires.

Best methods of handling
tools and doing work.

In handling of tools and in the
operation of various ma
chines.

All fine work requires a high
degree of manipulative skill.

Dexterity in h a n d l i n g
brushes in fine decorating
and lettering.

Manipulative skill is required
in handling the tools and in
hanging the paper.

Enough to do heavy work wit
the least amount of strain.

(<2) Other requirements: Quali
ties essential, such as
accuracy, etc.

Mental
alertness;
special
adaptability; initiative; ac
curacy; patience; strength;
endurance; keenness of sight.

Mental alertness; accuracy;
patience; special adaptabil
ity; accuracy of eye.

Special adaptability, dexter
ity, patience, accuracy, and
mental alertness.

Accuracy, c a r e f u l n e s s ,
strength, and steadiness of
head.

Dexterity, mental alertness,
initiative, and accuracy.

Artistic appreciation of archi
tectural and geometrical
forms, accuracy, initiative,
and dexterity.

Strength, endurance^ initia
tive, accuracy, and special
adaptability.

Strength, endurance, accura
cy, and special adaptability.

Initiative, accuracy, and dex
terity.

Dexterity, and accuracy of eye. Accuracy, and extreme careful
ness in machine work.

Accuracy, patience, initiative,
and artistic sense.

Artistic sense in decorative
work; accurate color sense in
matching colors: special
adaptability; initiative; ac
curacy; patience; endur
ance; keenness of sight.

Color and artistic sense; special
adaptability; keenness of
sight; dexterity; accuracy.

Strength.

1 6 . W h a t the industry gives:
(a) Conditions of apprenticeship. Apprentices serve 3 years to
become carpenters; 4 to be
come carpenter-joiners.

Apprenticeship period of 4
years.

Apprenticeship period of 3
years.

No apprenticeship system.

No regular api
should learn the trade in* 2
to 3 years.

Apprenticeship period of 4
years.

Apprenticeship period of 4
years generally; none for
some employments.

Apprenticeship period of
years generally.

Apprenticeship period of 4
years.

None.

No provision.,

No provision...................... .

No provision..

No provision.,

No provision.

Practically none.

Practically none.....................

No provision.,

No provision..

No provision.

Very little beyond a knowl
edge of the common meth
ods of laying brick.

The practical part of the trade
so far as the work permits.

Very little.......................... .

Barely sufficient knowledge to
make a profitably produc
tive worker.

Practice in solving problems
that arise in practical work.

Trade knowledge in special
classes of work; very little of
the technical part.

Sufficient to make the worker
a profitable producer.

Practically none.

Very little..

Very little.

Only enough trade knowledge
to equip worker for im
mediate productivity.

Only that practical trade
knowledge required to make
the labor productive.

None required.

In the handling of some tools.

In the handling of tools.......... .

The necessary manipulative
skill required.

All that is required to do the
work.

In operating machines and in
using tools; where shops are
highly specialized the train
ing is limited to one or two
machines.

Dexterity in use of tools and in
making and assembling
cabinetwork.

Dexterity in handling brush.. Dexterity in the simple proc
esses of the occupation.

The little skill needed.

The practical part of the trade. The practical part, but very
little of the technical.

The practical part only..

The manipulative skill, some
trade knowledge, but very
little technical knowledge.

Only the manipulative skill
required in the actual appli
cation of the plaster.

Practical part but little of
technical part.

Practical part; very little of
the technical.

The trade knowledge required
to make the labor produc
tive, but very little of the
technical knowledge of the
hygiene of the occupation.

The necessary trade knowl
edge, but very little of the
technical knowledge for ar
tistic work.

Fully.

No provision.,

No provision.

No provision.,

No provision..

No provision.

(6) Provision made for systematic No provision.
instruction of apprentices.

knowledge of
trade practice.

Knowledge of using tools, but
practically none of the tech
nical knowledge of the trade.

(d) Manipulative skill..,

Dexterity in handling tools.... All that is necessary to do the
usual work properly.

In the handling of various tools. All that is required............

The necessary manipulative
skill.

(e) Extent to which trade can be
learned in the shop.

Only the shop method of doing
the work.

The manipulative skill needed
in laying brick.

The special line of work being
done.

The practical part, but very
little of the technical.

Very limited, except
manipulative skill.

(/) Provision made in the shop for
systematic instruction of
journeymen.
(g) Line of promotion....................

No provision..

No provision.

No provision.,

Very little..................... .

No provision..........................

Apprentice, journeyman, fore
man.

Journeyman, foreman.,

Helper, journeyman, foreman. Apprentice, journeyman, fore
man.

Apprentice, journeyman, fore
man.

Apprentice, journeyman; in
some semiskilled occupa
tions from laborers or help
ers to certain lines of work.

Apprentice, journeyman.

Apprentice, j ourneyman, fore
man.

Apprentice, journeyman, fore
man.

No regular line.

Deficiency in general educa
tion, mathematics of the
trade, drawing, and ability
to read blue prints.

Deficiency in m athem atics,
ability to read architects’
plans and specifications, and
general education.

Deficiency in general educa
tion, designing, and draw
ing.

Deficiency in general and
trade education, drawing,
and mathematics of the
trade.

Deficiency in general educa
tion and lack of an all-round
knowledge of the trade.

Deficiency in general educa
tion and free-hand and
mechanical drawing.

Deficiency in general educa
tion.

Deficiency in technical knowl
edge.

Deficiency in general educa
tion, and inability to read
drawings and specifications.

Deficiency in general educa
tion and in all-round knowl
edge of the trade.

Deficiency in general educa
tion, technical knowledge,
and knowledge of hygiene of
the trade.

Deficiency in general educa
tion, in knowledge of color
harmony and design.

Not steady workers.

A complete grammar-school
general education with 2
years’ prevocational train
ing.

grammar-school general
education and 2 years’ pre
vocational training.

A complete grammar-school
general education and pre
vocational training.

A complete grammar-school
general education, and pre
vocational training.

A complete grammar-school
general education and pre
vocational courses.

A complete grammar-school
general education and pre
vocational training.

A complete grammar-school
general education and 2
years’ prevocational training.

Complete grammar-school edu
cation and prevocational
work in woodworking.

Complete grammar-scb ool gen Complete grammar-school edu
cation, prevocational courses
eral education and prevoca
in free-hand drawing, color
tional work in woodworking.
harmony and design.

Complete grammar-school gen
eral education and prevoca
tional courses.

Some elementary education.

Specialized courses covering
the trade and technical re
quirements of the carpen
ter.

Specialized courses covering
the specific trade and tech
nical requirements for brick
laying.

Specialized courses covering
the specific trade and tech
nical requirements of the occunation.

Specialized courses covering
the specific trade and tech
nical requirements of the oc
cupation.

Specialized courses covering
the trade and technical re
quirements of the occupa
tion.

Specialized courses covering
the specific trade and tech
nical requirements of the
occupation.

complete grammar-school A complete grammar-school ed
ucation; high-school or pre
general education and pre
vocational courses in mathe
vocational training.
matics, physics, chemistry,
and mechanical drawing.
Specialized courses covering Specialized courses covering
the specific trade and tech
the specific trade and tech
nical requirements of the
nical requirements of the
occupation.
occupation.

Specialized courses covering
the specific trade and tech
nical requirements of the
occupation.

Specialized courses covering
the specific trade and tech
nical requirements of the oc
cupation.

Specialized courses covering
specific trade and technical
requirements of painting.

Theory and history of the
trade; specialized courses
covering the specific trade
and technical requirements
of the occupation.

Some little knowledge of ma
terials used.

Opportunity for acquiring
skill in certain lines of work.

Skill in free-hand drawing

None..

None.

Opportunity for acquiring
sKill in the construction of
certain conventional forms.

None.

Manipulative skill in some
special lines, such as switch
board and apparatus work.

None.

Manipulative skill in the use of
certain tools and machines.

Very little, if any.

Opportunity for acquiring
manipulative skill in special
work, such as lettering.

None.............................................

None.

III. Nature of part-time courses
needed.

Shop mathematics; blue-print
reading; mechanicai and
architectural d r a w i n g;
courses dealing with the
qualities of woods; modern
practice in building con
struction.

Mathematics of the trade,
architectural drawing, blue
print reading of architects’
plans and specifications;
courses dealing with meth
ods of bonding, ornamental
work, and modern practice.

Mechanical and free-hand
drawing; designing; hygiene
of the trade; modern prac
tice in working hard and
soft stone.

Mechanics and steel construc
tion; c o ur s e s c o v e r i n g
strength of materials and
riveted joints; mechanical
drawing.

Mechanical and architectural
drawing and blue-print read
ing; courses covering esti
mating, the kinds and prop
erties of cement and of other
materials, and the methods
and theory of reinforcing.

Free-hand, mechanical, and
architectural drawing; pat
tern designing, drafting and
cutting; shop mathematics.

Blue-print reading of archi
tects’ plans and specifica
tions; sanitation; courses
covering legal provisions
under which work is done.

Blue-print reading of archi
tectural drawings and speci
fications; courses covering
the technical knowledge re
quired for installation of
heating, refrigerating, and
power plants.

Theory and practice of electri
cal wiring; mathematics;
physics; chemistry; me
chanical drawing; b l u e print reading of architects’
drawings and specifications.

Blue-print reading of archi
tects’ drawings and specifi
cations; courses covering
estimating, composition of
materials, and modem prac
tice.

Mechanical drawing; shop
mathematics; courses deal
ing with modem practice in
millwork.

Mechanical drawing; sketch
ing and blue-print reading;
shop mathematics; modem
methods.

Hygiene of the trade: chemis
try of trade; color harmony;
design; reading of blue
prints; mechanical, archi
tectural and free-hand draw
ing; estimating.

Color harmony; design; esti
mating; hygiene of the trade.

General education.

IV . Nature of evening-school
courses needed.

Same as III for apprentices;
advanced
special
trade
courses for journeymen.

Same as III for apprentices;
advanced
special
trade
courses, covering modern
construction and practice,
for journeymen.

Same as III for apprentices;
advanced
special
trade
courses for journeymen.

Same as III for apprentices;
advanced
special
trade
courses, covering modem
methods, for journeymen.

Same as III for apprentices;
advanced
special
trade
courses for journeymen.

Same as III.

1 7 . C o m m o n deficiencies of workers

18. Suggestions from the trade as to
what school ought to give:
I. Before entering the shop........ .
II. After entering the shop—
(a) Trade and technical
knowledge.

(6) Manipulative skill..

6071°—Bull. 162— 16.

(To face page 182.)

the

Some skill in handling the
tools of the trade.

APPENDIX D.— ANALYSIS OF OCCUPATIONS IN THE METAL
TRADES IN RICHMOND.
SUMMARY OF THE INDUSTRIAL SURVEY OF THE METAL TRADES.
SCOPE OP THE INQUIRY.

The inquiry as regards the metal trades embraced 17 establishments, employing
at the date of the inquiry 4,924 workers, exclusive of office help, or approximately
95 per cent of the total number of workers in these trades in the city of Richmond.
The workers not covered by the survey are employed in small shops or in general
manufacturing plants.
PRODUCT OR SPECIALTIES.

The principal products or specialties of these 17 metal trades establishments from
which schedules were secured are as follows: Building of locomotives, repairing
of locomotives and of passenger and freight cars; shot and shell for the United States
Government; structural and ornamental ironwork; horse and mule shoes; bar iron:
bolts; cookstoves, ranges, and heaters; cotton and tobacco machinery; steel plows;
electric motors and generators, and general repair work.
SIZE OF ESTABLISHMENTS.

In the following summary table these establishments are classified according to
size, the classification being based, as regards each establishment, upon the maxi
mum number reported employed at any time during the year previous to the inquiry.
The total number of workers in this table—6,904—does not of course represent the
number employed by these establishments at any one time, but indicates approxi
mately their aggregate capacity when running with a full force.
T a b le

7 1 . — ESTABLISH M ENTS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO R E P O R TE D M AXIM UM
NUM BER E M PLO Y ED DURING TH E Y E A R PREVIOUS TO T H E IN Q U IR Y .

Maximum number employed.

E m

ployees.

50 or le s s ....
51 to 100____
101 to 300....
301 to 500....
501 to 1,000..
to 2,000
2.001 to 2,500

1.001

Total..

FLUCTUATION OF EMPLOYMENT.

The fluctuation of employment during the year previous to the date of the inquiry
is shown in the following table, the general character of each establishment being
briefly indicated.

183

184

B U L L E T IN OF T H E BU REAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

T a b l e 7 2 .—NUM BER OF EM PLO YEES R EPO R TED B Y 17 M ETAL TR A D E S ESTABLISH

MENTS IN JUNE, 1914, AND M AXIM UM AND MINIMUM N UM BER E M PLO Y ED IN 1913,
B Y ESTABLISH M ENTS.

Number employed.
Estab
lish
ment
No.

1
2
3
4
5

6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

Character of establishment.
June,
1914.

General machine shop and foundry...................................
Do.......................................................................................
Electric machinery (motors and generators)....................
Bar iron, bolts, horse and mule shoes................................
Rolling mill, shot and shell, and horse and mule shoes..
General machine shop...........................................................
Steel plows...............................................................................
Structural and ornamental ironwork.................................
Repairing locomotives and cars..........................................
Do.......................................................................................
Cookstoves, ranges, and heaters..........................................
Repairing locomotives and cars..........................................
Cotton arid tobacco machinery............................................
Cookstoves, ranges, and heaters.........................................
Do.......................................................................................
Structural and ornamental ironwork.................................
Locomotives...........................................................................
Total...............................................................................

27
95
50

200
1,000
16
18
148
411
675
75
865
60
125

100

15
1,044

Max
imum
during
1913.1

100

75
400

1,200
30
20
148
411
675
90
865
85
150

100

19
2,500

Percent
Minimum age the
minimum
during
is of the
1913.1
max
imum.
25
70
50

200
1,000
22
18
75
394
675
60
753
55

110
75
11

125

71
70
67
50
83
73
90
51
96

100
67
87
65
73
75
58
5

4,924

i In the case of certain establishments the number reported as a maximum or a minimum is an estimate
made by the reporting company.

The establishment which shows the most marked fluctuation is engaged in the
building of locomotives, the minimum number employed by this establishment
being only 5 per cent of the maximum. The corresponding percentage for the two
establishments manufacturing structural and ornamental ironwork is 51 and 58, respec
tively, and for one establishment manufacturing refined bar iron, stay bolts, engine
bolt iron, and horse and mule shoes, 50. The establishments showing least fluctuation
in employment are the three car-repair shops and a steel plow manufacturing plant.
With reference to seasonal fluctuations of employment in the metal trades of Rich
mond, a great variety of conditions seems to prevail. In certain large metal trades
establishments while there is from time to time considerable fluctuation in the number
employed, this fluctuation is not really seasonal. For example, in the case noted
above of an establishment building locomotives, in which the minimum number
employed during the year was only one-twentieth of the maximum number employed,
the fluctuation can not be regarded as seasonal, but rather as reflecting an abnormal
condition in the industry. In the case of other concerns, however, the fluctuations
are to a greater or less degree seasonal.
SUPPLY OF EFFICIENT JOURNEYMEN.

About one-half of the firms interviewed seem to experience no great difficulty in
obtaining efficient journeymen. Those that do experience difficulty account for
this shortage as due to the lack of any comprehensive apprenticeship system. In
no case was the opinion expressed that the shortage in competent journeymen was
due to conditions attributable either to the nature of the trade itself or to specific
conditions under which the work is performed in Richmond establishments.
AGE OF MAXIMUM PRODUCTIVITY.

The lower age limit of the period of maximum productivity for workers in the metal
trades of Richmond is almost uniformly given as 21 or 22; the upper limits specified
on the survey schedules, however, vary from 45 to 65 years, according to specific
occupations. Those that give the highest upper age limit are, for the most part,

VOCATION AL ED U CATIO N SU RVEY OF R IC H M O N D , VA.

185

engaged in general machine-repair work. Employers are of the opinion that as a
factor increasing output per hour in this line of work all-round experience is of far
greater importance than manipulative facility in the performance of specific tasks.
One of the employers expresses this opinion in the following words: “ In our special
line of work, even if a man is old his experience that he has had is a great asset. He
may not be able to get around so fast, but he is so experienced that he makes every
lick count.” 1
TIME REQUIRED TO REACH MAXIMUM WAGE-EARNING POWER.

Various estimates are given by informants as to how long it takes workers who have
completed their apprenticeship to reach their maximum wage-earning power. As
regards workers in machine shops, electric machinery works, and in establishments
manufacturing plows and ornamental ironwork and structural steel, employers state
the number of years necessary to be on the average between five and six. Two firms
engaged in foundry and general machine work state it to be from three and one-half
to four and one-half years.2
ESTIMATE OF DEMAND OF NEAR FUTURE.

Most of the firms interviewed seem to be of the opinion that in the near future a
general expansion of business may be expected in the building of automobiles, in the
manufacture of machine tools and instruments of precision, and in the building and
repairing of steel cars. It seems probable from this common opinion that the demand
for competent mechanics in the lines specified will be for some years to come an
increasing one. Even under present conditions, the consensus of opinion among
employers is that the supply of skilled labor in these branches of the industry is
inadequate.3
1 Six firms failed to give definite answers to the question “ What is the age period of maximum produc
tivity for workers?” expressing the opinion in each case that while the age limits of maximum productiv
ity do depend largely upon the amount of physical and nervous exertion required by the specific occupa
tion, they depend also upon the individual character of the workers.
2In detail the character of the firms answering the schedule inquiry “ After how many years’ experience
as an apprentice and journeyman does a journeyman ordinarily earn his maximum wage?” is as follows:
Of the three firms whose answers would seem to indicate that a period of from 7 to 10 years is required to
reach maximum wage-earning power, two manufacture stoves and one is engaged in constructing and
repairing freight and passenger cars. The six firms reporting that the time required is between 5 and 6
years include one machine shop; one plant manufacturing electric motors and generators; one, structural
steel; one, plows; one, stoves; and one, locomotives. The firms reporting that workers reach their maximum
wage-earning power in less than 5 years are engaged in general machine and foundry work and in the manu
facture of tobacco and cotton machinery.
3In answer to the question “ In what occupations is the demand for more workers likely to increase most
rapidly during the next five years?” the following occupations are specified: Machine work, manufactur
ing of automobiles, molding and making of structural and ornamental steel, and boiler making. Increased
demand is expected to arise from the general expansion and further development of the automatic-vehicle
business and from the gradual extension of the use of structural-steel frames in building. The probable
increase in the demand for boiler makers, according to the informants, will come as a result of the increased
demand due to Government regulations for safeguarding of boilers, etc. Six firms failed to respond defi
nitely to this question. One employer states, as a general proposition, the demand for “ all-round machin
ists” will surely increase, as “ our specialization has gone too far.”
The specialties of the establishments whose representatives report that the supply of unskilled labor is
growing less are general repair and foundry work, locomotive building, and the manufacture of stoves. The
specialties of those establishments which report that the supply of unskilled labor is growing greater with
reference to demand are foundry and blacksmith work and the manufacture of cotton and tobacco
machinery.
As regards skilled labor, eight establishments report that skilled labor is, relatively to the demand for
it, getting scarcer. Only one firm—engaged in the building of locomotives—takes the opposite point of
view, maintaining that the supply of skilled labor is becoming greater with reference to demand for it.
This is explained as due principally to the dull condition of business during the last couple of years. The
following reasons are given by most of the informants as explaining the relative scarcity of skilled labor:
Expansion of business, lack of desire on part of people to stick long enough to become skilled, lack of
comprehensive systems for the training of apprentices, and the constant drafting of workers into new
industries.

1 86

B U L L E T IN OF T H E BU REA U OF LABOR STATISTICS.

In the larger establishments which employ the majority of the men in the metal
trades the regular line of promotion is from apprentice to journeyman, to working
leader, assistant foreman, foreman, and inspector. In smaller establishments no
well-defined line of promotion is recognized, but in these establishments the work is
generally of a miscellaneous character and promotion takes the form of advancing men
to more skilled work in proportion as they become proficient.1
The replies of the employers to the several schedule inquiries which called for a
statement of opinion as regards the possibility of learning specific trades thoroughly in
the shop are not entirely consistent. The explanation would seem to be that employ
ers are disposed to emphasize the value of practical shop training, and when asked if
a trade can be learned in the shop they frequently answer yes. In considering the
requirements for all-round efficiency, however, they freely admit that the workers
can not thoroughly learn any of the more skilled trades by the pick-up process. This
inconsistency will be apparent in the following paragraphs considering the schedule
returns in answer first to the simple inquiry, “ What trades can a boy learn in your
shop thoroughly?” and secondly to the inquiry, “ Can untrained beginners be used?”
TRADES THAT CAN BE LEARNED IN THE SHOP.

According to the returns on the survey establishment schedules in answer to the
first question noted above, the following trades can be learned thoroughly in the shop:
Molding, blacksmithing, electric-motor construction, puddling, rolling, horseshoe
making, pattern making, woodworking, carpentry, boiler making, tinning, pipe
fitting, stove mounting, nickel plating, flask making, sheet-iron working, and the
specific branches of the machinist’s trade.2 As regards these occupations it is generally
true that a fair opportunity is given for the untrained beginner to acquire some prac
tical experience. However, no systematic provision is made generally in the shops
for instructing men in the trades specified beyond the practical needs of the shop, and
in the case of some establishments apprentices are required to take industrial or other
school courses at their own expense.3 Aside from such requirements imposed upon
apprentices, a beginner has to get his training in the daily performance of his duties,
and, as is shown by their answers to the second question noted above, as to what
trades can be learned by the so-called “ pick-up” process, employers are agreed that
there are comparatively few, if any, such trades. One concern, however, is positive
1The question “ Are promotions frequently made in your establishment from one occupation to
another?” is answered by seven firms in the negative and by three firms in the affirmative; three make
no report; two answer “ Only to foremanships” ; one, “ No, except apprentices” ; one, “ Machinists change
machines frequently.” Five firms report that there is no usual line of promotion for a journeyman; one
that the line of promotion “ varies” ; two, that while there is no usual line, promotion is according to
experience; five report that promotion is to foremanships; one firm failed to answer the question. Eight
firms answer “ Y es” to the question “ Are individual workmen frequently shifted from one process, or
machine, or occupation to another?” ; four, “ No” ; two, “ Occasionally” ; two, “ Only in some departments.”
2According to the schedule replies, the number of metal trades establishments affording opportunity
for learning the occupations noted in the text is as follows: Molding, 8 firms; blacksmithing, 7; electricmotor construction, 1; puddling, 1; rolling, 2; making horseshoes, 1; wood pattern making, 4; metal
pattern making, 1; woodworking, 1; carpentry, 3; boiler making, 5; coppersmithing, 1; tinning, 1; pipe
fitting, 1; car building, 1; stove mounting, 2; nickel plating, 3; flask making, 1; sheet-iron working, 2; the
machinist’s trade, 9.
2 As regards the amount of instruction received in the shop, on 13 establishment schedules the answer
is in the affirmative to the question “ Does the worker receive any instruction or training in your estab
lishment more than he can pick up on the job?” ; on 2 schedules the answer is negative, and on 1 it is, “ No,
unless he is an apprentice.” In answer to the question “ Who gives it to him ?” the reply is, in 12
cases, foremen; in 1 case, foremen and inspectors; in 1, superintendent; in 1, manager; and in 1, “ trained
workers.” One shop reports that apprentices attend shop school 40 minutes each day. The informal
character of the training maybe inferred from the following typical characterizations: “ Individual instruc
tion necessary” ; “ Show him how to do things” ; “ Observation by helpers” ; “ Practical instruction.”

VO CATION AL EDU CATIO N SURVEY OF R IC H M O N D , VA.

187

that “ all trades can be learned by contact” and a few employers state that in their
opinion relatively unskilled trades, such as winding of motors, loading, sorting, and
packing, can be learned in the shop.1
FOREIGN AND AMERICAN TRAINED WORKERS.

In the opinion of those interviewed, foreign-trained workers, on account of the thor
oughness of their training, are superior to workers trained in this country. Aside from
the lack of occupational training other deficiencies are specified as characteristic of
the native workers, such as idleness and lack of education, lack of ambition, dislike
for manual labor, and lack of willingness to start at the bottom. It should be noted,
however, that in Richmond the proportion of foreign born and trained workers is
relatively very small.
STEADY WORK FOR COMPETENT HELP.

A majority of the establishments report that they are generally able to retain their
more competent and efficient workers throughout the entire year. This means that
such workers are kept on the rolls of the establishments as regular employees, but does
not mean that they are constantly employed throughout the year.
APPRENTICESHIP.

In the majority of the metal trades establishments no regular indenture system of
apprenticeship exists. Of the 17 firms returning schedules only 3 report indentures
by written agreement. Employers seem to be divided in their opinion as to whether
or not the regularly indentured apprentice maintains with reference to his work a
different attitude from that of the unindentured apprentice.2
In reply to the questions “ What conditions especially stimulate the intelligence of
the workers? ” and “ What conditions, if any, narrow and restrict the mental develop
1Nine firms reply to the question, “ What occupations in yourshop can be learned in the shop with
little or no instruction/’ that “ nothing” can be learned that way in their shops. One firm says, “ Only
certain kinds of repetition work.”
2Nine of the firms answered “ None” to the question, “ What are the terms of any agreement of appren
ticeship under which apprentices are now working in your shop?” apparently meaning that they have
no definite systems of apprenticeship in operation in their establishments. Three firms report that they
have written agreements, and attach copies of same to their answers. Five firms report verbal agreements,
under which, in one case, it is understood that the term of apprenticeship is to be four years; in another
case that wages of pattern-making apprentices shall be raised every 75 days; and in another that apprentices
shall be “ worked and advanced according to a standard schedule.”
None of the forms of written agreement with apprentices specify in detail what training is to be given.
The agreements, or provisions for agreements, submitted by the three companies reporting written agree
ments, are as follows:
Company A : Apprentices are taken on the following terms: They serve at the trade agreed on until
they are 21 years old, and are paid for the time actually worked, as follows: $4 per week for the first year*
$5 per week for the second year; $6 per week for the third year; $7 per week thereafter until they are free.
They must not be absent except from sickness, or other unavoidable cause, and must obey strictly all
the company’s shop rules. The company reserves the right to discharge at any time any apprentice whose
deportment or progress in learning his trade is not satisfactory.
Company B : Apprentices shall serve the time of four years and will be paid in accordance with the
company’s schedule of rates for apprentices. Apprentices to be given every opportunity to learn the trade.
Company C: The time of machinist apprentices will be divided as follows: Three months in storehouse,
handling and issuing material; 6 months in tool room, repairing and issuing tools; 18 months on
bench work, including repairing air pumps, lubricators, and other bench work; 12 months on machines,
to be given a show on all class machines in shops; 9 months divided between roundhouse work and
erecting shop work. If after the expiration of 6 months any apprentice does not show proper interest in
his work and is not progressing satisfactorily, he will be dismissed from the service, as we feel that there
is absolutely no use in keeping apprentices in the service who do not take proper interest in their work.
(Similar agreements are provided for paint-shop, car-department, blacksmith, boiler-maker, and tin-shop
apprentice.)

188

B U L L E T IN

OF T H E BU REAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

ment of the workers? ” it is almost uniformly insisted that variety is stimulative and
that monotony is restrictive of mental development. One informant states that “ rec
ognition of ability and energy is stimulative.” The following are some of the most
frequently mentioned causes restricting mental development of workers: Confining
worker to one job, employment at work involving constant repetition of the same
operations, routine work, specialization, “ too much watching.,,
CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH WORK IS PERFORMED.

While employers admit the possibility of conditions existing in their shops which
might cause physical or nervous strain, they are inclined to the belief that no such
conditions beyond those which necessarily pertain to the occupation are to be found
in their own shops.
KIND OF SCHOOLING REQUIRED.

Employers are of the opinion that their workers are lacking in general education,
especially in ability to understand, read, and write the language of the shop and to
interpret correctly written and oral instructions given, and this fact more than any
other, except deficiency in trade training, prevents workers from acquiring a high
degree of efficiency. Instruction beyond the seventh grade is favored by almost all
of the employers for almost all of the occupations to be found in their establishments.
Shop mathematics, mechanical drawing, metallurgy, and chemistry are the systematic
subjects most generally indicated as required in a large number of occupations.
With reference to kind of schools to be established—night or part-time day schools—
employers seem to be about equally divided in their opinion. Seven of them favor
night schools and seven suggest part-time day schools. While the subjects suggested,
in addition to those already mentioned, are of an industrial nature, the returns on the
schedules do not go into detail as regards specific occupations, but use such general
terms descriptive of the work to be given as “ steps of the trade,” “ whys of the trade,”
and “ theory of the trade.” 1
EMPLOYERS WILL COOPERATE IN ESTABLISHMENT OF PART-TIME SCHOOLS.

Five employers express a willingness to let apprentices attend such schools during
the daytime. Five employers were unwilling to commit themselves at the time the
schedules were filled out and prior to the formation of a definite scheme, and were also
of the opinion that the extra training to be gotten should be at the expense of the
employees exclusively. The number of hours suggested for such schooling ranges
from 5 to 10 per week, but the majority of employers suggest from 6 to 8 hours
per week.
EFFICIENCY TESTS AND RECORDS.

In very few instances are methods employed to determine the fitness of applicants,
nor are any written records of efficiency of individual workers kept or any systematic
tests applied for promotion.
EMPLOYERS WILL COOPERATE IN SYSTEMATIZING SHOP PRACTICE.

Without any qualification, out of the 17 employers, 14 express a willingness to
assist the public school authorities in an effort to systematize shop practice in their
establishments with a view to providing all-round training for apprentices and to
develop greater efficiency in their journeymen.
1 Eight firms reply in answer to the question, “ W hat kind of school would most help workers in the
various occupations during the apprenticeship period?’7 that they favor night schools, six that they favor
part-time day schools. One firm replies that no school is required, “ because if educated they will leave
the work which is unskilled.”

VOCATION AL EDU CATIO N SU RVEY OF R IC H M O N D , VA.

189

In the two tables following statistics are presented showing for the 4,924 workers
employed in the 17 metal trades establishments covered by the survey: (1) The num
ber of journeymen, apprentices or beginners, and semiskilled workers in each occu
pation; (2) the regular hours of labor per day; and (3) the regular hours of labor per
week:
T a b l e 7 3 .—NU M BER

OF JOU RNEYM EN, APPR ENTICES OR BE G IN N ER S, A N D SEMI
SK IL LE D W O R K E R S IN 17 M ETAL T R A D E S ESTABLISH M EN TS, B Y OCCUPATIONS,
JUNE, 1914.

Journey
men.

Occupation.

Semi
Appren
skilled
tices or
begin
helpers or
laborers.
ners.

Total.

63
216
143
Blacksmiths............................................................................................
42
469
577
Boiler makers....... ..................................................................................
226
Car repairers............................................................................................
17
251
64
Coach painters........................................................................................
40
5
19
5
Core makers.............................................................................................
15
Draftsmen................................................................................................
7
Electricians.............................................................................................
15
7
7
Stationary engineers ...........................................................................
69
96
Erectors and mounters.........................................................................
17
732
732
Helpers.....................................................................................................
59
1,165
Machinists....................................................... ^......................................
95
3
Millworkers, wood.................................................................................
106
3
3
Motor testers..........................................................................................
44
89
418
285
Molders.....................................................................................................
44
50
Pattern makers.......................................................................................
9
61
50
Pipe fitters...............................................................................................
23
31
Platers and polishers
........................................................................
41
188
Rollers, puddlers, or heaters...............................................................
147
i
7
Upholsterers
.................................................................................
899
899
Laborers...................................................................................................

66
8

20
11
22

1,011

6
2
8

Total number...............................................................................
Per cent.........................................................................................

T a b l e 7 4 ..—R EG ULAR HOURS OF LABO R

Employees.
Number
of shops
Hours per day (ex reporting
cept on Saturday). specified
number Number. Per cent.
of hours.1

8hours......................
8i hours......................

9 hours........................
9£ hours......................
hours......................

Total................

1
1
11
2
7

175
9
2,490
191
3 2,059
2

4,924

3.6

50.6
3.9
41.8

100.0

2,494
50.6

267
5.4

2,163
43.9

4,924

100.0

IN 17 M ETAL TRADES ESTABLISHMENTS.

Hours per week.

48 hours....................
50 hours....................
51 hours....................
53 hours....................
54 hours....................
55 hours....................
58i hours..................
60 hours....................
Not reported...........
Total...............

Employees.
Number
of shops
reportmg
specified
number Number. Per cent.
of hours.1

1
1
1
1
10
4
1
2
1
17

175
181
9
16
2 2,341
1,013
95
»921
173
4,924

3.6
3.7

.3
47.5

20.6
1.9
18.7
3.5

100.0

1 Three shops are included twice, 1 shop 3 times, different hours being reported for different groups of
workers.
2 As regards 675 workers in 1 establishment classified as working 9 hours, the statement is made that the
regular-time wage is based on a 9-hour day, but that the shop has been running only 8 hours during the
past 2£ years.
3 In the case of 1 establishment the statement is made that although 10 hours is the standard working
day, 8 hours is worked on all Government orders, and that rollers, heaters, and horseshoe iron workers,
working by piece or task, finish a day’s work in from 8& to 9J hours. This comment applies to 821 workers
classified as working 10 hours.

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B U L L E T IN OF T H E BU REA U OF LABOR STATISTICS.

ANALYSIS OF OCCUPATIONS IN DETAIL.
PUDDLING.

Process.—Puddling is the process of converting pig iron into wrought iron in a
reverberatory furnace by oxidizing and burning out the carbon, silicon, phosphorus,
manganese, and sulphur. The furnace is oblong in shape, being about twice as
long as wide, built of brick, and well braced with iron rails or equally strong supports.
The types of furnace differ, but the two principal divisions are single and double
furnaces, the latter being by far more economical, as very little more fire is required
for the double than for the single furnace. At one end is a grate, consisting of mova
ble bars upon which a fire of soft coal is kept. At the other end is the stack. Between
them is a pan or hearth in which the iron is melted. It is usually made oval, some
times round, and about 8 inches deep. The roof is built about 2 feet high at the
fire end, gradually sloping to the other end where it is about 1 foot high. B y this
means the hot gases and flames are deflected upon the metal in the pan causing it to
melt. The bottom and sides of the hearth are lined with iron scrap and slag saved
from around the mill, all of which is set by melting at a high temperature. At the
sides are charging doors which may be swung open or sometimes lifted by suitable
means. They are made of sheet iron having a small opening about 6 inches square
at the bottom through which the charge is worked.
In Richmond iron is made by the boiling process instead of by puddling. The
only difference between the two is that in puddling the furnace is tapped for slag,
while in boiling no slag is drawn off at all; otherwise the process is exactly the same.
In the boiling process pig iron is used, but cast iron in the shape of broken car wheels
and other masses of cast iron makes up part of the charge. Eleven hundred pounds
of iron constitute a charge. A “ puller in and beater up, ’ ’ who is the puddler’s helper,
takes care of the iron, pulling it and beating it up to prevent the pieces from sticking
to the bottom and to crumble up the pieces so that they will melt more easily. From
20 to 30 minutes are required to melt the charge. When in a molten condition it is
“ scaled up,” which consists of shoveling scale or slag into the furnace to make the
charge work more easily. The iron is then “ worked to a boil ’ ’ at which time the puddler takes the work himself. Boiling then takes place until the cinder is boiled off.
During this period the metal swells up to about four times its original height, some
of the impurities escaping as a gas and burning. Especially is the escape of carbon
noticeable as it mixes with oxygen forming carbon monoxide which burns with
a blue flame. As the cinder burns off the iron begins “ to make.” It is pulled
and worked until it “ comes to nature,” at which time the iron should be balled
up. Out of the charge seven balls are made, which are taken from the furnace and
carried to the squeezer one at a time. At this stage either a steam hammer or the
squeezer may be used, but the squeezer is preferable for puddled iron as it is liable
to crumble under the hammer. The scrap furnace charge can better be handled
under the hammer.
Puddler’s helper: The assistant to the puddler is called a puddler’s helper. His
work consists of keeping up the fire, assisting in lining and charging the furnace, and
taking care of the metal until it begins to boil—always under the direction of the
puddler. Sometimes two puddlers work “ level handed,” dividing the duties and
the pay equally between them.
Busheler: The duties of a busheler are like those of a puddler, with the exception
that scrap wrought iron, and steel and cast-iron turnings make up the charge. This
is never melted (except the cast iron), but worked to a plastic state, in which con
dition it is carried to the squeezer.
Buggy runner: After the balls have been made up by the puddlers or bushelers
they are taken by the buggy runners to the squeezers. The buggy consists of an

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191

iron basketlike affair with a long handle suspended from an overhead track, so that
the ball may be carried quickly to the squeezer.
Squeezer man: The man whose duty it is to tend the squeezer is called a squeezer
man. He puts the balls in when received, working them through with a bar when
necessary. This operation squeezes the liquid slag out of the ball and rolls it into
shape, called a bloom, so that it can be handled in the rolls.
The squeezer is a heavy machine consisting of a vertical shaft having a large
cylinder with a corrugated face revolving in a casing, having the same kind of a face,
set eccentrically so that the space gradually decreases from the starting place to the
place of leaving.
Bloom runner: When the iron leaves the squeezer it is called a bloom. The man
who handles it now is called a bloom runner. His work is to catch the bloom in a
long pair of tongs suspended from an overhead trolley, carry it to the muck rolls,
and start it through the first groove.
Product or specialties.—The product of the puddler is pure iron or muck iron in
the plastic state.
Importance of the trade.—There are about 80 puddlers, puddlers’ helpers, and scrap
heaters in Richmond.
Conditions of employment.—For the workers who must rabble the charge there is
much strain caused by the heavy work in the intense heat. There is also much danger
of getting burned from constant working of hot iron. There is considerable work
about the furnace requiring close observation of the chemical changes taking place
which should stimulate the intelligence, but for the reason that the work is exhaust
ing and unvarying in its character it tends to narrow and restrict the mental develop
ment.
Economic conditions.—The workers employed in this trade work by heats, and their
wages range from a maximum of $18 to a minimum of $10.50 per week. The workers
in thifa trade are unorganized. There is no regular busy or slack season, the fluctua
tion in employment being small and irregular.
Age of maximum productivity.—Beginners in this trade enter between the ages of
16 and 25, requiring about two years to learn the trade. The age period of maximum
productivity for these workers is between the ages of 25 and 55.
JDemandfor labor.—The demand for workmen in this trade is at present stationary
and the present supply is adequate to meet the demand. These workers in Richmond
are recruited from casual labor and to a considerable extent from other sections of the
country.
Educational and technical requirements.—The puddler should have an elementaryschool education. He should have instruction in mechanical drawing and in the con
struction, lining, and charging of furnaces, the processes of boiling, metallurgy and
chemistry of the trade, and theory of iron making. He requires manipulative skill
in working the boiling metal into a plastic ball and in handling the ball. This also
requires strength and endurance.
What the industry gives.—There is no apprenticeship in this trade, the beginners
entering as scrap heaters or puddler’s helpers, and working at this until they acquire
sufficient knowledge to do the work of the puddler. They acquire in this manner all
the knowledge which is necessary for the practice of the trade.
Deficiencies of workmen.—The workers in this trade are deficient in general education,
metallurgy, mechanical drawing, mathematics, and history and theory of iron making.
What the school ought to give.—Puddlers should have a complete grammar-school
education and prevocational courses in metal working, and after entering the trade,
they should take courses in metallurgy, mechanical drawing, mathematics of the trade,
and history and theory of iron making.

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B U L L E T IN OF T H E BU REA U OF LABOR STATISTICS.
HEATING.

Process.—The work of the heater consists of heating muck bars of iron for rolling.
Muck bar iron is seldom used for industrial purposes until it has been refined. In this
process the muck bar is cut into lengths, which are bound with iron wire, together
with pieces of scrap iron, to secure the proper weight. These bundles are placed in a
furnace on a bed of sand and carefully heated to the required temperature for rolling.
Heater’s helpers.—There are usually two helpers to a heater, known as first and second
helpers. Their work consists of helping the heater by making fires, charging and
drawing the iron and carrying it to the rolls.
The requirements are nearly the same as the heater’s, but as much skill is not re
quired. The helper becomes familiar with the heating, and he is the next man to take
a heater’s job.
Cobblers.—Occasionally the work will get cold on the heaters, and pieces will break
from the bloom. The man who takes care of these and returns them for reworking is
called a cobbler.
Product or specialties.—The heated muck bar iron for rolling in the process of re
fining.
Importance of the trade.—There are about 17 workers, including heaters and helpers.
Conditions of employment.—This work imposes a considerable physical and nervous
strain, because the work is heavy and is performed in an extreme heat. There is also
danger from accidents and bums in the handling of hot iron. There is very littie
work in this trade to stimulate the intelligence and interest; in fact, it is more apt to
narrow and restrict the mental development, because of the exhausting routine of
hard labor while exposed to intense heat.
jEconomic conditions.—The workers in this trade do not work by the hour, but by
heats, the day’s work being done when the heat is finished. Journeymen’s wages
range from a maximum of $32 to a minimum of $12 per week. The workers in this trade
are unorganized. There is no regular busy or slack season in this trade, and the
fluctuation in employment is small and irregular.
Age of maximum productivity.—The heaters usually enter this trade between the ages
of 16 and 25, and require from two to three years to learn the trade. The period of
maximum productivity for these workers usually covers the years between the ages
of 25 and 55.
Demandfor labor.—The supply of labor Is adequate to meet the demand, which is at
present stationary. The workers are recruited from the rankd of unskilled labor.
Educational and technical requirements.—A heater should have an elementary-schooi
education. He should have also some instruction in mechanical drawing and in the
construction and operation of the furnace and the processes immediately involved,
in the chemistry and metallurgy of the trade, and the theory of iron making. The
worker needs strength and endurance and also sufficient skill to avoid accident.
What the industry gives.—There is no apprenticeship system in this trade. The
workers first enter the trade as second heater helpers and advance to first helper and
then to heater, acquiring while serving as helper the knowledge required to perform
the duties of the heater. This trade, so far as the actual handling of the work is con
cerned, can be learned entirely in the shop.
Deficiencies of tvorkmen.—Few workers in this trade possess the physical strength
and endurance required, or sufficient general education or knowledge of metallurgy,
mechanical drawing, and mathematics to enable them to advance in their trade.
What the school might to give.—The workers in this trade should have a complete
grammar-school education with two years of prevocational training before entering
the trade. Then to supplement the knowledge gained in the trade the schools should
give courses as follows: Specialized courses covering the trade and technical require
ments of iron making, metallurgy, mechanical drawing, shop mathematics, and the
history and theory of iron making.

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193

ROLLING.

Processes.—The roller has charge of the rolling crew; he makes adjustments and
supervises the actual work done by the roughers and catchers.
Roughers and catchers: The roughers work on the side of the rolls where the stock first
enters; the catchers work on the other side passing the stock back through the rolls
at the proper place. There is practically no difference between the roughers and the
catchers.
Hotbed men or draggers out: As the bar passes out through the last roll it is caught
by the hotbed man or dragger out and drawn down to the hotbed, where it is carefully
rolled out and straightened.
Scrap pilers: After muck bars are made they are cut up into the required length.
A number of pieces are piled together with wrought-iron scrap, care being taken to
secure, approximately, the proper weight, and securely fastened together with heavy
iron wire.
Product or specialties.—Bar, stay bolt, horse and mule shoe, railroad spike, and
fishplate iron.
Importance of the trade.—There are about 12 rollers and 40 roll hands employed in
Richmond.
Conditions of employment.—There is constant danger from the handling of hot bars
of iron in passing them through the rollers, and also the liability of being caught in the
rolls. This work causes physical and nervous strain when running the rolls at a high
speed in working heavy bars of heated iron. This reqiures constant alertness, but
owing to the automatic character of the work it is apt to narrow and restrict the mental
development.
Economic conditions.—Rollers work by heats and the day’s work is done when the
heat is finished. They are paid by the piece, according to a sliding scale based on the
iron market. The wage ranges from a maximum of $39 to a minimum of $30 per week,
paid by tonnage. There is no regular busy or slack season and the fluctuation in
employment is small and irregular. The workers have no organization in this trade.
Age of maximum productivity.—The workers in this trade enter at the ages between
16 and 25 and require about two years to learn the trade. The age period of maxi
mum productivity covers the years between 25 and 55.
Demand for labor.—The supply of workers is adequate to meet the demand, which
is at present stationary. Workers are recruited from the ranks of unskilled labor.
Educational and technical requirements.—The roller needs an elementary-school educa
tion, some instruction in mechanical drawing,* and in the construction, adjustment,
and operation of the rolls, in allied processes, and the theory of iron making. Manipu
lative skill, strength, endurance, and quickness are required in handling the iron and
passing it through the rolls.
What the industry gives.—There is no apprenticeship system in this trade, the workers
entering first as roll hands, progressing through the work of catcher and rougher roller,
by which time they are ready to take up the work of the roller when the chance comes.
All the knowledge and manipulative skill required in the practice of the trade can be
learned in the shop.
Deficiencies of workmen.—The workers in this trade are deficient in general education,
metallurgy, mechanical drawing, mathematics, history and theory of iron making,
and few possess the necessary strength and endurance required to perform the work.
What the school ought to give.—In order to enable the roller to become thoroughly
efficient and to advance in his trade he should, before he enters the trade, have a com
plete grammar-school education with prevocational courses in metal working, and after
he enters the trade he should take courses covering the history and theory of the trade
and the technical part of iron making, metallurgy, and mathematics of the trade.
6071°— Bull. 162— 16-------13

194

B U L L E T IN OF T H E BU R E A U OF LABOR STATISTICS.
WOOD-PATTERN MAKING.

Pattern making is the art of making wooden forms from which the molder obtains the
necessary impressions in sand for securing castings in iron or other metals. A pattern
is a replica of an article made to size of wood, iron, or other metals, from which a mold
is formed in wax, plaster, or sand. The cavity corresponding to the pattern is sub
sequently filled with fluid molten metal, which on cooling retains the shape of the
original pattern.
Processes.—The first step is the making of a full-size working drawing. This is neces
sary in large or complicated patterns because it helps the mechanic to determine how
to make the pattern to the best advantage. Next comes the selection of the proper
wood, which should be of the best grade and well seasoned because of the hard usage
the pattern undergoes in the foundry. After the material is selected it is run through
a planer, then cut to size and shape by a band saw, crosscut, or ripsaw, and if necessary
the lathe is used for turning up the necessary parts. After being cut to shape and close
to size, the different parts are assembled by the use of brads, screws, and glue; the
hand tools then come into use and the job is made to size and shape. The pattern is
then sandpapered all over to a finished surface and the core prints are placed in position.
The pattern is then varnished with gum shellac cut with alcohol. One coat is applied
and then sandpapered off with a piece of partly used sandpaper, after which two other
coats are applied to make a hard, slick surface. Core boxes are made next and must
be constructed to the advantage of the core maker, and also with regard to their dura
bility. The core box corresponds to the interior of the finished casting, and must be
made accurate, or else the casting when finished will not have the proper thickness of
metal.
Patterns are usually made from seasoned white pine, except where there is much
repetition work, when mahogany or cherry is used. Sometimes the wooden pattern is
made with a double shrinkage, and iron duplicates cast therefrom. These duplicates,
after being finished, are used as patterns in the foundry. Mahogany is a material
which, having a hard, dense surface, is invaluable for small, fragile patterns or for pat
terns which are in constant use. It is more difficult to work than pine, but will stand
more abuse. Cherry is another wood of value in making durable patterns; it is cheaper
than mahogany and preferred for some kinds of work.
Product or specialties.—The product of the wood-pattem maker consists of patterns,
and, where necessary, core boxes, made of wood for castings of every description in
iron, brass, bronze, aluminum, or other metals.
Importance of the trade.—The number employed in this line of work in Richmond is
about 50 journeymen and apprentices.
Conditions of employment.—The work of the pattern maker involves no peculiar
physical or nervous strain, except in shops that are not well lighted, which condition
would tend to impair the eyesight. The work as a whole tends to sitmulate the in
telligence of the worker. In some shops there is a lack of safety devices which makes
the worker liable to accidents, and where there is no provision made to carry off the dust
from the machines, the worker inhaling the dust becomes, because of the continued
irritation, especially liable to infection of the throat and lungs.
Economic conditions.—The apprentice gets as a beginning wage from $4 to $7.26 per
week for the first year. This wage is increased the second year and the range is from
$5 to $8.57. The third year his wage is from $6 to $9.45 per week, and the fourth
year from $7 to $11.09 per week. The journeymen’s wages range from $18 to $22.50
per week and the union scale is 40 cents per hour.
The hours worked in the various shops are practically uniform, being 10 hours per day
and 55 hours per week, with 5 hours on Saturday. There seems to be neither a seasonal
period of activity nor a seasonal slack period, but there is considerable fluctuation in
employment. The average employment for pattern makers for the past three years
has been about nine months in the year.

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195

The pattern makers* organization includes about 75 per cent of those actually
engaged in the trade in this city.
Age o f maximum productivity.—The apprentice enters the trade between the ages of
16 and 18 and serves a period of four years. After this period the apprentice, if he has
applied himself to the trade, should be able to handle any work in the shop, but be
cause of the fact that he has not applied himself he does not reach his maximum period
of productivity until he is 25 years of age. In one shop in the city there is a pattern
maker over 90 years of age who is at present giving good service, but generally when a
journeyman reaches the age of 55 he begins to go back instead of ahead, and the average
age of productivity can be said to be from 25 to 55.
Demandfor labor.—The supply of this class of labor is adequate to meet the demand;
in fact, there seems to be an oversupply, as for the past three years the average of em
ployment has been about nine months in the year. The supply is secured from the
grammar grades of the city schools, through a four-year apprenticeship system.
Educational and technical requirements.—The apprentice to this trade should have
a grammar-school education, and this should include mechanical drawing and
geometry (at least, geometrical figures); he must have a thorough knowledge of me
chanical drawing, as the pattern is made from a blue print, and to execute the work
properly he must be able to understand the meaning of every line and be able to make
full-size working drawings of the work in hand. Mistakes are often made in the
drawing room, and unless discovered mean a loss to the employer. Second, it is
necessary for him to have a fair knowledge of molding, as it becomes necessary to con
fer with the molder frequently in regard to the proper molding of different patterns.
Third, a knowledge of the different metals is necessary to be able to allow for the
shrinkage. Fourth, a knowledge of machine-shop practice and of the construction
of the whole product of which this special piece becomes a part is necessary to enable
the pattern maker to allow finish where parts fit together.
A knowledge of the proper working of glue is necessary in the construction of the
pattern. Animal glue is in more general use and answers the pattern maker’s purpose
to better advantage than any other because of its durability. The proper sandpaper
ing of the pattern is necessary after it is finished with the hand tools; then a good
shellac varnish is used to give the pattern a hard, slick finish, thus filling the pores,
which helps the pattern to withstand the damp sand and hard usage in the foundry.
The construction of the pattern is the most important part of the job, because it must
be made to give the molder the least trouble and still retain its strength and durability.
To become a thorough mechanic the pattern maker must be proficient in the use of
the different machine tools; viz, lathe, band saw, rip and crosscut saw, jig or scroll
saw, planer, and jointer. Generally there is a machine hand employed in the pattern
shop for the purpose of keeping the different machines in order and brazing the band
saws; but the pattern maker should be able to do this work, as this knowledge helps
him to determine whether the machines are in proper condition. It is necessary for
him to become skillful with his bench tools, as the pattern must be finished up after
it is worked out roughly by the machine. This trade generally requires a high degree
of intelligence and therefore attracts the better class of apprentices.
Pattern construction.—Patterns being entirely inclosed in sand, provisions must be
made for drawing them out; this involves draft or taper, which is a thinning down of
certain parts, divisions into sections, and provisions for loosening b y rapping. Mold
ing sand is always used damp, and patterns must be strongly constructed, as they are
subject to rough usage; also, they must be coated, so as to resist any tendency to change
their form and size from the absorption of moisture. Most metals shrink or contract
in passing from the molten to the solid state, therefore patterns must be made larger
than the required castings.
What the industry gives.—An apprentice is accepted in the pattern trade between
the ages of 16 and 18. Generally the first work given him would be helping around

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B U L L E T IN OF T H E BU REA U OF LABOR STATISTICS.

the machines, sandpapering, varnishing, and possibly the turning of simple work in the
lathe, such as core prints. After becoming familiar with the machines and their use
he would be allowed to use them under the direction of a mechanic to get out rough
stock for some large pattern. By applying himself, the apprentice becomes proficient
in the use of the different machines; and b y observing and helping the mechanic on
the job he becomes familiar with the construction of the different patterns. He is
allowed to help finish the pattern, by sandpapering, varnishing, and the marking off
of cores. This period of helping would probably cover two years of the apprentice
ship, after which the apprentice would at first be given the more simple patterns and
later those that are more difficult. All the knowledge acquired in the trade he gains
in the pattern shop; but owing to the lack of training in the fundamentals of the trade
his training must be supplemented by courses in evening schools where instruction is
given in mechanical drawing and shop mathematics.
Deficiencies of workmen.—The common deficiencies of the workers seem to be a lack
of knowledge of mechanical drawing and shop mathematics, and lack of ability to
apply the knowledge they really have.
What the school ought to give.—The school should give the apprentice a grammarschool education, including geometry, instructions in blue-print reading and me
chanical drawing, instructions as to foundry practice, in the selection of woods for
different classes of pattern work, shrinkage of metals, and in the proper construction
and methods of finishing a pattern so as to resist the moisture and hard usage in the
foundry.
What the apprentice needs.— If, after having received the required education in the
school, the apprentice should pursue the following plan there would be no question
of his productiveness at the end of his apprenticeship. The first six months of the
apprenticeship should be spent in the drawing room, where the boy would acquire
a knowledge of the making of working drawings and the reading of blue prints.
This knowledge is necessary because the pattern is made from a blue print, and if
very difficult a full-size working drawing must be made. The second six months
should be spent in the core room and foundry. While there the apprentice would
see the necessity of constructing the core box so that it would be durable, and at
the same time made to facilitate the work of the core maker. The time spent in the
foundry would be of value because of the knowledge acquired in regard to the shrink
age of metals and the allowance for same in the patterns, the necessity for draft, so
that it may be drawn from the sand, and the setting of cores, which would give the
apprentice a knowledge of the different parts of the whole core.
Three months should be spent in the machine shop to familiarize the apprentice
with the different castings, the use and finishing of same. This preliminary training
is necessary because of the knowledge the apprentice acquires. The apprentice now
starts in the pattern shop and is given the sandpapering and varnishing of patterns.
This teaches him the necessity of finishing the job with a smooth surface to procure a
good casting, and if observant he becomes familiar with the construction of the dif
ferent patterns and core boxes, the laying off and marking of cores, and the placing
of core prints. For a period of three months he is given work at the lathe and helps
on machines, which teach him the proper manner of building and turning up jobs in
the lathe and the cutting of stock to shape and size. The apprentice is then placed
with a full-fledged mechanic, where he receives practical instructions in general work
and the making of working drawings. During the last year of apprenticeship the boy
should be given an opportunity to apply the knowledge acquired in the past three
years, and the foreman should be able to judge by the boy’s past work what he is com
petent to do, and promote him accordingly.

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197

METAL-PATTEBN MAKING.

Processes.—Metal-pattem making is the fitting up and finishing of a metal casting

for use as a pattern. The original pattern is generally made of wood, an allowance
being provided for shrinkage both in the master pattern and working pattern.
From the original pattern a casting is made, generally of some white metal, which
is called a master pattern. This master pattern is necessary, because the original
pattern of wood will shrink and change its shape and form. In stove molding, the
castings being of uniform thickness, the original pattern must be made of thin material,
which necessitates a follow or pattern board. Stove pattern work is very intricate,
because of the scroll design and carved work. The follow or pattern board must be
made to support the pattern and leave a margin outside the pattern for the flask and
sand. After the master pattern has been cast it is finished by filing and scraping and
then varnished. Then a follow board is made which fits the underpart of the pattern,
which helps the pattern to retain its shape. The master pattern is now ready to
place in the sand to secure the necessary number of ordinary working patterns. As
many of these patterns are made as is necessary, depending upon the number of cast
ings to be made and the time allowed for making same. These working patterns are
finished the same as the master pattern, viz, by filing and scraping the casting and then
varnishing same, and a follow board made for this pattern also, and same allowance
made around the pattern to provide for sand and flask. Pieces of softwood are fas
tened to this board and cut to fit the underside of the pattern to keep the pattern from
springing while it is being rammed up.
In small work, when it is possible to get a number of pieces in one flask, the working
patterns are corded together; that is, a runner, which is a piece of copper or brass
the proper length and wide enough to provide for proper flow of the metal, is secured,
and on each side of this runner the small metal patterns after being finished are
spaced, about equal distance from each other. Cross runners are made of the same
material and one end of each of these runners is brazed to the pattern and the other
end to the main runner or cord. In this way a large number of small castings can be
made at once.
Product or specialties.—The product in Richmond consists mostly of patterns for
stove work; however, some small patterns are made for a woodworking plant, which
consist of attachments for ice-cream freezers and washing machines.
Importance of the trade.—The trade is restricted because of the limited field in Rich
mond. There are only eight metal-pattern makers engaged in this work, and they
are employed in the stove foundries.
Conditions of employment.—The work is very light, and therefore no physical or
nervous strain is involved. All of the work tends to stimulate the intelligence of the
worker, except possibly where there is continual scraping, which while important
requires no high degree of skill. The metal-pattern maker is liable to infection of
throat and lungs from inhaling the fine dust that arises from the filing and scraping of
the metal pattern.
Economic conditions.—The apprentice to this trade serves a period of four years
and receives the first year a wage of $4 per week; for the second year he receives $5
per week, the third year $6 per week, and from $7 to $9 per week for the fourth year.
The metal-pattern maker works 60 hours per week, 10 hours per day, including Sat
urday, and receives $15 per week as.a general wage, but in a few cases receives $18
per week. These journeymen are eligible to membership in the local branch of the
Pattern Makers’ League. There is no period of seasonal activity, as work is found
in the dull season to keep the men employed the full year. In fact there is no Sat
urday half holiday, as can be seen by noting that the work day on Saturday is the
same length as on other days of the week.

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Age of maximum 'productivity.—The apprentice enters the trade between the ages of
14 and 16. He is required to serve a period of four years, and he seems to reach his
age of productiveness at 20 years of age, as the period of maximum productivity is
from 20 to 40 years of age.
Demandfor labor.—The supply of labor appears to be adequate to meet the demand,
there being practically no demand for this class of labor except in the stove foundries
where all of the patterns are of metal. The supply is from the grammar grades of the
public schools, through an apprenticeship system.
Educational and technical requirements.—The metal-pattem maker is required to
have the knowledge and the manipulative skill necessary to finish the metal pat
tern to secure the best casting. He is required to braze, solder, fill, blow and shrink
holes, and be able to coat the casting with shellac or wax when necessary. Mechani
cal and in some cases free-hand drawing is a necessary requirement, also a certain
amount of shop mathematics. The handling of the tools in use is the most essential
part of the trade, because of the skill required to use them successfully.
What the industry gives.— The industry gives a four-year apprenticeship period, and
during this time the apprentice is supposed to get all the practical part of the trade
in the manipulation of the tools, the handling of the work, and the best methods to
be used. The apprentice gets a certain amount of theory in the shop by coming in
contact with the work, but there is not enough theory to make the mechanic as effi
cient as if he had the proper training and instruction in mechanical and free-hand
drawing and shop mathematics.
What the school ought to give.—The apprentice to the trade should have had first a
grammar-school education through the sixth grade, and prevocational training in
metal work, mechanical and free-hand drawing, and mathematics as applied to the
tr a d e '

IRON MOLDING.

Processes.—The first essential in the process of molding is to select the proper kind
of sand for the mold. In selecting sand the weight of the casting should be taken
into consideration. Molding sand is a mixture of sand and clay or other binding
material that aids the sand in retaining its shape under pressure. Sand is said to be
sharp when its grains are angular, and dull when grains are round. Sand is strong
when a body of it manifests a disposition to retain any shape that may be given it,
and weak when it tends to fall apart and will not retain its shape. For light castings
the sand should be of a fine grain, because there are less gases created in light bodies
of molten metal than heavy bodies, and the sand being fine and close offers more
resistance to venting than coarse, open sand. Molds for heavy castings are made of
sands of coarse, open-grain texture.
A flask, which is an open box or frame, of wood or metal, generally of two parts or
more (the top part the cope, and the bottom part the drag), large enough to allow
2 or 3 inches space all around the pattern, is then secured. A board or plate called
a follow board is then used to place the drag part of the flask upon. The pattern is
then placed face down upon this board, and facing sand is placed around and above
the pattern to a thickness of about 1£ inches. Then the rest of the flask is filled in
with unriddled sand (not sifted) and rammed properly. Sometimes gaggers, cast
rods with projections are embedded in sand to help hold same together. A board is
then placed on the top of the flask and clamped and the flask rolled over. Flasks,
which may be classed as tools or accessories, may be made in different sizes and
shapes and of any number of parts.
The molding board is then removed and the face of drag sleeked over firmly with a
trowel to make the face smooth and firm. A gate pin is then embedded in the face
of the mold about 1 inch deep, or enough to help it retain an upright position, and a
groove cut from this pin to the pattern. Parting sand, a mixture of burnt sand and
charcoal, is then dusted over this face, the cope half of pattern placed on the drag and

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centered by dowel pins in cope half and dowel holes in drag half of pattern. The
drag part of flask is then placed in position and the pattern covered to a thickness of
about 1§ inches with facing sand, after which the flask is filled with unriddled sand
and same rammed until it is compact. A riser pin is embedded in this half of mold
until it torches the pattern. This riser helps to carry off the gases and also causes
any foreign matter that may have accumulated in the mold to flow out; also it warns
the molder when he has his mold full of metal. The mold is then vented b y inserting
one-eighth inch rods into the sand about 2 inches apart until they hit the pattern,
and then withdrawing same, leaving small holes in the mold by which the gases escape.
A cover board is then placed over the flask and clamped on; the cope lifted and
dressed up; the gate pin and riser pin withdrawn, and both parts of the pattern are
rapped and withdrawn from the sand. Then the mold is washed down with a solu
tion of lampblack and molasses to form a slick face on the mold. If necessary, the
drag part of the mold can be vented by forcing one-eighth inch rods from the inside
of mold to side of flask, but this is not always necessary. The core, a body of sand
baked hard, is then placed in its proper position and fastened by wire or nails to
keep it stationary. This core, which is made in the core room, forms the inside of
the finished casting and in some cases is very frail and must be handled with care.
Some cores are of necessity made in half a dozen parts and care must be taken to fit
the parts together properly. The cope is then replaced and the two parts are clamped
together. The mold is then ready for pouring, which is done either by a hand or crane
ladle, a frustum-shaped vessel of wrought iron, lined with fire clay.
The cupola.—There are two distinct kinds of cupolas used in the melting of iron—
one called a cupola furnace, in which the iron and fuel are charged together, and the
other called an air furnace, in which the iron and fuel are charged in separate cham
bers. The cupola furnace, or cupola, is the most convenient and economical one for
the melting of iron. This style of cupola is made of sheet iron from one-fourth to
one-half inch in thickness and from 2 to 8 feet in diameter, and the height is generally
about three times its diameter. The cupola is set on legs or bricked above the ground
level to allow the opening of the drop doors, which are constructed in the bottom of
the cupola, for the purpose of dropping the slag and other refuse matter after the heat
is run off. The metal and fuel are placed in the cupola b y means of a charging door
hinged to the outside of the cupola. That portion of the cupola above the charging
door is used as a stack to carry off the gases, smoke, and sparks from the heat. A
wind belt is constructed around the lower portion of the cupola and a series of tuyeres
or holes open from this belt into the cupola proper to convey the draft to the fuel to
retain the proper heat. This wind belt has openings opposite the tuyeres, which
permit the cleaning of same and also allow the watching of the process of melting.
Slag holes are made in the lower portion of the cupola to allow the running off of slag
that may accumulate around the spout opening and stop the flow of clear metal. The
interior of the cupola is provided with angle irons which support the fire brick which
lines the cupola. The interior of the cupola is lined with fire brick laid in fire clay
to resist the flame and gases under the influence of the heat. When heats are of long
duration, or dirty or burned iron is used in charging the cupola, it becomes necessary
to use a flux; that is, some mineral substance that is lighter than iron is placed in the
charge and when melted floats on the liquid iron and absorbs and liquefies the nonmetallic residue of the iron and the ash of the fuel, so they may be drawn off b y
means of the slag holes before the heat is run off.
The foundry trade involves some knowledge of almost every operation required in
the making of machines, and those versed in the mechanical arts assert that the art
of founding demands greater mechanical skill, caution, and good judgment than any
other of the allied trades.
There are three branches of molding, termed, respectively, green-sand, dry-sand,
and loam molding.

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B U L L E T IN OP T H E B U REA U OP LABOR STATISTICS.

Green-sand molding involves the making of castings in molds that are composed
entirely of sand in a damp state, or that have their surfaces “ skin dried” ; that is,
dried by building a fire in the mold to harden the surface of same without baking the
mold its entire thickness.
Dry-sand molding involves the making of castings in molds that are made of sand
in a damp state, after which the mold is dried in an oven, or otherwise, so as to remove
all moisture and leave the body of the mold dry and firm.
Loam clay and rock sand are mixed with charcoal and cow hair to give cohesive
power and porosity. In loam-sand molding castings are made in molds constructed
with sweeps and skeletons of patterns. A mixture of loamy sand and other material
is used to form the surface of the mold. Brickwork forms the outer and inner sup
ports of this mold. This class of work, like dry-sand molding, requires thorough
drying before it is ready to receive the melted metal.
The practice of some shops embraces all three branches, but most foundries make
only green-sand molds. There is more risk in making medium and large castings in
green-sand molds than in dry-sand or loam molds. In many cases a poor class of
molders or inexperienced men may be employed for making dry-sand molds, but it
is seldom wise to trust other than skilled workmen with the construction of greensand molds, especially in heavy work. Loam work varies greatly in the degree of
skill required. Some classes of loam molds permit the employment of inferior work
men, while others demand extraordinary experience, skill, and good judgment in
their production.
While the finished product is entirely different, as outlined, in size, shape, and
use, the method of obtaining the product is practically the same in green-sand mold
ing. The same procedure would apply to dry-sand molding, except that molds made
of dry sand would be dried in an oven, or otherwise, so as to remove all moisture and
leave the body of the mold dry and firm.
Product or specialties.—Foundry work in Richmond is of a diversified nature, con
sisting of job shops which handle any ordinary casting, railroad shops which make
castings for their own use, and locomotive shops which make complete engines.
The Richmond Foundry & Machine Co. handles small machine parts, gas and
water fixtures and connections, gears and other castings for ice-cream freezers, wash
ing machines, etc. The stove-plate molding is handled by three firms, the Rich
mond Stove Co., Southern Stove Co., and Cameron Stove & Range Co. These firms
make wood, coal, and gas ranges and wood and coal heaters. The Tredegar Co. makes
a specialty of shot and shell and car wheels and does a general jobbing business. This
firm supplies the local shops of the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway with castings for their
repairs. The Southern Railway maintains a foundry at its local plant to supply its
needs. The Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac Railroad Co. lets its work out
to jobbers in the city. The Richmond branch of the American Locomotive Co. has
the largest foundry for machine work in the city. Its work consists of large and
small castings of iron and brass for the manufacture of locomotives.
Importance of the trade.—There are about 300 journeymen and apprentices engaged
in the trade of iron molding.
Conditions of employment.—The molder’s work requires continual bending and
lifting of patterns and flasks, which have a tendency to cause backache. In some cases
where the work is a continual repetition and becomes monotonous, causing the worker
to become careless and disinterested, it has a tendency to narrow and restrict mental
development, but when the work is of a diversified nature it should stimulate the
intelligence. The molder suffers from infection of the throat and lungs, caused by
floating dust from the mineral facing used on the molds, from exposure to the dampness
from the sand and to the heat from the molten metal, and from poor ventilation and
sanitary conditions. Throat and lung affections and lumbago constitute about 30 per

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cent of the molders’ ailments. The liability to accident from burning can be over
come by proper precautions.
Economic conditions.—The apprentice receives in wages the first year from $3 to $8
per week, the second year from $4 to $10 per week, the third year from $5 to $12 per
week, and the fourth year from $6 to $14 per week. The journeyman receives from
$16.50 to $30 per week. The molders in the machine casting shops working daywork
receive 35.7 cents per hour, and piecework about 46.7 cents per hour. The stove-plate
molders receive a minimum rate of 50 cents per hour. In the machine casting shops
the hours of labor are 9 hours per day, 50 hours per week, and 5 hours on Saturday.
In the stove-plate shops, of which there are 3 in Richmond, the hours of labor are from
8 to 10 hours per day, 40 to 60 hours per week, and from 5 to 10 hours on Saturday in
the busy season, but generally there is no work done in the stove foundries on Satur
day. The busy season in the foundry trade of Richmond is from April to December,
inclusive, and the slack season from January to March, inclusive. This affects the
foundry trade in general, but as a matter of fact the stove foundries have been work
ing on short time (no work on Saturday) for the past two years. About 75 per cent
of the journeymen engaged in the molders’ trade in this city are members of the iron
molders’ union.
Age of maximum productivity.—The apprentice usually enters the trade between the
ages of 16 and 18, and he is required to serve an apprenticeship of 4 years. The age
period of maximum productivity is from 22 to 45.
Demandfor labor.—The supply of labor is sufficient to meet the demand, and there
seems to be no reason to believe that such will not be the case for some years to come
as there is an apprenticeship system and this is ample to meet the demand.
Educational and technical requirements.—The molder needs an elementary-school
education, instruction in the use of all hand and machine tools, the selection
of the proper sand for molds, the use of all necessary equipment, metallurgy and
chemistry of the trade, including a knowledge of the mixture of metals, some shop
mathematics, and mechanical drawing. Because of the laborious class of work the
molder should have strength and endurance.
What the industry gives.—There is no general scheme followed in the training of
apprentices, but in some shops during his four years’ apprenticeship the apprentice is
supposed to follow this routine:
The apprentice in his first six months, by helping and observing the work done by
the mechanic, acquires a practical knowledge of methods pertaining to the trade,
such as the kind of sand to use on different molds and the proper ramming and rein
forcing of same b y the use of crabs or gaggers; the making of partings, and the finish
ing of the mold, the venting of same, and the pouring of the metal. This work with
a few variations would practically cover the whole four years’ time of his apprentice
ship, except in a few special cases.
After serving for six months, helping in the foundry, the apprentice is sent to the
core room to finish his first year in his trade. In the core room the boy is taught the
method of making different cores—why some are of more advantage to different kinds
of castings. He acquires a knowledge of venting cores to prevent core from blowing,
rodding cores to help them retain their shape, the proper method of ramming so it
may be vented easily, and the proper placing of hooks or fastenings so that the core
may be held in its proper position in the mold. By his work and observation in the
core room he becomes familiar with all kinds of cores and the proper handling of same,
and as this was the reason for placing him in the core room, he returns to the foundry
to begin a period of six months’ training to acquire a knowledge of the cupola.
During this period the boy gains a working knowledge of the cupola, its use and
construction. The next three months he is given light work on the bench, or floor,
such as snap-flask work, which can be handled alone, and while this work is small

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and light, the method is the same and by the practice he gains confidence in himself.
As a knowledge of molding machines is necessary because of their extensive use in
foundry practice the apprentice is then given a machine. It requires very little
knowledge and the boy soon becomes proficient in its use.
The apprentice is then placed on the floor and worked with a journeyman on all
classes of molding to give him a thorough and wide range of knowledge of the class
of work done by that particular establishment. This later period is usually of two
years’ duration and when completed the boy should have become a competent work
man because of his all-round training.
Deficiencies of workmen.—The molder’s most common deficiency seems to be a
lack of general education. The majority seem to have had very little training edu
cationally. They are also deficient in the most essential subjects of their trade,
namely, shop mathematics and blue-print reading. There is no provision made for
instruction to the journeyman in the shop and what he gets in theory must be acquired
outside.
What the school ought to give.—The apprentice before he enters the trade should
receive an elementary-school education, and prevocational training; instruction in
the proper handling of all tools; courses covering the trade and technical require
ments of molding; instruction in metallurgy and chemistry as applied to the trade,
and shop mathematics and blue-print reading. After the apprentice has entered
the trade he should be given continuation courses covering the work in which he is
actually engaged.
BRASS FOUNDING.

Processes.—In brass molding the lighter and finer the casting the finer the sand. If
a coarse sand is used, the melted brass is sufficiently fluid to find its way into the
openings among the grains, makmg the casting rough and pitted; therefore it is advis
able to use the finest grade of sand the casting w ill permit. It is important to have
the sand for brass molds as free from all foreign material as possible, as anything that
will tend to coarsen the sand used will give a rough surface to the casting. The facing
sand used in brass work is secured by drying thoroughly the coarser sand ordinarily
used in iron molding, and sifting it in a fine sieve. That portion of sand which passes
through the sieve, after it has been tempered, is used to face the mold by being sifted
over the pattern, and the rest of the mold is made from the unsifted sand.
If the form of the casting is so intricate as to make it inadvisable to risk the green
sand supporting itself in the delicate parts, or the mold so deep that it will not support
itself at the bottom, it becomes necessary to use a dry-sand or loam-sand mold. The
methods and mixtures used in dry-sand and loam iron molding may be used in brass
work as well. In “ skin drying” the difference in sleeking and wetting down of the
mold is in the substance used. In brass work flour, whiting, lime, water lime cement,
powdered chalk, and lycopod are used. Plumbago is used for heavy brasses, especially
those of red or whitish color, but not for yellow brass. The substances must be ground
fine to close the pores of the sand as much as possible, to prevent the metal cutting in
the sand and giving a rough casting.
For heavy castings, flour is shaken on the surface of the mold and then plumbago is
thrown by hand or shaken out of a bag on the flour, and the surface sleeked with fin
ishing tools. When, however, the molds have to stand for any length of time before
the metal is poured, flour is not used, since vegetable growths may develop on the face
of the mold that will cause roughness in the castings, and also cause the parts of joints
to stick together. For a pasting material at the joints, powdered rosin or a mixture of
rosin and charcoal dust is used. Lycopod works well as a facing and prevents the
sand from adhering to the pattern. Much trouble is experienced in damp or frosty
weather with metal patterns, which is caused by moisture in the air condensing on the
metallic surface. This sweating, as it is called by the molder, causes the sand to adhere

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20 3

to the surfaces, and when the pattern is withdrawn tears the mold. To overcome this
difficulty, kerosene oil is brushed over the surface, although even when this is done
the results may not be entirely satisfactory.
The mold: The molds for small brass work are made on benches, over troughs or on
molding machines. The principal differences between molds for iron and molds for
brass are that the brass-work molds are made from finer and cleaner sands, that in brass
molding a greater allowance must be made for contraction, and that different facings,
parting sands, and finishings are used. Very nearly the same blackening mixtures
are used in brass molding as in iron molding, and the methods of drying and venting,
also, are practically the same in both classes of work.
Facing sand: New molding sand that has been carefully screened and tempered
evenly is generally used in brass molding. The drier it is when placed in the mold the
better, since an excess of moisture will cause steam and this causes scabs and blowing.
The molds are rammed to about the same degree of firmness as in iron molds.
Venting: While in general the method of venting is about the same as in iron molding
the cope in brass molding should be vented more freely, so as to allow an easy escape
of the inclosed air and gases during the pouring, thus allowing the metal to run quickly
and solidly into the comers. Small ventholes are often made entirely through the cope
for this purpose.
Drying molds: Small molds are sometimes dried by burning gasoline on their sur
faces, and in some cases and with some sands it is necessary to spray the surface of the
mold with molasses water to obtain the necessary degree of hardness on the surface.
Contraction: In dry-sand or loam molding provision must be made for contraction
while the casting is cooling, as the casting is likely to break, especially if the mixture
of metal contains a large percentage of copper. In order to prevent this the cores
should be made in such a manner that they will yield when the casting contracts, and
to achieve this end they may be filled with cinders or with some yielding material.
The mixture for dry-sand or loam work should be close-grained, but of such a character
as not to bake too hard, as this will cause the metal to boil, with the result that the
metal will not stay in contact with the sides of the mold, and that in consequence a
bad casting is obtained.
Gating andfeeding: Brass, if dropped any considerable distance, will cut the sand
in a mold and cause lumps or scabs, and for that reason it is necessary to gate a mold for
a heavy casting as near the bottom as possible. If the mold is very deep, it may have
top pouring gates as well, in connection with the bottom gates. In light castings the
chance for lumps and scabs is not as great as in heavier work, but the gates should be
so cut that the casting will run full and sharp at the comers. In order to aid the
metal in filling the mold properly the mold is often placed in an inclined position with
the pouring gate at the top. After the mold has been poured it should be fed occa
sionally, as long as the metal remains fluid, which can be determined by the metal
in the feeding head rising when new metal is poured in at the gates.
Cleaning: The method of cleaning brass castings is the same as is used in cleaning
iron castings, the work being done by the use either of files and wire brushes or by
charging the castings in tumbling barrels. Pickling dips are used as in iron molding
for cleaning and brightening castings. In brass molding, however, various dips are
used to produce different colors.
Melting.—While the crucible method is the most common in use for melting brass,
it is also melted in direct contact with the flame in furnaces that use crude petroleum
for fuel. The furnace that gives entire satisfaction is a pear-shaped boiler-plate shell,
mounted on trunnions supported by standards on a solid foundation, the bottom
being made removable for the purpose of lining with fire brick and making repairs.
After the bottom is bolted in place the lining is done through the hinged charging
doors at the top of the furnace. The furnace is tilted and held in the desired position
by means of gears and a worm wheel operated by a handwheel. The oil and air

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enter the furnace near the top through two tuyeres placed at an angle and pointed
downward. The oil and air pipes are connected with the movable parts on the furnace
by means of stuffing boxes on the trunnion. The furnace is heated to its working
temperature before the charge is put in. To aid in preventing excessive oxidation
of the charge, it is necessary to caver it with some material to protect it, and a small
amount of anthracite coal is sometimes used for this purpose. When the charge is
melted it is emptied into ladles through a brick-lined spout which is also used as
the outlet for the products of combustion, and the operation of the furnace is judged
by observing the flame that issues from the spout. The advantages of this furnace
are that a larger amount of metal can be melted in one bath than where crucibles are
used, and a greater amount of metal can be melted in a given time per square foot
of floor space occupied than by the regular furnace.
Bronze, fine art, and statue founding is a trade apart from brass molding and as
there is no work of this nature in Richmond the processes are not here described.
The molder whose specialty is iron founding can readily learn to make molds for
brass castings, as the methods and practices in the two classes of work are very similar.
Product or specialties.—The product of the brass molder in the city of Richmond
consists of castings of brass, bronze, aluminum, and white metal for machine and
engine repairs and construction; and for the construction and repair of automobiles,
street and steam railroad cars, and special machinery of every description.
Importance of the trade.—The number of journeymen brass molders at present
employed in Richmond is about 15, including those who have served their appren
ticeship at brass molding and are at the present time following this line of work.
Conditions of employment.—The continual bending of the molder over his floor and
flask and the lifting of the parts of flask tend to cause backache and may occasion
physical strain, although the liability to strain is somewhat less than it is in the
heavier work of iron molding. As compared with iron molding there is a greater
variety in the class of work done, and in so far as this is true, the brass molder’s work
may be said to be more stimulative than the work of the iron molder. In some cases,
however, where continual repetition is the order, the work of the brass molder is
monotonous and such as can make but little appeal to the worker’s interest.
Economic conditions.—The apprentice to the trade receives as a beginning wage
from $3 to $8 per week for the first year; the usual rate for the second year is from
$4 to $10 per week; the third year from $5 to $12 per week, and for the fourth year
from $6 to $14 per week. The rate of wages for apprentices, however, varies accord
ing to ability shown and the class of work on which he is engaged. The wages of the
journeyman brass molder vary from $16.50 per week in some shops to $22.50 per
week in others. The union scale of wages for daywork is 35.7 cents per hour and
for piecework 46.7 cents per hour.
The hours of labor in all of the brass shops are about the same—9 hours per day,
50 hours per week, and 5 hours on Saturday.
There seems to be considerable fluctuation in the amount of work done, but the
work is generally divided equally among the men in the union shops in the dull
season. The seasonal activity is irregular, but the busy season extends generally
from April to December, inclusive; the slack season from January to March, inclusive.
The iron-molders’ organization has jurisdiction over this branch of the trade and
the journeymen are members of this union.
Hygiene of the occupation.—The condition of employment which most seriously
affects the health of the brass molder is the danger of infection of throat and lungs
by floating particles of dust from the mineral facing, used in the facing of the mold,
and where the grinding room is situated in the foundry the dust of the metal from
the grindstones is also inhaled by the molder. While the molder is exposed to some
extent to danger of poisoning from the fumes of the molten brass, the furnace tender

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is really the person who suffers most from these fumes and gases. Where precaution
is not exercised there is always a chance of injury from bums from molten metals in
the handling of the ladles and in the pouring of the mold. Again, if the mold is
not properly vented and clamped, the strain of the gases and molten metal may
cause the mold to overflow or burst. In such cases the danger that the molder will
be burned is very great.
Age of maximum productivity.—The apprentice enters the trade generally between
the ages of 16 and 18. In some cases the boy starts to work in the foundry younger,
but his 4-year period of apprenticeship does not begin until he has reached the age
of 16 years. After his apprenticeship is completed it generally requires about two
years to reach his age of maximum productivity. In some cases the apprentice is
thoroughly efficient in the last year of his apprenticeship, but these are exceptional
cases where the boy is especially adapted to the work. Generally the maximum pro
ductivity is between the ages of 22 and 45.
Demandfor labor.—The supply of labor in this line of work seems to be adequate to
meet the demand, and while it is true that new industries cause a demand for a certain
amount of increase in the output of the brass foundries, they have met this increase
and there seems to be no good reason to say that the demand for this class of labor is
increasing or decreasing. The source of supply is an apprenticeship system, and in
some instances iron molders take up the trade of brass molding.
Educational and technical requirements.—While the general education required of
the molder in the practice of his daily work is inconsiderable, the trade knowledge
required is considerable. The process of molding requires the manipulation of a
large variety of tools which the molder must handle skillfully to get the best results.
A knowledge of modem foundry practice in general is essential; also a knowledge of
metallurgy and of the chemistry of the trade, especially as regards the alloys; of
mathematics in a degree which will enable the molder to handle the problems that
arise in the shops and to advance in the trade; and of mechanical drawing and blue
print reading. The molder requires to an exceptional degree physical strength and
powers of endurance.
What the industry gives.—The worker enters the trade as an apprentice and serves
four years. In this time he is supposed to acquire a knowledge of the methods of
molding, of core making, and of charging the furnace. He acquires a fair degree of
manipulative skill in the use of the foundry tools, both machine and hand. There
is, however, no special provision made for the instruction of the apprentice, and the
knowledge acquired is received from direct contact with the work in hand. Even
under the more favorable conditions there is no well-defined line of promotion for the
average molder.
Deficiencies o f workmen.—Generally the molder is deficient in common-school edu
cation, especially in the simple elements of arithmetic, and in ability to read mechan
ical drawings or blue prints of any description.
What the school ought to give.—Before the apprentice enters the trade he should
have received a grammar-school education and prevoeational training. After he
enters the trade the subjects which may most profitably be taught him are drawing,
chemistry, and metallurgy as applied to the trade.
CORE MAKING.

Processes.—Core making in general is the forming of bodies of sand to different
shapes by use of core boxes, sweeps, or strikes, properly wired or rodded to help retain
their shape, vented to carry off the gases that accumulate in the mold, the placing of
hooks or other fastenings so that the core may be held in its proper position in the
mold, using the proper method of ramming the core to secure the proper density.
After the core is formed it is placed on a carriage and run into an oven and baked

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thoroughly, after which it is ready for the mold. While core making is a trade in
itself, the product of tho core room becomes a part of the mold, and the work, being so
closely related and generally under one head, is spoken of as a part of the foundry.
Product or specialties.—The products of the core room are cores of baked sand for
molds for castings of iron, brass, bronze, aluminum, or other metals.
Importance o f the trade.—There are about 42 core makers and apprentices engaged
in this trade in Richmond, and practically 50 per cent of them are employed by one
establishment.
Conditions of employment.—The physical strain in core making is very considerable,
as the continual lifting and bending causes pains across the small of the back. If the
work is varied to any extent it would naturally stimulate the intelligence of the
worker, but in some cases when there is a continual repetition of simple work it has
a tendency to restrict the mental development of the worker. Lack of proper sani
tary conditions, proper light, and washing arrangements are important as affecting
the welfare of the worker, and the continual inhaling of the dust that arises from the
sand irritates the throat and lungs, making them especially liable to infection.
Economic conditions.—The apprentice to this trade is required to serve a period of
four years and the wages he receives are as follows: For the first year, from $3 to $4
per week, the second year from $5 to $6 per week, the third year from $7 to $9 per
Week, and the fourth year from $9 to $10.50 per week.
The hours of labor are about 7£ hours per day. The core maker’s work is almost
entirely by the piece and when an average day’s work is finished he leaves the estab
lishment. The minimum wage per week for journeymen is $16.50 and the maximum
is $24 for piecework. The union scale of wages for day workers is 41 cents per
hour. The season varies from summer to winter and there is no set time for busy or
slack season. The fluctuation in employment is at times considerable and at others
very little, but on the whole the fluctuation in employment is inconsiderable. About
75 per cent of the journeymen in this trade are members of the iron-molders’ union.
Age of maximum productivity.—Apprentices are accepted between the ages of 16
and 18. The boy at 17 is the most acceptable. Generally the boy’s first work,
after entering into this trade, consists of helping around the shop, and b y observa
tion and practical use he becomes familiar with the names of all tools and their uses in
the foundry. After serving a period of four years, the apprentice should be thoroughly
efficient in his work. From observation the period of maximum productivity seems
to be from 20 to 50 years of age.
Demandfor labor.—The supply of labor in this occupation seems to be adequate to
meet the demand, and from observation there is no reason to believe that the demand
is increasing. The apprentice to the trade is recruited from the lower grammar
grades of the public schools.
Educational and technical requirements.—The trade requires of the journeyman
manipulative skill in the handling of tools, the rolling and venting of the cores, and
the selection of the proper sand. There are very few educational requirements, as
the core maker only has to handle the boxes as they come from the pattern maker.
What the industry gives.—The industry gives to the apprentice all the knowledge
to be acquired in the shop by coming in contact with the actual work; the rolling,
ramming, and venting of the cores and the proper handling to prevent injury to them.
Deficiencies o f workmen.—The worker seems to be deficient in general education; in
fact the majority interviewed have had very little education.
What the school ought to give.—The school should give the prospective apprentice
an elementary-school education, prevocational training to help him choose his future
vocation, and, if he selects core making, give him instructions in mechanical drawing
and blue-print reading, modern foundry practice, and a knowledge of the properties
of the sand for various kinds of cores; the arithmetic should be the most important
part of these courses and should apply directly to the trade.

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THE MACHINIST.

The machinist is one who works metal to a definite form, size, and finish b y the u&0
of machine and hand tools, and who assembles, repairs, and erects machines. The
metal upon which a machinist works, in its original form, may be a casting, forging,
or a piece of stock of indefinite shape from which he may work out the required object.
The variety of the work often tests the ingenuity of the machinist to devise ways and
means to perform the various operations so that the work when finished will be of
accurate dimensions.
Machine work may be classified as light or heavy machine work. Often the work
overlaps, and the distinction is not always clear, yet the methods of operation in both
classes of work are the same. In the different kinds of machine and floor work ma
chinists are spoken of as certain kinds of machine hands. The amount of skill re
quired for either light or heavy work differs. It sometimes happens that a machin
ist changes from light to heavy work. Light and medium heavy work usually require
more accuracy than heavy work, and one trained in light work finds some difficulty
in getting accustomed to heavy work. It takes a great deal more time for the machin
ist accustomed to heavy work to become familiar with light work than the reverse.
The trade is further divided into machine construction, tool making, and diesinking.
Under the first would be grouped all those operations which have to do with making
and repairing machinery. Tool making requires a higher degree -of skill than the
average machinist usually possesses. This work ranges from making shop tools—such
as jigs, boring bars, templates, etc.—to the making of fine hand tools and instruments
of precision. Diesinking also requires a very high degree of skill, about on a par with
that of the fine-tool maker, the work, however, being of an entirely different nature
and with different methods of procedure.
In all machine-shop work there is no work that requires as much skill as the proper
use of a hand file. However, machines are now doing to a very large extent the work
which was formerly done by hand. Notwithstanding this fact, there will always be
a demand for the man who can file straight and square.
In some communities there seems to be confusion as to the meaning of the word
“ machinist.” Machine operators are frequently called machinists when they have
absolutely nothing to do with the repairing or adjusting of the machines. They are
machine operators and attend to the running of a machine. The tendency toward
specialization is strong, and from the standpoint of the Richmond employer it is
desirable. Extreme specialization is already a fact in many of the metal-working
industries and in these particular industries the all-round m a ch in is t is well-nigh
eliminated. In modem times inventions and improvements in the methods of
manufacture have so multiplied that specialists are more capable of doing the work
than the all-round machinist, the demand being for the specially trained man.
Many young machinists are learning a complete trade by going from one shop to
another claiming to be able to run certain machines—usually the one they want to
leam. They “ take the chance’ ’ that they may be able to learn to run the machine
before being discovered. If found out, they simply get a job in another shop. Fore
men, as a rule, know this, for many of them learned their trade in the same way, and
they are inclined to be charitable toward those who are ambitious enough to take such
chances in learning a trade.
Processes.

Machine operators: There is a large number of operations performed on different
machines that require little or no skill. The running of some of these machines is not
considered a part of the machine trade, and in some cases one man may run several
of them as occasion requires. Among these are saw machines, used for cutting off
stock to required lengths, and consist of both circular saws and straight blades. In
some cases sheet brass is cut on a regular band saw.

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Tool grinders: In some of the larger shops all lathe, planer, and other machinecutting tools as well as drills are ground by a special man, known as a grinder hand.
His work consists of grinding all lathe, planer, slotter, boring-mill tools, drills, and
all tools used in the shop to definite forms as set forth in a chart. He is not a ma
chinist and requires little skill. This method of grinding tools has a bad effect upon
the young machinists and apprentices, as there is no possible chance for them to learn
how to grind tools, which is a very essential part of the trade.
Bolt threaders: Many machine shops, especially railroad shops, require a large
number of more or less accurately threaded bolts. Bolt machines are used for thread
ing these bolts by means of a revolving die which may be opened at the desired place,
permitting the quick withdrawal of the bolt. It is inferior work, and in all cases boys
or men without trade experience run the machines. There are no prospects ahead for
the operator.
Drill-press hands, single-spindle drills: The drill-press hand is called such from the
fact that he does the drilling on the drill press. This may be done either on the
simple drill press or radial drill or the gang drill. The drill press has a single spindle
so constructed that the different sizes of drills may be easily changed from one to
another.
Radial drill: The radial drill has the single spindle so arranged that it may be moved
in and out along a guide which in turn may be swung around and raised or lowered to
accommodate itself to the work in hand.
Gang drill: The gang drill has a number of spindles either in a row or adjustable
otherwise according to the purpose for which the machine is built. The operator
requires very little skill to run either of these machines as any important work is done
in jigs accurately made for the purpose.
Screw machines: The screw machine is practically the same as the turret lathe, but
is used for different purposes. It is built along the general lines of a lathe, but has
no carriage, and in place of the tailstock it has a turret arranged to hold usually six
tools so that each one may be brought into play in the order in which it is needed,
each operation being performed in progressive order. Boys frequently run the lighter
machines after they have been set up and adjusted for the job in hand.
Automatic screw machines: The automatic screw machine performs its operations
after the same general plan as the turret lathe; in fact the older styles had a turret
the tools of which were advanced in the proper order by means of levers and guide
straps fastened to a guide drum. The latest machine of this class, instead of having
one bar of stock fed into the machine and the tools being advanced in order, has
five bars fed at once, five operations being performed at the same time. Only the
man who sets up and adjusts the machine requires any skill. He is not necessarily a
machinist but one who has worked himself up from an operator by close attention to
the details of operating the machine.
Keyway machine: The keyway machine is for the purpose of cutting keyways in
pulleys or other things of similar form. The machine is not complicated and requires
very little skill to run. It works by means of a cutter resembling a very coarse file
having the proper width of cut and means of holding it up to the work.
Slotter: The operation of a slotter is similar to that of the shaper only that the ram
works vertically instead of horizontally. The tool cuts on the down stroke, the ram
being counterbalanced to return easily. It is used to work irregular shapes either
internal or external, especially on heavy work. This class of work requires a
machinist, although specialists sometimes run the machines.
Lathes: Probably the most essential machine in the general machine shop is the
engine lathe. This is used for the purpose of turning all cylindrical work, both
straight and tapered; boring and thread cutting, both internal and external; and
by means of special arrangements turning spherical work or parts of spheres. The

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v'ork is held between centers for cylindrical work and the tool is held in a tool post
which in turn is part of the carriage. The carriage is advanced by means of a feed
either by screw or through gears driven by means of a feed rod. It requires con
siderable skill to run this machine and requires a machinist to run it properly. Most
of the machines used in machine-shop practice were evolved from the lathe.
There are many different kinds of lathes—the turret lathe, which has already been
referred to, the axle lathes for turning the ends of car-wheel axles, wheel lathes for
turning locomotive driving‘wheels and truck wheels, pulley lathes for pulleys, and
others built for special purposes. In all cases machinists run the machines, as they
require a certain amount of skill to operate.
Horizontal and vertical boring mills: Both the horizontal and vertical boring mills
are used principally for boring. However, in the case of the latter, a great deal of
turning and facing is done. The work is fastened to a table which revolves, the tool
being fastened in a holder which may be adjusted to the work as need requires. The
work revolves with the table, the tool being fed either vertically or horizontally as the
occasion demands. On the larger machine a turret is arranged to hold the various
tools that they may be brought into play as required. There are also tools held on
adjustable side arms so that more than one tool can be worked at the same time. One
who can run a lathe can quickly get used to this machine.
Shapers: For finishing plane surfaces shapers and planers are used. The shaper
is a small machine on which light work is fastened to the bed or held in a planer chuck
while the tool is held in a tool post at the end of a ram which is made to move forward
and back, the cut taking place on the forward stroke. There are both geared and
crank shapers, referring to the method of running the ram. With a crank shaper one
belt is required to drive the machine. A geared shaper requires two belts running in
opposite directions and may be operated either by a friction between the two pulleys
or the belts may be shifted alternately onto a tight pulley thereby alternating the
direction of the ram.
Planers: A planer works on this latter principle, the shaft to which the tight pulley
is fastened being geared to the platen or table so that the table runs forward and back.
The work is fastened to the platen or held in a chuck. The tool is held in a head which
may be raised or lowered to suit the work. This head is fed across 011 a cross guide by
means of a screw actuated by a ratchet feed. Heads are also placed on the housings
so that they may be adjusted to plane on the edges or sides of the work. Considerable
skill is required to fasten the work, so that when completed it will not be sprung out of
shape, but will remain true. Consequently it is part of the machinist’s trade to know
how to run this machine.
Milling machine: There is one machine that is not as generally used as its worth
merits, due to the lack of knowledge of how to operate it. Many foremen do not
understand how to use the milling machine and do not recommend its use for this
reason. This machine is not limited to plane milling, but may mill irregular shapes
by the use of formed cutters. The work is done by fastening it to the bed, holding
it in a chuck or on centers. The variety of work that car. be done is almost limitless.
The work is fed against a cutter having teeth cut so that it works on the principle of a
file with very coarse teeth. Spur gears, bevel gears, and spiral gears may be cut,
taps and reamers fluted, and many other things which could be done, but with diffi
culty, on other machines, except specially built machines. To run the milling
machine to its best advantage a knowledge of trigonometry is required. Charts
are furnished covering the most common requirements, but to cover everything the
machine can do would require an unreasonable number of charts.
Bench or vise ivork andfloor work: Bench or vise work and floor work consist of the
fitting and finishing of parts and assembling machines and parts of machines. Con
siderable skill is required to file true and scrape the parts to a perfect fit, as is oiten
0071°— Bull. 162— 16-------14

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necessary in assembling machine tools and other well-built machines. Assembling
and erecting come under the head of floor work.
Brass finishing: Brass finishing is a branch of the machinist’s trade at which the
Workman is kept when he becomes familiar with the work. The manipulation of the
metal varies a little from that of the other stock worked in the machine shop, but
the principles are generally the same. Brass is worked at a much higher speed than
iron as it is so much softer that it is not liable to dull the edge of the tool so quickly.
This work is very injurious to the health of the worker on account of inhaling the
brass dust. One can not work many years at brass finishing without the loss of
health.
Tool making: The principles involved in tool making are the same as in other
machine work. Greater care must be exercised because of the greater accuracy
demanded, sometimes work being required to the ten-thousandtli part of an inch.
When such accuracy is expected the work is ground to size on a universal grinder
which grinds either cylindrical or plane surfaces.
Diesinking: Drop forgings are made by means of dies or blocks of steel into which
a form has been made to conform to the desired shape. The work of making the dies
is called diesinking. It is necessary to work out the metal, by various means, to the
form of the object, making allowance for shrinkage and the flow of metal. It requires
a considerable amount of skill to work out these forms and finish them so that the
product will be properly made.
Product or specialties.—The product of the machinist in Richmond is varied and
includes the building and repairing of locomotives, sugar machinery, cotton machin
ery, cigarette machinery, shot and shell for the Government, novelties of every
description, automobile work, special machines of various kinds, and general machine
repairs.
Importance of the trade.— In this occupation there are about 1,150 journeymen and
apprentices. The importance of this occupation in Richmond is far-reaching, owing
to the location here of railroad shops, locomotive works, drop forge, and novelty works.
Conditions of employment.—There is no great physical strain; in some cases, how
ever, the work is heavy and would require some lifting, but generally the mechanic
has ample help. The work is varied in character, especially in the job and repair
shops. Practically all of the work stimulates the intelligence, especially in the
nrifrHTig an(j constructing of instruments of precision.
Specialization in low-grade work and continual repetition, such as the threading of
bolts or nuts, or the handling of some simple machine, would cause the worker to
lose interest and have a tendency to narrow or restrict mental development. There
is always danger of accident, especially from uncovered pulleys and belts, cranes,
chain and air hoist, open gears, and of infection to throat and lungs from cast-iron
dust. On bench work there is a chance of injury to the eyes from flying chips.
Economic conditions.—The apprentice to this trade enters between the ages of 15
and 17. The period of apprenticeship is four years, and the wages received in the
railroad shops are higher than those paid by the repair or job shops. For the first
year the apprentice receives from $3 to $7.29 per week, the second year from $4 to
$8.57 per week, the third year from $5 to $9.45 per week, and the fourth and last year
from $6 to $11.09 per week.
The hours of labor vary somewhat, the repair or job shops working from 8 to 9 hours
per day, six days, and 48 to 54 hours per week, and the railroad shops working a 9 to 10
hour day, six days, and from 54 to 60 hours per week. The rate of wages for journey
men ranges from 25 cents to 41 cents per hour, the minimum being 25 cents per hour.
There is no seasonal period of activity and practically no fluctuation in employment.
The trade is about three-fifths organized and in the railroad shops it is completely
organized, and when it becomes necessary to cut expenses the hours of labor are cut
instead of making a reduction in the working force.

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Age of maximum productivity.—The period of maximum productivity for the ma
chinist is from 25 to 55 years of age.
Educational and technical requirements.—The machinist to become thoroughly effi
cient in the trade should have a good general education which would include a
knowledge of English, at least elementary algebra, geometry, and trigonometry, an
understanding of mechanical drawing, and some knowledge of metallurgy.
Trade knowledge: Trade knowledge consists of “ trade tricks” and “ shop kinks.”
Many “ shop kinks,” after long usage, have become accepted shop practice where abso
lute accuracy is neither required nor desired.
Technical knowledge: Strength of material in its various phases, such as tensile
strength, elongation, compression, elasticity, and torsion; the working of alloy steels—■
commonly known as high-speed steels—and the uses to which they may be put; the
uses of high-carbon and low-carbon steels; and the speeds at which the various mate
rials used in the machine shop may be worked.
Manipulative skill: An easy and efficient application of both trade and technical
knowledge so that accurate results may be quickly secured with the least expenditure
of energy. This has to do with the motions of the hands in conjunction with the move
ments of the body so that “ every stroke will count.” The sense of touch is essential
to the manipulative skill of the machinist. Judgment of form and proportion is very
desirable to the job machinist, as he is often called upon to make repairs which will not
permit time for calculations.
Without initiative the machinist would be able to accomplish but little except
in specialized lines. The machinist is expected to be able to know the best method
to do any piece of work that is given him. Initiative plays a very important part in
the skill of the machinist.
What the industry gives.—In nearly all shops the apprentice is taken into the shop to
be taught the trade under a written or verbal agreement to the effect that he is to
receive instruction in the different processes necessary for the development of a
machinist. The first few months he is required to give out tools in order to familiarize
himself with the different tools used. He works as a helper about three months, dur
ing which time he is given an opportunity to learn how the work is done. He is then
given work on the drill press for the next three months. During this time he becomes
familiar with the various methods of holding and drilling the work. For the year and
half following his time is about equally divided with the lathe, shaper, and slotter.
If any preference is shown it is for the lathe. The remainder of his four years is given
to bench and vise and floor work. He dissembles machines, learns chipping and
filing, and the assembling and adjusting of machines. So he passes in order through
the operations of the various machines from the simplest to the most complicated,
becoming familiar with the working speeds of various materials on the different ma
chines. Instruction in the cutting speeds of the various materials used would save a
vast amount of time. This, however, is not taught in the machine shop, as there seems
to be a general lack of knowledge concerning the subject.
What the school ought to give.—The apprentice to the machinist trade should receive
an elementary industrial education, and this should include at least elementary alge
bra, geometry, and trigonometry, and instruction in mechanical drawing, and some
knowledge of metallurgy. The school should give courses in strengths of materials,
so the apprentice maybe able to work the materials to best advantage. In its various
phases strength of materials would include tensile strength, elongation, compression,
elasticity, and torsion. The school should also give instruction in the working of
alloy steels, commonly known as high-speed steels, the use of high and low carbon
steels, and the speeds at which the various materials used in the machine shop may
be worked.

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BLACKSMITHING.

Blacksmithing is a mechanical trade which is almost separate and distinct from
the other mechanical trades with which it is allied. There is little or no relation
between the blacksmith shop and the foundry, as the kinds and properties of the
materials and the methods of handling them are entirely different. The only relation
it bears to the machine shop is in the forging and dressing of tools; although this comes
under the head of blacksmithing, it is at times classed as a separate and distinct
occupation.
Processes.

Theforge: The forge is generally a structure of iron, although it is sometimes con
structed of brick or stone, upon which a smith’s fire is built. In the bottom of the
hearth, upon which the coal is placed, is a tuyere or opening through which the
draft is applied. The mouth of the tuy&re is covered generally with a perforated
sheet which will allow the air to pass through freely, but prevents cinders and any for
eign matter from dropping into the blast pipe. Should any pass through the small
openings, which will occasionally happen, they are taken out below from an opening
which is for that purpose. A hood for the forge is constructed of sheet metal and
fastened to the chimney of the forge. The purpose of the hood is to catch and con
duct the smoke to the chimney, which in a modern shop contains a suction draft to
assist in the conveyance of the smoke from the forge. Fastened to the forge for the
convenience of the workman is a water and coal trough, also a rack for tongs.
Firing theforge: To fire a forge, all clinkers and other matter which would obstruct
the building of the fire are first removed. Some good inflammable material, such
as wood shavings or oil waste, is then selected and placed on the hearth of the forge
over the tuyere. Coal for the forge should be of the best quality soft coal thoroughly
moistened; this when heated causes an adhesive tendency or causes it to coke.
The selection of coal containing hard spots, which cause an uneven fire, should be
avoided. Coal should be carefully placed around and over the ignitible material,
leaving only an opening 011 the top for the draft and one in front for the placing of
the metal to be heated. The material is then ignited and the proper draft applied
until the coal is caught and fire is ready for work. The fire is shaken occasionally in
ordor to maintain a live fire and even lieat; if this is not done, the interior burns out,
leaving a hollow space which renders the fire worthless for heating. On leaving the
fire it is banked by placing fine damp coal over the entire fire—this keeps the fire
alive and retains the heat.
Heating the iron: The iron should be properly placed in the fire in order that the
heat be evenly distributed. This is very important, especially in welding, as stated
later.
Upsetting: This is the method of shortening or increasing the dimension of a piece
of hot iron or steel by hitting upon end.
Cutting off: The process of removing superfluous stock (hot or cold) by the use of
cutting-off tools.
Scarfing and welding: This is one of the most difficult problems which the workman
has to master. He may become skilled in all of the different operations involved in
a forge shop and yet never become proficient in the art of welding. This is a process
which is involved in the majority of forge-shop problems from the simplest to the most
difficult work. Therefore it is necessary that the apprentice should acquire this
knowledge at an early stage of his course.
Scarfing: The process of flattening or chamfering edges of iron preparatory to weld
ing. The two surfaces being drawn out obliquely, a larger contact is given to them,
which fortifies the junction of the two pieces. The two pieces should be upset before
the scarf is made. Care should be exercised in performing this operation, as the class
of weld depends ainost entirely upon the nature of the scarf. Scarfing is not neces

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sarily a preparatory step to all welding, for instance, in the butt weld, when the two
pieces to be welded are simply abutted together, sometimes in the fire, after proper
upsetting.
Welding: The process of incorporating or joining together two pieces of wrought
metal while at a white heat. The metal at this temperature is in a plastic or semi
fused condition; therefore when placed together the semifused metals, after being
properly hammered, unite, causing a solid body or joint. In heating iron or steel for
welding a scale is formed which prevents the uniting of the two pieces. However, in
the case of iron the scale, or oxide, melts at a lower temperature than the iron, and as a
result the weld will be good if the proper heat has been secured. With soft steel or
Norway iron the condition is different; the scale melts at a higher temperature than
the welding heat. To overcome this difficulty, it is necessary to use something to
soften or melt the scale. For this purpose, what is known as a flux is used.
Fluxing is the application of some good welding preparation to the joint before being
welded. With iron, a good clean beach sand is sometimes used, but with soft steel
sand only is used, as it melts and combines with the scale, causing it to liquefy,
in which form it is easily forced from between the pieces to be welded. For welding
tool steel to iron or soft steel a flux made of borax and sand is used. It is necessary that
the metals should be taken from the fire at the proper time. If taken from the fire too
early, the pieces can not be successfully welded, and if left in the fire too long the
metal will be burned, rendering it useless for service. Great care should be exercised
in heating, as both pieces should be heated evenly and to the same temperature.
Practice in bending and shaping of iron and steel with the necessary tools should
receive due consideration, as this is the foundation for all advanced handwork.
The ingot is an oblong block of steel before it is forged or rolled. The ingot is cast
in the steel foundry in an ingot mold, which is a mold made of cast iron of great thick
ness and accurately fitted. As soon as the steel is set in the mold the hot mass is
taken by a crane from the ingot mold and placed in a soaking pit to be annealed.
The exterior of the ingot while the metal is setting becomes chilled. The soaking
pit is a mold made of fire brick beneath the floor, with all air excluded. When the
ingot is placed in the same the interior heat of the ingot reheats the exterior surface
and causes it to soften or anneal. When this process is finished the ingot is taken
by a crane to the steam hammer, where it is drawn out roughly to shape. It may
be necessary to reheat a number of times. This depends upon the amount of work
to be done on the ingot and the speed of doing the work.
The steam hammer is a forge hammer consisting of a steam cylinder placed ver
tically over an anvil, the trip or hammer-head rising and falling by the power of steam.
The trip is controlled by a lever which is generally operated by a hammer boy. The
work is conducted to this hammer by means of hooks and held in place by special
tongs. A large portion of steam-hammer work is drawn out to templates.
A template is a temporary pattern, guide, or model, by which work is either marked
out or by which its accuracy is checked. Working to a template requires accuracy
on the part of the operator, as the forging is generally finished by him, except
where it is to be spotted or finished in the machine shop.
Tools.

Sledge hammer: The simplest and one of the most used tools is the sledge hammer.
This tool is used for nearly all striking that is done on the anvil.
The anvil: The anvil is a heavy body of cast or wrought iron with a steel face
welded on. casebardened; this prevents indentations being made in the anvil by
use of hammers and other tools. One end of the anvil is horn shaped for rounding
and doing small work; the opposite end contains two holes, one square, one round,
which are to receive the ends of the various anvil blocks.

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The hand hammer: The hand hammer is used in bringing a piece to proper shape,
the work being finished by the use of various other tools, such as the fuller.
The fuller: The fuller is a half-round tool used to draw out or force out the heated
metal, form grooves, etc. There are two kinds of fullers, top and bottom. The top
fuller has the appearance of a hammer and is held on the work by a handle; the
bottom fuller is the same shape as the top one, but contains a stem which fits into
the anvil.
The flatter: The flatter is a broad-faced hammer used to dress and smooth work after
it has been drawn into shape by the use of hand hammers and fullers.
Chisels: Two kinds of chisels are generally used, one for cutting cold and one for
cutting hot iron. These tools are usually made in the shape of hammers, one side
being forged and flat with a cutting edge ground on it; the other end is used for strik
ing purposes. The hot chisel is ground thinner than the cold, because the chisel
which is used for cutting cold iron has to be tempered medium, for it would break
if ground very thin.
The hardy: The hardy is a block of iron ground to a sharp or chisel edge which
fits on the anvil and is used for cutting-off purposes. There are various shaped anvil
blocks and hand hammers which would be classed as special tools.
Tongs: Tongs for holding the work are made in a wide variety of shapes and sizes,
depending upon the work that they are intended to hold.
Product or specialties.—The product of the blacksmith in Richmond consists of
forgings used in the construction and repair of locomotives, forgings for ornamental
and structural iron and steel, horse and mule shoes, and general repair work.
Importance of the trade.—There are about 400 journeymen and apprentices engaged
in this occupation in Richmond.
Conditions o f employment.—The work of the blacksmith is very heavy and con
sequently results in a physical strain. Where the work is of a diversified nature it
tends to stimulate the intelligence, but in work that requires very little thought, or
is a continual repetition of the same process, the work would tend to narrow or restrict
the mental development. There is liability to accident from improper striking by
helpers and of injury to the eyes from flying particles of steel.
Economic conditions.—The apprentice to this trade receives from $5.94 to $7.29 per
week the first year, from $7.02 to $8.57 per week the second year, from $8.10 to $9.45
per week the third year, and from $9.18 to $11.09 per week the fourth year. The
hours of labor are from 9 to 10 hours per day for six days and 54 to 60 hours per week.
There is no busy or slack season in this line of work and the fluctuation of employ
ment is inconsiderable. The journeyman’s wages range from $15 to $21.99 per week
and the union scale is from $17.87 to $22.14 per week. The trade is organized, cover
ing about four-fifths of those actually engaged in the trade.
Age of maximum productivity.—The apprentice enters this trade between the ages
of 16 and 20 and serves a four years’ apprenticeship, and his period of maximum pro
ductivity is from 22 to 45 years of age.
Demandfor labor.—The supply of labor is adequate to meet the demand, but there
seems to be a gradual increase in the demand for skilled workmen in this occupation.
The source of supply is from the lower grammar grades of the public schools.
Educational and technical requirements.—A mechanic who wishes to become pro
ficient at the trade and to properly advance himself or to understand its theory,
such as the properties of the iron he is using—viz, welding, tempering, strength of
materials, etc.—ought to have some academic and mechanical training other than is
given in the shop. This trade, as is the case of many others of to-day, is becoming
specialized. Men become very skillful in performing a certain operation or manipu
lating a certain machine, but know very little concerning the different operations or
conditions which surround them. The work requires strength, endurance, and
manipulative skill to be able to complete it successfully.

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What the industry gives.—The apprentice during his four-year period acquires a
knowledge of the tools and their use. The first year is spent in helping around the
fires and in handling small work on the anvil. His work for the following two years
is graded according to the ability shown, and if he has been diligent and applied
himself to the trade he is given every opportunity to learn. The remainder of the
apprenticeship period is spent in handling the best class of work in the shop and in
learning to temper tools properly. This is very important and the boy should be given
ample time to acquire this knowledge.
Deficiencies of workmen.—The common deficiencies of the worker are a lack of
general education and especially a lack of knowledge of mathematics and mechanical
drawing.
What the school ought to give.—The school should give the prospective apprentice
an elementary industrial education and instruction in mechanical drawing, metal
work, and shop mathematics.
BOILER MAKING.

The trade of boiler making consists of the laying out, shaping, bending, flanging,
assembling, and the riveting together of plates to form a cylindrical shell within which
tubes or flues are placed, and the making of smoke boxes, uptakes, dampers, funnels,
casings, and the necessary fittings.
Processes.—The boiler plate is laid off by the mechanic, called the layer out, to
proper size and shape, and the holes are located for connections and rivets, after
which it is placed on the punch machine either by the use of a crane or by hand.
The holes are then punched for connections and rivets and the plate is moved to the
shear machine where it -is cut to the proper size and shape. The plate is then run
through the rolls which gives to it a cylindrical shape. It is now ready for the fitter.
If the shell is to be made with a butt joint, the plate must be chipped or planed to
fit, and the butt strap placed over the joint and the holes reamed with hand or machine
reamer to make certain the matching of holes in plate and strap. If made with a lap
joint the edges of the plates are lapped and the holes reamed out to match for rivets.
A few bolts are placed in the rivet holes to secure the plate while being riveted. The
plate is then riveted either by hand or machine. The rivets are heated red-hot and
the head end of the rivet is placed on the inside of the cylinder and the rest of rivet
projecting through the plates is headed up either by hand hammers or by machine.
The rivet is held in position by a holder on or bucker with a hammer or bucking iron
while it is being headed on the outside. The proper spacing of rivet holes is necessary
because of the constant strain upon the rivets.
The boiler is then set upon blocks and perforated heads, called tube sheets, placed
in each end of the cylinder, which are for the purpose of holding the tubes in position.
The tubes are passed through the sheets and the ends turned over or flanged on the
outside of the plates. These tubes, or flues, convey the heat to the water which covers
them, or contain the water which is heated by the hot gases or flames passing around
them. The smoke box, fire box, and other parts made in the boiler department are
placed in position and riveted on. The edges of plates are now chipped and joints
calked to withstand required pressure of water or steam. The stay bolts are now
placed in position and the boiler is ready for the machinist to set valves and gauges.
Product or specialties.—The product of the boiler maker is stationary and locomotive
boilers and their parts.
Of the various types of boilers made, two are cited as illustrative.
First, the shell boiler—one which is self-contained and in which the water is circu
lated. This type of boiler has fire tubes or flues traversing the length of the boiler
through which the flame and heated gases of combustion pass to impart the heat to
the water which covers them, thereby causing steam to generate.
Second, the tubular or water-tube boiler—one in which the water is contained in
the tubes around which the product of combustion circulates, on courses determined
by sizable baffles.

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Importance of the trade.—In boiler making there are about 375 journeymen and
apprentices in Richmond, the majority of whom are actually engaged in construc
tion work.
Economic conditions.—The wages of the apprentice to the trade for the first year are
from $5.94 to $7.29 per week; for the second year from $7.02 to $8.57 per week; the
third year from $8.10 to $9.45 per week, and for the fourth year from $9.18 to
$11.09 per week. The rate of wages for apprentices in this trade is generally a little
higher than in the other metal trades because of the lack of apprentices entering this
line of work. The wage of the journeyman in this trade varies from $18 to $23.09
per week, and the union scale is $22.14 per week. The hours of labor in the various
shops are about the same, 9 hours per day, 54 hours per week, and 9 hours on Saturday.
There seems to be no seasonal period of activity and the fluctuation of employment
is inconsiderable. The majority of the boiler makers are employed in the railroad
shops of the city and these shops are thoroughly organized.
Age of maximum productivity.—The apprentice enters this trade from 16 years up
to 20 years of age. He serves a period of four years’ apprenticeship. After the
apprentice has finished this four-year period he does not reach his maximum pro
ductive period until he readies the age of 25 year*, and until he is 55 years of age
he is thoroughly efficient.
Demand for labor.—The demand for this class of labor is normal and there seems
to be no reason to believe the supply will be inadequate to meet the demand for
some time. The source of supply is from the lower grammar grades of the public
schools and through an apprenticeship system.
Educational and technical requirements.—The worker needs first a grammar-school
education to be able to grasp things and to think in the proper channel. He
should have instruction as to the processes immediately involved in the construction
of boilers, as to strength of materials, in the principles of the construction of the
different types of boilers, and the principles of steam engineering, mechanical draw
ing, shop mathematics, and blue-print reading. The boiler maker requires skill
in adjusting plates and bands and in operating special machines. Strength and
endurance are necessary to enable the mechanic to do his work properly.
Deficiencies of workmen.—The common deficiencies of the boiler maker seem to
be a lack of general education, very little knowledge of blue-print reading or mechan
ical drawing, and especially a lack of shop mathematics.
What the industry gives.—The apprentice to this trade is accepted after he has
reached the age of 16 and is required to serve four years’ time. On coming into the
shop he is put to heating rivets. The rivets being one of the most important parts
of the boiler, as the strength of the boiler depends largely upon proper riveting, it
is essential that the spacing, driving, etc., should be properly done.
When rivets are heated they are passed by a helper to a holder on or bucker, who
holds the rivet in position for the riveter or riveting machine. The apprentice,
although only heating, gains from observation a knowledge of the different processes
through which the rivet goes before and during the riveting. As soon as the boy be
comes a proficient heater or when he has worked at it long enough to satisfy the fore
man, he is advanced to reaming. The reamer is a fluted tool with cutting edges,
used to enlarge and smooth the drill holes in the boiler plates. The reamer is gen
erally one thirty-second of an inch larger than the drill used. It is operated by hand,
hydraulic, or electric power.
( are should be exercised in the holding of the reamer, which should always be
perpendicular to the work being reamed. During this process the apprentice acquires
a certain degree of accuracy and becomes familiar with the handling of the hydraulic
and electric reaming machines, but not with their mechanism, as he is not far enough
advanced to take up work of this nature.

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The next step is drilling, using air, hydraulic, and electric machines. Nearly all
of the drilling and reaming machines are portable. This work requires a small degree
of mechanical ability, as the holes to be drilled are all laid off and their location
center punched by the layer out.
Care should be exercised in the placing of the drill, so as not to scar the boiler plate.
The drill should be started and kept absolutely perpendicular dining the process
of drilling, excessive speed being guarded against, as the drill will be burned when
run too fast.
After this preliminary training, which the apprentice has acquired by observation
and practice, he is given the riveting machine and instructed in its use and care.
This is a machine by which the operation of closing rivets is performed by power
(air, hydraulic, steam, or electricity). The rivets are placed from the interior and
held in position by a bucker with a heavy sledge or bucking iron. The riveting
machine is then placed upon the rivet, which is still hot, and the head is formed,
either flat, conical, or button head, as desired. The first six months of the apprentice
ship course has now been about covered, and the methods of heating, drilling, ream
ing, and the operation of the riveting machine should have been acquired, also a
knowledge of joints (butts, laps, etc.).
Twelve months of the apprenticeship is generally spent in acquiring a knowl
edge of patching. Patching is the closing of holes or leaks in old or new boilers,
a work which requires accuracy and skill. Proper measurements of the patch
should be obtained, after which the piece should be laid out from the same tliickness of boiler plate as the one upon which it is to be placed, and should then
be cut to the proper size by the use of the shearing machine. This is a machine
consisting of shears driven by power, used to cut off the rough edges of plates or to
trim them to exact dimensions. The knives are set at an angle with each other,
so that tha cut takes place from one end to the other, as with a pair of scissors.
The patch should be properly spaced and rivet holes drilled, it then being used
as a template to drill the holes in the boiler, after which it is fastened in place and
the holes reamed; the rivets are then headed over. The rough edges of the patch
are then chipped off by the use of a flat chisel and hammer. Here* the apprentice
acquires a knowledge of chipping and the proper method of holding, using, and care
of chisels. The patch now has to be calked outside only. This is done by striking
a chisel or calking tool (a blunt-edged chisel) with a hammer, making a slight indenta
tion along the same. The effect of this is to force the edge of one plate hard against
the other or to drive a portion of the overlapping edge into the seam, and thus fill
up any slight crevice between the plates which the.rivets had failed to close.
The first important step pertaining to boiler making has now been covered, most
of which has been handwork.
Machines: Instructions should be given at this time concerning the flue-rolling
machine. The flues are tubes placed within the boiler for the conveyance of hot
gases and smoke. They are made of thin sheet plates run over rolls and pressed
to a cylindrical shape. An angle is formed on each edge, which edges interlap and
when pressed together tightly and welded form a solid joint. Instruction in the de
tails of the shear and punch machines should be given. The punch machine is
used to perforate or punch holes in sheet metals by the use of power. It is not very
complicated, but it is absolutely necessary to have a thorough knowledge of its
mechanism and to be fully competent to perform the different operations for which
it is used. The majority of the operators of these machines are specialty men.
The flange press: Flanging is the method of turning up the edges of a boiler plate
to lap a joint and to secure same to another plate. Most flanging in the larger shops
is done on a flange press, while in smaller shops it is done by hand. The flange press
is a machine for bending the edges of the boiler plates. It consists of two formers or

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dies, one male, one female. The boiler plate is hot when brought to the press, being
heated in a furnace. It is placed upon the male former or die and the machine set
in operation. The female die is then applied and the rib or flange is formed.
Hand flanging is very laborious and accurate work, therefore a worker requires con
siderable experience to become proficient in the art. The hot boiler plate is placed
upon a bending floor, which is made of iron perforated with holes to admit hooks or
dogs for holding the plate in position. The flange is previously laid out by center
punch marks and worked to a template. The flanging is done by hitting the project
ing edges of the boiler plate with a large wooden mall or mallet. This is used in
preference to a metal mallet because it does not scar or cause indentations to be made
in the flange. The work previously stated has covered most of the apprenticeship.
The remainder of the time should be devoted to laying out and other advanced work
of the shop.
What the school ought to give.—Since the shop gives practically all the knowledge
necessary for manipulative skill in the tools used in the construction of the boiler,
the school should supplement this knowledge by instruction in mechanical drawing,
shop mathematics, strength of materials, and some knowledge of steam engineering.
TINNING.

Processes.—A tinner works sheet tin, galvanized iron, and sometimes sheet brass and
sheet copper. What is commonly known as tin is sheet iron covered with a thin layer
of tin by passing the iron through a cleaning bath and then through a bath of molten
tin, after which it is wiped off while still in a molten condition. The processes of the
trade are as follows: In flat work the selection of proper gauge of material to use and
the bending of lock joint by use of folder or brake, the laying of the tin and the closing
of the joint by the use of mallet and seamers or roofing tongs. If solder joint is nec
essary, the soldering fluid is applied to joint or lap, generally by the use of a feather,
and the flux sprinkled on. The sheets are lapped and solder stick is held directly
over the joint and soldering iron is applied to same, melting the solder and causing it to
run on the joint which causes fusing, which connects the pieces.
In tinware or house furnishing goods work, a pattern is first made and cut, making
allowances for seam or lock joint, and turn up for the purpose of wiring or for hem at
top or bottom. Sometimes it is necessary to make allowance for thickness of metal,
when bent, but materials that gauge from 20 to 30, inclusive, require no allowances
either for bending or rolling.
Wiring may be done either by hand or machine. The edge to be wired is first
notched at an angle in one place and with a pair of pliers the edge at this point is
turned up and the wire laid in and the edge bent over snugly around the wire, to
hold wire in position until same is stretched around the article and edge turned
over same to make the finish. The lock seam is made on the groover, the double
seam either by hand or machine. Either the lock or double seam may be used when
bottom and sides are joined together.
The processes are practically the same in sheet metal and cornice making as in tin
ware. The variations occur in the making of pattern because in sheet-metal work,
the material being heavier, allowance has to be made for the thickness of the material
in bending and rolling in machines. In sheet-metal work the metals used may be
galvanized iron or steel, boiler plate, zinc, copper, and brass. Band iron is used
for reinforcing and square or round rods for bracing. This work may be jointed
either b y lock or double seam and sometimes b y lap joint and rivets.
Product or specialties.—The industry is divided into several divisions, the main
ones being roofing, inside tinning, cornice and skylight making. In the earlier days
the inside tinner made all sorts of household utensils of tin, but in recent years the
use of tin for this purpose has decreased, aluminum and enameled ware having taken
its place to a large extent.

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Importance of the trade.—There are about 56 journeymen and apprentices engaged
in this occupation in the car shops of Richmond, and the work consists of the repairs
on cars and plant when necessary, and in some cases of replacing tin and sheet-metal
utensils used on cars and around the plant.
Conditions of employment.—The work generally is very light and for that reason the
employment causes no physical or nervous strain. In the car shops there is a great
variety of work which has a tendency to stimulate the interest of the worker, and none
of the work narrows or restricts the mental development. The trade is not unhealthful
and there is very little danger of accident.
Economic conditions.—The apprentice to this trade serves a period of four years and
receives in wages for the first year from $5 to $7.29 per week, the second year from $6.25
to $8.57 per week, the third year from $7.50 to $9.45 per week, and from $8.75 to $11.09
per week for the fourth year. The hours of labor are from 9 to 10 hours per day, 54 to 60
hours per week, and 9 to 10 hours on Saturday. The rate of wages for journeymen in
this trade is from $19.17 per week to the union scale of $22.14 per week.
Employment in this occupation in the car shops of Richmond is fairly constant, and
therefore very little fluctuation either from slack or busy season is shown. Most of
the work is repair or replace work, and there is always work found for those who
desire it. Tinners and sheet-metal workers in the metal trades have no organiza
tion of their own, but are members of the boiler makers’ union.
Age of maximum productivity.—The apprentice enters this trade between the ages of
16 and 20. The apprenticeship is of four years’ duration. The period of maximum
productivity is from 21 to 45 years, after which his usefulness decreases.
Demandfor labor.—The supply of labor is adequate to meet the demand at present.
There should be a gradual increase in this line of work because of the increase in use
of steel cars, but, owing to the abnormal business conditions that exist at present,
the trade is about stationary. The supply seems to come from the lower grammar
grades of the public schools and through a fairly good apprenticeship system.
Educational and technical requirements.—The worker to become proficient in this
trade needs first an elementary-school education, instruction as to the use of tin
and sheet metal, as to the composition, weights, and qualities of the sheets, instruc
tion in pattern cutting and drafting, shaping and soldering of sheets, and in the use
of special tools. The worker should have a knowledge of mechanical drawing and
blue-print reading, and especially of shop mathematics applied to the trade. Initia
tive and dexterity are required of the worker in this trade because of the thought
and skill necessary in a great amount of the work.
Deficiencies of workmen.—The great majority of the journeymen in this occupation
have no knowledge of pattern cutting, drafting, or of mechanical drawing and very
little of shop mathematics as applied to the trade. General education is also lacking
in the majority of workers in this trade.
What the school ought to give.—The apprentice to this trade should receive an ele
mentary-school education, supplemented by prevocational courses in mechanical
drawing, pattern cutting and design, shop mathematics as applied to the trade, and
a course in metal work in general.
RIVETING AND BUCKING.

Processes.—The riveter closes or forms a head on the protruding end of a rivet with
a special riveting hammer or automatic riveting machine, usually driven by air,
hydraulic, steam, or electric power. The rivet is a soft-metal bolt having a head on
one end, used to fasten together two metal plates.
Bucking is the holding of the rivet in place while the opposite head is being formed
by the riveter. The holding-on hammer or bucking iron is a heavy bar of iron with
a countersunk end to admit the rivet head. The hole for the rivet is always made

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a little larger than the rivet, so that it may he easily admitted. If the hole is not
well plugged, the rivet will not stand the calculated strain. Therefore, the action
of the riveting machine upon the red-hot rivet in forming the opposite head while
the rivet is being held in place by the bucking iron causes the stem of the rivet to
expand or upset and completely fill the hole.
Steel-car work is classed as steel construction work, the same processes and machines
being used in their construction and repair. Riveting and bucking is a very small
portion of the great variety of work necessary to the construction of steel cars.
The riveting and bucking in the car shops of Richmond is done b y the general
boiler makers and repair men, except that a considerable amount of the riveting is
done by the apprentices, who spend a portion of their apprenticeship on this work
for the practice it gives them. The possibilities for advancement are greater than
in many other lines because of the increasing use of steel cars.
Product or specialties.—The product of the riveter and bucker in Richmond is the
riveting together of steel plates on cars and boilers and the riveting of parts in loco
motive construction.
Importance of the trade.—There are about 20 workers in this occupation, most of
whom are apprentices or learners in the boiler-making trade and in steel-car repair
work.
Conditiom of employment.—The work is heavy and requires strength and endurance,
and the constant noise from the hammers causes partial deafness.
Economic conditions.— There is no apprenticeship system, but some of the appren
tices to the boiler-making trade work at this occupation for the practice it gives
them. The wages for the workers range from $15 to $18 per week. The occupation
is unorganized. The hours of labor are 9 hours per day, 54 hours per week, and 9
hours on Saturday. There are no slack and busy seasons, and the fluctuation in
employment is inconsiderable.
Age of maximum productivity.—The period of maximum productivity is from 25 to
50 years of age.
Demandfor labor.—The supply of labor in this special line is adequate to meet the
demand at present, but there is a gradual increase in the demand caused by an
increase in the use of the steel car. The supply of recruits is made up of casual
laborers.
Educational and technical requirements.—The worker in this occupation should
receive an elementary industrial education, and while it is a fact that no special demand
in an educational way is made on the riveter and bucker there is an opportunity for
the beginner to advance by entering the trade of boiler making as an apprentice.
What the industry give3.—The industry gives very little either in trade or technical
knowledge. The beginner may acquire a knowledge of the handling of the machine
or hand hammer and of the proper way of heading up a rivet, but beyond this the
occupation gives him nothing.
Deficiencies of workmen.—The majority of the workers in this occupation are defi
cient in general education, and without general education and some technical educa
tion the worker could not expect to advance in any of the allied trades.
What the school ought to give.—The school should give to the prospective apprentice
in the boiler trade, who works at riveting and bucking for the practice he can acquire,
mechanical drawing, shop mathematics, the theory of boiler construction, and the
rudiments of steam engineering.
PIPE FITTING (CAR SHOP).

Pipe fitting in car shops varies very little in the methods employed from those in
use in establishments in the building trades. The car work done in Richmond, being
entirely repair work, necessitates a knowledge on the part of the workman of the
various lines of pipe work, sucli as gas, steam, air, and water fittings, and should be

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thoroughly understood. This class of work in the car shops, being of a general nature,
necessitates the continuous changing of the pipe fitter from one line of work to another.
Processes— The processes of the trade are as follows: The cutting of the pipe by the
use of the pipe cutter; the threading of the end of the pipe by the use of dies; the
bending of the pipe (either cold or heated) by hand or machine—wrought-iron pipe
is generally bent cold; copper and brass pipe is usually heated and then bent—the
wiping of the threaded end with either white or red lead; and fitting or screwing
on of couplings, nipples, ells, tees, or other connections by the use of wrenches.
Product or specialties.—The different classes of pipe work in the car-repair shops are
as follows: Gas-pipe work, water piping, steam piping, and air piping, and the work
necessitates the use of lead, wrought iron, brass, and copper pipes.
Importance of the trade.—In the metal trades the journeymen and apprentices engaged
in this occupation number about 20, and practically all are employed in the railway
car shops.
Conditions of employment.—This work, while strenuous, involves no peculiar phys
ical, mental, or nervous strain. The majority of those engaged in pipe fitting in the
car shops of Richmond served their apprenticeship in the shops in which they are at
present employed, and the work being fairly steady there is very little change in the
force of men. There is very little pipe work that is not interesting and that does not
require intelligence to execute. Some of the work such as laying pipe lines, or some
of the simpler work, requires very little thought or initiative, but on the whole the
work of the pipe fitter can be said to stimulate the intelligence of the worker. The
trade is fairly healthy except in repair work on sewer lines, where the worker is sub
ject to poisonous gases and disease germs. In steam-fitting work the liability to burns
is great if proper precaution is not taken.
Economic conditions.—The apprentices’ wages range about the same in pipe fit
ting as in the other trades in the car shops. The first year the wage is from $5.94 to
$7.29 per week, the second year from $7.02 to $8.57 per week, the third year from
$8.10 to $9.45 per week, and the fourth year from $9.18 to $11.09 per week.
The hours of labor are from 8J to 9 per day, from 48 to 54 hours pec week, and
from
to 9 hours on Saturday.
The wages for journeymen range from $13.44 to $24 per week, and the union scale
is from 35 to 50 cents per hour.
There seems to be no seasonal period of activity in this branch of trade and prac
tically no fluctuation in employment. In the car shops when the work is slack or
when necessary to reduce expenses the number of hours are reduced, and in this way
the workmen retain employment. The journeymen in this trade are members of the
plumbers’ and steam fitters’ local organization.
Age of maximum productivity.—The apprentice to this trade enters between the ages
of 16 and 21, and is required to serve a period of four years, and while the apprentice
is required to take a course of study during this period (either with the International
Correspondence School, Railroad Y . M. C. A., or Virginia Mechanics’ Institute), it
apparently does not follow that the course of study taken applies to the work in v/hich
the apprentice is engaged. The age period of maximum productivity is between the
ages of 21 and 45. While there are some men in this trade who are beyond the age of
45, they are few, and this seems to be a fair average.
Demand for labor.—The supply of labor is adequate to meet the demand. The
source is an apprenticeship system recruited from the lower grammar grades of the
public schools.
Educational and technical requirements.—All of the laying out, cutting, threading,
and bending is done in the car shop, and generally by the apprentices under the
supervision of a competent mechanic. The journeyman pipe fitter should have a
thorough knowledge of the different pressures of steam, gras, water, etc., for which he

222

B U L L E T IN OF T H E B U REA U OF LABOR STATISTICS.

is to pipe. The pipe fitters’ tools consist of taps, dies, cutters, reamers, pliers, wrenches,
etc., and are so numerous that there seems an endless variety. The major portion of
gas piping is work connected with the plant, in and around the buildings. The reason
for this is because gas is used very little in passenger cars at the present, with the excep
tion of the dining car, where it is used almost exclusively for cooking purposes. The
gas-lighting systems are being rapidly replaced by electricity. Wrought iron and lead
pipe are used for water systems. Most of this class of work is done in engine repairing,
dining-car, passenger-car, and refrigerator-car repairing, and also the water lines
around the plant.
Air-pipe fitting is confined almost entirely to air-brake and other safety appliance
work. There is more work of this character than any other line of pipe work in the
car shop, as all passenger and freight cars are equipped with air brakes. All of the
steam fitting is in engine-repair and car-heating systems, the most of it being carheating work. All air and steam-pipe work require better joint fitting than water
and gas. This is due to the larger amount of pressure of steam and air, and also to the
contraction and expansion of the steam pipe.
What the industry gives.—The industry gives to the workman practice in the manip
ulation of the tools of the trade and in the actual construction of the work in hand,
but no theory except what he can pick up in the trade. There is no reason, how
ever, why a pipe fitter who applies himself to the study of air brakes should not
become an inspector, but the only real chance for promotion is from an efficient
mechanic to a foreman.
Deficiencies of workmen.—In pipe fitting the common deficiencies seem to be a lack
of general education, especially in arithmetic as applied to the trade, blue-print read
ing, and lack of initiative in handling the work.
What the school ought to give.—The apprentice to the trade should be given a general
education and prevocational training in mechanics, instruction in pressure of air,
steam, gas, and water, and shop mathematics to enable him to compute pressures in
the different lines of pipe work.
CAR REPAIRING.

Processes.—The car is run into the shop and jacked up, and the trucks removed
and run into the truck-repair shop. The car is then let down onto trestles where it
remains until it is ready to paint. Afterwards it is stripped of all trimmings, which
are turned over to the polishing department, where all lamps and other fixtures are
repaired and polished; the seats are turned over to the upholstering department
where they are cleaned and repaired ready for the car when finished. The car is
then either washed outside or the paint burned off, and washed inside, after which
.an inspection of the car is made by the “ leading man” and all defects noted and a
report made on the cost of repairing. The body men and platform men then make
all necessary repairs.
Passenger-car body repairing: The body men do all repairing on the body, both
inside and out. The work consists of replacing end sills, longitudinal sills, body
bolsters, needle beams, crossties, bulkheads, partitions, and all necessary parts to put
the car in proper repair.
Steel-car repairing: The work consists of straightening sheets and steel parts and
riveting plates and such other work as would be necessary in repairing a car of steel
construction.
Frdght-car repairing: The work consists of repairing or replacing brace rods, bolsters,
brake cylinders, and pipes, doors, draw timbers, flooring, grab irons, sills, etc., on the
body, and riveting on truck frames, removing and applying journal boxes, replacing
springs, and doing any required work on trucks.
Truck repairing: Truckmen repair all trucks and build new ones when necessary.
The extensive use of steel truck frames has considerably reduced the number of

V O C ATION AL EDU CATION SURVEY OF R IC H M O N D , VA .

223

truckmen, as any bent or broken frames are straightened and welded b y blacksmiths.
These frames are complete steel castings with no wood at all about them.
Platform repairing: Platform repair men do all work connected with platform and
steps. They repair platforms and steps and build new ones when necessary.
Air-brake rigging: In all car shops there are several men who apply and test all air
brake rigging. This work requires about the same degree of skill as is necessary on
other car work. The men have nothing to do with the repair of air-brake valves, as
such work is done by machinists specializing on air brakes and the valves necessary
to the operation of the brakes.
Coach trimming: All metal work in a car is put in place by men known as coach
trimmers. The trimmings consist of hinges, door locks, window locks, hand-baggage
racks, cord hooks, lighting fixtures, and whatever metal trimmings are required for
the complete equipment of a car.
Inside car repairing: A certain class of repair work requires the most skilled workers.
In some shops these men are called cabinetmakers, while in others they are con
sidered as car repairers. In all cases the men are taken from the regular force, and
their work consists of repairing and making chairs, tables, desks, and high-grade work
for cars and fixtures for shop use.
Product or specialties.—This work covers the repairing of passenger, baggage, mail,
and freight cars and cabooses.
Importance of the trade.—There are about 350 journeymen and apprentices working
in this trade in Richmond.
Conditions of employment.—There is nothing in car repairing which makes any in
jurious demands upon the physical or nervous system. As the work is varied in char
acter, it does not narrow or restrict the mental development, and the high-class work
should stimulate the intelligence.
Economic conditions.—The wages of the journeymen workers in this trade range
from a minimum of $11.61 to a maximum of $24.30 per week. The union wage is 35
cents per hour. The apprentice wage in this trade is from $5.94 to $7.29 per week the
first year, from $7.02 to $8.57 per week the second year, from $8.10 to $9.45 per week
the third year, and from $9.18 to $11.09 the fourth year.
The hours of labor for men employed in this trade are 9 hours per day, 54 hours per
week, and 9 hours on Saturday. There is no busy or slack season in this trade and the
fluctuation in employment is practically nothing. The men in the trade are com
pletely organized.
Age of maximum productivity.—The workers in this trade enter between 16 and 18
years of age and serve an apprenticeship of four years. The period of maximum pro
ductivity is between the ages of 25 and 55.
Demandfor labor.—The supply of workers in this trade is adequate to meet the pres
ent demand. The demand is decreasing for repair men on wooden cars and increas
ing for those on steel cars because of the more extensive use of the latter. The work
ers enter as apprentices and are recruited from the lower grammar grades.
Educational and technical requirements.—These workers need a grammar-school edu
cation, knowledge of drawing, mathematics, and modern practices in the trade.
They need manipulative skill in handling the hand and machine tools, and require
initiative, strength, and endurance.
What the industry gives.—An apprentice serves four years, divided about as follows:
Six months on truck work, six months on rough work in the shop, three months doing
platform and step work, three months laying off work, six months on locomotive
woodwork—“ engine work” it is called, one year on the outside of passenger cars, and
one year on the inside of passenger-car bodies. Practically all that the apprentice
acquires during this time is the manipulative skill required to actually do the work,
getting but very little of the technical side of the work. The line of promotion in thia
trade is from apprentice to journeyman to foreman.

224

B U L L E T IN OF T H E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

Deficiencies of workmen.—The workers in this trade are deficient in general education,
mechanical drawing, and blue-print reading, and in mathematics of the trade.
What the school ought to give.—The schools should give the worker before he enters
this trade a complete grammar-school education with prevocational training in wood
work. After he enters the trade the practical knowledge acquired while at work
should be supplemented by courses in mathematics, mechanical drawing, and modem
theory and practice applied to the trade. The schools also might well provide the
opportunity for acquiring facility in the use of certain tools and machines.
MACHINE W OODW ORKING (CAR SHOP).

Processes.—Tlie work in this occupation consists of the practical experience in
the use of circular saws for cutting off, ripping, and sawing angles; band saws for
cutting angles and irregular shapes; scroll saws for sawing curves and scrolls; planes
for planing and cutting to the required thickness; jointers for straightening, smooth
ing, and beveling edges; mortising machines for cutting mortises; tenon machines
for cutting tenons; molding machines for making ornamental moldings; shapers for
finishing edges of work of irregular shapes; sandpapering machines for finishing sur
faces; lathes, boring machines, and various automatic machines for sharpening saws
and edged tools.
Product or specialties.—The worker in this trade prepares material for the repairing
of passenger, baggage, and freight cars and cabooses.
Importance of the trade.—In Richmond there are about 50 journeymen and appren
tices employed in this trade.
Conditions of employment.—There is nothing in this occupation which involves
either mental or physical strain to an excessive degree, but there is considerable
danger from the operating of the machines, and the dust which is raised is injurious
to the health. This work is varied enough in character to stimulate the intelligence
and interest unless the worker is kept continuously upon one class of work.
Economic conditions.—The wages of journeymen in this trade range from a mini
mum of $12.96 to a maximum of $18.90 per week, this latter being also the union
wage. These men work 9 hours per day, 54 hours per week, and 9 hours on Saturday.
There is no busy or slack season in this trade and practically no fluctuation of
employment. The workers in this trade are completely organized.
Age of maximum productivity.—The workers in this trade usually enter between the
ages of 16 and 18 and serve an apprenticeship of four years. The age period of maxit
± productivity is from 25 to 55.
)emand for labor.—The supply of workers in this trade is adequate to meet the
demand, and this demand is decreasing because of the introduction of steel cars.
The workers are recruited from casual labor and from boys of the lower grammar
grades.
Educational and technical requirements.—The worker in this trade should have a
complete grammar-school education and a knowledge of blue-print reading, mechani
cal drawing, and mathematics applied to the trade. Also modem theory and prac
tice in the trade and a knowledge of the construction and operation of a great variety
of woodworking machines as follows:
Saws, classified under three heads—circular, band, and scroll:
The circular saw is fastened on a spindle or arbor driven direct by a belt pulley
fastened to the same shaft. The arbor is usually supported by a frame which in turn
supports the saw table. This saw is used for cutting off, ripping, and the cutting of
various angles.
The band saw, an endless band of steel with teeth cut into one or both edges, gen
erally about one-sixteenth to one-fourth of an inch in thickness. The width ranges
from about one-fourth inch to 14 inches. The band is operated over two rubber-faced

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF R IC H M O N D , VA.

225

wheels placed directly one above the other. Between the wheels is a saw table hav
ing an opening through which the saw runs. It is used entirely for sawing curves
and irregular shapes of various kinds.
The scroll or jig saw, an upright saw to which a reciprocating motion is given by
a crank and connecting rod, the saw frame sliding in vertical guides. It is used for
sawing scrolls and curves that can not be cut on a band saw. The great convenience
of tliis machine is that the blade can be removed and replaced in a very short time.
By boring a hole through the piece to be cut the saw may be placed through the hole
and rei'astened; the cut can then be started at any desired point.
The wood planer, a machine for smoothing rough boards or for cutting boards to a
required thickness. It consists of rapidly revolving cutters, which chip off the sur
face in minute shavings as the piece to be planed is passed under the cutter by a
suitable feeding device, which is generally two rollers placed a litile closer together
than the thickness of the board.
The jointer, a machine consisting of a table and a cylindrical cutter over which the
work is passed. It is used entirely for straightening, smoothing, and beveling the
edges of boards.
The mortising machine, used for cutting mortises in wood parts for the reception of
tenons. The wood is placed upon the table of the machine and the slot or mortise is
cut by a tool consisting of a drill arranged in a chisel-shaped cutter operated by a foot
lever. The drill removes most of ihe stock and the edges are squared and finished
up by the cutter. Jt can be set to cut any depth or width mortise.
The tenon machine, for cutting tenons only. It consists of four heads, two for
roughing and two for finishing. Very accurate work can be done on it.
The molding machine, used for cutting various kinds of ornamental moldings for
interior and exterior finishing. The work is fed by rollers to the different shaped
cutters which form the molding.
The shaper, for finishing the edges of irregular shapes. The cutters being inter
changeable, a great variety of different shapes for cutting and molding may be
selected as desired.
The wood-turning lathe, a machine for shaping (mostly rounding) articles of wood
by causing them to revolve while the cut is being made by a chisel or some other
cutting tool. A greater variety of work can be done 011 a lathe than on any other wood
working machine.
Tlic boring machine, used for the purpose of drilling or boring holes through wood
by the use of an auger or drill bit fastened in a revolving spindle with a holder which is
operated by an automatic feed or hand lever.
The sandpapering machine, consisting of revolving cylinders covered with sand
paper which polishes the surfaces of boards passed between them.
The various automatic machines, for grinding and sharpening saws and other edged
tools.
What the industry gives.—The workers in serving the four years’ apprenticeship Re
quire the practical knowledge required to actually run the wood through the maflj •
but as there is no provision made in the shop for the systematic instruction of either
journeymen or apprentices very little of the technical part of the trade is gotten in
the shop.
Deficiencies of ivorHun.—The workers in this trade are deficient in general educa
tion, mechanical drawing, blue-print reading, mathematics, and modern theory and
practice in the trade.
What the school ought to give.—Before entering the trade the worker should have a
complete grammar-school education and two years of prevocational training in wood
working. After entering the trade school, courses should be taken in mechanical
0071.°— B u ll. 102— 10------- K>

226

B U L L E T IN OF T H E BU REA U OF LABOR STATISTICS.

drawing, blue-print reading, mathematics applied to the trade, and modem theory
and practice in the trade; also the school might well provide facilities for acquiring
manipulative skill in the use of some tools and machines.
LABORERS.

The laborers are the unskilled workmen of the industry, those whose occupations
require physical strength but no special skill or training.
The work of the laborers in the car shop is to load, unload, and haul material, assist
in tearing down old and damaged cars, do trucking and any other unskilled work that
is required to be done around the shop.
The possibilities for advancement are very limited. If the labored is very observant
and is willing to apply the knowledge gained from observation, he could advance to
the foremanship of the labor gang or to a helper in one of the several departments of
the shop.
The supply of laborers in the car shops of this city relative to the demand for them
is growing less. The cause is attributed to the increase in the demand for laborers by
the city government and the various other industries of the city. There is more
fluctuation in the laboring force than in any other department of the shop. The ma
jority of the laborers in the car shops are colored; the same applies to every other
industry of the city.

FINDINGS ABOUT OCCUPATIONS IN THE METAL TRADES IN RICHMOND, VA.
[This chart is intended to summarize the statements and opinions of employers and employees in the trades in Richmond.

A N A L Y S I S O U T LIN E .

i . Process.

The chart does not, therefore, necessarily represent the views of the Survey Committee, nor conditions and opinions of the trade elsewhere.]

PUDDLER.

HEATER.

ROLLER.

W O O D PATTERN M AKER. M ETAL PATTERN MAKER.

IRON MOLDER.

BRASS MOLDER.

CORE MAKER.

In making wrought iron a
reverberatory furnace is
lined with iron ore and scale
which is heated until it sets,
when the furnace is charged
with iron. The puddler’s
helper manipulates the iron
while melting to prevent
sticking, beating it up and
cooking it until it melts. It
is then taken in charge by
the puddler during the pro
cess of boiling. After im
purities are burned out and
the iron “ comes to nature,”
it is made into balls for the
squeezer. Scrap heating is
similar in process except
that scrap is not boiled, but
is heated only until plastic.

Heating muck bars of iron for
rolling. The ball of plastic
iron received from the pud
dling furnace is passed
through the squeezer by
the puddler’s nelper, to
force out slag and to form
blooms which are rolled
into muck bars by being
passed through the muck
rolls by a roller. Muck bar
iron is seldom used for in
dustrial purposes until it
has been refined. In this
process the muck bar is cut
into lengths, which are
bound with iron wire to
gether with pieces of scrap
iron to secure proper weight.
These bundles are placed in
a furnace on a bed of sand
and carefully heated to re*
quired temperature for roll
ing.

Hollers adjust and have charge
of the rolls. Roughers and
catchers do the actual work
of rolling on muck rolls and
bar roils, the roughers
standing at the front and
the catchers at the back of
the rolls. Rolls are set to
the proper adjustments.
Hot iron from the heaters is
passed through the proper
grooves in the rolls, ana is
thus gradually reduced in
diameter to the required
size and shape. In rolling
horseshoe iron the finished
bar comes out with nail
grooves rolled in.

Where necessary full-size draw The metal casting is received
ings from blue prints are pre
from the cleaning room
pared. Well-seasoned wood
when it has been pickled to
of best grade is selectedclean thoroughly.
Blow
hard or soft, depending on
holes are filled with solder or
the number of castings re
white metal. The casting is
quired. Parts, shaped by
filed clean of broken gates
hand and machine tools,are
and rough places and then
assembled, with regard to
scraped, after which it is
draft or taper, leaving pieces
given a coat of shellac and
loose to facilitate drawing
sometimes a coat of wax to
from mold. A s s e m b le d
make sure of a smooth, clean
parts are sandpapered and
casting. Sometimes it is
shellacked. In making core
necessary to braze pieces to
boxes, where these are re
the metal pattern, and in
quired, similar processes are
that case the pattern maker
involved.
Accurate con
must be skilled in brazing.
struction of pattern and
core box is necessary to
insure proper thickness of
metal in casting.

Placing pattern on follow
board in flask; distributing
facing sand over pattern;
filling flask with unriddled
sand, ramming, rolling over
flask, and dressing face;
placing cope on drag; dis
tributing facing sand; plac
ing gate and riser pins, and
filling and ramming cope;
making vents to carry off
gases; placing cover board,
rolling over cope, and finish
ing face; withdrawing gate
and riser pins, and pattern;
dressing up mold; cutting
groove from gate pin to pat
tern; replacing cope on drag,
clamping, pouring in molten
metal, and after cooling
turning casting out of flask
to be sent to casting shed for
cleaning.

The processes in brass molding
are essentially similar to
those in iron molding. A
finer quality of sand is used
in brass molding. In Rich
mond brass molding is gen
erally a smaller class of work
than iron molding, and,
therefore, snap flasks are
more frequently used, and
more match-board work is
done in the brass foundry.
Generally a higher grade of
skill is required for brass
molding.

The forming of bodies of sand
into different shapes by use
of boxes, sweeps, or strikes.
These forms or cores must be
properly wired or rodded to
help retain their shape, and
vented to carry off the gases
that accumulate in the
mold.
Hooks or other
fastenings are so placed that
the core is held in its proper
position in the mold, and
sand is rammed into the core
box to secure the proper
density. After the core is
formed, it is placed in an
oven and baked thoroughly,
to harden it for use in the
mold.

Finishing castings and forgings Working to shape and size iron
to size, and erecting and re
or steel, heated in forges or
pairing machinery. Bench
furnaces. The processes in
or vise work, machine work,
clude cleaning forge or fur
and floor work are involved
nace, selecting fuel, igniting
in these processes, which in
and applying draft, heating
metal to proper tempera
clude chipping, filing, drill
ing, tapping, reaming, turn
ture, upsetting heated metal
by hitting or lumping the
ing, facing, boring, planing,
end, cutting off, scarfing to
cutting gears, and scraping
fortify joints (i. e., flatten
bearings.
The all-round
ing or chamfering edges of
machinist is skilled in the
heated metal after it has
use of portable and hand
been drawn out), fluxing
tools and in the operation of
joints with fine beach sand
lathes, drill presses, reamers,
cr a mixture of sand and
planers, shapers, vertical
borax to cause perfect fu
and horizontal boring mills,
sion, and welding by ham
gear-cutting, an d o t h e r
mering joints at white heat.
special machines. Scraping
Heavy forgings are heated
bearings, assembling parts,
in furnaces, and hammered
and erecting are floor-work
and shaped by use of steam
processes, except in the case
of light machines, which are
hammers.
assembled at the Dench.

Plates are laid off to size and
shape; rivet holes located
ana punched;
punched
plates sheared to size and
shape and run through rolls
which give a circular form.

MACHINIST.

BLACKSMITH.

BOILER MAKER.

to fit, butt straps placed over
joints, bolted in position,
and holes in plates ana
strap reamed to match.
Rivets, heated red-hot, are
inserted from the inside,
held in position by bucking
irons, and headed up by
hand or power hammers.
The boiler is placed on
blocks, and tube sheets, fire
box, and other parts ntted
and fastened in.

RAILWAY CAR
PAINTER.

TINSMITH AND SHEETMETAL WORKER.

RIVETER AND
BUCKER.

The production of utensils of
tin or sheet metal, and the
covering of surfaces such as
roofs, doors, ceilings, or
walls with sheet metal. As
applied to the metal trade
and the car shops of Rich
mond, the work of tinsmithing and sheet-metal
working is specialized to
meet the requirements of
the industry as regards tin
or light sheet-metal work on
passenger, baggage, mail,
private, and refrigerator
cars, or as regards any re
pair work necessary around
the plant. The work is
considerably varied, owing
to the diversity of product.

Riveting together steel plates
or parts in building or re
pairing cars, boilers, and
engines, and in other work.
Riveting is forming the
head on the protruding end
of the soft-metal rivet, by
means of a special riveting
hammer, or automatic rivet
ing machine driven by air,
hydraulic, steam, or eleotric power.
Bucking is
holding the rivet in place
while the head is being
formed, and is done with a
hammer or bucking iron,
which is a heavy bar of iron
with a countersunk end fit
ting over the head of the
rivet.

Running lines of wrought iron, Repairing wood and steel Rubbing down car exteriors
cars, trucks, and air brakes.
brass, copper, or lead pipe,
with coarse and fine sand
for conveying gas, water,
The processes include re
paper; applying wood filler,
steam, or air, and making
placing end and longitudi
and three coats of body
necessary connections. The
nal sills, body bolsters,
color, each coat b e in g
processes include cutting the
n e e d le beams, crossties,
rubbed down with pumice
pipe into lengths with pipe
bulkheads, partitions, and
stone and water; putting on
cutters, threading the end
other parts in wood-car
exterior decorations of let
with hand or machine dies,
bodies; straightening sheets
tering and striping; and
bending pipe by hand or
and steel parts, riveting
varnishing entire car. In
machine, making joints with
terior woodwork is sand
plates and other similar
white lead, red lead, or
papered smooth, shellacked,
work on steel-car bodies;
gasket of various prepared
and given three coats of
repairing and building car
materials, and fitting or
varnish, each coat being
trucks, repairing and build
screwing on couplings, nip
rubbed
down with pumice
ing car platforms and steps;
stone and water. In refin
ples. ells, tees, or other con
applying and testing air
ishing
cars old paint is
nections with various kinds
brake rigging, except valve
removed and car scraped,
of wrenches. Workers spe
work; putting on hinges,
scrubbed,
and sandpajpered.
cialize to a greater or less
door locks and window
Steel cars are given nve or
extent in the several classes
locks, hand-baggage racks,
six
coats
of oody color;
of work.
cord hooks, lighting fixtures,
freight cars two coats. The
and other metal trimmings;
spraying
process
is not used
repairing
and
making
in Richmond shops.
chairs, tables, and desks,
and wood finishing in cars.

CAR REPAIRER.

PIPE FITTER.

MACHINE W OOD
WORKER (Car Shop).
Getting out material used in
repairing cars by operating
such machines as the follow
ing: Circular saws for cut
ting off, ripping, and sawing
angles; band saws for cut
ting angles and irregular
shapes; scroll saws for saw
ing curves and scrolls;
planers for cutting to re
quired thicknesses; jointers
for straightening, smooth-.
ing, and beveling edges;
mortising machines for cut
ting mortises; tenon ma
chines for cutting tenons;
molding machines for mak
ing ornamental moldings;
shapers for finishing edges
of work of irregular shapes;
sandpapering machines for
dressing surfaces; lathes,
boring machines, and va
rious automatic machines
for sharpening saws and
edged tools.

2 . Product or specialties.

Pure iron or muck iron in
plastic state.

Iron heated for rolling..

Bar, stay bolt, horse and mule
shoe, railroad spike and fish
plate iron.

Patterns of wood from which
castings are made.

Metal patterns from master
patterns.

Castings of iron.

Castings of brass, bronze,
aluminum, and sometimes
white metal.

Cores for molds for Iron, brass,
or other castings.

Varied: Includes locomotives,
sugar and cotton machinery,
cigarette machines, shot and
shell, novelties, and general
repair work.

Locomotive forgings, orna
mental and structural iron
work, horse and mule shoes,
and repair work.

Locomotive and stationary
boilers and their parts.

Surfaces covered with tin or
sheet metal, water covers
and drains, ventilators, en
gineers’ torches, and other
specialties.

Riveting steel plates on cars
and boilers, and riveting
engine parts.

Lines of connected pipe........... Repairing passenger, b a g gage, mail, and freight cars,
and cabooses.

Finishing and refinishing cars,

Material for repairing cars and
engine cabs.

3 . Im portance of trade (number
employed).

About 80, including puddlers,
helpers, and scrap heaters.

About 17, including heaters
and helpers.

About 12 rollers and 40 roll
hands.

About 50 journeymen and ap
prentices.

About 8 journeymen.

About 300 journeymen and
apprentices.

About 15 journeymen.

About 42 journeymen and ap
prentices.

About 1,150 journeymen and
apprentices.

About 400 journeymen and
apprentices.

About 375 journeymen and
apprentices.

About 56 journeymen and
apprentices reported in car
shops and 220 in the build
ing trades.

About 20 workers, most of
whom are apprentices or
learners in boiler making
and steel-car repair work.

About 20 journeymen and About 350 journeymen and
apprentices in the metal
apprentices,
trades, 90 in the building
trades.

About 70 journeymen and
apprentices.

About 50 journeymen and
apprentices.

Intense heat from the pud
dling furnace, especially in
the case of puddler who must
rabble the charge.

Exposure to heat, though not
so intense as in puddling,
causes severe nerve strain.

Running rolls at high rate of
speed in working heavy bars
of heated iron.

None.

None..

Continual bending and lifting
causes backache and physi
cal strain.

Bending and lifting of core
boxes cause backache.

Heavy lifting in some classes
of work.

Heavy work under prolonged
exposure to excessive heat.

Lifting, moving, and adjusting
heavy plates and parts, and
constant noise from ham
mers.

None.

Heavy lifting and constant
noise from hammers.

N o n e ........................................ . None...........................................

None.

(5) That stimulate intelligence
and interest.

Observation
of
chemical
changes which take place in
the furnace.

None to
extent.

Constant alertness is essential. Variety of problems presented
by the best class of work.

Diversity of process and the
skill required in all metalpattern work, especially in
stove-pattem work.

Diversity of processes and va
riety in high-class molding.

Variety in class of work done,
which is greater than in iron
molding.

Variety in work requiring con
siderable rodding and vent
ing.

Frequent change of work and
the requirements of certain
classes of work; for example,
the construction of compli
cated machinery and the
making of precision instru
ments, such as dies for dropforging, stimulate interest.

Diversity In the best class of
high-grade work, which calls
for the exercise of ingenuity
and skill.

The requirement of skill in
certain classes of work, such
as laying out, flange turning,
and the making of ventilators and stacks.

Variety in high-grade work.,

None.

Responsibility for high-grade The work is essentially varied,
work of varying character,
each job presenting an
original problem.

Diversity of processes.

Diversity of processes and
variety in class of work.

The work is exhausting and
unvarying in character.

Exhausting routine of hard
labor while exposed to in
tense heat.

Automatic character of work.

Specialization in one line of
work.

None.,

The monotony in low-grade
molding, where patterns are
not changed frequently.

Monotony in some lines of
low-grade work.

Repetitions in the making of
simple cores.

Specialization
work.

low-grade

Specialization in low-grade,
unvaried work.

Long continuance at one kind
of work, especially at work
such as riveting or chipping.

None.

Simplicity of work.

None........................................... None.

Specialization In rough work,
such as that done on freight
cars and trucks.

Restriction to one machine or
to one class of work.

(d) That are in other respects im
portant as affecting the
welfare of workers (i. e.,
liability to accident; occu
pational diseases).

Danger of accident, especially
of getting burned, is con
stant about the furnace and
in the handling of hot iron.

Danger of accident is constant.
In passing the hot bars
through the rolls the roller is
in danger of getting hit by
the hot iron, and of getting
caught in the rolls.

In some shops lack of safety
devices and of devices for
carrying off dust; and poor
light and ventilation.

Inhaling the fine dust that
arises from the filing and
scraping of the casting is in
jurious.

Infection of throat and lungs
by floating dust from min
eral facing; liability to bums
from molten metal in cases
of overflow or of improper
venting of molds or of im
proper handling of ladles;
exposure to dampness from
a n d and to heat from
molten metal.

To the extent that the molder
handles molten brass, the
fumes from the metal are
injurious. As is the case in
iron molding, there is danger
of infection of throat and
lungs by floating dust from
mineral facing, liability to
burns from molten metal,
and exposure to dampness
from sand and to heat from
molten metal.

Infection of throat and lungs
by floating dust from sand.
Some establishments are
poorly lighted and venti
lated and make inadequate
provision for washing.

Danger of accident from
cranes, chain and air hoists,
open gears, pulleys, belts,
and set screws: danger oi
injury from cast-iron dust,
where ventilation is insuffi
cient.

Danger of accident from im
proper striking by helper,
and of injury to eyes from
flying particles of steel.

Deafness is caused by the
noise of constant hammer
ing; colds and rheumatism
result from exposure to
drafts after becoming over
heated in the boiler.

None.

Deafness is caused by the
noise of constant hammer
ing.

In some repair work there is None,
danger of accident, or of in
fection from the poisonous
gases and disease germs of
waste matter; in ammonia
piping the ammonia fumes
anect the eyes.

Danger of occupational disease
is small, since the shops are
well ventilated, the paint
leadless, and the methods
such as to avoid creating
dust.

Dust raised in some processes
is injurious.

-No apprenticeship system..

No apprenticeship system.

No apprenticeship system..

$4 to $7.26 per week.
$5 to $8.57 per week.
$6 to $9.45 per week.
$7 to $11.09 per week

$4 per week............................
$5 per week..................................
$6 per week..............................
$7 to $9 per week.....................

$3 to
$4 to
$5 to
$6 to

$8 per week...
$10 per week..
$12 per week.,
$14 per week..

$3 to $8 per week........................
$4 to $10 per week.......................
$5 to $12 per week.......................
$6 to $14 per week.......................

$3 to $4 per week......................
$5 to $6 per week......................
$7 to $9 per week......................
$9 to $10.50 per week...............

$3 to $7.29 per week.................
$4 to $8.57 per week.................
$5 to $9.45 per week.................
$6 to $11.09 per week...............

$5.94 to $7.29 per week.........
$7.02 to $8.57 per week...............
$8.10 to $9.45 per week...............
$9.18 to $11.09 per week.............

$5.94 to $7.29 per week...
$7.02 to $8.57 per week...
$8.10 to $9.45 per week...
$9.18 to $11.09 per week..

$5 to $7.29 per week........
$6.25 to $8.57 per week...
$7.50 to $9.45 per week...
$8.75 to $11.09 per week..

►No apprenticeship system.,

*7 02 in Ir?7 Ep£ wpPk.............. $5‘94 1x3 *7-® Per ^ e k . . .
Is in to «
Ep£ wpph.............. $7.02 to $8.57 per week...
~ '.18
ir tn
.............$8.10
to $9.45
per week...
to $11.09 per week............
$9<1S tQ
$11<09^pei.
week^

$5.94 to $7.29 per week...............
$7.02 to $8.57 per week...............
$8.10 to $9.45 per week...............
$9.18 to $11.09 per wTeek.............

$6.21 per week.
$7 56 per week.
$8.86 per week.
$10.26 per week.

Helpers and scrap heaters,
$10.50 to $12 per week.
$15 to $18 per week....................
No union.....................................

$12 per week........................

$30 per week, paid by tonnage. $18 per week..............

$15 per week............................

$16.50 per week......

$16.50 per week............................

$16.50 per week.........................

25 cents per hour......................

$15 per week..........................

$18 per week............... .

$19.17 per week............. .

$15 per week.

$13.44 per week.............. ..............$11.61 per week.

$12.42 per week........................... $12.96 per week.

$32 per week........................
No union..............................

$39 per week,paid by tonnage. $22.50 per week.........
No union................................... . 40 cents per hour—

Not reported.,
Not reported.,

$30 per week...............................
Machine molding, daywork,
35.7 cents per hour; piece
work, minimum, 46.7 cents
per hour; stove molding, 50
cents per hour.

$22.50 per week.............................
Machine molding, daywork,
35.7 cents per hour; piece
work, minimum, 46.7 cents
per hour.

$24 per week..............................
Macnine work, daywork, 41
cents per hour; piecework,
by piece.

41 cents per hour......................
Minimum, 25 cents per hour.

$21.99 per week..................
$17.87 to $22.14 per week.

$23.09 per week................
$22.14 per week................

$22.14 per week.
$22.14 per week.

$18 per week.
No u n io n ....

$24 per week............................... m 30 r»er week
35 to 50 cents per hour.............. 135
s £p
35cenf
cents
per hour .

$19.71 per week...........................
37.7 cents per hour.....................

$18.90 per week.
$12.96 to $18.90 per week.

6 . Hours of labor (regular, per day;
per week; on Satoday).

No regular hours; the day's
work is done when the heat
is finished.

No regular hours; the day’s
work is done when the heat
is finished.

10 hours per day; 55 hours per
week; 5 hours on Saturday.

10 hours per day; 60 hours per
week; 10 hours on Satur
day.

Machine molders: 9 hours per
day; 50 hours per week; 5
hours on Saturday.

9 hours per day; 50 hours per
week; 5 hours on Saturday.

Usually about
hours per
day; core makers work Dy
piece and go home when
day’s task is finished.

8 to 10 hours per day; 48 to 60
hours per week; 8 to 10 hours
on Saturday; in summer
some shops work 8J hours 5
days and 5J hours on Satur
day.

9 to 10 hours per day; 54 to 60
hours per week; 9 to 10 hours
on Saturday.

>hours per day; 54 hours per
week; 9 hours on Saturday.

9 to 10 hours per day; 54 to 60
hours per week; 9 to 10 hours
on Saturday.

9 hours per day; 54 hours per
week; 9 hours on Saturday.

8J-to 9 hours Pe£ day; 48 1to>54 Q kours per day; 54 hours per
hours per week, 5* to 9 hours
week; 9 hours on Saturday,
on Saturday.

9 hours per day; 54 hours per
week; 9 hours on Saturday.

7 . Seasonal activity:
(a) Busy season___

N o seasonal period of activity.

No seasonal period of activity. . No seasonal period of activity.

N o seasonal period of activity.

No seasonal period of activity.

April to December, inclusive..

April to December, inclusive...

No seasonal period of activity.. No seasonal period of activity

No seasonal period of activity

No seasonal period of activity.

No seasonal period of activity. No seasonal period of activity.

N o seasonal slack period. . .

No seasonal slack period.........

January to March, inclusive...

January to March, inclusive___

No seasonal slack period.. .

No seasonal slack period.

No seasonal slack period..........

No seasonal slack period.........

No seasonal slack period.......... No seaSonal slack period...........

No seasonal slack period.. .

No seasonal slack period.

Inconsiderable but irregular... Inconsiderable but irregular..

Very considerable but irregu
lar.

Inconsiderable...........................

Considerable fluctuation in
amount of work, but equal
division of work among men
in union shops.

No marked seasonal period of
activity.
No marked seasonal slack
period.
Inconsiderable............................

No seasonal period of activity.. No seasonal period of activity.

No seasonal slack period.........

Practically none...................

Inconsiderable..........................

Inconsiderable............................

Practically none.......................

Inconsiderable..........................

Practically none.........................Practically none.........................

Practically none...................

Practically none.

No organization.,

No organization.

About three-fourths.,

No organization.

About three-fourths.

All in iron-molders’ union.

About three-fourths are in the
molders’ organization.

About three-fifths:.

About four-fifths.

The railroad shops, in which a
large majority work, aro
thoroughly organized.

Practically all are in the
boiler-makers’ organization.

No organization.-

Practically all are in the cnrrmlpfplv
plumbers’ and steam-fitters’ u>mPlete*y................
organization.

Practically all are in the car
men’s organization.

Completely.

4 . Conditions of em ploym ent—
(a) That involve physical or
nervous strain.

5 . W age s:
Apprentices—
(а) Beginning wage..
(б) Second-year wage
(c) Third-year wage.,
(d) Fourth-year wage
Journeymen—
(e) Minimum wage..
( /) Maximum wage..
(g) Union scale..........

(5) Slack season.........................

8 . Extent to w hich tlie trade is
organized.

No organization.,

9 . Entrance a g e .............................

any

considerable

seasonal period of activity

16 to 25 years.............

16 to 18 years.............

14 to 16 years.............

16 to 18 years.............

15 to 17 years.............

16 to 20 years.............

From 16 years up..................... .

16 to 20 years...........

No age specified.......

16 to 21 years...............................16 to 18 years...............

16 to 18 years..............................

16 to 18 years.

1 0 . Years required to learn tra d e ... 2 years........................

2 to 3 years.................

2 years........................

4 years........................

4 y e a r s .....................

4 years........................

4 years.........................................

4 years........................

Indeterminate..........

4 years.......................................... 4 years..........................

4 years..........................................

4 years.

1 1 . Age of m a x im u m productivity. 25 to 55 years of age.

25 to 55 years of age.

20 to 40 years of age.

22 to 45 years of age.

22 to 45 years of age .

20 to 50 years of age.

25 to 55 years of age.

22 to 45 years of age.

25 to 55 years of age.................

21 to 45 years of age.,

25 to 50 years of age.

21 to 45 years of age...................25to55 years of age.

1 2 . Is supply of labor adequate to
m eet d e m a n d ? (Cause of de
ficiency, if any.)

Adequate...................

Adequate................................... .

Adequate...................

Adequate..................

Adequate...................................Adequate.....................

1 3 . Is d em and for labor increasing
or decreasing?

Stationary.

Stationary...

Stationary.

Increasing for highly skilled
workers and for machine
specialists.

Increasing gradually.

Increasing gradually, because
of introduction of steel cars.

Stationary.

Increasing gradually.

Stationary.

1 4 . W h a t is the source of supply?

To a considerable extent men
from other sections of the
country.

Unskilled workers..,

Unskilled workers..

Apprentices..

Apprentices, recruited from
the lower grammar grades.

Apprentices,recruited from the
lower grammar grades.

Apprentices, recruited from
the lower grammar grades.

Apprentices and, to a limited
extent, drifting machinists.

Apprentices, recruited from
the lower grammar grades.

Casual labor.

Apprentices, recruited from

• Decreasing for wood-car re
pair men, and increasing for
steel-car repair men,

lower Erammar «Tades-

t&> lower g r S f r i r a S

25 to 55 years of age..................

25 to 55 years of age.

Adequate....................................

Adequate.

Stationary...................................

Decreasing because of intro
duction of steel cars.

Casual la b o r ; apprentices,
recruited from the lower
grammar grades.

Casual l a b o r ; apprentices,
recruited from the lower
grammar grades.

FINDINGS ABOUT EDUCATION FOR OPERATIVES IN THE METAL TRADES.
15 . W h a t does worker need to prop
erly equip h im for trade?
(a) General education...............
An elementary school educa
tion.
(5) Trade and technical educa
tion.

Instruction as to construction,
lining, and charging of fur
naces. and as to the process
of boiling; metallurgy and
chemistry of the trade and
the theory of iron making;
mechanical drawing.

An elementary school educa
tion.

An elementary education, ad
vanced mathematics, and
mechanical drawing.

An elementary school educa
tion.

An elementary school educa An elementary school educa
tion.
tion.

An elementary school educa
tion.

An elementary school educa An elementary school educa
tion.
tion.

An elementary school educa
tion.

Instruction as to construction
and operation of furnace, and
of the processes immediately
involved; some knowledge
of metallurgy, of the chem
istry of the trade, and of the
theory of iron making; me
chanical drawing.

Instruction as to the construc
tion, adjustment, and opera
tion of the rolls; someknowledge of allied processes and
of the theory of iron making;
mechanical drawing.

Instruction in blue-print read
ing, mechanical drawing,
and shop mathematics; in
struction as to foundry prac
tice and methods of con
structing patterns in con
formity with that practice;
instruction as to the quali
ties of woods and as to selec
tion of woods for patterns in
different classes of work;
instruction as to the shrink
age of metals, the proper
use of glue, screws, and fil
lets, and the methods of so
constructing and finishing
patterns as to resist mois
ture and hard usage.

Instruction In blue-print read
ing. mechanical drawing
ana shop mathematics; in
struction as to foundry prac
tice, the shrinkage of metals,
and the use of metal-working
hand and machine tools.

Instruction as to use of follow A knowledge of the processes
boards, handling flasks, set
and of foundry practice as in
ting cores, venting molds of
iron molding, metallurgy,
different classes, selecting
and chemistry of the trade,
sand, ramming molds, ana
especially as regards alloys;
use of chaplets; metallurgy
some shop mathematics and
and chemistry of the trade,
mechanical drawing.
including especially a knowl
edge of alloys, some shop
mathematics and mechani
cal drawing.

Instruction as to the proper
venting and rodding of cores,
and as to selection of sand,
and in general a trade ana
technical
knowledge
of
metallurgy, trade chemis
try, and knowledge of the
whole process of molding;
mechanical drawing.

Instruction as to strength and
other qualities of materials,
as to speeds at which vari
ous metals should be w ork ed,
as to uses of high and of low
carbon steels, and as to uses
and working of alloy steels:
metallurgy, m e c h a n i c a l
drawing, and shop mathe
matics.

Instruction as to construction
and operation of forges, as to
effect upon metal of heat
ing to different temperatures
and methods of tempering
to secure special qualities in
steel to suit i t to special uses,
as to methods of working
metal at different heats, and
as to proper construction
and design of utensils forged;
metallurgy and mechanical,
drawing.

Instruction as to the processes
immediately involved in the
construction of boilers, as to
strength of materials, as to
the principles of construc
tion of different types of
boilers, and as to principles
of steam engineering; me
chanical drawing, blue-print
reading, and shop mathe
matics.

Instruction as to the multifa
rious uses to which tin and
sheet metal are put, as to
the composition, weights,
and qualities of the sheets,
as to pattern drafting and
cutting, as to the processes
of cutting, shaping, and sol
dering sheet metal, and as to
use of special tools; shop
mathematics and mechan
ical drawing; the trade
knowledge required for
work in the railroad shops,
as compared with that re
quired in the building
trades, is of a special charac
ter.

None beyond a knowledge of
the processes immediately
involved, except as a prep
aration for some allied occu
pation.

Instruction as to the use of In wood-car repair work the
trade and technical knowl
special tools and dies for cut
edge of the carpenter in the
ting pipe and threading the
building trades is required;
ends and as to methods of
in steel-car repair work the
making connections and
trade and technical knowl
running lines of pipe; me
edge of certain classes of
chanical drawing; in some
metal workers is required;
work ability to estimate
in
addition, special knowl
for heating plants is essen
edge is required of the con
tial; each class of work re
struction
and operation of
quires special trade and
brakes, trucks, and of all car
technical knowledge, as, for
appliances;
shop mathemat
example, regarding the prin
ics, mechanical drawing,
ciples involved in the vari
blue-print
reading,
and esti
ous systems of heating and
mating.
of refrigerating.

In general the trade and tech Instruction as to the construc
tion and operation of a great
nical knowledge of the
variety of woodworking ma
painter, including a knowl
chines,
of the methods of
edge of the composition and
laying out work, of blue
use of varnish and paint re
print reading, mechanical
movers and of wood fillers,
drawing and shop mathe
of methods of removing old
matics; since much of the
finishes and of preparing
work may be done in vari
surfaces for new finishes, of
ous ways a thorough knowl
the composition and mixing
edge of the specific uses of
of paints, oils, and turpen
each tool and machine is re
tines, of the preparation, and
quired to avoid waste of
laying of quick and slow
labor
and time.
drying varnishes, and of the
jrinciples of color harmony:
ree-hand and mechanical
drawing, and estimating.

An elementary school educa
tion.

In working the boiling metal
into a plastic ball, and in
manipulating the ball.

A sufficient amount of skill to
avoid accident.

In passing metal through the
rolls and in catching the
heated bars.

In handling a great variety of
hand tools and machines.

In handling tools and in braz
ing metals.

Usually a high degree of manip
ulative skill is required.

Usually no high degree of Usually no high degree of
manipulative skill is re- ; manipulative skill is re
quired.
quired.

In handling p ie c e s b e in g
worked, and a great variety
of tools; in operating ma
chines of various types.

Some classes of work require a
high degree of manipulative
skill in handling and shap
ing the heated metal.

In adjusting plates and bands,
and in operating special ma
chines.

In cutting, shaping, soldering,
and applying the sheets.

Dexterity in handling hot
rivets and a few tools.

In using special tools and in
making connections.

In the use of a great variety of
tools.

In handling brushes, espe
cially in fine finish work,
and in laying on varnishes.

In the operation of powerdriven woodworking ma
chines.

(d) Other requirements: Quali
ties essential, such as ac
curacy, etc.

Strength and endurance.,

Strength, endurance, and color
sense.

Strength, endurance,
quickness.

and

Accuracy, patience, special
adaptability, dexterity, and
keenness of sight.

Accuracy, endurance, dex
terity, and keenness of sight.

Strength and endurance..

Adaptability, initiative, in
ventiveness, strength, dex
terity, and accuracy oi eye

Strength, endurance, dex
terity, and accurate color
sense.

Strength and endurance..

Dexterity and accuracy.

Strength and endurance..

Strength, initiative, and judg Initiative, strength, endur
ance, and accuracy.
ment.

Artistic sense as regards color
harmony and design; accu
racy.

Strength, endurance, and ac
curacy.

No apprenticeship system.

No apprenticeship system .... No apprenticeship system----- Apprenticeship period of 4
years.

Apprenticeship period of 4
years.

Apprenticeship period of 4
years; in some shops written
agreements to teach ap
prentices, in other shops only
verbal agreements.

Apprenticeship period of 4
years; the number of ap
prentices is restricted in ac
cordance with union pro
visions.

Apprenticeship period of 4
years.

No apprenticeship system..

Apprenticeship period of 4
years.

(6) Provision made in shops for
systematic instruction of
apprentices.

No apprentices..

No provision..

No provision.

No provision..

No provision.

In railroad shops and locomo
tive works apprentices are
required to attend some
night school or to attend cor
respondence school classes,
for which the boys pay $2 a
month and the company
gives one-half hour a day.

No provision.

Railroad shops require ap
prentices to take correspond
ence school, Y . M. C. A ., or
Virginia Mechanics’ Insti
tute courses—not necessarily
courses pertaining to their
trade.

No apprentices.,

No provision in a majority of
the shops; railroad shops re
quire apprentices to take
correspondence s c h o o l ,
Y . M. C. A ., or Virginia Me
chanics’ Institute courses—
not necessarily courses per
taining to their trade.

Apprentices work 6 months on
trucks, 6 months on rough
work, 3 months on platform
and steps, 3 months at laying
off, 6 months on engine work,
12 months on outside and 12
months on inside passengercar work.

No provision..

No provision.

The knowledge necessary for
the practice of the trade can
be acquired in the shop.

Knowledge of the trade is ac
quired by the helper in as
sisting the heater.

The knowledge necessary for
the practice of the trade can
be acquired in the shop.

That trade knowledge which
pertains to special lines of
work; much depends, how
ever, upon the intelligence
and disposition of the fore
man ana of fellow workers
and upon the class of work
done in the shop.

A knowledge of the mechanical Very little trade or technical
knowledge is given by the
industry, except where the
class of work done is of an
exceptionally high grade
and varied.

A knowledge of the processes to
the extent that tne work is
varied and of a high class.

Very little trade or technical
knowledge is given by the
industry, except where the
class of work is of an excep
tionally high grade and
varied.

Depends upon extent to which
work is specialized, character
of work done, and intelli
gence and disposition of fore
man; in most shops only an
inconsiderable amount of
technical knowledge can be
acquired.

Depends upon *the class of
work done and the extent
to which the work is special
ized; no knowledge of the
trade beyond that required
by the class of work done is
given by the industry.

None beyond that which is
immediately incidental to
the work.

The necessary trade knowl
edge under favorable condi
tions and where the foreman
is intelligent and disposed to
give instructions.

No trade or technical knowl
edge.

Acknowledge of the mechan
ical processes,but very little
of the technical knowledge
required in many lines of
work.

The necessary trade knowl
edge can be acquired in
practice.

Only that amount of trade
knowledge is given by the
industry which is immedi
ately incidental to the work.

Only the knowledge required
to run the worlsTthrough the
machines.

(d) Manipulative skill..

All that the trade requires.,

All that the trade requires..

Practice in the use of hand and
machine tools.

All that is required by the
class of work done.

Where the work is varied and
not specialized or where the
worker shifts from shop to
shop.

The degree of manipulative
skill required by the special
line of work done in the shop.

To the extent that manipula
tive skill is needed, it can be
acquired in the shop.

All that the trade requires. . .

All that the trade requires

All that the trade requires.

All that the trade requires. . .

All that the trade requires.

(e) Extent to which trade can be
learned in the shop.

Entirely.

Entirely..

The practical part as regards
special lines of work can be
learned in the shop.

The mechanical processes can
be learned in the shop where
conditions are favorable and
the work varied.

The practical part as regards
special lines of work can be
learned in the shop.

The practical part as regards
special lines of work.

The practical part as regards
special lines of work can be
learned in the shop.

The trade can not be learned
in the shop, except as re
gards the practical require
ments of special lines of
work.

The practical but not the tech
nical part; very few shops
provide that instruction and
training in annealing, hard
ening, and tempering metals
which might profitably be
given.

The practical part only..

The practical part entirely___

Entirely.

Only the practical part in any
line of work; in special lines
an insufficient knowledge
of the practical requirements,
as. for example, in the case of
estimating for and installing
various heating, refrigerat
ing, and compressed-air sys
tems.

The practical part entirely.

The knowledge gained in
practice is insufficient to
make the painter an artistic
workman; in R ic h m o n d
shops there is, moreover, a
considerable amount of spe
cialization, one man putting
on body color, another let
tering and striping, another
stainmg and varnishing in
teriors.

A knowledge of the operation
of machines, but none of the
technical knowledge relat
ing to woodworking.

(/) Provision made in the shops
for systematic instruction
of journeymen.
(g) Line of promotion....................

No provision..

No provision.

No provision..

No provision.

No provision..

No provision.,

No provision.

No provision............................

No provision.,

No provision..

No provision.,

No provision.

puddler’s

Second helper, first helper,
heater.

Roll hand, catcher, rougher,
roller.

Apprentice, journeyman, fore
man.

Apprentice, Journeyman, cast
ing inspector, foreman.

Apprentice, Journeyman, fore
man.

Apprentice, journeyman, fore
man.

Tool-room boy, drill-press
hand, shaper hand, lathe
hand, slotter hand, assem
bling hand, erecting hand,
gang foreman, general fore
man, master mechanic.

Apprentice, journeyman, fore
man.

A p p r e n t ic e , joumeymai
boiler inspector, foreman.

Apprentice, journeyman, fore
man.

To gang boss.,

Apprentice, journeyman, fore
man.

Few workers possess the phys
ical strength and endurance
required, or sufficient gen
eral education to advance in
the trade.

Few workers possess the phys
ical strength and endurance
required, or sufficient gen
eral education to advance in
their trade.

ical strength and endurance
required in their work.

Deficiency
in
mechanical
drawing and in shop mathe
matics.

Deficiency in mechanical
drawing and in shop mathe
matics.

Deficiency in arithmetic, blue
print reading, and in general
education.

Deficiency in blue-print read
ing. arithmetic, and in gen
eral education.

Deficiency in blue-print read
ing ana in general educa
tion.

Deficiency in shop mathema
tics, mechanical drawing,
and in general education.

Deficiency in mathematics
and mechanical drawing, of
skill in annealing, harden
ing. and tempering metals,
and of general education.

Deficiency
in mechanical
drawing and shop mathe
matics required for laying
out work and in general
education.

Deficiency of skill in pattern
drafting and of mathematics
required in laying out work.

Deficiency in general educa
tion required for advance
ment in trade.

Deficiency in technical knowl
edge required in installing
various neating, refrigerat
ing, and compressed-air sys
tems.

Deficiency in
mechanical
drawing, blue-print read
ing, shop mathematics, and
general education.

Deficiency of skill in mechan
ical and free-hand drawing,
of knowledge required for
estimating, of artistic sense,
and of general education.

Deficiency in
mechanical
drawing, blue-print read
ing, shop mathematics, and
general education.

Complete grammar-school gen
eral education; prevocational courses in metalwork
ing.

Complete _
eral education; prevocational courses in metal work
ing.

Complete grammar-school ed
ucation; p r e v o c a t i o n a l
courses in metal working.

Com-,
eral education; mechanical
drawing; p r e v o c a tio n a l
courses in woodworking.

Complete grammar-school
general education; mechani
cal drawing; prevocational
courses in metal working.

Complete grammar-school gen
eral education; mechanical
drawing; p r e v o c a t io n a l
courses in metal working.

Complete grammar -s c h o o l Complete grammar -s c h o o l
general education* mechani
general education; mechani
cal drawing; a d v a n c e d
cal drawing; prevocational
courses in metal working.
courses in mathematics,
including trigonometry.

Complete gramm ar-school
general education; mechani
cal drawing; prevocational
courses in metal working.

Complete gram m ar-school
general education; mechani
cal drawing; prevocational
courses in metal working.

Complete gram m ar-school
general education; mechani
cal drawing; prevocational
courses in woodworking.

Complete gram m ar-sch ool
general education; mechani
cal drawing; prevocational
courses in designing and
painting.

Complete gram m ar-school
general education; mechani
cal drawing; prevocational
courses in woodworking.

Specialized courses covering
the trade and technical re
quirements of iron-making
trades.

Specialized courses covering
the trade and technical re
quirements of pattern mak
ing.

Specialized courses covering
the trade and technical re
quirements of molding.

Specialized courses covering
the trade and technical re
quirements of molding and
core making.

Specialized courses covering
the trade and tecJmical re
quirements of the machinist
trade.

Specialized courses covering
the trade and technical re
quirements of blacksmithing

Specialized courses covering
the trade and technical re
quirements of boiler making.

Specialized courses covering
the trade and technical re
quirements of tinsmithing
and sheet-metal working.

Specialized courses covering
the trade and technical re
quirements of boiler making
or some allied occupation.

Specialized courses covering
the trade and technical re
quirements of various classes
of work.

Specialized courses covering
the trade and technical re
quirements of car-repair
work.

Specialized courses covering
the trade and technical re
quirements of the occupa
tion.

Specialized courses covering
the trade and technical re
quirements of the wood
working trades.

Where shopwork is special
ized or of a low grade, the
school should provide oppor.tunity for acquiring skill in
high-grade work.

Opportunity for acquiring fa
cility in different classes of
work.

Some practice in different
classes of work.

Some p r a c t ic e in different
classes of work.

Some practice in different
classes of work.

Some training to offset special
ization in tne shops.

Some training to offset special
ization in the shops.

Opportunity for acquiring
facility in the operation of
various tools and machines.

Opportunity for acquiring
facility in the use of special
tools.

Opportunity for acquiring
facility in the operation of
various tools and machines.

Opportunity for acquiring
facility in the use of special
tools.

Opportunity for acquiring
facility in the use of special
tools and machines.

In designing and lettering.,

Opportunity for acquiring
facility in the operation of
special machines.

Mechanical drawing; shop
mathematics; air-brake in
struction.

Mechanical and free-hand
drawing; design; color har
mony; paint mixing; courses
covering the composition of
materials, methods of estimatirg, and hygiene of the
trade.

Mechanical drawing;
mathematics.

Same as III for apprentices;
advanced
special
trade
courses in carpentering and
in metal work for journey
men.

Same as III for apprentices;
advanced
special
trade
courses for journeymen.

1 6 . W h at the industry gives:
(a) Conditions of apprenticeship.

1 7 . C o m m o n deficiencies of work
ers.

1 8 . Suggestions fro m the trade as
to w hat school o u g h t to give:
I. Before entering the shop.........

n . After entering the shop—
(a) Trade and technical
knowledge.

Scrap heater or
helper, puddler.

(&) Manipulative skill..

III. Nature of part-time courses
needed.

IV . Nature of evening school
courses needed.

6071°—Bull. 162—16.

Metallurgy; mechanical draw
ing; shop mathematics; the
history and theory of iron
making.

Mechanical drawing; shop
mathematics; courses deal
ing with the qualities of
woods, glues, and varnishes,
with the shrinkage of metals
and with the theory and
practice of molding, so far as
this bears upon pattern
making.

Mechanical drawing, shop
mathematics, metallurgy,
and the theory and practice
of molding, so far as this
bears upon pattern making.

Metallurgy, with especial ref
erence to metals and alloys
used in casting, shop mathe
matics, mechanical drawing,
and courses covering the his
tory and theory of molding.

Metallurgy, with especial ref
erence to metals and alloys
used in casting, shop mathe
matics, mechanical drawing,
and courses covering the
history and theory of mold
ing.

Courses dealing with the con
struction of cores and with
nature of the materials used;
mechanical drawing, shop
mathematics, and courses
covering the history and
theory of molding.

Shop mathematics; mechan
ical drawing; metallurgy;
c o u r s e s d e a li n g with
strength of materials, design
and uses of machines, jigs,
and shop tools, methods of
rigging for work, speeds and
feeds for various metals, and
construction of engines.

Metallurgy; mechanical draw
ing; shop mathematics;
courses covering the theory
and practice of annealing,
hardening, and tempering oi
metals, and the history and
theory of iron making.

Mechanical drawing; shop
mathematics; boiler con
struction; the history and
theory of steam engines.

Mechanical drawing; pattern
designing; shop mathemat
ics; methods of laying out
work.

Mechanical drawing; shop
mathematics; boiler con
struction; the history and
theory of steam engines.

Mechanical drawing; courses
covering the theory of vari
ous heating and refrigerat
ing systems; methods of esti
mating for heating plants.

Same as III.

Same as III, for apprentices;
advanced special t r a d e
courses, covering modern
shop practice, for journey
men.

Same as III for apprentices;
advanced
special
trade
courses for journeymen.

Same as III for apprentices;
advanced
special
trade
courses, covering modern
shop practice, for journey
men.

Same as III for apprentices;
advanced
special
trade
courses for journeymen.

Same as III for 'apprentices;
advanced
special
trade
courses, covering modem
shop practice, for journey
men.

Same as III for apprentices;
advanced
special
trade
courses, covering modem
shop practice, for journey
men.

Same as III for apprentices;
advanced
special
trade
courses covering modem
shop practice, for journey
men.

Same as III for apprentices;
advanced
special
trade
courses, covering modem
methods, for journeymen.

Same as III for apprentices;
advanced
special
trade
courses, covering modern
methods, foy journeymen.

Same as I I I .

Same as III for apprentices;
advanced
special
trade
courses, covering modern
methods, for journeymen.

(To face page 226.)

shop

APPENDIX E.— ANALYSIS OF OCCUPATIONS IN DEPARTMENT
STORES IN RICHMOND.
GENERAL SUMMARY OF OCCUPATIONS.
STORE ORGANIZATION.

The modem department store is a complex business organization. The many
departments, in some instances 40 or more in number, each one of which is a store in
itself, require extensive executive or administrative, office, and distributing forces as
weil as a large force of sales persons to carry on the work of each department and
the departments collectively.
A department store with its aggregation of small stores can not succeed except
through a strong central organization which holds the departments together and
standardizes, so to speak, the service of the whole store. This central organization is
the executive or administrative force and its means of accomplishing its work is the
store system. The executive force determines the policy of the store in all matters
of buying, arrangement of departments, management, handling of customers and the
like. This executive force includes the owners or directors of the store, the store
superintendent and the manager, as a rule, and not infrequently includes also buyers,
heads of departments and others who may be qualified to speak on matters of organiza
tion and management.
Department organization is also important, and although worked out with as much
care as the organization of the store, it is less complex and less difficult to manage.
The organization of the specialty store is somewhat departmental in character and
therefore much like that of the department store, but owing to the fact that depart
ments are fewer in number and the character of the stock less varied than in the
department store, the organization is much less complicated. The same general plan
as used in the department store is carried out on a smaller scale.
The general dry-goods store which is in a state of transition from the old-fashioned
general store to the more modem type of organization combines somewhat the depart
ment plan and the classified stock plan without a definite department organization.
In these stores executives are few. Where departments are used, there is a head for
each, the buyer usually acting in this capacity, and the other part of the store is in
charge of a manager.
Both the general store and the specialty store use, however, the modem store system
of accounting for sales, etc., though usually one less complicated than the type used
in the department store. The relation of employer to employee is more intimate
in these stores—employees as a rule being known personally by their employers—a
fact which probably makes the large executive force and elaborate store system less
necessary.
CLASSIFICATION OF OCCUPATIONS.

In this classification, the specialty store and the general dry-goods store have been
included, for the chief difference between the occupations in all the stores is the
amount rather than the kind of experience and service required. For the purpose of
this study which is concerned mainly with the sales force and the kind of training for
their work that may be given, the occupations of the store have been classified as
follows:
The executive positions.—The men and women engaged in administrative work have
been placed in this class. These are managers, superintendents, floor men, heads of
departments, and advertising managers.

227

228

B U L L E T IN OF T H E BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

The selling occupations.—These include the men and women who sell goods, care for
the stock and look after the order and arrangement of their several departments.
These workers are buyers, heads of stock, stock keepers, markers, and sales persons of
several classes or grades, including learners, specialty sales persons, and general sales
persons.
The nonselling occupations, which are concerned with the actual handling of the
goods, include the workers in the receiving and delivering departments. These
departments vary in organization in the various stores studied but the differences are
largely a matter of size and number rather than character, hence the divisions apply in
the main to all stores. Check boys and girls are put in this class, as in Richmond
these young people frequently do the wrapping of the packages for the sales person
or for the delivery room.
The office occupations.—The office force includes all those workers who have to do
with the accounting for the goods, such as cashier, bookkeeper, transfer clerk, mail
order clerk, and charge clerk, including the stenographer who writes the letters and
the telephone girl who answers the store’s telephone calls.
The alteration department.—The alteration department is really a manufacturing
department and employs productive workers, fitters and sewers who are not neces
sarily or distinctly a department store group though they are rapidly becoming so.
ANALYSIS OF STORE OCCUPATIONS.

This study is concerned, as has been previously noted, with the department of
salesmanship including such learners as checkers, bundle wrappers, assistant stock
keepers, and markers, as these workers enter the selling occupations-more frequently
than any of the other workers. In order to give a view of store work as a whole, how
ever, all occupations are analyzed briefly and selling occupations more minutely.
Executive Positions.

Executives without exception are men and women who have risen from the ranks
of store workers. These people have had experience in the line of store work which
they are directing and frequently have had experience in other departments of store
work. Buyers, heads of departments, and managers are drawn mainly from the sales
force of the department or the store in which they are employed or from the sales
force of some other store engaged in the same line of business.
The manager is the merchandising executive. He directs the buying and selling
of merchandise through buyers and heads of departments. The advertising manager
and display men are also responsible to him for their work. He determines the kind
of merchandise the store shall carry, the division of merchandise among departments,
the amount of stock to be carried, and the advertising policy to be used for the store.
The manager knows markets and merchandise; he understands business conditions;
and he knows how to interpret the sales, losses, and demands of the business he
directs. To be a successful executive, the manager must be a student of merchan
dising and business conditions. He must have sufficient knowledge of accounting
to understand the statements of the firm. In addition to the larger business quali
fications he must have ability to deal with the buyers and heads of departments.
The superintendent has charge of the care of the building. He employs new workers
and places them in the departments and dismisses employees. He has charge of the
administration of the store system of sales slips, charges, credits, refunds, and also of
the delivery department. He decides questions about the store system that may
arise in the daily routine. He has general supervision of the delivery department
and decides upon changes that may be made in the delivery system. Many details
of management connected with the daily routine of the departments, the manage
ment of crowds on sales days and during the holiday season, and the enforcement
of store rules and discipline of workers are also included in his duties.

VO CATION AL EDU CATION SURVEY OF R IC H M O N D , VA.

229

The superintendent must know how to deal with people. He must be able to
judge of their capacity and suitability for the work when employing them, determine
to some extent the type of work the applicant may be expected to do, enforce the
store rules, and administer discipline with firmness and fairness. The superintendent
who is successful combines these factors of training, experience, and education with
that quality called personality, so highly valued but difficult to define, which enables
him to administer business shrewdly, deal with employees fairly, and give the
customer a maximum of comfort in shopping and satisfaction in purchases made.
Men holding these administrative positions who have had less than high-school
training say that they have made up as far as possible for the education they lacked
by reading, study of practical affairs, and attention to business. Without exception
men in these positions interviewed for this study said that a good fundamental educa
tion of high-school grade or more, if of a practical sort, is necessary for the success of
younger men entering business of the present day.
Floor men.—Floor men manage what may be called the store traffic. They direct
customers, see that customers have attention, distribute sales persons through the
department when for any reason one part of the department is crowded with sales
persons and other parts left without workers, sign sales slips when necessary, and
attend to the enforcement of general rules pertaining to that part of the store. The
floor man must have had at least a grammar school or high-school education, prefer
ably both. He must have a general knowledge of the stock in the departments on his
floor,1 have some knowledge about goods and taste in displaying them, for it is fre
quently his duty to criticise and suggest ways of displaying stock. He must also
know the location of all departments and have a general idea of the kind of stock in
each, so as to be able to answer requests intelligently and direct customers. The floor
man must also know how to manage the employees in the departments on his floor.
The floor man may or may not have had experience in buying goods and selling. One
who has had this experience is considered much more desirable than the one who has
had no experience in handling merchandise. In Richmond floor men are sales
persons and clerks who have risen from the ranks, but more often they are men who
have worked in rural stores or as traveling salesmen and agents.
Department heads.—Department heads are essentially sales persons as their work has
to do with the handling and selling of merchandise, and although their work is largely
executive in character it is also selling inasmuch as it is administrative selling. This
occupation which is an important one both from the standpoint of the store and the
employee, is discussed in detail under the sales force.
Advertising manager.—The advertising manager is an important person in the
up-to-date store, for he is the one who informs the public what his store offers for sale.
He classifies the stock for advertising as far as classification is necessary, makes the
advertising “ write u p ” or supervises it, supervises or does the illustrating for the
advertisements, and attends to the details of securing and contracting for “ space” in
daily papers, magazines, or other media of advertisement. When the store is very
large and the system of advertising large and complicated, the illustrating may be
done under the direction of the advertising man and the contracting for space by the
business manager. An advertising manager should have a good academic education
of high-school grade and special instruction along the lines of advertising. He should
know enough about the various kinds of stock to be able to handle accurately and
acceptably to both the store and the customer the data relating to the goods to be
advertised which the heads of departments and buyers prepare for that purpose.
When illustrations are part of the advertising scheme, he must know how to make
sketches, or how to direct the work, or how to judge the worth of sketches. The
advertising man must know how to figure space for his advertisement, how to allot
i The term “ floor” is used to designate the part of the store which the floor man has in charge and
frequently is not more than two departments on a floor containing many departments.

230

B U L L E T IN OF T H E B U R E A U OF LABOR STATISTICS.

it to the various departments, and how to “ feature” special and seasonable stock.
He acquires his knowledge of the work in many ways. He may have gained some of it
through selling and handling of merchandise; he may have had special instruction
in advertising including illustrating, or have made special study, as much has been
written on the subject in recent years; and he may have had practical business experi
ence of an administrative character which contributed to his training.
Selling Occupations.

It is the business of the sales force to sell goods or to contribute directly to the making
of sales. Sales persons are divided into five general classes, viz, buyers and heads of
stock who assist in selling in rush times, general sales persons, specialty sales persons,
and table or aisle sales persons. While this classification applies to all departments,
no two departments can be said to require the same kind of ability, hence in a com
prehensive study of store occupations, the duties of five classes or grades of sales
people should be defined in detail for each department. While such study is desirable,
the time available for this study did not permit of work in such minute detail. The
duties of these workers were studied in many departments and those factors which
apply to all are reported.
Buyers.—The buyers determine the amount and kind of goods to be purchased for
their respective departments including replacing of stock and selecting new lines to
be put in the departments, purchase the goods for their departments, check up goods
received, and attend to the details of price setting and marking of goods. Buyers in
the smaller stores frequently act as sales persons during odd hours, look after special
customers occasionally, if special attention is necessary, and assist in the selling on sale
days. Successful buyers must have an education of not less than the grammar-school
grade, preferably of high-school grade which enables them to use all common branches
with facility, especially in their application to accepted business usages including a
working knowledge of commercial forms such as bills, business letters, checks, etc.
Training and experience in handling and selling merchandise are also essential.
Buyers must know how to study and interpret demand and sales, for the buying is
done on the basis of what the public wants. From a study of sales slips, the observing
buyer realizes that customers frequently buy what they can get and not what they
want. A good buyer studies this aspect of selling and uses it in making a choice of
stock both for replacing and for stock of new type or style.
In addition to this knowledge of sales, the demand of the customers, and the kinds,
value, and selling qualities of stock in the department, the details of which are gath
ered largely from the sales persons in the department, the intelligent, progressive
buyer knows many of the details of the manufacture of the stock handled, such as the
kinds and source of raw materials used, processes of manufacture, especially those
that determine different kinds and qualities, changes made in the product from year
to year, and any other details that tend to give an all-round knowledge of the stock.
This kind of knowledge is being looked upon with increasing favor, as customers have
much more confidence in the person who knows with some degree of accuracy the es
sential points in the goods.
General education should be acquired in school before going to work, though among
the older successful buyers the education has been interrupted with work; business
knowledge, forms, and customs may be acquired to some extent in commercial courses,
but by far the greater part is gained, under present conditions, in the store while
actually engaged in the work; knowledge and interpretation of demands and sales is
gained by experience almost exclusively since these factors vary largely in the stores
and in different localities and permit of no very useful general rules that may be
learned apart from actual experience; much of the knowledge of the stock, its manu

VO CATION AL EDU CATION SURVEY OF R IC H M O N D , VA.

231

facture, etc., is gained through much handling and incidental information picked up
from time to time by the observant buyer, but this is frequently supplemented by
printed information prepared by manufacturers, by technical or general books dealing
with subjects pertaining to the stock and by lectures or courses of instruction given
for the purpose. These courses are increasing in popularity and when well organized,
and the instruction good, are a real source of help to the ambitious successful buyer.
Head of stock.—The head of stock takes care of the stock in the department and
keeps close watch upon the reserve stock so as to be sure that the supply is always in
right proportion to the demand. The head of stock is usually the most reliable and
experienced sales person in the department. Working under the direction of the head
of stock, the sales persons also care for stock, each one, including the head of stock,
having charge, as a rule, of a section of the stock.
Practically all stock is looked over, dusted, freshened if possible, rearranged, price
tags readjusted, superfluous cards, papers, tags, etc., removed every day. At the same
time stock is replenished from the reserve stock, remnants sifted out and made ready
for disposal, odd ends of stock prepared for sale or sent to other departments where
special provisions are made for the disposal of such stock, empty boxes, papers, etc.,
carried away, and old defaced boxes, cards, etc., replaced. This is done in the early
morning before customers begin to arrive and is considered a very important part of
successful store management.1
The amount of stock both in the department and in reserve is noted daily and
reported to the head of stock who reports to the buyer.
In addition to these routine duties there is also the mending of stock, such as sewing
on buttons, repairing rips, matching up stock, as pairing of shoes and to some extent
pairing of gloves and hosiery, sewing buttons on cards, fastening notions on cards,
removing spots, etc. This work is frequently done by the stock keeper and sales
persons during the daily stock keeping, but when it requires special skill, as in the
mending of gloves, it is sent to a special department where it is done by a person
skilled in that work.
The head of stock must have at least a grammar-school education, for the duties
demand more than a mere cleaning up of stock, counting, and mending. In addi
tion to the fundamentals of education which are used more or less literally, the head
of stock must know how to apply this general knowledge to the work of the store, the
department and the care of the stock, the latter being important in proportion to the
kind and value of the stock in charge.
The head of stock must know all the kinds, the qualities, amounts, value, etc., of
stock in the department. The head of stock usually takes immediate charge of the
most valuable stock or the newest type of stock; the assistants attend to the re
mainder. Amounts needed are reported to the buyer.
In addition to knowledge of stock and ability to care for it, the head of stock, if
interested and ambitious, knows many of the details of the kind, quality, manufacture,
and other general qualities of the stock. This knowledge is gained by study, observa
tion, and experience in handling the stock and not infrequently is supplemented by
the study of literature from manufacturers, general books on the subject, and to a
limited extent lectures or study in courses on the subject. These courses are just
beginning to be given in Richmond, hence have been only a very limited source of
information and assistance as yet.
Sales 'persons.—It is the business of the sales persons to sell goods, though they share
to some extent in the care of stock. Selling varies in all departments according to the
1 The head of stock and sales persons also see that the stock is put away and covered carefully for the
night. In some cities the head of stock is called the assistant buyer.

232

B U L L E T IN OF TH E BU REAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

type of goods handled. There are, however, certain fundamental principles of sales
manship which apply in all departments. These are treated in various ways by
different authors, but in all cases fall under the following heads, viz, (1) Approach
to customer, (2) showing the goods, and (3) closing the sale, the latter including the
money transaction and securing of the address of the buyer if the goods are to be de
livered. Selling involves a kind of psychology which is coming to be recognized as a
very important factor throughout the entire sale. Some business men refer to it as
common sense, thinking that anyone may have it if sufficient thought and care are
used in dealing with customers. It is often spoken of as personality. It is in
reality a combination of all qualities, sometimes innate and developed naturally,
frequently innate and developed by conscious study, and sometimes entirely lack
ing. When it is lacking, successful salesmanship—not mere handling goods over
the counters—is practically impossible of attainment. Perhaps the most important
point in this psychological aspect of selling is the manner of approaching the cus
tomer. The sales person must study the customer, if selling is to be done on a really
skillful and what is coming to be termed a scientific basis. The greeting, the
attitude in listening to the customer’s statement of her wants, the replies given, the
kind of questions asked to elicit further information, the method of showing stock,
the interest in the preferences of the customer, willingness to show stock of the exact
kind wanted or the nearest kind available, require a well-developed power of observa
tion, a strong human interest, and a kind of intelligence that can only be developed
by what is termed the psychology of salesmanship. Real salesmanship is rarely ever
acquired by the young person except through months and often years of experience,
close study of merchandise, and careful observation of people.
The general sales person.—The older type of dry-goods store, and to some extent the
department stores of Richmond, employ a few persons known as general sales persons.
These workers are sales persons trained by many years of service and sell goods in
all departments of the store. These employees have a clientele of good customers
whom they take about in all the departments or sections of the store, making all sales
and assisting in all purchases, for these sales persons are frequently considered advisers
as well as sellers of goods.
This type of selling seems to be passing rapidly and customers are accepting the
theory that the sales person who specializes in one line of goods has a better knowledge
of the stock, is better informed about the style and suitability of the thing desired,
and is thus able to give as good or better advice than the person who distributes her
attention over many departments and lines of stock.
The general sales person should have a grammar-school education or the equivalent.
As many employees interviewed came from the country schools having no grades or
system of graduation, it is difficult to ascertain the rating of their education. They
are, however, as well versed in the fundamentals as the grammar-school graduate,
and usually are possessed of a native ability and interest in their work that makes up
for formal education.
These workers must know the location of all departments in the store, have some
knowledge of the location of different kinds of stock, be informed about prices, values,
and have some judgment about suitability for the customer. When customers are of
long standing, their preferences as to style and cost are fairly well in mind and the
sales person is guided accordingly. This training is acquired in various ways. It
begins usually in the general country store, where one sales person sells everything
from coal oil to China silks. This experience is supplemented by working in one or
more departments of the store which is more or less departmental in its organization.
The privilege of working as a general sales person is, as a rule, given only to workers
of long experience in the store in which they are employed, and in compliance with
requests of customers who prefer a sales person whom they know personally.

VOCATION AL ED UCATION SURVEY OF R IC H M O N D , VA.

233

The specialty sales person— The specialty sales person sells goods in one department
only and sometimes only one line of goods, as fine gloves, white silks, children’s shoes,
etc. These workers must know their stock, care for it, display it attractively, and
perform all the duties of the sales person. They are expected, to some extent, to have
a more complete knowledge of their stock than general sales persons, but more often
the specialization is due to store organization rather than the desire for a more ex
haustive knowledge of stock or ability to .handle it. Some employers consider long
sendee in one department highly desirable, because it gives opportunity for spe
cialization and a complete knowledge of the stock and the work of the department.
This applies, however, only to those departments in which it is possible for sales
persons, in the estimation of employers, to reach their maximum earning power.
The specialty saleswoman should have at least a grammar-school education or the
equivalent , and two or more years of schooling in addition are desirable. That quality
which is frequently termed native ability may make up for lack of fundamental
education, but this quality is not found in the school laggards who have dropped out
of the elementary school before the work was completed, though it often is found in
the country boy or girl who lacked the opportunity to complete the elementary-school
course.
The specialty sales person must have all the personal qualifications and the selling
ability of the general sales person. The title “ specialty sales person ” is not used
except for those who have shown marked success, have served a long time, or desire
to remain in one line of selling.
Table or aisle girls.—These workers are learners or apprentices, having their first
experience in selling goods, making out sales slips, and wrapping packages. Beginners
who have had no experience in selling are, as a rule, placed at these counters. They
are not expected to know stock, as their wares are changed every day, the worker
usually not knowing what she is to sell until she appears in her place in the morning.
Her stock is always of one price and frequently of one sort, though with slight varia
tions as two or three “ special” collars, a certain line of purses, etc. She may sell
collars one day, aprons the next day, and handkerchiefs, which can be folded up
and thrust into an envelope for delivery, the next day. Yard goods, except rem
nants, are not often sold in this way, so that measuring, cutting, folding, and wrapping
are not a part of her work. The stock is limited in quantity and styles, so that with a
little handling and arrangement she may learn sufficiently for the day’s business the
stock which she is to handle. ,
In this position the worker learns a little about a number of different kinds of stock;
she gains facility in making out sales slips; she learns how to speak to customers, and
how to interest them by helping them to find the different styles or varieties of goods
oil her counter. Although aisle or table selling is considered the simplest sort of
salesmanship, if indeed it can be called sale3mansliip in its true sense, some managers
consider it a very excellent test of selling ability, and these positions, of which there
are a number in any large store, are used to test out new workers to determine their
possibilities for regular department positions.
The aisle or table girl must have as much education as the sales girl, for employ^
ment depends in a measure on education and general ability. Experienced sales
persons are advanced in their work not because of more education, but because of
more experience and familiarity with the details of selling and knowledge of stock.
The bright, energetic, ambitious girl will make the best of this position and readily
advance to department work. This position is rarely given to older persons.
Sales persons hayingno special line are designated by the general name, sales per
son, or the name of the department in which they work. Since many of them look
forward to positions of more responsibility, oftentimes in departments other than the
one in which they are employed, the general term applies. These workers must know

234

B U L L E T IN OF T H E BU REA U OF LABOR STATISTICS.

stock, its value, price, kinds, amounts, etc.; they must take care of stock under the
direction of the head of stock; they must make sales which to the ordinary observer
do not differ from those made by the head of stock, the buyer, or the more experienced
sales persons.
A good memory is also a strong asset for sales persons. Verbal memory, as in memo
rizing prices, numbers, or other forms of marking used in designating stock, is required
in practically every department of the store. Visual memory, as in remembering
patterns, or kinds of stock, the faces of customers, some of whom the sales person may
recognize with a smile or greeting, is also a desirable qualification. There are many
ways in which memory plays an important part in salesmanship, each department
having some kind of stock, some phase of work which calls for it.
Good eyesight is also important, as it is called into use in a great majority of the
departments, laces for instance requiring close use of the eyes in matching fine pat
terns. Matching of colors, as in threads, fabrics, etc., also requires good eyesight in
addition to the ability to match colors. Matching the weave in cloth, reading the
numbers, names, or other forms of marking on stock boxes require ability to see quickly
as well as distinctly.
Unfortunately there is as yet no scheme for ranking the general staff of sales persons
by experience or achievement, which may account in a measure for the lack of interest,
the irresponsibility, and the absence of initiative which, employers assert, characterize
the rank and file of women workers.
Sales persons in the stores in Richmond, with one exception,1 receive no training
for their work other than incidental direction by the head of the department and
assistance from fellow workers. That they can be trained and made more intelligent,
able to give more efficient service to the store with the same or less tax upon strength,
time, and ingenuity has been amply demonstrated in other cities.
Nonselling Occupations.

Chech or bundle boys and girls.—These employees work in the store, and not in the
shipping department. They have been classified as nonselling workers, since their
work has to do with preparing the package for delivery. These workers receive the
package from the sales person, examine the goods, ascertain price, remeasure yard
goods, verify the quantity, examine sales slip, and stamp it, send the sales slip and
money to the cashier, wrap up the package, and deliver it with the duplicate sales
slip and change to the customer, or where it is to be delivered, tie or paste the address
slip on the package ready to be sent to the delivery room. This work has to do with
the handling of merchandise rather than the packing and routing of packages, hence
leads to positions in the selling rather than the shipping department. Very few boys
are employed for this work.
These young people must be responsible, accurate in their work, and fairly nimble
with their hands. They are required to have facility in making out sales slips,
using arithmetical processes. They must use all necessary care in taking addresses,
be able to spell all names of merchandise, names of streets, etc., when they make
out sales slips as they do in some of the Richmond stores, and they must be
able to write legibly. These employees, though carrying considerable responsibility,
are among the youngest workers in the store. They are, to some extent, the force
from which sales persons are drawn and should therefore have the sales person’s qual
ifications and education. Occasionally a check girl will become a cashier. This is
the exception, however, rather than the rule.
1 One store has classes for junior workers in common branches and store system.

VO CA TION AL ED U CATIO N SU RVE Y OF R IC H M O N D , VA.

23 5

Office Occupations.

File clerks.—The larger stores employ a person whose duty it is to file letters, bills,
etc. This person works in the office and not only places the papers in the files where
they belong, but is responsible to some extent for the classification of letters, bills,
etc. This worker must have a liking for routine. She must have a good memory, be
able to read readily, be a good writer, and quick at simple figuring.
This position is rarely, if ever, given to a young person without commercial train
ing. Where the work of filing is small and not of very great importance, the filing
clerk may look forward to a stenographic or bookkeeping position. In some instances
this work is done by the stenographer. The duties of the stenographer in the store are
the same as in any business office. There is a large proportion of business letters
known as the form letter in which a standard method of writing the letter is used for
all correspondence. In addition to this there are the other forms of office correspond
ence, such as answering inquiries, and writing replies to mail orders.
The store stenographer should be well versed in business forms, be quick and accu
rate in her work, and have a good knowledge of business English. She should have
at least a high-school education or the equivalent and a good commercial training.
This position can not be filled without special training in stenography and type
writing, including training in business forms.
Mail-order clerk.—This employee receives, reads, and fills orders for goods to be sent
by mail. In some instances the mail-order clerk is an office employee who attends
to the business of writing the letters and making out the bills. When this is the case,
an assistant known as the “ shopper” selects the goods to fill the order and attends
to having it wrapped ready for shipment. When the clerk is both clerk and shopper
she must have the qualifications necessary for the office work as well as the qualifica
tions of a skillful buyer, for she frequently has to match colors, select trimmings, deter
mine suitability of material, etc. The mail-order clerk must be able to dictate a good
business letter, carry the routine work of her office, select materials, direct the wrap
ping and mailing of small bundles, and conduct the system of directions to the ship
ping department as to the sending of merchandise which requires special packing. In
addition to these duties, she must keep accounts or report in regular form mail ac
counts to the bookkeeper. This position requires considerable judgment, initiative,
knowledge of merchandise, willingness to take responsibility, and knowledge of office
work. In some stores, especially those having a large rural clientele, it is considered
a position of considerable importance. The person holding this position needs more
than an elementary-schooi education—that is, more than a mere working knowledge
of the elementary-schooi subjects.
. Transfer clerk.—The transfer clerk attends to having purchases or charges trans
ferred from one department to another and has charge of the refunds or credits for
returned goods. This work is really office work, since the clerk makes out refund
or credit slips, enters account of same on the special books provided for that purpose,
and reports the same to the office to be cared for through the regular channels of
accounting. The woman in this position needs tact, patience, and good judgment,
for she must listen to explanations, complaints, and got details about goods returned
and frequently make explanations that are satisfactory to the customers. Unlike
bookkeeping, it requires little or no knowledge of actual bookkeeping. It does
require, however, a good knowledge of simple arithmetic and accuracy in making
credits or transfers, and uniformity of work.
Tube or carrier girl.—This worker is really a cashier. She receives the checks or
sales slips as they come through the carrier to the cash desk, checks up the prices,
amounts, and the total, 0 . K ’s the sales slips with a stamp, makes the change, and
returns the slip and change to the sales person or the bundle girl when she is respon-

236

B U L L E T IN OF T H E BU REA U OE LABOR STATISTICS.

sibie for both the delivery of change and the package. She also enters the amount
of the sale on her recapitulation sheet, and at the close of the day balances sales and
cash, and renders account for the day.
Bookkeeper.—The position of bookkeeper in the store covers all the duties usually
performed by the employee engaged in such work in any type of business. It is her
duty to look after all accounts, keep account of all purchases, sales, credits, charge
accounts, etc. For convenience, the work is frequently divided into several classes
with one clerk responsible for each class or division. For this work the usual forms
of bookkeeping are used and employees are trained for the work in commercial courses.
A commercial course in addition to the regular high-school course, or as part of the
high-school course, is considered necessary for this type of work. These office positions
are rarely ever filled with young persons of no special training or experience. A
strong liking for figures, for routine work, and for accuracy, and dependableness
are very necessary personal qualifications for this work.
Auditor.—The auditor checks up and verifies accounts, makes up returns of day’s
sales, figures costs, makes up statistical statements, inventories, etc. This position
requires a knowledge of bookkeeping and a high degree of accuracy and responsibility.
The demands made upon the auditor differ in the various types of stores according
to the volume of business and the complexity of the business organization. A good
commercial education and general education, a high degree of intelligence about
business methods and customs, are necessary equipment for this work. Unlike
selling goods, it requires little contac t with people other than those employed in the
same office.
Shippers.—Shippers are men and boys. They are divided into two groups, one foe
inside work such as wrapping and packing of bundles, checking up of addresses,
routing of packages ready for delivery, and one for the outside work of delivering
the packages to the homes of the customers.
The head shipper.—The head shipper is in a sense a manager as he is responsible
for the method used in packing bundles, checking up and accounting for packages,
and the routing of packages for delivery. The customer who buys a spool of thread
and a card of hooks and eyes to be delivered has very little idea of the work required
to get the package started on its way, or the amount of time, energy, wear, and tear
on horses and wagons or automobiles required to take the package to its destination.
The head shipper, or shipping clerk as he is sometimes called, directs all packing,
lays out routes for delivery men, checks off the loads, 01* directs the checking, and
manages the outside as well as the inside force. To do his work successfully, the
head shipper must be able to manage men as well as the handling of things; he
must be quick, accurate, and methodical in his work, for the rapidity with* which
deliveries are made up depends on systematic work. A good education is necessary
for this position. Men of less than high-school education are holding such positions,
but more than a grammar-school course is desirable. A knowledge of simple account
ing and the ability to systematize work are very necessary for efficient service in this
capacity.
Helpers.—The helpers in the shipping department are young men and boys who
act as packers and clerks. Their work consists in packing, addressing, and routing
of packages as directed by the head shipper. The goods are divided into two lots for
packing, first the breakable going to the packing room to be packed in excelsior and
corrugated paper, and second, those containing unbreakable merchandise as all sorts
of dry goods, notions, etc., which require only strong paper to keep them in good
condition. Packages thus made ready for delivery, are arranged in order ready
for the wagons. The boys and men who do this work must be bright and alert, strong
and active, for several deliveries a day call for constant and frequently rapid work,
and some of the merchandise is heavy and requires strength in handling.

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

SURVEY OF R IC H M O N D , VA.

237

Selection of Workers.

Buyers and floor men are almost without exception chosen from the ranks of the
regular employees after having shown ability and initiative necessary for the work,
or come into the store from rural districts with the necessary experience and knowl
edge for these positions.
Experienced sales persons are chosen for their personal qualifications and the
length and kind of their experience. Sales persons are very frequently young people
just out of school, who have had no experience in store work or preparation for it.
A written application is required in some instances, in others not, but the impression
made during the interview is largely the determining feature in employment.
Check boys and girls, bundle wrappers, stock keepers, and other young workers in
the store are selected very largely on the basis of the personal impression of the person
in charge of the employment. According to reports, employers have been giving no
serious attention to the study of the entrance requirements beyond age and ability
to answer questions readily during the interview. In view of the fact that the chief
criticisms against these young people are directed toward the ability to read, write,
and figure readily and accurately, and to such personal qualities as willingness to
take responsibility and to work, it would seem that the first interview and the appli
cation form might be planned to bring out some of these points and thus call attention
to factors in the work which when met in the routine work •would" be taken more
seriously and intelligently by the young people, and thus tend to reduce the propor
tion of failure to make good.
Training for Store Employments.

Training for store employments has been demonstrated to be an important branch
of vocational education, and preparation for the work before entering employment as
well as extension courses for experienced sales persons are found in many cities.
Employers are recognizing the value of such courses as a part of business administra
tion and the schools are beginning to realize that salesmanship offers a teachable
content of considerable importance—two factors which go far to determine the kind
and extent of training to be given.
Types of instruction needed.—Two types of instruction are necessary to meet the needs
of these two classes of workers. This is recognized by the Richmond merchants who
presented to the school board of the city a proposal for the training of store employees.
This proposition asked for the sendees of a teacher for the young employees or
junior workers to be taught in the stores, and special provision for older and experi
enced sales persons in the night classes of the public schools.
The young workers need training in the elements of salesmanship, care of stock,
and store system, and to some extent spelling, reading, writing, etc., as applied to
the work of the store. This instruction may go as far into the details of salesmanship
as the age, experience, and ability of the pupils warrant. If offered in the store, these
lessons may be given with actual merchandise in hand and thus meet real conditions.
Experienced workers, on the other hand, need and desire instruction in the art of
salesmanship as applied to selling in general, and to their particular lines of stock.
A number of experienced salesmen and saleswomen expressed a desire for instruction
in the kinds, qualities, etc., of the materials they handle, such as the kinds, grades,
and qualities of woolen fabrics, with practical information as to methods of telling
what is good silk, good wool, etc., also detecting the cotton in so-called wool fabrics
and how to recognize the weighting in silk. These suggest two very definite and
interesting types of practical instruction. First, an advanced course in the science of
salesmanship, and, second, practical laboratory courses for the study of different types
of merchandise, including instruction in the source of raw materials and methods of
manufacture. The same methods may be applied to shoes, to gloves, to ready-to-wear
clothing, and other specialized stock.

238

B U L L E T IN OP T H E BU REA U OF LABOR STATISTICS.

Grouping of pupils.—A very essential feature of instruction in salesmanship for
workers who have passed beyond the beginning stage is grouping the pupils according
to the kind of merchandise handled, as well as on the basis of experience. Careful
arrangement of students handling similar lines of stock and of nearly the same expe
rience with lessons planned and presented with the needs of the group well in mind
will command the interest of the class and bring results. The mixed class having
beginners who need to know the courtesies of salesmanship, the minor details of selling,
and experienced workers desiring advanced work, tempts the teacher to teach to one
group to the exclusion of the other. This is the common mistake of the evening
course and does more to hurt the development of salesmanship courses than any other
one thing.
Promotion as afactor in imtruction.—Beyond the first making good in the store the
possibility of promotion is the strongest incentive to training.
Promotion may be secured in several ways: (1) By increased wage or an increased
rate of commission (the latter method is very common); (2) by increased responsi
bility; and (3) by increased responsibility and increased wage, either in the depart
ment in which the worker has been employed or by the transfer to another depart
ment to new and frequently larger responsibilities, with no greater wage in the begin
ning, but with greater opportunities for responsibility and larger salary when the
details of the newer work have been learned.
Promotion within a department is in some instances more desirable than change to
another department. This is true of such stock as shoes, gloves, toilet goods, and
books, which present constantly new stock to be learned and new methods of selling,
which keep the work live and interesting. In such departments salaries are, as a rule,
commensurate with the knowledge and responsibility required; hence change is not
necessarily desirable.
In some instances the knowledge of the stock and selling in one department defi
nitely prepares the employee for positions in other departments carrying similar lines
of stock, and change from one to another department can be made quite readily, pro
vided personal qualifications and selling ability meet the requirements. There are,
on the other hand, departments for which experience in any other department does
not prepare, as, for instance, selling of notions can not be said to carry over to the
selling of ribbons beyond the making of sales slips and meeting the customers. Where
these transfers are desirable instruction should be given to meet the need of workers
making such change.
In salesmanship and other subjects the need for instruction is evident from reports
of merchants who desire better service for their customers and from the requests of
employees asking for specific instruction. The teachable content of salesmanship is
rich enough for a course of considerable length with much that applies to beginning
or preparatory courses and a broad and rich content for experienced workers. With
workers grouped according to their lines of merchandise, and courses fitted to meet
those lines, instruction can do much to lift the work out of the job category to that of a
dignified position.

STATISTICAL SUMMARY OF INFORMATION SECURED FROM WOMEN
EMPLOYED IN RETAIL STORES.
Schedules relating to employment in retail stores were taken for 46 men and 312
women, through personal interviews of 15 to 30 minutes each. These employees
were from 11 stores. The number of men included is too small for satisfactory
analysis.
The statistics show that 76 per cent of all the workers are natives of Virginia, half
of these being natives of Richmond; 17.9 per cent are Americans, but born outside of

VO CATION AL ED U CATIO N SU RVEY OF R IC H M O N D , VA.

Virginia; and 5.8 per cent are foreign bom.
and percentages:

239

The following table shows the numbers

T a b l e 7 5 .—NUM BER A N D PER CENT OF EM PLO YEES OF SPECIFIED N A T IV IT Y , B Y

S E X , IN R E T A IL STORES.

Employees bom in specified community.
Place of birth.

Number.
Males.

Females.

Per cent.
Total.

Males.

Females.

Total.

Richmond..........................................................
Virginia, outside of Richmond.....................
United States, outside of Virginia...............
Foreign country................................................
Not reported.....................................................

12
23
9
1
1

125
112
55
20

137
135
64
21
1

26.1
50.0
19.5
2.2
2.2

40.1
35.9
17.6
6.4

38.3
37.7
17.9
5.8
.3

Total........................................................

312

358

100.0

This table shows that 38.3 per cent of the workers Were born in Richmond and
37.7 per cent in surrounding counties, which apparently indicates that the city
schools and near-by country schools are determining the kind and quality of educa
tion that 76 per cent of these people may have. As the standards of educational and
personal qualifications of workers entering store employments are raised—as they are
undoubtedly being raised year after year—these native-born men ?nd women who
must meet the new requirements and standards will depend upon local schools for
their necessary training and education.
SEX OF EMPLOYEES.

Employees in the retail stores covered in this study are largely women and girls.
Schedules were obtained for 46 men and 312 women, or 1 man employee to 7 women
employees. The largest number of men are found in the department stores where
they occupy nearly all of the executive positions as the buyers, floor men, managers,
and superintendents. Both the receiving and delivery departments employ men
almost exclusively. The specialty stores, especially those which deal exclusively
in women’s and children’s wearing apparel, employ women chiefly. The following
table shows the sex distribution of the 358 workers interviewed in the two types of
stores:
T a b l e 7 6 .—N U M B ER A N D S E X OF E M PLO Y EE S IN R E T A IL STORES OF EACH SPECI

F IE D K IN D .

Character of store.

Num
ber of
estab
lish
ments.

Number of employees.

Males.

Females.

Total.

Department stores.......................................................................................

141

169

Specialty stores:
General dry goods................................................................................
Women’s, misses’, and children’s clothing.................................

5
*3

8
10

23
148

31
158

Total, specialty stores......................................................................

171

189

Total, all stores.................................................................................

312

358

1One of these stores employing 8 men and 49 women carries also general dry goods.

240

B U L L E T IN OF T H E B U REA U OF LABOR STATISTICS.
AGE OF ENTRANCE TO STORE EMPLOYMENT.

Although children in this State may leave school at the age of 12, and, if necessary,
go to work—and they are entirely free to go to work after the fourteenth birthday—
only 15, or 4.3 per cent of the 347 workers reporting, stated that they had gone to
work under the age of 14 years. While those who entered at 14 and 15 years number
91, or 26.2 per cent, the largest number falls in the 16 to 20 years of age group, with
a total of 170, or 49 per cent, of the total number interviewed. Table 77 shows
the classifications of the age of entrance for all workers reporting in all stores.
T a b l e 7 7 .— NUM BER AND PER CENT OF EM PLOYEES OF SPECIFIED AGE ON EN TE R IN G

EM PLOYM EN T IN R E T A IL STORES.

Number.
Total employees reporting age of entering retail store employment.
Males.

Females.

Total.

Age.
De
part
ment
stores.

Spe
cialty
stores.

All
stores.

De
part
ment
stores.

Spe
cialty
stores.

All
stores.

De
part
ment
stores.

Spe
cialty
stores.

Under 14 years.........................
14 and 15 years.........................
16 to 20 years...........................
21 vears and over....................

1
8
16
3

3
5
5
4

4
13
21
7

6
32
60
36

5
46
89
28

11
78
149
64

7
40
76
39

8
51
94
32

15
91
170
71

Total...............................

134

168

302

162

185

347

All
stores.

Per cent.
Under 14 years.........................
14 and 15 years.........................
16 to 20 years............................
21 years and over....................

3.6
28.6
57.1
10.7

17.7
29.4
29.4
23.5

8.9
28.9
46.7
15.5

4.5
23.9
44.8
26.8

2.9
27.4
53.0
16.7

3.7
25.8
49.3
21.2

4.3
24.7
46.9
24.1

4.3
27.6
50.8
17.3

4.3
26.2
49.0
20.5

Total...............................

100.0

Employment of children under 14 years of age is prohibited by law, although upon
proper showing the court is authorized to permit children aged 12 to 14 years to work.1
Boys and girls under 16 years of age may be employed, and, as Table 77 shows, a goodly
number fall in this class. Merchants assert, however, that there is a growing tendency
to employ fewer young people under 16 because they are unprepared for much of the
work they are called upon to do. This means, first, that there is a growing sentiment
against the young worker in the store; second, that merchants have come to realize
that certain educational qualifications, more than the desire for work on the part of
the child or the need of a person to fill the place, are necessary to fit a young person
for store work; and, third, that except in unusual cases children who remain in school
until the grade work or the high-school course is completed, while they may not use
directly the kind of knowledge thus gained, do bring to their work greater capacity
for learning and meeting the problems of salesmanship. This is especially true of
progressive merchants who are interested in and to some extent are using the modern
scientific methods which are being applied to business.

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