Full text of Standards of Public Aid to Children in Their Own Homes, Bureau Publication No. 118

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CONTENTS
Page,
Letter of transmittal...................... ......................................................................'...................
yu
The field of the study.................... ............................. . ..................................... .....................
1-4
Purpose and method of inquiry...................................................................................
1
Types of administration represented..........................................................................
2
5-10
Living standards aimed at by the agencies studied......................................................
Housing..................................................................................................................................
6
Household equipment......................................................................................................
6
Food......................................................... ..............................................................................
7
Clothing.................................................................................................................................
7
Insurance and savings....................................................... ..............................................
8
Education.................................................................. ...........................................................
8
Care of the health...............................................................................................................
9
Recreation.................................................... .......................................................................
10
Determining the aid needed.................... ............................................ ............ ..................... 11-16
Estimating the family budget.......................................................................................
11
16
Calculation of income and resources...........................................................................
Work of the mothers................................................................................................................. 17-20
Extent of employment of mothers..............................................................................
18
18
Forms of employment............. .........................................................................................
Time away from home............................................................................................... ..
19
Care of children during absence of mother...............................................................
20
Living standard attained......................................................................................................... 21-26
Legal limits to amount of aid.........................................................................................
22
Sickness and unemployment as causes of inadequate income..........................
23
Sources of relief other than the allowance...............................................................
23
Unfavorable conditions due to inadequate income........................................ ......
24
Investigation and supervision.................................................................................................. 27-30
27
Preliminary acquaintance with the fam ily.....................
Interval before granting aid...........................................................................................
28
Frequency of visits...........................................................................................................
30
Suggestive features....................................................................................................... 1.
30
Service other than relief.......................................................................................................... 31-35
The need for social service.....................................
31
Individualizing the ch ild.........................................
33
Instructing the mother in household management................................................
34
What the aid meant to the children....................................................................................
37
S U M M A R IE S OF M ET H O DS IN N IN E LO C A LITIE S.

Denver............................................................................................................................................ 43-54
Administration....................
43
The families aided.............................................................................................................
46
Assistance given...............................................................................................................
48
Standards of living.............................................................................................................
50
hi

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CONTENTS.

Page.

State provision affecting local administration in Minnesota
Provisions of the law ...........................................................................
County child-welfare boards............... ............................................
State supervision.................................................................................
Hennepin County, Minn. (Minneapolis)................. ..................
Administration......................................................................... ..
The families aided...............................................................................
Assistance given...................................................................................
Standards of living....................................................... ..
Yellow Medicine County, M inn..................................
Administration................................................................... - 1..............
The families aided. . . . ....... .............................................................
Assistance given...................................................................................
Standards of living............... ..........
St. L o u is.--------- - ............... - - — - - - --------- - --------- ••• - - - - - - - -- -- Administration. . . : .......... ............ 1.
--------------- -‘ - - The families aided.
Assistance g iv e n ............... ............................. - ................ - ..............
Standards of livin g.. . . . . ------............................................ - - - -----State provisions affecting local administration in Massachusetts

Provisions of the law.............................. - ..........................................
The local administrative agency....................................................
Supervision b y the State department of public welfare-----Boston .
...................... ......................................- - - - ............................. Administration..................................... - ..............................................
The families aided............................ ............................................
Assistance given.......................................................... - ......................
Standards of liv in g ........................................... .................................
Haverhill......................................................................... - .............................
Administration...................................- ..............................................
The families aided. . . . . ..................... - - ............ - .......................
Assistance given............. ...................................................................
Standards of living............................................................................
Northampton County, Pa...... ...................................................................
Administration....................................................................................
The families aided. . . i ..................................................................
Assistance given.................................- ............................. - ..............
Standards of living.............................................................................
Westchester County, N . Y ..................................................... ..........

Administration........................................................................
The families aided....................................................... .....................
Assistance given.................................................................................
The clinic of the department of child welfare...................... Standards of living......................................................... - ..............
Montgomery County, N . Y .....................................................................
Administration................................ .......................- .............. ..........
The families aided.............................................................................
Assistance given.................................................................................
Standards of living...........................................- ...............................
Appendix......................— ................................................. - .....................

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55-57
55
56
56
59-68
59
62
63
65^
69-73
69
70
70
72
75-85
75
78
78
81
87-90
87

88
88
91-102,
91
93
94
98
103-108
.
103
.
104
.
104
,.
105
109-118
..
109

112

..
113
..
115
119-130
..
119
..
123
..
124
..
126
..
127
131-137
..
131
..
133
..
134
..
135
..
139

CONTENTS.
TEXT TABLES.

Page.

Table I.
II.
I II.
IV .
Y.
V I.
V II .
V III.
IX .
X.
X I.

Basic figures used in estimating the monthly family food budget___
Basic figures used in estimating the monthly family clothingbudget.
Proportion of mothers receiving aid who worked, by locality...............
Mothers working at home and away from home, by locality..................
Number of “ full-tim e” and “ short-hour” days’ work per week of
mothers who worked away from home, by locality.................................
Average monthly income per person in families receiving mothers’
allowances, by locality.......................................................................................
Sources of additional income in families receiving mothers’ allow
ances, by locality...............................................................................
Interval between date of application for and grant of mothers’ allow
ance, by locality..........................................................................................
Home visits by State and city field workers to families receiving
mothers’ aid in Boston for at least six months prior to August 1,1921.
Visits paid to families in Northampton County, Pa., that had received
aid for the full period of six months prior to July 1, 1921....................
Physical condition of dependent children, by group; children for
whom allowances were granted, children in institutions, and chil
dren in boarding homes............... .......... .............. ............................. ..............

15
15
18
18

20
21
24
29
96
113

127

APPENDIX.
Table 1. Total amount of aid and average amount of grant per child, by locality.
2. Monthly allowances of families receiving aid at time of study, by
locality......................................................................................................................
3. Causes of dependency in families receiving aid at time of study, by
locality......................................................................................................
4. Causes of death of fathers, as reported in case records..............................
5. Causes of incapacity of fathers............................
6. Interval between death of father and application for aid........................
7. Interval between incapacity of father and application for aid.............
8. Interval between desertion of father and application for aid.................
Schedule used in s tu d y ..........................................................................

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141
141
141
142
142
142
143
143
144

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LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.

U. S. D epartment of L abor,
Children ’ s B ureau ,

Washington, February 28, 1923.
Sir : I am transmitting herewith a report on Standards of Public

Aid to Children in Their Own Homes, which is one of a series of re
ports b y the Children’s Bureau in this field.
The investigation was made and the report written by Florence
Nesbitt, at the present time a district superintendent of the United
Charities of Chicago and formerly field supervisor of the mothers’
pensions division of the Chicago juvenile court.
Ruth Bloodgood, of the social service division of the bureau,
assisted Miss Nesbitt in the field study and also in preparing the
material for the report.
Respectfully submitted.
Grace A bbott, Chief.
Hon. James J. D avis ,

Secretary o f Labor.
V II

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STANDARDS OF PDBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.
THE FIELD OF THE STUDY.
PURPOSE AND M E T H O D OF INQUIRY.

The purpose of this study was to collect material showing the
results of experience in administrating aid to children in their own
homes in order that other agencies working out methods of adminis
tration and standards of relief and supervision might benefit by what
has been accomplished in this field. The inquiry deals primarily
with the standards of living maintained by the families receiving aid.
In each place studied, with one exception, the .records of all
families receiving aid at the time were examined, schedules1 being
filled out for each family. The case worker was then consulted, and
additional information was secured from her. In Boston, data were
obtained for only a selected number of the families, the total number
being too large for inclusion in this study.
A smaller group of families was chosen in each place for intensive
study, with special reference to standards of living. This smaller
group was selected from the families then receiving aid who had been
getting it long enough to have become adjusted to their incomes and
to the requirements of the supervisory agent. One year of receiving
relief was regarded as sufficient for this purpose, although two years
were preferred where the work had been going on under the existing
plans for a period sufficiently long to furnish enough families on that
basis. A full list of current cases in which the aid had been granted
for the chosen period was first secured. From this were eliminated
those unsuitable for the purpose of ascertaining the standard of
living, such as families living with relatives and not maintaining
their own homes ; those whose incomes were indeterminate or irregular
to an unusual extent; those in which the mothers could speak no
English or from whom for other reasons it was found too difficult to
secure information; and those presenting behavior difficulties. Since
it was usually impossible to visit all the families in the resultant list
those to be intensively studied were then chosen so that they would
be representative of the different elements of the population, the
varying compositions of families, and the geographical distribution.
i For form of schedules, see p. 144.

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

The case records of the families selected were studied and each
family was visited. Usually these visits were made with the case
worker, and the persons best acquainted with the f a m ily situation
were consulted. In addition, sessions of courts, boards, and com
mittees granting the aid were attended, and statements of the ideal
toward which these agencies were working were secured from those
responsible for their administration.
TYPES OF A D M IN ISTR ATIO N REPRESENTED.

Communities included.

In order to get material that would contain the most widely
applicable suggestions, different types of administration were chosen
and as good an example as possible of each was selected. Care was
exercised to avoid places where the situation was unusual, and to
choose instead communities similar in character to others in which
the work was already being carried on or was being organized. The
largest cities were not included, partly because an exhaustive study
of the administration in one of them, namely Chicago, had been made
for the Federal Children’s Bureau in 1917.2 The present study covers
examples of the administration of aid in—
(1) Large cities: Boston, Denver, and St. Louis.
(2) A county composed of a large city and the surrounding rural
population: Hennepin County, Minn., including Minneapolis.
(3) A smaller city: Haverhill, Mass.
(4) Counties composed of medium-sized and small cities, towns,
and rural population: Westchester and Montgomery Coun
ties, N. Y . ; Northampton County, Pa.
(5) A rural county: Yellow Medicine County, Minn.
Units of administration.

The unit of administration depended upon the political organiza
tion of the community. Three different units were represented in
the places studied:
1. City or town: Boston and Haverhill, Mass.; St. Louis, Mo.
2. County: Hennepin and Yellow Medicine Counties, Minn.;
Westchester and Montgomery Counties, N. Y .; Northampton
County, Pa.
3. County and city coincident: Denver, Colo.
a The Administration of the Aid to Mothers Law in Illinois. IT. S. Children’s Bureau Publication No.
82, Washington, 1921.

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THE FIELD OF THE STUDY.

Administrative agencies.

The following types of administration are included:
1. Administration placed by law in the juvenile court.
(a) Denver.— The investigation and supervision were dele
gated by the judge to the public department which ad
ministered outdoor relief for the city and county. He
received a recommendation from them on each case.
(b) Hennepin County (including Minneapolis).— The judicial
work was lightened by a volunteer committee of case
workers, who went over the details of each case and
made recommendations to the judge. Investigation
and supervision were by the employees of the juvenile
court.
(c) Yellow Medicine County, Minn.— The probate judge acted
as juvenile-court judge. The county had not appro
priated money to pay a probation officer, but the judge
was assisted by a volunteer probation officer, who was
employed b y the local chapter of the American Red
Cross. The work was under the general supervision
of the State board of control through a local board of
child welfare.
2. Administration by a city board of children’s guardians.
St. Louis.— The work of aid to mothers with dependent chil
dren was included in the duties of the agent of the board of
children’s guardians, who, with a staff of assistants em
ployed by the city, was responsible for all work with de
pendent children.
3. Administration by the public officials who administered outdoor
relief.
Boston and Haverhill, Mass.— The work was under the super
vision of the State department of public welfare.
4. Administration by a special county board.
(a) Montgomery County, N. Y .— The local administration
was worked out in cooperation with the New York State
Charities Aid Association, whose agent was also secretary
of the county board of child welfare. The county shared
the expense with the private organization. The State
board of charities gave general supervision.
(b) Northampton County, Pa.— The administering board was
called the “ board of trustees to the mothers’ aid fund. ”
An executive secretary was employed at the expense of
the county. The State department of public welfare
had general supervision.

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

5. Administration b y a county commissioner of public welfare.
Westchester County, N. Y .— The aid was administered by the
county department of child welfare under the county com
missioner, operating under a special State law applying only
to Westchester County. The workers in this department
were paid partly by county and partly by private funds.
Each of these types of administration has advantages peculiar to
itself, as will be seen from the reports on the work of the various locali
ties. It seemed entirely possible, under each plan, to work out an
effective method of administering the relief, provided the matter was
in the hands of honest and efficient officials.

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LIVING STANDARDS AIMED AT BY THE AGENCIES STUDIED.

Most of the people actively engaged in the administration of aid
to mothers with dependent children had given conscious consideration
to the standards on which the homes for which they were taking
this responsibility were to be maintained. The judges of the juvenile
courts charged with making the grants, the members of the advisory
boards or committees who passed upon the cases or made recommen
dations for their disposal, and the members of the staffs who were
doing the work of supervision and investigation were interviewed
as to their conceptions of the kind of living conditions that should
be provided for the families. Most of the groups had well-defined
ideas in regard to this matter. There was, however, one chairman
of a committee who said that the conception of a definite standard
was new to him; that members of his committee had been so occupied
with the other aspects of their task that they had not thought of
defining the way in which the families should be expected to live.
The expressions used most frequently in describing the standard
which those consulted had in mind were: “ The way in which a
normal workingman’s family lives;” “ The way in which a working
man’s family lives when he earns enough to support it in a normal
way.” Judge Edward F. Waite of the juvenile court of Hennepin
County said: “ The standard of living for the families where the
mother receives aid should furnish everything necessary for the
health and moral welfare of the children. Particularly should they
be adequately fed, in order that they may grow up with strong,
healthy bodies. The mother should not be away from home at work
at any time when her children need her, nor do work that is beyond
her physical strength.” Judge Ben B. Lindsey of the juvenile court
of Denver made a somewhat similar statement and added: “ The
care and training that a mother gives her children are the greatest
service she can render, and nothing should be allowed to interfere
with that.” The officials were asked to describe the minimum
standard to which they hoped to raise families previously living in
a way that could not be considered satisfactory.' The standards
believed b y the advisory boards and the members of all the staffs
to be essential or desirable are summed up in the following paragraphs.
These statements should not be interpreted to -mean that higher
standards than those described below were not permitted or en
couraged among the families receiving aid, or that the wish of those
who are quoted was to reduce all to a dead level in equipment and
manner of living. This was b y no means true.
5

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.
H O U SIN G .

In Denver, and to a less extent in Minneapolis, the families were
encouraged to live in the outskirts of the city, where it would be
possible for them to have a four- or five-room cottage with yard and
space for a vegetable garden and chickens and perhaps a cow or a
goat for milk. This was felt to be especially desirable when the
children were small. Yellow Medicine County was sufficiently rural
in character for the average inexpensive home to be of this sort.
In Westchester, Montgomery, and Northampton Counties, where
there was much rural territory, the families in many instances had
these advantages at the time of application for the grant, and no
change was considered desirable. In Boston there had been an
effort to move some of the families who needed special health care.
The staff in St. Louis agreed that cottages were desirable, but the
housing shortage made it impossible to get them for the families.
It was generally considered that the rooms needed by a family
consisting of a mother with both boys and girls of school age, whether
in a cottage or in a “ flat” building, would include a kitchen, a sittingroom, and at least two bedrooms— one for the children of each sex—
with one or more additional bedrooms in the case of larger families.
The rooms should be light, clean, well ventilated, and in good repair.
In the more crowded parts of the city special attention should be
given to the ventilation of the bedrooms, each of which should have
at least one outside window. There should be a toilet for the use of
each family alone, which in the country or suburbs might be an
outside one. A bathroom, while desirable, was not considered an
absolute essential by any of the groups consulted. If there is no
outdoor play space belonging to the building, there should be a place
somewhere in the neighborhood where the children can play under
supervision.
H O U SIN G EQ U IPM EN T.

In families containing older children, a sitting room devoted to
the social life of the family was a part of the standard desirable to
be maintained. In one city, where housing conditions were very
poor, it was considered that this room might be used also for a bed
room, if a day bed were made a part of the furnishings. It was agreed
that the sitting room should be furnished with a good floor covering
of some kind, and at least a few comfortable chairs and a table, and
that there should be provision for heating it so that its use would be
possible during th£ winter.
There should be beds enough so that not more than two persons
need occupy one. There should be sufficient bed linen to allow for a
change while laundry was being done, and enough covering for
comfort in the winter, when a window was open for ventilation.
The St. Louis standard required a separate bed for a baby.

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LIVING STANDARDS AIMED AT BY AGENCIES STUDIED.

All agreed that there should be at least dishes enough so that each
member could be properly supplied, with the family sitting down to
meals together, and that there should be sufficient utensils in good
repair to cook and serve a simple meal, the necessary equipment for
laundry and cleaning, and receptacles for the protection of food
materials. A sewing machine was considered necessary for a majority
of the families.
Beyond this undisputed minimum of equipment there were other
items about which there were differences of opinion— due largely, no
doubt, to differences in climate and other conditions. In St. Louis,
an ice box was very reasonably regarded as a necessary part of the
equipment of the simplest household, and the board of children’s
guardians arranged for each family to be provided with ice. In
Northampton County, on the other hand, cellars were common, and
it was possible to keep food cold without ice. Likewise, a gas or
coal-oil stove was regarded in St. Louis as a necessity for summer use,
while the families in Denver suffered little discomfort in doing with
out one. A number of the Denver families, however, had summer
kitchens.
FO OD .

Adequate food, particularly for growing children, was considered
by everyone to be a matter of first importance, although the content
of an adequate diet was not always clearly defined. The need of
fresh milk was, however, recognized in all instances save one, and
in most places a minimum of one pint per day for each child was
considered reasonable. The daily use of vegetables or fruit was also
accepted as a part of a minimum standard diet. Some workers
believed that butter, and not a substitute, should be used, and that a
small amount of meat should be part of the daily dietary. Others
believed that a butter substitute might be used where the milk
consumption was up to the standard, and that meat two or three
times a week was sufficient.
CLO TH IN G .

It seemed more difficult to define a standard for clothing than for
any of the other items, i t was universally agreed, however, that
clothing must be sufficient for protection and cleanliness, and
comparable in appearance to that of the companions of the wearer.
One judge spoke wdth pride of the fact that a child whose mother was
receiving aid was not distinguishable by his dress from the other
children of the school. The variations observed in this matter were
more marked between different families in the same locality than
between the families in the different localities. Former standards
of living, national customs, and the resourcefulness and varying
degrees of. skill of the mothers were the chief reasons for these diver
sities.

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.
IN SU RAN CE AN D SAVIN GS.

Wide differences of opinion and practice were found in regard to
the carrying of insurance and the possession of a savings fund. In
more than half the places it was felt that a mother receiving aid
should have a reserve fund, ranging variously from $50 to $400,
from which to draw in case of illness or disaster. If the mother had
this amount at the time she began to receive aid, she was permitted
to retain it. Accumulation of a reserve fund out of the amount
given for relief was nowhere permitted; but in some places if, by
raising chickens, rabbits, or goats, or by engaging in some other
small business, the members of the family earned more than had been
expected of themj they were permitted to use some of the extra,
earnings to build up a reserve fund. This, however, could never
go beyond the amount set as a maximum either by law or by a ruling
of the administrative body.
One capable and energetic mother had been allowed to save $300,
with which to make a first payment on a small cottage for a home.
It had been earned by side lines of work, carried in addition to what
she was expected to do toward the support of the family. She said:
“ I could never feel right about receiving money like this and just
spending it. I feel that I must make it produce something.” . At the
time of the interview she was hurrying away to care for a mother goat
with a day-old kid. She had bought the mother the year before for
$35, and had just had an offer of $70 for her.
Another family, where three older sons had each accumulated small
savings, had been able to make a first payment on a house. The
mother felt that one of them might have deserted her if he had not had
this incentive to help her make a home. In other places a reserve
fund was not considered a necessary part of the normal life of a family.
If the family earnings increased, the amount of aid was immediately
reduced.
Insurance on an incapacitated adult was usually encouraged. The
custom varied in regard to insurance on a healthy adult and on chil
dren— in most places it was discouraged. In Massachusetts, where
a burial fund could be drawn upon through the overseers of the poor,
it was considered that the families should not take out insurance.
Hennepin County’s budget did not allow for insurance on children.
EDUCATION.

In Northampton County, under the State law of Pennsylvania, if a
child was doing well in school, his allowance did not necessarily stop
when he became eligible for a working permit. In the other places
public funds could not be used for carrying a child’s schooling beyond
the legal working age, although where the law permitted the gainful

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LIVING STANDARDS AIMED AT BY AGENCIES STUDIED.

occupation of children over 14 years of age, the provision as to allow
ances was sometimes interpreted liberally to mean that the eighth
grade might be finished before the allowance was cut off. It was,
however, felt that exceptional children and those not physically
strong, even though they might be able to get working certificates,
should be kept in school, and in all the places studied private arrange
ments had been made to this end in certain instances, but not in all
that the workers had recommended, since the money for these special
scholarships was not always available. Westchester County had a
carefully defined policy in regard to this matter. Children between
the ages of 15 and 16 years who were sufficiently advanced in school
and physically strong enough to secure working papers might be per
mitted to remain in school if private funds could be found to pay the
entire amount of the child’s schooling and maintenance. Children
over 16 years of age who were capable of making a contribution to the
support of their families might remain in school only if the private
fund was large enough to pay as well, in each case, the amount of the
child’s possible contribution.
In some places the question of reading matter in the home had re
ceived no thought; in others the daily or weekly newspaper was con
sidered essential to the intellectual and civic life of the families, and
they were definitely encouraged by the case workers to take one if
there were any members of the household who could read it. In Den
ver the families were urged to have, in addition to a newspaper, some
sort of household magazine for the mother. Everywhere the use of
public libraries was encouraged.
CARE OF TH E H EALTH .

There were no differences of opinion as to the urgent necessity of
caring for the health of all the members of the family receiving aid.
Remediable defects— defective eyesight, diseased tonsils, bad teeth,
and other conditions— should be corrected, necessary operations being
performed and sanitarium or hospital care provided. No estimate
for care of the health was included anywhere in the f a m ily budget.
In all the larger cities there were free clinics that gave first-class
medical attention at little or no expense. In the counties where no such
clinics were available it was necessary for the case worker to make
arrangements for treatment as the necessity for it arose. There was
evident need for an allowance for health care in some parts of Nor
thampton County and in Yellow Medicine County, since free treatment
was not always available and it was often necessary for the families to
pay physicians and dentists.
4 3 7 i l ° — 23------2

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PUBLIC

a id

c h il d r e n

t h e ir

own

hom es.

RECREATIO N.

In every locality studied some attention had been given to provid
ing recreation for the families. In the cities, summer outings were
arranged for a large proportion of the mothers and their children.
Outdoor play was considered a part of the normal life of the child,
and it was regarded as essential that this play should be in a safe
and clean place, which was free from unwholesome and dangerous
influences. To provide children with simple play equipment— such
as balls, skates, and some indoor games— was considered a part of the
legitimate expense of the household. There was a difference of
opinion and practice in regard to the desirability of allowing children
to go to the moving pictures, but most of the officials and workers
agreed with the staff at Minneapolis that children accompanied by
their mother might be allowed to see a picture, selected by the latter,
about twice a month.
The recreations of the child of working age were regarded as
requiring special attention, and allowance was made for extra expen
ditures for his benefit, usually in the form of an allowance from his
own wages.
The need of the mother for social life was recognized by most
workers as an important aspect of the standard o f family life. They
felt that she should be encouraged to keep up her connection with
friends, clubs, lodges, and church societies. In Denver, monthly
meetings had been planned to help to fill this need of the mothers.3

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DETERMINING THE AID NEEDED.

The need of some basis for estimating the income necessary to
cover the cost of adequate living was everywhere felt, and all the
places visited had arrived at some plan of making the calculation.
The overseers of public welfare of Boston and the board of children’s
guardians of St. Louis estimated living costs upon the number of
persons in the family, irrespective of other conditions. In all the
other localities a budget was calculated for each family, allowances
being made for differences in the cost of housing, the ages of children,
the physical condition of the various members of the family, and
their occupations.
E S T IM A T IN G TH E FAM ILY BUDGET.

The figures on whieh the family budgets were estimated were
arrived at in various ways. The plan in most of the communities
studied was to secure a schedule of minimum costs of adequate food,
clothing, fuel, and household expenses from the nearest place in
which special budget studies had been made. In the Eastern States
the estimates of the home-economics committee of the New York
Charity Organization Society, the New York Nutrition Council, and
the Dietetic Bureau of Boston were used. In the Middle West
budgets were based on the figures published by the Chicago Council
of Social Agencies and those computed by different schools of home
economics.4
In Hennepin County much help had been secured from the home
economics department of the University of Minnesota. This depart
ment was able to give advice of special value, because of its connection
with the university dispensary. Members of the faculty and students
had taken an active part in planning family budgets in cooperation
with housekeepers who had a member of the family under care at the
dispensary for any disease necessitating the use of a special diet.
This afforded contact with families living on low incomes, and
helped to a conception of the economic problems involved in running
a household on a basis of minimum costs. With this assistance,
using the Chicago standard budget as reference but substituting
local prices of commodities, the advisory committee on mothers’
aid had worked out a schedule for estimating the budgets. After
adoption by the committee and approval by the juvenile court, this
schedule was considered in force until it should again be revised.
The budget for each family was estimated according to this schedule
1
Estimates on Family Budgets, (Typed.) New York Charity Ograuizatiou Society, Home Economics
Committee, 105 East 22d Street, New York City.
Good Nutrition and Adequate Food Allowances for the Family. (Price, 25 cents.) New York Nutrition
Council, 144 West 13th Street, New York City, 1922.
Standard Budget for Dependent Families. (Revised every six months: Price, 25 cents.) Chicago
Council of Social Agencies, 17 North State Street, Chicago., El.

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

by the investigator, and the estimate was checked by the committee
before the amount of the grant to be recommended to the court
was decided upon.
In Denver, the figures o f the Chicago standard budget were used
as a basis, and the work of adapting it to local prices and conditions
was done b y the supervisor of mothers’ aid, with the particularly
intelligent cooperation of the mothers receiving help. Many of the
latter had kept careful expense accounts with this in view, and had
helped in compiling the results.
In Northampton County the estimates for food and clothing
were based on the schedule of the home-economics committee of the
New York Charity Organization Society. This schedule quoted the
pricey of some of the commodities on which it was based, so that
local prices could readily be compared with them. The State
supervisor had done some work in comparing prices and had made
recommendations to the local boards as to the figures suited to their
communities.
The Massachusetts Department of Public Welfare had given
careful consideration to budget estimates. A t its request the Boston
Dietetics Bureau had furnished material on costs of food and quanti
ties needed, which were used in making estimates; practical lists of
clothing had been worked out at the staff meetings of the mothers’
aid department. The commissioner of public welfare had, in addi
tion, appointed committees to furnish estimates on costs of adequate
food, clothing, housing, and fuel. The director of the Boston Die
tetics Bureau was the chairman of the committee on food costs, which
had submitted a report on quantity and cost of adequate food. The
committee on clothing, whose chairman was in charge of the minimumwage department of the State bureau of labor and industries, had
reported on clothing prices from nine different cities in Massachusetts.
The committees on housing and fuel had not yet reported. A new
budget schedule, prepared .from the material collected by these
committees, was under discussion.
In Westchester County the estimate for food was secured from
the home-economics committee of the New York Charity Organiza
tion Society. The clothing estimates were based on those of the
Chicago standard budget. Other items in the family budget were
arrived at from local data.
In Montgomery County, the budget schedule furnished b y the
New York State Board of Charities was used. The staff of the State
board had worked out this schedule by comparing budget studies
made by agencies in different places. This plan was also used by
the Minnesota State Board of Control, which supplied the schedule
used in yellow Medicine County.5
&For comparative figures used for estimating cost of food and clothing in the different localities, see
Tables 1 and II, p. 15.

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DETERMINING THE AID NEEDED.

In most of the- localities studied, the budget was estimated care
fully for each family after the preliminary investigation had been
completed and information was at hand as to any points in the
family situation which would bear on living costs. The cash income
and other resources of the family were substracted from this estimate
and the amount of aid given was based upon the difference.
The following budget schedules, which were in use at the time of
the study will illustrate the plan:
SC H E D U LE F O R E S T IM A T IN G F A M IL Y E X P E N D IT U R E S .

Schedule used in Westchester County, N . Y ., August, 1921.
Rent: Amount paid.
Food:
Ter month.
M a n . . . . ................................................................................................
$11.49
9.75
Man, elderly.............. ...... .................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...........
...
9.97
W o m a n ..................... .......... ..............................................
9.75
Woman, elderly.................. ................................................. . . ........
11.49
Boy, 1 4 - 1 8 . . . . . ................... .................
9.97
Girl, 14-18............................ .......................................................*...
9.10
Child, 10-13......................... .......... ........................................ ; . . . . .
.........
7.37
Child, 6 -9 ............................ . ...................................
6.94
Child, 2 - 5 . . . ....................... ...........................................................
6.50
Child, 10-24 months.------ .....................
Infant; under 10 months, if not breast-fed. . .According to formula.
Increase by 10 per cent, if advisable, for families where extra nourish
ment isrequired, such as tuberculous families, family of woman and one
child only, family of woman and two children only.
C lo th in g :

Per month.

Man at work...... ......................................................................................... $6.94
Woman at home.................................................... .................................... 5.53
Woman at work................... .......... ........................................................... 7.50
Older girl at work......................................................... ...........................
7.50
Older boy at work............................... ......................... - ......................... 7.44
Girl, 10-14........................ | ................- .......... ......................... ................
4.41
Boy, 1 0 - 1 4 .......................................
4.54
Girl, 6 -9 ........................................................I .................. - ....................... 3.62
Boy, 6 -9 i ........................................................... ........................... .............. i 3.62
Child, 3 - 5 . . . . ..................................
2.67
Child, of 2 or under............ ..................................................................
2.78
Fuel:
Coal—
1. For one stove, one-half ton a month (hard coal).
2. For second stove, a quarter ton a month additional.
Kindling— Not to exceed $1 a month.
Amount allowed for coal at the rate per ton charged in district. From
November 1 to May 1 a second stove and kindling allowed. During the
remainder of the year, only one stove allowed.
Light:
Where kerosene is used, $1 a month.
Where gas is used, 1,000 cubic feet per month is allowed at rate
charged in district, plus service charge.
Sundries: $1 a month per person, with a maximum of $7 for a family.
Insurance: Each family considered separately.

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.
Illustration o f use.
Estimated budget for a family composed of mother and four children.
all in normal physical condition:
Boy,
Boy,
Girl,
Boy,

16 years, earning $13 a week.
15 years, earning $10 a week.
13 years, in school.
6 years, in school.

Rent............................................................................ ....................... $25.00
Food..................................................................................... ..............
49.42
go .42
Clothing......................................................... . .................................
Coal.............. .......................
7 ka

.................. - .......... .. ........................ .......... 1. 85
Insurance........... ......................... y............................. P..................
Sundries................ . ..........................................................................
Car fare for boys ......................................... ................................

4 . 77
§00
15.00

Total b u d g e t.. . . --------------------------------------------------- ------------$138.95
Income: Wages of two boys.......... ....... ........... .................... ...................
92.00
D eficit....--------- --------------------------- --------------------------------- --

46.95

Schedule used in H ennepin County, M inn., June, 1921.

Man or boy 15 years or over.................... .......................
Woman or girl 15 years or over............. .........................
Woman or girl 15 years or over, working in office or
8tore........: ..................................................................................
Boy 12-14, inclusive..........................................................
Girl 12-14, inclusive................................................. ..
Child 9-11, inclusive...................................................... .
Child 6- 8 , inclusive......................... ................................
Children under 6 ............................................

F ood per
week.

Clothing per
month.

$2.70
2.25

$4.60
4 . 60

2.25
2.25

7.20
4.00

2.00

4.00

1. 90
1.65

3.80
3. GO

1.45

Fuel and light: $8.50 per month.
Miscellaneous: Minimum, $4.50 for families of three or less; where there
are over two children allow $0.75 for each additional child.
Maximum rent: $15 per month.
Special diet in cases of tuberculosis, anemia, etc. Extra.
Where food budget is $5 a week or less, allow 10 per cent extra.
Where food budget is $10 per week or more, reduce 5 per cent.

Illustration o f use.
Estimated budget for family composed of a mother with arrested tuber
culosis, and three children: Boy, 12 years old; girl, 10; and girl, 8.

Reiit........................................................................ . .........| $12.00
Food ($0.95 a week allowed extra for m other)....................................
Clothing..................................................................... ........................................
Fuel and light.......................................................... ............................... . . .
Miscellaneous....................... ,’1.........................................................................

39.00
19.40
8. 50
5.25

Comparison of budget schedules.

Comparison of the figures used for computing family budgets in
the different localities indicated that they were all based on similar
standards of living. The variations, as shown by the following
tables, were slight in view of differences in local conditions affecting
living costs and the fact that the schedules had not all been revised
on the same date.

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2. 00

DETERMINING THE AID NEEDED,
T a b l e I .1—Basic figures

used in estimating the monthly 2fam ily food budget.
Food costs per month.

Age and sex.

Henne Montgomery.
Massa
North
chu Denver, pin
ampton
County,
Colo.
County,
setts.
County, Pa.
N
.
Y
.3
Minn.

Man or boy, 16 years or
over................................
Woman or girl, 16 years

$13.00

$12.35
4 12.35
12.35
412.35
Girl 14 years..................... 12.35
11.92
11.92
11.92
11.92
11.92
11.92
11.92
11.92
11.92
11.92
11.92
11.92
8.03
8.03
8.03
7.58
7.58
7.58
Under 10 months...........

10.40
13.00
1Ö.4Ö
13.00
10.40
10.85
10.00
10.85
10.00
9.55
9.55
9.55
9.55
9.55
8.70
8.70
8.70
7.60
7.60
7.60
7.60
7.60
7.60

$11.70 $10.83-$13.00
9.78
1Ì.7Ó
9 78
9.78
8.67
9.78
8.67
9.78
8.67
8.23
8.23
8.23
8.23
8.23
7.15
7.15
7.15
6.28
6.28
6.28
6.28
6.28
6.28

9.109.757.809.557.359.107.158.456.708.256.958.006.95-

10.00
11.90
8.90
11.25
8.45
10.60
8.25
9.75
7.80
9.55
8.00
9.30
8.25

m
(3)

( 3)

(8)

m
(!)
1.451.451.451.45-

1.90
1.90
1.90
1.90

$11.49
9.97
11.49
9.97
11.49
9.97
9.10
9.10
9.10
9.10
9.10
9.10
9.10
9.10
7.37
7.37
7.37
7.37
6.94
6.94
6.04
6.50
6.50
According
to formula.
9.75

Yellow
Medicine
County,
Minn.

West cfiester
County,
N. Y .

$11.49
9.97
11.49
9.97
11.49
9.97
9.10
9.10
9.10
9.10
0.10
9.10
9.10
9.10
7.37
7.37
7.37
7.37
6.94
6.94
6.94
6.50
6.50
According
to formula.
9.75'

$13. S3
9.93
13.53
9.93
$8.49- 10.65
8.13- 9.21
8.49- 10 65
'8.13- 9.21
8.49- 10 65
8.13- 9.21
S.49- 10.65
8.13- 9.21
•8.49-10.65
8.13- 9.21
6.33- 8.13
6.33- 8.13
6.33- 8.13
6.33- 8.13
4.79- 5.97
4.79- 5.97
4 .7 9 - 5.97
4.79- 5.97
4.79- 5.97
4.79- 5.97

1 The schedule used in St. Louis could not be included because it was based upon cost per family of so
many persons—three, four, five, etc.—instead of upon cost per individual member of the family.
2 In schedules where the original food estimate was given by the week, the figures were multiplied by 4J
to get the monthly estimate.
3 The schedule used by Montgomery County differentiated between the allowances for boys and for girls
4 years of age and over, as follows:

Age.

Bogs,

7, 8, 9,10 years................................................................................................ $7.80-19.30
6 to 7 years....................................................................................................... 7. 60- 9.30
5 to 6 years......................................................... ............................................. 7.15- 8.65
4 t o 5 years................ ............................... ...................................................... 6.95- 8.65
i More if boy is working.
T a b l e I I .1— Basic figures

Girts.
$7.15-$8.65
7.15- 8.65
6.70- 8.25
6.60- 8.25

used in estimating the monthly f amily clothing budget.
Clothing costs per month.

Age and sex.

Working woman.......................
Woman at home........................
Working b oy..............................
Working girl..............................
Boy 14 years, not working___
Girl 14 years, not working___
Boy 13 years...............................
Girl 13 years................................
Boy 12 vears...............................
Girl 12 years................................
Boy 11 years...............................
Girl 11 years................................
Boy 10 years...............................
Girl 10 years................................
Child 6-9 years. . .....................
Child 3-5 years...........................
Child 10-35 months...................
Child under 10 months............
Old man or woman...................

Massachu
setts.

$8.67
4.77
$3.043.043.043.043.043.013.043.043.043.043.04-

1 See note 1, Table I.

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4.34
4.34
4.34
4.34
4.34
4.34
4.34
4.34
4.34
4.34
4.34
2.82
2.17
2.17

Denver,
Colo.

Henne
pin
County,
Minn.

Mont
gomery
County,
N. Y .

$7.00
8.50 4
5.75
8.50 up
8.50 up
5.50
5.50
5.50
5.50
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
4.00
2.75
1.75
1.75

$4.60
7.20
4.60
7.20
7.20
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
4.00
3.80
3.80
3.80
3.80
3.00
2.00
2.00
2.00

$4.00
4.00
2.00
4.00
4.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2 00
2.00
■ 2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00

North
West
Yellow
ampton
chester ; Medicine
County, ; ■County, County,
Minn.
Pa.
. N. Y.
$4.34
4.34
3.25
5.41
4.34
3.90
3.90
3.90
3.90
3.90
3.90
3.90
3.90
3.90
3.90
3.25
2.60
1.74
1.52
1.95

$6.94
7.50
5.53
7.44
7.50
4.54
4.41
4.54
4.41
4.54
4.41
4.54
4.41
4.54
4.41
3.62
2.67
2.78
2.78

3 $5 up to one-fourth wages.

$6.00
4.00
(2)
(2)
5.10
5.10
5.10
5.10
5.10
5.10
■ 5.10
5.10
5.10
3.76
3.76
2.85
2.00
2.00

PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.
CALCULATION OF IN C O M E A N D RESOURCES.

The amount of the family’s cash income, such as total wages
received and income from property interests or from other sources,
could usually be reckoned. In some instances, however, it was
difficult to ascertain the income; work was often irregular and the
wages indeterminate, especially when any member of the family did
day’s work or piecework.
Resources other than wages or other regular cash income pre
sented great difficulties. In each place visited many families draw
ing aid received gifts from friends, relatives, and charitable indi
viduals. The value of these could not be accurately computed and
their continuance could not be counted upon. It was nevertheless
necessary to reckon these resources in some way at the time the amount
of aid was decided upon. A plan frequently followed was to make
a grant lower than the difference between the estimated budget and
the known resources, leaving with the case worker the responsibility
of keeping in sufficiently close contact with the family to know
whether or not the supply of food, clothing, and other essentials
was adequate.
A garden was one of the common sources of indefinite income and
its value was variously estimated in the different localities. In
Denver and in Northampton County a garden was estimated as
covering a deficit of from $2 to $5 in the monthly income and in
Hennepin County as being worth $5 a month.
Budgets for the families owning farm animals were worked out
individually, the cost of feed being deducted from the profit. A
mother in Northampton County, who ran a small farm and owned
chickens, pigs, and a cow, kept careful expense accounts, which made
the calculation of her needs comparatively simple.
Everywhere the budget schedule was recognized as being only a
rough guide in helping to determine the family needs. The case
workers charged with the welfare of the family watched carefully for
signs of undernourishment, inadequate clothing, and other lacks
from which the children might suffer.

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W O R K OF THE M OTHERS.

Judge Lindsey’s statement that the greatest service a mother can
perform is the care and training of her own children was everywhere
accepted. Nevertheless, the various administrative agencies were fre
quently confronted with the problem of a deficit in the family income
and no apparent way of meeting it except by the mother’s work, and
in such cases it was not always found possible to carry out the ideal
of giving first consideration to the welfare of the children. In each
place studied there were some mothers who did not have as much free
time to devote to their children as was considered desirable. Some
mothers were working because there was no other way to get an
adequate income for the family, although the physical strain of work
in addition to the care of the house and the children was probably
more than they could long endure. The work of the other mothers
was leaving the children too much to their own resources or with over
sight of doubtful character. In many instances, however, it was be
lieved that some money-earning occupation on the part of the mother
was a wholesome influence in the family life. When settling upon the
amount which a mother might be encouraged to earn, the number
and age of her children, her own physical condition, and her capability
as a mother and as a wage earner were everywhere taken into account.
Mothers who were physically able were in all the localities encouraged
to do work at home, or even away from home at certain periods if the
children could be properly cared for either in school or by a caretaker
during their absence. In the choice of home work, care was exercised
to avoid anything that might cause unhealthful conditions.
Over half (52 per cent) of the 942 mothers receiving aid in the locali
ties studied were earning part of the family support. In the differ
ent cities the proportion of mothers who were doing some work varied
from 21 per cent in Boston and Haverhill to 67 and 69 per cent in
Denver and Westchester County. Six of the eight mothers aided in
Yellow Medicine County, which is largely rural, were reported to be
working. It seems probable that in Boston and Haverhill, where
visits to the family were less frequent than in other places, some
mothers not reported as earning money may have been doing so.
The number and proportion of the mothers in each locality who
were helping in the support of their families are shown in Table III.
17

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.
T a b l e I I I .— Proportion

o f mothers receiving aid who worTced, by locality.
Mothers receiving aid.

Locality.

Working.

Total.

Number. Percent.1
Total. ...................................................................
Boston, M ass.............................................
Denver, Colo..................................... .................
Haverhill, Mass......................................
Hennepin County, Minn......... ....................
Montgomery County, N . Y .................................
Northampton County, Pa.........................
St. Louis, Mo....... ; ........................................
Westchester County, N . Y ...........
Yellow Medicine County, Minn.........................................................

942

493

195
73
33
207
1:8
30
■94
283
9

40
49
7
122

21
67

15
54
194
6

59
57
69

1 Not shown where hase is less than 50.
T a b l e IV .—

Mothers working at home and away from home, by locality.
Mathers working.

City or county.
Total.

T o t a l ......

A t home;

Away
■from
home.

......................

493

151

292

Boston, Mass..........................
Denver, Colo............... .................
Haverhill, Mass............................
Hennepin County, Minn.. . . . . . .
Montgomery Comity, N . Y .......
Northampton County, P a.........
St. Louis, Mo......... ......................
Westchester County, N . Y . .......
Yellow Medicine County, Minn.

40
49
7
122
6
15
54
194
6

12
14
4
41
3
10
22
42
3

25
29
3
69
2
2
23
136
3

A t home
and away Not re
from
ported.
home.
37

13
3

6
8:
2
9
12

4
1
1
4

E XTE N T OF E M P L O Y M E N T OF M O T H E R S .

Some of the mothers did gainful work at home. However, because
of the difficulty in obtaining suitable home work, and the low wages
usually paid, it was necessary for a larger number of the mothers to
seek employment outside the home. Almost twice as many were
employed away from home as at home—329 as compared with 188.
The f ormer group includes 37 women who were reported as employed
both at home and away from home, while information as to the place
of work was not reported for 13 of the mothers. The number of
mothers receiving aid who were working at home and away from
home is shown in Table IV, for each o f the nine localities.
F O R M S OF E M P L O Y M E N T .

The most usual forms of home work were laundering and sewing.
A total of 188 mothers in all the places visited were reported to be
working at home. Of these 28 per cent were doing home laundering,

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WORK OF THE MOTHERS.

32 per cent home sewing, 12 per cent were keeping boarders or lodgers,
10 per cent were boarding children, and the remaining 18 per cent
were engaged in such occupations as gardening, raising poultry,
weaving rag rugs, doing beading, making lace, knitting, making’paper
novelties, baking, cleaning, and janitress service.
More than half of the 329 mothers who were employed away from
home, worked b y the day, at washing, cleaning, or housework, and
almost a fifth did factory work. The next largest group included
the mothers who did laundry work. The following list shows the
per cent distribution for the various occupations of the 311 mothers
who were employed away from home, for whom the type of occupa
tion was reported.
Per cent
distribution.
Total...................... ......................... ............ ..........................................
100
Work by the d ay............................... .. .................. .............................................. 50
Factory w o r k ..___________________ _______ ___ _______ ________________ 1ft
4
Saleswomen........................ ................... .............................. .......... .......................
Laundry work.......................................
ft
Sewing...................................
g
Clerical or professional........................................................................................
1
Chambermaid............ ............................
1
W a it r e s s ......................................................................................
i
Janitress.......................................................................
i
Canvassing........................................................................................ .......................< 1
Poultry dressing.....................
1
Work in restaurant.............................................................. ........ .............. ........
1
O t h e r . . . ................................... ......................... . . . .............................................. .
5
T IM E A W A Y F R O M H O M E .

Wherever a definite rule had been adopted for the maximum
amount of time a mother might spend away from home at work, the
limit was set at three days a week. This limit had been recom
mended b y the State supervisor of Pennsylvania and was also in
force in Hennepin County and Denver. Such exceptions as were
made were usually in cases where the mother was living with relatives
who eould care for the children in her absence. In some of these
families the grandmother was really taking the chief responsibility
for the care and training of the children, which the young mother was
unwilling to assume. There were also instances where a mother took
full-time work in order to keep an older girl in school, the girl herself
assuming the responsibility for the house and younger children after
school hours.
It was considered that “ short-hour” work was the best arrange
ment for the mother of children who were in school, even though
it took her out of the home five days a week, provided the hours
eould be so arranged that she would be away only during school hours.
If the mother could not be at home at noon, lunch for the school

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

children was sometimes arranged for at the school or a nursery, or
sometimes with a 'relative or a neighbor. Of the mothers working
away from home, the proportions doing full-time and short-hour
work áre shown in Table V for five of the localities investigated.
T a b l e V .—

Number o f 11fu ll-tim e” and “ short-hour” days’ work per week o f mothers
who worked away from home, by locality.
Mothers for whom time at work was reported.

Locality.

Number of “ short-hour”
days per week.

Number of “ full-time”
days per week.

Total.
1

Total............................................ 1262

•7

13
29
2
63
2

1
3
2
6
1
2
2
5

5
5

25
121

1
6 21

4
20

2
42

2
16

1
1
1
5
17
2

1
2

2
1

5
2

2
3

7
7

1
1

1
2

<Í

132 mothers in these groups worked an additional half day each week.
2 Housework.. .
............. .................
,
....
.
* One a janitress, 1 doing housework.
* Laundry work for hotel.

CARE OF CHILDREN D URIN G ABSENCE OF M O T H E R .

In every place studied, definite plans were made for the care of the
children in the mother’s absence at work, and in the majority of
cases this care was at least reasonably adequate. Children under
school age were left at nurseries, with relatives, or with neighbors.
The care given at nurseries was presumably satisfactory, while that
of the relatives and the neighbors was frequently excellent but
sometimes unsatisfactory. There were also families in which the
older children were left to care for the younger. This arrangement
was apparently satisfactory in instances similar to the following:
Mother away four days at short-hour work; children of 5, 6,10,13, and
14 years. The case worker reported: “ All in school. After school
the girl of 14 cares for the younger ones until the mother’s return.
The home is always immaculate, and the children are well cared for.”
Children of the same age vary greatly in their ability to look out
for themselves, and it may be safe to accept the judgment of another
case worker who said of two children, 9 and 10 years of age, whose
mother worked away from home six days a week: “ Both children are
in school. They are unusually capable and get along very well by
themselves until the mother returns, since a neighbor in the house
keeps an eye on them.” In most instances, however, it was believed
necessary to have more definite supervision for young children, and
not to leave them so much alone ,

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LIVING STANDARD ATTAINED.

In all the localities visited during the study the persons respon
sible for the amount of aid granted had a definite aim in regard to
income. They wished to give each mother the help that would enable
her to maintain a home which would afford at least the minimum of
decent living conditions for herself and her children and would also
permit her to be at home with them enough to give them the physical
care essential for their health and development and the training
necessary to bring them to a useful maturity. In most of the cities
they were proceeding on definite plans 6 in estimating the amount of
aid needed, and were supplying it so far as conditions made it possible.
In many instances the aim of raising the income to the level of the
estimated budget was not realized, for various reasons. In some
families the income was indeterminate because of irregular wages or
gifts; in others the records indicated that the income was a definite
amount, the adequacy of which could be measured by the estimated
budget. Denver had the highest proportion of families with ade
quate incomes, as measured by the estimated budgets. Eightythree per cent of the families in that city had incomes equal to or
slightly exceeding the estimates, and an additional 10 per cent had
incomes that came within 10 per cent of the estimates. Only 7 per
cent of the families, therefore, had deficits of more than 10 per cent.
Table V I shows for the different localities covered b y the study
the average income per person in families receiving mothers’ allow
ances who maintained separate homes on a definite income, and had
no boarders or lodgers.
T a b l e V I .—Average

monthly income per person in fam ilies receiving mothers' allow
ances, by locality.

Locality .a

Boston, Mass.&............................................................................................................

St. Louis,~Mo.<i........ ...................................................................................................
Westchester County, N . Y .......................................................................................

Families
receiving
aid.

Average
Total
monthly
persons
income
in the
per
families. person.

512

2,458

108
47
18
106
7
12
61
153

525
214
84
499
39
59
295
743

$16.21
20.39
16.43
16.33
16.38
13.34
16.21
19.64

a In Yellow Medicine County, Minn., only one family maintaining a separate home with no boarders or
lodgers was reported. The monthly income reported for this family (a mother and four children) was $77,
an average for each person of $15.40.
6 In Boston each family received, in addition to the cash allowance, one-quarter ton of hard coal every
three weeks during the winter,
c in Haverhill, as in Boston, each family received coal in addition to the cash allowance.
d In St. Louis each family received free ice in summer in addition to the cash allowance.
6 See pp. 11-16.

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.
LEGAL LIM ITS TO A M O U N T OF AID«

Adequate aid was frequently prevented by provisions in the law,
or by rulings of boards, which set a maximum beyond which the
relief could not go, regardless of the circumstances in an individual
ease. Colorado and Massachusetts were the only States visited that
were entirely free from such restrictions.
In Pennsylvania $20 a month might be given for the first child
and $1Q for each of the other children, making a total of $40 to a
mother with three dependent children. The budgets estimated in
Northampton County for families of this composition where the
mother was not working ranged from $42 to $62, according to the
circumstances of the family..
In Minnesota the law under which most of the grants in force in
May, 1921, were made limited the payments to $15 for the first child
and $10 for each of the other children. Under that provision a
mother with three children could receive only $35, but under the
amendment that went into effect in June of that year, which fixed
the maximum at $20 for the first child and $15 for the other children,
the allowance for such a family might be $50. Budgets for families
of this size in Minneapolis were estimated at from $56.41 to $82.31.
In St. Louis $15 a month was the maximum amount that could be
paid to a mother for each of her children, except that, with, the con
currence of the city comptroller, more could be granted in special cases.
This ruling would permit a grant o f $45 to a mother with three de
pendent children, while the estimated budget was $71.50.
In New York the amount paid to the mother under the State law
could not exceed the amount it would take to keep the child in an
institution— $5 per week per child, or $65 per month to a mother with
three dependent children. The estimated budget in Montgomery
County for one family of this size was $76.
Westchester County, which operated independently of the State
mothers’ allowance law, under a ruling of its county board had set
the maximum amount of aid at $4.50 per week per child. This made
possible a payment of $58.50 to a mother with three children. The
estimated budget for a family of this size, when the mother was not
working, ranged from $61.86 to $72.06.
The family consisting of a mother with three children is used for
illustration because it occurred most frequently, 28 per cent of 885
families in six of the places studied being of this size. Where there
was no source of aid other than the public relief, and the mother was
unable to earn without neglecting her home and children, it was
impossible for a family to be adequately cared for with the grant
specified b y the law in Northampton and Montgomery Counties, and
in St. Louis unless special provision was made, and in Minnesota
even under the amended law.

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LIVING STANDARD ATTAINED.

SICK NESS AN D U N E M P L O Y M E N T AS CAUSES OF IN AD EQU ATE
IN C O M E .

Sickness in the family, which prevented the mother from earning
the amount expected of her, was noted in many cases as a cause of
inadequate income. In each locality where the grants were made
through court action and could not easily be changed to meet
temporary needs, several families were found whose difficulties on
this account may be suggested by the following instances :
One mother with two children was expected to earn $25 a month.
She had been ill, and the total income for six months had showed an
average deficit of $9.19 each month. In another family two o f the
five children had had smallpox and the mother, who did home laundry,
had been unable to earn the $20 a month calculated for her. The
total income for a six months' period showed an average deficit of
$9.10 for each month.
Unemployment, usually of older children who were expected to
aid in the support of the family, was a frequent cause of inadequate
income. The loss of even one week meant a serious deficit in an
income which had no margin.
The deficits from these causes were impossible to foresee or to
calculate. Some of the case workers, suggested that each family
should be encouraged to accumulate an emergency fund, which could
be used to carry them over such periods. They felt that the maximum
earning capacity, especially of the mother, should not be charged
against the estimated budget, since the illness of any member of the
family was likely to prevent her from working. When she was able
to work for the full time agreed upon the extra money could be saved.
In Westchester County four weeks' earnings only were counted against
the monthly budget. This plan allowed the earnings of the extra
days in the month as a margin for providing against loss of income
through illness or other cause.
SO U RCES OF RELIEF O TH ER TH AN TH E ALLOW ANCE.

The private charity organization society in Northampton County
refused to supplement the aid given by the public agency,.^and in St.
Louis it was not asked to do so. In Minneapolis and Boston they
usually refused to supplement, although there were a few instances in
each place where families known to the private society before receiv
ing public aid were still being helped. Each refusal was based upon
the belief that the public should give adequate aid, and that addi
tional sources of assistance would have thé tendency to retard the
development of the public agency.
The help o f church societies and clubs and of private individuals
was enlisted in certain cases in each locality.

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

In Minneapolis tlie city department of public welfare assisted
in 16 per cent of the families— cases where the total amount that ^
could be granted under the provisions of the law was inadequate.
In Yellow Medicine County the county commissioners of the poor
gave assistance to one family which was receiving a mother’s allow
ance.
Aid from relatives was, of course, secured in all instances where
it was possible. Court orders were sought against those legally
liable under the laws of the State who were able to help and refused
to do so. In some instances a mother with one or two children was
encouraged to live with relatives^ in others relatives could be of
assistance by boarding with the family when they could not otherwise
make a contribution to its support. Table 7 shows the percentage
distribution of income from various sources for the families receiving
mothers’ allowances.
T able

V I I .—Sources o f additional income in fam ilies receiving mothers' allowances, by
•
locality.

Locality.

Percentage of families deriving part of their income from each
Percent
specified source.
age of
families
having
Miscel
Board Aid from
Income
income
laneous ..
Gifts
and other
from
other
Wages of lodgers, aid from relatives
incomes:
from
Chari private Rents,
than
not
mothers
relatives
and
ties.
living
mothers’
and
individ compen
living
with
allow children. hoarders
sation,
uals.
with
not
family.
ance.
- etc.
relatives. family.

Eight localities1..............
Boston, Mass....................
Denver, Colo....................
Haverhill, Mass...............
Hennepin County, Minn
Montgomery County,
N . Y ...............................
Northampton County,
P a................................
St. Louis, Mo.................
W estchester County,
N . Y ................... ..........
* I t jiiu w

m c m c i Jjc

66
100
55
96

16
11
12
21
19

63
35

«89
33
71

90
93

60
79

17
.10

6
11

3
3
4
3
3

17
15

13
16
4

10
9
14
6
12

(3)

9
2
14
6
16
11

3
1

IQ,
4

------------------- -------------------

to e e ^ a m S ie s^ e 5wage earner was the grandmother. The
dead; in the
two ofhors the sro-ndm other worked, and the mother coxed for the children &nd the home.
,
3 In eight fannies, or 27 per cent of all, gifts were received to make up the deficit, hut it was not reported
whether the1gifts were received from charitable organizations, relatives, or other private individuals.

UNFAVORABLE C O N D ITIO N S DUE TO IN AD EQ U ATE IN C O M E .

Overcrowding, undemutrition, bomes bare of comfort, and cbildren
poorly clothed were some of the most obvious results of the income
being insufficient to provide adequate living.
The A family consisted of the mother, a boy of 14 years, and a
girl of 12. They were receiving aid to the amount of $30 a month
the full grant for two children. The mother was not strong enough to
do more than short-hour factory work, which brought in $10 or $12 a

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LIVING STANDARD ATTAINED.

month, making a total income of $40 or $42.
for this family was:

25;

The estimated budget

Rent.................................... ............................................................... ...................$8.50
Food......................... . ............................................ .............................................. 29. 70
C lothing................. ...........................................................4. ..................¿I. . . . 14. 50
Fuel....................................................................................... ...............................
7.00
Household supplies......................................... ................................................ 4. 25
Incidentals..................................................................................... r.-................. 1. 25
Total budget......................................... ..................................................... 65. 20
Income............ ..................................................................................................... 42. 00
Deficit. ..................................................... ................................................ 1 23. 20

Only canned milk was used, and the children were drinking coffee.
Some kind of vegetable was used daily, but almost no fruit was
bought. The little girl, coming in from school, was noticeably
poorly clothed. Her shoes were shabby but whole, and the badly
faded gingham dress was clean. She was an intelligent, attractive
child, and ambitious to become a teacher. The home consisted of a
kitchen and two bedrooms. The floors were bare and the furniture
scanty, with no attempt at a sitting room. The mother said that
she still had enough of her original supply of household linen, dishes,
and cooking utensils to make it possible to get along, but she would
be able to replace nothing until she could earn more. The mother
was ambitious for her children and had good standards of living.
She was entirely uncomplaining and extremely grateful for the help
that was making it possible for her to have her children with her.
The boy was very frail, and there seemed small chance of his growing
stronger without better food. The need for clothing would in a
short time become acute.
An Italian mother had been receiving aid during four years for
her son and daughter, who at the time of investigation were 9 and
14 years of age. The grant of $35— as much as could be given for
two children— was the only income of the family, except for irregular
gifts. The mother was not strong enough to work. Besides having
asthma, she was reported by the physician as suffering from mal
nutrition. Both children appeared to be frail and underweight;
they had not been examined. Their food consisted of macaroni,
bread, beans, and one quart of milk a day, with meat on Sunday
and vegetables three or four times a week. The children were
poorly dressed. The little girl, just home from school, wore a
shabby, patched woolen skirt and a woman’s shirt waist, which
must have made her unpleasantly conspicuous among her school
mates. The home was a very old cottage in poor repair— got at a
i Or 36 per cent.

43711°—23----- 3

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

cheap rental. It was, however, well ventilated, and the furniture
was sufficient and in good condition.
Another mother was receiving a grant of $95 a month for her six
children, who ranged in age from 1 to 12 years. This was the only
income, and the estimated budget was $124. The boy of 3 years
had rickets; the boy of 7 and the girl of 12 were underweight. Their
clothing was poor. The mother slept with two of the children, and
three others occupied another bed. The three rooms were poorly
furnished. The mother tried to follow the dietetic instructions she
had received and bought vegetables every day, but she could afford
only two quarts of milk a day.
A family meal was impossible in some instances, because of lack
of dishes, chairs, or a table of sufficient size. One family of six
slept in only two of their three beds in the winter, because there
were covers enough for only two. The same family had only two
chairs. Insufficient bed linen and covers, and poor mattresses,
were noted in a large number of homes.

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INVESTIGATION AND SUPERVISION.
PRELIMINARY ACQUAINTANCE WITH THE FAMILY.

Most of the professional workers connected with the adminis
tration of aid to children in their own homes realized that service
to a family should be conditioned upon its real needs (sometimes
different from, and sometimes more extensive than, its apparent
needs), and that the foundation of intelligent and effective service
is a thorough knowledge of its problems and therresources at its
command. However, for various reasons there were in the places
studied great differences in the extent of this knowledge and in the
manner of acquiring it.
A set of definite facts which had to be learned in order to determine
whether the applicant belonged to the group defined b y law as
possible recipients of the aid, formed in all instances the foundation
of the inquiry. The following items necessary to establish eligibility
were usually verified from public records, and went far toward estab
lishing acquaintance with the family:
1. The legal residence of the family in the State, the county, and the township
or city.
2. Marriage of the parents, which must include verification of any former marital
status of either parent.
3. Status of the father, whether dead, incapacitated, or deserting.
4. Dates of births of children.
5. Property interests (including insurance, amount of ready money, ownership of
real estate).

While verifying the foregoing data the investigator inevitably
gained much additional information concerning the present situation
and the past history of the family and established a friendly contact
with the family which made further service possible. In addition,
the statements as to the wages of any working members of the famijy
were almost always verified through the employer or b y an exami
nation of the pay envelope. The school records of the children were
verified whenever a question of eligibility for work permits was in
volved, and in about half the places the records of all the children
in school were secured. Other elements in the situation of the family
were thoroughly dealt with in almost all the investigations. If the
health of either the mother or the children seemed to require attention,
a medical examination was arranged for during the course of the
inquiry. St. Louis, however, was the only place where a physician's
27

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

PUBLIC

aid to children i n th eir o w n h o m es .

examination for all the children was part of the routine of the pre
liminary investigation.
There were consultations with the relatives of the family in all the
localities, hut they varied widely in extent and in objective. In
some of the places the relatives were interviewed or written to with
the sole purpose of ascertaining the amount of contribution that
could be secured from them toward the support of the family. In
others there was a fuller recognition of the social value of family
relationships, and relatives were consulted about the plans being made
for the family, their friendly interest was enlisted even when they
were unable to help financially, and their version of the story of the
past life of the family was secured.
The pastor and the family physician were usually consulted, and
in several places the applicant was asked for u references,” who were
interviewed. The value of this last procedure was questionable,
except where care was exercised in accepting as references only
persons who would be reliable sources of information.
In Denver and in Westchester County the past history of the
family was very carefully recorded. The records covered the health
history obtained from physicians who had treated the family; the
relations to church, friends, and neighbors; the industrial life, in
cluding reports from former employers of the father, and of the
mother if she had worked outside her home; and the relations of its
members to one another and to the relatives. This knowledge of the
family history was used in planning for the future with the mother
or guardian. One group of children in the care of a grandmother
was being given very special attention because of possible unfavor
able heredity from a criminal father. In the case of a young mother
who was so deeply discouraged that suicide was feared it was found
from a study of her early life that she had been strongly influenced
by an older sister with whom her contact was no longer close. This
sister’s help in making plans for the useful employment of the young
woman resulted in the restoration of her mental balance. Whereever there was a history of tuberculosis in a family the diet and living
conditions were planned with great care. Wherever the history
indicated possible venereal infection Wassermann tests were given to
the children. Special safeguards in the way of friendly interest and
wholesome recreation were provided for mothers whose past showed
mor^l weakness.
INTERVAL BEFORE GRANTING AID.

Where court action was necessary before a grant could be made
the aid could not be available for emergency needs. In other places
it could be granted with no greater lapse of time than was necessary
to establish the need for aid and the eligibility of the family. For

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

INVESTIGATION AND SUPERVISION.

instance, one family in Haverhill, Mass., had been granted an allow
ance on the very day the application was made. The desire of the
administrative officers everywhere was for as rapid action as was
consistent with a careful inquiry into the circumstances. The
director of the child-welfare department of Westchester County in
her report to the commissioner, stated :7
We make every effort to begin a family’s allowance at the moment
that they actually become destitute, so that they may not become
undernourished, ill, hopeless, and discouraged. The task of keeping
a family fit is easier and cheaper than that of putting them on their
feet again, both for themselves and the public.”
The interval between date of application and date of grant was
reported for five of the localities in which this study was made.
Thirty per cent of the grants were reported to have been made within
a month of the date of application. In 26 per cent of the cases 6
months or more elapsed between the application and the grant. In
Boston 81 per cent of the allowances were granted in less than a month
and in only 3 per cent of the cases was the interval as much as 6
months. In Hennepin County 44 per cent, and in Northampton
County 27 per cent of the allowances were granted within 1 month.
The percentage granted within so short an interval was much less
in Westchester County, in St. Louis, and in Denver— 12, 7, and 7 per
cent, respectively. (Table V III gives this information in detail.)
T a b l e V I I I — Interval

between date o f application fo r and grant o f mothers’ allowance,
by locality.

Per cent of families with specified interval between date of
application for and date of grant of mothers’ allowance.'

to to to to

Locality.®

» . CO
«
to
©
©
JS
<2
«B
©
J>,3 ©
d COCO £ Tji
aa1**
•d {H ^ fl
3 d 3 a
3 a à a a a ¿d d rd d
o
"h 03 +2 03
g<N g 5 g j d
„ .a
g j g j § 5
s g a " a
a 5 a " a
a
a
ni
o*
CO
to
CO
oo

Six localities..........................
Boston, Mass.......................
Denver, Colo.................. .
Hennepin County, Minn. .
Northampton County, Pa.
St. Louis, Mo......... .............
Westchester County, N. Y

31
7

12
6

2
1
12
3

27
7

40
6

13
13

6
1

8
3

3
10

3
3

12 10

10
7

W
CO
jg __ CD

CO
£

ri*v$

15
a~
05

371
d c3 d 03
2 -d 2 ,d
a - a O'
3

1
12

3
2

6
1

1
1

636

3
7
7

2
3

11
5

7
5
5

1
1 1

„ U eiiuw meaicme county, since mo date of application had not been recorded for the older
percentages tolbesigiificant’ ^
MontgomeU County, N. Y . where the numbers were too small for the
length^ftimef.insu™cient itmds

was necessary to keep families on the waiting list for a considerable

7 Annual Report of Child Welfare Department of Westchester County, 1920, p. 14.

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.
FREQUENCY OF VISITS.

In Minnesota and in Massachusetts the law required quarterly
visits, at least, to the families, and a report concerning the conditions
found. Most of the places studied had set for themselves a minimum
standard for frequency of visits which was usually once a month for
the families which did not require special care, but more frequent
visits were regarded as necessary in many cases. The general opinion
was expressed by the supervisor of boards of child welfare of New
York State: “ The amount of supervision needed by each family must
be determined according to the individual case. Good standards of
work require at least one monthly visit; really constructive work
demands a number of visits.”
SUGGESTIVE FEATURES.

Below are listed some features of administrative methods that
m ay lend themselves to more or less general use.
1. Preliminary acquaintance with the family:
a. Outline of investigation, pp. 27-28; Denver, pp. 44-46.
b. Investigation in rural community. Yellow Medicine County, Minn., p. 70.
c. Individualizing the child, pp. 33-34.
d. Estimating family budget, pp. 11-15.
2. Care of health:
a. Physician’s examination of all children. St. Louis, p. 80.
b. Weighing and measuring tests. Denver, p. 49; Westchester County,
N. Y ., p. 126.
c. Hospital and sanitarium care.

Boston, pp. 95-96.

3. Education:
a. School reports. Yellow Medicine County, p. 71; Montgomery County,
p. 137; Northampton County, p. 114; Denver, pp. 49-50.
b. Children of working age in school, pp. 8 -9 ; St. Louis, p. 80; Northampton
County, Pa., p. 114; Westchester County, N. Y ., p. 125.
c. A ll mothers to learn English. Hennepin County, Minn., p. 67.
d. Instruction in home-making, pp. 34-35; Denver, pp. 52-53; Boston, pp.
96-98.

e. Reading matter in the home, p. 9; Denver, p. 53; Hennepin County, p. 67.
4. Case records:
a. Recording family history, p. 28.
b. Summary for advisory committee. Hennepin County, Minn., pp. 61-62.
5. Activities of advisory bodies:
a. Advisory committee. Hennepin County, Minn., p. 59.
b. County boards. Northampton County, Pa., p. 110; Montgomery County,
N. Y ., p. 132.
6. State supervision:
a. In Minnesota, pp. 56-57, 69.
b. In Pennsylvania, p. 110.
c. In New York, p. 131.
d. In Massachusetts, pp. 88-90.

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SERVICE OTHER THAN RELIEF.
THE NEED FOR SOCIAL SERVICE.

Advisory boards and members of staffs in all the places studied had
recognized the need of the families for service other than relief, and
had tried to supply it. Much of this need originated in the low
standards of living that preceded the removal of the wage earner
which resulted in the depleted physical condition of the mother and
children.
Former occupations were recorded for a total of 846 fathers in
all the places visited. Of these, 27 per cent had been laborers, 22
per cent had been doing semiskilled work in factories and other
places, 29 per cent had been skilled workers, and 9 per cent had been
proprietors or managers in factories or shops, on farms, in trades, or
in similar employments; the remaining 13 per cent were pngaged in
clerical or professional work or in personal service.
Weekly earnings were recorded for 680 fathers. Of these, 14 per
cent had earned less than $15 a week, 26 per cent had earned from
$15 to $19, 26 per cent from $20 to $24, 27 per cent from $25 to $34,
and 7 per cent $35 or over.
Many families had been through hardships similar to those of the
M’s. The father, a miner, had broken down in health, and he had
taken up a farm claim in a semiarid region of Colorado. He managed
finally, after incredible hardships, to prove up on the claim. Undoubt
edly the food was poor during this period, and during the time that
followed when the mother, left a widow with nine children, worked
in a factory all day and did the family housework— washing, mending,
and cleaning— at night. When the children were weighed and meas
ured after the allowance was granted, they were all found to be below
the average normal weight for their age.
Families to whom expert medical advice had never been avail
able were apt to accept poor physical conditions as normal. Defects
that could have been corrected were often regarded as inevitable.
If knowledge of possibilities and methods of securing treatment had
not been used in their behalf by the case workers, children would
frequently have been left to go through life crippled for lack of
attention to feet or legs, or they would have been handicapped from
the results of neglect of decayed teeth or diseased nose or throat.
The loneliness of the mother left with the whole responsibility of a
*

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR, OWN HOMES.

family formed another urgent need for service. One well-educated
mother said: “ Raising a family alone is almost more than a woman
can do. I should have never been able to bear it, if it had not been
for the help of Miss A and Miss B ,” naming the case worker and
the supervisor.
A large percentage of the women needed help in the care and
training of their children, and in managing their incomes and their
household affairs. They came for the most part from economic
groups where is was necessary for a young girl to begin to work as
soon as she became of legal working age. Usually this work had
been in a factory or shop, and of such a nature as to give her little
help in her home-making problems as a wife and mother. The home
from which she came frequently did not furnish a desirable model
on which to form her own. Sometimes the husband had taken the
leading part in the management of the family finances, and still more
frequently the' discipline of the children had been regarded as his
duty rather than hers.
The fatherless sons, especially as they
approached the period of adolesence, were often a source of great
anxiety to .the mother.
Mrs. X was one of the women who needed many different forms
of service. Born in Austria of parents who had been well to do
there, but who had never succeeded in adjusting themselves to con
ditions in America, she had left school at the sixth grade, although
she was ambitious and had hoped to study nursing. Instead, she
married a painter, who earned well and took good care of his family.
He died, suddenly, of pneumonia. When an allowance was granted
to Mrs. X , six months after the death of her husband, she was a
deeply discouraged young widow of 30 years, with three children
of 18 months, 4 and 6 years. She was nervous and upset and her
teeth and eyes were in bad condition. Living in an isolated coun
try place where it was necessary to carry for three blocks all the
water for the-household, she had not* the spirit to keep her house
clean or to try to manage her expenditures in an intelligent way.
She spent $60 a month for food when she first received aid, which
made it necessary for them to go without clothing except such as
they received as gifts. After six months’ help in planning her expend
itures she was getting adequate food for $40— an amount still
above the estimate in that locality for a family of this composition,
but representing a great increase in efficency on the part of the
mother. Her teeth had been attended to and glasses secured. She
was reading good books and regaining her hold on life. The children
fortunately were healthy and did not need special attention.
The mother did housework at a neighboring country place, and her
employer took an intelligent and. kindly interest in her and the
children. WThen visited by the writer the house was in spotless order,

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

SERVICE OTHER THAN RELIEF.

the beds were comfortable, and there was an air of a real home about
the place. The record showed that a great deal of patient and in
terested work had been necessary to bring about these changes.
INDIVIDUALIZING THE CHILD.

In several of the localities studied there was conscious effort to
differentiate the characteristics of each child in the f amily. While
the family was the unquestioned unit of treatment, and there were
many things in which its members necessarily had to share alike,
an effort was made to ascertain as far as possible the individual
needs of each child and to work intelligently with the mother, the
teacher, and the health agencies to correct defects, to develop special
gifts of personality, and to help to bring the child to a healthy, normal
adult life, in which his happy adjustment to his surroundings would
insure his usefulness to society.
In Westchester County the report of the first visit to a home
included a description of each child. The following examples are
taken from the case records.
Ellen, 15 years old, is very tall for her age, rather pale, and has dark hair and blue
eyes. She has not particularly regular features (resembles picture of father), but has
an extremely pleasant and intelligent face. Her manner is very agreeable and con
fident. She is her mother’s “ right-hand m an” and seems to assume naturally a
position of great responsibility in the household. Every evening she sits down to
make a list of purchases for the next day, then buys all the provisions. She does all
letter writing, etc., and attends to countless details for her mother. She went through
the grade school, a few blocks from home, and is now in the second year of high school,
to and from which she walks daily, about 2\ miles each way. She says she loves
school and fully intends to graduate. When the mother was alone with the visitor,
she said that she wants to keep some of her hardships from Ellen, and that she surely
wishes to manage so that she may complete her schooling. Ellen had an ambition to
go through college and study medicine, but now she plans to take a business course
so as to earn more quickly. She is quite athletic, and thinks nothing of walking to
and from school, of fetching all the water from a spring at the end of the property, or of
playing baseball at school. Basket ball she found too strenuous. Her mother says
that as a youngster she was not strong, and had hemorrhages, which she has outgrown.
Only recently has she grown so tall. She has had whooping cough, mumps, chicken
pox, and last winter she and all the children had measles. Her birth, in hospital,
was normal, as was her infancy. Walked at about 14 months. The mother said that
Ellen’s whole life is in her home and school. She is intense in her interest in both.
Last year she went to a neighborhood party where they played some kissing games;
Ellen put on her coat and walked home.
Mary, 13 years old, had never been well. She has had all the children’s diseases—
measles, mumps, chicken pox, etc., and pneumonia. Her mother says there is always
something wrong with her. She is not bright and not very helpful in the home. She
sometimes washes the dishes but can not do much more. For four years she lias
attended the C------r school, walking about 1£ miles each way. She and the two boys
stay at school for lunch and get home about 4.30 or 5. She has never gone beyond the
first grade. The mother agreed to the suggestion that she be examined at the mental
clinic.

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PUBLIC

aid to children i n th eir o w n h o m es .

School reports were secured for children of school age who were
granted pensions, in practically all the places studied, although with
varying frequency and completeness. In three of the localities
school reports for all the children were part of the record; in one
place there were such reports for only 51 per cent and in the others
for from 90 to 99 per cent of the children. In most of the places
scholarships were obtained for children who were exceptional either
in ability or in ambition. Frequently a child, because of frail physique,
was kept in school after he had reached working age. Wherever
the case work was most carefully done the exceptional children were
looked after and given a chance for development.
In St. Louis each child was examined by a physician at the office
of the board of children’s guardians, and the record of the physical
findings was filed at the office, where it could be referred to readily
by the workers. If a child was below par physically he was kept
under the supervision of the physician, who prescribed treatment
and reexamined him at intervals.
Westchester County had the great advantage of a mental clinic
of its own.' This made it easy to examine any child who exhibited
abnormal mental traits, and the record containing both the physical
and the psychiatric findings was within easy reach of the case worker.
After the examination a conference was held between the director
of the mental clinic and other members of the staff, at which a plan
of treatment was worked out. Not infrequently such an examina
tion showed the home conditions and the mother’s training to be
unfavorable for one child of the group, while the others might be
developing in a normal way. The generalization that a home suited
to one child was necessarily suited to another was thus avoided.
In Denver the case record contained a child-study sheet for each
child in the family. It was devoted chiefly to the physical condition
and the health habits, but provided for the notation of school grade
and intelligence quotient and for a description of the personality.
Use of this sheet helped in the very careful study of the character
istics of each child. Weighing and measuring tests were given in
some plaees.10 Physical defects were being corrected in all. Ade
noids and diseased tonsils were removed, orthopedic treatment was
given, and dental care was provided.
INSTRUCTING THE MOTHER IN HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT.

In concentrating on the welfare of the child the workers tried not
to forget that the mother was frequently a young woman who had
had small chance for training and development, and she was placed
10 For description of these tests in Westchester County, see p. 126; in Denver, see p. 49.

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SERVICE OTHER THAN RELIEF.

in touch with every neighborhood agency that could help her to
become a better home maker and mother. In the cities there were
infant-welfare clinics, nutrition clinics, and health classes; in the
country instruction was given by the home advisers from the exten
sion departments of the State colleges and universities. One mother
living in a rural district was given a correspondence course in dress
making. A little later the home-economics extension worker from
the State agricultural college formed in the neighborhood a dress
making class that she could join. Another woman living on a farm,
where no classes were available, was able to get much help in the
preservation of food materials for the winter from the literature
which the case worker had had sent to her from the home-economics
department of the State university. The visitors themselves gave a
great deal of instruction in diet, management of income, and care
of health. In most of the places they taught the mothers to keep
expense accounts and to budget their incomes.
In Minneapolis each mother who did not speak English was given
instruction in neighborhood classes or, if necessary, in her own home.
In all the places visited similar work was being done. A Polish
woman in St. Louis read with great pride from a “ second reader.”

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W H AT THE AID M EANT TO THE CHILDREN.

A mother who was receiving aid in Northampton County spoke
with emotion of an acquaintance who was about to break up her
home and place her children in an institution. The woman was
living in a neighboring county, which was not yet organized for the
administration of aid to mothers, and she felt that she was unable
to keep her children with her. The mother who reported the cir
cumstance added: “ I should never do that. We would have to
live in one room, and I would have to work day and night if we did
not have the mothers’ pension, but I would keep the children with
me anyway.” Some of the children were no doubt saved from
being brought up in institutions, others were rescued from undue
hardships in the home, and still others from the demoralization
caused by the haphazard and irregular relief given through the unor
ganized philanthropic impulses of the community. In one of the
communities where there had been no organization of charity there
was a marked contrast of manner between the women who had
never received relief other than the mothers’ allowance and those
who had been dependent before receiving this regular aid. The first
group showed normal self-reliance and dignity, while the others were
lacking in initiative and self-reliance.
Among the mothers interviewed during the study were many
similar in character and circumstances to Mrs. B, to whose needs
the plan of the mothers’ allowance seemed to be especially well
adapted.
Mr. and Mrs. B, born of American parents, grew up on neighboring
farms, met at a husking bee, and were married under much the same
circumstances as the rest of the young people in the neighborhood.
The home of each had already been visited by more or less misfor
tune. Mr. B ’s father, a chronic invalid, had been supported by his
sons for some time before his death. Mrs. B ’s mother had died
when she was young, leaving her the oldest of five children. She
became housekeeper and mother for them, besides sharing in the
work of the farm. Her whole afterlife was affected by this early
period of overwork, which left her with varicose veins and a lowered
resistance. The married life of the couple was, however, very happy.
Mr. B became a trainman, with average earnings of about $75 per
month. They bought a city lot in the hope that they would eventu
ally be able to have a home of their own, but much illness and the
37

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

taxes ate up the property. At one time all the children had typhoid
fever and were so ill that two trained nurses were necessary to care
for them. When the father died after a three years’ illness, leaving
five children of from 3 to 11 years of age, there was nothing left, except
an insurance of $1,000, already partly pledged for debts contracted
during the long illness. His wife believed that the disease from which
he died was caused by the nervous strain occasioned by wrecks which
he had been through, but no compensation was received from the
railroad.
Although still under 35 years of age when her husband died, Mrs.
B was physically worn out. She took home work from a local fac
tory, but was able to average only about 90 cents a week by putting
in all the time that was left from the care of her family. At the end
of a year her money was almost gone, and an allowance of $45 was
granted. She was allowed to retain a small reserve fund, from which
for several years she drew for emergency and unusual expenses. The
children were intelligent and ambitious. The oldest boy was in
high school and earning enough for his own support at work after
school hours. During vacation he worked full time for the same
employer, from whom he was receiving good business training. The
second child was a girl, not strong physically, who at 15 years was
finishing her first year of high school. She was not strong enough
to work after school hours, but it was felt that the question of her
health made it desirable to keep, her in school until she was at least
16. She wished to become a teacher. The self-respect of the family
had been carefully guarded, and the source of their income, although
known to a number of persons interested in them— the physician,
the boy’s employer, and others— was not common knowledge, and
Mrs. B believed •that the children had suffered no humiliation be
cause of it.
The contrast that exists between many homes struggling along
with no such aid and one in which it is being adequately adminis
tered was brought out by Mrs. N in telling of her own childhood.
“ I say thank God for the mothers’ pension. My mother says she
would not have me take it, but I think I ought to be thankful that I
can live in a country where they have it. My father died and left
my mother with nothing to bring us up on, and we had no clothes and
never saw the inside of a school. It was running around without
enough clothes then that gives me the poor health I have now.”
She was energetically sewing as she talked, and the two boys of 3
and 5 who were playing around her showed by their clean and
well-mended clothes that they were not sharing the fate she had
suffered from as a child. As further proof that they were being
properly dressed, she showed the visitors the comfortable woolen

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

W H AT THE AID MEANT TO THE CHILDREN.

underwear she had made from mill ends bought from a woolen m ill
in the neighborhood.
Mrs. N ’s hard childhood had been passed in Scandinavia, whence
she emigrated as a young girl to become a domestic servant in Amer
ica. A t the age of 20 she married a promising young carpenter.
Her health had been poor ever since her childhood, and for a time
after her marriage the doctors had thought that she could not live
This made it hard for the young couple to get ahead and start buy
ing a home. They had undertaken to buy one, however. On the
outskirts of the town, where the streets were unimproved and the
ground cheap, the father had built, almost entirely with his own
hands, the four-room cottage in which she and the children were
living. He had died suddenly of influenza, leaving the house not
entirely finished, and heavily mortgaged. Eight months later, the
mother began receiving aid to the amount of $35 per month, and
she did enough home washing to meet the deficit in her budget.
The change in home conditions brought by granting aid and giving
the service which should accompany it, was strikingly illustrated by
the S family, who came to the attention of the officials administering
allowances through the school. The teachers reported that the chil
dren were irregular in attendance, habitually tardy, and that they
were poorly clothed and appeared to be neglected. Their school
work was poor, and they frequently fell asleep over their lessons.
Investigation showed that the father had died the year before, leav
ing little to his wife and four small sons except the heavily mortgaged
ramshackle house in which they lived. They earned a scanty living
b y selling papers. The mother was frail, and she and the children
were out in all kinds of weather, often in rain-soaked shoes and too
thin clothing. They were up early in the morning to sell and were
often out until late at night. It was six years later that the writer
saw them in a comfortable homelike flat. The oldest boy held a
fairly good position and was going to night school. One boy was in
high school, and the others had good grade-school records.
With the sudden death of the husband want had come quickly
to many of the women and found them unprepared to meet it. They
did not know where to turn or how to adjust themselves to the
situation.
One brave-spirited woman with six children had tried to struggle
along with what she could make out of keeping a confectionery store,
at which she hoped that school children would buy. She had no
business training, and things went very badly. There were days
when her own children came from school to find not even bread, and
she saw them cry with hunger. But it was only when a kindly
neighbor, suspecting the truth, said to her, “ Look me in the eye and

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

PUBLIC

aid to children in th e ir o w n h o m es .

tell me whether you have had anything to eat to-day,” that the truth
came out, and public aid was arranged for the family.
Of another widow whose husband had died during an epidemic, a
friend told the case worker during the investigation: “ She is so inde
pendent that she would not let her best friends know that she is in
need. I am afraid that often there are times when they go to bed
hungry.”
.
,
The neighbors admired the pluck of a young wife who went ahead
with the farm work when her husband’s death from tuberculosis left
her alone with three small children. They did not realize that she
was in danger, until her health broke with the strain of lifting heavy
milk cans. When she was given a mother’s allowance she was over
joyed to learn that she might keep her farm home, suitable arrange
ments being made for lightening the work. She wanted country
life for her children, believing that she could in that way save them
from contracting their father’s disease.
A grant of aid given promptly, with a reasonable assurance of its
continuance and accompanied by the sort of kindly service which was
being given to a greater nr less extent in all the communities where
the study was made, was believed by all the officials and workers to
be the best possible way in which to meet such a situation as that in
which a mother of young children, without resources, finds herself
when deprived of the support of her husband. The most effective
help which the community can give to mothers who, under these
adverse circumstances, are using their best endeavors to bring up
their children to be useful and self-respecting citizens is just such a
grant, which will secure to them a regular income and relieve them
of at least a part of the economic pressure.

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DENVER.

Denver had in 1920 a total population of 256,491, of which 37,620,
or one-seventh, were foreign-born whites. Of these, the largest
number (14 per cent) came from Russia, and there were gradually
decreasing percentages from Germany, Sweden, England, Ireland,
Canada, Italy, Austria, Mexico, Poland, and a large number of other
countries.
ADMINISTRATION.

Aid to mothers with dependent children was administered in
Denver under a State law called the “ compensation to mothers
act.” 11 It permits the judge of the juvenile court to enter an order
on the city and county bureau of charities for any amount that he
may think necessary to enable a parent or other person whom he
considers a proper guardian for a dependent or neglected child to
give to the child the care needed. The law vests in the judge the
duty of appointing persons to investigate applications and supervise
families receiving this assistance. The secretary of the bureau of
charities of the city and county of Denver had been appointed for this
service, and the work was being done though that office.
The bureau of charities.

The bureau of charities of the city and county of Denver, func
tioning under the department of health and charities, administered
all outdoor relief from public funds, including pensions for the blind.
It could give relief only to legal residents of the county, but was
free from legal restrictions as to the amount and kind of relief in
any individual case. Although hampered by lack of funds, it had for
this reason been able to develop during the past 10 years a high
standard of social case work. All employes of this bureau 12 were
appointed by the board of charities subject to the approval of the
mayor and of the director of the department of health and charities.
There were no competitive examinations for these appointments.
The city was divided into five districts, and the field work in
each was done b y one of the district visitors. Along with her other
duties, each visitor investigated every application for a mother’s
allowance that originated in her district; but after an allowance
u Colorado Laws, 1913, p. 694; 1919, eh. 160.
is The employees were: Executive secretary, assistant secretary, supervisor of mothers’ compensation,
supervisor of homeless men, five district visitors, registrar, bookeeper, and two stenographers.

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

was granted the supervision of the family was cared for by a sixth
social case worker, who was assigned exclusively to the supervision ^
of mothers’ compensation cases.
Equipment of the workers.

The supervisor of mothers’ allowances had charge of all the families
receiving aid. She had been chosen from the staff because of her
special fitness for this particular work and her interest in it. A
college graduate, with experience in homemaking and the training
of children, she had been with the bureau for three years. The
secretary of the city bureau of charities devoted a part of her time to
the general direction of the work. She was a college graduate, and
had been director of case work in a large charity-organization society
before coming to the bureau six years before. The district visitors,
who did the general work of the bureau and who made the investiga
tions of applications for mothers’ allowances, were all trained case
workers.
Records.

The record kept of each family was similar to those in use among
the private organizations affiliated with the American Association
for Family Work. They were unusually full and well written.
Children eligible for aid, and amount of grant.

The Colorado law was a blanket one, which made no restrictions
beyond that of the dependency of the child in question, the residence
in the county of the parent or guardian, and the ability of the latter
to make a suitable home for the child, provided an income was assured.
Ownership of a home was not considered a bar. It was possible to
make the grant not only to a mother but to any person whom the
judge might consider a proper guardian for the child. In 3 of the 73
families granted aid at the time of this investigation the mother was
dead— in one of these cases a grant of $50 was made to a grandmother
who was caring for a family of four children; in another, a grant of
$25 was made to a grandmother who was caring for three; and in the
third instance an aunt with five children under her care was paid $55
a month. Among the applications which had not yet been acted
upon were two from fathers who were widowers.
The amount to be granted the individual family was determined
b y the family’s necessity, subject to the limitations of the appropria
tion for the purpose.
Procedure in granting aid.

Application was made by the mother at the juvenile court on a
blank provided for the purpose. This blank covered a full state
ment of property owned, insurance received, money in the bank,
income including wages of any employed member of the family, and

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

DENVER.

addresses of all relatives of the first degree and of the landlord.
These facts were sworn to by the applicant. The blank was then
sent to the city bureau of charities for inquiry into the circumstances
of the family, and the following facts were verified from public
records or other reliable sources:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Legal residence of the mother in State and county.
Marriage of parents, including former marital status.
Status of father— his death, incapacity, or desertion.
Dates of birth of children

5. Property interests, including insurance, amount of ready money, ownership of
real estate, etc.
6. Wages of employed members of the family.
7. School records of the children.

The additional sources of information habitually used were:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Other agencies to whom the family had been known
A ll the relatives of the first degree.
Physicians who had treated the family.
Former employers of any member of the family,
References given on the application by the mother.

The health history was very carefully looked into. If there had
been a serious illness or an operation the physician in the case was
consulted. A thorough physical examination was made of all
members whose health was questionable and the findings were in
cluded as part of the record. An unusually complete family history
was secured and recorded. It covered the conditions under which
the father and mother grew up, met, and married— their work records,
character, education, and training; the main facts in their lives after
their marriage— habits, standards of living, relations with church,
relatives, friends, and employers. The relatives living in Denver
were visited in order to secure their help in getting the main facts of
the family history, and their financial standing was ascertained as
well as their attitude toward the dependent family and their willing
ness and ability to help in ways other than financial.
When there were n6 funds available for a grant of compensation a
visit was made to the applicant, and the needs of the family were
met out o f funds for poor relief or the family was referred for aid to
one of the two private organizations in the city that gave relief.
When funds became available— which at the time could happen only
when a family already on the list ceased to receive compensation—
the case was brought into the juvenile court, and the results of the
investigation were submitted to the judge, with a recommendation.
The amount of the grant recommended was based on the differ
ence between an estimated budget of family expenses and the income
which the family had, or might be expected to have, under the plan
which had been worked out with them during the investigation.
The family budget was calculated according to a schedule adapted

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

from the one published by the Chicago Council of Social Agencies.
In making the adaptation, prices on which the Chicago figures were
based were compared with those in Denver, and actual family ex
penditures (which were being recorded by a number of reliable
families) were used in testing the accuracy of the schedule.
The hearings were held in the judge’s chambers, where also were
heard juvenile-court cases. The mother accompanied by a repre
sentative from the bureau of charities appeared before the judge,
but the children were not required to be present. She might ask
for a larger grant than had been recommended. This the mothers
seldom did, since the amount of the recommendation in each case
had been carefully worked out, always with her, and it usually had
her approval. Payments were in semimonthly installments. The
mother called for the warrant at the office of the city bureau of
charities, then called for her check at the office of the city treasurer.
Congestion in these offices was avoided b y the expedient of paying
the mothers on different days.
THE FAMILIES AIDED.

Children benefiting by grants.

There were 224 dependent children in 73 families who were re
ceiving aid through mothers’ allowances in June, 1921. Besides the
224 children aided, there were 30 older children in the homes, making
a total of 254 children at home in the 73 families. The number of
children receiving pensions in each family ranged from one to eight,
as shown in the following:
Number of children aided in family.

Number of families.

T o t a l .......................................................... - ................... ................... 73
One c h i ld .................. - ...........................................
.................................... 20
Two children................................ .. — ...............
.......................................... . . . 2 4
Three children.......................................................
..................................
8
Four children......................... .........................
....................................
9
Five children...........................................................
.............................. .......... 2
Six children...................... .......... ...........................
Seven children........................................................
........................... ........ 1
Eight children................................ - ......................

.....................iJ,__, 1

The ages of the 224 children receiving aid are shown in the following list:
Number of children.

Ages.

Total..............................................................
Under 4 years................. .......................................
4-5 years....... ...........................................................
6-7 years...................................................................
8-9 years...................................................... ............
10-11 years............................................... ..
^
12-13 years...............................................................
14-15 years— ............. ..........................................
16-17 years...................... ........................................

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...........................224
........................
. . . . . _______
........................
...................... ,
........... ............

19
26
34
33
41

.....................

........................
........................

25
5

DENVER.

Causes of dependency.

In 62 of the families dependency was caused by the death of the
father, in 3 eases the father was insane and in an institution, in 2 the
father and mother were divorced, in 2 others fathers had deserted
their families, and 1 father was in prison. The causes of dependency
in the other 3 cases was not reported.
Nativity of the mothers.

Half the mothers (36) were of foreign birth. Of these 12 were
born in Russia, 6 in Ireland, 4 in England, 3 in Canada, 3 in Italy,
3 in Sweden, 2 in Austria, 1 in Germany, 1 in Rumania, and 1 in
Scotland.
Inadequacy of funds.

Only 73 families were receiving aid in June, 1921, the appropria
tion made by the city council being inadequate to care for all the
families eligible for the relief. A tax levy of one-tenth of a mill was
voted to care for the 1921 work. This was expected to yield about
$35,000 for the year, a sum which would not quite eover expenditures
at the rate for June. During that month, $3,015 was paid to the
73 mothers for the support of the 224 dependent children. Because
of lack of funds no application made later than June, 1920, had been
granted. There were on the waiting list 82 families with a total of
227 dependent children. If, as in the past, 25 per cent of the appli
cants were found ineligible, relief for the families entitled to it, at
the average grant in June, 1921, of $13.40 per month per child, would
require an additional appropriation for the year of approximately
$27,000, while a further considerable appropriation would be needed
for the relief of those families becoming eligible during the last half
of 1921.
This inability to secure grants of compensation for all families who
came within the provisions of the law made it necessary for the city
bureau of charities to give relief to many mothers for long periods of
time, often for a year or over, out of funds allotted to poor relief,
before it became possible to get them mothers' compensation. It
was not generally the policy of the bureau to give cash grants when
administering poor relief, so that being cared for in this way meant
receiving aid for the most part in kind. This form of relief is not well
adapted to the care of the family of a widow of good character and
ability, whose period of needing aid will necessarily be long because
of her dependent children. There can be no question that independ
ence of spirit and self-respect are more easily preserved under a
system of relief which gives at regular intervals a stated amount on
which the mother may learn to administer her household.

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.
ASSISTANCE GIVEN.

Allowances.

The amounts of monthly allowances given to the 73 families were
as follows:
Monthly
allowance.

Number of
families.

Total................................................ . . .......... .........................................

$20-$24.........................................................................................................
25- 29......................
30- 34..........................
35- 39................. ........... ........... . . ......... . ........................... . . . 1. . . . . .
40- 44. . . . . . .....................................................
45- 49................... ..................................... ........................ ......................
50- 54....................
55- 59..........................................................................................................
60- 64........................
65- 69........................................................................................ ..' ...........
70- 74................................................................ : ............................... ..

6
12
5
3
17
5
12
1
8
1
3

Service to the families receiving aid.

The contact of the supervisor with the families receiving aid was
close and friendly. She had a short interview at the office with each
mother twice a month when the warrants were given out and aimed
also to visit each family in the home at least once in two months
although this visit was sometimes omitted in the case of well-known
families where the other contacts showed that conditions were
satisfactory. Those needing special attention were visited more
frequently.
The number of visits recorded as paid to each of the 73 families
during the six months’ period preceding June 1, 1921, was as follows:
Home visits.

Number of
families.

Total........................... ..............................................................................
Less than three....................................................................
Three........................................................
Four.................
F ive..............................................................
Six...............................................................................
Seven to ten .................................................................................................

73 >
15
14
20
6
7
11

Relationships with the mothers.— The spirit of the work was thor
oughly democratic and the personal dignity and self-respect of the
mothers were carefully fostered. Both the judge of the juvenile
court and the workers of the bureau made them feel that there was
no cause for humiliation in their being forced by misfortune to
receive from the public this help in the upbringing of their children.
Such treatment seemed to awake in them a feeling of responsibility
toward the acceptance of the aid. Of three mothers who came into
court during May, 1921, to have their grants revoked, two had them
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DENVER.

selves taken the initiative for this action. They felt that it was
^ possible for them to get along without the grants, and knew that
many other mothers were waiting for the allowances.
During the year before this study there had been formed an ad
visory council consisting of seven of the mothers, which met once a
month with the executive secretary and the supervisor of mothers’
allowances. This council took up questions relating to all the fami
lies such as the schedule for estimating the family budget, questions
of household management, and recreation plans for the children.
In the spring it had sent out a request for each mother to send in a
record of meals served for a period of two weeks. These had been
received, and were made the basis of discussion at one of the meetings
to which all the mothers were invited. Such meetings were held
occasionally and conducted by a president elected from their own
number. Their purpose was partly recreational. There was usually
a program of music and speaking, followed by a social hour.
Child welfare. The city bureau of charities regarded the mothers’
compensation department as a department of child welfare, and the
work of the supervisor was directed chiefly to the end of making sure
that the children were having wholesome living and growing condi
tions, with opportunities for normal mental and moral development.
She tried to individualize each child in the 73 families, and in the
attempt to do so had devised a child-welfare sheet for recording
habits and conditions.
Weighing and measuring tests.— Weighing and measuring tests had
been started and with the assistance of a nurse from each of the three
local organizations giving nursing service, 188 of the 224 children had
been weighed and measured. The children found underweight were
being examined by a physician, and measures were being taken to
correct remediable defects, so that the children would be in condition
to develop normally. Tonsillectomy had been advised in 14 cases,
the operation having already been performed in 3 cases and the date
set in 4 others. There were defective teeth in 40 instances; these
were being taken care of as rapidly as possible.
The supervisor talked with the mother about the health habits of
each child, covering the points indicated on the child-welfare sheet,
and planned with her changes necessary for the chiJU’s improvement.
She hoped that a nutrition clinic would be available later for children
who failed, under this treatment, to attain normal physical develop
ment.
School and employment— The school progress of each child was
watched, and the supervisor kept in touch with the teachers, so that
irregular attendance or poor records of any kind could receive imme-

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

diate attention. When the child was legally able to go to work the
question of the desirability of his doing so and the sort of employment ^
he was to enter received careful attention. Private scholarships were
sometimes obtained to keep especially promising students in school
after they had become eligible for working certificates, since it was
felt by the department that the public funds could not be used for
the purpose. This part of the service was adjusted carefully to the
needs of the individual. A bright girl ambitious to become a teacher
received not only scholarship money but a great deal of help in planning
her high-school course. A well-grown 14-year-old boy with mechani
cal ability, but uninterested in school, was permitted to stop school at
the seventh grade to enter a machine shop. A frail girl, who had.
formerly been tuberculous, was kept in school until she finished the
eighth grade at 16 years. She was then found work earing for
children in a place where health conditions were favorable, instead
of being left to drift into a factory as she inevitably would have done
if left to her own devices.
STANDARDS OF LIVING .14
Characteristics o f the fam ilies visited.

Visits were made to 23 homes, and an office interview was had with
one mother who was living temporarily in a tent. A full interview
was taken with each mother, covering the points reported upon below.
The families were chosen 15 mainly from those who had been receiving
compensation for two years or more, a few families being added who
represented certain nationality groups or a particular set of eireumstanees— such as the death of the father during the epidemic of in
fluenza in 1918.
Of these families, 1 had been receiving aid for something over six
years, 3* had been aided for five years, 3 for four, 5 for three, and
another group of 5 for two years, while 6 families had been aided for
one year, and 1 family for less than a year. All the mothers spoke
English well enough to carry on an ordinary conversation. Ten of
them were born in the United States, 1 being a negro. Of the 14
mothers of foreign birth, 4 were born in Russia, 3 in Ireland, 2 in
Sweden, and 1 each in Austria, Canada, England, Germany, and
Scotland. Families of from 1 to as many as 10 children were repre
sented, except that there was no family with 8 children. There were
9' families with 5 children, 6 families with 2, and 3 families with 3
children. In 8 families there were children too young for school;
in 11 families older children had left school and were working to help
support the family; in 3 other families an older child was working
after school or on Saturdays.
n Data were secured through home visits hy the writer,
is For general method of selection of families, see p. 1.

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DENVER.

Housing.

-v The bureau of charities encouraged most of the families to live
outside the crowded parts of the city. Among the 23 homes visited
13 were in cottages with a yard and garden, though most of them had
not as much ground space as the home of Mrs. D, an Austrian widow,
who with her five boys lived in the outskirts of the city, several
blocks from the end of the street-car line. Their four-room cottage
had enough ground surrounding it for a large garden, a chicken
yard, and a shed. The shed was for a cow, which furnished milk
for the neighbors as well as for the family. There was a root cellar
where the mother stored potatoes, carrots, beets, and other winter
vegetables, of which she raised enough for the year. It was a long
trip into the city, but her ambitious boys of 15 and 17 took it not
only to go to work but to attend clubs and evening classes. They
could get fishing and swimming within a few minutes’ walk from
the house.
Another cottage, located much closer to the city but on a quiet
street, was kept in spotless order by the Russian aunt of five orphaned
children. It had four well-lighted rooms and a summer kitchen,
and was set in a well-kept grassy lawn, with a garden at the rear.
The water was carried from a well in the yard; the toilet was outside.
Ten of the mothers owned the cottages in which they lived, and the
families took great pride in improving them. The other 11 fami
lies in the group visited were living in apartments or “ terraces.”
The terraces, only one story high, had three or four rooms, built
one behind the other, two or three terraces being built in a solid
row. In one ease, the middle room was without an outside window;
the other terraces and the flats were fairly well lighted and venti
lated.
Household equipment.

In all except two of the homes visited there was a pleasant sitting
room with simple furniture, usually a rug or carpet for the floor,
comfortable chairs, a table, occasionally a few shelves with books,
and in a few instances a piano. The houses were heated by stoves—
a cooking range for the kitchen and a heating stove for winter use
in the sitting room. Nine of the houses had gas light and a gas
plate or range for cooking. A few with no gas had a summer kitchen,
which mitigated the discomfort of cooking on the coal range during
the hot weather, which in Denver was a comparatively short season.
There were electric lights in 12 of the houses, and 10 of the house
keepers had an electric iron as well. In 17 homes there were enough
beds to allow one for each two persons in the family, furnished with
covers enough to make open windows in cold weather possible, and
with enough linen for cleanliness. Sleeping arrangements in the

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

other homes were less comfortable. Six of the mothers were sleep
ing with two of their children and four had insufficient covers o r ^
linen. The kitchen equipment was in practically all instances
sufficient.
Food.
Selection of food showed that careful instruction in diet had been
given, since a much larger proportion of the women were making
a wise choice than could be expected from a group who had no
special training.
Among the menus handed in were these from the mother of nine
children, two of whom were working:
BR EAKFAST.

D IN N E R .

SU PPER.

Monday.
Cream of wheat for 6.
Toast and butter for 4.
Coffee for 4.
Milk for 6.

Baked potatoes and butter
for 8.
Creamed carrots.
Bread and butter.
Cocoa.

Soup, boiled meat, potatoes.
Bread and butter.
Chocolate pudding.

Lunches for 2:
Ham sandwiches.
Bananas.

Tuesday.
Rolled oats for 6.
Milk toast for 4.
Toast and butter.
Coffee for 4
Milk for 6.

Boiled potatoes for 8.
Cold boiled meat.
Bread and butter.
Cocoa.
Lunches for 2:
Meat sandwiches.
Pears, cake.

Boiled potatoes.
Cabbage and spare ribs.
Bread and butter.
Apple dumplings.
Tea for 4.
Milk for 6.

Wednesday.
Cream barley.
Coffee for 4.
Milk for 6.
Toast and butter.

Tomato soup.
Fried apples.
Fried potatoes.
Bread and butter.
Lunches for 2:
Hamburger sandwiches.
Apples, cookies.

Steak (round).
Fried onions.
Cabbage slaw.
Mashed potatoes.
Bread, butter, jelly.
Tea for 4.
Milk for 6.

All the mothers took at least 1 quart of fresh milk, and 16 of the
24 families for whom fairly full information about food habits was
available bought enough milk to allow at least a pint for each child
daily. All of them reported enough meat and other high protein
foods, and cereals were used b y all. Vegetables and fruits were used

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DENVER.

in quantities far above the average found among families living on
-sm a ll incomes. In 21 families they were a part of the daily diet.
This result seems to have been accomplished through the encourage
ment of garden making and canning as well as by instruction in diet.
The extent to which the use of coffee by the children had been elimi
nated was noteworthy; it was given to very few of the children.
Clothing.

The mothers and children seen in their homes were neat in their
personal appearance and suitably clothed. A sewing machine was
a part of the equipment of each household and was being used in
every case. Many of the mothers were very clever at making over
old clothing and using remnants to advantage. One was making
union suits of flour sacks for her little boy.
Housekeeping and household management.

The management of income was careful and intelligent in all
except two families; in these the mothers were mentally subnormal.
Vegetables for the winter were stored whenever possible. Tomatoes
and other vegetables were canned at home, and sauerkraut, jellies,
preserves, and pickles were made. Buying was done in large quan
tities— flour and sugar were bought by the hundredweight.
Clothing was kept well mended, and the simpler garments at least
were made at home. Some of the mothers did quite ambitious
tailoring.
Sixteen of the homes were clean and orderly. Housekeeping
standards in the others were only fairly good.
Education and recreation.

In all except 3 of the 23 homes visited there was a daily newspaper,
and in 9 there was a magazine in addition. Many of the homes con
tained a number of books, and the public library was used more or
less by most of the families, especially where there were older
children.
Activities connected with church and Sunday school were a part
of the recreational life of practically every family of the group.
Fishing, swimming, ball playing, and other outdoor sports were
common among the families who lived in the city outskirts. Summer
outings had been arranged for many of the boys and girls who had
no friends whom they might visit in the country. The mothers in
most instances belonged to at least one club, which either carried
insurance or was connected with the school.
Insurance and savings.

The mothers carried insurance for themselves and for the children
over 16. In Colorado, at that time, younger children could not be
insured. Most of the families had small savings accounts— usually
less than $50— which could be used for emergencies.

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PUBLIC

aid to children in th eir o w n h o m es .

Work of the mothers.

Fourteen of the 24 mothers were earning money— 5 working at ^
home, and 9 outside the home. One of the latter group was a
janitress of a school building, 2 others were away from home four
days a week, and the others for one or two days. In each case, the
arrangement for the care of the children while the mother was away
appeared to be satisfactory. In 3 families, older children were
responsible for younger ones after school, and in the others a relative
or a nursery cared for them.

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STATE PROVISIONS AFFECTING LOCAL ADM INISTRATION IN
M INNESOTA.

Two Minnesota counties were included in the study— Hennepin,
containing Minneapolis, the largest city in the State, and Yellow
Medicine, a rural county with a population of only 22 persons per
square mile.
PROVISIONS OP THE LAW.

The original Minnesota law providing for county aid to mothers
with dependent children was passed in 1913. This act was repealed
in 1917, when a new law was enacted. Amendments were passed in
1919 and 1921.16 Under certain conditions the judge of a juvenile
court who finds a child to be dependent may order payment for his
support to the mother out of the county funds. The law requires
that investigation of all applications for such relief shall be made,
and that the families receiving such allowances shall be visited b y a
representative of the court at least once in three months. In counties
of less than 33,000 population— to which type Yellow Medicine
County belongs— the probate judge is judge of the juvenile court.
Under this law aid can be granted to a mother (or stepmother)
whose husband is dead, imprisoned, in a State asylum, totally,
incapacitated physically, or who for more than one year has been
under indictment for abandoning his children. The mother must have
resided in the State for two years and in the county for one; she
must be a citizen of the United States or she or her husband must
have made declaration of intention to become one. The mother must
be of good character, and have a child or children under 16 years of
age at home with her, and aid must be essential in order that the
child or children may be brought up properly with the mother in her
home.. A mother is not disqualified for an allowance because of the
ownership of a home, which is not disproportionate to the needs of the
family, or the possession of personal property not exceeding $100 in
value, exclusive of suitable clothing, household equipment, and such
implements and domestic animals as the court feels it advisable for
her to retain. In Hennepin County, the amount of equity in a home
allowed at the time of the study was $1,500.
The aid can also be drawn by a grandmother, if the court believes
that it is for the best interests of the dependent child to live in her
home and if she fulfills the conditions outlined above for the mother.
16 Laws of Minnesota, 1913, ch. 130; 1917, ch. 233; 1919, chs. 328 and 333; 1921, chs. 435 and 316.

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OW N'H OM ES.

In June, 1921, the law was amended so that the mother may
receive a maximum allowance of $20 for one child and $15 for each ^
of her other children, instead of $15 for one child and $10 for each
additional child, as previously provided.17
COUNTY CHILD-WELFARE BOARDS.

A State act of 191718 authorizes the Minnesota State Board of
Control to appoint a child-welfare board for any county when
requested to do so by its board of county commissioners.19 The
county superintendent of schools and a member of the board of
county commissioners serve as members of the child-welfare board
b y virtue of their offices; three (or five) additional members are,to
be appointed by the-State board of control, at least two of whom
must be women. These members serve without pay during the
pleasure of the State board.
In counties where there is a county board of child welfare, this
board, when so requested by the court, considers applications for
allowances to mothers and advises the court in each case as to whether
or not the allowance should be granted, the amount needed, and the
conditions under which the grant should be made.
STATE SUPERVISION.

In regard to the duties of the State board of control the law states:
It shall be the duty of the State board of control to promote efficiency and uniformity
in the administration of this act (concerning mothers’ allowances). To that end it
shall advise and cooperate with courts and shall supervise and direct county child
welfare boards with respect to methods of investigation, oversight and record keeping;
shall devise, recommend and distribute blank forms; shall by its agents visit and
inspect families to which allowances have been made; shall have access to all records
and other data kept by courts and other agencies concerning such allowances; and may
require such reports from clerks of the courts, child-welfare boards, probation officers
and other official investigators as it shall deem necessary.20

The law also provides for the reimbursement of the county by the
State to the extent of one-third of the sum paid out in allowances,
provided the expenditure is indorsed by the State board of control,
and gives the State board power to refuse this indorsement if the
allowances have been improperly made. Since no appropriation
for the purpose had been made by the State, at the time of this study
the counties were bearing the full expense, and the power of the State
board to withhold indorsement was of no effect.21
Laws of Minnesota, 1921, ch. 435.
18 Laws of Minnesota, 1917, ch. 194.
17

w See “ County child-welfare hoards,” p p .27-31, County Organization for Child Care and Protection.
U . S. Department of Labor, Children’s Bureau Publication No. 107. Washington, 1922.
88 Compilation of the Laws of Minnesota Relating to Children, 1921, p. 99 sec. 12.
21 See Proceedings of Conference on Mothers’ Pensions, pp. 23-24. TJ. S. Department of Labor, Children’s
Bureau Publication No. 109. Washington, 1922.

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MINNESOTA.

Of the 86 counties of the State, 71 had organized child-welfare
boards.22 The State board of control worked through these local
boards for the welfare of the dependent and delinquent children of
the State. It employed in' its children’s bureau a case supervisor
and five field representatives who were trained case workers. The
field workers visited each county at least once in two months. In
the 30 counties where the judge had requested the help of the county
boards of child welfare in the granting of allowances for dependent
children, the field representative, on her periodical visits to the
county, went over these cases along with the other work of the childwelfare board. Where members of the local board themselves made
the investigations the field representative went over the reports with
those members. In many instances reports of investigations were
sent in to the office of the children’s bureau and gone over carefully
there.
The State board provided forms for the use of the county boards
in keeping ease records, and a schedule for estimating household
budgets for the families receiving allowances. The forms provided
were face cards, blanks for physicians’ reports, for school, Sundayschool, and church attendance, and for work records.
22 Information secured by letter from case supervisor of the Children’s Bureau, Minnesota State Board
of Control, dated June 6, 1922.

43711°— 23----- 5

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HENNEPIN COUNTY, M IN N . (M INNEAPOLIS).

Hennepin County had in 1920 a population of 415,419, of which
number 380,582 were in Minneapolis and 3,055 in other urban
centers, the urban population thus forming 92 per cent and the
rural 8 per cent of the total. The foreign-born white inhabitants
of the county numbered 94,132, or 23 per cent. Of these, 30 per
cent were from Sweden, 18 per cent from Norway, 8 per cent from
Canada, 8 per cent from Germany, 7 per cent from Russia, and 5
per cent from Poland, while there were considerable numbers from
England, Denmark, Austria, and Czechoslovakia, and smaller numbers
from other countries.
ADMINISTRATION.

The advisory committee.

A committee of the county child-welfare board, which met weekly,
considered all applications for this form of aid and advised the
juvenile court- about the proper action to be taken in each case
The secretary of the Child-Welfare Board of Hennepin County was
the chairman of this advisory committee, and he was also the execu
tive secretary of the Public-Welfare Department of the City of
Minneapolis. This made a very close and desirable connection
between the mothers’ aid work and the outdoor public relief work
of the city. Where it was not possible under the law to grant
enough aid to a mother with dependent children for the proper
support of her family the case could readily be referred for con
sideration by the committee to the public-welfare department of
the city, which customarily supplemented the income to whatever
extent was necessary. The other two members of the advisory
committee were trained case workers, who held supervisory positions
in the two large private relief organizations of the city. This made
still another connecting link in the social-service work of the city,
since many of the families aided had been known to one or the other
of these two organizations before becoming applicants for public aid.
These private organizations supplemented the income in a few
exceptional cases, where for some reason sufficient help was not
received through the juvenile court and the public-welfare depart
ment combined.
Division of work.

A special department for mothers’ allowances had been created in
the juvenile court. It had a staff of five workers called “ investiga59

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PUBUC

aid to children in th eir o w n h o m es .

tors,” who were directly under the supervision of the chief probation
officer. The county was divided into five districts. Each investi-^
gator made the initial investigation and was responsible for the work
in her own territory. One who had a good deal of rural territory
had the supervision of 35 families, while each of the others super
vised from 42 to 46 families. On May 1, 1921, 207 families were
receiving aid.
Records.

The records consisted of the application (a blank filled out with
information given by the applicant), the correspondence relating to
the case, and a history sheet on which was entered, in long-hand,
records of visits and interviews. Since the department had merely
the part-time services of one stenographer only the correspondence
and the summaries for the advisory committee were typed. The
records were not adequate, because there was too little time to keep
them up to date in this laborious way.
Equipment of the workers.

All the investigators were graduates of either a high school or a
normal school. In addition, one had graduated from college, two
had done some college work, and a fourth had taken a short course
in a school of social work. In the matter of previous experience in
social-service work, one had been for two years a visiting house
keeper in a charity-organization society, three had done volunteer
work with the American Red Cross and with settlements, and the
fifth had for one year been a case correspondent for the American
Red Cross.
Procedure in granting aid.

The mother made her application for aid at the juvenile court in
the county building, where she was interviewed first by an employee
of the court on points which related to her legal eligibility. If he
believed her to be eligible, he sent her to the office of the mothers’
allowance department, where she was interviewed by the investigator
in whose district she lived. The investigator later verified the facts
given b y the mother as to (1) citizenship; (2) residence; (3) status of
father, including his death, incapacity, imprisonment, or indictment
for abandonment; (4) marriage; (5) births of children; (6) property
interests; and (7) wages of any employed member of the family.
The school records of the children were secured, and also full informa
tion concerning the state of health of each member of the family.
If there were relatives, their financial standing and obligations were
looked into.
When the inquiry was finished to the satisfaction of the chief
probation officer, the investigator made a summary and an estimate

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HENNEPIN COUNTY, M INN.

(MINNEAPOLIS).

of the family budget. A typed copy of this material was given to
each member of the advisory committee before the day of the weekly
meeting at which the case was to be considered. The following
summary, showing the form as presented when the application was
first acted upon by the advisory committee, and then the forms used
when the case was twice brought back for readjudication, will indicate
the method used and the advantages of the plan:
investigator ’ s su m m ary .

N o .-------- - .
Name of applicant:--------- .
Age: 32 years.
Residence in county: 4 years.
Property: None. Valuation: ---------- .
Marriage: December 3, 1909.
Address:---------- .
Name of husband: ---------- .
Names and ages of children under 16:
Thomas. November 6, 1915, Ra
cine, Wis.
Jennie. September 26, 1917, Ra
cine, Wis.
Fannie. April 30, 1920, Minneap
olis, Minn.
Names and ages of children over 16:
None.
Employment and possible income of
family: Woman can do day’s work.
Insurance received or prospective: None.
Had $1,000 Court of Honor insurance;
lapsed two years ago.
Budget of family expenses............ $102.94
Rent.............................................
Food.............................................
Clothing........ .............................
Fuel........................ . . . ................
Miscellaneous......................... ..

50.00
28.59
10.60
8.50
5.25

A ugust 25, 1921.
Minneapolis, Minn. August 4.
Birthplace: ---------- , Norway.
In State: 6 years. In United States 13
years.
Tax: None. Mortgage.
Citizenship: Yes; husband took last
paper January 27, 1920.
Rooms: 12. Rent: $50.

Income from rooms..........................

$40.00

Deficit.................. ................................

62.94

List of relatives:
— ----------------- brother of No. 1. Day laborer, Racine, Wis.
---------------------- sister of No. 1. Racine, W is., says she can not help.
Remarks and recommendations.— M r .---------- died at General Hospital, July 25,1921,
of diabetes. Had been ill about two months. The family is living in 12-room house,
paying a rental of $50. M rs.---------- rents out some rooms, earning about $40 a month
from roomers. She does not own the furniture, but was buying it from a former land
lady on a partial-payment basis. Now plans to give up this large house, returning
furniture and keeping only sufficient to furnish a few rooms. It is recommended
that maximum county aid be granted, the mother to earn the deficit. One day a
week outside work should take care of the deficit.
D ecision .— Grant of $50 a month recommended. To be reconsidered when family
moves.

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PUBIAC aid to children in their ow n homes .
Readjudication.

N ovember 10, 1921.
N o .---------- .
N a m e :---------------------- .
A d d ress:---------------------- .
B udget........................................

$67.94

Rent.......................... ...................
Food.....................
Clothes............ ...........................
Fuel ..........................................
Miscellaneous...........................

15.00
28.59
10.60
8.50
5.25

D ecision .— Referred to board of public

Remarks.— Mrs. ---------has moved,
given up roomers, and expects to be con
fined some time in February. She is
now doing one washing a week, and earns
about $9 per month. She will need
more help later. Case is brought back for
plan to make up the deficit in the
budget.

slfare for aid to make up deficit in budget.

Readjudication.

F e b r u a r y 23, 1922.
N o.---------- .
N a m e :---------------------- .
A d d ress:---------------------- .
Children:
Thomas, November 6, 1915.
Jennie, September 26, 1917.
Fannie, April 30, 1920.
Stanley, January 30, 1922.

Budget

........................

Rent.............................................
Food.............................................
Clothes........................................
Fuel .........................................
Miscellaneous...........................

$77.00
15.00
38.90
13.60
8.50
6.00

Remarks.— Stanley was born January 30, 1922, at General Hospital. Maximum
allowance is recommended. Board of public welfare is supplementing $10 per month.
D ecision.— $65. Deficit referred to board of public welfare.

The judge held a private hearing each week for the mothers’ allow
ance cases. The mother was notified and might, if she chose, be
present. Ordinarily she did not come, as the court hearing was per
functory in cases where the investigator, the chief probation officer,
and the committee were agreed as to the action that should be taken.
If a legal point was involved, the judge tried the case and a lawyer
might appear on either or both sides. If the mother was dissatisfied
with the action recommended by the committee, she could protest.
This occasionally happened. In a court session attended by the
writer one mother protested against the discontinuance of her allow
ance. The judge went over with her carefully the estimated budget
and the income. She acknowledged that the income was correct, and
he explained that it covered their estimate of her necessary expend
itures and that the allowance could not be continued.
THE FAMILIES AIDED.

Children benefiting by grants.

In May, 1921, 207 families were receiving allowances for 655
dependent children, there being a total of 708 children in the homes.
Two, three, and four children in a family were most frequent, and
the largest number of children in any family was eight. The size
of the families was reported as follows:

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HENNEPIN COUNTY, MINN. (MINNEAPOLIS).

Number of children
Number of
aided in family.
families.
T otal... . . . ........... ........................... ......................................... .................. 207
O ne..............................................................................................................................
T w o ................................
T h ree.. ............... ........ .'. - - ................................................ ........................... ..
Four . .................................... .......................................................................... ..........
F i v e . . . .. . . . . . . . -V ................ ................ .......................... ............ .............. ..
Six.................... ....................................v ......... - .......................................................
Seven.................................... ...... - . . . . --------- - - .........- ......................................
E ight................................

16
55
02
45
17
8
3
1

The ages of the children receiving aid were as follows:
Age.
Total......... ........................

Number of
children.
654

Under 4 years................ .............. . . ..................... ................................................ 101
104
4-5 years......................................
6-7 years......... .................................................................................- - - ...................103
8-9 years..................................................................................... - - - - - - - ...............HO
10-11 years............... ............................................................................................... 94
12-13 years............................................................- ................................. ............... 96
14-15 years........... .............................................. - - - T....................... — ............. 43
Not reported..................................................................................
3

Causes of dependency.

Allowances had been granted to 123 families because of the death
of the father, to 67 because the father was incapacitated, to 11 because
he had deserted, and to 6 because he was in prison.
Residence and nativity of the mothers.

Six of the 207 families receiving aid lived in .Hennepin County out
side the city of Minneapolis; the others all resided within the city.
Slightly over one-half (108) of the mothers were foreign born, and
96 were native born; the nativity for 3 mothers was not reported. Of
the foreign born, 29 were from Sweden, 20 from Norway, 16 from
Poland, 13 from Russia, 5 each from Finland, Rumania, and Austria,
3 each from Hungary, Germany, and Italy, 2 each from Denmark and
Canada, 1 each from England and Switzerland.
ASSISTANCE GIVEN.

Allowances.

The allowance was paid in monthly installments at the county build
ing. In May, 1921, 207 families were receiving allowances, as follows:
Monthly allowance.

Total............................................................... ............. .

Number of
families.

267

Less than $15........................... - ........- ................ — - - *....... ............- - - 12
$15-$19.................................................................................. - ................ 13
$20-$24.......... ........................................................ .................................. ' 11
41
$25-$29
8
$30-$34
$35-$39

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PUBLIC ATI) TO CHILDREN HU THEIR OWN HOMES.
Monthly allowance.

Number of
families.

$ 4 0 -$ 4 4 ............... .

.....

$ 4 5 -$ 4 9 .................
$ 5 0 -$ 5 4 .................
$ 5 5 -$ 5 9 .................

...... 22
...... 6
.........

$60-$64. . . . . . . .

.....

$ 6 5 -$ 6 9 .................

; __
__ _
. . .. .
......

7
l
l
l

$ 9 0 -$ 9 4 .................

.....

$95-i$ 9 9 .................

.....

$ 7 5 -$ 7 9 .................
$ 8 0 -$ 8 4 .................
$ 8 5 -$ 8 9 .................

Service to the families receiving aid.

Visits to the families at least once in three months were required by
law. The mothers’ allowance department had adopted the rule of
visiting them at least once in two months, and oftener when more
attention was needed. The relationship between the mother of the
family and the visitor appeared to be friendly. The visits recorded
during the six months’ period preceding May 1,1921, for the 167 fami
lies who had received aid during the full period were as follows:
Home visits made.

Number of

families.

Total.........................................................................................................
Less than three...............................................
Three..........................................
F ou r....................................................................
F ive................................’ .................................................. ........................................
Six......................
More than s ix ..........................................................................................................
Number not reported............................................................................................

167
21
55
38
29
13
9
2

The visitors also planned to be in the office on the day appointed for
their mothers to come for the allowances, so that they might, if de
sired, be interviewed at that time.
The allowance was reconsidered for revision at least once a year,
and oftener if the circumstancess had changed.
The health of the mother and the children received a great deal of
attention. Children under two years were placed under the super
vision of the Infant-Welfare Society, which gave instruction in feeding
and care. When remediable defects were suspected, plans were at
once made for examination and treatment. Minneapolis had excel
lent clinics where free treatment could be secured.
The mothers were asked to keep expense accounts and were required
to present a summary of the past month’s expenses and income when
they came for their allowances. These accounts were made the basis
of conferences on the management of income. The visitors gave
some instruction in diet and referred the mothers for further instruc
tion to feeding clinics and nutrition classes.

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HENNEPIN COUNTY, M IN N .

(MINNEAPOLIS).

,When necessary, where the standards were low, the visitors helped
^ the mothers to formulate plans for housekeeping. For one household
that had been very disorderly the visitor had made out a program of
duties for each child, which was kept on the kitchen wall, and she had
also succeeded in bringing about a regular mealtime in a home where
the eating had always been haphazard.
The visitors sometimes secured scholarships to keep children in
school after they had reached legal working age. An earnest effort
was made to have the foreign-speaking mothers learn English, and
the facilities for home teaching offered by the board of education
were used for the purpose.
STANDARDS OF LIVING .23

Characteristics of the families visited.

Out of the 207 families receiving aid May 1, 1921, visits were made
to 24 families. They were chosen from the list of those who had
been receiving aid for the longest periods.24
Period of aid
(years).

Number of
families.

Total..................... ......... .............................. ......................................... 24
Seven.....................................................................................
Six...............................
Five........................................- .............................- ......................... - ............ - -------Four.......................................................................................... ...................- ..............
Three........... . ..................................t ........................................................................ ..
Two..................
One................................................................................................................

4
2
2
4
6
3
1

In 11 families, there were children too young to go to school. In
5 families, older children were working and contributing to the sup
port of the family.
In 1 family there was but one child, in another there were eight;
in each of 9 families there were three children, 5 families had two,
another 3 had four, while there were 2 families each with five children
and 3 families with six.
All the mothers visited spoke English well enough to carry on an
ordinary conversation about household affairs. As to nativity,
seven were born in the United States, six in Sweden, three in Austria,
two in Poland, and two in Norway, while Denmark, Kussia, Italy,
and Hungary were each represented by one mother.
Housing.
Twelve of the 24 homes were cottages of four or five rooms, with
good yards and garden space. One was old and out of repair; the
others were in good condition. Six were owned by the families, who
seemed to take great pride in keeping the property in good condition.
The other 12 families were living in flats; all except 3 of these were
23 Data were secured through home visits made by the writer.
24 For general method of selection of families see p. 1.

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

light, well ventilated, in good residence neighborhoods, and had suit
able play space for the children. All the homes had running water and
inside toilets, but no bathrooms. Two flats were overcrowded and
were in undesirable neighborhoods; one family lived in a basement
slightly below street level.
Household equipment.

In 18 of the 24 homes there was a pleasingly furnished sitting
room, with provision for heating it in winter; enough beds, with
sufficient linen and coverings so that not more than two persons need
occupy one and allowing for proper separation of the sexes; and the
necessary equipment for a family meal and the care and preparation
of food, for sewing, and for cleaning and laundry work.
In six families there was overcrowding in the sleeping arrange
ments— three children in one bed or two children sleeping with the
mother. In two of these instances there were not enough bed linen
and coverings.
Three of the homes had electric lights; the others had gas for
lighting and for summer cooking. One mother who had been re
ceiving an allowance for seven years, and who supplemented it by
doing home laundry, had installed electric lights in her house during
that period, and had bought an electric iron.
Food.
The selection of food showed that the mothers had received con
siderable instruction in diet. Many of the families were under the care
of some health agency— such as the University of Minnesota dispen
sary— and received instruction from this source as well as through
the visitor from the juvenile court. Moreover, many of them had
previously been dependent on one of the two private relief organi
zations, which included health instruction in their case work.
The amount of milk consumed indicated that very careful work
had been done in teaching its importance in the diet of children.
Twenty of the 24 families interviewed were using at least one pint
daily for each child and one-half pint for each adult. Meat was
served in some of the families every day, and in others only once a
week; but in all cases but one there appeared to be no question that
the protein in the diet was sufficiently high. In two families the
use of meat was somewhat excessive and might well have been partly
replaced by milk and vegetables.
The use of vegetables and fruit appeared to be adequate in 17
families; that is, there were potatoes with an additional vegetable
and some fruit in the daily menu. In the 7 families where these
foods were not used in sufficient quantities, some of the mothers said
that the children would not eat vegetables, and the others that the
money to buy them was lacking.

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HENNEPIN" COUNTY, M IN N .

(MINNEAPOLIS).

For one family the food was felt to be inadequate; that is, the
.^mounts of milk, vegetables, fruit, and possibly of high-protein foods
were insufficient.
Clothing.

In 22 of the 24 families the clothing appeared to be adequate; in 2
families it was noticeably poor in appearance and insufficient for
proper protection in cold weather. The children were not seen in all
instances, but the mother told of the contents of their wardrobe and
usually showed some of the garments. All the mothers did plain
home sewing, and some did skillful work in home dressmaking.
Education and recreation.

All the children of compulsory school age were in either public or
parochial schools. Three children of over 14 years were in high
school on private scholarships which the case visitors had arranged
for them.
One family took neither a newspaper nor a magazine; the other
families had either a daily or a weekly paper, and eight had in addi
tion a magazine or a church paper. The public library was used for
additional reading material by a number of the families. Of the 15
mothers born in non-English-speaking countries, all had learned some
English and 4 were continuing their study of it.
For the children in most of these homes there was play space
where ball playing, roller skating, and coasting were possible.
The boys of three families belonged to the B oy Scouts. Some of
the mothers belonged to a settlement class. Most of the families
went occasionally to picture shows. The social activities connected
with church, Sunday school, and school took a large place in their
lives.
Examples of families aided.

The stories which follow give pictures of homes which were typical
of those visited:
Mrs. L, a Swedish woman, had been receiving aid for six years.
She and her three children had four rooms in a pleasant corner house,
which sheltered also three other families. The neighborhood was one
of comfortable, plain houses. There was a large back yard which
had never been used for a garden, and since the house stood on the
corner lot there was an air of outdoor roominess about it.
Inside, the exquisitely clean kitchen was well equipped with the
necessary cooking utensils and dishes, a dining table, a refrigerator,
a washing machine, and a good kitchen range. The sitting room had
a nice carpet, comfortable chairs, a table, and a pianola.
There was a bed in each of the two bedrooms, each with a good
mattress and sufficient linen and coverings. Mrs. L and her 9-year
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PUBLIC aid to children in their ow n homes .

old boy occupied one of these beds; the two girls had the other.
She was trying to plan for the boy a day bed in the sitting room.
^
The food was good. Two quarts of milk were taken daily, usually
1 pound of meat, a fresh vegetable besides potatoes (ordinarily car
rots, spinach, beets, or onions), and tomatoes, rhubarb, or some kind
of fruit, such as oranges or prunes. The breakfast consisted of cooked
cereal and milk. Besides the advice Mrs. L had received from the
visitor she had had excellent instruction in diet from the university
dispensary, where she was taking treatment; formerly she had also
had instruction from a visiting housekeeper of the associated charities.
The clothing was very neat and clean. The mother said she was
careful to see that the children had good shoes in bad weather, and
that their feet were kept dry.
The family took a daily paper and a magazine. The whole family
went to a picture show about twice a month. The children went
regularly to Sunday school, and had a good deal of recreation in
connection with their school.
Mrs. L, who had apparently been accustomed to a good and whole
some standard of living, seemed able with her allowance to get all
that she needed, except that she could not replace household furnish
ings as they gave out. Her sheets were nearly worn out, and she
had only just enough dishes left to set the table. The estimated
budget for the family was $77. She received an allowance of $65,
and had earned during the previous six months an average of $16.60
a month.
Mrs. E had been receiving aid for two and one-half years. Her
husband had built the three-room cottage in the outskirts of the city,
which she was occupying with her two little boys. Everything
about the house was very clean and orderly. There were wellfurnished beds, and the kitchen contained all the necessary equipment
for cooking and serving food, and for cleaning and laundry work.
The children were neatly dressed. On the occasion of the visit
Mrs. E was busy mending woolen underwear, which was to serve for
a second season.
The food was excellently chosen. The physician had recom
mended for the mother a special diet in which milk and fresh vege
tables were prominent. Three quarts of milk and fresh vegetables
were taken each day, with apples in the winter, and either oranges or
dried fruit when apples were out of season. The family seldom had
meat, not even once a week, but eggs were used frequently.
The estimated budget was $50.41 and the aid received was $35.
The mother earned the additional $16 by doing laundry work at
home. She said that she had bought no new household furnishings
or equipment, but that the original supply was sufficient for the
present.

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YELLOW M EDICINE COUNTY, M IN N .

Yellow Medicine County, in the west-central part of Minnesota,
is the one distinctly rural community included in the study. It is
a county of large farms, devoted for the most part to grain raising.
In 1920 the three largest towns were Canby with a population of
1,754, Granite Falls with 1,251, and Clarkfield with 724. A few
other villages had two to three hundred people each. The total
population of the county in 1920 was 16,550, of whom 2,808, or 17
per cent, were foreign-born whites; of these over half were from
Norway, nearly one-fifth from Germany, nearly one-seventh from
Sweden; smaller numbers had come from Denmark, Poland, and
many other countries.
ADMINISTRATION.

As Yellow Medicine was a county of less than 33,000 inhabitants
the probate judge was judge of the juvenile court and had power
to grant allowances under the State law.25
At the request of the county board of commissioners, the State
board of control had appointed a child-welfare board for the county.
Since no funds had been appropriated for an executive secretary
to this board the local chapter of the American Red Cross gave the
services of its executive secretary to the board, and she acted also
as a volunteer probation officer of the juvenile court. She investi
gated applications for mothers’ allowances and visited the families
while they were receiving aid. She was the one trained social case
worker in the county.
Supervision by the State board of control.

The field representative of the children’s bureau of the State
board of control visited the county about once in two months and,
along with her other work for dependent, delinquent, and illegitimate
children, advised with the local workers in regard to families receiv
ing mothers’ allowances. She had visited some of the families with
the secretary of the county child-welfare board. Especially in one
instance where there were problems of delinquency she had gone
carefully into them and given advice about procedure.
Household budgets were estimated with the aid of the schedule
furnished b y the State board. Case records were kept, in the form
advised, on the face card and blanks for reports from schools,
employers, and physicians, which were supplied b y the State board.

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publjc aid to children in their o w n homes .

Procedure in granting aid.

' The application for mothers’ aid might be made to the judge of
the juvenile court, to any member of the child-welfare board, or to
the executive secretary, who had an office in the county courthouse.
The secretary made an investigation of each application, verifying
the marriage, the birth dates of the children, the death or incapacity
of the husband, and the citizenship and residence requirements.
She carefully checked up the property interests of everyone respon
sible for the support of the family, consulting tax lists and the
records of the assessor’s office. The results of this investigation
were usually presented to the child-welfare board at its regular
monthly meeting; but if the meeting was a long way off and the
applicant was in need, the judge granted aid after consulting inform
ally with one or more members of the board. The whole process
in this county was naturally much less formal than in more thickly
populated places. The juvenile-court judge knew more or less
intimately most of the older residents of the county, and he had
easy access to information that would be hard to secure in cities.
A budget was estimated for each family, using the schedule fur
nished by the State board. The amount granted was the difference
between the budget and the income the family had through earnings, gifts from relatives, and other sources, provided that this was
not beyond the maximum allowed by law. The mother appeared
before the judge when the grant was made.
The allowance money was paid from the county treasury, and
there was no lack of funds to meet the grants ordered by the court.
THE FAMILIES AIDED.

On May 1, 1921, nine families were receiving allowances. The
fathers of all these families were dead.
In seven instances a separate home was being maintained, in one
case by the grandparents who were caring for the children. One
family was living in the home of grandparents, and one mother was
with her child in a home in which she was working as housekeeper.
Two families had received aid for one year but less than two.
Five had received aid for two years, one for three years, and the
ninth for eight years.
ASSISTANCE GIVEN.

Allowances.

The aid granted ranged from $8 to $32 a month, as follows: Three
families received grants of $15, two had grants of $32, and four had
grants of $30, $24, $18, and $8, respectively. There were in all 18
dependent children, receiving a total of $189 per month— an aver
age of $10.50 per child.

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YELLOW MEDICINE COUNTY, MINN.

All the families had other sources of income. In six families the
mother was working, and in one of these older children also were
earning money; in two families older children were at work; and one
family of children was cared for b y grandparents, the grandfather
working. One family was living with the grandparents, who supplied
part of the support. Of the six mothers who were working, one
earned board for herself and child and $5 a month; two earned $30
a month, one earned $35, and two earned $40. One mother received
poor relief in addition to the aid given through the court.
In cases where it was possible to calculate the income with fair
accuracy the amount of the allowance made the income come to at
least within a dollar of the estimated budget. In several cases the
income, including gifts of indefinite value, was too irregular for the
deficit to be calculated with accuracy.
Service to the families receiving aid.

Both the judge and the executive secretary of the county childwelfare board were much interested in the welfare of the families
receiving aid. The judge kept the situation of each family in mind
and was particularly interested in the children. His files contained
lengthy correspondence with the State’s attorney general on points
of law involving decisions on the legality of plans which seemed to
him important to the welfare of the families— as in the case of one
mother who could have rented a more suitable house just beyond the
county boundary than within it. In one instance where the grand
parents were caring for three children, he held the hearing in their
own home, as it would have been difficult to arrange to transport
them to the county seat.
The executive secretary visited the homes at least once in three
months. Four families had been visited twice during the past six
months; one, three times; one, four times^ and two, six times. In
addition to seeing the mothers in their homes, she had frequent
incidental contacts with them. She sent the school blanks furnished
by the State board to the teachers and received intelligent coopera
tion from them in keeping the school work of the children at its best.
Children were permitted to go to school after they were eligible
for work if they could support themselves while doing so— they were
not expected to make a contribution to the support of the family.
One boy was just finishing high school. Training to become nurses
had been made possible for several girls.
The full-time work of three of the mothers took them away from
home each day. In one family an aunt cared for the children during
the mother’s absence, and in the other two families the younger
children were left with a 15-year-old girl. This arrangement seemed
satisfactory in one case, but in the other case it was to be changed.

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PUBLIC

a id

c h il d r e n

t h e ir

own

h om es.

Health was looked after as carefully as the facilities permitted.
The public-health nurse employed by the county had resigned in
1919, and at the time no one could be found to take her place. Later
the county board decided to economize and not to employ one.
There was a county physician whose services were available only
to the families receiving poor relief. A tuberculosis sanitarium
belonging to Yellow Medicine in partnership with three adjoining
counties held free clinics weekly at the sanitarium and, on request,
would arrange one at any point in the four counties. A mental
examination could be made locally only in cases of insanity, but
the State hoard of control could send an examiner whenever there
was an applicant for one of the State institutions for the feeble-minded.
STANDARDS OF LIVING.26

Visits were made to five of the seven separate homes that were
being maintained by the aid of the allowances.27 The information
obtained in these interviews in regard to food and household equip
ment was less full than that secured from the women living in cities.
The mothers were much more reticent, being entirely unaccustomed
to talking about personal affairs with a stranger. None of them
kept household accounts.
Housing.

Three of the five families lived in neat and well-kept cottages,
with good yards and space for gardens. The surroundings were
wholesome, and there was no lack of play space for the children.
One family lived in a second-story flat that was roomy and well
ventilated. One lived in an old store building that had been con
verted into a dwelling; it contained one poorly lighted room which
was not, however, used for sleeping. The two last places were in
the more closely built-up parts of the towns where they were located,
and there was little ground space around them, although there was
no lack of open space near by where the children could play and
not be beyond the possibility of supervision by their mothers.
Household equipment.

Each house had a sitting room that was kept for the social life
of the family, comfortably furnished with a good floor covering,
chairs, a table, and in some instances with additional pieces of furni
ture. The sleeping arrangements appeared to be adequate, and each
house had the equipment necessary for the care, preparation, and
serving of food, for cleaning, and for laundry work.
26
27

Data were secured through home visits made by the writer.
For general method of selection oi families, see p. 1.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

YELLOW MEDICINE COUNTY, MINN.

Food.

< In two families the food appeared to be well chosen and to include
milk for the children, with cereals, vegetables, fruit, and a sufficient,
though not excessive, quantity of meat and other high protein foods.
The three other families seemed to be following the poor food habits
so prevalent in rural communities— excess of meat, lack of fresh
food s except during the summer, dependence upon canned vegetables
and fruits, and little use of milk. The menus of these families
resembled those of the public eating houses in the locality, and
consisted of bread, meat, potatoes, cakes and pies, coffee with canned
milk, with the occasional addition of a vegetable or fruit.
Clothing.

The standard of clothing was unusually good. The children seen
were neatly and tastefully dressed, their clothing being shnilar to
that of the other children with whom they associated.
Education and recreation.

The judge took a great interest in the prospects of the older children
and in their training for work. It had been the policy of the court
to require a child of 14 who had not completed the eighth grade to
work during vacation time for his own support. Aid was discontinued
during vacation time and given again when school opened. If a
child who could qualify for a working certificate remained in school
he had to earn enough for his own support, and he was helped to
secure employment that made this possible. He was expected to
work during the days when school was not in session and sometimes
after school hours. One child was to graduate from high school at
the end of the school year and one was in training as a nurse. All
the children of compulsory school age were in school, and their
progress was being watched.
There was some sort of periodical— usually a weekly newspaper—
in four of the five homes visited. In two instances the family had a
magazine as well.
The families seemed to have access to all the recreation afforded
b y the community. There was a motion-picture house in each of the
larger towns, and all went to the “ m ovies” occasionally. The
children of one family were found to be going every day on a free
pass, and the mother was asked b y the executive secretary to limit
them to weekly visits. All the children had plenty of outdoor play,
including fishing and swimming for the boys. The recreation of the
mothers was the same as that of the other women of the town—
church clubs, lodge meetings, visiting friends.
43711°— 23------ 6

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

ST. LOUTS.

The population of St. Louis in 1920 was 772,897. Its total foreignborn white population was 103,289, or 13 per cent of the whole. Of
these, 29 per cent were from Germany, 13 per cent from Russia, 9 per
cent from Ireland, 9 per cent from Italy, 6 per cent from H ungary,"
5 per cent from Austria, and 5 per cent from Poland; the remaining
24 per cent came from England, Czechoslovakia, and several other
countries. Of the native-born population, 10 per cent were negroes.
ADMINISTRATION.

The Board of Children’s Guardians of St. Louis had been paying
board for children to their own mothers since 1912. This was made
possible under a State enabling a c t 28 through an ordinance passed
by the city council during that year. This ordinance established a
board of children’s guardians, having charge of all children dependent
upon the public for support. The board therefore had supervision
of the city institution for delinquent children and also had power to
order, through the city comptroller, payment of board for dependent
children either in foster homes or with their own mothers.
The board o f children’s guardians.

A t the time of the study the board of children’s guardians was
composed o f seven members appointed by the mayor who served
without pay.29 The members were all business or professional men
who had been on the board for several years and were deeply inter
ested in the work. Several had given liberally of their time to the
administration of the placing-out department, which paid board for
children to their mothers, had visited the homes of many of the fami
lies, and had made suggestions for improving the standard of living.
The board was divided into two committees of three members each—
one on institutions and one on placing out; the chairman being a
member of both committees. Monthly meetings were held.
Dependent children, whether in their own or in foster homes, were
under the charge of the placing-out department. Its work was organ
ized on the assumption that all dependent or neglected children phys
ically and mentally fit for home life should have a home. The child’s
own home was utilized when it could be made a proper one, otherwise
a foster home was provided. Mothers who were receiving payments
28 taws of Missouri, 1911, p. 349.
22 In September, 1921, the membership was increased to 12 persons, of whom 5 must be women.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

for the care of their own children were sometimes given foster children
to board, and thus were supplied with desirable home work. The
ordinance establishing the board provided for the placing-out depart
ment three classes of paid service— an agent, investigators, and cler
ical workers. All of these were appointed through competitive exam
inations. In August, 1921, there were 7 investigators and 2 clerical
workers, forming with the agent who directed the work a force of 10
employees. Each investigator was assigned by the agent to work
for which her experience and training had best fitted her. One was
assistant to the agent, one had been assigned to supervision of older
girls, another supervised older boys, and a fourth had charge of
children under 5 years of age; two workers supervised homes, and
the seventh had charge of investigations. Of the two supervisors of
homes, one had only the homes with mothers who were receiving
board for their own children; the other had foster homes as well.
The worker assigned to investigations inquired into the applications
of all mothers for board for their own children.
According to the monthly reports of June, 1921, one worker super
vised 51 homes of mothers receiving board for. their own children,
another supervised 20 such homes and 36 foster homes, and a third
worker conducted all initial investigations besides supervising 29
homes.
Records.

As there were but two clerical workers on the force of the placingout department— the secretary to the agent and the bookkeeper—
the records were kept by the field workers without stenographic
assistance, and they did not do justice to the amount of service given
or to the extent of the workers’ acquaintance with the families.
They contained only slight accounts of the history and condition of
the families and of the work done on their behalf. The case record
consisted of a face card; a second sheet, on which appeared the esti
mated budget; the income and work record, with space for the action
of the board at different dates; a history sheet, on which additional
material and records of visits and interviews were kept; and the cor
respondence relating to the case.
Equipment of the workers.

The agent who directed the work of the placing-out department
had been with the board for a number of years. She had taken some
training courses in social service and was a member of the State bar.
Of the three investigators who worked with families of mothers re
ceiving aid, one was a college graduate, another a graduate of a school
of social service, and the third had had a business education. One
had been with the board for eight years, one for two years, and the
third for only a month.

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ST. LOUIS.

Children eligible for aid, and amount of grant.

A mother who was a widow, or whose husband was an inmate of a
State sanitarium for the tuberculous or the insane or confined in a
penal institution might receive board for her own children under 14
years of age if such arrangement was necessary to enable her to main
tain her home, provided she had been for two years a resident of the
city of St. Louis and was of good character and of satisfactory mental
and physical ability.
The board of children’s guardians had full power to decide on the
amount to be paid, the maximum, except in special cases, being $15
per month. For grants higher than $15 the consent of the city comp
troller had to be obtained. The money for the support of the work
of the board was appropriated b y the city council on an estimate sub
mitted by the board. For the year 1921 the appropriation was
$99,900; of this sum $76,000 was to be spent for direct aid to de
pendent children with no indication of the specific amounts for those
in their own and those in foster homes. The board of guardians had
economized by securing free foster homes in many instances, and it
had always been able to give aid to all mothers with dependent chil
dren who it believed should receive allowances.
Procedure in granting aid.

The application was usually made at the office of the board by the
mother, who filled out a blank giving information as to dates of
births, school progress, and work of the children; date and cause of
death or disability of the father, his previous employment and his in
surance, if any; and the names, addresses, and economic status of
relatives. She gave also her church affiliation and the names of
references. She was not required to make an affidavit. If the fam
ily was referred b y an outside agency and the mother was unable to
come to the office the application could be made out at her home.
The investigation which followed included a visit to the home, con
sultation with the references, relatives, physician, pastor, and any
social agency which had known the family. After the report of the
investigation had been submitted to the agent and found satisfactory,
the mother was cited to appear before the placing-out committee of
the board. On this occasion the committee members talked over with
her the important points in her situation, her resources, and the work
by which she planned to add to the income. They had before them
the report of the investigation and an estimated budget for the family.
The money was paid semimonthly in cash to the mother b y the
city treasurer in the city hall, upon presentation of an identification
card received at the offices of the board.

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.
THE FAMILIES AIDED.

Children boarded in their own homes.

In June, 1921, 94 mothers were receiving board for 313 children,
24 of whom were 14 years o f age or over. In 87 of these f amilies the
father was dead, and in 6 his insanity was the cause of the dependency,
and in one family the father was incapacitated. As is shown by the
following list the largest number of families had 3 children, and the
next largest group were families with 2 children.
Number of children
aided in family.

Number of
families:.

T o ta l...................................

O n e .......................... ........................ — ............................... ............... .............................

T w o ........................................................................ .............................................................

T h re e _________ . _______ ______ _______ ______________ __________________________ _

F o u r.................... . . ......................... ............... ............................. ...... ................ ............

F iv e ........................................................................................................
S ix ..............................................

11
6

S e v e n ........... .....................................................

The ages of the children who were being boarded with their own
mothers were as follows:
Ages.

Number of
children.

Total............................................................................................................. . 313
Under 4 years.. . : .................................... ..................... ................ .......................
4-5 years...................................... .......... ......................... ................................. ....
6-7 years— ___________
8-9 years......................................
10-11 years.....................
12=13 years......... .................................................................................... ............ ....
14-15 years............. ............ ......................... ........................... ................................
16-17 years.......... ...................... ........................................ ........ ........ . ... .*.____

40
39
55
45
57
53
22
2

Nativity of the mothers.

Of the 94 mothers 38 were known to have been born in foreign
countries—-8 in Italy; 7 in Russia; 4 each in Austria, Germany, and
Poland; 3 each in Hungary and Ireland; and 1 each in Czechoslovakia,
Yugoslavia, Norway, Rumania, and Sweden. Of the 55 native-born
mothers, 1 was a negress. The nativity of 1 mother was not reported.
ASSISTANCE GIVEN.

Amount of board paid.

The total pay roll for the month of June, 1921, was $3,850, an aver
age of $12.30 per child. The following list shows the amount o f the
board paid to each family:

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

ST. LOUIS.
Amount of board
per month.

Number of
families.

Total........ ......................................... . . . ................................. .............. 94

3
1
8

Less than $15............................................. . ........................... ...............................
$1 5-11 9.
....................... .............. .. J ........................
$20-$24.........................................

..........

$ 3 0 -$ 3 4 ...r.................................................................. . . . . . .................................
$3 5 -$ 3 9 ..........
$40-$44..............................
$45-$49................................................................................................... . . . . . ........
$50-$54................... ............... ........................................................... . . . . . . . . . . .
$55-$59.......................................................... . . .................................................." . . .
$60-$64.................................
$65-$69......................... . . . .............................................. ..........................................
$70-$74....................
$75-$79.........
$80-$84........................................................ .............................................................

$25-$29........................... ........................... . . . . . . |.................

19
11

3
7
1
3
2
l

Service to the families receiving aid.

The department believed it advisable that a visit should be made
to each mother in her own home once a month. During the six
months ending July 1, home visits to 75 families who had been
receiving board for six months or longer, were recorded as follows:
Home visits made.

Number of
families.
75

Total........................... ........ ........................................ .

Two........................... ............ ...................................... ............
Three.................
F o u r .............................................................................................................................
F iv e ............ .........................................
S i x . . . ........... ............................................

g
24

g
18

In addition to seeing the mother in her own home the visitor could
count on seeing her when she came to the office twice each month
to collect her allowance. The agent also frequently had an inter
view with her at this time and thus came to know each of the mothers.
An expense account covering all expenditures for the preceding
month was presented by each mother on one of her semimonthly
calls at the office. The ease worker went over this carefully with
her at that time, checked the accuracy of the figures, and gave
advice about management of income. The accounts were kept in
small blank books and with an astonishing degree of accuracy and
faithfulness by a large percentage of the families. They were kept
by the children when the mother'could not write English.
A sum
mary sheet was made b y the family when the month’s accounts
were complete, and this, as well as the expense account book, was
presented at the conference.
80 The mothers in the families visited only twice were employed all day away from home.
were seen at school.

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The children

PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

The health of both the mother and the children received careful
attention. A physician from the board of education spent an hour
once a week at the office of the board of children’s guardians, and all
the children for whom the mothers had applied for board were sent
to him for examination. He gave instructions as to the treatment
they required and directions about returning, for further attention.
A medical record card for each child was filed at the office of the
board. If the mother needed medical examination or treatment
it was secured for her from a free clinic or from her family physician.
School records were carefully observed and close touch with the
teachers was maintained by means of visits to the schools.
The
board took a liberal attitude about keeping the children in school
until they had finished the eighth grade, and it was customary to do
this. Scholarships to enable exceptional children to go beyond the
eighth grade were desired greatly by the workers and in some cases
they were secured. Three children had been in school on scholar
ships during the previous school year.
Work of the mothers and children.

Care was taken to see that the children, when first employed,
were placed in suitable positions; in a number of instances work
had been secured for them b y the visitors.
The mother, in each case, was expected to earn as much toward
the support of the family as she could without injury to herself or
neglect of the children. The work she was encouraged to do was
selected according to her capabilities, but a few general rules were
followed. No night work was permitted and no men roomers or
boarders were allowed. Of the 94 mothers 54 were working— 22 at
home, 23 away from home, and 9 both at home and away from home.
In 12 of the families the board of children’s guardians had placed
children for foster care and had thus helped to provide some income.
The occupations of the 54 mothers are shown below:
Total number of mothers working..............................................

W orking at h o m e .................................................................................................

Boarding wards of board of children’s guardians31............... 12
Sewing 32................................................................................................ 7
Laundry work......... . ....................... ...................................... ............ 2
Making paper novelties___ '.............. . . ..................................... . .
1
Working away from home....................................................................
Full tim e........................................... .............................................. ".. 11
D ay’s work........ ....................... •...................................... 5
Factory work.............................................................
3
Laundry work.................................................
1
Saleswoman......... ..............
1
Sewing (alterations)................. ........... ; ....................... 1

31 One mother sewed also and one did laundry work.
32 Two mothers also did laundry work at home; one mother sewed at home for a shirt factory.

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ST. LOUIS.
Working away from home— Continued.
Part tim e.................................................................................... . ........ 8
Day’s work........ .......................................................... . . 3
Factory work.................................... . ............................. 2
Charwoman...... ................................................................... 1
Saleswoman................................................... ................... 1
Not reported......................................................................
1
Time not reported................................... ......................................... 4
Day’s work.......................................................................... 3
Laundry work.................................................................... 1
Working both at home and away from home................ .........................
Day’s work and boarding wards of board of children’s
guardians........................................ ............................. ..................... 3
Laundry work at home and away from home.......................... 2
Baking in private family and at home....................................... 1
Day’s work and laundry work at h o m e . . . .............................. 1
Laundry work away from home, and boarding wards of
board of children’s guardians..........................................
1
Laundry work away from home and janitress work.. . . . . .
1

Of the mothers working part time away from home, seven were
working six days and the others four or five days a week, at work
which could be done while the children were at school. The children
of the women who were working full time were all over 10 years
of age, except a 7-year-old boy, who was left in the care of a child
of 14 years, and two children in one family, aged 3 and 5 years, who,
with one of 12 years, were cared for b y a neighbor.
STANDARDS OF LIVING .33

Characteristics of the families visited.

Visits were made to 26 of the 94 families, the list being chosen
from those who had been receiving aid during the longest periods.34
One family had been receiving aid for something over seven years,
3 families for six years, 2 for five, 10 for four, 8 for three, and 1 for
two years, and 1 family for 18 months.
In 8 of the 26 families there were children too young to go to
school; in 12 families older children worked to help support the
family. In 1 family with eight children, six were being aided and the
two eldest were working. In each of 3 families five children were
aided, being in each case all of those at home. Four children were
receiving aid in each of 6 families, there being one or two other chil
dren in the home in three cases, one child being in high school on a
private scholarship, while the other children were working. In each
of 12 families three children were receiving aid; there were one or
two other children in the home in half the cases, and all but two of
these were known to be working. In 4 families the number of chil
dren receiving aid was tw o; in 2 of these cases there was in the family
another child who was working.
33 Data were secured through actual home visits by the writer.
34 For general method of selection of famines, see p,. 1.

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iPW Lir. AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

Nativity of the mothers.

Fifteen of the mothers visited were of native birth, 3 were born in %
Poland, 2 in Austria, 2 in Hungary, 2 in Russia, 1 in Ireland, and 1 in
Norway.
Housing.

In finding housing for these families the board of children’s guar
dians was hampered b y the fact that it was necessary for them to live
within the city limits of St. Louis, where there were no inexpensive
suburban residence districts. A majority of the families were,
therefore, living in the most congested parts of the city. Only one
of the families visited was in a cottage with a small front yard and a
little space in the rear which might be used for a garden. The other
families were living in flat buildings of two and three stories, each
building housing from four to six families. Twenty of the families
were in three-room flats, the number of occupants ranging from three
persons (1 case) to nine persons (1 case) ; in 8 cases there were six
persons; in 4 eases, five; in 5 cases, four; and in 1 case there were
seven persons living in the three rooms. Four families of from four
to six persons were living in flats of two rooms, while 1 family of five
persons had a four-room flat. Five of the three-room flats were
arranged one room behind the other, with no window in the middle
room. Two flats had bathrooms, and another had an inside toilet;
in the remaining instances the families used outdoor toilets. Con
nected with most of the buildings was a small, paved back yard in
which the children could play. In a few instances a porch or an
attic afforded additional play space.
Household equipment.
Fourteen of the 26 families were provided with sitting-room
furniture— a floor covering, good chairs, a table or bookcase, and a
day bed for sleeping. Because of the crowded housing there was in
no case a sitting room not used for sleeping. The crowded housing
also made it impossible to contrive good sleeping arrangements for
more than half the families. Ten families had a bed for each two
persons, adequately fitted up, and so arranged that the boys and girls
of the family need not occupy the same room. In the other 16 homes
this standard was not reached.
The equipment for household work was, on the whole, satisfactory.
All had either gas or coal-oil stoves for summer cooking, and all had
either a refrigerator or an ice box and were supplied with free ice
through an arrangement made by the board of children’s guardians.
These two items were very important in alleviating the discomforts
of the long, hot summer in crowded quarters. Electricity was found
in only one of the homes. All but four of the families had a heating
stove and all had a kitchen range. All but one had a good sewing

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ST. LOUIS.

machine. There were sufficient cooking utensils for the preparation
of simple meals and dishes enough to make a family meal possible.
All had equipment for laundry work and cleaning.
Food.

The amount of milk used was generally far below the standard
of 1 pint for each child and a half pint for each adult. Four families
only were receiving this amount. Six families were buying no fresh
milk and were using either canned or dried milk in its place. The
other 16 families had each 1 quart or more, but less than enough to
provide each child with a pint a day. Meat or a meat substitute was
used from three to six times a week. The custom with respect to
the use of vegetables was fairly good.. All the families were using
fresh vegetables, but only 11 were making them a part of the daily
dietary. Inasmuch as the study was made at a time when fruit was
extremely scarce and expensive because of crop failures the habit in
this respect could not be judged from the amount consumed at the
time; however, 6 families were making a point of having fruit daily.
In 10 families the diet was felt to be unsatisfactory in a number of
ways— too little milk and fruit, too few vegetables, and very little
variety of any sort.
Clothing.

With a few exceptions the mothers observed were dressed suitably
to the season and their occupations. Those seen at the office of the
board wore simple cotton dresses, clean and of presentable appearance.
At home they wore wash dresses which were proper for their work.
The children at play wore overalls or cotton dresses, reasonably
whole and clean.
All the mothers did sewing. Some of them received generous
gifts of clothing and were skillful at altering garments, so that they
were able to keep their children very prettily as well as comfortably
dressed.
Housekeeping and household management.

The mothers were all at a disadvantage in buying food supplies,
because of having such limited space for storage. Only two mothers
were able to store potatoes and other vegetables for the winter. Six
mothers did some canning and made jellies and preserves for winter
use. Three rendered their own lard. The crowded housing also
made home baking impracticable in summer, though most of the
mothers said that they did their own baking in winter. For the
most part the buying was done in small amounts from day to day,
or even from meal to meal.
The case workers had taken special pains to encourage saving
during the summer for the winter coal, and most families had put
away at least a part of the money necessary for this purpose.

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

The management as to clothing was excellent in many cases. ' The
mothers had used much ingenuity and skill in this respect. On$
showed a good-looking suit for her little boy which had been made
from a skirt. Another had bought remnants at a few cents each
out of which she had made children’s dresses, embroidering them
tastefully.
Fifteen of the homes visited were beautifully clean and orderly,
and in four others the standard was moderately good; four houses
were not clean, and two were disorderly. The degree of personal
cleanliness was surprisingly high. The mother of five small chil
dren in a house without a bathroom was giving-each a daily bath.
Other mothers were giving baths semiweekly or oftener to the whole
family and equally frequent changes of underwear.
Examples of families aided.

Mrs. R, a native-born American who had been receiving aid for
five years, lived with her five daughters in a three-room flat on a
crowded street. Two of the daughters were working. The rooms
were of fair size, with clean walls, and each room had an outside
window. Two beds stood in the bedroom and one in the sitting room,
which contained also rocking chairs, pictures, a sewing machine, and
a table. The sitting-room was carpeted and was heated by a stove
in winter. The cooking was being done on a gas stove. The kitchen
was very clean; it contained a refrigerator and sufficient equipment
for cooking, serving, laundry work, and cleaning.
Though the family ate meat twice daily, they had no fresh milk;
instead they drank coffee with canned milk. They said they did
not like vegetables and did not often have them. They had fruit
almost every day.
The clothing was good. The mother showed with pride the pretty
dresses which the older girls made for themselves.
A daily paper and a weekly church paper came to the house, and
the public library was used for additional reading matter.
The family was fond of picnics in the park. One of the girls sang
in the church choir, and all went to church and Sunday school.
The two daughters at work went to a picture show once a week and
the younger children once a month.
Mrs. F, an Austrian by birth, had been receiving aid during three
years. She and her three little girls also occupied a three-room flat,
which was clean and fairly well lighted and ventilated, but had an
outside toilet. She supplemented her allowance by caring for a
baby, who had a small bed to himself in the sitting room. The
mother slept in the bedroom with her two daughters of 6 and 7
years, while the older child had a cot in the same room. The beds
were clean and comfortable, though she said that her sheets were

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

ST. LOUIS.

getting very old, as she had not been able to buy any since she had
received aid. Her sitting room had a homelike air with its good
rug, chairs, table, and sewing machine.
In the kitchen were a gas stove, a dining table, and a refrigerator,
a sufficient supply of dishes, cooking utensils, a*kl satisfactory laundry
and cleaning equipment. One quart of milk a day was bought for
the baby, but the older children had cocoa made with canned milk.
Each day except Friday she spent about 25 cents for meat. Almost
every day she had a vegetable besides potatoes. In the fall and
winter she had apples, and at the time the family was having fruit
often. She said that she gave it to the children in place of a cathartic.
In th e winter she baked bread.
She had made very tasteful little dresses for the children out of
remnants bought for a few cents each. Both she and the children
were clean and neat. Her income was $80 a month, of which she
received $20 for the baby’s board, $18 for home laundry work, and
$42 as board for her own children.

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STATE PROVISIONS AFFECTING LOCAL ADM INISTRATION IN
M ASSACHUSETTS.
PROVISIONS OF THE LAW.

Aid to mothers with dependent children was administered in
Massachusetts under the mothers’ aid law of 1913,35 which provided
that two-thirds of the aid granted in each case should be paid out of
town or city funds on the order of the local overseers of the poor,
and one-third out of State funds, if the Massachusetts Department
of Public Welfare approved the grant. A family with no legal
settlement in any town or city of Massachusetts became a “ State
case,” and all the aid was given from State funds. Before reim
bursement was made to the city or town a case received the indorse
ment of the department of public welfare. It was the necessity for
this indorsement before State funds could be drawn upon that gave
the State its supervisory hold over the local administration. The
State visitor investigated every case before aid was granted, and
the commissioner of public welfare might disapprove the grant,
or he might request the overseer in charge of the ease to change its
amount. If the local overseer refused to comply with the recom
mendations of the commissioner, the latter might refuse approval,
in which case no State money could be drawn. This power was
seldom used, since agreement was usually possible.
In 1913, the first year of granting such aid,, the appropriation for
reimbursing the towns and cities was $175,000. It has been in
creased for each year since then, and for 1921 it amounted to $900,000.
The Massachusetts law provides that aid may be given to “ all
mothers with dependent children under 14 year of age, if such mothers
are fit to bring up their children.” The policies drafted by the depart
ment of public welfare 33 as to the application of this act state that—
Not only widows, but also mothers of dependent children under 14 years of age,
whose living husbands are totally incapacitated by reason of chronic illness or insanity,
or are imprisoned for long terms, or who are divorced or legally separated, if not other
wise excluded, are eligible for relief under this law.

It is further required that—
Aid. should not be granted to a mother whose husband has deserted his f a m ily
unless an application has been made for the issuance of a warrant for nonsupport
under the provisions of chapter 273 of the General Laws; nor until after one year has

85Massachusetts Laws, 1913, eh. 763.
»« Polieies Relating to the Administration of Mothers’ Aid Law, p. 4.
setts, Department of Public Welfare, Boston, 1921.

The Commonwealth of Massachu

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

elapsed since desertion occurred. * * * Aid under this law should not be granted
to a mother unless there is a reasonable probability that need of such aid will exist
for more than one year. * * * Aid should not be granted to a mother who has'
funds either in the form of cash or securities or other property readily liquidated in
excess of $200. * * * The department will approve aid to an applicant who has
an equity in real estate upon which the family resides not exceeding $500, the assessed
value of which does not exceed $2,500 * * *.

The law states that the aid furnished should be sufficient to enable
the mother to bring up her children properly in their own home.
The boards of overseers, subject to the approval of the State depart
ment, determine the amount of aid to be granted in each case.
TH E LOCAL AD M IN ISTRATIVE AGENCY.

The unit of local government in Massachusetts is the city or town,
instead of the county. There are 333 towns and 38 cities in the
State, each with a board of overseers of the poor, which is responsible
for all public relief. The overseers may be appointed or elected.
Sometimes they serve for only one year, and in such cases there can
be little continuity in their work. In the smaller places, they are
often also the town selectmen, with little time to devote to their
duties as overseers. They frequently come to the statehouse to
consult about mothers’ aid work, and they depend upon the State
visitor for advice in regard to it. They are beginning to realize the
need of trained visitors, and the boards of Reading, Winchester,
Lawrence, Cambridge, Quincy, Worcester, Lynn, and Springfield
have all employed women visitors.
A quarterly report on each case receiving aid had to be sent in by
the overseer of the' poor to the State department of public welfare.
This report covered school attendance or employment (with state
ment of earnings) for each child in the family, the employemnt of
the mother, the physical condition of each member of the family,
and the income from all sources.
SUPERVISION BY TH E STATE D EPAR T M EN T OF PUBLIC WELFARE.

The contact of thè State department of public welfare with the work
is much closer here than in any other place included in the study.
The plan of supervision would probably be impracticable, from a
geographical standpoint, in any of the larger Western States. In
the division of aid and relief there was a director of mothers’ aid, who
had 10 field visitors under her supervision.
The State visitors were appointed through civil-service examina
tions given b y a committee of social workers. The minimum educa
tional requirement was graduation from a high school. One of the
visitors was a college graduate and two had taken courses at a school
of social work. Boston was divided, fan shape, into seven parts;

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MASSACHUSETTS.

each section included some outlying territory and formed a district
for one of the State visitors. The three remaining visitors covered
the rest of the State. There was a local office in Springfield and one
in Lawrence, but the visitors in these districts spent one day each
week at the statehouse, where all records were kept.
In the year ended November 30, 1920, 3,131 cases were reported
from the State. The average amount of work per month covered
by each of the 10 State visitors during the six months previous to
June 9, 1921, included 10.4 first investigations, 36.4 reinvestigations,
and 3.6 cases reviewed with the overseers of the poor.
The first investigation made by a State visitor always included
reports from all social agencies which had had contact with the family.
Letters asking for such reports were sent out for each case. Relatives
and employers were frequently, though not always, visited. Births,
marriages, and deaths were usually, though not always, verified.
The visitor’s report contained a description of the house and some
times of the food, clothing, and other elements of the standard of
living; also the main points of the family history, covering at least
the industrial life of the father and the mother and information about
each child in the family, such as school grade and physical condition.
If a question of health was involved, an examination was arranged for.
A reinvestigation of each case twice a year was planned for, but the
volume of the work— there was an average of 313 cases for each
State visitor during the preceding fiscal year— had made this im
possible. When the semiannual visit to a family was not possible a
conference was had with the local overseer. If on reinvestigation
any change was felt to be desirable the case was reviewed with the
overseer in charge of it, and an agreement was reached. If the State
visitor found the family in need of special service— such as adjust
ment of living conditions, procurement or change of work, or care of
health she took up the matter with the local overseers and cooper
ated with them in making plans. The visitor often brought mothers
or children from even the far-western parts of the State to Boston
for medical or dental care. In these instances the overseers paid the
railroad fare and hospital expenses and continued the allowances to
the families as well. If the mother had to be away from home for
health care, the overseers would pay for a housekeeper during her
absence. In one instance a bill of $70 for dental work for one mother
was incurred.
Case records kept b y the mothers’ aid department were in the usual
case-record form, containing a face card, copies of all correspondence
and of the reports from the overseers, and history sheets on which
all visits and interviews were entered in chronological order.
43711°~ 2 3 ----- 7

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PUBLIC aid to children in their own homes .

The State department of public welfare furnished the overseers
with the blank forms for the mothers' applications for aid, for the
overseers’ first report asking for reimbursement, and for the quarterly
reports. It also sent to the overseers a schedule for estimating the
family budgets and had for distribution an excellent little pamphlet
outlining the law and the policies of the department governing
mothers’ aid work.

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BOSTON.

In 1920, Boston had a population of 748,060, of which 238,919
were foreign-born whites. However, almost half of these were
English-speaking— Irish, English, or English-Canadian; 54 per cent
were of non-English-speaking nativity. Of the latter group, 30 per
cent were born in Italy, 29 per cent in Russia, 6 per cent in Poland,
5 per cent in Sweden, 5 per cent in Germany, 3 per cent in Lithuania,
and 2 per cent in Greece. Syrians, French-Canadians, Austrians,
Armenians, French, and other nationalities in smaller numbers made
up the remaining 20 per cent.
A D M IN IST R A T IO N .

Overseers of public welfare.

The city board of overseers of public welfare— formerly called
“ overseers of the poor” — consisted of 12 members appointed by the
mayor. It employed an executive secretary, a force of 12 men
for field work (who had been appointed through civil-service examina
tions), and a clerical force. The board held weekly meetings, at
which it passed upon all applications for relief. The secretary might
give emergency relief before taking up the case with the board, but
where this was done the matter was brought up at the next meeting
for approval and further recommendation. Mothers’ aid cases were
considered along with other applications for relief. The field
workers, who were all men, took turns at appearing before the board,
each coming about once in three weeks. At that time he presented
to the board a report of all work done by him since he last came
before them.
Volume of work.

The mothers’ aid cases reported from Boston to the State depart
ment of public welfare for the year ended November, 1920, numbered
1,091. The overseers’ office carried this work along with all other
cases of public relief, and each of the field workers did some work with
from 250 to 400 cases each month. Each visitor had his own
district and cared for all applications for relief that came from it.
The work was centered in the one downtown office, but some of the
visitors had the use of an office in the outlying parts of the city,
where they could interview their clients.
91

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PUBLIC

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h om es.

Records.

The results of the original investigation o f a case were entered,
upon a. form, which covered names and ages of the members of the
family, cause of death or incapacity of father, facts regarding settle
ment, and income of the family. This was filed away and no further
entries were made on it. A similar form was kept at his desk by the
visitor, and on this was recorded all subsequent work. When folded it
fitted into a legal-size envelope, and the visitor frequently carried
it when he planned a visit to the family. The file included a copy of
the quarterly report sent to the State office and frequently other
material gathered through contact with the family. But the last
entryjwas often many months old, indicating that the reports were
not kept up to date. The reports were typed, and the visitor had
stenographic service for this work. In addition each visitor kept
a card file with a card for each family on which were entered changes
of address and the amount of the grant.
Procedure in granting aid.

In applying for aid the mother filled out a blank or gave the in
formation it required to the visitor at the overseers’ office. It
covered the main points in her circumstances. The visitor then
made an investigation, which included a visit to the home and an
interview with the family. If he suspected a misstatement concern
ing the marriage or property interests, the public records were con
sulted. Proof of legal settlement was always secured. The results
of each investigation were presented by the visitor with a recom
mendation to the overseers at their weekly meeting. He might
have already given emergency relief.- If the board granted aid, it
could begin immediately, and a report was sent to the State depart
ment of public welfare on the blank provided with a request for
reimbursement of the State’s portion.
Upon receipt of the report from the overseers the State visitor
made an independent investigation. Letters asking for a report were
sent to all social agencies who had known the family. Relatives were
frequently but not always visited.. The marriage of the parents and
the death of the father were always verified, and usually the dates of
birth of theschildren. The State visitor’s report of the first home visit
in each case contained information about the history of the family,
covering at least their industrial life, enough information about each
child to indicate that each had had individual attention (usually a
statement of school grade and of physical condition as indicated by
appearance), description of the house and furniture, and sometimes
of the food, clothing, and other elements in the living standards.
A family budget was then estimated, following a schedule which
had been carefully worked out by the State department with the
help of the Boston Dietetic Bureau and two committees appointed;

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BOSTOIT.

in 1920 to make estimates on costs of food and clothing.37 From
the budget estimate was then subtracted the income of the family
from all sources, the remaining sum being the amount which the
grant should cover. The director of mothers’ aid then reviewed
this material with the State visitor, and together they decided upon
a recommendation either for approval of the grant made by the
overseers, for a change in it, or for disapproval. Their recommenda
tion then went to the director of the division of aid and relief, and
with his approval became the recommendation of the department
of public welfare. The State department frequently requested an
increase in the original grant and forwarded its reasons to the over
seers, who then reconsidered the matter— not always favorably.
Before the city could be reimbursed for the State’s one-third share
of the expenditures, the actual grant had always to be approved
finally by the department of public welfare of the Commonwealth»
The allowance was paid weekly in cash. To lessen the congestion,
the payments were distributed throughout the week, and each mother
came to the office of the overseers of public welfare on the day of the
week to which she had been assigned. Nevertheless almost 200
mothers came each day, and 20 to 40 women were often standing in
line before the window at which they received the money. In
some of the outlying districts payment was made by the visitor at a
local office in the neighborhood.
TH E FAM ILIES AIDED.

Children benefiting by grants.
In January, 1921, 1,102 families in Boston were receiving mothers’
aid. A group of 195 families were selected for analysis of record
data. In these 195 families were 654 dependent children receiving
aid. Families consisting of two, three, and four children were the
most frequent, though a number had five or six children. The size
of families was as follows:
Number of children
in the family.

Total...............................................

Number of
families.
195

One............................................................................................................
10
Two.................................. ............ .........................'................ ......... 46
Three........................................
62
Four................................................................
42
Five....................
is
S i x ........................................ ........................ ...................................... „ 12
Seven.........................................................................................................
4
Eight......................
1

37The director of the Boston Dietetic Bureau acted as chairman of the committee on food estimates; the
director of the minimum-wage department of the State bureau of labor and industries acted as chairman
of the committee on clothing costs. These committees had presented reports, which the mothers’ aid
department was using in making its schedule.

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

The ages of the children aided were repotted as follows:
Ages.

Number of
children.

Total..................................................... ............ - .......................................... 654
U nder 4 years.......................................................... ..............................................—

147

4 -5 years...... .....................................................................................................

101

6 -7 years..................................................................................................................

109

8 -9 years........................................

100

10 -1 1 years........................................................................................................

12 -1 3 years..........................................................................
1 4 -1 5 years......................................................................
16 years................................ ........................................ ............... — - - -------- . . . . . . 38 2-

Causes of dependency.

The death of the father was the cause for dependency in 97 of the
195 families studied. Sixteen fathers had deserted their families,
5 were in prison, and 77 were incapacitated. Of the last group 48
had tuberculosis and 6 were insane.
Nativity of the mothers.

Two-thirds— 67 per cent— of the mothers were of foreign birth,
the largest numbers coming from Ireland, Russia, and Italy. The
nativity of the 195 mothers was reported as follows:
Number of
mothers.

Nativity.
Total.................................................................

195

Native born.................................— -------- --------- --------- —
........................... 62
Foreign born.........................................
130
Ireland...............................................................
36
Russia............................................................ .. - -------------- - --------------- 30
Italy................................ .............. .......... 1 .................. - - - ..................... 26
Canada............................................
10
Newfoundland.. . . — ......... ...................- - *.............. f ...................... 5
Scotland.-------- -------- ----------- ...----------. . . -------- — ......................—
5
Syria___________
4
Poland___ _ — - ............................ ....................... .................................. 3
Other..............................................................................-............................ 11
Not reported..........................................................
3
ASSISTANCE GIVEN.

Allowances.

According to the law the aid furnished was to be sufficient to
enable the mother to bring up her children properly in their own
homes. The overseers o f public welfare decided upon the amount
of relief necessary in each case. They had adopted a rule that the
total income of a family should not exceed $4 per week per person,
using this as a rough standard for the necessary budget, and basing
the grants upon it. No other budget estimate was used.
*8Both children were unable to work; one had spinal trouble; the other was a dwarf and mentally de
fective.

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BOSTON.

The amounts of cash aid given to the 195 families selected for study
were as follows:
Monthly

allowance.89
Total.

N umher of

families.

......... 195

$15-$19

$25-$29........................... .................................................... ......................................
$ 3 0 -$ 3 4 ...____ ___________. _______ _____________ _____________ ________9
$ 3 5 -$ 3 9 .................................... ... . . ............................ ......... ...................... ..
$40-$44........ .........................................................................................................
$45-$49............ ........................................................... . ............................................
$50-154.......... .................. .......................................... ........................... ................ ..
$55-159............................................................. .............. . . . . . . . i ........... . . ..........
$60-$64...... . . . .......................-........................................................................ ..
$65-$69................................................................. ................................. .............. ..
$70-$74................... ................... ............................... . . ....................................... ..
$75-$79...... .......................................... ........................... .......... 13
$80-$84.................................................................................. 'I
_____
$85-$89.......... ........................................ ....................... .............. ................
/...
$90-$94.......... ....................... .......... ........................... ........................... ..... . . . . . .
$95-$99....................................... .......................................... ........................ . . . .

5
12
25
5
20
6
17
41
8
I
;7
1
5

$ioo-$no............................... ......I ........................................ijl

Not reported... . . . . . ______ _____ _. . . . . j , , ___________________ _________

In addition to the cash allowance, each family received one-fourth
ton of hard coal once in three weeks during the winter. If a death
occurred in the family, the overseers paid the funeral expenses. If
a mother needed hospital care they paid the hospital bill and, if
necessary, increased the weekly allowance to cover the wage of a
housekeeper to care for the children while she was away.
Service to the families receiving aid.

Before the quarterly report on each family receiving aid was sent
to the State department of public welfare a visit was always made
to the home b y a district visitor from the overseers’ office. As a
rule, this was the only visit to the family, since the volume of work
carried b y the visitors made it impossible for them to maintain close
contact with every family. A reinvestigation was made if a new
situation was known to have developed, and in some instances
frequent visits were made by the city workers. The visitors often
interviewed the mothers when they came to the office each week for
their allowances, although a clerk paid out the money.
The State department of public welfare, on its part, planned re
investigation of each ease once in six months. A home visit was
made, during which the family situation was gone over with care.
All sources of income were reported, and a new budget was made
out. Health conditions were noted, school progress was recorded,
89Estimated on the basis of four and one-third weeks to the month.

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PUBLIC

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and frequently a report was made as to the family’s sleeping and
eating customs and the way in which the members were dressed.
The number of visits b y the city and State workers to each family .
receiving aid in Boston for at least six months prior to August 1,
1921, are correlated in Table IX .
T a b l e I X .— H om e visits by State and city field workers to fam ilies receiving mothers' aid

in B oston fo r at least six months prior to A u gust 1 , 1921.

Families receiving specified number of home
visits b y city field workers.

Number of home visits by
State visitors.

Total
fami
lies.
Total.

Total families

1.............
2...... .......
3 .................
4 .. ........
5

.................

............

Not reported,

195

176

66
80
28
6
2
2
11

58
75
24
6
2
1
10

30
18
5

8
10
1

2
2
1
1
1

4
3
1

Families
having
repre
sentative
fre
quently
inter
viewed
at
district
office.

8
and
12.

Not
re
port
ed.

15
42
16
5
1,
1
6

8
5
4
1
1

If the State visitor noticed a remediable physical defect, or symp
toms that denoted need of medical care, she referred the family to a
health agency or called the attention of the city field worker to the
condition. Both State and local workers used the excellent facilities
for free medical care which Boston afforded. . In 1920 the Boston
Dispensary offered to care for 100 families receiving mothers’ aid;
that is, offered to examine all the children and to give the medical
attention required in each case.
The Dietetic Bureau of Boston had instructed about 50 mothers’
aid families, doing with them the sort of work illustrated in the fol
lowing stories:
Mrs. K was a Polish woman deserted by a husband who had
always been brutal to her and had never properly supported the
family. The three small children appeared to be unusually well
nourished. Mrs. K said that she gave them breakfasts of cereal and
milk; dinners of egg or meat, with vegetables and fruit; and suppers
of a vegetable, with bread and milk. In answer to compliments on
the wholesome diet, she said in her halting English: “ Oh, I did not
always eat like this. Before, I used to eat— all the days—meat,
and I was very sick, and the children sick, too. A lady came to my
house and showed me how to cook things. Now I have the things
she say.” The records of the dietetic bureau showed that when its
work with her began in October, 1920, Mrs. K had rheumatism and
the children were apparently undernourished, though no medical

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Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis

BOSTON.

examination was made. Mrs. K was spending most of her money
as soon as she got it, and at the end of the week was having very
little food. She was using a great deal of meat and very little milk
or vegetables or cooked cereals. Thirteen visits were made to the
family during the three months from November 1, 1920, to February
1, 1921. The mother was taken to market for lessons in buying and
was taught b y demonstration to prepare such simple dishes as
oatmeal mush, rice pudding, vegetable soup, apple sauce, stewed
prunes, and creamed carrots. She was also taught to set aside each
week money for the rent, gas, and incidental expenses, and to plan
her food expenditures on the amount of money remaining, setting
aside a sum for fresh vegetables and fruit. At the end of the lessons
the family was having from 2 to 3 quarts of milk a day, and vegetables
and a cooked cereal, and the health of both the mother and the
children was much improved.
Mrs. H was found to be managing wonderfully in keeping her
children healthy and well clothed on an income about 10 per cent
below the estimated budget. She was apparently giving them not
only a wholesome diet, but food that was attractively prepared.
Three of the five children who, the year before, had been reported to
be very delicate, were plump and rosy and bright-eyed at the lime of
visit. When asked how the dietetic bureau had helped her, she said
that before her marriage she had “ worked out for Yankee la d ies/’
go that she knew how to cook expensive foods very well. She did
not, however, know how to cook the cheaper and simpler dishes,
and these were the ones taught her by the dietetic bureau, chiefly
through recipes which she was perfectly able to follow.
In the C family two of the five children were under weight, and
the mother was worn out, run down, and nervous from nursing a
baby/ who was. over 1 year old. The income— $14 a week— was
inadequate, and was later increased to $16, but the budget estimated
by the dietetic bureau was $23.80. The family received occasional
gifts. The money for food had been very unwisely laid out on a
great deal of meat and sweets, with few vegetables and not enough
milk. Meals were irregular and bedtime late. After a period of
comparative indifference the mother became very much interested
in the instructions of the bureau, and the undernourished children
tried, to eat the things necessary for them to gain in weight. They
stopped drinking tea and coffee and eating sirup on their bread,
and put most of the money formerly spent on meat into milk and
vegetables. Meals became regular and bedtime early. The mother
was very appreciative, but the nutrition worker was discouraged
with the inadequacy of the income, which prevented more rapid
progress.

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PUBLIC aid to children in their own homes .

Mrs. T refused to give any credit to the nutrition worker for her
yery healthy looking children and comfortable home, saying that she
knew previously all the things that the worker had told her. The
State visitor, however, said that there had been a very marked im
provement in the home and children, which she ascribed largely
to the work of the dietetic bureau.
The use of nutrition clinics of the hospitals and the dispensaries
was also beneficial. The State visitors paid special attention to the
food and urged milk and vegetables in the diet. The director of the
mothers’ aid department had arranged some conferences of her staff
with the director of the dietetic bureau and was planning for them a
regular course of lessons on dietetics.
STAND ARD S OF LIVING .40

Characteristics of the families visited.

The 34 families selected for special study were chosen from the list
of those who had been receiving aid for two years or longer,41 except
for two families who were chosen to illustrate special points. Since
the total list was very large in comparison with the number of homes
that could be visited, with the aid of the secretary of the overseers
of public welfare and thè director of the mothers’ aid department
families were selected from localities where living conditions were
typical of larger districts. Three families visited had been receiving
this form of aid for seven years, 2 for six, and 1 for five, while 7 had
had help for four years, 6 for three years, 8 for two, 6 for one, and 1
for something less than one year.
The geographical distribution of these families was as follows :
Families
visited.

T otal............................................................................. ......................... ..
North Boston
Brighton.........
Charlestown..

Roxbury.....
Allston...........
East Boston..
South Boston

12
5
4
4
3
3
3

Of the 34 mothers, 27 were bom outside the United States— 10 in
5 in Italy, 6 in Russia, 3 in Poland, and 3 in Newfoundland.
In 32 of the 34 families a satisfactory interview was obtained with
the mother or an incapacitated father. In 2 cases the information
was incomplete, because only the children were at home at the time
of the interview.
*

I r e la n d ,

Housing.
The housing of the families visited differed widely in character in
the various sections of the city. A number of the families living in
40Data were secured through home visits by the writer.
41See p. 1for general plan of selection of families.

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BOSTON.

Brighton and Roxbury had separate cottages, with yards and garden
space. In the more crowded parts of the city, where the homes were
in tenements, there was no near-by play space for the children,
except the streets. Care had apparently been exercised in the selec
tion of rooms, for almost all of those seen had outside windows and
were as well lighted and ventilated as was possible in the more
crowded parts of the city. Two flats had each one dark room without
an outside window. In both cases the openings into adjoining rooms
met the requirements of the housing law. Four of the homes had
bathrooms; the others had inside toilets, which were usually shared
with one other family.
Household equipment.

In 14 of the homes the household equipment could be considered
adequate. In each of these there were a sitting room with floor
covering and good chairs; enough beds so that not more than two
members of the family need sleep in one, and sufficient linen and warm
covers for the beds; a cooking stove with an oven that would bake,
and a heating stove; a gas range or plate for summer cooking;
sufficient utensils for cooking, cleaning, and laundry work; closets or
chest of drawers for clothing; a sewing machine; enough dishes to
make a family meal possible, and a dining table large enough for the
family. Four of the families had a piano, and several had additional
pieces of furniture.
Twenty of the homes were inadequately equipped in one or more
particulars. Seven had not enough bed linen, 11 had insufficient bed
covering for cold weather, and 9 hadlso few beds that three or more
persons had to sleep together.
Food.

The information in regard to selection of food was entirely from
the mother's statement; no expense accounts had been kept. The
diet appeared to be adequate in 12 instances. Three families were
having no milk regularly. In 12 families the children were drinking
tea or coffee. Twenty-one families said that they had fresh vegetables
daily and 16 that they had fruit.
In practically all cases it was apparent that the mothers had
received considerable instruction about ti*e diet of children. Almost
all of them had attended food clinics at the various dispensaries and
had come in contact with a nurse or other health advisor. Five
mothers had taken a definite course of instruction from the Boston
Dietetic Bureau.
Housekeeping and household management.

Most of the homes had pantries which would hold a month's supply
of food staples, but there was no storage space for winter vegetables,
even when canned. Four of the mothers said that they did canning

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

and jelly making. Four tried out their own lard. Home baking in
the winter was the rule, and even in the warm weather 15 mothers
were doing a part of their baking at home. Several were economizing
by buying day-old bread and cracked eggs at reduced prices. In most
of the homes food was bought in small quantities from day to day.
The clothing seemed to be economically managed. Some of the
women did very clever work in making over garments bought at
rummage sales or secondhand shops. One cobbled the children’s
shoes. Several made underwear and pillow slips out of flour sacks.
Very few had incurred debts.
In 17 homes the housekeeping was excellent, in 10 others it was
fairly good, and in 7 it was below a fair standard of cleanliness and
order.
Examples of the families aided.

Typical of families visited are the following:
Mrs. J, an Irish-American mother, had been receiving aid for almost
three years. She lived with her six children in a first-floor flat of five
rooms and bath in an old four-family frame house. The front of the
house was almost flush with the street, but at the back there was a
little stoop and a tiny yard in which the younger children were
playing. The older children were in the narrow street on which the
house faced, playing with a dozen or more other children from the
neighboring flats. Within was a somewhat disorderly but clean
kitchen, equipped with the necessary utensils for cooking and clean
ing, and for the preservation of food. These were old but in fairly
good repair. The dining table was large enough for the whole family.
The sitting room had a carefully preserved carpet, two or three
rocking chairs, and a lounge. The floors of two of the three bedrooms
were bare. The three beds had fairly good mattresses and sufficient
covers, sheets, and pillowcases; with the sitting-room couch, these
afforded comfortable sleeping arrangements. The weekly budget, as
calculated b y the State public-welfare department, was $27.45, to be
divided as follows: Food, $15; rent, $3.75; fuel, $2.70; and clothing,
$6. No allowance was included for household supplies or incidentals.
On the basis of this budget the State department had recommended
to the overseers an allowance of $25 per week. The board of overseers
had granted $21 and the winter coal.
Much of the clothing had been given by friends and relatives,
and Mrs. J was very clever at making over and repairing. Before
her husband’s death— he was earning $30 a week in 1918— she had
bought a set of tools for cobbling. She said that when she brought
them home Mr. J thought she must be “ light in the head,” but later
he, as well as she, learned to use them. She could buy for a quarter
a piece of leather that would make good new soles for the y o u n g e r
children’ s shoes. Their winter underwear she had made from Army
garments bought from the Government stores for a few cents each.

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BOSTON.

101

She had also purchased at these stores discarded sailor suits and
had made them into very neat-looking suits for her hoys. The
children looked well dressed.
The food was good. When the family was first given aid Mrs. J
was suffering from constipation, and two of the children were under
weight. They had been referred to the Boston Dietetic Bureau
and to the Boston Dispensary,- where Mrs. J attended the consti
pation class. At the time of the visit they appeared well nourished,
and Mrs. J related proudly that they were so well that none of the
others took diphtheria from the baby when he had had an attack
a few weeks before. She bought 4 quarts of milk daily and gave
the children neither tea nor coffee. The breakfast was usually of
cereal— oatmeal being the favorite— and milk. There was some
times in addition apple sauce or eggs. The dinner consisted of
potatoes, another vegetable (often creamed), and pie or a simple
pudding. Meat was added three or four times a week. For supper
they had fruit, home-baked bread, milk, and usually potatoes,
The mother said that she could not afford either a newspaper op
a magazine, and their recreations were found in visiting friends
and in play with the neighborhood children.
Mrs. W , the Polish mother whose story has already been partly
told,42 had been receiving aid for three and one-half years. She
lived with her three small children in a fairly well-lighted, threeroom flat located in the crowded part of East Boston. Her kitchen
was clean and orderly, and the equipment was sufficient for her
simple housekeeping. There was a bed in each of the two other
rooms. In the sitting room were also to be found a rocking-chair,
a table, and two small rugs on the clean bare floor. She had four
sheets, six pillow slips, and enough warm covers.
Both the mother and the children were neatly clothed in wash
dresses. She said that their clothing was almost all given to them.
In her broken English, Mrs. W spoke with great enthusiasm of the
teaching she had received from the dietetic bureau. She bought 3
quarts of milk daily. Each member of her family had a small
quantity of meat or one egg every day, also potatoes and another
vegetable, and fresh fruit almost every day, or, when that cost too
much, prunes or other dried fruit. For breakfast and supper they
had cereal and milk. In the winter she did her own baking, but in
the summer baking made the small rooms too hot.
Her allowance was $14 a week, and one-fourth of a ton of coal
every three weeks during the winter. With this allowance and such
gifts as she was receiving she maintained her household simply but
adequately.
On a near-by street in a similar flat lived an Italian mother, Mrs.
0 , with her four children. This family was more crowded than
were the W ’s, and it was necessary for three children to sleep in one

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IK THEIR OWK HOMES.

bed. Mrs. O said that she bad only one heavy cover for each bed,
and in cold weather they put their coats on top.
Their food was not so well planned or adequate as the W ’s. They'
had 2 quarts of milk daily, but the mother said that she could not
buy vegetables every day and that she bought fruit on Saturdays
only. For breakfast she served bread and cocoa and vegetables.
Dinner consisted of homemade macaroni and beans on four days a
week, and of meat and vegetables on the other three days, with
eggs occasionally.
The mother and the children were well dressed, and the house
was very clean. Mrs. O had been receiving aid for three years.
The budget for this family as estimated by the State department
was $25 a week, and the aid granted was $15. The mother earned
money irregularly by making lace at home— but probably not more
than $4 a week— and no other income was indicated on the records.
They had a newspaper sometimes, but not regularly, and the mother
said they did not go to the picture shows. The boys played in the
parkway near by.
Mrs. P, bom in Newfoundland, had been receiving aid for more
than four years. She and her six children lived in a frame cottage
of six rooms on a quiet residence street in an outlying part of the
city. There was a small, grassy, well-shaded, front yard, and a
still smaller one in the rear, but no space for a garden.
The sitting room was well furnished with comfortable chairs, a
good carpet, and a table. The dining room contained a good table
and substantial chairs. The kitchen was equipped with all the
necessary utensils for cooking and preserving food, and for laundry
work and cleaning. Upstairs were three bedrooms, each with a
good bed, adequately furnished.
The clothing appeared to be adequate. The mother was careful
to see that the children wore rubbers and well-soled shoes during
stormy weather. She was a clever seamstress and made over much
of the children’s clothing from gifts and from materials which she
had had for years. This family had previously maintained a high
standard of living.
The food was sensibly planned, but did not seem quite adequate
for the two delicate children. Only 2 quarts of milk were taken
daily. Sunday’s meat was made to last for two or three days,
and was frequently the only meat bought during the week. They
usually had a vegetable once a day, often a present from a neighbor’s
garden. Some fruit was used, but not every day. Home-baked
bread and cereal completed the menu.
No newspaper or other periodical was taken. There was excellent
play space for the children, and in a neighborhood where other
children were well trained and carefully brought up. The mother’s
social life, like that of her neighbors, consisted of church-going,
visiting, and similar activities.

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HAVERHILL.

Haverhill, Mass., about 60 miles northwest of Boston, is a thriving
industrial city. Shoemaking is the chief industry. In 1920 there
were 53,884 inhabitants, of whom 13,307 were foreign-born whites.
Of these, the largest groups came from Canada (35 per cent, of whom
nearly three-fifths were French-Canadians), Italy (13 per cent),
Ireland (12 per cent), Greece (10 per cent), and Russia (9 per cent);
the remainder came from England and a number of other countries.
A D M IN IST R A TIO N .

The overseers of the poor.

The work here, as in Boston, was administered under the State
mothers’ aid law. There were three overseers of the poor, who were
appointed by the city council every three years. Each overseer was
responsible for his own section of the city. A full-time clerk was
employed b y the board, with one assistant and one stenographer.
It was the assistant clerk who looked after the families receiving
mothers’ allowances. The board of overseers held a monthly meet
ing, and applications for this form of aid were considered by the whole
board. The overseer in whose district a family lived, acting in
cooperation with the clerk or his assistant, settled all other questions
concerning their welfare.
The assistant clerk, who had the chief responsibility for the families
receiving aid, seldom visited them, since her1clerical duties made it
necessary for her to be in the office most of the time; but she saw the
mothers each week when they came in for their allowances and was
able to form friendly relationships with them.
Records.

The records consisted only o f the papers prepared for the reports
to the State department of public welfare. A card file was kept,
in which entries were made of all aid given to each family.
Procedure in granting aid.

The mother made application for aid to the overseer of her district
or at the office of the board of overseers, which was in the city hall.
An investigation was made, sometimes b y the overseer in whose
district she lived, sometimes by the clerk or his assistant. This
investigation was chiefly concerned with the material resources o f the
family. As a rule, relatives were not visited. I f relief seemed to be
103

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

immediately needed it was given at once with, no other formality than
a consultation between the clerk and the overseer. The amount of
the grant was determined b y the estimated weekly budget of income
and expenses, the latter being computed from a schedule furnished
by the State department of public welfare.
TH E FAM ILIES AIDED.

Children benefiting by grants.

In August, 1921, 33 mothers were receiving aid for 108 dependent
children. In 11 families two children were being aided— in 8, three;
in 10, four; in 2, five; and in 2, six.
Three children 14 years of age or over were receiving aid, two of
whom were reported as being physically unable to go to work. The
ages of the children receiving aid were as follows:
Number of
children.
XX U L L L U e i

Ages.

Total...................................................................................,,.......................
Under 4 years...................................................
4-5 y e a r s ...................................
6-7 years....................................................................
8-9 years.............................................................................. ........ .............. ............
10-11 years...................
12-13 years.......................................................
14-15 years............. ...............................................................
16 y e a r s ...................................

108
19
21
20
17
16
12
2
1

Causes of dependency.

The death of the father was the cause of the dependency in 25
families. In 6 cases the fathers were incapacitated, 2 being insane
and 3 having tuberculosis, and for the sixth the cause of incapacity
was not reported. One father had deserted and one was in prison.
Nativity of the mothers.

Twenty-one of the mothers were known to have been born in
foreign lands; the birthplace of one mother was not reported. Six
mothers had come from Russia, five from Canada, three from Greece,
three from Italy, two from Ireland, one from Austria, and one from
England.
ASSISTANCE GIVEN.

Allowances.

The board of overseers had not adopted any restrictive rulings,
and it usually followed the recommendation of the State visitor. A
weekly allowance was given in cash, but fuel was bought wholesale
and furnished to the families. Household furnishings were also given
as needed, and were usually bought by the assistant clerk. In
August, 1921, the total payments made for the 104 children in the 32
families for whom the amounts of the pensions were reported was

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105

HAVERHILL.

$2,046.74, the average per child for the month being $19.68.
amounts of allowance per family are shown as follows:
Monthly
allowance.

The

Number of
families.

Total............................................................................
$25-129........................ ........................... ............
.................
$40-$49 ....................................................
$50-$59. .......................... .......................
$60-$69........................................................ ......
$70-$79.......................................................................
........................
$80-$89 .................................................................
$90-$99 ....................................................
. ...
.
Over $100................................................................
Not reported..........................................................................

4
9
4
3
1

Service to the families receiving aid.

Twenty-nine families had been receiving aid for the full six months
prior to August 1, 1921. The visits recorded during that period
showed that each of 7 families had been visited twice by an overseer
and twice by the State visitor; overseers had made two visits to
each of 17 additional families, 2 of whom had been called upon four
times by the State visitor and 15 three times. Two families had
-b een visited by overseers three times, and by the State visitor four
times. Three families had received no visits from the overseers; 2
of these had received three visits, and the other family four visits
from the State visitor. Two families received seven visits alto
gether; 4 received six; 13, five; 8, four; and 2 received three. The
assistant clerk, as previously noted, saw the mothers frequently at
the office in the city hall.
The work of the State visitor in looking after the health of the
families was well supported by the overseers. Remediable defects
were being corrected; teeth were cared for, and medical service fur
nished wherever necessary. In one family visited by the writer seri
ous operations had been performed for two of the children in a Boston
hospital.
‘
STAND ARD S OF LIVING.43

Characteristics of the families visited.
Fourteen of the 33 families were visited in their homes by the
writer. They were chosen from those who had received the aid for
the longest periods. One family had received aid for seven years,
1 for six years, 3 for four, 6 for two, and 3 for one year.
Of the 9 mothers born in foreign countries, 3 were from Canada, 2
from Italy, 2 from Russia, 1 from Austria, and 1 from Ireland. All
but three mothers spoke fairly good English.
Data were secured through home visits by the writer.
4 3 7 1 1 °— 23-------8

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

Families of from two to six ckildren living at home were repre
sented. Two families had two children, 2 had three, and 2 had six..
Four families had four, and 4 had five children. Of a total of 58
children 51 were receiving pensions. In six families there were chil
dren of working age. In one case the child was not strong enough to
work and the doctor had advised that she should he kept in school;
in another family both the boys over 14 years of age were out of
work, although one of them was at the time of visit picking and
selling berries.
Housing.'
All except three of the buildings in which the families visited were
living were situated on quiet streets where the houses were not
closely crowded and where there was plenty of open space- in which
the children could play without going beyond reach of the mother’s
supervision. The three exceptions had no other play space than the
street, which was lined closely on both sides with small houses.
Three of the homes visited were cottages. One which was very neat
and attractive, with a pleasant yard, was near the business part
of the city; two were on the outskirts of the city.
Household equipment.

Sleeping arrangements were adequate except in two cases. One case
has been described; in the other instance there was no heating stove,
and during the winter the Polish family of five crowded into the two
rooms which could be heated by the kitchen range, although they
had four rooms and beds enough. There was sitting-room furniture
in all the homes except one, and in this the children were small. All
the families except three had gas for summer cooking, and these
three had coal-oil stoves. All had either an ice box or a cellar. The
latter was used for storing vegetables in winter as well as for keeping
food cool in summer. All except two families had sewing machines
on which the mother did home sewing. The clothing was good.
Food.
Food was fairly adequate in a majority of the families. All took
at least 1 quart of fresh milk, though only two had enough to allow
a pint per day for each child. Cocoa was popular because its use
was taught in the schools. Six of the mothers said that the children
were given no coffee or tea. Half the mothers said that they had
vegetables daily, but only two had fruit every day. Home baking
was done by half the mothers. In some of the families where the
supply of milk and fresh vegetables seemed to be inadequate the chil
dren appeared well nourished, and it is probable that the deficiencies
were made up in some way not discovered during the interview.
No expense accounts had been kept.

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HAVERHILL.

107

Education and recreation.

Five families had a daily newspaper and four reported use of the
public library, ¿ill the children of school age were in school. Neigh
borhood visiting, open-air games for the children, the activities of
church, Sunday school, and school were the chief sources of recreation.
Picture shows were attended occasionally by most of the families.
There was evidence of wholesome family life in the homes visited.
Examples of families aided.

The homes described below were fairly typical of those visited.
Mrs. Q and her three children lived in a frame building, which also
housed three other families. She had four well-lighted rooms.
Back of the kitchen door was an open lot which made an excellent
playground for the neighborhood children, especially as it contained
a hill used for coasting in winter. The rooms were spotless. There
was a well-equipped kitchen with a gas stove, and a combination
dining and sitting-room with a good rug, table, and chairs, and
heated in winter by a hard-coal stove. The overseers had bought a
mattress during the past year, so that a separate bedroom could be
arranged for the one boy of the family, who was 11 years old. The
mother and the two girls occupied two beds in the second bedroom.
The beds looked fresh and clean. There was no provision for keep
ing ice, but there was a good cellar which in winter was used for
storing vegetables and in summer for keeping food cool. A sewing
machine seemed to be the one piece of household equipment seriously
needed. The children were neatly dressed, despite the fact that the
mother had made a part of their clothing by hand.
The food seemed to be fairly adequate, except that only 1 quart
o f milk was used daily. The mother said, however, that they did
not drink coffee, as children often do when they do not have plenty
of milk. The children were delicate- and had been taken to Boston
for treatment. The mother had received excellent instructions re
garding their food. She said that she had meat three or four times
a week, eggs two or three times and oftener during the season when
they were the cheapest, fresh vegetables daily during the summer, and
in the winter vegetables that she had stored or canned; they seldom
had fruit, because it was high and scarce. The bread was home
baked and was excellent. An additional quart of milk would probably
have made the diet adequate.
They took a daily paper and for additional reading got books from
the city library. The activities of church, Sunday school, and school
were their chief sources of recreation, in addition to which they
visited the neighbors and played with the neighboring children.

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108

PUBLIC aid to children in their own homes .

The estimated weekly budget and the income were as follows:
Income.

Expenses.
Total..
Rent...............
Food...............
Fuel................
Clothing........

. . . . $2 0 .3 0
....

3 .5 0

....
....

1 0 .10

____

2 .7 0
4 .0 0

Total.................................... . . . $1 8 .7 0
Mothers’ a id .................................. . . .
Fuel, furnished by overseers. . . .
Mother’s earnings........................ . . .

1 2 .00
2. 70
4 .0 0

This left an apparent weekly deficit of $1.60. A relative, however,
gave some assistance, and.it seems probable that the actual income
was equal to the estimate.
Mrs. G, a frail widow with six children, lived in a dilapidated threeroom cottage, situated on about 2 acres of infertile land. In order
to buy this little place, the family had suffered great privation before
the father’s death, and the mother was now unwilling to part with
it, although it could not adequately house her family. A heating
stove, dishes, and bedding had been furnished them. The sleeping
arrangements were still crowded, three children occupying one bed.
The sitting room was afeo a bedroom and contained an open bed, a
heating stove, a table, and some chairs.
The family raised its own vegetables, and these seemed to be used
freely in the daily diet. They bought 3 pints of milk each day and
had meat on Sunday. On Saturday, as a special treat, the mother
bought a dozen oranges or bananas. They had a pound of butter
each week, but used oil in cooking. The bread was home baked.
The children .appeared undernourished, though they were said to
have improved during the past year.
The clothing of the family was not very presentable though perhaps
sufficient for projection. They had no sewing machine, and the
mother did some sewing by hand.
The income was about $5 a week below the estimated budget,
because of the irregular employment of a boy of working age. Al
though the standard of living here was low it had evidently been
raised since aid had been granted two years before, and the State
visitor had plans for further improvement.
This was the only instance seen in Haverhill of overcrowded hous
ing, and even here the abundance of outdoor-play space did much to
counteract the evil.

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NORTHAMPTON COUNTY, PA.
Northampton County is best known as the seat of the Bethlehem
Steel Works. The urban population of the county— which in 1920
was 68.2 per cent of the county’s total population of 153,506— was
engaged largely in industrial work. Among the beautiful hills were
farms rich in orchards and in fields of grain and hay. Almost threefourths of the total land area was in farms, of which about 70 per cent
were tilled by their owners. The largest cities were: Bethlehem,
50,358 ;44 Easton, 33,813; Northampton, 9,349; and Bangor, 5,402.
The many smaller towns were bound together by a network of
trolley lines.
The foreign-born whites numbered 26,939, or 18 per cent of the
total population. Of these, 30 per cent were from Hungary, 16 per
cent from Italy, 9 per cent from Austria, 7 per cent from Poland, 6
per cent in each case from Czechoslovakia, England, and Russia, and
5 per cent from Germany, the remainder coming in decreasing pro
portions from Ireland, Greece, Wales, Yugoslavia, and other coun
tries. Moreover, the 82 per cent of native-born whites included the
Pennsylvania Germans, who through more than two centuries of
residence in this country have, to a certain extent, retained their
original language and customs. Another group of native born were
the Moravians, also of German origin. The cities of Bethlehem and
Nazareth were founded before the Revolution by the Moravians,
whose culture and high educational ideals have been a factor in the
development of the county.
A D M IN SITRATION.

Aid to mothers with dependent children was administered in
Pennsylvania under the mothers’ assistance act of 1919,45which super
seded the earlier laws of 1913 and 1915. It provides for the ap
pointment by the governor of a county board of from five to seven
women, who are responsible for the local work, and the duty of State
supervision is assigned to the State board of education. The act of
192146 creating the State department of public welfare, however,
places the State supervision in this department, and another act47
gives to the commissioner of public welfare the power of appointing
the State supervisor of the mothers’ assistance fund.
4 <Of the total population of Bethlehem 9,389 were in Lehigh County, making the population within
Northampton County 40,969.
« Laws of Pennsylvania, 1919, No. 354.
Laws of Pennsylvania, 1921, No. 425, p. 1144.
*7 Laws 1921, No. 433, p. 1175.

109

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

County board of trustees.

The Northampton County Board of Trustees of the Mothers’
Assistance Fund consisted of seven women, who devoted consider
able time to the work and were deeply interested in it. They served
without pay. The members were charged by law with the responsi
bility of investigating all applications for the aid and of making a
recommendation concerning each to the county commissioners, who
had power to grant the allowances. The Northampton board em
ployed an executive secretary, who devoted her full time to the work
of investigation and aftercare of the families.. The trustees them-1
selves also did a great deal of volunteer work. Each of them took
considerable responsibility for the welfare of one or more families,
making friendly visits, arranging for medical care, and at times raising
special funds from private sources when it became necessary to furnish
more aid than could be allowed under the law.
The executive secretary had had normal-school training and case
work experience in a charity-organization society. She had been
secretary of the board since its organization two years before.
Supervision by the State.

The law provided for a State supervisor of the mothers’ assistance
fund, who had been given one assistant and a clerk. She was au
thorized to make rules and regulations governing the granting of
allowances, and a copy of every petition for a grant went to her office.
The State supervisor assisted the counties in forming the necessary
organization and in making the plans for beginning mothers’ aid work.
She provided them with forms for the reports to the State, the face
cards for their case records, school-report blanks, a blank for house
hold accounts, and a schedule for estimating the family budget.
She went over each application sent in to her office and gave any
advice that seemed to be required. If a grant had been illegally
awarded, the application was returned to the trustees, with the rea
sons for its being held illegal. Much of her time was spent in visiting
counties, in meeting with the county boards, and sometimes in visit
ing families with them. The supervisor also held intercounty con
ferences at which the secretaries and members of the boards of a group
of contiguous counties met together to discuss their common
problems.
Of the 67 counties in the State 48 were organized for mothers’
pensions and 22 had paid workers. New counties had applied for
State subsidies and were waiting until the new biennial appropriation
would permit their inclusion in the benefits offered through the act
of 1919.

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NORTHAMPTON COUNTY, PA..

I ll

Sources of funds.

The Slate appropriation, which in 1921 was $4,000^000, was
divided among: the counties in proportion to their populations. To
chaw State money, a county had to appropriate a sum equal to that
of the State grant. The State law limited; the expenses of adminis
tration in any county to not more than 10 per cent of the appropria
tion for the year.
Children eligible for aid, and amount of grant.

A mother of “ proper character and ability,” who had been a
resident of the State for two years and of the county for one year,
became eligible for the aid if she was a widow or her husband was in
a State institution for the insane, provided she had children under 16
years of age and the aid was necessary to enable her to maintain her
home. She might have an equity up to $1,500 in her home and have a
reserve fund of not more than $400. The children of school age had
to be kept in school if their physical condition permitted. Twenty
dollars a month could be paid for one child, and $10 for each of the
other children. There was no maximum amount per family.
Procedure in granting aid.

The application was made to the county board of trustees on a
blank provided by the State supervisor. The investigation was
made either by one of the trustees or by the executive secretary.
Property interests were verified by means of tax. and assessment lists,
and wages by examining the pay envelopes or by an interview with
the employer. A t least one relative on each side was interviewed—
preferably grandparents, aunts or uncles.. Any material relief that
had been received, the history of the family and its character, were
determined by consulting social agencies, the pastor, the principal
or teachers of the school which the children attended, physicians,
lawyers,, and other persons who had known the family. The family
physician was consulted as to the health of any member of the family
in need of medical attention, or a medical examination was otherwise
arranged for.
The results of this inquiry were reported to the board of trustees at
their monthly meeting, with an estimated budget of family expenses
worked out according to the schedule recommended by the State
supervisor. I f aid was recommended by the board, a copy of the
face card of the record was sent to the State supervisor, accompanied
by a supplementary statement of the circumstances of the family.
The money was paid to the mother by check. She received one
from the State treasurer and one from the county treasurer each
month, at such times as to make the payments semimonthly.

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

The case record had a face card which gave, in addition to the
usual face card information, two statements of the financial status of
the family— one at the time of the father’s death and the other at the
time the investigation was made. It had a blank also for noting the
character and length of the father’s last illness, and whether or not
it was related to his occupation. All correspondence relating to the
case was made a part of the record, and there were history sheets on
which every visit and interview was reported.
THE FAMILIES AIDED.

Children benefiting by grants.

In August, 1921, 30 families, with a total of 132 children at home,
were receiving allowances for 120 children. Twenty-eight of these
families were dependent because of the death of the father, 1 because
the father had become insane, and 1 because of incapacity of the
father. The number of children receiving assistance in each family
reported was as follows:
Number of children
in the family.

Number of
families.

Total.............................................................................. ......................... ......

O n e.....................
T w o . . . .................
T h r e e ..........................
F o u r ........... ....................
Five...... ......................................................................................................................
Six.........................................................................................................
Seven.......................................................

1
2
11
6
4
4
2

The ages of the 120 children were as follows:
Ages. '

Total'........... ...............................

Number of
children.

120

Under 4 years................................................... . . . . ............................................
15
4-5 years.......................................: . ................................................ ......................• 19
6-7 years................................
24
8-9 years.....................................................................................
19
10-11 years.....................................................
17
12-13 years. . . . . . ........
21
14-15 years.: ............
5

Residence and nativity of the mothers.

Seven of the families lived in cities, 16 in incorporated boroughs of
between 2,500 and 6,000 population, 3 in boroughs of between 1,000
and 2,000, and the remainder in distinctly rural sections.
Of the 10 foreign-born mothers, 6 had been born in Italy, 2 in
Hungary, 1 in Lithuania, and 1 in Russia. Of the 19 native-born
mothers, 5 were of Pennsylvania-German descent. The birthplace
of 1 mother was not reported.

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NORTHAMPTON COUNTY, PA.

113

ASSISTANCE GIVEN.

Allowances.

The monthly pay roll in June, 1921, was $1,220, an average of
$10.17 per child. The amounts received by the families were as
follows:
Monthly
allowance.

Total

Number of
families.

.........30

$15................................................................
20...............................................................................................................................
3 0 . . . . . . ............... ............................................ ................ ......................................
3 5 ...............
40...............
50.............................................. ................................................................................ .
.................................. .............................................. ........................... ;
55 ... .
6 0 . . . . .................................. ................................................................................
65.................. .......................................................................................1 ....................

1
2
3
8
7
3
2
2
1

7 0 . . ..... ....................................... ......... ......................... ....... ....... r 1
Service to the families receiving aid.

The families were visited in their homes by both the executive
secretary and the trustees, and they were seen at least once each
month. The contact with them of both the secretary and the trus
tees was close and friendly. The mothers consulted them about
difficulties of all sorts and seemed grateful for the support \of their
friendliness. In instances where the standards of living had been
abnormally low, efforts had been made to raise them. Among the
30 families were 8 who had been moved in order to secure better
housing or better neighborhood conditions. One of these was a
Hungarian mother who spoke no English, and who at the death of
her husband had been left helpless with five small children. She
had known no way of managing except to crowd the family into one
room of her house and fill all the others with lodgers. She was
granted aid, had been moved into a flat for her family alone, and was
learning English.
The number of visits recorded during the six months preceding
July 1, 1921, are shown in Table X .
T able X . —

1Excludes

Visits paid to families in Northampton County, Pa., that had received aid
fo r the f u l l period o f six months prior to July 1, 1921.

one family that was granted a pension during the period.

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PUBLIC AID TO CHIIDREH EBT THEIß OWN HOMES.

In most of the families interviewed it was apparent that changes
for the better had been made in diet and health habits at the sugges
tion of the secretary or the trustees.
All children of school age were in school, and; their school reports
were filed with the case record. The secretary was in constant
touch with the teachers and was following with interest the school
career of each child. Under the Pennsylvania law it was not neces
sary for the allowance to stop when a child became eligible for a work
ing permit. If he was doing well in school he might remain there and
the mother would continue to receive the allowance. Two children
of 14 years, who might have been employed, were finishing the
eighth grade.
Instruction in English was arranged for mothers who spoke only
a foreign language. Books and papers were encouraged in the homes.
In several instances they were furnished by the trustees who were
acting as friendly visitors.
The employment of children leaving school was the subject of
earnest attention by the board, members of which had helped fre
quently in finding suitable work. They had also helped the mothers
who were able to work to find employment and to make the necessary
adjustments. One mother with four children had been provided"'
with a sewing machine, so that she could take home sewing instead
of going to a factory. In families where the mother was occupied
outside the home the board considered that she should not be away
more than three days a week, and that her work should permit her
to be at home after school hours, when the children were there.
The mothers were helped in planning wholesome recreation for
themselves and their children. Boys and girls were encouraged to
belong to clubs, to use the public library, and to take advantage of
neighborhood facilities for sports and social intercourse.
Earnest efforts were made to secure the necessary attention to all
health needs, but the county was not well provided with facilities
for free clinical care. There was a State dispensary at Easton, and
another at Bethlehem, where a general clinic was held once a week.
Through this clinic, hospital care in Philadelphia had been arranged
for one child. Easton and Northampton each had a public-health
nurse, and there were “ well-baby” child-welfare clinics at Nazareth,
Easton, Bethlehem, and Northampton. For several families one of
the trustees had secured free dental service from a neighborhood
dentist. Most of the debts mentioned by the mothers interviewed
had been incurred for medical or dental services.
Expense accounts were faithfully kept in the families where there
was anyone who could write. These were studied carefully by the
secretary and were made the basis of her advice in regard to choice
of food and management of income.

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115

STA N D AR D S OF LIVING.48

Characteristics of the families visited.

The 19 families selected for special study were chosen from the
list of those who had been receiving aid longest. Twelve had been
in receipt of aid for one and one-half to two years, 4 for one year,
and 3 for less than one year. Four of the mothers were of Italian
birth, 1 was of Polish, 1 of Lithuanian, and 1 of Hungarian; of the
11 who were born in the United States, 2 were of PennsylvaniaGerman descent; the nativity of 1 mother was not reported. Five of
the families had three children, 5 had five, and 5 had seven; 2 families
had two children; 1 had four, and another family had six children.
In 7 families a total of nine older children were at work and helping
to support the family. Three families lived in Bethlehem, 3 in
Easton, 2 in Bangor, 10 in smaller towns and villages, and 1 on a
farm.
Housing.

The housing was excellent in most instances. All except four of
the homes were cottages similar to those described later; the excep
tions were well-lighted flats in fairly good repair. Two instances of
~ crowded housing were observed. One family consisting of a mother
and three children, the oldest a boy of 11 years, were living in two
rooms. Another family— a mother and five children, the oldest a
boy of 10—were living in three rooms. All the other families had
abundant space, with four, five, six, or even seven rooms. Neigh
borhood surroundings were wholesome, and all the children had out
door play space.
Household equipment.

All except two of the homes had a sitting room with comfortable
chairs, a table, and usually some sort of floor covering. A number of
homes had additional furniture— two had a piano and a third a parlor
organ. The kitchens were equipped with coal ranges for winter
cooking, and either gas or coal-oil stoves for summer use. Only one
mother complained of lack of cooking utensils. All but three of the
families had either an ice box or a cellar. In 16 homes there were
enough beds so that not more than two persons needed to occupy
one; in 3 homes the mother slept with two children. All except 2
families had enough linen, and all except 5 had covers enough for
the cold weather.
Food.

The food habits showed the careful instruction which had been
given in diet. No family had less than 1 quart of fresh milk daily,
and all used butter. Fifteen of the families had milk enough to

48Dataweresecuredthroughhomevisitsbythe writer.

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

supply each child with at least a pint every day. In three instances
where the supply was below ’this standard it had recently been re
duced because of the unemployment of the mother or the working
children. Fourteen families had at least one vegetable in addition
to potatoes as a part of the daily diet; the others had them only
four or five days a week. Meat was used from two to six times a
week, with eggs in addition. Fruit was a part of the daily’ diet in
only four instances. It was very scarce and high at the time the
visits were made.
Clothing.

With a few exceptions both the mothers and the children seen
were neatly and suitably dressed. The clothing of two families
looked shabby, and one mother told of a time during the past winter
when the weather was stormy and the children had no shoes. The
trustee especially interested in the family had supplied them as soon
as she heard of the lack. The mothers all did some sewing for their
families, and some of them did excellent dressmaking.
Housekeeping and household management.

Fifteen homes were clean and orderly, and the others were fairly
well kept. In one case the secretary had done patient work in try
ing to raise the standards of housekeeping, which were originally
very low, and the record showed that there had been considerable
improvement. The income was apparently well managed in almost
all cases. Most of the families bought supplies carefully and in fairly
large amounts, stored food supplies for the winter, and canned and
preserved vegetables and fruits at home. Clothing was kept well
mended, and much of it was made at home.
Illustrations of homes visited.

The homes described below illustrate the living conditions observed.
The U family of six lived in an old two-story frame cottage which
had a rather ill-kept exterior. Within, the house had a comfortable
and homelike atmosphere. The sitting room with its well-worn
chairs and carpet and a parlor organ looked invitingly sociable.
In the roomy kitchen stood a dining table big enough for the whole
family, and the necessary kitchen equipment was in fair condition.
The latter included an ice-box, although Mrs. U said that she could
not afford ice except in the hottest weather. Of the three bedrooms
with clean bare floors and a double bed each, one was for the older
girls, one for the mother with the youngest child, and one for the
boys. Sheets and pillow cases were clean, and on the closet shelves
were enough warm covers for the winter. Each member of the
family had a special space in the closets and clothespresses for his
own clothing. The boys were playing barefooted in the yard, but
the day was warm.

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117

Mrs. U was becoming discouraged, however. Her income was
partly dependent upon the wages of the 17-year-old boy, who had
been irregularly employed. She was in debt to the grocer, owed a
$5 dentist’s bill, and in endeavoring to keep within her income had
cut the daily supply of milk from 3 quarts to 1 quart. The family
were still having meat every day, and vegetables almost every day,
but very little fruit was used.
The family took a daily paper and a weekly church paper. In
ordinary times they went occasionally to picture shows, but had not
been recently. The boys had a good play space all around and were
planning to go swimming that afternoon in the river near by.
The estimated budget for this family was $94.62, of which Mrs. U
could earn $10 at home laundry work and her son $35 at the factory
when there was work. The aid of $50 a month brought the income
up to the budget, and made adequate living standards possible except
in times of unemployment.
The home of the Y family— a mother, three children, and a man
relative— was an attractive frame cottage set in a shaded yard affording space for a small garden. The cottage contained a sitting room,
dining room, kitchen, and four bedrooms, all adequately and pleas-a n tly furnished, and heated by two stoves. Everything about the
place was in good repair and well kept. Mother and children were
neatly clothed. The food appeared to be adequate; it included 2\
quarts of milk, vegetables daily from the garden, fruit on most days,
and meat usually once a day. There was a chicken house in the back
yard, and the two or three eggs laid daily were being used by the
family.
The estimated budget for this family of five and their actual ex
penses were as follows:
Total expenses..................... $106. 30
R en t............... , ....................................
Food......................................................
Clothing.. .............'...........................
Fuel and light...................................
Insurance............................................
Car fare and sundries.....................

15.00
54.35
17.55
7. 50
1. 40
10. 50

Total income........................ $104.30
Mothers’ aid fund............................
Payment from a fraternal order.
Boarder........................ ......... . . ____
Mother’s earnings............................

40. 00
21. 65
34.65
8. 00

Deficit...........................................

2.00

The small deficit was easily made up by the produce from the garden.
Sixteen of the 19 homes were cottages, similar to the two already
described. In most instances, at least a small garden went with the
cottage. In one of these gardens the winter as well as the summer
vegetables used by the family were raised.
Of the families who were living in flats the V family of six will serve
as an example. In this flat was a clean and adequately equipped
kitchen with a gas range and an electric iron. The heating stove was

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

located in the combination dining and sitting room, which contained
a substantial dining table, a sideboard, and chairs. Each of the re
maining three rooms contained a bed. Inasmuch as all the children
except the baby were girls the three rooms and their equipment fur
nished adequate sleeping arrangements. Mrs. V complained of the
lack of warm coverings for the beds. The sheets were made of flour
sacks, and were fresh and clean.
The food appeared to be fairly adequate— 2 quarts o f milk daily,
meat three times a week, and fresh vegetables every day. Mrs. V,
an Italian by birth, made her own macaroni and tomato paste.
For recreation the family went occasionally to picture shows and
had picnics in the park. The Sunday paper was the only reading
matter in the home.
The clothing was made at home, and both mother and children were
neatly dressed.

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W ESTCHESTER COUNTY, N . Y.

Westchester County, lying just north of the city of New York,
had in 1920 a population of 344,436. In the southern part it is
largely urban except for country residences of people of means.
Its larger centers of population are within easy reach of New York
City, where many of the residents work. There are good connec
tions by trolley and excellent suburban train service to most parts
of the county, so that it is to a considerable extent a residence suburb
of New York. It has, however, industries of its own of considerable
size, and each of the larger cities has a number of manufacturing
plants.
According to the Federal Census of 1920 the populations of the
largest cities were: Yonkers, 100)176; Mount Vernon, 42,726; New
Rochelle, 36,213; White Plains, 21,031. In addition, there were
eight incorporated villages with populations ranging from 5*000 to
17,000. The county’s foreign-born white population was 80,005, or
' 23 per cent of the total. Of these, 28 per cent were from Italy, 16
per cent from Ireland, 9 per cent from Germany, 8 per cent from
Russia, 7 per cent from England, 6 per cent from Austria, and 5 per
cent from Poland. The remaining 21 per cent came from Hungary,
Scotland, Canada, and many other countries.
ADMINISTRATION.

A t the time of the passage of the New York State law o f 1915 49
establishing county boards of child welfare with power to grant
and administer allowances to mothers, Westchester County was
already granting mothers’ allowances through the office of the
superintendent of the poor under a ruling of the county board of
supervisors based on a special interpretation of the New York State
poor law. This plan was working to the satisfaction of the board
of supervisors, and they made no appropriation to the board of child
welfare appointed for Westchester County under the State law, but
continued appropriations for mothers’ allowances under their former
ruling. In 1916 a special law, known as the commissionership act,50
was passed relating to Westchester County.
^ This act abolished the old office of the superintendent of the poor and created in
its place a new office, that of county commissioner of charities and corrections, later
called county commissioner of public welfare.51

49Laws of New York, 1915, ch. 228.
60Laws of New York, 1916, ch. 242.
61County Organization for Child Care and

Protection, p. 123, U . S. Department of Labor, Children’s
Bureau, Publication No. 107, Washington, 1922.

119

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PUBLIC

aid to children in their own homes .

An amendment52 passed in 1921 places in the commissioner’s hands
all the duties of a county board of child welfare empowered to admin- __
ister allowances to mothers. He has power to make such arrange
ment for the care of needy children as may be authorized by the
county board of supervisors, but for those who are chargeable to
any city or town no expense may be incurred without the consent
of the local overseer of the poor.
Westchester is the only county in New York State granting allow
ances under a county commissioner. In Dutchess and Suffolk
Counties, for which also the State legislature has passed special acts
covering this type of assistance, the administration is in charge of
unpaid county boards.
The county department of child welfare.

The department of child welfare is one of the six departments
under the commissioner of public welfare. The families of mothers
with dependent children receiving aid from the county are charges
of this department, as are also all children living outside their own
homes who are dependent upon the' public for support, whether they
have become so because of parental cruelty or neglect, their own
need for hospital treatment or institutional training, or have been
committed as destitute under the poor law. Since the department
aims to remedy the conditions which result in children becoming
dependent, its agents deal with all types of family problems in the
rural parts of the county where there are few other agencies at work.
In the cities, where social service is well organized, problems which
are not definitely its responsibility are referred to the proper agen
cies. The fundamental purpose of the department is to preesrve
family life, and if aid can make the home a suitable one, that aid is
given. Boarding homes are found for children who are physically
and mentally fit for home life but have neither parents nor relatives
able to make a home for them.
One of the outstanding features in the work of Westchester County
is that the same agency cares for needy children, whether they are
with their own mothers or away from them. This has the advantage
of making possible the transfer of a child, without change of guardian
ship, from an institution or boarding home to his own home, or vice
versa, as may be thought best for its welfare. The family is thus
saved from the possibility of neglect through the lack of cooperation
of different agencies, and from being transferred from the care of one
worker to another with every change in conditions. There is unin
terrupted opportunity for carrying out plans for family welfare, which
is no doubt partly responsible for the high grade of case work done in
the department.
62

Laws oí New York, 1921, ch. 457.

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121

In 1920, the department dealt with 2,498 families, of which 334
'" received mothers' allowances.
Distribution of work.53

The department had a staff of 40 workers— a director, 3 assistant
directors, a supervisor of district work, a supervisor of boarding
homes, 16 field and district agents, 8 members of the clinic staff, 6
stenographers, a clerk, a bookkeeper, and 2 secretaries. Of these
workers 17 were supported from county funds, and the other 23 by
private funds. The Westchester county children’s committee paid
the salaries and expenses of 6 workers, and private individuals donated
the funds for the remaining 17. In this connection it is interesting to
note that while the county was willing to pay for 11 of the 16 field
agents it furnished but 2 of the 6 stenographers, 1 of the 2 secretaries,
and no filing clerk. This is in line with the reluctance, noticeable
everywhere, to give adequate office assistance to the case workers or to
recognize such service as a necessary part of the program.
The county was divided into districts, and nine district offices were
maintained in addition to the central office in White Plains. Yonkers
had four agents and a stenographer, three other districts had two
agents each, and the remaining districts had one agent each. Except
" 'in Yonkers stenographic service was furnished from the central office
to all the district offices. This was only occasional service, and each
agent did much of her own typing.
Equipment of the workers.

The superintendent of district work gave full time at the central
office to the direction of the work with families who received mothers’
allowances. She was an experienced director of case work, was a col
lege graduate, and had had additional training at a school of social
work. Of the 14 agents doing work with families receiving aid, 9
were college and 4 were high-school graduates, while 1 was also a
graduate of a school of social work, and 8 had received training in
such a school. Four of the agents had had previous social-service
experience of from one to five years in organizations doing case work;
9 of the 10 who had had no such previous experience had been with
the department of child welfare of Westchester County for similar
periods.
Records.

The records kept were similar to those in use by the private case
work organizations affiliated with the American Association for Family
Work. Duplicates of the most important parts of the records were
kept at the central office for the use of the supervisors of district work
and boarding homes.
.
5» County Organization for Child Care and Protection, p. 125.
Bureau Publication No. 107.

4 3 7 1 1 °— 23------ 9

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122

PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

Children eligible for aid, and amount of grant

There were no restrictions on the county board of supervisors as to the types of cases that might be considered eligible, or as to the
amount of aid that might be granted to the mothers of dependent
children. A t various times the board had made rulings to govern the
work. To enable a mother with dependent children to care for them
in her own home, the commissioner, under these rulings and at his
discretion, and with the written consent of the local official, could
grant her an allowance, provided she had a poor-law settlement in the
county, that she could not maintain her home without public assis
tance, and that the children would be better off with her than in an
institution.
The department of child welfare had worked out for itself certain
policies which further restricted the list of families eligible to mothers’
allowances. The mother must be a widow or have a husband inca
pacitated through mental or physical disability or b y imprisonment
from supporting his family. She might have equity in property,
provided the expense of carrying it was no more than reasonable rent
would be. The character of the home and of the mother had to be
such that it would be for the best interests of the child to be kept in
his own home. Children were always left with the mother whenever
she was able, with assistance, to give them adequate care.
In 1916 the amount of aid that might be granted was fixed by the
board at $3 per week per child. This was increased at various times,
and since April, 1920, the limit has been $4.50 per week per child.
No rigid limitation has been set on the total amount to be used for the
purpose, and it has been possible to care for all the families found
eligible.
Procedure in granting aid.

The application for aid might be made to anyone connected with
the department. The mother filled out the proper form and made
affidavit to the statements. The agent of the district in which she
lived made an investigation which covered the verification of these
facts, the social and health history of the family, and its economic
condition. She then forwarded a written report, including a recom
mendation, to the central office. This was reviewed by the super
intendent of district work and by one of the assistant directors. No
decision was reached without the concurrence of at least three persons
who had gone over the facts independently. If they reached the
same decision, the director approved it; if there was a difference of
opinion, the case was reviewed by a fourth member of the executive
staff, and a conference of the different workers was held.

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WESTCHESTER COUNTY, N . Y.

If aid was recommended, it was necessary to secure the signed
consent of the supervisor of the town or commissioner of charities of
the city in which the family had established a poor-law settlement;
in the cases of families not long enough in one place to have acquired
such a settlement the charge was upon the county.
In determining the amount of an allowance an estimated budget
of household expenses was computed. Estimates of food costs made
by the food committee of the New York Nutrition Council were used.
Cost of clothing was computed from the estimates given in the Chi
cago standard budget. Other items of the budget were determined
by local conditions.
TH E FAM ILIES AIDED.

Children benefiting by grants.

In August, 1921, there were 283 families in which 933 dependent
children were being aided; there was a total of 1,039 children reported
in the homes in these families, 106 of them being ineligible for aid.
The largest number of families were those having two, three, and four
children receiving aid as shown in the following list:
Number of children
Number of
aided in family.
families.
Total........................................................... . .................................................283
One......................................................r............................................................. ..
Tw o.........................
Three...........................
Four........... ................
F ive.....................................................
S ix...............................................................................................................................
Seven................................................
Eight.......................................................

5
82
88
58
37
10
1
2

The ages of the 933 children who were receiving aid were as follows:
Ages.
Total.............................................

Number of
children.
933

Under 4 years....................................... . . . ............................... ........................... 102
4-5 years............................................................................................................... '.. 108
6-7 years.................................... . . ‘ .............. .............. * ....................................... .. 135
8-9 years...............................
175
10-11 years........... ..................................
170
12-13 years...................................................................................................... ........159
14-15 years........................................................................
81
16-17 years...................................................................... ............................. . . . . .
3

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Causes of dependency.

The death of the father was the cause of dependency in nearly 90
per cent of the families. The causes of dependency are listed as
follows:
Number of
families.

Cause of dependency.

Total.....................................................1.............. .............. . . ..................... 283
Father dead.......................
251
Father incapacitated.....................................................
20
Tuberculosis......................................................................................
8.
In san ity........... ..................................................................... ............ 10
Other........................................................ ........................... ............ ...
2
Father deserting.___ ____: ............................................................... ...................
9
Father imprisoned......... ....................
2
Father separated....................................................................................................
1

Residence and nativity of the mothers.

Of the 283 mothers, 177 were living in cities, 91 in incorporated
villages, and 15 in rural sections. Of those residing in cities 122
lived in Yonkers, 22 in Mount Vernon, 17 in White Plains, and 16 in
New Rochelle. Compared with the population, a larger proportion
of the mothers were being aided in Yonkers than in the other cities.
Three-fifths of the mothers were foreign-born, and they were of 15
nationalities. The largest number (59) came from Italy, Irelano,
was represented by 40, Austria by 20, Russia by 12, Poland by 9,
and England by 7; Hungary, Scotland, Czechoslovakia, Germany,
France, Canada, Finland, Norway, and Sweden were each represented
by from 1 to 4 mothers. Eight of the 113 native-born mothers were
negroes; the nativity of 4 of the mothers was not reported.
ASSISTANCE GIVEN.

Allowances.

Allowances amounting to $123,871.21 were paid during 1920 to
334 families. The amount spent in August, 1921, was $12,361, dis
tributed as follows:
Montfily
allowance.

Number of
families.

Total............................
Less than $15..................................................... : ............................... ..................
$15-$19................................
$20-$24........................................................................... - - - - - - .............................
$25-$29.........
$30-$34...........................................................................
$35-$39.................
$40-$44..................................................
$45-$49......................................................................................................................
$50-$54.................
$55-$59....................................................................... i ....................................
$60-$64.............................................................................

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12
12
24
27
14
45
24
11
52
9
6

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WESTCHESTER COUNTY, N . Y.
Monthly
allowance.

Number of
families.

$65-$69.
$70-$74.
$75-$79.

.........
.........

4
26

........

$90-194
$95-$99
$ 100. . .

.........

........
........
........
......

2
6

2
1

Service to the families receiving aid.

Visits of the agents to the families in their care were regular and
friendly. The rule of the department was that each family should
be seen in its own home once a month, or oftener. If the case required
special attention the visits were more frequent— sometimes several
in one week.
A total of 247 families had been receiving aid for at least six months
preceding August 1, 1921; the number of home visits paid during the
six months was recorded for 246 of these families, as follows:
Home visits recorded.

Number of
families.

Total................................................................... .......................................... 246
Less than three
Three..................
Four....................
Five....................
Six................ ..
More than six . .
Not reported...

8
14
25
23
94
78
4

One family had been visited 27 times, and 2 other families *20
times; 17 families had each received 12 home visits, an average of
twice a month for the six months’ period. In addition, some of the
mothers visited the office frequently; in two cases where the families
had received only rare home visits the mother was seen at the office
three or more times every month.
The school records of the children were watched with interest. A
report blank was used for some children but was not always required.
For children showing special promise private funds were sometimes
raised in order to keep them in school, after the mothers’ allowance
fund could no longer be used. The department of child welfare had
ruled not to use public funds to keep children in school after they had
attained 15 years of age if they were eligible for work permits.
Therefore, all expenses for children 15 and 16 years of age who were
kept in school had to be paid through private funds. For a child
more than 16 years old it was necessary to raise from private funds
not only the child’s expenses but also a contribution to the support

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of the family equal to the amount in excess of his own maintenance
which he would probably earn if he were working.
The health of the mothers and children was carefully looked after.
The county has a number of good clinics of its own, and to supplement
these the free clinics in New York City were used.
TH E CLINIC OF TH E D EPAR T M EN T OF CHILD WELFARE.

The clinic of the department of child welfare gives both mental
and physical examinations. The close cooperation between the
clinic and the social-service work placed all the valuable material
collected by the clinic at the service of the agents in their ease work.
A full copy of the findings, both physical and mental, was sent to the
social-service division and kept on file there for convenient con
sultation.
Once a week a case conference was held, at which were present for
each case to be considered the district agent in whose territory the
case had arisen, the clinic’s field worker who had been in contact with
it, the director or one of the assistant directors of the department of
child welfare, the superintendent of district work, and the psychiatrist
of the clinic. At these conferences the recommendations for treat
ment were agreed upon.
Weighing and measuring tests were given by the physician of the
clinic early in 1921 to all the children (910) in mothers’ allowance
families. Those receiving institutional care and those in boarding
homes were also examined. In grading the children’s physical con
dition, not only height and weight were noted but also general
apjpearance, condition of the skin and the subcutaneous tissue, mus
cular tone and development, color of the mucous membranes, facial
expression, activity, voice, and general reactions.
A comparison of the findings in the cases of the 910 children in the
mothers’ allowance group with findings in the cases of 751 children
cared for in institutions and 71 living in boarding homes, all tested
at approximately the same time, may be made from Table X I .56
According to this table 86.4 per cent of the children in the mothers’
allowance group were in satisfactory condition as to nutrition, while
13.6 per cent needed supervision of diet and manner of living or med
ical attention. The director of the child-welfare department pointed
out that the children sent to boarding homes were selected because
they needed individual attention, and that they may have started
on a lower physical plane than the children in the mothers’ allowance
group.
66 Data from a typewritten report furnished by Dr. Elizabeth I. Adamson, dinic, department of child
welfare, Westchester County, N . Y .

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T a b l e X I .—Physical

condition o f dependent children, by groups; children fo r whom,
allowances were granted, children in institutions, ana children in boarding homes.
Per cent in specified physical condition.
Total children ex
amined.
Group.

Excel
lent.

Good.

Poor.

Very
poor.

Number. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
Mothers’ allowance..........................................
Institutions.......................................................
Boarding homes...............................................

910
751
71

100.0
100.0
100.0

34.4
31.4
21.1

52.0
52.4
64.9

12.1
15.5
12.6

1.5
0.7
1.4

STAND ARD S OF LIVING.56

Characteristics of the families visited.

Most of the 25 families selected for special study were chosen from
the list of those granted aid in 1919 and still on the list in August,
1921; a few cases of longer or shorter duration were included for
geographical reasons.57 Eleven families had been receiving aid for
between one and two years, 10 for between two and three years, and
the remaining 4 families for periods ranging from three to five years.
In 19 families there were children too young to go to school; in 3
there were older children at work, who were helping to support the
family. The families ranged in size from two to seven children.
The nativity distribution was as follows: Ten of the mothers had
been born in the United States (3 of them were negroes), 6 were
Italians, 3 Hungarians, and 2 Irish; Austria, England, Germany, and
Poland were each represented by 1 mother.
All except two of the mothers visited spoke enough English to
enable them to carry on ordinary conversation about household
affairs..
Housing.

Of the 25 homes seen 17 were in flats or two-family houses, all
well lighted and ventilated and in reasonably good repair. Eight
were in cottages, 5 being on the outskirts of the cities or villages,
where there was plenty of play space to be shared with the other
children of the neighborhood. Three of the homes were in the open
country.
One of the country cottages was a substantial five-room frame
cottage, occupied by the I family, consisting of an Irish-American
mother and her six children. The sitting room, kitchen, and one
bedroom were on the first floor, and two bedrooms were in the attic.
The house had been erected by the young father and mother with
their own hands. -After the father’s sudden death, the mother had
5« Data were secured through home visits by the writer.
57 For general method of selection of families, see p. 1.

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gone on with the work of making the home. She “ just loved cement”
and had dug and cemented a small square cistern. Before this was
completed all the water had to be carried from a spring about 200
yards back of the house. She had also laid a cement walk through
the deep front yard to the road, and had made a window box, which
was filled with bright flowers, for the attic window above the small
front porch. Fruit trees and grapevines grew in the back yard, and
vines covered the fence dividing the I ’s yard from their neighbor’s.
It was an attractive home affording healthful conditions for growing
children.
Westchester County, with the Hudson River on the west, is famous
for the beauty of its scenery. On one of the narrow roads leading
through a remote part of the county stood a tiny cottage surrounded
by woods and hills. It was old, but comfortable and homelike, with
three rooms and an attic. The house was large enough for the com
fort of the mother and her two small boys who lived in it, and there
were woods on all sides for the children to range through with their
playmates from the house around the next curve in the road.
Mrs. B, a Hungarian mother, and her three small boys, together
with a baby which she had taken to board, lived in a four-room flat in
a house built to accommodate four families. Each room had one or
more outside windows, the family had the exclusive use of a clean
toilet in the hall, the kitchen had a good sink, and the walls and
floors were in good repair. In the absence of a yard a vacant lot
near b y afforded play space. The street was quiet and built up,
though not very closely, with similar houses occupied b y working
people. The open country was not far away, and at the time of the
writer’s call the older boy had gone to gather wild cherries for jelly.
The D family, an Italian mother and her five children, lived in
a second-story flat of a four-family frame house, which was old and
in only a fair state of repair. They had three large rooms, one of
which had two outside windows, each of the others having one. A
toilet in the hall was shared with another family. The large kitchen
served also as the sitting room, and the other rooms were used for
sleeping. The oldest child was a girl of 13. The street was narrow,
and rather closely built up with similar houses.
Fifteen of the 25 homes seen contained four or more rooms; 6 had
three rooms, and 4 had but two. In five instances there was not
room enough for the comfort of the family. One mother and her
four children were living in two rooms; another mother and her six
children were living in three rooms. Three other families, in each of
which were three children, were crowded, though less seriously, in
three-room dwellings. The homes in the citiesmand incorporated
villages had sinks with running water, but only four of the homes
had bathrooms.

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Household equipment.

Nineteen homes had a sitting room, heated by a coal stove in
winter and furnished with at least a few comfortable chairs and a
table and a rug or carpet. In several instances the sitting room had
additional furniture— pictures, bookshelves, a victrola, or a piano.
Six families who had no separate sitting room used either the kitchen
or a bedroom as a sitting room.
In 18 of the 25 homes there was at least one bed for each two
persons in the family, with covers enough for warmth and sufficient
linen for cleanliness. Seven families had an insufficient number of
beds; in 4 of these cases the mother had two children sleeping with
her, and in 2 others three children slept in one bed. Four families
were not adequately provided with covers or linen.
All the homes except one, had enough utensils for cooking and
serving food in a simple way, and for cleaning and laundry work.
In many of the homes the previous standard of living had been high,
and these households were well equipped. In 20 instances there was
either an ice box or a cool cellar. Cooking was by gas in summer;
the winter cooking was done on a coal range or stove.
Food.

The supply of milk was usually adequate. No family had less
than 1 quart daily, while 19 families had as much as a pint for each
child per day. Most of the families with the lower milk consumption
were Italians. Vegetables were mentioned as a part of the daily diet
by almost all the mothers. Fruit was used less often, but in a
number of cases it formed a part of the daily diet. Meat was
customarily eaten from two to six times a week, and usually eggs
and butter were in the dietary. The choice of foods showed that
the agents had given some attention to the subject in their talks
with the mothers.
One mother kept her menus for several weeks, and the following are
samples taken from a week in August:
Lunch.

Supper.

Cereal.
Bread and butter.
Coffee or cocoa.

Breakfast.

Hamburg steak.
String beans.
Potatoes.
Bread and butter.

Eggs.
Peaches.
Bread and butter.
Tea.

Cereal.
Toast.
Coffee or cocoa.

Chops.
.Spinach.
Baked potatoes.
Rice pudding.

Lettuce salad.
Peaches.
Bread and butter.
Tea.

Cereal.
Bread.
Coffee or m ilk .'

Eggs.
Green com.
Potatoes.
Bread and butter.

Salmon.
Bread and butter.
Tea.

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Clothing.

The standard for clothing seemed to be almost uniformly good.
The mothers visited at their work or in their homes were neatly
dressed. Three mothers said they had bought almost nothing for
themselves since receiving aid. In all except two cases the children
seen were suitably dressed, in whole and reasonably clean clothing.
In one family, the children’s clothing was old and shabby looking;
in another it was unclean and unmended. Twenty homes contained
sewing machines, and almost all the mothers did a considerably
amount of sewing for the family.
Housekeeping and household management.

The households seemed to be carefully managed and the incomes
expended advantagiously. Canning, jelly-making, and storing vege
tables for the winter were customany with many of the women.
The buying was done with forethought in many cases. Several
mothers bought flour by the barrel and potatoes by the hundred
weight. Very little indebtedness had been incurred, and the few
debts were usually for a doctor’s or a dentist’s service.
Of the 25 homes 23 were clean and orderly, 1 was fairly well kept,
and 1 was poorly kept.
Education and recreation.

Children of school age were all in school. Some families had no
reading matter in the home; four took a weekly newspaper, four a
daily paper, two had magazines, six spoke of getting books from the
public library, and one mother borrowed things to read from her
employer. Most of the mothers said that they went occasionally
to picture shows with the children though one whose children went
weekly said she would hate to spend money to go herself. It was
a custom in most families to go picnicking in the parks or at the
shore. A good many families were within reach of the beach where
bathing was possible. There seemed to be no reason why all the
children should not have plenty of outdoor play.
Work of the mothers.

All but 5 of the 25 mothers did remunerative work. Eleven did
laundering, sewing, or beadwork at hom e; 9 worked away from home.
One mother was a full-time saleswoman; during her absence her
15-year-old daughter looked after the children of 11 and 13 years.
Two mothers were away from home for three days each week. In
one case the grandmother cared for the children; in the other the
mother took the younger children (3 and 4 years of age) with her to
her day’s work, while a neighbor looked after the older children
(8 and 10 years of age) after their return from school. The 6 other
mothers worked away from home one or two days a week or irreg
ularly, and at such times they made apparently satisfactory arrange
ments for the care of their children.

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M ON TGO M ERY COUNTY, N . Y.

Montgomery County had in 1920 a population of 57,928. A large
proportion of the inhabitants— about four-fifths— were living in
Amsterdam (33,524), Fort Plain (2,747), and eight incorporated
villages (containing in all 9,603). The distinctly urban population
formed five-eighths of the total population of the county. The larger
towns were manufacturing centers, and although there was some
farming in the county most of the population followed industrial
pursuits.
The foreign-born white population numbered 12,357, or 21 per
cent of the total. Of these, 26.5 per cent were of Polish nativity,
20 per cent of Italian, 14 per cent were German, and 9.5 per cent
Lithuanian.
AD M IN IST R A TIO N .

In this county aid was given to mothers with dependent children
under the State mothers’ allowance law passed in 1915,58 which
authorizes the creation for this purpose of county boards of child
welfare.
State supervision.

The State board of charities has general supervision over the
county boards of child welfare, and may after investigation revoke
allowances or make orders in regard to the work of the local boards.
The county boards made reports to the State board. The State
board 59 has acted as a bureau of advice, information, and standard
ization for the county boards. It supplied such materials for their
work as the forms for application for mothers’ aid and the schedules
for estimating family budgets. It held regional conferences in
different parts of the State, to which all the social workers within
reach were invited for the discussion of matters relating to their
duties. Since 1919 a supervisor of county boards of child welfare
has been a member of the staff of the State board. This supervisor
had an assistant who visited a county for several days at a time,
going over the records of the local agent, calling on some of the
58 Laws of New York, 1915, cb. 228 (amended by m e , ch. 504; 1917, cb. 551; 1919, ch. 373; 1920, ch. 700
and cb. 7591.
69 Proceedings of Conference on Mothers' Pensions, p. 27. TJ. S. Department of Labor, Children’sBureau
Publication No. 1C9.

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families with her, advising her in a general way about the local com
mittees, and occasionally meeting with the latter. The supervisor
of county boards had met once during the past year with the Mont
gomery County board, and her assistant had spent some time with
the local agent.
The county board of child welfare.

The county board of child welfare consisted of seven members
who were appointed by the county judge, each for a term of six years,
and served without pay. Three members were women; the law
provides that at least two must be women. The county superin
tendent of the poor was ex officio a member. The board met once
a month and passed upon each application for a mother’s allowance.
No allowance could be granted for longer than six months without
renewal, so that each case had to be reviewed before the board every
six months or at shorter intervals. The members of the board were
men and women of high standing in the county and were deeply
interested in the work. The women members visited the families
receiving aid and took a personal interst in their welfare. The board
sent a yearly report of its work to the State board of charities on a
blank provided for the purpose.
The secretary of the board, who had been trained in a school of
social work, had held the position for two years. Since she also
acted as the agent of the Montgomery County Committee of the
New York State Charities Aid Association, she had charge as well
of the work with the dependent children of the county other than
those whose mothers drew allowances from the board of child welfare.
With one office assistant she did all the social work among families
and children in the county. In addition she devoted considerable
time to community plans for the improvement of social conditions.
About a third of her time could be given to families where the mothers
received allowances. In August, 1921, 18 mothers in the county
were receiving allowances from the board of child welfare.
Records.

The case record for each family consisted of the application blank,
all correspondence relating to the case, and history sheets on which
records of visits and interviews were entered. The records contained
well-organized material. The agent had used the plan of summa
rizing the work covering several months’ time, omitting unimportant
details but giving the general results and the outstanding conditions.
Children eligible for aid, and amount of grant.

Any mother might be granted an allowance for the support of
her children born in the United States if she was a widow, or her
husband was in a State hospital for the insane, or was confined in a

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State prison under a sentence of five years or more, provided that
such mother had been a resident of the county for two years or more
immediately preceding the application for an allowance and was
a citizen of the United States, or her husband had been a resident
of the State for two years preceding his death or commitment and
had declared his intention of becoming a citizen of the United States
within five years immediately preceding his death or commitment,
provided that she was a suitable person to bring up her own children,
and that the aid was necessary to enable her to avoid placing them
in an institution for care.60
The amount of assistance was limited by the law to the cost of
maintaining a child in an institution— at the time of the study, $5
a week.
Procedure in granting aid.

The mother filled out the application blank provided by the State
board. It was a very full, eight-page questionnaire. Five pages
were for the statements of the applicant, to which she must make affi
davit, covering date and place of birth for each member of the family,
employment and wages— present and past— of all members em
p loyed, present and previous addresses, landlord and rental, prop
erty interests, indebtedness, insurance, and the names and addresses
of relatives, physician, pastor, and three references. Then the in
vestigator recorded the manner in which citizenship, residence, mar
riage, births of children, and death or incapacity of the husband
were verified, and also the facts about insurance, funeral expenses,
and other matters connected with property interests. She made a
social investigation which included interviews with close relatives
(parents, brothers, sisters) if they lived in the county, or direct corre
spondence with them if they lived outside it. The industrial history
of both the mother and the father were ascertained, as well as their
relations to their neighbors and acquaintances. The former stand
ard of living was determined, and the physical condition of the whole
family.
When completely filled out with reliable statements the question
naire afforded a fairly complete summary of the family’s economic
and social conditions and gave a good idea of its history.
The family budget was estimated according to the schedule fur
nished b y the State board of charities. This was presented to the
board, and the difference between it and the ascertained income de
termined the amount of the grant.
TH E FAM ILIES AIDED.

Children benefiting by grants.

Eighteen families with a total of 66 children in the home, 55 of
whom were dependent, were receiving aid on August 1, 1921. The
80 Laws of New York, 1915, ch. 228, sec. 153— 1 and 3.

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death of the father was the cause of dependency in all the cases.
There were 8 families with three children each, 5 families with two
children, 2 with four children each, 1 family had only one child, 1
had five, and 1 had seven children. The ages of the children for
whom aid was granted were as follows:
Number of
' children.

Ages.

Total........................

Under 4 years.............................................................................................................
7
4 -5 years.. ..................................................................................................................
4
6-7 years........................................... .......................... ............................................ 14
8-9 years..................................................................................
10-11 years................................................................. - ................................ 11
12-13 years............... ’. ........................................... .............................................. : 10
14—15 years......................................................................

Residence and nativity of the mothers.

Twelve mothers lived in the two cities, four lived in incorporated
villages, and only two were residents of distinctly rural places.
Eleven mothers were native bom , three were of German and two of
Austrian birth, and the others had come from Canada and England.
ASSISTANCE GIVEN.

Allowances.

The monthly pay roll for August, 1921, was $774. Two families
received less than $30, 2 others received $35, 8 had pensions ranging
from $40 to $45, and 6 received $50 or over, as much as $60 being
granted in one instance.
Service to the families receiving aid.

The contact of the agent with the families was extremely friendly.
It was apparent that they felt her interest in them and relied upon
her as an adviser. She saw them at least once a month and usually
oftener. Fourteen of the families had been receiving aid during the
six months’ period immediately prior to August 1, 1921. Of these
families, one had received four home visits, and the others had re
ceived six or more. The number of visits of the mothers to the office
was not recorded.
The health of each family was receiving intelligent care. A great
deal of effort had been made in planning to give a crippled girl an
opportunity to go to a hospital for observation and treatment under
the best medical care. Another child who had had tuberculosis was
receiving the most careful attention as to his food and sleeping ar
rangements. Dental work was being arranged for, and the children
were encouraged to take care of their teeth. Diseased tonsils,
adenoids, and other defects were being remedied.
The agent went over the expense accounts with the mothers and
discussed household management and choice of foods on the basis

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of these accounts. The board furnished blank books for keeping the
accounts, and in many instances they had been faithfully kept. The
books were arranged with headings, and with space enough to enter
each item under the head to which it belonged. The items included:
Rent, taxes, repairs, insurance, interest on mortgage.............................................
Groceries.......................... .......................... ................................. ..............u........................
Meat and fish.................................. .............. .................. .......................................................
Milk and eggs................................... .............................................................. .......................
Clothing and shoes.................................................................................................................
Fuel and light....................................................................................... .............................
Upkeep of house.................................. ..................................................................................
Doctor and medicine...................................................................... ............ .........................
Carfare, church, and recreation........................................................................................
Schoolbooks and supplies....................................................................................................
Monthly income.......................................................................................... , .............. ..........

All children of school age were in school; their records were care
fully looked after, and regular attendance and good work were en
couraged. Arrangements were made to keep the children in school
as long as it seemed really worth while. Suitable employment after
leaving school was carefully considered, not only by the agent but
by members of the board, who were frequently able to secure for
the children positions which offered chances for development.
Work of the mothers.

Six of the 18 mothers were working, 2 of them at employments
which took them away from the home. One worked full time in a
factory, her three younger children, all in school, being cared for
by a 15-year-old daughter. This mother was an excellent manager,
and the factory was near her home. She wished to work full time,
and since the care of the house and children appeared to be satisfac
tory the board of child welfare gave their consent. The other mother
was away during two days every week; her children, all in school,
were looked after by a neighbor until she returned.
STAND ARD S OF LIVING .61

Characteristics of the families visited.

Accompanied by the county agent, the writer visited six homes.
Two families had received aid for something over five years, one family
for four years, and three families for two years. All the mothers spoke
English; five had been born in the United States, and the sixth in
Canada. One mother had but one child, two mothers had two, and
the others had three, four, or five children. Not more than three
children were given allowances in any one family, the other children
in each case being beyond compulsory school age.
« Data were secured through home visits by the writer.

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PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

Housing.

The housing in all cases permitted of healthy and morally wholes
some living arrangements. Three families lived in cottages, each
with its yard and garden space. In two cases the cottage was owned
by the mother, and in the third by a relative of the mother’s. Another
house, although occupied by two families, had most of the advantages
of a cottage; it was on the outskirts of the town, and had plenty of
play space all around and a creek within easy reach. The two other
families lived in well-lighted rooms in small flats, surrounded by
plenty of play space. One of these had a large sunny porch, which
the agent planned with the family to convert into a sleeping porch
for a daughter who was recovering from tuberculosis. In no instance
were the sleeping arrangements crowded.
Household equipment.

Each family had a sitting room or parlor containing the necessary
furniture— a stove, comforable chairs, table, and rug or Carpet. One
family had a piano. In two families the sitting room was used also
for sleeping, but in each of these homes there was a dining room
used also as a sitting room. In no family was it necessary for more
than two persons to occupy one bed. All except one mother said
that they had enough warm coverings for comfort in the winter.
Two families needed more bed linen.
Equipment for cooking, laundry, and other household work was
sufficient. Coal oil was used for summer cooking except in one new
cottage that had both gas and electricity. The mother in this home
had an electric iron, and the house was heated by a furnace. The
other homes were heated by stoves and had a stove in the sitting
room as well as one in the kitchen. Four homes had ice boxes; the
others had cellars which helped in the preservation of food.
Food.

All the families took at least 1 quart of fresh milk daily, and four
families had enough to supply each child with at least a pint. The
mother of one family, whose supply was only 1 quart daily, claimed
that her three children would not drink milk, although the agent had
evidently tried hard to convince her that she should induce them to
take it. In three families the children were having no coffee. All the
mothers said that they were having vegetables daily. Fruit was
used less generally, though one mother had it as a part of her daily
dietary, and another used it frequently; the others reported only
occasional use. Meat was eaten sparingly. Three families had it
regularly only on Sundays, and occasionally at other times; the others
ate meat from two to three times a week, and sometimes had fish.
All except one family used breakfast cereal, and butter or butter
substitute seemed to be used in sufficient amounts.

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MONTGOMERY COUNTY, N. Y.

137

In five families the food was at least fairly well chosen; in the other
family too little milk and fruit were used, and the children drank
coffee. There was every indication that the agent had given careful
instruction in diet to the mothers who needed it, and the family whose
diet was least satisfactory showed some improvement over their
original food habits. For instance, one of the children had been
induced to give up coffee and to drink milk instead.
Clothing.

The clothing of all the families visited appeared to be adequate.
The mothers wore neat wash dresses, and the children were suitably
attired for play. The mothers said that they had enough warm
winter clothes for their families. Most of the clothing had been
made at home by the mothers, often from used garments that had
been given them.
Housekeeping and household management.

In four homes the housekeeping standards of order and cleanliness
were high, and in the two others they were fairly good. The expend
iture of the income appeared to be reasonably wise in all cases, and
excellent in three. Buying was carefully done. The agent encour
aged garden making and the storing and preserving of food materials
for winter use.
Education and recreation.

All children of school age were in school. By a special arrange
ment of the board of child welfare two children in one family were
in high school. Three families had a daily paper and one a weekly
newspaper; two had magazines. All the families had access to books
through public libraries. All attended church, and the children of
all but one family went to Sunday school.
Only two of the families seemed to make a regular practice of
going to picture shows. Meetings connected with church and school
formed the chief recreational activities of the other families.
Work of the mothers.

None of the mothers seen worked outside their homes; two moth
ers did home work, one of them boarding a child and the other doing
laundry work.
43711°— 23------10

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T a b l e 1. — Total amount o f aid and average amount o f grant per child, by locality.

Number
of chil
dren for
whom
aid was
granted.

Locality.

Total.................................................................................
Boston, Mass................... i .................................................................
Denver, Colo...........................................................................
Haverhill, Mass............................................
Hennepin" County, Minn................................................................
Montgomery County, N. Y .....................................................................
Northampton County, Pa........................................................................
St. Louis^ Mo......... ~. l .................................................................
Westchester County, N. Y ........................................................................

Total
amount
of aid.

Average
amount
per child.

3,049

$41,781.71

$13.70

i 646
224
2104
654
55
.120
313
933

11,074.72
3.015.00
2,046.74
7,440.25
774.00
1.220.00
3,850.00
12,361.00

17.14
13.46
19.68
11.38
14.07
10.17
12.30
13.25

1 Excludes 8 children for whom amount of aid was not reported.
2Excludes 4 children for whom amount of aid was not reported.
T a b l e 2.— Monthly allowances o f fam ilies receiving aid at time o f study, by locality.

27
40
153
188
161
150
109
63
21
20
7
3

2.9
4.2
16.2
20.0
17.1
15.9
11.6
6.7
2.2
2.1
0.7
0.3

207

18
8
22
13
9
3

12
18
52
59
29
19
10
1
2
5

1
4
1
3

3
1
12
24
26
14
8
5
1

195
4
13
21
30
26
58
21
9
6
5
2

33
1
4
9
9
4
3
1
1
1

283

1
2
11
7
5
3
1

11
12
52
60
35
59
11
28
6
g
1

141

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Montgomery
County, N. Y.

Haverhill, Mass.

Boston, Mass.

St. Louis, Mo.

Yellow Medi
cine County,
Minn.

W estchester
County, N- Y.

942 100.0

Northampton
County, Pa.

Total................... ................
Less than $15................................
$15-$19..........................................
$20-$29.........................................
$30-$39............................
$40-$49...............................
$50-$59..........................................
$60-$69...............................
$70-$79..........................................
$80-$89..........................................
$90-$99..........................................
$100-$110.......................................
Not reported.................................

Hennepin
County, Minn.

Number.

Total.
Per cent
distri
bution.

Monthly allowance.

Denver, Colo.

Families in localities studied.

18
2

PUBLIC AID TO CHILDREN IN THEIR OWN HOMES.

142

T a b l e 4. — Causes o f death o f fathers, as reported in case records.

Fathers
dead at
time of
applica
tion for
aid.

Cause of death.

Apoplexy................
Blood poisoning......
Meningitis............
20 Operation................
128 Asthma...................
92 ff Intestinal trouble’ ’
68 Abscess...................
46 Acnteindigestion...
34 Peritonitis...............
32 Venereal disease......
17 Diphtheria.............. ■
10 Dropsy....................
8 Gallstones...............
7 Lead poisoning........
7 Rheumatism...........
7 Other......................
7

Fathers
dead at
time of
applica
tion for
aid.
6
6

679

Total.................

122

Pneumonia.......................
Influenza and pneumonia.
Tuberculosis.....................
Influenza...........................
Accident............................
“ Heart trouble” ..............
“ Kidney trouble” ............
Cancer.......... ............. ......
Appendicitis.. ......... . ...
Suicide..... .........................
“ Complications of diseases
“ Liver trouble” ...............
Paralysis...........................
“ Stomach trouble” ..........
Typhoid fever...................

4
4
3
3
3
3
2

2
2
2

2
25

T a b l e 5. — Causes o f incapacity o f fathers.

Cause ofincapacity.

Fathers
incapac
itated.
177

Total
Tuberculosis..........
Insanity......... . —
Caneer...................
‘ ‘ Kidney trouble’ ’ .
**Heart trouble’ ’ ...
Paralysis................

90
46
7
7

Accident, crushed..
Anemia, secondary.

1
1

Rheumatism...........

4
4

Cause ofincapacity.

Asthm a........................... -............
Broken leg (never healed)..............
“ Complication of diseases”........... .
Epilepsy........................................
Gangrene (amputation ofbothlegs),
Infhjenza........................................
Locomotor ataxia..........................;
Operation......................................
Spinal trouble...............................
Uremia.........................................
Syphilis.........................................

Fathers

incapac
itated.

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

T a b l e 6.— Interval between death o f father and application fo r aid.

Interval between death and application
for aid.

Fathers
dead at
time of
applica
tion for
aid.

Fathers
dead at
Interval between death and application time of
applica
for aid.
tion for
aid.

Total...................

700

11 months, less than 1 year.....................

Less than 1 month.......
1 month, less than 2__
2 months, less than 3 ...
3 months,less than 4 ...
4 months,less than 5 ...
5 months,1ess than 6 ...
6 months,less than 7 ...
7 months,less than 8 ...
8 months,lessthan 9 ...
9 months, less than 10..
10 months, less than 11

147
78
47
43
22
23

2 years,less than 3..................................
3 years,less than 4..................................
4 years,less than 5..................................
5 years,1ess than 6..................................
6 years,1ess than 7..................................
7 years,1ess than 8..................................

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17
14
6

12
95
47
42
10
19
9
9
1
2
1
23

APPENDIX,
T a b l e 7 . — Interval

143

between incapacity o f father and application fo r aid.

Interval between incapacity and
application for aid.

Fathers
incapaci
tated.

Total.....................................................

182

Less than 1 month.......................................
1 month, less than 2....................................
2 months, less than 3 . . .....................
3 months, less than 4..................................
4 months, less than 5 . . . ........................
5 months, less than 6 ...................................
6 months, less than 7....................................
7 months, less than 8....................................

22
18
8
2
3
3
1
3

T a b l e 8 . — Interval

Interval between incapacity and
application for aid.

Fathers
incapaci
tated.

2
102

between desertion o f father and application fa r aid...

Interval between desertion and
application for aid.

Total___ , .......................................
4 months, less than 5..................................
6 months, less than 7..........................
7 months, less than 8....................................
9 months, less than 10........................
10 months, less than 11..............................
11 months, less than 12...............................

Fathers
who
deserted.

Interval between desertion and
application for aid.

Fathers
who
deserted.

45
11
1
*1
3
1
4

1 One divorced at date of application for allowance, deserted earlier.
* Deserted after killing a man.
8 One divorced at date of application for allowance, deserted earlier; in prison, after allowance granted,
for not paying alimony.
4 Mother left father because of his cruel treatment of her.
5 One divorced after allowance granted.

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SCHEDULES USED IN STUDY.
N o .........
Locality
D a t e ... .
Source..

U. S. Department of Labor,
Children’s Bureau.

A D M IN IS T R A T IO N O F M O T H E R S’ P E N SIO N S.
Date pension granted....................
Date................... Cause of death
............................. Wages................
Father...............................................

Date of application____
Status of fa th er.. . . -----Father’s last occupation
Nationality: Mother___
Children:

Left school.
Sex.

Age 1.

Date of
birth.

Age 2.

Occupation.

Grade.

At
Wages. home.

Grade. Age.

1
2
3
4

Rent.........................
No. of rooms..................................... Total No. occupants..........
Value of property owned...................................................................................- - .......................
Occupation and earnings of mother..........................................................................................
Others living with fam ily.................................................................................- ................ - - - Income other than pension: Family wages.................... Other....................... Total.
Sources of other income or aid..........— ........................... .......................................................
Date of last budget estim ated............ .......... Total estimated budget.........................
Deficit......................... Amount pension granted on basis of this budget....................
Amount of present pension: Cash................ Other......................................................... Total present monthly income (including pension).......................................................
No. of visits per month.............................................................................................. ...................
144

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MOTHERS’ PENSION FAMILIES.
TJ. S. Department of Labor,
Children’s Bureau,
Washington, D. C.

145
Name

M O T H E R S’ P E N SIO N F A M IL IE S .
S T A N D A R D S O P L IV IN G .

Surroundings:
Car line........................................................... •................ ......
Street: Q u iet.. .............
Neighborhood: Good residence............
Poor residence. . . .
Business....................
Dangerous features. . . . ............................................................. .............. .............. ..................
Playground (supervised')v.'.l. . . vl'. .C iS C . . v i v i l C l i l l ...............................................
Character of H ouse.......................................................................................... .............. ............&
........... .......................................................... .......... ; . . . . , ___ . . . . . . . , . . .V
Yard.
Rooms and furnishings:
Rooms; Sitting....D ining.. .No. bed rooms.. .Other rooms used for sleeping...........
Adequacy of beils...........- ......................... Bathing facilities......... ..............• .................
Sitting-room furniture..................................................................................................................
Sewing-machine..............' . . . Piano.........................
Ice-box............. Stoves..........
Bed covering.............. Household linens.......... D ish e s.. . .
Cooking Utensils..
Food:
Milk— quarts. . .
Coffee for children.............. Vegetables........ . Fruity.
Home bakuig. -i. it,
Meat. . . -------- Eggs................................ Cereals____ . . . . . . .
Buying: In small amounts......... In large amounts......... Buying well d o n e.. . 4.
Garden................. Chickens.......... ..
Cow........ _____________ . V. . . . . .
.....
Clothing:
Well-clothed...........................
Insufficiently..................... Extravagantly........ ..
Home sewing.......................... •
Recreation and education:
Ch urch attendance. . . . . . . .
Sunday School........ ............... Daily paper. . . _____
Weekly paper............
Magazines............................ Picture shows___ ____ Clubs........
Classes...................
Housekeeping:
Disorderly................ D irty............... ..
Clean.................... Orderly.....................

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