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LL GHENY COLLE~E
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
BULLETIN OF THE WOMEN'S BUREAU, NO. 94
STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR
INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
A Handbook
for the Protection of Women Workers, Showing
Lighting Standards and Practices
.
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[PUBLio-No. 259-66TH CoNoRESs]
[H. R. 13229]
AN ACT To establish in the Department of Labor a bureau to be known as the
Women's Bureau
Be it enacted by the Sena;te (l/f/;d House of Representativ,es of the
United States of Am,erica in Congress assembled, That there shall be
established in the Department of Labor a bureau to be known as the
Women's Bureau.
SEc. 2. That the said bureau shall be in charge of a director, a
woman, to be appointed by the President, by and with the advice and
consent of the Senate, who shall receive an annual compensation of
$5,000. It shall be the duty of said bureau to formulate standards
and policies which shall promote the welfare of wage-earning women,
improve their working conditions, increase their efficiency, and advance their opportunities for profitable employment. The said
bureau shall have authority to investigate and report to the said
department upon all matters pertaining to the welfare of women· in
industry. The director of said bureau may from time to time publish the results of these investigations in such a manner and to such
extent as the Secretary of Labor may prescribe.
SEO. 3. That there shall be in said bureau an assistant director, to
be appointed by the Secretary of Labor, who shall receive an annual
compensation of $3,500 and shall perform such duties as shall be
prescribed by the director and approved by the Secretary of Labor.
SEC. 4. That there is hereby authorized to be employed by said
bureau a chief clerk and such special agents, assistants, clerks, and
other employees at such rates of compensation and in such numbers
as Congress may from time to time provide by appropriations.
SEc. 5. That the Secretary of Labor is hereby directed to furnish
sufficient quarters, office furniture, and equipment for the work of
this bureau.
SEC. 6. That this act shall take effect and be in force from and
after its passage.
Approved, June 5, 1920.
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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LAl,30R
W. N. DOAK,
SECRETARY
WOMEN'S BUREAU
MARY ANDERSON, Director
BULLETIN
OF THE WOMEN'S BUREAU,
No. 94
STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR
INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
A Handbook
for the Protection of Women Workers, Showing
Lighting Standards and Practices
By
MARIE CORRELL
UNITED STATES
_____________________________
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON: 1932
} ..,_
For aale by the Superiri_tendent of Documents, Washington, D. C.
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Price 10 centa
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CONTENTS
Page
Letter of transmittaL________ _____________ ______________________ __
v
Fore"vord ------------- - - --- - - - - - -----------------------------------Suggestions for employers, employees, and State departments of labor__
Introduction______ __ ________ ____________________________________
CHAPTER I. Some basic considerations____________________ ____________
CHAPTER II. The importance of good lighting from the standpoint of
eye fatigue________ _____ _____ __ ___________________________________
CHAPTER · III. Code of the American Standards Association for lighting
factories, mills, and other work places ___________________:__________
American Standard of Lighting : F actories, mills, and other work
places______ ____ ______________________________________ __ ______
P a rt I. Advantages of good illumination________ ____ ____ ____
Part II. E ssentials of good illumination and its measurement_
Natural lighting________________________________________
Measurement of illumination_____________________ __ ______
Recommended levels of illumination_______________ __ ___ ___
Maintaining the level of illumination-deaning and painting_
Initial installation___________ ________ ________ ___________ _
Use of foot-candle meter______ ________ ____________ _____ __
Avoidance of glare____ ____________ ______ ____ __ __ _________
Adequate electrical wiring______ ____ _______ __ ____ __ _____ __
Locating switches and arrangement of lights_______ __ ____ _
CHAPTER IV. State lighting codes_____________________ ___ _____________
A. Contents of the State lighting codes and the A.merican Standard
Code____ __________________________________________ _____ ______
American Standard Code. Part III_________ ___ __ _____ ____ ____
Purpose____________ __ ____ __ ____ __________ ___ __ __ __ ______
Exceptions-------------------- - - - ------- - - ------ - - - --- -Scope_______________________ _________ _________ ____ ___
Rules_____________ __________________ __ ______ ____ __ ______
General requirement____ ___ _____ ______ _______ _______ ____ _
Rule 1. Illumination required______ __ _____________ _______
Rule 2. Avoidance of glare: Diffusion and distribution
of light-------------------- --- - --------- -------------Rule 3. Exit and emergency lighting_______ ______________
Notes on Rule 1. Illumination required_____________ ___
Notes on Rule 2. Avoidance of glare____________________
Notes on Rule 3. Exit and emergency lighting__________
State lighting codes_____________________________________
Illumination levels required____________________________
Illumination levels recommended_________________________
Avoidance of glare: Diffusion and distribution of light_____
Emergency lighting for exits--------------~--------------Miscellaneous requirements of some State codes________
Summary______________________________________________
B. The legal status and enforcement of the State lighting codes___
Summary___________________________________________________
CHAPTER V. State lighting requirements other than lighting codes_____
Lighting requirements of States without lighting codes____________
Enforcement of lighting requirements in States without lighting
codes--------------------------------------------------------Laws and other requirements in States having lighting codes______
Conclusions----------------------------------------------------
VII
vnI
1
3
III
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7
10
11
11
12
12
13
13
16
16
16
17
21
23
24
28
28
28
28
28
28
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32
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36
38
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48
CONTENTS
IV
A-ppendix:-Summary of State requirements for lighting in places of
employment, with special reference to factory and mercantile workrooms, passagewa ys, and exits, by Sta te_______________ __ __ __ _____
Page
49
TABLES
I. R ecommended levels of illumination for industrial interior s___
II. Scale used to classify glare of light sources_________________ __
III. Specific classification· ·o f -c ommon light sources from the standpoint of glare as derived from Table IL__________________
IV. Grades of light-source glare that should not be exceeded for
good conditions of vision ______________________________ ___
V. Minimum illumina tion requirements________________________
VI. Limiting grades of light sources permissible for various
conditions - --- --------- ------ ------------------------·. VII. Comparison of the illumination requirements of the State lighting codes with the American Sta ndard Code___________
VIII. Comparison of the recommended illumination levels of the State
lighting codes with the American Standard Code________
TABLE
14
19
20
20
29
30
34
?1
CHART
Status of State lighting codes-- --- - --- ----------------l..---------
. i
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·25
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
u NITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR,
WOMEN'S BUREAU,
Washington, February 15, 193~.
Srn: I have the honor to submit a report on the lighting of work
places and the importance of good lighting to the safety of working
women.
There is apparent an increasing interest in lighting problems on
the part of employers, due partly to the fact that good ~ighting,pays
for itself, but investigations of this bureau have shown that there ·are
problems either of inadequacy or of glare in a large proportion of
work places.
Since working conditions are improved both by employers voluntarily installing good equipment and by regulations of State
departments of labor, this study presents detailed analyses of the
recently adopted lighting code of the American Standards Association and of the State lighting codes and regulations.
I am grateful for the courteous cooperation of State officials in
supplying information; of Dr. Janet Howell Clark in discussing
the relationship of lighting and eye fatigue; of H. H. Magdsick, of
the Illuminating Engineering Society, in writing the foreword of
this report and m giving technical advice; of James D. Hackett, of
the New York Department of Labor, in giving the report a critical
reading; and of the American Standards Association and of the Illuminating Engineering Society in permitting the summarizing of
the revised code and in expert assistance in many ways.
The report is the work of Marie Correll, of the di vision of
research.
Respectfully submitted.
MARY ANDERSON, Director.
Hon. W. N. DoAK,
S ecretary of Labo r.
1
V
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FOREWORD
The sense of sight dominates the activities of the industrial worker
and is responsible for most of his usefulness. Its processes use up
far more human energy than does any other sense. Yet eyes ~re
constantly neglected; they are being worn out too soon in our homes,
in schools, and in industry alike. We go through much of our working Ii ves with efficiency impaired and opportunity limited because
provisions for lighting have not developed fast enough to keep pace
with the changes in man's mode of life and work. For the outdoor
pursuits entailing relatively distant vision under a high order of
illumination, under which our eyes evolved, we have substituted indoor activities which impose ever-increasing demands for concentrated near vision.
The effects of insufficient and improper lighting unfortunately do
not at once make themselves apparent, for the visual process is a
complicated one and the eye is able to adjust itself to render a partial
service over a wide range of conditions. But the results are none the
less definite and widespread: Accidents, eye strain that saps human
energy, lowered accomplishment, visual defects, and even impaired
health.
In issuing. this publication on the lighting of work places, the
Women's Bureau of the Department of Labor makes an important
contribution to a more general understanding of lighting con<litions
and their effects in industry. It offers sound guidance toward safer
and more effective illumina.tion. In doing this the bureau is saving
the lives and limbs and protecting the vision of workers. It is promoting the efficiency of industry, at the same time conserving human
resources and adding to the well-being and happiness of our people.
·H. H . MAGDSICK,
Chairman of Oommiittee on Industrial and, Solwol Li[!hting,
Illuminating Engineering Society.
NELA PARK, CLEVELAND, 0Hrn, Fe'b7"UXbr"JJ, 1939.
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SUGGESTIONS FOR EMPLOYERS, EMPLOYEES, AND STATE
DEPARTMENTS OF LABOR
To employers:
Decide that adequate light with protection from glare is essential for ·your
plants and then secure it. The following suggestions may help you to do so :
1. Lighting, is a technical problem. Consult a lighting expert in your community if possible. If not, ask for aid from your State department of labor.
(See Appendix, pp. 49 to 62, for a summary· of the law in your State.)
2. Determine whether your plant illumination meets the standards of the
American Standard Code of Lighting Factories, Mills, and Other Work Places.
(A fairly complete summary and outline of this code is given on pp. 11 to 23.)
A copy may be secured from the American Standards Association and the
Illuminating Engineering Society, both at 29 West Thirty-ninth Street, New
York, N. Y., for 20 cents, or from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States
· Department of Labor, Bulletin No. 556.
1J. A foot-candle meter to measure the illumination level should be u sed at
frequent intervals. Its use is a check on maintenance as well as on installation.
(Seep. 16.)
Eyes adjust themselves to almost any light; visual estimates can not satisfactorily take the place of actual m easurements.
4. Expert information and aid on lighting problems for both natural and
artificial light can be secured from the following sources :
The Illuminating Engineering Society, 29 West Thirty-ninth Street, New
York, N. Y.; General Electric Lighting Institute, at Nela Park, Cleveland,
Ohio; Commercial Engfneering Department, Westinghouse Lamp Co., Bloo'~ fleld, N. J.; New York Lighting Institute, Grand Central Palace, New York,
N. Y.; Chicago Lighting Institute, 20 North Wacker Drive, Chicago, Ill.; the
lighting service departments of many local light and pawer companies or
electrical associations; the National Safety Council, Civic Opera Buildfng,
20 North Wacker Drive, Chicago, Ill.
·
·
Bulletins on lighting problems for particular industries and the advice of
lighting experts can be secured from these sources without charge. Some State
departments of labor have exhibits of lighting equipment.
·
5. Use your lighting facilities wisely. Some one person who has been given
instruction on lighting problems should be responsible fo.r turning on the _lights,
adjusting window and lamp shades, watching the lighting in aisles, hallways,
etc. Work places should be arranged to secure the most effective use of natural
light.
.. '.
6. After installing .a n adequate lighting system, plan to secure efficient maintenance. Cleaning windows, cleaning and repainting walls and ceilings, and
replacing bulbs and broken reflectors are imp_o rtant phases of careful maintenance. This responsibility should be given to some person or persons in your
plant.
To employees:
Your eyes are a valuable asset-protect them.
.
.
' 1. If the light on your work seems inadequate, request that it be adjusted.
2. If a light hurts your eyes, some condition of glare may exist; ask. that it
be corrected. It is bad to sit facing a glaring window. Light can be too briglit
as well as too dim.
· ·
3. The lighting facts given in this b~leti~ may help you.
To State departments of labor:
Proper illumination is necessary for health and safety. There are standards
for good lighting that have been tested by experience-guessing is no longer
necessary.
·
1. Several States have found lighting codes helpful guides and standards.
( See pp. 24 to 44.)
2. The foot-candle meter is used by some State departments of labor to
measure the lighting level, usually in questionable cases.
3. While the entire field of lighting is highly technical and requires the
experience of experts (some State departments of labor employ lighting .experts), the basic requirements of good lighting, and the principles upon which
these are based, are not difficult to understand. , , Inspectors with _some information and training on this problem can improve lighting in places of employment.
VIII
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STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
A Handbook for the Protection of Women Workers, Showing
Lighting Standards and Practices
INTRODUCTION
The American Standards Association has adopted recently a revised lighting code for :factories, mills, and other work places.
sponsored by the Illuminating Engineering Society. Because many
w'omen are employed in the needle trades and at other close work
and because the Women's Bureau has found that lighting is still
a problem in many places o:f employment and that :few States have
adequate laws and lighting codes, the bureau, in accordance with
its duty to formulate standards to improve the working conditions
of wage-earning women, has made available in this report the lighting code of the American Standards Association; a discussion of the
importance of good lighting from the standpoint of the prevention
o:f eye fatigue, written by an expert; an analysis o:f the State lighting
codes and the experience of the States in administering them; an
analysis of State requirements for lighting other than the lighting
codes; and suggestions on lighting :for employers, employees, and
State labor officials.
Women's Bureau observation of lighting conditions in almost 300
establishments indicates that lighting is unsatis:factory in one or
more respects in the majority of work places.
Althou()'h lighting is an involved technical problem that varies
under different conditions, the basic requirements :for good lighting,
which are :few and can be easily understood, are always the same
and can be secured with equipment not difficult to obtain.
The American Standard Code outlined and reprinted here is a
helpful summary of information and suggestions on lighting. The
adequacy of this code is attested to by Dr. Janet Howell Clark, of
the School of Hygiene and Public Health of Johns Hopkins University, in her discussion of The Importance of Good Lighting from
the Standpoint of Eye Fatigue, which is included in this report.
Since State departments of labor are an important influence in the
improvement of lighting conditions, it is significant to find that 13
States have lighting codes. Although only six of these States are
enforcing their lighting codes as law, their experience proves the
practicability of employing definite standards to improve lighting.
The analysis of these codes may be helpful to the 19 States that have
neither law nor regulation for ~he lighting of manufacturing and
106484°-32--2
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1
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STATE REQUIR EMENT S FOR INDUST RIAL LIGHTI
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CHAPTER 1.-SOME BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
·· Satisfactory lighting is essential to the best interests of both employers and employees because it affects the workers' comfort and
health, reduces accidents,1 and improves the quality and amount of
the work done.
Investigations of worktng conditions made by the Women's Bureau at intervals over a period of more than 10 years have shown
that in large numbers of e.stablishments the problem of securing
·g ood light h as not been solved. From the point of view of enough
1ight, places where roug h work is done or where the light does not
directly affect production, such as aisles and hallways, are likely to
be insufficiently lighted; when the factor of a light causing discomfort from glare is considered, the light in places requiring high levels
of illumination is often faulty. Lighting conditions are likely to
be bad in lofts and in old buildings.
Of about 1,300 establishments in 13 States whose lighting has been
appraised by investigators of the Women's Bureau, natural lighting
was reported to be satisfactory throughout in 672. It was unsatisfactory in 252 cases because of inadequacy, in 172 cases because of glare,
and in 195 cases because of conditions not specified. Artificial lighting was reported as satisfactory throughout in 538 establishments.
It was unsatisfactory in 164 cases because of inadequacy, in 268 cases
because of glare, and in 259 cases because of conditions not specified.
Women's Bureau fi;nilings on lightvng of worhrooms i n Miss-vssippi and,
Tennessee 0
N atural lighting
Industry group
Artificial lighting
Establishments in which lighting Establishments in which lighting
waswasEstablishmentsreUnsatisfactory due toUnsatisfactory due toSatisfacported Satisfactory
tory
Both
inBoth inthrough- Inade- [ Glare adequacy throughquacy
quacy Glare adequacy
out
out
and glare
and glare
I
I
Inruio-1
NUMBER
Total. . __ . ......
Manufacturing . ______
Mwcantile .. ___ ______
Laundries ______ ______
84
295
b159
--38203 ~
60
20
37
32
20
9
38
35
1
2
14
11
2
1
126
70
47
9
e
C
21
18
-- -- --3-
d
85
d
60
11
14
d
63
55
2
6
PER CENT
Total. . • _____ ___
100. 0
-1 --ioo.o
Mercantile .... _______
100. 0
Mann<aotudng ______
Laundries.______ _____
(•)
53. 9
28. 5
58. 6 ~
33. 3
61. 7
12. 9
17. 2
1. 7
4. 7
42. 7
5. 4 ~
78. 3
3. 3
7. 1
8. 9
28. 8
29.6
18. 3
21. 4
27.1
3. 3
"Women's Bureau Bui. No. 55, Women in Mississippi Industries, p . 37, 1926, and No. 56, Women in
Tennessee Industries, p. 63, 1927.
· b Includes 1 establishment in which natural light was adequate but for which there was no report on glare.
e Includes 2 establishments in which no means of artificial lighting was provided.
4 For 13 factories and 5 laundries glare was reported but no note was made of adequacy.
• Per cent not computed; base less than 50.
1 For a good discuss\on of accidents due to poor lighting see Industrial Lighting as a
Safety Measure,._ by John S. Spicer, chief, accident investigation section, Pennsylvania
Department or .uabor and Industry. The Annals of the American Academy or Political
and Social Science, January, 1926. Vol. CXXIII, No. 212, pp. 175-187.
3
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4
STATE REQUIR.EME NTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
. The accompanying summary of the details of lighting conditions
as noted by the bureau's investigations in 295 establishments in two
Qf these States gives some indication of average conditions. These
findings were based on the judgment of the bureau's investigators,
and no instruments were used to measure the intensity of the illumination nor to determine its adequacy. While such observation is far
from exact, it serves to at least suggest the problems involved. 2 It
will be noted that the natural light was considered satisfactory
throughout in a little over one-half of the establishments, while the
artificial light was satisfactory in slightly more than two-fifths of
them-proportions similar to those for the 1,300 establishments just
referred to. The largest single cause of unsatisfactory natural l.i ght
was inadequacy-there was not enough light in all parts of the workrooms; in artificial lighting, glare was the chief defect.
·
Since entirely satisfactory lighting requires that adequate artificial
light be available, it is evident that in more than one-half of t4ese
. establishments lighting conditions were unsatisfactory. Some con. dition of glare from artificial light was found in approximately
. one-half of the establishments and from natural light in about onesixth of them. The faulty condition most commonly found was
glare, through workers facing windows, working with direct · sun. light on their work or in their eyes because shades or awnings were
·
.·· not provided, or working near unshaded light bulbs. 3
The bureau has found also that dirty windows, dirty light fixtures,
and neglect to use the artificial light available, often contribute to
. unsatisfactory lighting conditions.
Contact with these lighting problems in industry has made the
bureau realize that their complete solution requires the advice of
experts. Such advice may not be available in small or isolated communities, and even employers, builders, and electrical dealers who
realize that they need information may not know how to secure it.
This bulletin has been prepared to help those interested to get aid
on their lighting problems. Fortunately much splendid work has
been done on this subject, and many places of employment have
excellent lighting systems. For factories, mills, and other work
places the lighting code of the Illuminating Engineering Society
contains important suggestions and recommendations. (A summary
. of this code is given on pp.11 to 23 of this report.) Some States have
laws on lighting or have lighting codes ( discussed on pp. 24 to 48
and given in det ail on pp. 49 to 62.) Be.cause the development of
these codes was sponsored by persons employed in the lighting industries, there may be some tendency to question their standards. The
Women's Bureau, interested in whether or not the standards do protect the health of employees, consulted Dr. Janet Howell Clar~,
associate professor of physiological hygiene in the School of H ygiene
and Public Health of Johns Hopkins University. Her opinion,
given on pp. 7 to 9, is that the standards are helpful m securing
adequate and satisfactory lighting.
2 Light mea surements were taken by means of a foot-candle meter in t he study Lost
Time and La bor Turnover in Cot ton Mills, ma de by t he Women 's Bureau in 1925. See
its Bulletin 52.
.
.•.It. E. Simpson, engineer of the Traveler s In surance Co., estima t ed in F ebruary, 1930,
that "A'p proximately 50,000,000 la mps are now installed in our industrial plants, but
Jess than 25 per cent are equipped with proper reflectors. The r emai·nder either have · no
reflectors of any kind, or merely those of the obsolete shallow-disk type." Lighting the
· Way ·t o F ewer Acciden t s; by R. E. Simpson, in Industrial Engineering; February, 1930,
p. 82, vol. 88, No. 2.
·
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SOME BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
5
The many varying factors that affect lighting in places of em.
ployment make any general discussion of lighting involved and, of
course, prevent the formulation of simple and specific recommenda•
tions. The character of the work, the cleanliness and color of walls,
the arrangement of machinery, the natural light available, and the
height of ceilings are a few of the many things that vary from place
to place and that must be considered in planning a lighting system.
However, the basic requirements for good lighting are few, are
always the same, and can be easily understood. Moreover, the necessary equipment for good lighting systems is now available.
The following important considerations on lighting, simply and
nontechnically stated, may help in the more effective use of the
lighting codes. 4
•
1. For any work, at all times, enough light that does not flicker
should· fall on the work without causing glare or discomfort to the
worker. Extreme contrasts and shadows should be avoided.
2. For the most part, the light that helps one to see is light that
falls on an object and is reflected to the eye. Light that comes to
the eye directly from the light source, such as the sun or an unshaded
bulb, is painful and hinders rather than helps sight. 5 Some surfaces
and colors reflect-that is, send out from their surface-more of the
light that strikes them than others do. This is true of light-colored
as compared with dark-colored materials; therefore, work on dark
materials requires more light than does work on light materials.
3. The eye can adapt itself so that some sight is possible either with
very little light or with a great deal of light, but the eye sees more
· quickly and clearly and with less effort under certain conditions than
under others. The amount of light required for the best results
depends partly on what is to be seen and partly on how clearly it
needs to be seen. Seeing is not an instantane.o us process. It takes
time to see, and the amount of time needed depends in part on the
light available.
The remarkable adaptability of the eye helps of itself to cause a
lighting problem; partial darkness is taken for granted; people get
along with unsatisfactory light; and some work gets done. But
eyestrain, :fatigue, accidents, slower and poorer worlr result.
4. Natural lighting, that is, the use of sunlight, is very desirable.
It is a good light and the windows allowing it to enter also provide
ventilation. However, in most places of employment artificial light
is necessary to supplement the natural light available, and it always
should be provided.
5. There are three systems of artificial lighting, referred to as
general, local, and local-general. Under general lighting, all the
artificial light used is supplied by overhead lights that illuminate
the entire room; in local lighting, individual light sources are provided at each work place; and in local-general lighting, light sources
are provided that illuminate the entire room, and local light sources
are used to supplement them at work places where additional light
is required. (The last is the system recommended for many clas es
of work by experts in this field. (Seep. 16.)
4 A recently published book, Seeing-A Partnership of Lighting and Vision, by Matthew
Luckieah and Frank K. Mose, The Williams & -Wilkins Co., Baltimore, 1931, discusses tl;lese
problems and offers new data.
1 In general it is agreed that a clear unshaded bulb should · not be hung lower than
18 feet from the floor.
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6
.
STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
6. There are instruments that measure illumination. The one
most generally used is the foot-candle meter (see p. 16 for details),
which tells how much light is falling on the place being measured.
The arbitrary unit of measurement used is the foot-candle, and the
lighting codes suggest the number of foot-candles needed at the
work. Any measurement under ordinary conditions is one of
natural light or of natural and artificial light together. ( See :(>·
13.) Since light bulbs are generally used for artificial light, 1t
seems desirable at first to know how many foot-candles of illumination result from lamps of different watts under given conditions.
Such estimates are available 6 but, as watts are of no help in estimating the illumination coming from natural-light sources, a foot-candle
measurement must be made in order to be · certain of the level of
lighting.
7. Glare may be a problem of both natural and artificial light.
There is no satisfactory way to measure it except with the individual
eye, and the term is loosely defined as "any brightness within the
field of vision of such a character as to cause discomfort, annoyance,
interference with vision, or eye fatigue." 7 Unshaded windows and
unshaded light bulbs are the chief sources of glare, and reflection of
light from polished surfaces is another important cause. Equipment
to eliminate glare is easily available, and since glare means wasted
energy it should be prevented.
With these considerations in mind, it is easy to interpret and to
use the lighting codes in determining whether a particular lighting
system is adequate, although it may take the advice of lighting
experts to improve existing installations or to plan satisfactory
new ones.
6 The Franklin Specifications for Good Lighting.
Society of Electrical Development,
420 Lexington Avenue, New York, N. Y.; and Industrial Shop Lighting. Safe Practices
Pamphlet No. 22, National Safety Council, 20 North Wacker Drive, Chicago, Ill. It ls
sometimes estimated that under reasonably clean conditions lamps of from 150 to 300
watts with 1-watt per square foot, will give an illumination of approximately 5 footcandles.
·
1 See p. 17.
I•
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CHAPTER II.-THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD LIGHTING
FROM THE STANDPOINT OF EYE FATIGUE
By
JANE T H OWELL C L ARK,
Ph.D.
Associate P r ofesfJOr of Physi ological Hygiene i n t he School of Hygiene and
Publi o H ealth of Johns Hopkins Urwver sity, and author of Lighting in Relat i on t o Publio Health, Williams & W illoins Oo., Baltimore, 1924
Good lighting in places of work is an advantage to both employer
and employee. There is ample evidence to show that the installation
of a satisfactory lighting system saves time, improves the accuracy
of work, safeguards the sight of the workers, and reduces accident
hazard.
The Travelers Insurance Company, in analyzing the causes of
industrial accidents, has come to the conclusion that 18 per cent are
due in part to defective vision and poor lighting ;1 either insufficient
illumination or misapplication of the illumination that results in
glare, momentarily blinding the worker and obscuring the source
of danger.
A relatively low illumination may be sufficient to prevent accidents, but a higher degree is necessar_y to prevent undue eye fatigue
and safeguard eyesight, for continued used of the eyes under insufficient illumination may result in an increase in errors of refraction.
Studies of the vision of school children have shown that close eye
work, especially under conditions of poor illumination, increases
myopia and astigmatism. This is especially noticeable in growing
children, but even in adults close eye work under poor illumination
will increase the number of eye defects and aggravate those already
present.
There have been very few investigations made on which to base
such assertions, but in a study made by the United States Public
Health Service of the lighting of post offices, the grade of illumination and the eye defects of the workers were examined in two New
York post offices. 2 The conclusions of the study state that in both
buildings the intensity of illumination was low and its distribution
was unsatisfactory. The number of eye defects and the number of
cases of defective vision were found to vary in a general way with
the intensity of eye work, the largest number of defects and the
poorest vision being found in the group of workers doing the most
mtensive eye work. Furthermore, there seemed to be a definite relation between certain diseases of the eye and defects of vision
and the amount of illumination under which the workers were occupied. In this respect it was found that the employees at the old
post office, the majority of whom were working under an average
artificial illumination of 2 to 3 foot-candles, had a smaller percent1
11Iumina.tlng Engi.neering Society. Code of Lighting : Factories, Mill s, and Other
Work Places. Approved Aug. 18, 1930, by American Standards Association, 1930, 42 pp.
Also publi&hed in Transactions of the Illuminating Engi~ring Society, vol. 25, No. 7,
ser1ember, 1930, pp. 607-636.
United States Public H ealth Service. The Hygienic Condition of Illumination in
Certain Post Offices, Especially Relating to Visual Defects and Efficiency. Public Health
Bui. No. 140, July, 1924. 118 pp.
7
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
8
STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
age of normal vision and a greater percentage 0£ certain eye defect s
than had the employees at the new post office, the great majority of ·
whom were working under all or part-time daylight.
It is stated by Weston, in a report of the Industrial Fatigue Re- ·
search Board,3 that a special examination 0£ the history of 480
myopic subjects revealed this fact: Of those who had not been engaged on fine processes 9.4 per cent had failed owing to visu·a1
troubles at some time du;ring their occupations, and 0£ these 7 per cent
sustained definite damage to their eyes, while of those who had been
engaged in occupations involving habitual close eye work the corresponding figures rose to 53 per cent and 15 per cent. The perception of fine detail depends upon the size of the retinal image and
the illumination on the object viewed. When the illumination is too·
low, then the only resource available is to increase the size 0£ ,the _,
retinal image by .diminishing the distance between the eye and the '
object, with the result that continuous strain is imposed to :;i, greater '·
or less extent on .the muscles of accommodation and convergence. ·
4-lthough few data are available by which to set the level of illumination necessary to prevent the development of eye defects, obviously ·
this must vary w'ith the fineness of the work and must be related t<;> •
the eye strain and .f atigue resulting from the use of the eye under :
improper conditions. Many attempts have been made to measure eye
fatigue -b ut the results are complicated by the fact that they may be
affected by :fatigue of any kind.
·
··
Ferree and Rand* have used as a measure of fatigue the power to
sustain clear seeing. The ratio of the time the object was seen clearly
to the time it was seen blurred was taken as a measure of the power to
sustain clear seeing, and the difference in the power to sustain clear
seeing before and after the performance of a given task was .taken as
a measure of ocular fatigue. By this method was studied the :fatigue
of the eye produced by different systems of lighting, and it was found ·,
that the eye fatigues least under indirect and most under direct sys'"
terns of lighting, the degree of fatigue increasing with the number of
lighting units in the field of view.
Cobb and Moss 5 used the change in the muscular balance of the
eyes before and after a given task, performed under varying degrees
of illumination, and came to the conclusion that the eye did not
fatig~:ie any more rapidly under 100 millilamberts than under 5
milhlamherts provided the illumination was well diffused, and tha~
high illuminations are not in themselves fatiguing to the eye provided glare is eliminated.
·
These results are of a general nature and do not give the conditi~ns of illumination under which eye fatigue can be minimized
8 Great Britain.
Industrial Fatigue Research Board. Report No. 40. The Effect of
Eyestrain on the Output of Linkers in the Hosiery Industry, . by H .- C. Weston and
S. Adams. London , 1927. 20 pp.
4 Ferree, C. E. , a nd Ra nd, G.
Lightin"' in Its Relation to the Eye. In Proceedings
of the American Philosophical Society, vof. LVII, No. 5, 1918, pp. 440-478; The Efficiency
of the Eye Under Different Conditions of Lighting: The Effect of Varying the Distril;mtion
Factors and Intensity. In Transactions of the Illuminating Engineering Society, Vol. X,
No. 6, Aug. 30, 1915, pp. 407-447; Further Experiments on the Efficiency of the Eye
Under Different Conditions of Lighting. In Transactions of the Illuminating Engineering
Society, VoJ. X, No. 6, Aug. 30, 1915 1 pp. 448-501; Some Experience on the Eye with
Inverted Reflectors of Different Densities.
In Transactions of the Illumiilatlng Engl_neering Society, Vol. X, No. 9, Dec. 30, 1915, pp. 1097- 1170; and Some Experiments on
the Eye with Pendant Reflectors of Different Densities. In Transactions of the Illumiaating Engineering Society Vol. XI, No. 9, Dec. 30, 1916, pp. 1111- 1136.
~·cobb, Percy W., and Frank K. Moss. Eye Fatigue and Its Relation to Light and
Work. In Journal of the Franklin Institute, vol. 200, No. 2, Augustfi Hl25, pp. 239-!?47.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
IMPORTANCE OF GOOD LIGHTING
9
in specific industrial occupations. However, as eye fatigue results
in low production in general, and in particular contributes to the
lower -rate of production in the afternoon compared with the morning, it should be possible to arrive at some idea of the illumination
necessary to reduce eye htigue to a minimum from a study of production data in various industries.
A very detailed study o·f output and errors in typesetting_:!}nder
different types and grades of illumination has been made by Weston
and Taylor. 6 They found that maximum 'fatigue is experienced
when the minimum illumination is provided, and that the quality
of work, as judged by the ratio of errors to output, suffers until
the illumination is raised to 24.5 foot-candles.
A study of the relationship of illumination to ocular efficiency and
fatigue among the letter separators in post offices 1 led to the conclusion that speed of performance reaches a maximum and ocular
fatigue a minimum, for work of this type, at an illumination of
8 to 10 foot-candles.
Research of this kind in the future will provide specific values for
the level of illumination best suited to different types of industrial
work. In the meantime the information that can be had along this
line has been summarized in the various codes of factory lighting
published and revised from time to time by the Illuminating Engineering Society.8 In spite of the fact that these codes come largely
from the illuminating engineering profession and might be regarded
with some suspicion as an attempt on the part of the engineers to sell
more light to the public, their genuineness. is unquestioned. Great
care has been exercised in appointing the committees and soliciting
criticism from both scientists and practical constructors, so that
many points of view are represented. It may be said fairly that
these codes, far from being biased on the side of the illuminating
e:Qgineer, have used his technical knowledge to give an honest and
intelligent summary of the principles of good lighting for the use
of the public. Further development of the codes along their present
lines and their adoption, in part or in whole, by the various States
certainly should be encouraged. By their help it is possible to pass
upon factory lighting, while without them this is a matter of individual judgment and the opinion of the-investigator may be unscientific and difficult to a pp raise.
Careful investigations of ocular efficiency and fatigue in specific
occupations, such as those already carried out by the United States
Public Health Service and the Industrial Fatigue Research Board,
will J?rovide definite information concerning the optimum illumination m certain types of work, and when incorporated into future
revisions of the industrial lighting codes will furnish a more definite
and useful guide for judging the conditions of illumination in
jndustry.
41 Weston , H. C., and A. K. Taylor.
Tbe Relation Between Illumination and Efflciellcy
in Fine Work. (Typesetting by Hand.) Joint report of the Industrial Fatigue Board
and the Illumination R esearch Committee. London, 1926. 11 pp.
7 U. S. Public Health Service.
Relation ship, of Illumination to Ocular Efficiency and
Ocular Fatigue Among the L etter Separators in tbe Chicago Post Office. Public Health
Bui. No. 181, December, 1928. 58 pp.
8 Illuminating Engineering
Society. Code of Lighting: Factories, Mills, and Other
Work Places. Approved Au~. 18, 1930, by .American Standards .Association, 1930, 42 pp.
Also published in Transactions of Illuminating Engineering Society, vol. 25, No: 7,
September, 1930, pp. 607-636.
·
·
106484°-32-3
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
CHAPTER 111.-CODE OF THE AMERICAN STANDARDS
ASSOCIATION FOR LIGHTING FACTORIES, MILLS, AND
OTHER WORK PLACES
Lighting problems are so technical and are affected by so many
varying :factors that their solution requires trained persons. Fortunately, many discussions o:f lighting problems may be secured easily
and a code of standard lighting practice for places o:f employment is
available as a guide.1
The Illuminating Engineering Society, organized in 1906, has a
membership representing the following groups of persons: The public utilities, that is, companies supplying electricity; manufacturers
of natural and artificial lighting equipment; consulting engineers,
architects; general manufacturing industries; government agencies;
college professors, physicists, physiologists, and oculists. Since its
first lighting code was published in 1915,2 the society has sponsored
several codes and code revisions, the latest being a code of lighting
factories, mills, and other work places, approved as an American
standard on August 18, 1930, by the American Standards Association.
This is a revision of the code of lighting factories, mills, and other
work places approved as an American standard on December 31, 1921,
by the American Engineering Standards Committee.3
This code, which is based on lighting- practice and has been approved by representatives of the followmg societies and agencies, is
accepted as a guide for good lighting: American Gas Association,
American Institute of Architects, American Institute of Electrical
Engineers, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Association of
Edison Illuminating Companies, Association of Governmental Officials in Industry, Illuminating Engineering Society, International
Association of Industrial Accident Boards and Commissions, National Association of Building Owners and Managers, National Association o:f Cotton Manufacturers, National Bureau of Casualty and
Surety Underwriters, National Electric Light Association, National
Electrical Manufacturers Association, National Safety Council
United States Bureau of Standards, United States Department of
Labor, United States Navy Department, United States Public Health
Service, United States War Department, and members at large.
Anyone interested in lighting problems should secure a complete
copy of the code. 4 An outline and a fairly complete reprint of the
code, wHh some rearrangement, is given in the pages following.
1
For brief list of suggestions to persons most concerned, see page viii.
2
Clark, Janet Howell. Lighting in Relation to Public Health p 106 Williams &
Wilkins Co., Baltimore, 1924.
' ·
·
Se;i!i.printed by the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics as Bul. No. 331 of its Safety Code
4
From either the American Standards Association or the Illuminating Elngineering
Society, at 29 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York, N. Y. American Standard Code of
Lighting: Factories, Mills, and Other Work Places. Approved Aug. 18, 1930. Price
20 cents.
'
10
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
LIGHTING FACTORIES, MILLS, AND OTHER WORK PLACES
11 ·
The three main divisions of the code are these: Advantages of good
illumination; essentials of good illumination and its measurements;
and suggested minimum regulations to be established by State
authorities.
AMERICAN STANDARD OF LIGHTING: FACTORIES,
MILLS, AND OTHER WORK PLACES
Part 1.-ADVANTAGES OF GOOD ILLUMINATION
[Reprinted
with
some
rearrangement and slight omissions,
Illuminating Engineering Society]
by
permission
of the
The advisability of good natural and artificial illumination is so
evident that a list of its effects may seem commonplace, but these
effects are of such importance in their relation to management that
they are worthy of careful attention. The effects of good illumination, both natural and artificial, and of bright and cheerful interior
surroundings, include the following:
1. Reduction of accidents.
2. Greater accuracy in workmanship, resulting in improved
quality of goods.
3. Increased production.
4. Less eyestrain.
5. Greater contentment of the workers.
6. Greater cleanliness.
7. More order and neatness in the plant.
8. Supervision of the employees made easier.
The cost of accidents, due to poor illumination, greatly exceeds
the cost of providing adequate illumination. [Based on comparison
of cost of good and of poor lighting with the cost of accidents, not
given here.]
While it is difficult to appraise the savings effected in increased
production and improved quality by good illumination, it by no
means follows that such savings are insignificant or unsubstantial.
The factory owner who ignores them neglects his own interests.
Other items in the foregoing list, even more difficult to value definitely, are none the less real; taken together, they constitute a powerful argument in favor of the best available illumination in the
factory.
If an operator, because of the good illumination, saves-in more
production or better quality of product-the equivalent of only 3
minutes per day for 300 days, he will offset the annual cost of the
illumination. Good illumination is, relatively speaking, inexpensive,
and its introduction and maintenance are good investments on the
part of the factory owner.
The figures illustrating the low cost of good lighting compared
with the cost of labor also illustrate how large may be the losses
unconsciously sustained by the factory owner from the use of a poor
lighting system. An operator losing, say, 30 minutes per day, loses
more than $60 per year, or about 10 times the cost of giving him good
illumination.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
12
STATE ..REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
Part 11.-ESSENTIALS OF GOOD ILLUMINATION
MEASUREMENT
Natural lighting.
.
AND ITS
:
It is of interest to note that the range of illumination under which
the eye can function with some degree of success is extremely wide,
varying from a few hundredths of a foot-candle in the moonlight
up to as much as 10,000 foot-candles out in the sunlight on a clear
day. In planning a new factory building or other work place, the
design should be such that the foot-candle values for daylight
should be at least twice those stated in Table I. (See p. 14.) The
natural lighting is frequently many times these figures ; in fact,
illuminations of a hundred foot-candles or more can be measured
near the window in almost any shop. However, wide extremes in
illumination are not conducive to best vision.
Factory owners in most industries are particularly interested in
making the best possible use of their daylight facilities so as to
render useful and valuable all parts of the floor space ; and also to
shorten the period when artificial lighting is needed. The sawtooth, monitor, or skylight windows of modern factory construction
permit of an adequate and more uniform daylight illumination of
the entire floor area and are desirable when practicable. When
rooms are illuminated through side windows, it is often difficult or
impossible satisfactorily to light all parts of the floor space, furnishing adequate illumination to the workers without subjecting
some of them to objectionable glare. In some cases the use of refracting or diffusing glass which redirects the rays of light so as to
improve the distribution of daylight in the room, especially in the
part of the room remote from the windows, is desirable.
If only one side wall contains windows, the width of the rooni
perpendicular to this wall should be less than twice the height 0£ the
top of the windows above the floor; if windows are in two parallel
side walls, the width of the room between these walls should not
exceed six times this window height. A monitor gives best results
when its width is about half the width of the building, and the height
of the windows in the monitor is one-half of the monitor width.
The height of the windows in saw-tooth construction should be at
least one-third of the span. In general, single-story industrial
buildings should have a window area of at least 30 per cent of the
floor area.
Reflection of daylight from surfaces outside a building has ·an
important effect upon the lighting of a room. Faces of structures,
' walls of courts, and roofs of saw-tooth buildings should be finished
in the lightest practicable colors and so maintained. The possibility
of glare from such surfaces should, however, be considered.
Windows should be equipped with adjustable devices so that the
illumination may be accommodated to changing exterior conditions.
Window shades of light tones should be used, for at night they ~ill
reflect artificial light back into the room; shades transmitting diffusely a large part of the natural light they receive will generally
improve the daylight_illumination. When practicable, shades should
be piounted so as to permit of covering any desired parts of the
w.i ndows. Venetian type 'blinds are e.ffective means to control the.distribution of natural illumination as well as the glare from windows,
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LIGHTING FACTORIES, MILLS, AND OTHER WORK PLACES
13
i£ properly finished and adjusted. Any devices for adjustment of
natural lighting should be controlled by some specified individual.
Rapid changes in illumination levels result in dangerous, even
though temporary, inability to see, due to the time required for adaptation of the eyes. An example of this is when one steps from bright
sunlight into a dimly lighted interior. A passageway adjacent to a
highly illuminated area, therefore, needs relatively high and graduated illumination. Again, where the eye has been afforded the advantages of a high level of illumination throughout the day and artificial light is turned on to reinforce the failing natural light, a higher
total illumination is ordinarily needed than at night under artificial
lighting alone.
Measurement of illumination.
The foot-candle is the unit of illumination, in terms of which lighting requirements are specified. A general idea of the amount of illumination represented by foot-candle values can be obtained by holding a newspaper at different distances from a bare 25-watt tungsten
filament lamp, so that the light rays fall perpendicularly upon the
surface. For 16 foot-candles the distance should be 15 inches; for
8 foot-candles, 21 inches; for 4 foot-candles, 2½ feet; for 1 footcandle, 5 feet; for one-fourth foot-candle, 10 feet.
In this connection it should be realized that the brightness of the
surface will depend not only upon the foot-candles of incident illumination, but also upon the nature of the surface. That is, with equal
illumination, white paper will be much brighter than cast iron.
It is impractical and frequently misleading to attempt to estimate
foot-candle values simply by viewing an illuminated surface. The
simplest instrument for measuring these values is a foot-candle meter
with which foo!-candles can, with a little practice, be read accurately
enough for ordmary purposes. 5
Points at whieh vwaswrements should be taken.-In checking recommended or required intensities of illumination with an instrument
such as the foot-candle meter, it is extremely important that the
measurement be made at the point and in the plane where the given
illumination is needed. Thus, for any operation the illumination
should be measured on the plane on which the work or operation is
performed, whether it be horizontal, vertical, or at some intermediate
angle. The illumination over an area such as a hallway or aisle
refers ordinarily to the floor level and is measured in the horizontal
plane.
Recommended levels of illumination.
Table I gives the range of illumination values that are considered
desirable for different classes of work. These values are based upon
practice established through years of experience. Persons of advanced years or with defective eyesight require more light than do
those having perfect vision. A range of foot-candle values is given
6
Can only be purchased from the Nela Park Engineering Department General Electri_c Co., Cleveland, Ohio, or th e Westinghouse Lamp Co., 150 Broadway, New York, N. Y""
price, $21.50. A book of direction s given with each meter clearly states the way to use
it. Local light and power companies often have such instruments that may be borrowed.
A new instrument, the Weston Photronic-Cell llluminometer, can be purchased from the
Weston Electrical Instrument Corporation, Waverly Park, Newark, N. J. Price, i95.
This instrument has m_any practical advantages for the layman.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
14
. STATE
REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
for each group of operations; in modern practice it will usually be
found desirable to select values in or even beyond the upper portion
.of the range.6
Attention is called to the fact that the values in Table I are operating values; that is, they apply to measurements of the lighting system
in ordinary use, not simply when the lamps and reflectors are new
and clean.
TABLE
l . -R ecommenidea l eve l s of illumvnat ian for itndustrial interiors
Footcandles
recommended
Aisles, stairways, passageways ____ __ ____ __
Assembling:
Rough ______________________________ __
Medium __ ---------------- -- _________ _
Fine
______
---- -- --- --- -- ----- -- -- - -_
E
xtra_-fine
__________________
__________
Automobile manufacturing:
Automatic screw machines ___________ _
Assembly line ___________ __________ ---~
Frame assembly _____________ ________ _
Tool making ________ ______ ______ _____ _
Body manufacturing-assembly, finishing and inspecting _______________ _
Bakeries _________________________________ _
.Book binding:
Folding, assembling, pasting, etc _____ _
Cutting, punching, and stitching _____ _
Embossing _______________ ________ ___ __
Candy making __ ____________ _____________ _
Canning and preserving __________________ _
Chemical works:
Hand furnaces, boiling tanks, stationary driers, stationary or gravity
crystallizing ____ _______________ _____ _
Mechanical furnaces, generators and
stills, mechanical driers, evaporators, filtration, mechanical crystallizing, bleaching _____ __ __________ _
Tanks for cooking, extractors, percolators, nitrators, electrolytic cells __ _
Clay products and cements:
Grinding, filter presses, kiln rooms ___ _
and _
Mo~ding,
cleaning,
tnmmmg pressing,
__ _____ _______
__ __________
Enameling _____ ____ ______ __ _______ ____
Color and glazing __ _______ ___________ _
- Cloth products:
Cutting, inspect ing, sewing.
Light goods ___ __ _________________ _
Dark goods _--------------~------Pressing, cloth treating (oilcloth,
etc.)Light goods _______ _______________ _
Dark goods- _____________ ____ ____ _
Coal breaking and washing, screening __ __ _
Construction: Indoor, generaL ___________ _
Dairy products _________ __ __________ ____ __ _
Electric manufacturing:
Storage
battery,
of grids, _
__ ________________
charging
room ____molding
Coil and armat ure winding, mica
working, insulating processes ______ __
Elevator: Freight and passenger_ ________ _
Engraving __ -------------------- ______ ___ _
Forge shops and welding _________________ _
Foundries:
Charging floor, tumbling, cleaning,
pouring, and shaking out_ _________ _
0
Footcandle.s
recommended
Foundries-Continued
Rough molding and core making _____ _ 10- 6
Fine molding and core making _______ _ 15-10
Garage-Automobiles:
Storage20-12
Dead _____ ________ __________ _____ __
100-25
3- 2
Live ______________ ------------- --8- 5
Repair
department and washing _____ _ 15-10
15-10
15-10 Glass works:
Mix and furnace rooms, pressing and
12- 8
lehr, glass blowing machines _____ __ _ 10- 6
20-12
cutting
glass to size, silver- _
Grinding,
__ _____________________
ing __________
100-25
12- 8
Fine
grinding,
polishing,
beveling,
12- 8
inspection, etching, and decorating_ 15-10
Glass cutting (cut glass), inspecting
8- 5
12- 8
50-15
fine _______ ---- -- - ---- - ----- - - ---- --15-10 · 01ove manufacturing:
12- 8
Light goods12- 8
Cutting, pressing, knitting ______ _ 12- 8
S~rting,
~titching,
t rimming,
and _
mspectmg
__________
____ ________
15-10
Dark goods5- 3
Cutting, pressing, knitting, sortand
!ng,
st!tching;
trimming,
mspectmg
_____ _____
________ __
__ _ 100-25
Hat manufacturing:
6-- 4
Dyeing, stiffening, braiding, cleaning,
and __
refiningLight_
__ ___ ____ ________________ _
10- 6
6
Dark _____________________________ _ 1016-10
5- 3
Forming, sizing, pouncing, flanging,
finishing,
Light_ __ironing__ __ _________ ______ __ ____ _ 12- 8
8- 5
10- 6
D ark __ ____ ________________ _______ _ 16-10
15-10
SewingLight _______ _. ____________ _______ _ 16-10
D ark __ ____ _______________________ _ 100-25
15-10 Ice making:
100-25
Engine and compressor room ______ ___ _ 10- 6
Inspecting:
Rough __ ____ ___ _________ ________ __ ___ _
3- 2
8- 5
12- 8
12- 8
20-12
5- 3
5- 3
12- 8
10- 6
20-12
8- 5
100-25
10- 6
8- 5
10- 6
15-10
Medium
_---------------------------___ ___
______ _____ ___ _____________ _.
Fine
25-15
Extra fine __________________________ __ _ 100-25
Polished surfaces ___ ____ ______________ _
(a)
Jewelry and watch manufacturing __ ______ _ 100-25
Laundries and dry cleaning ________ __ ____ _ 12- 8
Leather manufacturing:
Vats ____ __ ----- __ -- -- -- - --- ------ ----5- 3
Cleaning, t anning, and stretching ____ _
6-- 4
Cutting, fleshing, and stuffing _______ _ 10- 6
Finishing and scarfing ________________ _ 15-10
Leather working:
Pressing, winding, and glazingLight ____________________________ _ 12- 8
Dark _______ __ __ _____ _____________ _ 15-10
Usually requires glint reflections from specially located light source.
6
In practice, levels of from 30 to 50 foot-candles are being used now, a n d s ome
a uthorities suggest that improvement in vision may be found up to 1,000 foot-candles for
general factory work. Tran sactions, Illumina ting Engineering Society, September, 1920,
New York, pp. 626-627; and Luckiesh, Matthew, Light and Work. D. Van Nostrand Co.,
1924, New York, p. 278.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
LIGHTING FACTORIES, MILLS, AND OTHER WORK PLACES
15
TABLE 1.-Recom-rrwnded levels of illumti:nation for indlustrial interiors-con.
Footcandles
recommended
Footcandles
recommended
Leather working-Continued.
Grading, matching, cutting, scarfing,
sewingLight ___ ________ _______________ --15-10
Dark _______________ ______________ _ 100-25
Looker rooms ______ ____________________ ___ 6- 4
Machine shops:
Rough bench and m achine work ____ __ 10- 6
M edium bench and machine work,
ordinary automatic m achine.s, rough
grinding, m edium buffing and polish 15-10
ing_-- -- -- - - ---- - - ---- - - -- -- - ---- --- Fine bench and m achine work, fine
automatic m achines, m edium grinding, fine buffing and polishing ____ __ 2o-12
Extra fine bench and m achine work,
grinding (fine work) __ _________ _____ _ 100-25
M eat
packing: __________ _______________ _
Slaughtering
Shoe manufacturing:
Hand turning,miscellaneous bench and
machine work _____ ____ _____ _____ __ __ 12- 8
Inspecting and sorting raw material,
cutting, lasting, and welting (light) _ 15-10
Inspecting and sorting raw material,
cutting, stitching (dark) __ _________ __ 100-25
Soap m anufacturing:
K powder
ettle houses,
cutting,
soap
chip, and _
_________
___ ____
_____________
8- 5
Stamping, wrapping, and packing,
filling and packing soap powder_ ____ _ 10- 6
Steel and iron mills, bar, sheet, and wire
products:
Soaking pits and reheating furnaces ___ _
3- 2
Charging and casting floors ___ __ __ __ __ _
6- 4
Muck and heavy rolling, shearing
(rough by gage), pickling and clean8- 5
ing ___
- -- -- --- ---chipping
-- - - -- - - ___________
-- - --- - - - - --_
Plate
inspection,
8- 5
Cleaning, cutt ing, cooking, grinding,
canning, packing ___________________ _ 12- 8
Milling-Grain foods :
Cleaning, grinding, and rolling________ _
8- 5
Baking or roasting ____________________ _ 12- 8
Flour grading ________________________ _ 25-15
Offices: Private and general
Close work _________________________ ___ 15-10
No close work ______________________ ___ 10 - 8
Distribution of mail in post--0ffices __ ___ 15-10
Drafting room __________ ___ ___ --------25-15
P acking:
Crating __ _____ _____ _____ _________ ____ _
6- 4
Boxing ______________________________ -10- 6
P aint m anufacturing___________ __________ _ 10- 6
Paint shops:
Dipping, spraying, fl.ring ___ ____ ______ _
8- 5
Rubbing,
hand
ing and _
finishingordinary
__ ________
__ ___paint
____________
12- 8
Fine hand painting and finishing _____ _ 15-10
Extra fine hand painting and finishing
(automobile bodies, pianocases, etc.). 100-25
Paper-box manufacturing :
10- 6
Light
__- - ______ _- ___--- - -- - -- -- --Dark ___________________________
____- -__-_ 128
Storage of stock ____ __ __ ________ _____ __
5- 3
P aper manufacturing:
Beaters, m achine, grinding ___________ _
6- 4
Calendering __________________________ _ 10- 6
Finishing, cutt ing, and trimming ____ _ 12- 8
Plating ____________________________ __ _____ _
8- 5
P olishing and burnish ing _____ ____ ________ _
12- 8
Power plants, engine rooms, boilers:
Boilers, coal and ash h andling, storage
bat tery rooms ______________________ _
5- 3
oil_______
switches,
and _
Auxiliary
equipment,
transformers
______ ___
_______
8-5
Switchboard, engin es , generators,
blowers, compressors _____ ______ __ ____ 10- 6
Printing industries:
Matrixing and casting, miscellaneous
machines, presses ____ ______________ _ 12- 8
Proof reading, lithographing, electro•
15-10
typing_ - - -- -- - - ---- -- -- -- -- - - -- -- --Linot ype, monotype, t ypesetting, imposing stone, engraving ___ ____ _____ _ 100-25
R eceiving and shipping __________________ _
6- 4
Rubber m anufacturing:
Calendars, coml)Ounding mills, fabric
preparation, stock cutting, tubing
machines, solid-tire operations, mechanical goods, building, vulcanizing_
12- 8
Bead building, pneumatic-tire building
and finishing, inner-tube operation,
mechanical-goods trimming, treading_
15-10
Sheet-metal works:
Miscellaneous
machines,
ordinary
bench work ________________ _______ __ 12- 8
Punches, presses, shears, stamps, weld. ·ers, spinning, fine bench work ____ ___ 15-10
Tin-plate inspection ________ __________ _ b 25-15
b
Special glint lighting recommended.
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25-16
Automatic machines, red, light and
cold
drawing,
shearing
by line)wire
_______
__ ___ ______
____ __ 12- 8
(fine rolling,
Stone crushing and screening:
Belt-conveyor tubes, m ain-line shaftrooms,__ _________
inside or_
ing,
spaces,
__ ___chute
___________
bins _____
3- 2
Primary breaker room, auxiliary
breakers under bins _______________ __
5- 3
Screen rooms __ ____ ___________________ _
8- 6
Store and stock rooms:
Rough bulky material__ ______________ _
3- 2
Medium or fine material requiring
care __ ___ ____ ---------- -- - --- -- -- -- -8- 5
Structural-steel fabrication _______________ _ 10- 6
Sugar grading ______________________ _____ __ 25-15
Testing:
Rough _____ _________ ____ _____________ _
8- 5
Fine ______ _____ ______ ___ ________ __ ___ _
15-10
Extra fine instruments, scales, etc _____ 100-25
T extile mills:
CottonOpening and lapping, carding,
drawing frame, roving, dyeing ___
8- 5
Spooling, spinning, drawing-in,
warping, weaving, quilling,
inspecting, knitting, slashing
(over beam end) __ _____________ _ 12- 8
Silk-
Winding, throwing, dyeing_______ _
Quilling, warping, weaving, and
finishingLight goods __________________ _
D ark goods _______ __________ __
WoolenCarding,
washing, and _
combingpicking,
____ ___________________
Twisting and dyeing ___ __________ _
Drawing-in, warpingLight goods ___ _______ __ _____ __
Dark goods __ ___________ __ ___ _
WeavingLight goods ______ ____ ___ __ ___ _
Dark goods __________________ _
Knitting machines ____ ____ __ __
Tobacco products:
Drying. stripping, general__ __________ _
Grading and sorting___ ___ _____ _____ __ _
Toilet and wash rooms _____ __ ____ ______ ___
Upholstering:
Automobile, coach, and furniture ____ _
Warehouse _________ _________ ___ __________ _
Woodworking :
Rough sawing and bench work _______ _
Sizing, planing, rough sanding, medium m achine, and bench work,
gluing, veneering, cooperage _____ ___ _
Fine bench and machine working, fine
sanding and finish __ _______________ _
12- 8
15-10
20-15
6- 4
10- 6
10- 6
16-10
12- 8
20-12
15- 10
3- 2
25-15
6- 4
16-10
3- 2
8- 5
12- 8
16-10
16
STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
Where the higher levels are specified for particular processes, such
illumination need not be supplied in all parts of a room, nor on all
parts of a machine, but only at locations where work of the type
mdicated is likely to be performed. Thus, in a workroom, a general
illumination providing the value specified for aisles and passageways
or storage spaces might be supplemented at proper locations by
higher illumination, specified for work of different degrees of fineness in the table. The high illumination may be required over small
areas only, as in watchmaking and machine sewing, or over wide
areas, as in automobile assembly and finishing. In practice, the
lower values required in the room will often be considerably exceeded
in order to conveniently provide for the higher values. The latter
is fortunate, since it avoids the possibility of having extreme contrasts between the actual working area and the surroundings.
Maintaining the level of illumination-cleaning and painting. 7
The proper and adequate maintenance of equipment for both natural and artificial lighting is essential. Systems which are adequate
when first installed will soon deteriorate unless properly maintained.
The factory owner should establish a regular, definite system of
maintenance' so as to insure that sky windows, side windows, lamps,
and accessories are at all times kept clean, in proper adjustment, and
in good repair. Means should be provided for easy access to all
]ighting units by the employee in charge of their maintenance.
Walls and ceilings should be repainted, preferably in light tones,
at regular intervals, particularly where, as in indirect systems of
lighting, a large part of the illumination comes from the ceiling. It
should be kept in mind that the illumination requirements given in
the tables apply to the lighting equipment under adverse operating
conditions, not simply new and clean as when first installed.
Initial installation.
To insure that a given level of illumination will be maintained .
even where conditions are favorable, it is necessary to design the
system to give initially at least 25 per cent more light than the
required minimum. In locations where the dirt will collect rapidly
and where adequate maintenance is not provided, the initial value
should be at least 50 per cent above the minimum requirement,
and * * * even this allowance may prove insufficient.
Use of foot-candle meter.
Especially in connection with the maintenance o·f lighting systen.1s
attention is called to the desirability of having available in the fac~
tory an instrument with which the foot-candles of illumination
received at any point can be measured. One instrument, the footcandle meter, while not designed for precise measurements, has a ·
wide field of usefulness because, with a little practice, determinations
are easily made with it and are accurate enough for most practical '
purposes. The foot-candle meter is small, light in weight, and en- ·
tirely self-contained. Illumination is read directly from the scale
7 The American Standa rds Association Safety Code for Window Washing should be
s.e cured and followed to protect window washers from accidents. Address : Illuminating
Engineering Society, 29 West Thirty-ninth Street, New York, N. Y.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
LIGHTING FACTORIES, MILLS, AND OTHER WORK PLACES
-17
without computation or manipulation. In one large establishment
where the superintendent uses a foot-candle meter systematically ·as
a check on his maintenance department, readings of illumination are
taken at regular intervals at fixed stations throughout the plant.
These readings are1recorded in such a way that the successive readings are readily comparable. When any inconsistency appears in
the records an investigation is made and the remedy applied. The
illumination in that establishment is never allowed to fall below 6
foot-candles without immediate correction. By measuring light
actually delivered to the work the foot-candle meter automatically
reveals the combined effect of all possible causes of depreciation.
Ignorance of the magnitude of depreciation has often been the cause
of inadequate maintenance. Soap and water cost less than electrical
energy.
Avoidance of glare.
It is not a particularly difficult problem to supply a factory or
office with the amount of light specified in Table I, and reflectors are
available which provide these levels economically. There are many
installations, however, where p.oor conditions .for vision exist in spite
of an adequate foot-candle level. This is usually because precautions were not taken to provide illumination without glare.
Glare may be defined as any brightness within the field of vision
of such a character as to cause discomfort, annoyance, interference
with vision, or eye fatigue. Always a hindrance to vision, it often,
like smoke from a chimney, represents a positive waste of energy as
well. It is one of the most common and serious faults of lighting
installations; the code properly requires the shading of lamps- in
industrial plants to guard against glare.
Glare is objectionable because (1) when continued it tends to
injure the eye and to disturb the nervous system; (2) it causes discomfort and fatigue and thus reduces the efficiency of the worker;
and (3) it interferes with clear vision, and thus reduces the efficiency
and in many cases increases the risk of accident or injury to the
worker. From both a humanitarian and a business viewpoint the
owner or operator of a factory should be interested ,i n avoiding glare,
whether caused by daylight or by artificial light.
Factors a;ffecting glare.-In order that the various factors affecting
glare may be better understood, the principal causes are outlined
below:
1. Brightness of source : The light source may be too bright; that
is, it may have too high a candlepower per square inch of area.
A glance at the sun proves that an extremely bright light source
within the field of vision is capable of producing acute discomfort.
2. Total volume of light: The light source may be too powerful
for comfort; that is, it may have too great a total candlepower in
the direction of the eye.
Experience has shown that a 500-wat t lamp in a 10-inch opal globe,
or a mercury-vapor lamp of an equivalent light output, hung seven
or eight feet above the floor and a similar distance in front of the
observer will prove quite as glaring as the exposed filament of a.
50-watt incandescent lamp in the same location. An unshaded window often causes glare, due, of course, to the large volume of light
rather than to the high brightness of t he sky.
10648i 0 -32-4
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
18
STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
3. Location in the field of view: A given light source may be
located at too short a distance from the eye or it may lie· too near
the center of the field of vision for comfort; that is, within too
small an angle from the ordinary line of sight. The natural position of the eye during intervals of rest from any kind of work is
generally in the horizontal direction, and it is desirable that during
such periods the worker should. be freed from the annoyance caused
by glare. Glare is the more objectionable the more nearly the
light source approaches the direct line of sight. While at work the
·eye is usually directed either horizontally or at an angle below the
horizontal. Glaring objects at or below the horizontal should especially be prohibited. The best way to remove light sources out of
the direct line of vision is to locate them well up toward the ceiling.
Local lamps-that is, lamps placed close to the work-if used must
be particularly well screened.
· 4. Contrast with background : The contrast may be too great
~tween the light source and its darker surroundings. It is a
common experience that a lamp viewed against a dark wall is far
more trying to the eyes than when its surroundings appear relatively
light. In order to provide a light background ( usually ceiling or
side walls) which will minimize contrasts, the surfaces should be
painted a light color and the system of illumination employed
should be such as to direct some light upon the background. In
general, a light tone for ceilings and high ·side walls and a paint
of medium reflecting power for the lower side walls will ordinarily
be found most satisfactory under both artificial and natural lighting.
Where strictly local lighting systems are employed-that is, where
individual lamps are supplied for all benches and machines---and
no overhead lighting is added, the resulting contrasts in illumination
will usually be found so harsh as to be objectionable even though the
lamps themselves are well shielded. The eyes of the workman
looking up from his brightly lighted machine or bench are not
adapted for vision at low illuminations; hence, if adjacent objects
and aisles are only dimly lighted, he will be compelled either to
grope about, losing time and risking accident, or to wait until his
eyes have become adapted to the low illumination. Glancing back
at his work, he again loses time while his eyes adjust themselves to
the increased amount of light which reaches them. If long continued,
this condition leads to fatigue as well as to interference with vision
and to accidents. In other words, where local lamps are employed,
there should also be a system of overhead lighting which will provide a sufficient illumination of all surrounding areas to avoid such
undesirable contrasts.
5. Time of exposure: The time of exposure may be too great-that is, the eye may be subjected to the strain caused by a light
source of given strength within the field of vision for too long a time.
Where an operator is seated and his field of vision is fixed for several hours at a time, light sources of lower brightness and lower
candlepower are required than where the operator stands at his work
and shifts his position and direction of view from time to time.
Those who are forced to work all day at desks facing the windows
are particularly likely to suffer from this form of glare.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
LIGHTING FACTORIES, MILLS, AND OTHER WORK PLACES '
19
Glare by rejlectio-n.-Another way in which glare is produced is by
the reflection of light from polished surfaces in the field of v:ision.
The difficulty experienced in protecting the eyes from this kind of
glare is sometimes very great. The brightness of the image on the
working surface is, of course, proportional to the brightness of the
light source above it, and hence, one way in which to minimize this
effect is to diffuse the downward light; that is, to use a bowl-frosted
or bowl-enameled lamp, or an inclosing fixture, or to employ semiindirect or totally indirect lighting fixtures. In some cases the light
source can be so located that its reflection is directed away from,
rather than toward, the eyes of the workers. The avoidance of highly
polished surfaces in the line of vision is another good way to minimize reflected glare.
There are some instances, on the other hand, where sharp shadows
and specular reflection from the materials worked upon actually
assist vision. For example, in sewing on dark goods the thre.a d is
much more easily distinguished when illumination is secured from
a concentrated light sour ce, such as a brilliant lamp filament, which
casts sharp shadows and gives rise to a distinct glint from each
thread. However, in these cases the light source must be particularly well shielded from the eyes of the worker.
·..
Determ.inilng glare.-The eye has the quality of estimating, with
a fair agreement among different observers, which of two light
sources is the more glaring, taking into account both brightness and
candlepower when the two sources are located side by side and viewed
against the same background. This quality of the eye has been used
as the basis of a relatively simple system of glare rating.
[WoMEN's BUREAU COMMENT.-According to this system glare is
classified in various grades on the basis of tungsten filament lamps
of certain watts. Each of the 11 grades is designated by a letter ( A
to K), the first representing a 10-watt lamp, the last one of 1,000
watts. The complete list is given in Table II. The erlent of glare
produced by various sources of light may be measured according to
the standard designated by these letters, corresponding, of course to
the extent of glare. produced b~ the lamp with given watt strength.
See Table Ill. Fmally, experiments have been made to determine
the degree of glare-measured by the same letter standard-that
should not be exceeded under conditions specified. The resulting
recommendations are shown in Table IV.]
This classification follows :
TABLE
IL-Scale used to classify glare of light sources
Glare grade
Standard for grade
A __________________________ _____ ___ 10-watt tungsten filament lamp in 6-inch frosted ball globe.
B ____________ ________________ ______ 15-watt tungsten filament lamp in 6-inch frosted ball globe.
c __________________________________ 25-watt tungsten filament lamp in 6-inch frosted ball globe.
D __ _______ _________ ______ ___ _____ _ 40-watt tungsten filament lamp in 6-inch frosted ball globe.
E ------------------------- --- ------ 50-watt t ungsten filament lamp in 6-inch frosted ball globe.
F _________________________ ______ ___ 60-watt tungsten filament lamp in 6-inch frosted ball globe.
Q ___ ____ __ ____ ______________ _____ __ 100-watt tungsten tllament lamp in 6-inch frosted ball globe.
H ________ __________ ____________ ____ 150-watt tungsten tllament lamp in 6-inch frosted ball globe.
t::===============================
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~~!J~:!1:;rp.
20
STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
Common light sources compared with the standards in Table 'II
are rated as follows :·
·
TABLE III.-Spooi{io classi'{ica,tion of common light sources from the stanclp-0ir,.t
of glare as deri,ve<f. from Table II
· · ·
Glare
grade
Light sources
Natural
light (as seen
through______
windows):
Sun _____________
_________
___ ________________________________________________________ _
Bright southern sky __ ______ _____ ___ _________ __ ____ __ _____________________________________ _
Dull or northern sky ______ ___ ___ ___________ ________________________ _____ ____ _________ ____ _
Sun shining on prism glass _______ _______________ __---- - ---------------------------- _______ _
Mercury vapor tubes ________________________ ____ __ ______________ __ ____________________ _____ ___
Oarbon
incandescent
lamps:
16-candlepower
__ _________________
_____ _______________ ______ __ _______ ____ ___ _______ _______ _
32-candlepower ___ ___ ___ ______ ____ _______ _______________ _____ ____ ____ __ ___ _____ ____ ____ ___ _
Tungsten filament lamps
40 watts 60 watts j~ts
150-200
watts
300
watts
K
G
C
J
G ·
F
G
500-1,000
watts
- - - -- - - - - - - -- - - -- - - : 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -I
J
K
J
Bare lamps__ _____ ___ _______ ____ ___ ____________ _____
G
H
Frosted lamps or frosted globes____ ____ ____ ____ _____
D
F
8-inch
opal
globes
__
--------------------------·_
__
C
E
12-inch opal globes ___ ·____________________________ ___ _______________
G
F
E
16-inch opal globes _________________________________ --- --··-·---···-·-·--·-With flat reflectors- filament position visible __ __. __
G
H
I
With dome reflectors-steel or dense glass:
. Filament position visible from working position _____ · - - - - -·-- --- - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- -· -G
H
I
Filament position not visible _____ __ ·--········ ·
B
B
D
Dome reflectors-white bowl lamps .. · ·· ·····-- ······-- -··-··-- --·-····
With bowl reflectors-steel or dense glass :
Filament position visible _·· · -····· · ············
G
H
I
Filament position not visible . . ....... . ·-----···
C
C
D
Je°!~~~~Jfr~~ei~~,~~~~!-~====================== ======== ========
B!D
H
I
J-K
F
J
G
J
H
K
J
D
F
J
E
G
K
G
G
J
E
B-C
C-D
J
G
C
C-E
K
H
D
D-G
-- ----------------- -----I
G
H
1 Where a range is given, the best grade (that is, the lowest) applies to bowls that are of dense glass, and
the poorest to bowls that have a decidedly bright spot in the center.
· Finally, the experiments by which these glare grades were applied
to various places according to height of light above the floor resulted
in the following findings :
T.ABLE,
IV.-Grades of Ug·ht•so1.wce glare that should not be emceede<L for good
condiUons of vision 1
Glare grade that should not be exceeded 2 in-
Height of light source above floor
Roadways
and y ard
thoroughfares
Under 6.5 feet. ........... -·_._ ..... __ -· ___·- ___ -· ___ ___ -· __ -·
6.5-7 .5 feet . . .. ___ -· .. . -·---·-·_ . ... __ . __ .·- __ ___ ··-. -·· .. -· . .
7.5-9 feet.·· ·-·······--··--_--·--··- .. ·-- ____ ___
F
9--11 feet ..... _-···· ··· ·····- . ... .. -· .. ______ .. -·
G
11- 13 feet. ..•...... -· · ...... . ..... ·- ________ .. ·H
H
13-16 feet. ............... _.·-_._·- __ -·..........
16-20 feet. ...................... __ _-·· . -· ·- · ·--I
20 feet and up ....... ·-····-- -·- -·······-··-- · -J
Storage
spaces
Offices and
work
Ordinary drafting
and
certain
manufactur•
anufactur•
ing operations ming
opera•
t ions 3
D
D
E
G
G
H
I
C
D
E
G
H
I
J
J
C
A
_.._
C
D
E
F
G
H
t That these standards are moderate is indicated by the fact that in each case a grade only 1 or 2 points
harsher, is considered the lowest permissible. Its flexibility also is apparent.
3 Where backgrounds are very dark in tone, a light source 1 grade softer than specified is recommen ded
for interiors.
a Those operations in which workers are seated facing in one direction for long periods of time.
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LIGHTING FACTORIES, MILLS, AND OTHER WORK PLACES
21
It. will be observed that Grade K is representative of light sources
that are extremely bright and glaring, whereas Grade A ( a 10-watt
lamp in a 6-inch frosted ball) can be placed almost anywhere i~ the
field of view without causing discomfort. (See Table II.)
Where lamps are located at considerable heights above the eye
level, relatively bright light sources can be tolerated, and this is particularly t~ue. in ~ocations su~h. as out~of-doors at night, where little
close d1scrmunat10n of detail 1s reqmred of the eye. On the other
hand, where light sources are hung low and are constantly in the
field of view of a worker seated at a table or workbench, then the
light source should be of Grade A or B, that is, very' soft and free
from glare. Again, the effect of glare is cumulative; therefore, in _;a .
long room where a considerable number of light sources are in one's
field of vision it is necessary to have better diffused sources than in a
room of limited area where _only one or two units are visible to a man
seated at his desk.
[Women's Bureau note: The following illustrates the way in which.
this glare classification may be used. A manufacturer of paper box-es:
is considering installing, 10 feet from the floor, a 300-watt lamp in .~:
flat reflector with the filament position visible. By consulting Table
IV he finds that for ordinary manufacturing operations lights ·10·
feet from the floor should not be harsher than glare Grade E. By
consulting Table III he finds that a 300-watt lamp, in the type of
reflector he is considering, is in Grade J, too harsh to allow good
conditions of vi sion-in fact, much harsher than is considered. permissible. (See Table IV, :footnote 1.) However, both tables suggest
solutions of his •problem. Table IV shows that lights in Grade J
may be used if they are placed 20 or more feet :from the floor, and
Table III shows that a 300-watt lamp will not exceed Grade E ( the
desirable maximum in this case) if placed in a dome reflector with
the filament position not visible. The tables show that other types
of reflectors, lamps of different wattage, and different elevations of
the light source above the floor can be combined to give the employer
illumination that is satisfactory from the standpoint of glare.}
Adequate electrical wiring.
In specifying electrical wiring £or a new building or the revision
of old wiring, it is important to observe the following points:
1. The National Electrical Code regulations are intended to insure
protection from fire hazard, but do not necessarily provide a wire
size sufficient to permit of the most efficient use of lamps and
equipment, nor do they make provision for future increases of
illumination. To take them as a criterion of adequate capacity of
a wiring system, therefore, in the interests of low first cost, is not
good economy in the long run.
·'
2. Wiring should provide for economical distribution of electrical
energy.
.
Electrical wiring of inadequate size introduces a source of energy.
loss between the meter and the outlet, and at the same time causes a
reduction in the voltage at the lamp socket, so that lamps (unless.
specially ordered for lower voltage) are operated at a voltage below·
that for which they were designed. Operation of lamps at reduced
voltage means that the efficiency of light generation is lower, and the
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
'22
STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
overall cost of light is higher, than when they are operated at
. r~ted ·voltage.
· When wiring is inadequate, as more lamps are turned on the
voltage at each socket decreases. Thus as daylight fails anq. more
artificial light sou~ces are required, the illumination secured from
each lamp decreases, producing an annoying variation in illumination at different times and places.
3. Wiring should be of sufficient capacity to provide for future
requirements, as the trend of lighting intensities is ever upward.
Recommended lighting practice and the appreciation on the part
of factory owners and managers for the value of good lighting has
a distinct forward t rend, and an installation considered up-to-date
when made may be fourid quite inadequate at a later date. The cost
of rewiring finished buildings is many times greater than the additional cost of providing capacity for future requirements in the
original installation.
The paragraphs following are abstracted from a specification
prepared by the National Electric Light Association to express the
quantitative requirements which good illumination practice imposes
upon the wiring.
This specification is in conformity with the regulations of the
National Electrical Code, as regards current-carrying capacity, and,
in addition, makes reasonable provision for economical distribution
of energy and the probable lighting requirements of the near future.
In this specification, it is assumed that each branch circuit will be
fused for 15 amperes.
Branch cirmdts.-A single branch circuit should not be required to
supply the general lighting for a work space greater than 400 square
feet or a bay approximately 20 by 20 feet, nor should it be required
to supply the overhead lighting for more than 800 square feet of
hall or passageway or other nonproductive area.
Based .on the wattage of outlets specified on the plans, branch
circuits should be so arranged that the initial load on a single circuit
will not exceed 1,000 watts, except in the case of a single lamp of
larger size.
The smallest size wire that should be used is No. 12 gage, and for
runs from a panel board to the first outlet of from 50 to 100 feet, No.
10 gage wire is the smallest that should be used, with No. 12 between
outlets.
Runs exceeding 100 feet from panel board to the first outlet
should be avoided by addition or relocation of panel boards. Where
such runs can not be avoided, the lamp load should be limited to
600 watts for each branch circuit.
Convenience outlets should be placed on a circuit separate from
that supplying general lighting. Such outlets should be of the
duplex type, with not more than six grouped on one circuit. For
runs from the panel board to first outlet under 100 feet, wire not
smaller than No. 12 gage should be used, and No. 10 gage where the
runs must be longer.
Panel bom-ds.-Panel boards should contain at least one spare
circuit position for each five active circuits or fraction thereof. It
is generally desirable to supply each circuit position with a switch.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
LIGHTING FACTORIES, MILLS, AND OTHER WORK PLACES
23
There should be provided at least one panel board on each floor of
the building. Wherever possible, panel boards should be so located
that branch circuit runs exceeding 100 feet to the first outlet can be
avoided.
Feeders.-The current.. carrying capacity of a feeder should be
sufficient to supply 7.5 amperes ( 115 volts) to every 15-ampere circuit position provided for on the panel board or boards which it
feeds.
·
The feeders should be of such size that the voltage drop from the
i;ervice switch to the panel board will not exceed 1½ per cent, with a
Joad of 7.5 amperes (115 volts) on every branch circuit provided for.
Conduits for inclosing feeders should be of sufficient size to permit
replacing the original feeders with wires two standard-gauge sizes
greater in capacity.
Locating switches and arrang·ement of lights.
The switches which turn on and off the light in entrances and
halls of buildings should be located near the point of entrance. Likewise a switch which controls at least one circuit of lamps in a room
should be located near each principal point of entrance to that room.
In locating switches or control devices in factory and mill aisles,
care should be exercised to arrange them systematically; that is, on
columns situated on the same side of the aisle and on the same ·relative side of each column. This plan materially simplifies the finding
of switches or control devices by those responsible for turning the
J.ight on and off.
For control purposes, groups of lamps may constitute a square,
a row parallel to the windows, or a row perpendicular to the windows. The arrangement on a square has the most to recommend it,
as any worker within the area gets the benefit o,f several near-by lightjng units. A row parallel to the windows is occasionally desirable
since, when daylight fails, those workers farthest from the windows
can have one or two rows 1ighted to supplement the natural light.
If two rows are used, the merits of the square arrangement are to ·a
great extent retained. Control of rows perpendicular to the windows
is usually to be avoided, as grouping in a square can almost always
be applied to better advantage.
N OTE.-The next section of the code, containing suggested miniLmm
regulations that State authorities may establish, is discussed in another place in this study (see pp. 28 to 33), where the recommendations of the American Standard Code are used as the basis of comparison for the State lighting codes.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
CHAPTER IV.-STATE LIGHTING CODES
Th~ American Standard Code suggests that certain regulations 'of :
lighting should be established by State authorities as minimum fo.,. :
quirements for the safety of employees. These suggestions are given ·
in three rules: The first covers the minimum foot-candles of illumirta- '
tion to be required; the second requires the avoidance of glare; and
the third requires special arrangements for exit and emerg~ncy:
lighting.
: .·
Although more States have some law on lighting, only the 13 fol- ·
lowing States had lighting codes in April, 1931: . California, Idaho,
Kentucky, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Ohio,
Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Washington, and Wisconsin. 1 ·AU:
these codes are based on the suggestions of the Illuminating Epgi- :
neering Society codes. In fact, Idaho, Kentucky, Maryland, and :New .
Jersey u·se the American Standard Code without any changes. These ·
States having lighting codes are the only States that specify the
amo~mt of light required. Their regulations are discussed in great~r
detail than are the la.ws and regulat10ns of other States because their ·
example and experience may be helpful to other States interested in
improving lighting.
·
Most of the State codes were adopted as safety measures in the
period from 1918 to 1922. Importa:qt reasons for their adoptionsimilar for all States-are summarized in the following statement
from the director of the division of industrial safety of the Massa- :
chusetts Department of Labor and Industries.
Reasons for adopting the lighting code * * * were founded upon the :
belief that such action would reduce the large .number of tripping accidents. in
work spaces, aisles, passageways, and exits, investigation of which showed
dearly in some cases that objects had been left in these places and, because of .
poor lighting, were not noticed by the injured employee. In some instances, it
was found that sharp contrasts of light and shadows constituted a factor in
work accidents, and that causation in some cases was due in part to insuffici~nt ·
light intensity. Another contributing cause was believed to be the prevalence of ·
eyestrain. * * * Another important agency which brought about the adopt- :
ing of lighting rules and regulations was the promiscuous u se of modern highefficiency lighting units without any thought of proper sha ding for the purpose
of eliminating glare.
·
The methods used in developing and adopting the State codes vary.
In six States-California, Massachusetts, New York, Ohio, Oregon, ·
and Wisconsin-they were developed by committees of representatives :
of employers, employees, lighting experts, the State department of .
labor, and in some cases oculists and other persons interested in illu- ·
mination, and adopted by the department of labor. In other States
the codes were adopted by the State department of labor without this .
procedure of development by representative committees.
·
1 Some other States suggest the code and code standards, but evidently do not consider ·
that they recommend them.
..
24
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Chart !.-Status of State lighting codes
[Based on State laws and codes and correspondence with State officials]
State
Legal status of latest code
Date effective
and revisions
Regulation
Inspection standard
Establishments covered
Enforcing agency
Penalty
1
California ______ Dec. 1, 1919 ______
General Lighting Safety Orders ------ --- -- ------- -----of Industrial Accident Commission. Issued under authority
workmen's compensation law.Codes and General Laws, Deering.
Supplement 1917.
Act
2143c, secs. 39, 41; Consolidated
Supplement 19~1927. Political
code, sec. 364b.
Every employment and
place of employment.2-Codes
and General Laws, Deering.
Supplement 1917. Act 2143r,
sec. 41.
Department of Industrial Relations,
Divisions of Industrial Accidents and
Safety, Labor Statistics and Law Enforcement, and Industrial Welfare.
Misdemeanor. Each day
separate offense.-Codes
and General Laws, DeerSupplement 1917.
ing.
Act 2143c, secs. 49, 50.
Maryland ______ Jan. 1, 1927; revised Jan. 15,
1930.
Safety code approved by Indus- --- ---- --- -- --- -- ---- -- Extrahazardous industries.a -Annotated Code.
trial Accident Commission. Is1929. Supplement. (Bagby.)
sued under authority workmen's
Art. 101, sec. 35.
compensation law .-Annotated
Code. 1929 Supplement. (Bagby.) Art. 101, secs. 55, 55b.
State Industrial
Accident Commission.
Misdemeanor. Fine $50
to $5()().-Annotated Code.
1929 Supplement. (Bagby.)
Art. 101, sec. 55a.
Massachusetts. Jan. 1, 1924 _______
--
Lighting code of the Depart- ----- - -- --- -- - -- - -- --ment of Labor and Industries.
March, 1923. Issued under authority of law creating Department
of Labor and Industries.-General
Laws, 1921, ch. 149, secs. 6, 113.
-- ----------------------- - - --- -
New Jersey __ __ 1918; revised 1924 - .. -and 1930.
Department of Labor, Bureau of Electrical Equipment, issues code of lighting
factories, mills, and
other work places,
American Standard
approved Aug. 18,
1930, prepared under
direction of Illuminati ng Engineering
Society.
rn
H
t,:j
t:
Q
Factories, workshops, manuDepartment of LaFine not more than
facturing, mechanical, and bor and Industries, $JOO. - General Laws, 1921,
mercantile establishments. 7Division of Indus- ch. 149, sec. 180.
General Laws, 1921, ch. 149, trial Safety.
sec.113.
IJ:j
H
H
z
Q
0
0
ti
Factories, mills, other productive industries. Does not
cover mercantile establishments. 2
Department of Labor, Bureau of Inspection.
1 Standard used to interpret general lighting requirements. The Idaho State Chamber of Commerce h s a division of All-Idaho Safety Council that suggests the use of the code
of Lighting Factories, Mills, and Other Work Places-Americ·m Standard approved August 18, 1930, and the Kentucky Department of Agriculture, Labor, and Statistics recom•
mends that 1ighting equal the intensities of the American Standard Code.
2 Agriculture and domestic service nre not included.
a In practice includes all employments except country blacksmiths, wheelwrights, agriculture, and domestic ser,ice.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
>
H
t,:j
rn
~
<;.,l
Chart 1.-Status of State lighting codes-Continued .
'
Legal status of latest code
State
Date effective
and revisions
New York _____ July 1, 1918; revised July 1,
1919, May 1,
1922.
Establishments covered
Regulat°ion
Inspection standard
Industrial Code Bulletin No. 18, - -- ---- Rules of the Department of Labor.
Issued under authority of law
creating Department of Labor.Labor Laws, secs. 27-29 in Cahill's
Consolidated Laws, 1930, ch. 32. .
Enforcing agency
Penalty
1
-- --- - -- --- -- ---
Factories and mercantile
establishments.2-see Industrial Code BulleLin No. 18.
Rule relating to Lighting of
Factories and Mercantile Esta blishmen ts.
Misdemeanor. First ofDepartment of Labor, Bureau of In- fense, fine $20 to $50; second
offense, fine $50 to $250 or
spection.
imprisonment not more
than 30 days, or both; third
offense, fine not loos than
$250, or imprisonment not
more than 60 days, or
_both.-Penallaw, sec.1,275
in Cahill's Consolidated
Laws, 1930, ch. 41.
Ohio ___________ May 6, 1920 ____ __
- - ---- - - - ---- -- --- - --- - --- - - - - - - - - - -
Industrial Commission, Industrial Lighting Code.
Factories, mills, and other
work places including mercantile establishments.2
Department of Industrial Relations,
Division of Factory
Inspection.
Oklahoma ______ July 1, 1922_______ - - -- - - - - - - -- - -- -- ---- - --- -- - - --- - - --
Department of Labor, Industrial Code
Rules Relating to
Lighting [etc.J.
F actories, mercantile establishments, and other work
places. 2
Department of Labor, Bureau of Faetory Inspection.
Oregon __ _______ 1919 ______ ____ __ --
Industrial lighting code issued -- - - -- -------- -- ------ -by Bilreau of Labor under authority of a law requiring a lighting
code.-General Laws 1919, ch.181,
sec. 8.
Factories, mills, offices, and
other work places, including
mercantile establishments.2General Laws, 1919, ch. 181,
sec. 1 (a).
Bureau of Labor __
Misdemeanor. Fine not
more than $50, each day a
· separate offense.-General
Laws 1919, ch. 181, sec. 9.
Pennsylvania __ June 1, 1916; revised Feb. 13,
1918, Sept. 23,
1926.
Safety standard on lighting rec- --- ------- --- --------- -All places where labor is
ommended by Industrial Board
employed.-Pennsyl vania
adopted by the Department of LaStatutes complete to 1920, sec.
13, 495.
bor and Industry under the authority of law creating Department of Labor and Industry.Pennsylvania Statutes complete
·-·
to Hl20, ec. 13,495.
Department of Labor and Industry,
Bureau of Inspection.
-·· ..
Misdemeanor .-Fine of
not more than $100; or by
imprisonment not exceeding ' one mQnth. or both.Penns·yJ.vania ·· Statute s
complete-to 1920, sec. 13, 497.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
Wasllington.. ___ June 1919; revised
Safety standards Nos. 14 to 20
on lightin_g issued by Department
Jan. 1, 1924.
of Labor and Industries under authority of workmen's compensation law.-Remington Compiled
Statutes, 1922, secs. 7, 675, 7, 730,
7, 734, 7, 774.
Where places of work or
nature of operation causes a
hazard due to insufficient illumination. In practiceincludes
manufacturing and mercantile
establishments.2-Remington
Compiled Statutes, 1922, secs.
7, 674, 7, 628.
DepartmentofLabor and Industries,
Division of Safety
and Industrial Welfare Commission.
Fine not more than
$1,000.-Sesslon Laws 1923,
ch. 136, sec. 14, amends
Remington Compiled Statutes, 1922, sec. 7, 775.
Wisconsin ______ July 1, 1918;• revised • ov. 24,
1919, Dec. 20,
1920.
All factories, mills, offices,
and other work places, including mercantile establishments.2-Wisconsin Statutes,
1929, 101.01 (1).
Industrial Commission, Safety and
Sanitation Department.
Fine $10 to $100 for each
offense. Each day a separate offense. - WisconsinStatutes,1929, 101.18,101.28.
Lighting code adopted by Industrial ommission under authority of 1911 law creating Industrial Commission.
Wisconsin
Statutes, 1929, 101.10 (4).
t Standard used to interpret general lighting requirements. The Idaho State Chaml:: er of Commerce has a division of All-Idaho Safety Council that suggest.'! the use of the
code of Lighting Factories, Mills, and Other Work Places-American Standard approved August 18, 1930, and the Kentucky Department of Agriculture, Labor, a-ud Statistics
recommends that lighting equal the intensities of the American Standard Code.
J Agriculture and domestic service are not included.
• AdditloDS to ex.istiog lights and equipwe:ot to be completed by July 1, 1920.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
28
STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
Chart I gives the status of these State codes. It will be noted that
in some States they are recommendations, in .o thers they are regulations with the force of law, and in others they are inspection standards. Examination of the codes shows that there is some variation
in their requirements; and the statements of the departments enforcing them reveal that there are wide differences in the way the codes
are actually used. These important phases of the State lighting
codes and their administration ar_e discussed in the :following sections : A, the contents of the State lighting codes are analyzed and
their requirements are compared with the American Standard Code
suggestions; B, the legal status and enforcement of the State lighting codes are discussed.
A.-CONTENTS OF THE STATE LIGHTING CODES AND THE
AMERICAN STANDARD CODE
Parts I and II of the American Standard Code have been given
in some detail in Chapter III; its third part, Suggested Minimum
Regulation to be Established by State Authorities, is reprinted here
to give some idea of the form of the State codes that have been based
on codes similar to this.
·
AMERICAN STANDARD CODE.
PART III
Purpose.
The purpose of this code is to make reasonable provisions for the
safety of workers by requiring such illumination as may be necessary
to conserve vision and to facilitate the utilization of eyesight for the
prevention of accident.
Exceptions.
In cases of practical difficulty or unnecessary hardships the enforcing authority may grant exceptions from the literal requirements of
this code or permit the use of other methods, but only when it is
clearly evident that safety is thereby reasonably assured. There are
occasional operations which need to be performed practically without light, such as photographic and photometric processes in dark
rooms. Again, there are some operations which are best observed by
their own light, as in certain parts of the process of working with
glass. In all cases in which work must be performed under very low
illumination, special precaution should be taken to safeguard the
workers from accident.
Scope.
This code applies to all factories, mills, offices, storage buildings,
yards, power houses, and other industrial and mercantile establishments and work places.
RULES
General requirement.
Illumination, daylight or artificial light, in accordance with the
:following rules, shall be supplied for1. Traversed spaces such as hallways, roadways, etc., during
working hours, and
2. Work when attended by operators.
N OTE.-It should be recognized that the foot-candles specified
represent minimum limits, and that tolerance for depreciation must
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
29
STATE LIGHTING CODES
be made in the design of the installation. The values are established
to meet the needs of safety and are not to be interpreted as providing
for effective and economical operation of processes. Higher levels
representing good lighting practice are recommended in Table I ,
and general suggestions for design will be found on pages ·12 to 35.
( See pp. 12 to 23 of this report.) Information on the measurement
of illumination values will be :found on page 12. ( See p. 13 of this
report.)
Rule 1. Illumination required.
The illumination maintained shall be not less than gfi. ven in
Table V.
T A BLE
V.-Mvrvimrum, illum.inati-on requirements
1. MI NIMUM FOOT-CANDLES ON TRA VERSED SPACES
Roadways, yard t horoughfares________ -- ----- - --------- - ----------- ------ - _____ ____ ____ _______ _
Storage
aisles_______
and passageways
passages
leading-theretospaces,
___ ________
______ _____ ___in
____workrooms,
__ _____ ___ __excepting
___ __ _____ exits
______and
___ ____
__ ___________
Spaces such as hallways, stairways, exits, and passages leading t hereto __ _________ ______________ _
Spaces such as stairways, locker rooms, wash rooms, toilet rooms, an d passageways where
there are__exposed
machines,
h ot
pipes,
or ________
live electrical
parts,
elevator cars,
and
landings
____ ____moving
_______ _____
__ ______
______
_____
___ ___ __
_____ also
____ __________
__ __ __
__ _
Foot-·
candles ·
0.02
.50
. 75
2. MI NIMUM J,'OOT-CAN DLES AT THE WORK
Where discrimination of detail is not essentiaL ___ ___________ ___ ____ _____ __ ____ ___ _____ ____ ____
Work such as handlin g material of a coarse nature; grin din g clay produ cts; rough sorting;
coal and ash handling; foundr y charging.
Where slight discrimination of detail is essential_- -- - - ---- ---- -- - --------- - -- ---------- ---- -- -Work such as rough machining, rou gh assem bling, rough bench work , rough forging, grain
milling.
Where moderate discrimination of detail is essen tial_ ____________ ___ _____________________ ___ ___
Work such as m achining, assembly work, bench work , fine core m akin g in foundries .
Where close discrimination of detail is essential_ _________________ ___ ___ ______ __________ __ ___ __ _
Work such as fi ne lathe work, patternmakin g, toolmaking, weaving or sewing light-colored
silk or woolen textiles, office work , accounting, t ypewritin g.
Where discrimination of min ute detail is essentiaL _ - ------------------------------------ _____ _
Work such as drafting, weaving or sewi ng dark-colored material, very fine inspection or
inspection of very dark goods .
.50
1.00
2.00
4. 00
8.00
Rule 2. Avoidance of glare: Diffusion and distribution of light.
Lighting, whether natural or artificial, shall be such as to avoid
glare, objectionable shadows, and extreme contrasts, and to provid~
a good distribution of light; in artificial light ing systems, lamps
shall be so installed in regard to height, location, spacing, and reflectors, shades, or other suitable accessories as to accomplish these
objects.
Bare light sources, such as exposed lamp filaments, located within
the ordinary field of the worker's vision, are presumptive evidence
of glare.
For a specification of definite requirements under this rule,
reference should be had to Tables II, III, and VI.
Rule 3. Exit and emergency lighting.
The lighting to be provided under rule 1 in all important stairways and all exits of work places and in the passageways appurtenant thereto shall be supplied so as not to be subject to failure
because of the failure of the room or work space lighting from internal causes. In the case of artificial illumination, the services
should be preferably from an independent connection or connections
extending back to the main service entrance for the building. In
cases of unusual danger which may exist on account of the type of
building or nature of the work, crowded conditions, or lack of suitable
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
30
STATE REQUIREMENTS ]:OR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
exit space, an independent service shall be insured by connecting to a
separate source of supply without or within the building. During
the hours of occupancy, when daylight of the .value given in rule 1
is lacking, this separate source of supply shall be connected so as to
:function continually or to come on automatically upon :failure of the
regular lighting service.
Notes on rule 1. Illumination required.
In Table V the lower values, up to one foot.candle, are required
principally to enable employees to see well enough to avoid accident,
while the higher values have the additional purpose of preventing
eyestrain and so conserving vision. The values have been assigned
on the basis of engineering experience and assume the average conditions found in practice. There are no sharp lines of demarcation.
A specified process is carried on in different establishments with
varying degrees of fineness. Where especially close attention to the
fine detail is required, it is obvious that more illumination is needed
than where the process is made more automatic or operated on a
coarser scale. Where such special conditions exist, the next higher
or lower classification may be found the reasonable requirement.
Notes on rule 2. Avoidance of glare.
It is assumed that in interpreting the enforcing of the regulation
against glare, the enforcing officer will not insist upon what he
might consider as pleasing or desirable practice in any given case.
It is the intention of the rule merely to prevent conditions which
are prejudicial to the physical welfare o:f the worker.
Table VI shows the harshest grade of light source that may be
used under any particular set of conditions. It is based on the system of glare rating described on pages 22 to 25 ( see pp. 17 to 21 of
this report), where an explanation of the symbols used will be found.
TABLE
VI.-Limriti n,g gra<lJ.etJ of ligh,t sources perrrvi,3s iMe for vari ous oon<litions 1
[The grades given in this table a r e limiting valu es; from 1 to 2 grades soft er are
recommended, see T a ble IV]
Space or work to be lighted
Height of light source above
floor
Roadways
and yard
thoroughfares
Under 6.5 feet ____ ___ __________ -----------6.5 to 7.5 feet_ ____ __ __ _________ -----------7.5 to 9 feet ___ ____ _____ ____ ___ _
R
9 to 11 feet ___ __ __ ______ _____ __
I
11 to 13 feet_ ____ __________ ___ _
J
13 to 16 feet_ ____________ ____ __
J
16 to 20 feet_ __ ____ _________ ___
K
20 feet and up _________________
K
Storage
spaces
F
G
H
I
J
J
K
K
1
and drafting
Ordinary manufactur- Office
work and certain maning operations i
ufacturing operations
Short
rooms 3
Long
rooms 3
Short
rooms a
D
D
F
G
R
I
I
J
E
G
H
I
I
J
F
H
I
J
J
K
K
K
C
K
Long
rooms a•
C
E
F
G
H
H
I
]
1 Where backgrounds are very dark in tone, a light source of one grade softer than
specified may be required in the case of all indoor classifications.
2 For the present the limits set in this table can not be rigidly applied to portable
lamps used for temporary work, such as setting up machines, repairing automobiles, etc.
3 A " long " room is considered to be one in which the total length in feet is more
than tWice the height of the lamps above the floor; one having a length less than twice
the height of the lamps above the floor is clas_aified as " short."
4 Those
operations in which workers are seated facing in one direction for long
periods of time.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
STATE LIGHTING C DES
31
Notes on rule 3. Exit and emergency lighting.
The employer is to be held responsible for the proper lighting o:f
passageways, stairways, and exits, so far as his premises are concerned, which means such parts of buildings, floors, or rooms as are
controlled by the employer, including entrances thereto, but excluding hallways, passageways, and stairways giving access to other
floors, or to spaces on the same floor, and used in common by the
tenants of the building. These latter should be lighted by the building owner.
Exit and emergency lighting are to be understood as those artificial
illuminants which are necessary only to make clear to the occupants
or employees the places of exit, or to enable them to pass to and along
afe exits with reasonable peed and assurance of footing. Such
lighting is not assumed as being necessarily sufficient £or the proper
performance of regular working operations.
The circuits for exit electric lamps should be separate branch
circuits, including no .other lamps, and containing no receptacles or
convenience outlets for the attachment of portable or other devices.
Being thus separately fused, trouble on other circuits which causes
the blowing of fuses will be less likely to affect them.
The main service entrance may be interpreted to mean the entrance
point (meter or distributing panel) of lighting feeders for the building, floor, loft, or particular space in question. In gas lighting it
may be considered to be the main gas feeder for the building, or the
main gas riser for the floor or loft in question. Where several factory spaces are grouped in the same building, each with its own exit
or exits, the emergency electric circuits for any one space are not
required to run to the main building panel board or main switch,
nor are the emergency gas pipe expected to extend to the main gas
meter nor to the building feeder from the street main, except as
explained below.
Under specially dangerous conditions, where in the opinion of the
recognized authorities the failure of the main and entire regular
lighting supply would leave the employees without assured means o:f
seeing the outgoing passageways, the exit and emergency lamps
should be fed from an entirely separate source of energy, such as a
storage battery, or, in case the regular lighting system is electric,
from gas or other reasonably dependable illuminant. Service from
an independent street main, where available, is regarded as a separate
source of supply; or a separate service from an independent transformer fed from the same primary wires will usually be considered
sufficient. Factories supplied by an isolated plant should feed exit
circuits from an independent source or utilize a separate generating
unit driven by a separate prime mover. Such an independent supply
as discussed in this paragraph is not considered necessary for typical
conditions, but only where the large number of persons concerned or
other special condition calls for special precautions. Such a condition may be recognized by the management, but if doubt exists a
decision should be asked from the inspection department having
jurisdiction.
As indicated in the general requirement of this regulation, the
exit and emergency lamps should be Ughted whenever artificial lighting is required in the work spaces.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
32
STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
It is the obvious intent of rule 3 to insure reduction · of accident
hazard, and inasmuch as this end is as beneficial to the industrial
operator or owner as to the State, the detailed interpretations of this
order, for the various types and situations of working spaces, can
only be reached through mutual cooperation of the owner and the
State authorities.
STATE LIGHTING CODES
The State codes all have practically the same scope-they all
apply to most manufacturing establishments and with one exception
they apply to mercantile establishments in the State. (See Chart I.)
A general comparison of the form and content of the codes shows
that the States may be arranged in three groups. In one group are
those States that either have adopted the suggested American Standard Code or follow it very closely in both form and content. These
are Idaho, Kentucky, Maryland, and New Jersey, which have
adopted the American Standard Code, and Ohio and w· ashington,
which follow it closely. In these States the codes have established
only a few definite lighting rules, but except in the case of Washington these are supplemented by discussions, with illustrations, of
lighting problems and recommendations for their solution. The
rule covering illumination levels sets the minimum illumination for
certain broad classifications of places and types of work and, again
except in Washington, it is supplemented by a list of the recommended illumination levels for various places and industries. Washington, though an exception in some respects, is placed in this group
because its lighting requirements are stated in a few rules that are
similar to those of the American Standard Code.
The California, Oregon, and ,visconsin codes, while not exactly
alike, are similar and form another group. Their codes have more
lighting requirements stated as rules than is true of the first group ;
but, like the first group, the rule covering illumination levels sets the
minimum levels required for broad classifications of places and types
of work and is supplemented by recommended levels. A s regards the
illumination level for specific industries, the Wisconsin code contains
no information, the California code makes recommendations, and
the Oregon code interprets its general rule by stating certain requirements. Each of the three codes in this group contains also a
discussion of lighting problems.
The main differences of the final group, the codes of Massachusetts,
New York, Oklahoma, and Pennsylvania, from the other two groups
are that the rule for illumination levels, that of Massachusetts
excepted, 2 gives the minimum levels required for specific industries
as well as for certain places and types of work, and that supplementary information is entirely lacking or is very brief. The New York,
Oklahoma, and Massachusetts codes, which in form are almost identical, recommend illumination levels for certain broad classifications,
but the Pennsylvania code makes recommendations for specific
· industries.
2
In Massachusetts this rule is only for certain broad classifications of places and types
·
of work.
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STATE LIGHTING CODES
33
Illumination levels required.
One of the most important provisions of lighting codes is that the
amount of light, called the illumination level, that is, intensity of
illumination. or light, must be equal to a certain specified number
of. foot-candles.
All the lighting codes require artificial light when natural light is
less than certain minimum requirements. These statements are comparable to rule 1 of the American Standard Code. Statute law in
Oregon ( see p. 58), however, requires the installation of artificial
light in every workroom; and New York requires that factory rooms
shall be .lighted by electricity whenever persons are employed in
them between 6 p. m. and 6 a. m. 3 With the exception of the California, Oregon, Washington, and Wisconsin codes, the illumination
levels required are the same for natural and for artificial lighting.
The codes of these excepted States require that natural illummation
must be twice that of the minimum level required in the code, or
artificial lighting at least equal to these levels must be installed.
8 New York. Cahill's Consolidated Laws, 1930, ch. 32, sec. 300.
the use of artificial light at night is implied by the other codes.
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It should be noted that
TABLE
VIL-Compari son of the illumination requirements of the State lighting codes with the American Standard Code 1
Minimum foot-candles of natural or artificial light required
Space or work to be lighted
2
Traversed spaces1. Roadways, yard thoroughfares __ _______________ ____ ______ ___ _____
2. Storage spaces, aisles and passageways in workrooms, excepting
exits and passages leading thereto __________ ___ __ __.. _______ _____
3. Spaces
such
hallways,
exits, and passages
leading__
thereto_
. ..as
________
. __ .. stairways,
_______________________
_______________
4. Spaces such as stairways, locker rooms, wash rooms, toilet rooms,
and passageways where there are exreosed moving machines, hot
pipes, or live electrical parts, also e evator cars, and landings ___ _
At work5. Where discrimination of detail is not essential. _. ______ __ __ ___ ____
Work such as handling material of a coarse nature; grinding
clay products; rough sorting; coal and ash handling; foundry
charging.
6. Where slight discrimination of detail is essential. ____ ______ ___ ____
Work such as rough machining, rough assembling; rough
bench work; rough forging; grain milling.
7. Where moderate discrimination of detail is essential ____________ __
Work such as machining; assembly work, bench work; fine
core making in foundries.
8. Where close discrimination of detail is essential _______________ ____
Work such as fine lathe work; pattern making; tool making;
weaving or sewing light-colored silk or woolen textiles; office
work: accounting; typewriting.
9. Where discrimination of minute detail is essential. _________ __ ____
Work such as drafting; weaving or sewing dark-colored material; very fine inspection or inspection of very' dark goods.
American
standard
code (also
Idaho, Kentucky,
Maryland,
New Jersey
codes)
California
code a
Massachusetts, New
York, and
Oklahoma
codes
Ohio code
0. 02
0. 02
0. 02
0. 02
0. 02
0. 10
0. 02
0.02
.50
. 25
. 25
' · 25
. 25
. 25
.25
.25
. 75
.25
. 50
'· 25
. 25
1. 00
.50
. 25
1.00
.50
. 50
'.25
1.00
1. 00
.50
6,50
. 50
.50
.50
.50
2. 00
.50
.50
1. 25
1.00
1.00
1. 00
1.00
2.00
1. 00
1.00
2. 00
2. 00
2.00
2. 00
2. 00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
4. 00
3. 00
3. 00
3. 00
3.00
3. 00
3.00
3.00
8.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5. 00
5. 00
5.00
5. 00
Oregon
code 3
Pennsyl- Washington Wisconcode 3
sin code a
vania code
1 American Standard Code is code of lighting, factories, mills and other work places. American Standard approved Aug. 18, 1980, by American Standards Association.
1
Prepared by Illuminating E ngineering Society. (See pp. 10 to 24 of this
report .)
.,,
2 These classifications are from the American Standard Code. The State codes vary in classifications and in phraseology, but with the exceptions noted comparable locations are
covered.
3 If natural light, under normal conditions, is not at least twice these amounts artificial lighting must be provided.
' I ntermediate and auxiliary spaces in interiors.
6 T oilets and wash rooms.
·
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STATE LIGHTING CODES
35
A compariso·n 0£ the illumination levels required in the variou
State codes with the American Standard Code, given in Table VII,
shows that the State codes are very similar and that most of them
make lower requirements than does the American Standard Code.
The only State codes that require illumination levels for all classifications as high as those of the American Standard Code are those
of Idaho, Kentucky, Maryland, and New Jersey-States that use
the American Standard Code. This is due not only to the problems
involved in the practical application of desirable recommendation
but also to the fact that the Illuminating Engineering Society raised
some of the requirements in its 1930 code, while most of the States
are still _using unrevised codes based on the society's earlier recommendations. ( See Chart I.)
The American Standard Code requirements for passageways and
other ~uxiliary places (Nos. 2, 3, and 4 in Table VII) are higher
than those of any of the State codes except certain requirements of
Oregon and Pennsylvania, while for work where close discrimination
of detail and where discrimination of minute detail is essential
(Nos. 8 and 9 in Table VII) the code requirements of 4 and 8 footcandles respectively are higher than those of any State not using
the American Standard Code, their requirements being in all cases
3 and 5 foot-candles, respectively ..
However, in a few cases the codes of Oregon, Pennsylvania, and
Wisconsin require higher illumination levels than does the American
Standard Code. Oregon requires 2 foot-candles for work both where
discrimination of detail is not essential and where slight discrimination of detail is essential, while the American Standard Code requirements are 0.50 and 1 foot-candle, respectively. Wisconsin, like
Oregon, requires higher illumination for these two locations, the
requirements being 1.25 and 2 foot-candles, respectively. Pennsylvania requires more light for roadways and yard thoroughfares and
for hallways, stairways, exits, and passages leading thereto than does
the American Standard or any other State code.
:
Table VII, comparing the State codes and the American Stand-ard Code, gives most of the requirements for the level of illumination that are contained in each code. There are, however, a few
supplementary ones that should be mentioned in this connection.
These relate to where and how illumination measurements shall be
taken, occupations and conditions excepted, provisions for overhead
lighting, and lists of specific industries and their light requirements.
Most of the codes state where the illumination level should be
measured, specifying at the work or at the floor level for certain
spaces. In the Oregon, Washington and Wisconsin codes the floor
level measurement is not required for certain spaces, but lighting
practice would imply its use. In all the codes but those of Ohio
and Washington, which make no mention of the measuring instrument, a standardized photometer is specified as the instrument. The
American Standard Code does not require but suggests the use of
that type of photometer known as the foot-candle meter.
Certain occupations in which light is detrimental are excepted
by the codes of all States, except those using the Americall' Standard
Code and Washington and Wisconsin. Undoubtedly this exception
is made in practice in these States. In Washington at least one-half
of the total light required for workrooms or at the w,o rk must be
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36
STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
supplied by ~eneral, that is, overhead lighting. In Oregon at least
0.50 and in California at least 0.25 foot-candles must be so supplied.
The .other codes have no regulation on this matter. Ohio allows for
a variation of 15 per cent above and below the required levels and
that unusual circumstances such as fog are to be excepted.
Finally, in addition to specifications of the lighting required for
certain classes of places or types of work, given in Table VII, illumination levels for a long list of specific industries are given in all the
codes except those of Massachusetts, "\Vashington, and Wisconsin.
In the American Standard Code group and California only the
recommended foot-candles are given in such detail, but in the other
State codes the required illumination levels are given for various
industries. Three States-New York, Oklahoma, and Pennsylvania-include these requirements in their code rules; in the Ohio
and Oregon codes they are given in the appendix. The recommended levels of illumination of the American Standard Code
(pp. 14 to 15) will give an idea of desirable lighting for various
industries. The minimum light requirements of the codes vary so
little and are so low-in no case are they over 5 foot-candles- that
they have not been analyzed for specific industries in this report. In
general it is true that the industry classifications are the same in all
the State codes, so that the differences in light requirements are
slight and are suggested by Table VII.
Illumination levels recommended.
Since the illumination levels required by the codes-are the amount
of light only considered essential to protect the workers from accident and eyestrain, all the codes suggest higher levels as desirable
both for the workers' health and comfort and for efficient production. These recommended levels, analyzed in Table VIII, indicate
that the required levels are very low.
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TABLE
VIII.-Comparison of the recommended illumination levels of the State lighti1tg codes with the American Standard Code
1
Foot-candles of natural or artificial light recommended by.
-
Space or work to be lighted
2
American
Standard
Code (also
Idaho, Kentucky,
Maryland,
and New
Jersey codes)
Traversed spaces(3)
1. Roadways, yard thoroughfares ____ ... ... ........ . .••... .......
2. Storage spaces, aisles and passageways in workrooms, except•
ing exits and passages leading thereto ........................ 3. 00- 2. 00
3. Spaces such as hallways, stairways, exits, and passages leading
(3)
thereto .. · -·--- ... . .....• . ..................... . ... .. . .......
4. Spaces such as stairways, locker rooms, wash rooms, toilet
rooms, and passageways where there are exposed moving
machines, hot pipes, or live electrical parts, also elevator
cars, and landings .... . .. . ..... . . . . ____ . ................• . ... 7 6. 00- 4. 00
9 8. 00- 5. 00
At work5. Where discrimination of detail is not essential. .. .... .... . . . ... 5. 00- 3. 00
Work such as handling material of a coarse nature, grind·
ing clay products, rough sorting, coal and ash handling,
foundry charging.
6. Where slight discrimination of detail is essential ....... . .... .. . 8. 00- 5. 00
Work such as rough machining, rough assembling, rough
bench work, rough forging, grain milling.
7. Where moderate discrimination of detail is essential.. ..... . . ... 12. 00- 8. 00
Work such as machining, assembly work, bench work, fine
core making in foundries .
8. Where close discrimination of detail is essential. . ... ... . . . . . ... 20. 00-12. 00
Work such as fine lathe work, pattern making, tool mak•
ing, weaving or sewing light•colored silk or woolen textiles,
office work, accounting, typewriting.
9. Where discrimination of minute detail is essential. ..... . .. . . . . 100. 00-25. 00
Work such as drafting, weaving or sewing dark·colored
material, very fine inspection or inspection of very dark goods.
California
code
Massachusetts, New
York, and
Oklahoma
codes
0. 25-0. 05
0. 25-0. 05
0. 25- 0. 05
2. 00- 0. 25
1. 00-0. 50
1. 00-0. 50
1. 00-0. 50
4
2. 00-0. 50
6
1. 00- 0. 50
5. 00- 2. 00
2. 00-0. 70
6
1. 00- 0. 50
2. 00-1. 00
2. 00-1. 00
4
2. 00-0. 50
6
2. 00- 0. 75
5. 00- 2. 00
2. 00-0. 10
6
2. 00- 0. 75
2. 00-1. 00
2. 00-1. 00
1
2. 00-0. 50
3. 00- 1. 50
5. 00- 2. 00
8. 00-0.10
7
3. 00- 1. 50
2. 00-1. 00
2. 00-1. 00
3. 00-1. 00
6. 00- 3. 00
5. 00- 2. 00
s 5 and up
-1. 50
8
6. 00- 2. 00
4. 00-2. 00
4. 00-2. 00
6. 00-2. 00
6. 00- 3. 00
5. 00- 2. 00
s 8 and up
-2. 50
10. 00- 3. 00
6. 00-3. 00
6. 00-4. 00
9. 00-3. 00
(3)
10. 00- 5. 00
10 and up
10. 00- 3. 00
8. 00-4. 00
8. 00-6. 00
12. 00-4. 00
8. 00- 4. 00
10. 00- 5. 00
15. 00-7. 00
15. 00-8. 00
Unlimited
15. 00-10. 00
20. 00 and
above -10. 00
1 American Standard Code is code of lighting factories, mills, and other work places.
American Standard approved Aug. 18, 1930, by American Standards Association. Pre•
pared by Illuminating Engineering Society. (See pp. 10 to 24 of this report.)
' These classifications are from the American Standard Code. The State codes vary
in classification and in phraseology but with the exceptions noted comparable locations
are covered: :
a Not given,
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Ohio code
Washington Wisconsin
Oregon code Pennsylvania
code
code
code
0. 25-0. 05
0. 25- 0. 05
-4. 00
-8.00
s 15 and up
-6. 00
8
15. 00- 4. 00
s 20 and up s 25. 00-10. 00
-7.00
Intermediate and auxiliary spaces in interiors.
Storage spaces.
All stairways, passageways, aisles.
Toilets and wash rooms.
8 Combining their recommended intensities of good practice aµd productive intensities.
· ·
v Elevators.
4
6
&
i
38
STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
In every case the lowest recommended level is higher than the
minimum requirement, while the highest levels recommended are
often two or three times as high as the corresponding minimum.
In fact, in the American Standard Code the maximum levels recommended are at least five or six times as high as those required.
In addition to the fact that all the minimum levels required are
lower than good lighting demands, a consideration of Table VIII ·
shows that the recommendations of most of the State codes are
decidedly lower than the recommendations of the American Standard Code. For most of the classifications the highest level recommended by the State codes is lower than the lowest recommended
level of the American Standard Code for the same classification.
There are only seven cases where the highest recommended level in
the States not using the American Standard Code is equal to or
exceeds the highest level of the American Standard. This, of course,
excludes the cases in Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Washington 2 where an
unlimited maximum is s_u ggested. Oregon and Wisconsin suggest
6 foot-candles as compared with 5 in the American Standard Code
as the maximum for work where discrimination of detail is not
essential. Wisconsin suggests 10 foot-candles as compared to 8 in
the American Standard Code, for work where slight discrimination
of detail is essential. Pennsylvania's maximum recommendation
of 5 foot-candles for storage spaces, aisles, and passageways in workrooms is higher than the 3 foot-candles of the American Standards
Association.
Avoidance of glare: Diffusion and distribution of light.
Another important provision of lighting codes is that • glare be
avoided. The section of the American Standard Code dealing with
the avoidance of glare and the diffusion and distribution of light,
rule 2, does not offer definite standards for the prevention of glare.
It states thatLighting, whether natural or artificial, shall be such as to avoid glare,
objectionable shadows, and extreme contrasts, and to provide a good distribution of light; in artificial lighting systems, lamps shall be so installed in regard
to height, location, spacing, and reflectors, shades, or other suitable accessories
as to accomplish these objects.
Bare light sources, such as exposed lamp fila ments, located within the
ordinary fields of the worker's vision, are presumptive evidence of glare.
This section is supplemented by a discussion of glare and certain
methods of preventing its occurrence.
All the State codes contain sections making general statements
similar to the · one just quoted of the American Standard Code,
except that no code prepared by a State contains the statement that
bare light sources in the ordinary field of vision are presumptive
evidence of glare, and that no mention of the problem of glare from
natural light is made in the Massachusetts, New York, and Oklahoma
rules.
Several State codes contain other provisions on glare. In addition to requiring reflectors for artificial light, the codes of California,
Oregon, Washington, and Wisconsin require suitable awnings, window shades, or diffusive or refractive window glass to' prevent glare
from natural light. The Massachusetts, New York, Oklahoma, and
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STAT E LIGHTING CODE S
39
·Pennsylvania codes specify that the reflecting devices used must be
·of noninflammable material.
Another element in t he problem of glare is the desirability of a
certain amount of illumination from overhead sources, that is, general lighting. This requirement may be implied in the statement
that glare is to be avoided; it is mentioned specifically in the codes
of California, Oregon, Washington, and Wisconsin.
Limitations of the brightest square inch of visible light source
are peculiar to the California, Oregon, Washington, and Wisconsin
codes. For ov~rhead lamps 20 or less :feet from the floor and at
elevations above eye level less than one-quarter the distance from any
position at which work is performed, 7.5 candlepower is the maximum in California, Oregon, and Wisconsin; while in Washington,
for overhead lights 20 or less feet from the floor, visible from a location at which work is performed and located within the angle of 15
degrees of the eye level, 15 candlepower is the maximum.
For local light sources the brightest square inch of visible lig~t
·source is 3 candlepower in each of these four State codes.
Emergency lighting for exits.
The American Standard Code suggests t he provision, for exit s,
stairways, and passageways, of a lighting system not subject to
failure, because of failure of room or work-space lighting, and preferably .from independent connections extending back to the main entrance point of lighting feeders. Where such places are unusually
dangerous, a separate source of supply, and not merely independent
connection, is recommended; and when daylight £ails, this should
function continuously or come on automatically.
With the exception of New ·York, Ohio, Oklahoma, and Wash ington, the State codes cont ain some requirement for emergency
lighting other than that certain illumination levels shall be supplied. Pennsylvania's rule on this subject in its lighting code has
been superseded by special r egulations for protection from fire and
panic. 4
Work-space aisles, stairways, passageways, exits, and, in California, Oregon, and Wisconsin, fire escapes 5 are the places required,
in all the codes having provisions for emergency lighting, to have
lights independent of the regular lighting system. Pennsylvania's
reiuirements apply to' Factories and workshops where twenty-five (25) or more persons ( cleaners and watchmen excepted) are employed above the
second floor more than fifty (50) nights in any one year, or if employed at any time in factories or workshops where the shutting down
of power causes the building to be in darkness."
"In such establishments where employees receive special training
for action in case of emergency (such as telephone exchanges ) and
where there is available other light which they may immediately use
if the general lights go out, the above requirements for emergency
lighting shall not apply unless at least one hundred (100) persons
4 Regulations for protection from fire and pan ic.
Issued by the Department of Labor
and Industry, 1930.
·
6 For Wisconsin only those of the "B " class ( 3 feet a nd 4 inches wide.
Sec Building
Code) .
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40 ,
STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
ar~- employed a.hove the . second floor after 7 p. m. at any time"
* * and to" Mercantile establishments more than two (2) stories in height
which are open to the public more than fifty ( 50) nights in any one
year."
The places covered are"All workrooms " in manufacturing establishments and " rooms
where employees work and where the public is admitted" in mercantile establishments and in both halls, corridors, stairways, and
similar means of egress; above landings of fire escapes; and rooms
in which emergency lighting equipment is located.
That the emergency lighting must be used when other artificial
lights a.re used is required in California, Oregon, and Wisconsin;
the other States do not mention this.
Where there is a hazard or unusual danger the emergency light
must be supplied from a source independent of the regular light
source in the States that have adopted the American Standard Code
and in California, Massachusetts, and Oregon. In Pennsylvania
this is required by the Regulations for Protection from Fire and
Panic for the places listed above.
Miscellaneous requirements of some State codes.
The code provisions that have been discussed, namely, the levels
of illumination required and recommended, the avoidance of glare ·
and provisions for the diffusion and distribution of light, and emergency lighting for exits, are all the requirements that the American
Standard Code suggests, but some of the State codes contain a few ·
other rules. California, Oregon, and Wisconsin require that switching or controlling apparatus be plainly labeled for identification and
placed so that at least pilot or night lights may be turned on at one
or more easily accessible points. 6 Cleaning and maintenance of
both natural and artificial light equipment are required by the codes .
of Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. Pennsylvania's is the only
lighting code that has a rule requiring that gas, vapor, and dust proof
lighting fixtures be provided where explosive gas, vapor, or dust
accumulates.
As has already been mentioned, all the lighting codes but Pennsylvania's and Washington's are supplemented by additional information and recommendations. In three, Massachusetts, New York,
and Oklahoma, these additional notes are brief, but in California,
Ohio, Oregon, and Wisconsin and in the States using the American
/Standard Code (Idaho, Kentucky, Maryland, and New Jersey)
many phases of lighting problems are discussed to make the application of the code rules clearer. These sections are similar to the provisions of the American Standard Code discussed on pages 11 to 24
of this study.
Summary.
An analysis of the content of the 13 State lighting codes and a
comparison with the American Standard Code shows the following:
(1) The requirements of all lighting codes are low compared to the
light needed for good illumination ;1 (2) the required illummation
*
6 The purpose of these orders is to secure safe illumination for night watchmen.
7 This is largely because the basis of the codes is State authority to protect workers'
bealth and safety, rather than to secure ideal lighting conditions. The fact that the code
requiri>ments a re modernte need not be interpret ed as indicating that they are unsatisfactory but as eviuence of th eir practicability.
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STATE LIGHTING CODES
4r
levels of most of the State codes are somewhat lower than the re- ·
cently revised and adopted American Standard Code, and the recom- ,
mended illumination levels of most of the State codes are decidedly
lower than those suggested by the American Standard Code; ( 3) the
State codes have provisions on glare similar to those in the American ·
Standard Code and in several instances have additional requirements ;
( 4) 4 State codes contain no special provision for emergency lighting; ( 5) 5 of the 13 State codes do not require independent light
sources for exits and passageways in hazardous places.
B.-THE LEGAL STATUS AND ENFORCEMENT OF THE STATE
LIGHTING CODES s
The content of the lighting codes has been found to be very sim~lar .
for the different States. However, the force that the code has in a
State, that is, its legal status and the methods used to enforce it,
varies widely. The American Standard Code, like all American ·
standards, is not a law or requirement-it is a summary of lighting .
practice and is offered as a guide for employers and State officials . .
In Idaho and Kentucky the lighting code of the Illuminating Engineering Society is considered simply as a source of information ,
and the application of its suggestions is recominended. Neither of ·
these States has an adequate legal provision making it possible for
the recommended code to be very effectively used by factory inspectors as a guide to improve conditions. (See pp. 5 and 23, where State
requirements are given by State.) New Jersey, Ohio, and Oklahoma
use their lighting codes as inspection standards. Each of these States
has some law requiring adequate lighting that the State department
of labor or industrial commission has tried to make specific by the
use of the lighting code. (See pp. 56, 57- 58.) Under these conditions the codes can be used more or less effectively by factory inspectors.
·
The codes of eight States-California, Maryland, Massachusetts,
New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, ,vashington, and Wisconsin-are
rules with the force of law and can be so enforced.
Too much emphasis should not be placed on these differences
among recommendations, inspection standards, and laws or rules.
The effectiveness of improving working conditions by legislation
dealing with the problems involved is sometimes questioned. It is
argued that standards of good practice are accepted voluntarily by
employers. From the point of view of a factory inspector, however2
there would appear to be decided advantage in having the force ot
law behind the regulations he advocates. In cases where employers
are cooperative, the inspector's methods in the enforcement of a law
or rule may be the same as those of an inspector making a recommendation, but in the cases where the employer is not in sympathy with
the inspector's recommendations, the power to issue an order that can
be enforced is desirable. The lighting conditions in many plants
8 This section is based on an analysis of the State laws and on correspondence with ,
officials of State d epartments of labor or industrial commissions. A summary for each
State is given in the Appendix. See also Chart I.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
42
STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
and the number of orders issued by some State departments of labor
indicate that lighting problems can not be solved by recommendation
alone.
The enforcement of State codes is even more significant than is
their exact legal status. Moreover, it is much more difficult to determine and to evaluate, since the enforcement of any single law
involves all the important facts about the purpose, appropriatio:r:i,
personnel, methods, standing in the State etc., of the enforcing
agency. For this study only a few facts definitely pertaining to the
enforcement of the lighting code have been secured from the States.
These are the following: "\Vhether or not any attempts are made to
enforce the code, and, if there are, how it is enforced; whether inspections are made of lighting in manufacturing and mercantile
establishments, and, if made, how often and by whom; whether inspectors are given any training on lighting problems, and, if so, what
the training is and by whom given; whether the foot-candle meter is
used to measure illumination levels; and whether there is an electrical
expert in the department. Regular inspections of lighting by persons
with enough training and experience to understand and apply the
code and with recourse to the use of a foot-candle meter to measure
the illumination level, at least in debatable cases, seem essential in
enforcing the lighting codes.
.
In no State but New Jersey is there much done in the way of
enforcing the code where it has only the status of a recommendation
or of an inspection standard. In Idaho, it will be noted (seep. 51),
the code is only suggested by a committee of the chamber of commerce. The Kentucky Department of Agriculture, Labor, and Statistics, which recommends the lighting code, attempts to give its
inspectors some general instructions on lighting problems, but there
is no electrical expert in the department, the foot-candle meter is
not used, and insl?ections are made at very irregular intervals. The
only law on lightmg that the department has any chance to enforce
is a rule of the State board of health. 9
The Oklahoma commissioner of labor writes that it is not possible
for their three inspectors to inspect manufacturing and mercantile
establishments once a year; that they have no funds to pay to have
someone outside the State come to give them proper training and
that without such training the application of the code is a mistake;
and that they have had to abandon the use of the foot-candle meter
or neglect too much of their other work.
Inspectors in Ohio, without any training on lighting problems or
the aid of a foot-candle meter, make inspections for lightmg at irregular intervals. They are instructed to enforce the building code and
may refer to the suggested lighting code. (See p. 57.)
. In New Jersey the lighting code has been an inspection standard
smce 1918 and attempts have been made to apply it in manufacturing
establishments by frequent regular inspections. Mercantile establishments have not been inspected regularly. In cases where questions have arisen, an electrical expert in the department has used
a . foot-candle meter to check the illumination level. From time to
8
The department is striving for a law on industrial safety.
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STATE LIGHTING CODES
43
time inspectors have been given some instruction on lighting problems. After the adoption o:f the new lighting code in 1930, they
were given a series o:f lectures and demonstrations on lighting problems, on the code and its interpretation, and on the use o:f the :footcandle meter, at the General Electric Lighting Institute in Harrison,
N.J.
Cali:fornia, Maryland, and Oregon, o:f the States where the lighting code has the :force o:f law, are not enforcing it except in special
cases. In Maryland this is due to the :fact that until recently the
State industrial accident commission has not had power to develop
an inspection staff to enforce its sa:fety standards.10 In January,
1931, plans were made and a director o:f sa:fety was appointed to
en:force these standards. The Maryland Board o:f Labor and Statistics, an entirely separate agency, that makes :factory inspections to
enforce certain laws has no law on lighting.
The Cali:fornia Department o:f Industrial Relations does not make
routine :factory inspections. Their lighting code is en:forced only
in special cases by an electrical engineer in the department. This
engineer uses a :foot-candle meter. A letter under date o:f November
10, 1930, :from the superintendent o:f safety o:f the department makes
this statement :
When the general lighting safety orders were issued, it was soon found
that they could not be enforced as a practical thing, and therefore they have
been a dead letter for a number of years. We occasionally investigate lighting conditions, but these are, in all cases, considered as special investigations.
We are at this time studying the Code for Lighting Factories, Mills, and
Other Work Places, recently published,11 but can not at this time state whether
the code as printed will be recommended to the commission for adoption.
Oregon, a.fter passing a lighting law and adopting a code in 1919,
has never had :funds to adequately enforce it or to secure an electrical
expert. The :factory inspectors, using the :foot-candle meter, do :from
time to time check the lighting in certain places in industrial plants.
The remaining code States, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Washington, and Wisconsin, in addition to New Jersey, attempt to enforce their lighting codes. Inquiry shows that the enforcement methods used in these five States are practically the same.
Inspectors who have been given some training on lighting problems
check lighting in their regular inspections o:f manu:facturing and
mercantile establishments. Foot-candle meters may be secured :from
a supervisor and are used whenever any doubt o:f the illumination
level arises. Each State has some person with training and experience on lighting problems who may be called an electrical expert.
He considers any lighting case involving a special problem.
The penalties (see Chart I, pp. 25 to 27) :for the violation o:f the
lighting codes ap2_ear to be. adequate. No lighting order in any
State has been the oasis o:f court action. The value o:f this enforcement o:f the lighting codes can not be judged wholly by the numbers of orders complied with but the :fact that 3,494 lighting orders
were complied with in one State 12 in a 6-year period mdicates that
10
11
1.2
Bagby. Annotated Code of Maryland. 1929 supplement . Art. 101, secs. 55, 55a, 55b.
Refers to American Standard Code.
Statement from the Massachusetts Department of Labor and Industries.
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44
ST ATE REQUIRE M E NTS FOR INDUSTRIA L LIGHTING
their enforceme nt has improved condition s in many plants in -these
States.
Summary.
A review of the legal status and enforcem ent of the State lighting
codes shows that in 6 States-M assachuse tts, New Jersey, New York,
Pennsylv ania., Washingt on, and Wiscons in-of the 13 States with
lighting codes the code is really enforced as a law; 1 other State,
Maryland , prepared in January, 1931, to enforce the code; while in
the other six States it is either enforced only in special cases ( California and Oregon) or used as a recommen dation (Idaho, Kentucky ,
Ohio, and Oklahom a).
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CHAPTER V.-STATE LIGHTING REQUIREMENTS OTHER
THAN LIGHTING CODES
Lighting codes, which have been discussed, represent the most
effective action that the States have taken in the matter of industrial
lighting, but they are being· observed in only 13 States. While the
practices of the remaining States contribute little to a solution of
lighting problems, they do suggest problems of labor law and its
administration. The statement is made sometimes that the leading
industrial States have adopted lighting codes, implying that the
failure of other States to adopt such · codes is of minor importance.
However, the fact that the 13 States having lighting codes in 1920
employed less than one-half of the gainfully employed females 10
years of age and over in the United States shows that the majority of
employed women are unaffected by the action of these States.
An analysis of the lighting requirements of the States shows that
in 19 States the department of labor has no general law nor other
requirement for lighting in manufacturing or mercantile establishments and no other agency is enforcing a law or rule on the subject.
In addition to the code States, 8 States and the District. of Columbia have some general reguirement for lighting in all parts o:f manufacturing and mercantile establishments, while the remaining 10
States have lighting requirements only for certain limited places.
The 48 States may be classified in this respect as follows:
Li,ghtin g requirements f<Yr m,anufactwring ana meroantile establishnients (not
including food es tablis h,ments), by State
[For details about each State see Appendix]
States having no legal
requirements
Alabama.
Arizona.
Arkansas.
Colorado.
Florida.
Georgia.
Idabo.t
Iowa.
Louisiana.
Mississippi.
Montana.
Nevada.
New Mexico.
North Carolina.
North Dakota.
South Carolina.
South Dakota.
Utah.
Wyoming.
States not having codes but having some general
requirements-
States having lighting
codes (all but Idaho
have some law on
lighting also)
Applying to all parts of
manufacturing and mercantile establishments
District of Columbia.
Delaware.2
Kansas.
Kentucky.'
Maine.
Missouri.
New Hampshire.
Tennessee.
Vermont.
California.
Idaho.
Kentucky.
Maryland.
Massachusetts.
New Jersey.
New York.
Ohio.
Oklahoma.
Oregon.
Pennsylvania.
Washington.
Wisconsin.
Applying to certain
limited places only
Connecticut.I
Illinois .a
Indiana.a
Michigan.5
Minnesota.a
Nebraska.o
Rhode Island.I
Texas.a
Virginia.I
West Virginia.3
'•
1 Applies
to manu facturing establishments.
Where women are employed.
a In passageways or mean s of egress.
~
Lighting code is recommended.
:
Basement rooms, tenements, and foundries.
• Certain hazardous industries.
t
1
45
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46
STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
The foregoing summary indicates that the lighting requirements
of 29 States are largely inadequate, 19 having no requirements and
10 having very limited ones.
Lighting requirements of States without lighting codes.
Besides the code States, only eight States (including one that
recommends the American Standard Code) and the District of Columbia have lighting requirements for workrooms in both manufacturing and mercantile establishments. Consideration of the contents of these laws and requirements as compared with the requirements of the American Standard Code shows more clearly how unsatisfactory they are. New Hampshire is the only State other than
the code States that has a set of rules on lighting coverin~ general
lighting, avoidance of glare, diffusion and distribution of hght, and
exit and emergency lighting.
No State but the code States ( and it must be remembered tha.t in
some of these the code is not enforced or is merely a recommendation) has any specific requirement for the illumination level for
general lighting. The laws stipulate that sufficient or adequate
-light must be supplied, or that if the lighting is such as to be injurious or dangerous to the health of employees changes must be
made. Such unstandardized and indefinite requirements are very
difficult to enforce.
Though some of the general statements about adequate light, and
so forth, might be interpreted as covering the condition of glare,
Kansas and New Hampshire are the only States, other than the code
States, that specifically mention its prevention.
No requirement for lighting passageways and means of exit under
certain conditions is made or may be included by interpretation in
the 19 States that have no legal requirements and in Ohio, Michigan,
and Nebraska, a total o:f 22 States. Moreover, o:f the exit requirements in addition to the light codes only the building code in India.na definitely specifies the illumination level to be supplied.
Ten States- Indian a, New Hampshire, California, Maryland,
Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and
Wisconsin, all but the first two being code States-are the only ones
that require an independent system of emergency lights in certain
places. Idaho and Kentucky recommend lighting codes suggesting
such emergency systems, and Virginia requires for some places that
the lighting system for h alls, stairways, etc., must be independent
of the motive power of the plant.
There are no other significant requirements in the laws of the
States without lighting codes, although the Ohio State building code
contains provisions for natural lighting that are not found in other
States. ( See p. 57 of this report.)
Enforcement of lighting requirements in States without lighting
codes.
Most of the States with any law on lighting give the problem some
consideration in the inspections made in manufacturing and mercantile establishments, and a few States without any legal requirements-Alabama, Colorado, and Iowa-also investigate lighting and
make recommendations concernin~ it. None of the States without
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LIGHTING REQUIREMENTS OTHER THAN LIGHTING CODES
47
· lighting codes use a foot-candle meter in their lighting inspections,
' and· only Missouri, New Hampshire, and Texas have stated that their
inspectors were given training on, or had experience with, lighting
problems. Missouri has an electrical expert in its department of
labor and industrial inspection.
. Because 0£ its bearing on effective enforcement there should be
noted the £act that some 0£ the State lighting requirements shown in
the appendix are not requirements 0£ the department 0£ labor, and
their enforcement is not directly charged to that department. In
Kentucky 1 the Department 0£ Fire Prevention and Rates 0£ the
Auditor's Office and in Illinois the Division 0£ Fire Prevention 0£
the Department of Trade and Commerce has rules pertaining to illumination in places 0£ employment; in Massachusetts 1 the Department
of Public Safety, entirely independent of the Department of Labor
and Industries, has certain lighting regulations; a £ew Statesthe District 0£ Columbia, Indiana, Ohio,1 and Wisconsin 1-have
building codes with sections pertaining to lighting. But in all these
cases the department 0£ labor either is the body administering the
code or is represented on such body. 2 Many requirements affecting
lighting are made by local ordinances such as city building codes
and city fire rules. Only a £ew State departments 0£ labor require
that wiring shall comply with the standards of the National Electrical Code or some State code covering this matter, but insurance
standards, local building codes, fire rules and ordinances, and standards for general practice do make such requirements. In many
places in the United States it is difficult to determine what all the
regulations are that pertain to natural light, building, wiring, illuminating levels, and exit lighting. Under such conditions it is almost
impossible to secure efficient enforcement. The present study, as
stated be£ore, attempts to cover only State requirements, for the
most part requirements of the departments 0£ labor.
Lighting problems are so technical that it is doubtful if the inspect10n in many of these States under the conditions too frequently
existing, 0£ incomplete and inadequate laws, lack 0£ definite standards, an enforcing personnel untrained in lighting problems, does
very effectively improve the lighting 0£ places of employment.
However, it probably helps to prevent the worst conditions.
Laws and other require~ents in States having lighting codes.
The State lighting codes have been considered in detail (see pp. 24
to 44), but in a discussion 0£ lighting requirements other than these
codes it should be noted that several 0£ the code States have such
additional lighting requirements. Special regulations concerning
the kind of artificial light to be used in certain places, the guarding
0£ lights, and lighting at night, orders £or lighting places where
women are employed, provisions :for windows and window cleaning
may be found in some 0£ these code States. Since :few 0£ these requirements modify the levels 0£ illumination recommended by the
codes, they have not been analyzed completely £or every State.
( See each code State summary in the appendix.)
1
This State uses the lighting code in some way. (See pp. 54, 57, 61-62.)
:i Building-code rules can not require adequate light at work places because the amount
needed varies with the type of occupancy of the building.
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48
STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
Conclusions.
State departments of labor have before them the opportunity
to improve lighting conditions in places of employment. In a discussion o:f illumination, Mr. R. E. Simpson, o:f the engineering and
inspection division of the Travelers Insurance Co., has made this
statement:
There is probably no body of men who have greater opportunity for raising
the standard of our industrial lighting than the Federal, State, and insui·ance
inspectors. * · * * The consulting engineer and the lighting specialist;_'. of
manufacturing and public-utility concerns must interest the executives before
they can make any progress. Even then the executive is under no obligation
to follow the expert recommendations. These experts must solicit admission
to the work places, while the Federal, State, or insurance inspector has behind
him either the power given by law, or certain contractual obligations, so that
a mere presentation of his card gains him ready admission to a plant. The
executive, moreover, will probably give favorable consideration to the inspector's report because be is aware that it is to his interest to comply with any
recommendation that the inspector is likely to make. With these advantages,
plus an understanding of the fundamentals of good lighting, an inspector can
he a potent influence in bettering our industrial lighting with a resulting
reduction in the number of our industrial accidents. 3
The experience o:f some States with lighting codes shows that they
are an important means of securing effective action on illumination
problems. Dr. George M. Price, an authority on working conditions in places o:f employment and on factory inspection, urges th~
adoption of lighting codes. In an address at the 1928 annual conference o:f the National Society for the Prevention of Blindness, he
said:
The State authorities may greatly help in improving lighting conditions.
Scientific and practical lighting codes must be enacted by the State. It 1s imperative that bureaus of light and illumination, with experts in charge as well
as expert inspectors, should be established in our labor departments. Inspectors should be trained to make necessary photometric tests in the workshops.
*
* *
.A more radical recommendation would be the enactment of a law licensing
trades and requiring employers, before occupying the loft or shop, to submit
their plans for illumination to the labor department. This would insure •an
efficient illumination according to tbe specific needs of the work to be done in
each workshop.'
While it may not seem possible to adopt some of these suggestions,
most departments of labor could become informed on lightrng problems and could use a lighting code at least as a guide for good illumination. The lighting codes are not blanket legislation for all industries; they provide specific requirements for various industries and
conditions. They are a de.finite standard which an inspector can
use to secure interest in lighting, and they have the additional advantage of being relatively easy to revise and to adapt to particular
situations.
3
~impson, R. _E. Illumination. Safety Fundamentals. L ecture~ given by Sa fety
Insti~te
of Amenca, F ebruary to June, 1919. New York, 1920, ch. 8, p . 165.
·
4
Price, George M., M. D. , director of the Joint Board of Sanitary Control in the
Women's G::irment Trades, and director of the Union Health Center New · York City.
Light and Illumination a nd Defective Vision in the Garment Industry. Proceedings of
the 1928 Annua l Conferen ce of the Na t ional Society for the Prevention of Blindness
National Society for the Prevention of Blindness (Inc.), 370 Seventh Avenue, New York;
N . Y ., p. 61.
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APPENDIX
SUMMARY OF STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR LIGHTING IN PLACES
OF EMPLOYMENT, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO FACTORY
AND MERCANTILE WORKROOMS, PASSAGEWAYS, AND EXITS,1
BY STATE
[NoTE.-Based on analysis of State laws and replies from officials of State departments
of labor or industrial commissions, 1930-31. For text discussion of these data see
pp. 24 to 48.]
No attempt has been made to list every law or regulation on lighting in each
State. The illumination requirements of the State departments of labor or
industrial commissions are covered where they apply to general work places in
most industries. Not all requirements for mines, tenement houses, foundries,
hotels and other food establishments, toilets,2 hazardous industries, and wiring
are included. The requirements of State boards of health and State fire marshals have been included for certain States, but preliminary inquiries showed
that most board of health regulations apply only to food establishments and
that in most cases the State fire marshals' requirements have to do only with
the marking of exits by red lights. The former provision is primarily for the
benefit of the public; the latter, for fire protection rather than for the proper
illumination of exits for safe egress. These regulations are not included here.
A few States have building codes, and sections of these that apply to lighting
are inclucled. 3
ALABAMA
Legal r eqttiremen.t s.-N one.
Enforcement vraC"Uce.-When inspections are made in connection with employ-
ment of minors, the inspectors take note of the lighting arrangements in the
establishment. If the lighting is adequate, they comment on this fact. If it is
inadequate, they make suggestions as to how it might be improved. There are
no rules or regulations. There is no definite follow-up to see whether or not
suggestions are carried out. All comments on lighting are made in an informal
manner.
Enforcernent agencv.-Child Welfare Department, Child Welfare Commission,
Montgomery.
ARIZONA
Leg·a l requfrmnents.-N one.
Ent o,·cement praot ice.-N one.
Enforcement agency.-Industrial Commission, Phoenix.
ARKANSAS
Legal requirernents.-N one.
Enforcement practice.-None.
Enforcem ent agency.-Bureau of Labor and Statistics, Little Rock.
1 For a supplementary list of references to State r equir ements p ertaining to industrial lighting, see National Safety Council's Safe Practices Pamphlet No. 94 on State
Safety Requirements in Industry, in National Safety News, March, 1930, vol. 21, No. 3,
pp. 19-26.
2 Women's Bureau Bulletin No. 99 gives the · State requirements regarding lighting in
toilet rooms. California, Connecticut, Delaware, District of Columbia, Idaho, Illinois,
Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Montana, New J erseyt-J'-lew York,
North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, washington,
West Virginia, and Wisconsin have lighting laws or rules for these places.
'
• Details on enforcement received from Stat e agencies. Except where some action is
mentioned, States with no legal requirements do not inspect for Jighting,
49
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50
STATE REQUIBEMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
CALIFORNIA "
Legal requirements.-Has a lighting code. (See pp. 24 to 44 of this report.)General Lighting Safety Orders issued by the Industrial Accident Commission.
Every workroom shall be supplied with adequate natural or artificial light
dnring the working hours. The sources of illumination shall be of such a nature
and so placed as to provide a reasonably constant and uniform illumination over
. the necessary area of work and avoid the casting of shadows on the work.
They shall be so placed or shaded that light from them does not fall directly
on the eyes of an operator when engaged on her work. Applies where women
or minors are employed in laundry and manufacturing industries.-Industrial
Welfare Commission's Order No. 4, amended-laundry and manufacturing industries. Effective March 8, 1919.
Every room in which women and minors are employed shall be supplied with
adequate natural .o r artificial light, in accordance with the Geµeral Lighting
Safety Orders of the Industrial Accident Commission.-Industrial Welfare
Commission's Order No. 13-mercantile establishments. Effective February
17, 1920.
Enforcement prootioe.-Regular inspections are not made in manufacturing
and mercantile establishments, but in special cases an electrical engineer does
inspect for lighting, using a foot-candle meter to measure the amount of
illumination.
Lighting code is considered out of date and is not enforced, though the department plans to prepare another code.
Enforcement agen.cv.-Department of Industrial R elations, San Francisco.
COLORADO
Lega.Z requirements .-None.
JJJnforaemen.t practice.-The chief factory inspector states th at on their in-
spection blanks are three questions on lighting: Are red lights provided for
all exits (above 2 stories)? Are premises sufficiently lighted? I s artificial
light provided?
When an inspector finds insufficient lighting he recommends changes. According to the correspondence from the chief factory inspector, the law seems
to be made to protect the public against latent dangers, rather than the persons
employed in the establishment.
Enforcernen,t ageney.-Bureau of Labor Statistics, Denver.
CONNECTICUT
Legal requirements.-All factories and buildings where machinery is used
shall be well lighted. There is no law applying to mercantile establishments.General Statutes of Connecticut, revision of 1930, chapter 131, section 2355.
Enforcement practioe.-Lighting inspections are made at least once a year
in manufacturing and mercantile establishments. The inspector's observation
and opinion determines what orders shall be issued.
Enforcement agenoy.-Department of Labor and Factory Inspection, Hartford.
DELAWARE
LegaJ requirern.ents.-All workrooms, halls, stairways, and toilets must be
properly lighted where women are employed in mercantile, mechanical, transportation, or manufacturing, laundry, baking, printing, or dressmaking establishments, place of amusement, telephone or telegraph office or exchange, hotel,
restaurant, or office.-Session Laws, 1917, chapter 231, sections 1, 5.
Enforcement practioe.-No inspections a re made for lighting.
Enforcement agenoy.-Labor Commission, Wilmington.
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
L egaJ requirements.-Sufficient light is required in any store, factory, workshop, or other structure or place of employment where workmen or workwomen
are employed for wages. Orders of Commissioners of the District of ColumJ:>ia.-La ws and Regulations Relating to Public Health, in force July 1, 1930.
Orders 1 and 3, pages 246, 247.
' Industrial Accident Commission's safety orders for certain specific indust ries not
included.
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APPENDIX
51
Every stairway or other exit and the corridors and passageways appurtenant thereto shall be provided with an adequate system 9f lighting. At least
one light at every floor landing, within the stair inclosure, and a red light
over every door leading to an exit or from an exit to the street. This is required for office buildings, stores, factories, workshops, and all other buildings
~n the process of erection, alteration, or repair. There are supplemental requirements for certain conditions such as night occupancy, old and new buildings, etc. Orders of Commissioners of the District of Columbia.-The Building
Code, July 1, 1930, pp. 55, 89, 110.
Enforcement practice.-Inspectors visit industrial establishments regularly
about four times a year. They have no control over light in hallways.
Enforoem.ent agency.-District Health Department1 Washington, D. C.
FLORIDA
Legal requitrements.-None.
Flnforce,,nent practioe.-N one.
Enforcement agency.-State Labor In pector, Jacksonville.
GEORGIA
L egaJ requirements.-None.
Enforcement prootwe.-None.
Enforcement agenoy.-Department of Commerce and Labor, Atlanta.
IDAHO
Legal reqmrements.-None.5
Enforcement practice.-N one.
Enforoe-nu3nt agenoy.-Industrial Accident Board, Boise.
ILLINOIS
Legal requirements.-The following statute does not require lighting at the
. work place : In all factories, mercantile establishments, mills, or workshops,
a proper light shall be kept burning by the owner or lessee in all main
passageways, main hallways, at all main stairs, main stair landings, and shafts,
and in front of all passenger or freight elevators, upon the entrance floors and
upon other floors, on every workday of the year, from the time that the building is opened for use until the time when it is closed, except at times when the
influx of natural light shall make artificial light unnecessary: Prwi4ed, That
when two or more tenants occupy different floors in one building, such elevator
shafts need be lighted only on the floors occupied and used by employees.Smith-Hurd. Illinois Revised Statutes, 1929, chapter 48, section 119.
The Division of Fire Prevention of the Department of Trade and Commerce,
Springfield, has additional requirements for certain hazardous industries.Department of Trade and Commerce, Division of Fire Prevention.
Enforooment practwe.-No inspections are made for lighting in manufacturing
and mercantile establishments.
Enforcement ag(3ncy.-Department of Labor, Springfield.
INDIANA
Legal 'r equilrements.-By a written permit the chief inspector may allow persons to be employed in a room where there are less than 400 cubic feet but
not less than 250 cubic feet of air space for each person employed between
6 o'clock in the evening and 6 o'clock in the morning: Provided, such room is
lighted by electricity at all times during such hours while persons are employed
there,in.-Burns's Annotated Indiana Statutes, Watson's Revision 1926, ch. 72,
sec. 9423.
6
The Idaho State Chamber of Commerce states t hat t here is an independent organization known as the All-Idaho Safety Council that has adopted and is suggesting the Code
of Lightin~ Factories, Mills, and Other Work Places, approved by the American Standards Association Aug. 18, 1930. Although the council has no committee or individual
appointed to compel compliance with its suggestions, it is receiving the heartiest cooperation on the part of bu.ilders in adopting the suggested code.
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52
STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
The chairman of the industrial board, the secretary of the State board of
health, and the State fire marshal are the administrative committee . of a
State building cou~il that is responsible for the enforcement of building laws
and the making of regulations for buildings in the State. Their requirements
for lighting are as follows :
.
6-2-219. All stairways and exits and the passageways appurtenant thereto
except as otherwise provided shall be properly illuminated to facilitate egress.
Such illumination shall be continuous during the time that the conditions of
occupancy require that the exit ways be open or available. Artificial lig~ting
shall be employed at such places and for such periods of time as required to
maintain the illumination of the full intensities herein specified.
6-2-220. (a). The floors of exit ways of buildings used for public assembly
or congregation, schools, department stores, factories, mills, and other occupancies as required ~hall be illuminated at all principal points such as angles
and intersections of corridors and passageways, stairways, landings of stairs,
and exit doorways to intensities of not les~ than 1 foot-candle and at other
points to intensities of not less than 0.5 foot-candle. 6
6-2-221. The lighting source shall be arranged to as~ure continued illumination of all exit ways in cases of emergency caused by the failure of the principal
lighting of the building. Where electric current is the source of the lighting of
buildings used for public assembly or congregation, the emergency lighting shall
be from a source independent of that for the general lighting or shall be controlled by an automatic device which will operate reliably to switch t]J.e circuit
to an independent secondary source in the event of failure of the primary
source of current.
6-2-222. The lighting and all control apparatus shall be installed so as to
be under the supervision of and controlled only by authorized persons.
Wiring, etc., must be in accordance with the Electrical Rules and Regulations of the Administrative Building Council.-Administrative Building Council
of Indiana. Building Rules and Regulations, approved and promulgated
October 15, 1928, pp. 82, 83, 192.
EntorceJrl,fJnt praotice·. -None.
Enforoement a,g enov.-Indu~trial Board, Indianapolis.
IOWA
Legal requirements.-None.
Enforcement practice.-The deputy labor comm1ss1oner states that inspections are made in manufacturing and mercantile establishments, and that when
conditions are noticeably poor, inspectors call attention to this fact and ask
that lighting be improved with ventilation requests.
Enforcement agency.-Bureau of Labor, Des Moines.
KANSAS
Legal 1-equirements.-If the inspector finds that lighting is such as to be injurious to the health of persons employed or residing in any factory or mill,
workshop, private works or State institution having shops or factories, mercantile establishment, laundry, or any other place of business, be shall notify,
in writing, the owner, proprietor, agent, or lessee of such building, establishment, or place to make the changes deemed necessary for the safety and protection of the employees or other persons endangered by such conditions.Revised Statutes of Kansas, annotated 1923, chapter 44, section 636.
All rooms shall be properly and adequately lighted during the working hours.
Where the light is insufficient, artificial illumination in every workroom shall
be installed, arranged, and used so that the light furnished will at all times
be sufficient and adequate for the work carried on therein, and prevent unnecessary strain on the vision, or glare in the eyes of the workers. Applies to
mercantile, laundries, dyeing, dry-cleaning and pressing establishments where
women are employed.-Commission of Labor and Industry Orders affecting
women workers, No. 1, Laundry; No. 3, :Mercantile.
11
Prescribes the ·minimum intensities of illumination; generally greater intensities
s~ould be prov_ided. The additi!)nal illuminatio~ should be from lights. .placed alt~rriately
with the required emergency hghts and supplled from the general lighting circuits or
sources, or other sources similar to the r equired emergency lighting sources.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
APPENDIX .
Ample lighting shall be proYided anu so arranged that direct rays do not
shine into the worker's eyes. Applies where women are employed in any
manufacturing occupation.-Commission of Labor and Industry; Order No. 2,
Manufacturing.
Enforcement practice.-Manufacturing establishments are inspected yearly.
Soine inspections are made in mercantile establishments. An inspector uses
his own judgment to determine when lighting is adequate and sees that stairways and exits are light and accessible.
Enforcement agency-Commission of Labor and Industry, Topeka.
KENTUCKY
Legal requi.rements.-1. A rule of the State Board of Health requires that
the lighting of places of employment shall be adequate and shall be maintained
with strict regard for the health, comfort, and safety of employees. This
applies to every person, firm, or corporation operating a factory, mill, mine,
quarry, store, office, workshop, or work place of any description, including
building and construction work, employing one or more persons to labor. ( Rules
for food _e stablishments do not make more definite requirements. )-Kentucky
Laws and Rules of Interest and Pertaining to Children, Labor, Safety, ln(l.ustry. Department of Labor, Bul. 32, pages 44-45, March, 1929.
·
2. The Department of Labor recommends the lighting code of the American
Standards Association and the Illuminating Engineering Society, reprinting
the 1922 edition, and also recommends certain daylighting suggestions of the ·
United States Public Health Service.-Industrial Housekeeping (with sug- .
gestions). Department of Labor, Bul. 31, pages 51-90.
3. A safety standard of t he Department of Fire Prevention and Rates re• ·
quires that every inclosed stairway and exit shall be provided with an adequate :
system of lighting. Where the State fire marshal considers necessary, such.
lighting circuit shall be separate from that "indirectly" used .throughout the
building.-Standards of Safety, adopted and approved by Department of Fire
Prevention and Rates, Section II, page 22, 19'29.
·
' . ·.
Enforcement practice.-1. Department of Labor is required by law to report
violations of health laws and rules to health officials.-Session Laws 1924,
chapter 68, section 10.
,
2. Manufacturing and mercantile establishments are inspected irregularly.
Inspectors are given some training on lighting problems by the engineers of the
Actuarial Bureau and by the chief labor inspector.
3. No information.
Enforcement dgencv.-1. Bureau of Agriculture, Labor, and ·statistics, Frankfort. State Board of Health.
2. Department of Labor of the Bureau of Agriculture, Labor, and Statistics.
3. Department of Fire Prevention and Rates.
LOUISIANA
Legal reqitirements.-N one.
Enforcement practice.-None.
Enforcement aueney.-Bureau
of Labor and Industrial Statistics, New
Orleans.
MAINE
Legal requi.rements.-If the comm1ss10ner or any authorized agent of l::i.bor
and industry finds that lighting is such as to be injurious to the health of the
persons employed or residing in any factory or mill, workshop, private works
or State institutlon that has shops or factories, he shall notify, in writing, the
owner, proprietor, or agent of such ·workshops or factories to make, within 30
days, the alterations or additions by him deemed necessary for the safety and
protection of the employees.-Revised Statutes of Maine, 1930, chapter 54,
section 13.
Enforoement practice.-Inspectors make their own personal judgment of lighting when inspections, at irregular intervals, are made in manufacturing and
mercantile establishments.
Hnforcem,ent agenoiy.-Department of Labor and In~ustry, Augusta.
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STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
MARYLAND
Legal requirements.-Industrial Accident Commission has adopted a lighting
code. ( See pp. 24 to 44 of this report.) -Code of Lighting Factories, Mills,
and Other Work Places, sponsored by the Illuminating Engineering Society,
approved as an American standard by the American Standards Association,
August 18, 1930.
Has also adopted a building exits code that requires that exit lighting must
not be less than that required by the American Standard Code of Lighting
Factories, Mills, and Other Work Places.-Building Exits Code, sponsored by
the National Fire Protection Association, approved as an American tentative
standard by the American Standards Association, September 11, 1929, section
12, Orders 1201-1204; section 23, Order 2317a.
Enforcement practice.-A director of safety was appointed January, 1931,
and plans were m ade to enforce the standards.
Enforcement agency.-State Industrial Accident Commission, Baltimore.
MASSACHUSETTS 7
Legal requirements.-Has an industrial lighting code. ( See pp. 24 to 44 of
this report.)-Lighting Code for Factories, Workshops, Manufacturing, Mechanical, and Mercantile Establishments, Department of Labor and Industries,
Division of Industrial Safety, Industrial Bul. No. 18.
The section of the law on which this code is based provides that every
factory, workshop, manufacturing, mechanical, and mercantile establishment
shall be well lighted, according to reasonable rules and regulations adopted
by the department with reference thereto.
The industrial health inspectors shall, when obtaining information concerning the proper lighting of industrial establishments, make such investigation concerning the eye and vision in their relation to occupational diseases,
including injuries to the eyes of the employees and to the pathological effects
produced or promoted by the circumstances under which the various occupations are carried on, as in the opinion of the department is practicable, and
it shall from time to time issue such printed matter containing suggestions
to employers and employees for the protection of the eyes of the employees
as it may deem advisable.-General Laws, 1921, ch. 149, secs. 113, 114.
Enforcement practice.-Lighting is inspected once each year, approximately,
in most manufacturing and mercantile establishments by inspectors of the
division of industrial safety. Hazardous industries are inspected three or
four times a year. The inspectors are trained about lighting problems through
lectures given by a lighting expert at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
A foot-candle meter is used where it is necessary to determine the quantity of
illumination. There is an electrical expert in the department.
Enforcement agen-01J.-Department of Labor and Industries, Boston.
MICHIGAN
Legal requirements.-Ha s no legal requirements for general or exit lighting
in manufacturing and mercantile establishments, except that sufficient light
is required in basement rooms where special processes are performed and in
certain tenement manufacturing. Foundries must be reasonably well lighted.Compiled Laws of Michigan, 1929, ch. 149, secs. 8337, 8346, 8341.
Enforcement practice.-Lighting is noted in annual inspections of manufacturing and mercantile establishments by factory and store inspectors, respectively, who use their own judgment of sufficient lighting.
Enforcement agenoy.-Department of Labor and Industry, Lansing.
MINNESOTA
Legal requirements.-All stairways and inclined footways, and all points
where there is a break or change in the floor level or in the character of
the floor surface, where persons may have to walk or pass, and all dangerous
places, all prime movers and all moving parts of machinery where, on, or
about which persons work or pass, or may have to work or pass in emergencies,
7
The department of labor and industries mentions lighting in some of its orders for
special industries and the department of public safety (Boston) has special lighting
r equirements for fire prevention. These rules are not included.
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shall be kept properly and sufficiently lighted during working hours. Applies
to all work places except agriculture and domestic service.-Mason's Minnesota
Statutes 1927, ch. 23, secs. 4147, 4171.
Enforoement practice.-None.
Enforcement agency.-Industrial Commission, St. Paul.
Division of Acci-
dent Prevention and Division of Women and Children.
MISSISSIPPI
Legal requirements.-None :
'Enforcement practice.-N one.
Enforcement agency.-Bureau of Industrial H ygiene and Factory Inspection,
Jackson.
MISSOURI
Legal requirements.-When the inspector or one of his assistants finds that
the lighting of any establishment where labor is employed is such as to be
dangerous to the health or safety of employees therein or thereat, he shall
at once, in writing, order the owner or owners, or the person or persons in
charge of such establishment or place, to make the alterations or additions
necessary within 10 days.-Revised Statutes of Missouri, 1929, ch. 95, sec. 13237.
Enforcement practice.-Inspectors use their own judgment to determine
when lighting is adequate. Inspections are made every six months and upon
complaint in manufacturing and mercantile establislu~ents by State inspectors.
There is an electrical e}qJert in the department, and inspectors are given some
training on lighting problems.
· Enforcement agency.-Department of Labor and Industrial Inspection,
Jefferson City.
MONTANA
Legal requirements.-None.
Enforcement practice.-None.
Enforoement agency.-Department
of Agriculture, Labor and Industry,
Helena.
NEBRASKA
Legal requirements.-Has no general legal requirement. Safety codes adopted
by the Department of Labor, August 26, 1930, require electric lights in certain
hazardous industries: Construction and dry cleaning and dyeing.-Safety codes
adopted by Department of Labor, August 26, 1930, pp. 10, 56.
Enforcemen.t practice.-None.
En.forcemen t agency.-Department of Labor, Lincoln.
NEVADA
Legal requirements.-None.
En,forcement practice.-N one.
Enforccme,,,it auency.-Labor Commissioner, Carson City.
NEW HAMPSHIRE
Legal requireme,,,its.-(a) Lighting: All workrooms, passageways, and stairways and all basements or other places where workmen are employed or are
obliged to go shall be at all times suitably lighted. Wherever natural illumination is not sufficient, artificial means of illumination shall be installed. To
secure the best results from natural lighting, all windows should be kept clean
and properly shaded to prevent glare. Walls and ceilings of all workrooms
should be painted a light color and kept reasonably clean.
(b) Avoidance of glare; diffusion and distribution of light: Lighting, whether
natural or artificial, shall be such as to avoid a glare, objectionable shadows,
and extreme contrasts, and to provide a good distribution of light; in artificial
lighting systems, lamps shall be so installed in regard to height, location,
spacing, and reflectors, shades, or other suitable accessories as to accomplish
these objects .
.• Bare-light sources, such as exposed lamp filaments .l ocated within the ordinary
field of the worker's vision, are presumptive evidence of glare.
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STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
(c) Exit and emergency lighting: The lighting to be provided in all stairways and exits of factories :rnd in the passageways appurtenant thereto shall be
supplied so as not to be subject to failure because of the failure of the room or
work space lighting from internal causes, and preferably from an independent
connection extending back to the main service entrance for the building.
Applies to factories, mills, workshops, or other manufacturing or mercantile
establishments in which three or more persons are regularly employed.-Bureau
of Labor, Factory Inspection Standard No. 2, Lighting, supplemental to Session
Laws, 192'6, ch. 177, secs. 1, 7.
Bnforcement practice.-Inspections are made of lighting in annual visits made
in manufacturing establishments by factory inspector and in mercantile establishments by a woman factory inspector. The labor commissioner states that
they always pay special attention to lighting in their general inspection work,
and as all the members of his staff have been employed under all kinds of lighting ·conditions, they are very competent in making recommendations to improve
lighting conditions.
Enforcement auency.-Bureau of Labor, Concord.
NEW JERSEY
Legal requirements.-Has a lighting code as an inspectors' standard. ( See
pp. 24 to 44 of this report. )-Code of Lighting Factories, Mills, and Other Work
Places, sponsored by the Illuminating Engineering Society, approved as an
American standard by the American Standards Association, August 18, 1930.
The law requires that, when in the opinion of the commissioner it is' necessary, the halls or other portions of a building shall be provided with proper
lighting facilities.-Cumulative Supplement to Compiled Statutes, 1911-1924,
ch. 107, sec. 28.
Enforcenient practice.-Lighting inspections are made in manufacturing_~stablishments by the regular force of factory inspectors and in special cases by, the
·electiical inspector as often as a building requires it. Mercantile establishiri,e nts
are not inspected. The electrical inspector uses a foot-candle meter to check
the light in questionable cases. In 1930 and 1?31 the inspectors were given
training on lighting problems, the lighting code, and the use of the foot-candle
meter in a series of lectures at the General Electric Lighting Institute, Harrison.
Enforcement agency.-Department of Labor, Trenton.
NEW MEXICO
L egal r equiremcnts.-None.
Enforcemen t practice.-None.
Enforcement agency.-State Inspector of Coal Mines,8 Gallup.
NEW YORK 0
L egal requirements.-Has lighting code for factories and mercantile establishments. ( See pp. 24 to 44 of this report. )-Industrial Code Bul. No. 18, Rules
Relating to Lighting of Factories and Mercantile Establishments. Code Rules
Nos. 50, 51, 52, 53. Industrial Commission of the Department of Labor.
This code bas the force of law and supplements sections of the labor law
that specify certain lighting requirements in particular places. The basic
lighting law is as follows:
1. In every factory proper lighting shall be provided during work hours fora. All places where persons work or pass, or may have to work or pass
in emergencies ;
b. All elevator cars and entrances;
c. All halls and stairs leading to workrooms ;
d. All moving parts of machinery not required to be guarded by
section 256 and the rules of the commission, and dangerous because of
their location.
2. In every factory workroom the lighting shall be such as will not cause
strain on the vision or glare in the eyes of workers.
8 Only labor agent.
11
Many rules of the industrial code applying to factories and mercantile establishments
again mention lighting requirements for specific work places. A few . moC,ify the code.
These are not included.
·
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3. In the public hallway upon each floor of every factory building a pr·o per
light shall be kept burning near the stairs during each working day from the
opening of the building until its closing, except when natural light suffices.
Such lights shall be arranged to operate reliably when through accident or
other cause other lights of the building are extinguished.
Gas jets and ,othe1· lights.-All gas jets and other lights in factories shall
be properly inclosed by globes or wire cages, or shall be otherwise properly
protected in a manner approved in the city of New York by the fire commissioner
of such city and elsewhere by the commissioner.-Labor Law in Ca.bill's Consolidated Laws, 1930, chapter 32, secs. 257, 255, 256, 316, 282.
En.forcemen.t practice.-Annually and also upon complaint the factory inspectors inspect lighting in manufacturing and mercantile establishments. . An
illuminating engineer in the department gives .factory inspectors training in
the use of the foot-candle meter and in the law regarding lighting. ~ach
.supervisor of inspectors has a foot-candle meter, which is used to check t.he
amount of illumination where there is any question about it. Before any
prosecution is started the illuminating engineer makes an inspection.
Enforcement agency.-Department of Labor, New York.
NORTH CAROLINA
. Legal requirenient.s.-None.
Enforcement praotice.-None.
Enforcement agency.-Department of Labor and Printing, Raleigh.
NORTH DAKOTA
Legal requirements.-None.
Enforcement p•ractice.-N one.
Enforcement agency.-Department of Agriculture and Labor, Bismarck.
OHIO
Lega.Z requirements.-Has a lighting code as a recommendation. ( See pp. 24
to 44 of this report.)-Industrial Lighting Code for Factories, Mills, and Other
Work Places. The Industrial Commission of Ohio·.
The Ohio State Building Code requires that in workshops, factories, mercantile and office buildings( a) All rooms in buildings of this classification except storage or other rooms
where the nature of the occupancy will not permit shall have adequate facilities
for natural light and ventilation independent of the use of adjoining property
unless the right to such use has been obtained by deed or instrument;
(b) Natural light and ventilation shall be obtained by means of windows
placed in external walls, clerestory windows, or skylight;
(c) Windows shall have movable sash, and skylights shall be ventilated;
(d) All occupied areas in workshops and factories shall be provided with
not less than one ( 1) square foot of glass area to eight ( 8) square feet of floor
area;
(f) No required windows shall be placed nearer any building or adjoining
lot line than four ( 4) feet;
and thatAll occupied parts of buildings of this classification shall be adequately lighted
at all times; and when not sufficiently lighted by windows, artificial light shall
be provided during the day;
Gas, oil, or vapor lamps may be used for illumination only when electrical
current is not available.-Department of Industrial Relations, Division of
Factory and Building Inspection, Bui. No. 109, Obio State Building Code,
Workshops, Factories, Mercantile, and Office Buildings. November, 1929, ·sections 6, 22, pages 11, 17.
Enforcement practioo.-At irregular intervals, inspectors of the Division of
Factory Inspection inspect manufacturing and mercantile establishments for
lighting, enforcing the provisions of the building code, and using the lighting
code as a guide.
Enf<n-cenient agency.-Department of Industrial Relations, Columbus.
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STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
OKLAHOMA
Legal requirernents.-Has a lighting code that is used as a recommended
standard for lighting. ( See pp. 24 to 44 of this report. )-Department of Labor,
Bul. No. 3, Industrial Code Rules Relating to Lighting of Factories and Mercantile Establishments.
The law states that, when in the opinion of the factory inspector it is necessary, the workrooms, halls, and stairs leading to the workrooms shall be
properly lighted. Applies to factories, workshops, and machine shops, foundries, laundries, manufacturing establishments, and such other places where
labor is employed as the commissioner of labor may designate.-Revised laws,
1910, sections 3748, 3743.
Enforcement vraotice.-The three inspectors can not inspect each manufacturing and mercantile establishment once a year as directed in the code,
and they have had to abandon the use of the foot-candle meter because its use
required so much time that other parts of their work were neglected .
.Enforcement a~noy.-Department of Labor, Oklahoma City.
OREGON
Legal requirements.-Has a lighting code. (See pp. 24 to 44 of this report.)Code Governing Industrial Lighting in Places of Employment, 1919, Bureau of
Labor.
This code is a regulation promulgated by the Bureau of Labor as directed by
the following law: Applies to any place where any industry, trade, or business
is carried on, or where any process or operation directly or indirectly relating
to any industry, trade, or business is carried on, except private domestic service
or agricultural pursuits which do not involve the use of mechanical power.
All passageways and other portions of places of employment and all moving
parts of machinery which are not so guarded as to prevent accidents, where, on,
or about which persons work or pass or may have to work or pass in emergencies, shall be kept properly and sufficiently lighted during working hours.
The halls and stairs leading to the workrooms shall be properly and adequately
lighted, and a proper and adequate light shall be kept burning by the owner or
lessee in the public hallways near the stairs, upon the entrance floor, and upon
the other floors on every work day in the year from the time when the building
is open for use in the morning until the time it is closed in the evening, except
in times when the influx of natural light shall make artificial light unnecessary.
Such lights shall be so arranged as to insure their reliable operation when
through accident or other cause the regular factory or workshop lighting is extinguished.
All workrooms in any place of employment shall be properly and adequately
lighted during working hours. Artificial illuminants in every workroom shall
be installed, arranged, and used so that the light furnished will at all times be
sufficient and adequate for the work carried on therein, and so as to prevent
unnecessary strain on the vision or glare in the eyes of the workers.
Working or traversed spaces in all places of employment as defined in this
act shall be supplied during the time of use with artificial light in accordance
with a schedule of minimum values which shall be determined as hereinafter
specified; and when the natural light is less than the intensity so determined,
the artificial light must be used.
Lamps must be so located or suitably shaded as to minimize glare.
All lamps and lighting appliances must be so installed in regard to height,
spacing, reflectors, or other accessories as to secure a good distribution of light
on the work, avoiding objectionable shadows and sharp contrasts of intensity.
Emergency lamps shall be provided in the main aisles and in all stairways,
passageways, and exits so as to afford sufficie.int guidance to provide the safe
exit from said places of employment in case of emergency. Such lamps shall
be in operation concurrently with the lighting and independent thereof.
The switching and controlling apparatus. shall be so placed that at least
pilot or night lights may be turned on at the main points of entrance.
The commissioner of labor and inspector of factories and workshops of the
State of Oregon is hereby authorized to establish certain minimum values for
lighting, which shall be deemed proper and adequate in accordance with the
conditions set forth in this act. In arriving at what values shall be used in
this schedule of minimum lighting, and such other rules as shall determine
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APPENDIX
definitely what shall constitute compliance with the provisions of this act, he
shall be guided by the best engineering practice as set forth in the recommendations of "Illuminating Engineering Society." Before such schedule and rules,
however, shall become effective, the Commissioner of Labor must, upon his own
motion, appoint a commission of three persons, one to represent the manufacturing interests, one to represent the operating electrical workers, and one must
be an electrical engineer. Notice of the public meetings of such commission
shall be published in the leading newspapers of each county in the State, giving
the time, place, and purpose of such meetings. The commission shall have
power, after holding these public meetings, to establish, to rearrange, or to
readjust the schedule of lighting values and rules as above set forth. These
rulings or adjustments shall then become effective, 30 days after they have
been made, and the commissioner of labor shall serve notice, in writing or by
publication in the leading newspapers of each county in the State, of the rulings
thus made and of the date upon which they become effective.
Any person, firm, or corporation who violates or does not comply with the
provisions of this act or who shall fail or neglect to provide the necessary and
proper illumination herein provided, within thirty (30) days after receiving
written notice so to do by the commissioner of labor and inspector of factories
and workshops, is guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction shall be punished by a fine not exceeding the sum of fifty dollars ( $50), and that for the
purposes of this act each day that such violation continues, or for each day
such refusal continues, shall constitute a separate and distinct violation of this
act.-Session Laws, 1919, ch. 181, secs. 1-9.
The Industrial Welfare Commission has an order applying to all occupations of women, requiring that: All rooms shall be properly and adequately
lighted during working hours. Artificial illumination in every , vorkroom shall
be installed, a,rranged, and used so that the light furnished will be, at all
times, sufficient and adequate for the work carried on therein, and prevent
unnecessary strain on the vision or glare on the eyes of the worker.-Industrial
W·e lfare Commission Order No. 22. Sanitary Code, sec. 3.
Enforcement praotice.-There have been no funds available to provide for
adequate enforcement of the lighting law and code, but the factory inspectors
do check the lighting from time to time in certain places in industrial plants,
using the foot-candle meter to determine the amount of illumination.
Enforoement aueno1J.-Bureau of Labor, Salem.
0
PENNSYLVANIA 10
Legal requirernents.-Has a lighting code. (See pp. 24 to 44 of this report.)Regulations for Industrial Lighting, Department of Labor and Industry.
The law requires that all workrooms, halls, and stairways be properly
lighted. Applies to all manufacturing and mercantile establishments and
other places of employment.-Pennsylvania Statutes, complete to 1920, sec.
13593.
Special rules for emergency lighting in certain factories and mercantile
establishments where night work is performed more than 50 nights in any one
year supplement the emergency lighting section of the lighting code.-Regulations for Protection from Fire and Panic, Construction, Installation, and Maintenance of Emergency Lighting Systems, Department of Labor and Industry.
Enforcement praotice.-Lighting inspections are made in manufacturing and
mercantile establishments by inspectors of the bureau of inspection in their
regular inspections and in their special inspections where an accident has
occurred. Foot-candle meters are available in each division office and some
r,erson in each division is trained to use them. They are used in such places as
there appears to be reason to doubt that the lighting meets the requirements
of the regulations. Two men in the main office, who are experts on lighting
problems, give some instruction to the inspectors on lighting.
Enforcement agency.-Department of Labor and Industry, Harrisburg.
RHODE ISLAND
Legal requvrernents.-To provide adequate lighting is the duty of the proprietor of any factory or workshop. This does not cover mercantile establishments.-Session Laws, 1926, ch. 761, sec. 9.
10 In addition,
lighting and the lighting code are referred to in many of the regulations
for particular industries by the department of labor and industry. These are not included
here.
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STATE REQUIRE M E NTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
Enforcement practice.-Inspections of lighting are made by the inspectors in
their regular visits to factories and workshops. As they have 10,000 places
under the factory inspectors' care, and only five inspectors, the inspector states
that visits can not be made very often.
Enforcem ent agency.-Office of Factory Inspectors, Providenee.
SOUTH CAROLINA
Legal r equirernents.-None.
Enforcement , practice.-None.
. . .
.
En.forcement agency.-Department of Agriculture, Commerce, and Industries,
Oolumbia.
SOUTH DAKOTA
Legal requirements.-None.
Enforcement practioo.-None.
Enforcement agency.-Industrial Commissioner, Pierre.
TENNESSEE
;
;.; ;
Legal requirements.-Inspectoi·s of factories and workshops are char·g ed,. to
carefully inspect for lighting.-Session Laws, 1915, ch: 170, sec. 9.
· The Department of Labor has supplemented this requirement by. a safety
standard requiring that all work places, passageways, and storage spaces sl1~~ld
be so well lighted that a person may easily see any dangers with which. he µ1ight
come in contact. Light that is sufficient is required in stairways, elevator cars,
and on elevator landings.-Handbook of Industrial Safety Standards, Tennessee Department of Labor, Factory Inspection Division, pages 68, 5, 16, issued
under authority of Session Laws, 1923, sec. 55, part 9.
.•
, ..
Enforcement practice.-.T he factory inspectors inspect for lighting at least
once a year in their inspection of manufacturing and mercantile establishmerits.
Standards for proper lighting left to judgment of inspectors.
Enforcement agency.-Department of Labor, Nashville.
TEXAS
Legal requirements.-Light s shall be kept burning at all m in stairs, stair
landings, and elevator shafts in the absence of sufficient natural light in fac·tories, mills, workshops, mercantile establishments ( except those having seven
or less fem ale employees), laundries, or other establishments of a height of
two stories or over.-Revised Civil Statutes, 1925, Art. 5176.
..
E nforcement practice.-Inspections are made for lighting once each year in
.manufacturing and :mercantile establishments. The chief of the division of
factory inspectors gives inspectors some training on lightio.g problems.
Enforcemen t agency.-Bureau of La bor Statistics, Austin.
UTAH
Legal. requi r em ents.-None.
Enforcement pr actice.-N one.
Enforcemen t agency.-Industrial Commission, Salt Lake City.
VERMONT
Legal r equ'irem ent s.-If the Commissioner of Industries finds that the light~
ing is injurious to the health of the persons employed or residing in a factory,
mill, workshop, private works, or Sta te institution which ha s shops or factories,
he shall give written notice to the owner, proprietor, or other person in charge
of such workshop or factory to make, within 30 days, such alter tions or additions for the safety and protection of employees as said commissioner deems
necessary.-General Laws, 1917, sec. 5847.
Enforcement pract ice.-Tbe factory inspector inspects for lighting in manufacturing and mercantile establishments at least once a year, using his own
best judgment about lighting that is injurious to the health of t he persons employed.
E-nforcement agency.-Office of the Commissioner of Industries, Montpelier.
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VIRGINIA
Legal requirements.-When in the opinion of the commissioner of labor it is
necessary, the workrooms, halls and stairs leading to the workrooms shall · be
properly lighted; and in cities of the first class, if deemed necessary by the commissioner of labor, a proper light shall be kept burning by the owner or le~see
in the public hallways, near the stairs upon the entrance floor and upon the
other floors, on every workday in the year from the time when the building is
opened for use in the morning until the time it is closed in the evening; except
at such times when the influx of natural light shall make artificial light unnecessary. Such lights shall be independent of the motive power of such factory.
This applies to factories, sbops, and manufacturing establishments where machinery is used. . It does not cover mercantile establishments.-Virginia Code
of 1930, annotated, ch. 75, sec. 1830.
.
Enforcement pracUce.-Inspections are made of lighting in manufacturing
establishments by the factory inspectors. Although the law does not coYer
mercantile establishments, the factory inspectors or the inspector of the women's
and children's division of the Department of Labor and Industry do note lighting in their inspections of mercantile establishments.
Enforcement agency.-Department of Labor and Industry, Richmond.
WASHINGTON
Legal requirements.-Has a lighting code. ( See pp. 24 to 44 of this report.)-Safety Standards, effective January 1, 1924, .r os. 14-20, Department 'o f
Labor and Industries.
'
Also an order of the Industrial Welfare Committee.
·' · '
Every room in any manufacturing or mercantile establishment in ,vbi<;h
,vomen are employed shall be supplied with adequate natural or artificial light.
Sufficient illumination shall be provided for each woman irrespective of her
position on the floor space. Individual lamps shall be placed close to the work
where necessary, and in such cases the lamps shall be provided with suitable
opaque reflectors.-Industrial Welfare Committee Order No. 30, Working Conditions for Female Employees, sec. 1.
··
Enforcernent practice.-Inspections of lighting are made in manufacturing
and mercantile establishments by inspectors of the Division of Safety and of
the Industrial Welfare Commission. The inspectors are trained on lighting
problems by the department and are under the supervision of an electrical
engineer.
Enforcement a-gency.-Department of Labor and Industries, Olympia.
WEST VIRGINIA
Legal requirements.-No legal requirements for general workroom lighting,
but a proper light shall be kept burning by the owner or lessee in all main
passageways, main hallways, at all main stairs, main stair landing and shafts,
and in front of al1 pssenger or freight elevtors, upon entrance floors, and upon
other floors, on every workday of the year, from the time that the building is
open for use until it is closed, except at times when the influx of natural light
shall make artificial light unnecessary. Passageways must be of ample width,
well lighted, andl free from obstruction. This applies to all factories, inercantile establishments, mills, or workshops.-Offlcial Code of West Virginia,
1931. ch. 21, art. 3, sec. 6.
Enforcement practice.-Inspectors may issue orders on lighting.
Enforcement agency.-Bureau of Labor, Charleston.
WISCONSIN 11
Legal reqwirenients.-Has a lighting code. (See pp. 24 to 44 of this report.)'lndustrial Lighting Code for Factories, Mills, Offices and Other Work Places;
TJ1ird edition revised. Industrial Commissioner's Orders 2100 to 2118.
·n Severa) additional orders supplementing the basic lighting code are not included
here·.
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STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
The building code requires that in all places of employment all passageways
and stairways when used at night shall have lights at the head and foot of
each flight of stairs and! at the intersections of all corridors and passageways.
Where " B " fire escapes are required, such fire escapes shall be lighted
whenever the stairways are required to be lighted. For red exit lights, see
order 5132. All gas jets or gas lights in factories or workshops where combustible material is used shall be properly enclosed by globes or wire cages, or
otherwise properly guarded.
·
Oil lamps shall not be used when gas .or electricity is available.
Certain requirements are made for locating and protecting gas and oil lights.
All electrical work shall conform to the Wisconsin State Electrical Code of the
Industrial Commission.-Building Code, reprint, 1927, Industrial Commission
of Wisconsin. Ord'ers 5410, 5224, and 5225.
Enforcement practice.-Inspections of lighting are made in manufacturing
and mercantile establishments by the factory inspectors. Foot-candle meters
are used in any place in which there has been disagreement concerning lighting
between the deputy and the owner or person in charge. The electrical engin~er
of the department is also called in if there is a decided difference of opinion.
After inspectors have become familiar with the requirements of the lighting
code, they are given instruction in its application by demonstrations and joint
inspections with the electrical engineer.
Enforcement agenc']J . -Industrial Commission, Madison.
WYOMING
Legal requirements.-None .
'. Enforcement practice.-None.
Enforcement agency.-Department of Labor and Statistics, Cheyenne.
·,)
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
,
PUBLICATIONS OF THE WOMEN'S BUREAU
[Any of these bulletins still available will be sent free of charge upon requestl
*No. 1. Proposed Employment of Women During the War in the Industries
of Niagara Falls, N. Y. 16 pp. 1918.
*No. 2. Labor Laws for Women in Industry in Indiana. 29 pp. 1919.
No. 3. Standards for the Employment of Women in Industry. 8 pp. Fourth
ed., 1928.
No. 4. Wages of Candy Makers in Philadelphia in 1919. 46 pp. 1919.
*No. 5. The Eight-Hour Day in Federal a nd State Legislation. 19 pp. 1919.
No. 6. The Employment of Women in Hazardous Industries in the United
States. 8 pp. 1921.
No. 7. Night-Work Laws in the United States. (1919.) 4 pp. 1920.
*No. 8. Women in the Government Service. 37 pp. 1920.
*No. 9. Home Work in Bridgeport, Conn. 35 pp. 19'20.
*No.10. Hours and Conditions of Work for Woµien in Industry in Virginia.
32 pp. 19'20.
No.11. Women Street Car Conductors and Ticket Agents. 90 pp. 1921.
•No.12. The New Position of Women in American Industry. 158 pp. 1920.
*No. 13. Indus_trial Opportunities and Training for Women and Girls. 48 pp.
1921.
*No.14. A Physiological Basis for the Shorter Working Day for Women.
20 pp. 1921.
No.15. Some Effects of Legislation Limiting Hours of Work for Women.
26 pp. 1921.
No.16. (See Bulletin 98.)
No.17. Women's Wages in Kansas. 104 pp. 1921.
No.18. Health Problems of Women in Industry. 6 pp. Revised, 1931.
No. 19. Iowa Women in Industry. 73 pp. 1922.
*No. 20. Negro Women in Industry. 65 pp. 1922.
No. 21. Women in Rhode Island Industries. 73 pp. 1922.
*No. 22. Women in Georgia Industries. 89 pp. 1922.
No. 23. The Family Status of Breadwinning Women. 43 pp. 192'2.
No. 24. Women in Maryland Industries. 96 pp. 1002.
No. 25. Women in the Candy Industry in Chicago and St. Louis. 72 pp. 1923.
No. 26. Women in Arkansas Industries. 86 pp. 1923.
No. 27. The Occupational Progress of Women. 37 pp. 1922.
No. 28. Women's Contributions in the Field of Invention. 51 pp. 1923.
No. 29. Women in Kentucky Industries. 114 pp. 1923.
No. 30. · The Share of Wage-Earning Woinen in Family Support. 170 pp.
1923.
No. 31. What Industry Means to Women Workers. 10· pp. 1923.
No. 32. Women in South Carolina Industries. · 128 pp. 1003.
No. 33. Proceedings of the Women's Industrial Conference. 190 pp. 1923.
No. 34. Women in Alabama Industries. 86 pp. 1924.
No. 35. Women in Missouri Industries. 127 pp. 1924.
No. 36. Radio Talks o~ Women in Industry. 34 pp. 1924.
No. 37. Women in New Jersey Industries. 99 pp. 1924.
No. 38. Married Women in Industry. 8 pp. 1924.
No. 39. Domestic Workers and Their Employment Relations. 87 pp. 1924.
No. 40. ( See Bulletin 98.)
No. 41. Family Status of Breadwinning Women in Four Selected Cities.
145 pp. 1925.
No. 42. List of References on Minimum Wage for Women in the United States
and Canada. 42 pp. 1925.
No. 43. Standard and Scheduled Hours of Work · for Women in Industry.
68 pp. 1925.
• Supply exhausted.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
64
STATE REQUIREMENTS FOR INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING
No. 44. Women in Ohio Industries. 137 pp. 19'25.
No. 45. Home Environment and Employment Opportunities of Women in CoalMine Workers' Families. 61 pp. 1925.
·,
No. 46. Facts About Working ,vomen-A Graphic Presentation Based on Census Statistics. 64 pp. 1925.
·
No. 47. Women in the Fruit-Growing and Canning Industries in the State of
Washington. 223 pp. 1926.
*No. 48. Women in Oklahoma Industries. 118 pp. 1926.
No. 49. Women Workers and Family Support. 10 pp. 1925.
No. 50. Effects of Applied Research Upon the Employment Opportunities of
American Women. 54 pp. 1926.
No. 51. Women in Illinois Industries. 108 pp. 1926.
No. 52. Lost Time and Labor Turnover in Cotton Mills. 203 pp. 1926.
No. 53. The Status of Women in the Go,ernment Service in 1925. 103 pp.
1926.
No. 54. Changing Jobs. 12 pp. 1926.
No. 55. Women in Mississippi Industries. 89 pp. 1926.
No. 56. Women in Tennessee Industries. 120 pp. 1927.
No. 57. Women Workers and Industrial Poisons. 5 pp. 1926.
No. 58. Women in Delaware Industries. 156 pp. 1927.
No. 59. Short Talks About Working Women. 24 pp. 1927.
No. 60. Industrial Accidents to Women in New Jersey, Ohio, and Wisconsin.
316 pp. 1927.
No. 61. The Development of Minimum Wage Laws in the t;nited States, 1912
·
to 1927. 635 pp. 1928.
No. 62. Women's Employment in Veget able Canneries in Delaware. 47 pp .
. . , 1927.
· ·; ·.
·No. 63. · (See Bulletin 98.)
·,· · ·-.
No. 64. The Employment of Women at Night. 86 pp. 1928. ·
*No. 65. The Effects of Labor Legislation on the Employment Opportunities of
Women. 498 pp. 1928.
.
No. 66-1. History of Labor Legislation for Women in Three States. 136 pp.
1932.
No. 66-11. Chronological Development of Labor Legislation for Women in the
United States. Revised December, 1931. 176 pp. 1932.
No. 67. Women Workers in Flint, Mich. 80 pp. 1929.
No. 68. Summary: The Effects of Labor Legislation on the Employment
Opportunities of Women. (Reprint of Chapter II of bulletin 65.)
22 pp. 1928.
No. 69. Causes of Absence for Men and for Women in Four Cotton Mills. 24
pp. 1929.
No. 70. Negro Women in Industry in 15 States. 74 pp. 1929.
No. 71. Selected References on the Health of Women in Industry. 8 pp. 1929.
No. 72. Conditions of Wo_rk in Spin Rooms. 41 pp. 1929.
No. 73. Variations in Employment Trends of Women and Men. 143 pp. 1930.
No. 74. The Immigrant Woman and Her Job. 179 pp. 1930.
No. 75. What the Wage-Earning Woman Contributes to Family Support. 21
pp. 192-9.
No. 76. ·women in 5-and-10-cent Stores and Limited-Price Chain Department
Stores. 58 pp. 1930.
No. 77. A study of Two Groups of Denver Married Women Applying for Jobs.
11 pp. 1929.
No. 78. A Survey of Laundries and Their Women Workers in 23 Cities. 166
pp. 1930.
No. 79. Industrial Home Work. 20 pp. 1930.
No. 80. Women in Florida Industries. 115 pp. 1930.
No. 81. Industrial Accidents to Men and Women. 48 pp. 1930.
No. 82. The Employment of Women in the Pineapple Canneries of Hawaii.
30 pp. 1930.
.
No. 83. Fluctuation of Emplo:rment in the Radio Industry. 66 pp. 1931.
No. 84. Fact Finding with the Women's Bureau. 37 pp. 1931.
No. 85. Wages of Women in 13 States. 213 pp. 1931.
.
. No. 86. Activities of the Women's Bureau of the United States. 15 pp. 1931.
• Supp])' exhausted.
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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis
PUBLIC ATIONS OF THK WOMEN 'S BUREAU ,
65
No. 87. Sanitary Drinking Facilitie s, with Special Referenc e
to Drinking
Fountain s. 28 pp. 1931.
No. 88. The Employm ent of Women in Slaughte ring and Meat Packing.
·210
pp. 1932.
No. 89. The Industri al Experien ce of Women Worker at the Summer
Schools,
1928 to 1930. 62 pp. 1931.
No. 90. Oregon Legislati on for Women in Industry . 40 pp. 1931.
No. 91. Women in Industry . A Series of Papers to .A.id Study Groups.
79 pp.
1931.
No. 92. Wage-Ea rning Women and the Industri al Conditio ns of 1930.
A Survey of South Bend. 84 pp. 1932.
No. 93. Househo ld Employm ent in Philadel phia. 88 pp. 1932.
o. 94. State Requirem ents for Industri al Lighting . A Handboo
k for the
Protectio n of Women Workers , Showing Lighting Standard s and
Practices . 65 pp. 1932.
No. 95. Bookkee pers, Stenogra phers, and Office Clerks in Ohio, 1914
to 1929.
34 pp. 1932 .
.Jo. 96. Women Office Workers in Philadel phia. 17 pp. 1932.
No. 97. The Employm ent of Women in the Sewing Trades of
onnecti cut.Prelimin ary Report. 13 pp. 1932.
No. 98. Labor Laws for Women in the States and Territori e .
(Revi ion of
Bulletin 63.) ( In press.)
No. 99. The Installat ion and Mainten ance of Toilet Facilitie s
in Places of
Employm ent. ( In press.)
No. 100. The Effects on Women of Changin g Conditio ns in the
Cigar and
Cigarett e Industrie s. ( In press.)
Pamphle t-Wome n's Place in Industry in 10 Southern States. 14
Annual Reports of the Director , 1919*, 1920*, 1921 *, 1922, 1923, pp. 1931.
1924*, 1925,
1926, 1927*, 1928*, 1929*, 1930*, 1931, 1932. ( In press.)
• Supply exhausted .
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