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A Look Back at the History of the Federal Reserve Jeffrey M. Lacker August 29, 2013 On Twitter: #fedhistory Number of U.S. Banks: 1834-2011 2 Coin 3 National Bank Currency 4 Checks 5 Clearinghouses 6 Correspondent Banking 7 The Problem What problem was the Federal Reserve designed to solve? Inelasticity 8 9 Interest Rates Rose in Autumn 5.4 Commercial Paper Rate in New York, by Month 5.2 1894-1913 Percent 5 1922-1929 4.8 4.6 4.4 4.2 4 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 10 Financial Panics 11 Financial Panics Key features of financial panics before the Fed Sizable movement out of deposits into currency Often occurred in autumn, when currency supply was already stretched. Interest rate spikes Banks scrambled to borrow scarce currency. “Suspensions” Banks and clearinghouses would not allow depositors to withdraw currency. Transfers to accountholders at other clearinghouse allowed. Clearinghouse banks effectively banded together in mutual support Clearinghouse banks would at times refuse to ship currency to country bank correspondents! 12 Founding the Fed Purpose of the Federal Reserve Act: 1) 2) 3) 4) To provide for the establishment of Federal Reserve Banks to furnish an elastic currency to afford a means of rediscounting commercial paper to establish a more effective supervision of banking in the United States 5) and for other purposes. (numbers added) 13 Founding the Fed Reserve Banks as government-sponsored clearinghouses Natural model, given the example of private clearinghouses Key innovation: universal membership Authorized to: • • • • • Accept deposits from member banks (“reserves”). Issue notes, but without inflexibilities of the NBA. Examine member banks for safety and soundness. Clear and settle checks. Do other things national banks could do. 14 Founding the Fed Key issue: Structure One reserve bank with many branches? New York bankers and Republicans favored this approach. Several regional reserve banks? Country bankers and Democrats favored this approach. Feared domination by New York banks, corrupting influence on federal government. Resolution: Democrats take Congress and White House in 1912 Carter Glass, D-Va., chairs House Banking and Currency Committee, works with Woodrow Wilson to draft bill. Between eight and 12 Reserve Banks – in the event, 12 (Glass’ influence) Federal Reserve Board, an agency (Wilson’s influence) 15 Founding the Fed Carter Glass Woodrow Wilson 16 Federal Reserve System Map 17 Founding the Fed Key issue: Governance and Accountability Private clearinghouses were owned and run by member banks. Bankers proposed all-banker boards. Progressives sought government role. Resolution: private Reserve Banks, Boards made up of • Three elected bankers • Three elected nonbankers • Three Board appointees Federal Reserve Board, a federal agency, to oversee Reserve Banks. This issue is still with us: Dodd-Frank Act section 1107 restricts bankers’ roles on Reserve Banks’ boards. 18 Federal Reserve Leaders, 1914 19 Founding the Fed Key issue: What assets should the Reserve Banks hold? Gold, of course. Government bonds? No. Cumbersome under NBA, risks inflationary government finance. Private assets? Yes, but which? Private bonds and stocks were risky and “speculative.” Resolution: “discounts and advances” • Purchases of commercial paper issued by companies, endorsed by banks • Loans to banks, secured by commercial paper Envisioned as central monetary policy Later, in WWI, government security purchases were also permitted. 20 Founding the Fed Purpose of the Federal Reserve Act: 1) 2) 3) 4) To provide for the establishment of Federal Reserve Banks, to furnish an elastic currency, to afford a means of rediscounting commercial paper, to establish a more effective supervision of banking in the United States 5) and for other purposes. (numbers added) 21 Founding the Fed Key issue: What assets should the Reserve Banks hold? Lending or buying assets creates reserve balances or puts notes into circulation. • RB loans create reserve balances. • RB asset purchases create reserve balances. • Banks can convert reserve balances into Federal Reserve notes. Solving “The Currency Problem” (i.e., monetary policy) is independent of what assets the Fed holds. Monetary policy = managing total Fed liabilities That is, the amount of currency and reserves Credit policy = composition of Fed’s asset portfolio For example, lending or buying private assets Fed’s crisis lending was credit policy, not monetary policy 22 Founding the Fed “Lender of Last Resort” = monetary policy Henry Thornton (1802) Walter Bagehot (1873) 23 Final Observations Two views of central banking Expansive approach Use asset portfolio to minimize financial system disruptions Read charters liberally to include “financial stability mandate” Grounded on “inherent fragility” view of financial markets Narrow approach Focus on core monetary policy mission Credit policy could compromise governance arrangements Grounded on “induced fragility” view of financial markets Future evolution of central banking likely to depend on how tensions between these two views play out 24