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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS
CHAS. P. NEILL, Commissioner

BULLETIN OF THE UNITED STATES \
/WHOLE 1 1 7
BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS j * ' ' \ NUMBER 1 1 /
M I S C E L L A N E O U S

S E R I E S :

NO.

2

PROHIBITION OF NIGHT
WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS




APRIL 10, 1913

WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1913




CONTENTS.
Prohibition of night work of young persons:
Introduction............................................................................................
Chapter I.—Critical account of the legislation respecting the prohibition
of the night work of young persons in force in various countries.........
States which do not prohibit the night work of young persons.........
States which prohibit the night work of young persons only up to
the age of 15 or 16.........................................................................
States which prohibit the night work of young persons in certain
industries, or in establishments of a certain size only...................
States where the principle of the prohibition of the night work of
young persons up to the age of 18 is, with certain exceptions, in
force in all industries.....................................................................
Chapter II.—Justification of the principle of the prohibition of the night
work and the reduction of the daily hours of labor of young persons
under 18...............................................................................................
Chapter III.—Critical account of the law in force in different countries
with respect to the uninterrupted night’s rest.....................................
Chapter IV.—Critical account of the exceptions to the prohibition of the
night work of young persons................................................................
Exceptions on account of force majeure............................................
Exceptions justified by the nature of the materials to be treated. . . .
Exceptions sanctioned for male young persons in certain industries..
Night work of young persons in the glass industry.....................
Night work of young persons in large-scale iron and steel works.
Night work of young persons in other establishments with con­
tinuous operation...................................................................
Paper factories.....................................................................
Sugar and beet-sugar factories.............................................
Oil mills...............................................................................
Book and newspaper printing establishments......................
Lace factories.......................................................................
Enamel-ware factories.........................................................
Mines and coke ovens..........................................................
Bakeries...............................................................................
Isolated operations of a continuous character......................
Establishments with continuous operation in general.........
Limited night work on account of climatic conditions........
Chapter V.—Transitional measures..........................................................
Chapter VI.—Advantages of international regulation..............................
Appendix.—Age of legal employment and maximum legal hours of
labor of children employed in factories in the United States, January
1,1913..................................................................................................




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BULLETIN OF THE

U. S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
WASHINGTON.

WHOLE NO. 117.

APRIL 10, 1913.

THE PROHIBITION OF THE NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG
PERSONS.1
INTRODUCTION.

The question of the prohibition of the night work of young persons
was raised in 1902 and was placed on the agenda of the Third Dele­
gates Meeting of the International Association for Labor Legislation
(Basle 26th September, 1904). The following resolutions were passed:
Whereas the interdiction of the night work of young persons is an urgent necessity,
the association without prejudice to the work of the international conference, asks the
bureau to submit this question for study to the national sections and to put it upon
the agenda of the next delegates’ meeting of the association. The bureau is also
authorized to delegate this examination to a commission and to invite the sections to
appoint their representatives for this commission.

An investigation concerning the extent of the night work of young
persons in every country was immediately inaugurated by the
bureau. Based on the result of this investigation the following reso­
lutions were adopted by the Fourth Delegates’ Meeting in Geneva
of 1906:
V.— NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

1. Night work shall be in general forbidden for young people under 18 years of age.
2. This prohibition is absolute for young persons under 14 years of age.
3. For young persons aged 14 years of age and upwards exceptions are allowed—
(а) In cases of “ force majeure,,, or exceptional circumstances.
(б) In industries the materials of which are of a highly perishable nature, in order
to prevent serious damage.
4. Night work is absolutely forbidden in all places where goods are exposed for
sale, hotels and public houses, as well as in the counting houses attached to com­
mercial and industrial establishments where night work is forbidden.
5. The night’s rest shall last at least 11 hours, and shall in all cases include the
period from 10 p. m. to 5 a. m.
6. Provision may be made for periods of transition.
7. The International Association expresses its hope that inspection will be efficiently
carried out.
* This memorandum was prepared by the International Labor Office for the information of an Inter­
national Conference called to meet in Berne in September, 1913, to consider the question of an inter­
national treaty providing for the prohibition of night work of young persons. This English translation,
presented here by the courtesy of the International Labor Office, follows closely, except for a few unim­
portant corrections, the text of the German original.




6

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OP LABOR STATISTICS.

8. The meeting instructs a commission to ascertain by what methods practical effect
can be given to the above resolutions. This commission shall present a report within
two years. Each section has the right to nominate two delegates to this commission
and to name experts from amongst employers and workmen to assist at the delibera­
tions of the commission.
The Governments will have timely notice of all impending sittings of the commis­
sion in order that they may be able to send representatives.

In pursuance of these resolutions a special commission, on which
13 States and 11 sections were represented, was appointed to study
the question of the night work of young persons. This commission
met at Basle on the 25th of September, 1908, under the presidency
of Prof. Victor Brants.
Seven sections had published their reports on this question and the
International Labor Office prepared a comparative report based on
these reports. The special commission resolved to ask the associa­
tion to issue, jointly with a subcommittee to be elected from among
the members of the special commission, a publication setting forth
the actual conditions under which the night work of young persons
is carried on in the various countries and the possibility of doing
away with such night work, as had been done as regards the pro­
hibition of the night work of women.
As a consequence the following resolutions were passed by the
Fifth (Lucerne) Delegates Meeting on 29th September, 1908:
1. The night work of young persons to be, in general, prohibited in industrial
occupations until the conclusion of the 18th year of their age.
2. The prohibition to be absolute until the conclusion of the 14th year of their age,
and until they are exempt from school attendance.
3. Night work may be permitted for young persons over 14—
(а) In cases of “ force majeure,” when the manufacturing process is subjected
to an interruption impossible to foresee, and not of a periodical character;
(б) In industries where the materials used, whether as raw materials or in any
manufacturing process, are of a highly perishable nature, where neces­
sary in order to prevent damage to the materials in question;
(c) In the glass industry, in the case of young persons employed in “ gather­
ing ” the liquid glass from the furnaces, provided that—
(A) The period of their employment at night shall be limited by law, and—
(B) The number of young persons so employed is limited to that required for the
purpose of training the necessary number of skilled workmen.
This exception to be allowed only as a temporary measure—
(d) In ironworks, for young persons employed in rolling mills and forge works,
provided that they are over 16 years of age.
4. The delegates’ meeting expresses no opinion on the resolution adopted at Geneva,
in 1906, recommending that night work should be absolutely forbidden “ in all places
where goods are exposed for sale, hotels and public houses, as well as in counting
houses, etc.,” and refers the same back to the special commission for consideration.
5. The night’s rest shall last at least 11 hours, and shall, in all cases, include the
period from 10 p. m. to 5 a. m.
6. Provision may be made for periods of transition.
7. The delegates’ meeting expresses the hope that inspection will be efficiently
carried out.



PROHIBITION OP NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

7

8. The delegates* meeting maintains that the regular night work of young persons
is always to be regarded as an abuse, which in principle, should not be tolerated in
any circumstances. Until it is possible to abolish such night work entirely by means
of an international agreement, the meeting invites all the national sections to work
actively to secure the removal or diminution of this abuse.

This memorandum has been prepared by the International Labor
Office in pursuance of an order of the association. It has been sub­
mitted to a subcommission of the special permanent commission
composed of Baron Dr. von Berlepsch, minister of state of Prussia,
Prof. Y. Brants (Belgium), Mr. F. Fagnot (France), Mrs. H. J. Ten­
nant (Great Britain), and Mr. van Thienen, chief inspector of labor
(Netherlands).
The Sixth Delegates' Meeting, at Lugano, passed the following
resolutions based on the Lucerne resolutions and upon the delibera­
tions of the special commission appointed by the meeting:
Being convinced that the Lucerne resolutions form an adequate basis for the inter­
national regulation of the night work of young persons, the delegates’ meeting instructs
the bureau to request the Swiss Federal Council to invite the Governments to an
international conference on the subject.
The meeting instructs the subcommission to continue its work in pursuance of the
Lucerne resolutions, and to inquire whether the exceptions to the prohibition of the
night work of young persons declared by the Lucerne resolutions to be permissible
could not be further limited in the case of young persons employed in glass works and
rolling mills. These investigations shall be continued until such time as the request
for the international regulation of the question shall be presented to the Swiss Federal
Council.
*
Being convinced that it is reasonable to determine a definite period for the applica­
tion of transitory provisions, the delegates' meeting resolves that Resolution Y, 6,
of the Lucerne resolutions shall read as follows:
“ Any transitory provisions applicable to rolling mills and glass works, contained in
an international convention for the regulation of the night work of young persons,
should apply only for a definite period, which it is suggested should be fixed at five
years.”

The object of this memorandum may in a few words be said to be
to show the grounds on which the association decided to promote—
1. The extension oi the prohibition of night work to young persons
between 16 and 18 years of age;
2. A minimum legal night's rest of 11 hours;
3. The abolition of all exceptions, excepting those sanctioned by
the international convention of September 26, 1906, respecting the
prohibition of the night work of women in industrial employment
and certain transitional measures which are temporarily necessary in
certain industries on account of the technical difficulties of the manu­
facturing processes.
Before answering these questions it is necessary to recapitulate the
motives which induced the international association to make the pro­
tection of young persons an object of its especial care.




8

BULLETIN OF THE BTJBEAU OF LABOB STATISTICS.

The protection of women is chiefly based on the necessity of safe­
guarding the health of mothers and children and of preserving family
life. The main object of the protection of male juvenile workers is
to secure the health and technical efficiency of the coming generation
of workingmen and its intellectual and moral education.
The law of different countries aims at attaining these objects by
very different means and to a varying extent. On the one hand the
requirements of the law differ both as regards the exclusion of young
persons from dangerous occupations and as regards the working-day
and the legal minimum night’s rest. On the other hand the value of
the protection given is diminished by the authorization of exceptions
of various kinds and by the fixing of the maximum age at which the
prohibition of night work or the regulation of day work applies at
18, 17, 16, or even at 15 years.
In certain branches of large-scale industries the regulation of the
working-day of young persons affects in some cases the working-day
of the women who work with them and in others that of the adult
men whom the young persons assist and under whose supervision
they work. This is notably the case in the iron and steel and glass
industries, and in particular with regard to operations with con­
tinuous fire, in which the prohibition of the night work of young
persons can not be carried into effect unless they can be replaced—
(а) By unskilled men, or—
(б) 3 y mechanical processes.
If this substitution is practicable in any industrial establishment,
then we have a proof that the prohibition of the night work of young
persons is in harmony with the economic development of the indus­
trial establishments, because the industrial interests demand the
avoidance of waste of juvenile labor in order to create a greater
supply of skilled labor. It is an incontestable fact that the labor
legislation of advanced countries has tended to promote the substi­
tution of machinery and unskilled adult labor for the work of young
persons. In England, for example, the number, of young persons
between 13 and 18 years of age employed in the textile industries
fell from 13 to 8 per cent between 1835 and 1890, while the percentage
Ox male and female adults increased.1 It is clear that in this instance
the protection of young persons has stimulated the rise in improved
methods of production, and has therefore contributed to the intensi­
fication of adult labor due to these improved methods.
Primarily, the object of this memorandum is to show that the
prohibition of the night work of young persons up to the age of 18
will afford them more efficacious protection than is given them by
the law as at present in force in many countries.
1 G. H. Wood in ‘ ‘ Die gewerbliche Nachtarbeit der Frauen.19 Herausgegeben yon
der Intemationalen Vereinigung ftir gesetzlichen arbeiterschutz. p. 246. Jena, 1903.



PROHIBITION OB NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

9

This will be done in the first chapter, in which a r6sum6 of the
evidence of these States which have prohibited the night work of
young persons under 18 will be given.
In the second chapter the importance of this measure in the inter­
ests of the physical, moral, and mental education of the working
classes will be demonstrated.
The third chapter will contain an account of the extent to which
the night work of young persons is prohibited in different States
under the existing law.
The fourth chapter deals with the exceptions which are considered
to be necessary by the States which have introduced the principle of
the prohibition of the night work of young persons. Some of these
exceptions are the same as those which under the Berne Convention
of 1906 are allowed in the case of the night work of women, i. e.,
cases of force majeure and to preserve from loss raw materials which
are subject to rapid deterioration.
The question of the prohibition of the night work of young per­
sons differs, however, fundamentally from the question with regard
to women, because the employment of a considerable number of
young persons in heavy industries, and especially in large-scale estab­
lishments of the iron and steel and glass industries, in which no
women or very few women are employed in the actual manufacturing
process, has led to exceptions being allowed for those industries.
A thorough investigation of these exceptions will occupy the most
important part of this memorandum. It will be necessary to dis­
tinguish between exceptions which are obsolete, in view of the tech­
nical development of the industry and which are therefore harmful
even from the point of view of the industry, and those which, subject
to certain conditions, are at present indispensable unless some alter­
native arrangement is found to be practicable.
We shall then proceed to inquire what period of transition is
required for the abolition of the most important exceptions, and the
last chapter will be devoted to explaining the advantages which may
be expected to result from well considered international action.




CHAPTER I.
CRITICAL ACCOUNT OF THE LEGISLATION RESPECTING THE PRO­
HIBITION OF THE NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS IN FORCE
IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

States may be divided into the following groups, according to
their attitude on the question of the prohibition of the night work
of young persons:
1. States which do not prohibit the night work of young persons
at all;
2. States which prohibit the night work of young persons up to
the age of 15 or 16 only;
3. States which have prohibited the night work of young persons
in certain industries only;
4. States which apart from certain exceptions have on principle
prohibited the night work of young persons under 18 in all establish­
ments or at least in those where more than 10 persons are employed.
I.—STATES WHICH DO NOT PROHIBIT THE NIGHT W ORK OF YOUNG
PERSONS.

In this class belong in Europe:
(а) States which have no laws for the protection of workers—
Greece,1 M onaco, Montenegro, and Turkey.
(б) Spain and Portugal also belong to this group to a certain
extent. In Spain article 4 of the act of March 13, 1900, prohibits
only the night work of young persons under 14 years of age and limits
the night shifts of persons under 16 years of age to 48 hours per
week. Portugal only prohibits the night work of persons between
the ages of 10 and 12.
The non»European States belonging to this group are: (a)
Countries which have no laws for the protection of workers—Asia,
with the exception of Japan and India, and the States of South
Africa, Central and South America, excepting Argentina; (6)
countries in which only one age of admission is established by law,
but where night work is not regulated—Tasmania, Western
Australia, Manitoba, British Columbia, Quebec (nontextile
factories), Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, South Dakota; (c)
States where the age of admission is less than 14 years. Thus the
prohibition of night work does not apply to persons over 14 in India,
nor to Egypt (ginning factories) after 13 years; in the United States
l The act of Jan. 24-Feb. 6, 1912, concerning the employment of women and
children takes Greece out of this class and puts it among those countries which pro­
hibit employment of young persons at night up to age 18 and require an 11-hour
night’s rest.

10



PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

11

in Arkansas, Colorado, Georgia, North Carolina, and Virginia
over 14 years, and in Florida over 12 years.
Owing to the lack of statistics of industrial occupations in most of
these States it is impossible to estimate the number of young persons
affected. With the exception of Japan, Spain, and India, the
States in this group are agrarian in character and their industrial
development is in its infancy.
II.—STATES WHICH PROHIBIT THE NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS ONLY UP
TO THE AGE OF 15 OR 16.

In Europe.—In Italy, Bulgaria, Roumania, and Russia the
night work of young persons is prohibited only between the ages of
12 and 15, and in Russia the prohibition applies only to textile
factories.
The night work of young persons under 16 is prohibited—
In Europe.—In Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bosnia, Bel­
gium, Luxemburg, and the Netherlands.
Outside Europe.—In Africa, in Tunis; in Asia, Japan; in
Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, Southern Australia,
Queensland, and New Zealand; in America, Argentina (Buenos
Aires); in Canada, Ontario and Saskatchewan; in the United
States, Arizona, Alabama, Connecticut (after 10 p. m.), Wiscon­
sin, Delaware, Indiana, Kansas, Oklahoma, Maryland, Mis­
souri, Minnesota, Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey,
Illinois, North Dakota, District of Columbia, Ohio, Oregon,
Kentucky, Mississippi, Rhode Island, Nebraska, New York,
Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Iowa, Vermont, and Idaho.
III.—STATES WHICH PROHIBIT THE NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS IN CERTAIN
INDUSTRIES, OR IN ESTABLISHMENTS OF A CERTAIN SIZE ONLY.

In some of the above-mentioned States the prohibition of night
work of young persons does not apply to small establishments. For
the purpose of this memorandum, however, those States which signed
the Berne Convention prohibiting the night work of women which
applies to all establishments employing at least 10 persons, may be
considered to protect all establishments.1
1These States are Switzerland, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Belgium, Denmark,
Spain, France, Great Britain, Italy, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden;
Algeria, Tunis; New Zealand, Ceylon, Fiji, Gibraltar, Gold Coast, Leeward Islands,
Northern Nigeria, Trinidad, and Uganda; also Liechtenstein, Norway, Finland, Bul­
garia, Roumania, and Servia in Europe; all the Australian Colonies; Ontario, Quebec,
Manitoba, New Brunswick, British Columbia, Saskatchewan; in the United States,
New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Illinois, Ohio, New Jersey, Michigan,
Indiana, Wisconsin, California, Minnesota, Virginia, Kentucky, New Hampshire,
Iowa, Arkansas, Colorado, Nebraska, Oregon, Oklahoma, North Dakota, Maryland,
Delaware, District of Columbia, Kansas, Mississippi, South Carolina, Missouri,
Connecticut, Georgia, North Carolina, Alabama, Idaho, Louisiana, Rhode Island,
Arizona, Florida, Vermont, Washington; also Argentina.



12

BULLETIN OF THE BUKEAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

The States which have not yet introduced this protection into
workshops and factories with more than 10 employed persons are—
In Europe—Russia, which prohibits night work of young per­
sons only in textile factories;
Non*European States.— India, which protects only workers in
factories employing more than 49 persons (a number which local
governments may reduce to 20); Japan, where the law protects only
workers in factories employing more than 15 persons or in dangerous
or unhealthy industries; and Egypt, where the prohibition applies
to cotton ginning factories only.
IV.—STATES WHERE THE PRINCIPLE OF THE PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK
OF YOUNG PERSONS UP TO THE AGE OF 18 IS, WITH CERTAIN EXCEPTIONS, IN
FORCE IN ALL INDUSTRIES.

In the following States the prohibition applies up to the age of 18:
In Europe.— Denmark, Finland, France, Great Britain,
Norway, Servia, Sweden, and Switzerland.1
In Spain, paragraph 2 of article 4, of the law of March 13, 1900,
leaves to self-governing boards (<Juntas de Reformas sociales) the
power to subject particular industries to a prohibition of night work
of young persons up to 18 years of age.
In America.—The Province of Quebec (cotton and woolen mills)
and the States of California and Massachusetts (21 years).
The 17th year of age is the limit of this prohibition in the Princi­
pality of Liechtenstein, where the 15th year is the legal age of admis­
sion to work. Since January 1, 1912, the same limit, i. e., 17 years,
has been fixed for the prohibition in the Netherlands.
In order to be able to estimate to some extent the importance of
these differences, it is necessary to indicate the number of persons of
all ages and both sexes in industrial employment in the different
groups of States, because very few States give statistics of the per­
centage of young persons in industrial employment. The States
are grouped according as they prohibit the night work of young
persons (1) under 17 or 18 years of age, (2) under 16 years of age,
(3) under 15, 14, 13, or 12 years cf age.
The number of persons in industrial employment in States of the
group prohibiting employment under 17 or 18 years of age is:
In Europe............................................................................
In America..........................................................................

18,703,183
597,317

Total..........................................................................

19,300,500

1 By the act of Jan. 24-Feb. 6,1912, concerning the employment of women and
children, Greece is added to this list.




PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

13

The number of persons in industrial employment in the States of
the group prohibiting employment under 16 years of age is:
In Europe............................................................................
In Australia.........................................................................
In America..........................................................................

18,000,639
438,774
4,531,645

Total..........................................................................

22, 971,058

The number of persons in industrial employment in the States of
the group prohibiting employment under 15, 14, 13, or 12 years of
age is:
In Europe..... .................................................................... .
In Asia.................................................................................
In America..........................................................................

9,508,168
649,676
536,944

Total (without India)................................................

10,694,788

For the majority of European countries the number of persons in
industrial employment is approximately 50 per cent of persons in all
employments. The number of young persons in industrial employ­
ment is 7 per cent of all persons in industrial employment in Germany
and the Netherlands, 6 per cent in Austria, and 5 per cent in Bel­
gium. The percentage is higher in countries where young persons
are protected up to the age of 18, and is 7 per cent in Switzerland, and
9 per cent in Denmark, France, and in Great Britain. It will not
then be very wide of the mark if we estimate the number of persons
between 16 and 18 years of age in industrial employment at 2 to 3
per cent of the total number of persons in industrial employment.
It is at any rate certain that the raising of the age limit of persons
protected against night work from 16 to 18 years would cause a far
smaller disorganization of industrial life than was caused by the aboli­
tion of the night work of women in countries where women had not
hitherto been protected.




CHAPTER II.
JUSTIFICATION OF THE PRINCIPLE OF THE PROHIBITION OF NIGHT
WORK AND THE REDUCTION OF THE DAILY HOURS OF LABOR OF
YOUNG PERSONS UNDER 18.

The consequences of the most extensive limitation of the work of
young persons may be described as follows:
1. The number of male young persons employed has diminished in
consequence of the labor laws and of compulsory education in these
countries, which were the first to enact such legislation. In England,
for example, between 1851 and 1901 the proportion of all male
juvenile workers from 10 to 15 years of age fell from 37 per cent to
22 per cent. The proportion of male juvenile workers between 13
and 18 years employed in the English textile industry fell from 16
per cent to 11 per cent between 1839 and 1850, and from 11 per cent
to 7.5 per cent between 1851 and 1907. The number of young
persons employed in the textile industry of Saxony fell from 3.3 per
cent to 3 per cent between 1891 and 1905.
2. As we have already shown in the memorandum on the prohibi­
tion of the night work of women, the diminution in the proportion of
young persons employed has been accompanied by an increase in the
employment of women and men. In the industries in which con­
siderable technical progress has been made, a number of monotonous
operations which were formerly performed by children and young
persons are now done by machinery.
3. The increased introduction of mechanical processes was bound to
lead to the exclusion of young persons from dangerous work. This ex­
clusion was all the more necessary in view of the fact that the number
of industrial accidents is proportionately greater in the case of young
persons employed in factories than of any other age class of male
workers. (In England, for example, according to the report of the
factory inspectors of 1908, the number of accidents which occurred
to young persons was 19.1 per cent of the accidents affecting male
workers of all ages coming under the factory acts, while the number
of young persons was only 14.1 per cent of the total number of male
workers.)1 Similarly the German workingmen’s insurance statistics
show that the great local sick funds (e. g., that of Leipzig) pay bene­
fits in cases of sickness due to accident to 14.3 per cent of the workers
under 15, 11.5 per cent of the workers between 16 and 19, and 8.7
per cent of the workers between 20 and 24 years of age.2 Young
1Thirteenth Abstract of Labour Statistics of the United Kingdom, 1910, pp. 142,246.
2 Krankheits- und Sterblichkeitsstatistik der Ortskrankenkasse ftir Leipzig und
Umgegend. Berlin, 1910.
14



PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

15

persons are exposed to danger to an alarming extent in certain
branches of the iron and steel and glass industries, and in many
cases these are precisely the industries in which the first considera­
tion is given to the interests of the work, and hygienic requirements
go to the wall. We will return to this point in Chapter IV.
4. It can be shown that the protection of young persons up to the
age of 18 years has caused an improvement in the physical and
intellectual efficiency of adult workers. This statement is primarily
based on anthropometric measurements which show that physical
growth continues unretarded until the 19th year. Between the ages
of 16 and 18 weight and lung capacity increase with the greatest
rapidity and puberty occurs. This development is checked if young
persons are allowed to perform industrial work at too early an age
and if they are employed for the full working-day.
5. The inclination to work and the mental and moral development
of the young worker are more seriously affected, however, by an
11-hour workday, and even more by night work for a period of 12
hours. The earlier a young person starts performing the full work of
a man the more the susceptibility of his mind suffers and the more
strongly do his sensual and material appetites develop. A physician
(Prof. Loriga), dealing in an official publication with a country where
children of 15 are allowed to perform night work and whose hours of
daywork are subject to no restriction, says:
In Italy thousands of boys between the ages of 12 and 15 are employed in factories
according to the seasons, from 6 or 7 a. m. to 7 or 8 p. m., including rest periods. If
we add the time required to go to and from work, for meals and for washing, how is
it possible for these children to find time to improve their minds, to refresh themselves
by playing with their friends and to have the 10 hours’ sleep which is necessary at
that age? Is it to be wondered that they develop into prematurely aged and ignorant
men?1

Although the object of this memorandum is to show the necessity
for the prohibition of the night work of young persons, it will not be
out of place here to make a few observations on the hygienic con­
sequences of night work in general.
Whether night work is quantitatively and qualitatively superior or
inferior to daywork is a very controversial question, the answer to
which varies from industry to industry and from establishment to
establishment.
The opinion of an author favorable to employers .and who believes
that he has ascertained by measurements that night work is quanti­
1 Prof. Giovanni Loriga, Lavoro dei Fanciulli e Crescenza del Corpo. Ufficio del
Lavoro, Serie B. N. 26, Roma, p. 69, 1910; Kaup, Die jugendlichen Arbeiter in
Deutchland III (Schriften der Gesellschaft fur soziale Reform, Heft 36), p. 6. Jena,
1911.
85605°—Bull. 117—13----- 2




16

BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

tatively superior and qualitatively equal to daywork will therefore
be of value. He says:
In spite of this opinion, the glass workers whom I have interrogated on this subject
are unanimous and decided in their opposition to night work, and give the following
reasons for their point of view:
Sleep during the day is not as recuperative as sleep during the night, especially in
summer on account of the heat. We are consequently less fresh and less ready for
work when we begin work and we are more tired and exhausted in the morning than
after daywork.
The evils are very seriously felt. One man even said, “ The night shift will shorten
my life 10 years.”
To my question as to whether the extra work performed at night did not mean a
welcome increase of wages, they replied that that increase was absorbed in paying
for the extra meal which is required during the night.
They also maintain that it can not be said in favor of night work that in the summer
it is more agreeable than daywork on account of the heat, because on the one hand
the fall in temperature is not felt till dawn when the workmen are already tired, while
on the other hand the temperature during the first and longest part of the night shift
is not appreciably lower than the temperature during the day. This is also proved
by the temperature charts.1

What has been said here with regard to adults applies with still
greater force to young persons. Thus in Sweden 51 physicians,
intrusted by law with the supervision of young persons, declared in
a royal commission established to revise the existing labor legislation
as follows:2
Night work, which is fatiguing even to adult workers, must be pernicious for health
and physical development of young persons; it is a crime against hygiene and a dissi­
pation of social capital to allow night work. The actual law is too generous in granting
night work of young persons as compared with its other prescriptions; sleep and rest
are too irregular and insufficient after night work; the result of the conditions of life
of young persons employed during the night is the impossibility of sleep during the
day; health and appetite are thus injured and in a great measure the amount of the
blood corpuscles is impaired.

The effects of allowing children to perform a full day’s work at an
unduly early age will be discussed more in detail in the chapter
dealing with exceptions. It may, however, be observed here that
quite apart from the opposition of the employers the efforts which
have been made especially in Germany, Austria, Denmark, Norway,
and the majority of Swiss Cantons, to establish compulsory continu­
ation school instruction will, owing to the excessive strain imposed on
the pupils, be abortive unless time for technical training is taken
during work hours.
6.
The lack of opportunity for instruction in the case of young
persons working long hours, and still more the exhaustion of body
and mind after night work and the excesses of all kinds committed by
1 W. Schmitz, Regelung der Arbeitszeit und Intensitat der Arbeit. Jena, 1910.
2Yrkesfarekommittin, 1909. Betankande, II, p. 199.




PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

17

youths under the influence of older fellow workers has the most
injurious effects both on them and on society.
If a young person is employed at this night work only as a helper,
he is liable to be dismissed whenever work is slack in the factory, and
goes to swell the ranks of the unemployed and often of the unemploy­
able. The Minority Report of the British Royal Commission on the
Poor Laws says:
We regard this perpetual recruitment of the unemployable by tens of thousands of
boys who, through neglect to provide them with suitable industrial training, may
almost be said to graduate into unemployment as a matter of course, as perhaps the
gravest of all the grave facts which this commission has laid bare.1

It is from among this cheap labor, these unskilled youths, that the
youthful offenders who are increasing in numbers in every country
are drawn. The fact that the largest proportion of these youthful
offenders are orphans and illegitimate children, leads us to the con­
clusion that the absence of maternal influence and of domestic dis­
cipline are the principal causes of this phenomenon. But the young
persons who work at night with strange workmen, and who use their
parents' dwellings only for the purpose of obtaining a troubled sleep,
and who as soon as possible devote the greater part of their earnings
to their own pleasures, are exposed to the influence of the same condi­
tions. These serious consequences would be avoided if the regulation
of the work of women and young persons proposed by the Inter­
national Association were to be uniformly adopted.
1 Report of the Royal Commission on the Poor Laws and Relief of Distress (Cd.,
4499), p. 1167. 1909.




CHAPTER III.
CRITICAL ACCOUNT OF THE LAW IN FORCE IN DIFFERENT COUN­
TRIES WITH RESPECT TO THE UNINTERRUPTED NIGHT’S REST.

It was shown in the memorandum on the prohibition of the night
work of women that the uninterrupted night’s rest is too short, even
in those countries which have adopted by law the principle of the
prohibition of the night work of women. Stress was in particular
laid upon the fact that a legal minimum night’s rest of 8, 9, or even
10 hours is not sufficient to make it possible for working women to
fulfill their domestic duties.
The States which signed the Berne Convention of September 26,
1906, agreed to a minimum rest of 11 hours, and the International
Association passed resolutions in favor of a similar minimum for
young persons. The association was not actuated solely by technical
considerations, but adopted this attitude for the following reasons:
In order to produce the largest possible supply of skilled workmen,
the greatest importance must be attached to continuation schools;
since industrial life is liable to great vicissitudes, everything should
be done not only to give practical teaching (drawing, etc.), but still
more to promote theoretical industrial training. Is it possible for
young persons to profit by such instruction while the present law as
to their hours of work remains in force ?
Young persons living a quarter of an hour or half an hour from
the factory must get up at 6 a. m. in order to dress and to arrive at
the factory at 7 o’clock. As a rule they are allowed a rest period of
a quarter of an hour round about 9 o’clock, which just gives them
time to have some food. The noon rest commences at noon and ter­
minates in most countries at 1 or 1.30 o’clock. In the case of young
persons living at some distance from the factory, their dinner has to
be brought in by women or children. Work recommences at 1 or
1.30 o’clock and continues with a rest period of a quarter of an hour
to half an hour until supper time at 6 p. pa., or even till 7 p. m. in
countries where an 11-hour day is the rule. The young persons have
to hurry to get to the school where the courses begin at 8 or 8.30
o’clock and last for from 1 to 2 hours. Under the most favorable
circumstances a young worker returns home at about 9.30, has a
quick supper, and gets to bed at 10 o’clock at the earliest. His
18



PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

19

night’s rest can not then be more than 7 to 8 hours, although expert
physiologists agree that during adolescence at least 9 hours' sleep is
necessary.
Thus Prof. Dr. E. Clapar&de, author of the “ Psychologie de 1'en­
fant” (second edition, Geneva, 1911) declares:
The length of sleep should be 11 to 12 hours for children of 5 to 8 years of age; 9 to
10 hours for children of 11 to 13 years, and 9 hours for children of 14 to 15 years;
after this age the normal length of sleep should be adapted to the intensity of the
phenomena of puberty. In my opinion, at least 9 hours of sleep should be at the dis­
position of young persons up to 18 years of age. There are very great individual
differences concerning the need of sleep which have not yet been sufficiently investi­
gated, but their existence is perfectly confirmed by experience. Thus the* need of
sleep is greater in the winter than in summer.

A young worker is then employed for 16 or 17 hours, of which 10
to 11 hours are at the workshop in work which is often monotonous,
amid the noise of machinery, and is often exposed to dust and
dangerous vapors. If he is intelligent, he endeavors to continue his
training even late at night in spite of physical and mental exhaus­
tion. Far-sighted employers allow their young workmen to leave
the factory after 8 hours’ work on condition that they attend con­
tinuation schools. Modern apprenticeship laws provide, for very
good reasons, that the compulsory instruction shall be given during
the daytime, but they touch only a very small proportion of the
young persons employed in factories. The result of the lack of openair recreation, and of any education of other than an industrial
character, and the strain caused by the intensity of the work, are
great fatigue and an absence of all joy of life, which are entirely
unnatural conditions for young persons.
This state of affairs was appreciated in Germany, and accordingly
an act was passed prescribing an 11-hour night’s rest for young persons
under 16 as well as for women (art. 136 of the act of December
28, 1908). The same condition was introduced for both categories
(for young persons up to 17 years of age) in the Netherlands Janu­
ary 1, 1912.
It will be seen from the above account that the fundamental con­
ditions for continuation education and the care of young persons
can be secured if the age limit of protected persons is raised to 18.
The table showing the age below which night work is prohibited
and the night’s rest of young persons, given below, proves that our
wishes are not Utopian:
(a)
Let us first consider the States which have already prohibited
the night work of young persons under 18.




20

BULLETIN OF THE BUKEAU OE LABOR STATISTICS.
EUROPEAN STATES.
Mivrimnm
Legal
minimum working
night’s rest.
day.

States.

Hours.

Denmark...............................................................................................................
Norway.................................................................................................................
Sweden.................................................................................................................
Greece2 ........ *......................................................................................................
Servia... ................................................................................................................
Switzerland...........................................................................................................
Great Britain........................................................................................................
France..................................................................................................................
Finland.................................................................................................................

Hours.

10

10

10
11

10
1 10

U

10

10
10
12

10
11

8

*10*
10

8

12

12
12
8
7

6 10
10
6 10
9

NONEUROPEAN STATES.

Massachusetts (textile factories)4........ -................................................................
Quebec (cotton and woolen factories)....................................................................
Massachusetts (nontextile industries)4.................................................................
California.............................................................................................................
1 Until 13 years, 6 hours.
act of Jan. 24-Feb. 6,1912; see p. 10.
3 Textile factories, 10 hours.

2 By

4Age limit in Massachusetts is 21 years.

&54 hours per week.

(b)
States which have prohibited the night work of young persons
under 16 (the Netherlands and Liechtenstein under 17):
EUROPEAN STATES.

States.

Legal
minimum Maximum
working
night’s
day.
rest.
Hours.

Germany...............................................................................................................
Netherlands..........................................................................................................
Austria (factory trades)........................................................................................
Bosnia and Herzegovina (factory trades)..............................................................
Liechtenstein........................................................................................................
Luxemburg...........................................................................................................
Belgium................................................................................................................
Hungary................................................................................................................

Hours.

11
11
9
9
9
8
8
7

10
10
11
11
11
10
12
10

15
13*
13
13
13
12

8
81
8
9
10

NONEUROPEAN STATES.

New York......................................................
New Zealand..................................................
Indiana, Kansas, Ohio, Oklahoma, Wisconsin.
Delaware........................................................
Oregon............................................................
Illinois, Minnesota, Missouri, North Dakota..




8

PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

21

NONEUROPEAN STATES—Concluded.
Legal
minimum Maximum
working
night’s
day.
rest.

States.

Hours.

New South Wales......................................
Queensland, Victoria.................................
Michigan...................................................
Kentucky, Maryland.................................
New Jersey...............................................
New Hampshire........................................
Saskatchewan............................................
Colorado, Mississippi, District of Columbia.
Alabama....................................................
Nebraska...................................................
Rhode Island..............................................
South Carolina............................................
Argentina.................................................. .
Idaho..........................................................
Iowa, Pennsylvania....................................
Ontario.......................................................
Tunis........................................................ .
1 48 hours per week.
* 54 hours per week.

12
12
12
12
12
Hi
Hi
11
11
10
10
10
9
9
9
9
8

3 55 hours per week.
* 58 hours per week.

Hours.

(l)
no
2 10
10
8 10
4 11
8
8
(5)
8
10
10
8
9
10
10
10

* 60 hours per week.

(c)
The prohibition of the night work of young persons under 15
only survives in a few European States, where the night’s rest and
hours of work are also variously regulated.
Legal
Maximum
minimum working
night’s
day.
rest.

States.

Hours.

Bulgaria................................................................................................................
Roumania.............................................................................................................
Italy......................................................................................................................
Russia...................................................................................................................

12
10
*10
8

Hours.

8
8
11
9

1 8 in summer.

(d) The prohibition of night work applies only up to the age of 14
in Spain (without the industries being determined by the juntas) and
(e) 12 in Portugal; the minimum night’s rest in both countries is
10 hours. Young persons of this class must not be employed for more
than 6 hours in Spain nor for more than 10 hours in Portugal.
Finally, 5 non-European States where the protection ceases at
14, 1 State where it ceases at 13, 1 State where it ceases at 12,
and 1 State where it ceases at 15 years of age must be mentioned.
These are—




22

BULLETIN OF THE BTJBEATT OP LABOB STATISTICS.

States.

( / ) UP TO 15 YEARS OP AGE.
Japan...............................................................................

Maximum

working
day.

Hours.
12

(g) UP TO 14 YEAES OP AGE.

Virginia...........................................................................
Arkansas, Georgia (textile factories)...............................
India......................................................................... ......
North Carolina.................................................................
(h)

UP t o

13

YEABS.

(i) UP TO

12

YEABS.

Egypt (cotton ginning mills)

10
10

7

0)
8

Florida

9

1 60 hours per week.

When we compare the legislation at present in force with the
demands made by the International Association, we find that in order
to satisfy the modest demands of health and education it will be
necessary in Europe to lengthen the night’s rest by 1 hour in eight
countries, by 2 hours in three countries, by 3 hours in five countries,
and by 4 hours in one country. In eight countries, of which two
(Germany and the Netherlands) have already adopted the 11-hour
night’s rest, what is required is that the protected age shall be raised
about two years. Belgium, Italy, Spain, and Portugal would have
to make the greatest change. Young persons employed in factories
for 14 hours (including rest periods) and for 15 hours if they work
overtime, have only 1 hour for meals and for coming to and from
work, but have not left a minute for their education. This is the
position of young persons of 17 years of age in Belgium, and of 16
years of age in Italy. Laws passed to satisfy the momentary require­
ments of industry and the material interests of poor parents threaten
to destroy the productivity and civilization of these countries, unless
a night’s rest of 11 hours for persons under 18 is established at once
or in stages*




CHAPTER IY.
CRITICAL ACCOUNT OF THE EXCEPTIONS TO THE PROHIBITION
OF THE NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

In most European countries the majority of juvenile workers are
employed in the metal industries and in stone and earth industries,
not including the building trades. It is therefore obvious that
exceptions allowed for the industries employing the largest number
of young persons would greatly diminish the value of the protection
afforded by the prohibition of the night work of young persons.
It is, however, precisely these industries which have been able to
obtain a privileged position, and this not invariably for technical
reasons. It is, therefore, necessary to consider in what manner it
may be possible to abolish these exceptions which are characteristic
for the working conditions of young persons. In addition to these
exceptions, applying to special industries, there are certain general
exceptions which are unavoidable. These were specified in the
Berne Convention of September 26,1906, prohibiting the night work
of women in industrial employment:
1. In cases of “ force majeure” when in any undertaking there
occurs an interruption of work which it was impossible to foresee
and which is not of a periodic character, or
2. In cases where the work has to do with rawmaterials or materials
in course of treatment which are subject to rapid deterioration, when
such night work is necessary to preserve the said materials from
certain loss.
The night's rest may be reduced from 11 to 10 hours—
1. In seasonal industries;
2. In the case of unexpected temporary and pressing demands of
production;
3. In non-European States when the climate or the conditions of
the native population require it, provided that compensatory rests
are accorded during the day for the shortened night rests.
Since the necessity for exceptions, both for women and young
persons, even after the coming into operation of the Berne Convention
is recognized, it is necessary from a legal point of view to distinguish
between—
(а) Exceptions allowed for both sexes in order to insure the
continuity of the operations, and
(б) Special exceptions for young persons.
The exceptions contemplated in 1 and 2 fall under the first head,
while the others fall under the second head.



23

24

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.
I.—EXCEPTIONS ON ACCOUNT OF FORCE MAJEURE.

In the case of fire or unforeseen lack of water, of epidemics which
for a time wholly or partially paralyze the work of the establish­
ment, and of other occurrences which must be considered to be
cases of force majeure and which give rise to unemployment and loss
of earnings, it may be desirable that night work or at least overtime
work be performed for one or more weeks in order to repair the
damage and make up for the loss of wages as quickly as possible.
We have already had occasion in the memorandum on the prohi­
bition of the night work of women to discuss the nature of these
exceptions. These cases, from their very nature, are bound to be
of rare occurrence. In order that abuses may be prevented by
national legislation, it is sufficient if the law provides that sanction
for night or overtime work for more than one week may be granted
only by the higher administrative authority on the advice of the
industrial inspectors. The law in force in this regard in the different
States is as follows:
In Germany (art. 139 of the Industrial Code) exceptions to the
prohibition of night work and to the regulation of day work (art. 135,
pars. 2 and 3, art. 136) maybe allowed for a period of four weeks by
the higher administrative authorities (Regierungsprasident), or by
the Imperial Chancellor for a longer period “ if the regular work of
the establishment has been interrupted by natural occurrences or
accidents.” The lower administrative authority may allow excep­
tions for not more than 14 days in urgent cases of this kind and in
order to prevent accidents.
In Austria (art. 96a of the Industrial Code) the industrial au­
thority of first instance may sanction overtime work for a period of
three weeks in these cases, and sanction for any longer period (not
more than 12 weeks in the year) must be given by the provincial
authorities. In such cases the 11-hour working-day is replaced by a
maximum working-day of 13 hours. Overtime may also be worked
after mere notification of the industrial authorities. In such cases
14 hours may be worked on three days in one month (decree of the
minister of commerce of 27th May, 1885). Austria, then, allows
overtime but not night work in these cases.
Belgium (act of Dec. 13, 1889, art. 6) allows “ complete night
work in case of cessation of work due to force majeure or in excep­
tional circumstances ” and—
France (act of Nov. 2, 1892, art. 4) “ in case of cessation of work
due to an accidental interruption or to force majeure.”
Great Britain (Factory and Workshop Act, 1901, sec. 52, and
order of Dec. 22, 1882).—The secretary of state has by order under
this section allowed an extended period of employment from 6 a. m.
to 7 p. m. on the first five full working-days of the week, in factories



PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

25

driven by water power alone which are liable to be stopped by
drought or flood, on not more than 96 days in a year in the case of
stoppage by drought, or 48 days in a year in the case ot stoppage by
floods. The extension is granted subject to certain conditions.
According to section 53, where there is danger of damage from spon­
taneous combustion in Turkey-red dyeing or from any extraordinary
atmospheric influence in open-air bleaching, overtime may be worked
on any day other than the weekly short day, so far as is necessary
for the purpose only of preventing such damage.
In the Netherlands (according to Royal Decree of July 12, 1909)
work could be continued until 10 p. m. (instead of 7 p. m.) in fac­
tories worked by wind or water, if, owing to a lack of power, it has
been impossible to work for 11 hours during the 24 hours preceding
7 p. m. The number of hours worked must not, however, exceed 11.
This exception is repealed since January 1, 1912, the labor law of
1911, article 6, sub. 14, prescribing a minimum night rest of 11
hours, which can not be reduced in any case.
In Russia (act of Feb. 24, 1890, art. 5) no limitation is placed on
night work in such cases. The shift following the night shift must,
however, not commence before noon.
In the case of accidental interruptions, therefore, the law contains
provisions establishing limitations which vary from State to State.
II.—EXCEPTIONS JUSTIFIED BY THE NATURE OF THE MATERIALS TO BE
TREATED.

The industries which in most countries require the night work of
young persons, in view of the nature of the processes, are, above all,
the fish, fruit, and vegetable preserving industries. Permanent
exceptions are not, however, considered necessary. Since some
branches of these industries are obliged to work at night more
frequently than others, it would be fairer to prohibit the night work
of young persons altogether or at least to reduce it to a minimum.
The law in the most advanced countries allows overtime and pro­
hibits night work only in these cases.
In Germany article 139a, No. 5, of the Industrial Code, provides
that the night’s rest of adult women (art. 137, pars. 1 to 4) and not
that of young persons, may be reduced to 8£ hours on not more than
60 days in the year in industries in which night work appears to be
necessary, in order to prevent damage to raw materials or to materials
in course of treatment.
Switzerland also allows no exception for young persons.
In the Netherlands, since January 1,1912, only adult women, but
not young persons under 17 years of age, are allowed to perform work
at the spitting of herrings, from October 1 to March 15, up to mid­
night; from March 15 until June 1, up to 2 o'clock in the morning.




26

BULLETIN OP THE BUBEAtr OP LABOR STATISTICS.

In this case, however, the number of hours during which a woman
is daily employed shall not exceed 8 hours; the hours of work be­
tween midnight and 2 o’clock in the morning shall be reckoned as
having been performed on the preceding day. The exception applies
only to some communes which are indicated by royal decree and
other conditions have also to be fulfilled.
Night rest could formerly be reduced in several manufactures in
such a manner that by way of a change in the beginning and the end
of the daily hours of work it was also allowed to work until 10 o’clock
in the evening. Although such a substitution is still allowed to
different enterprises after January 1, 1912, a night rest of 11 hours
(in which the period from 10 p. m. to 5 a. ra. is included) is without
exception granted to women and young persons. The only excep­
tion for women is that of herring spitting.
In Great Britain article 41 of the Factory Act provides that the
provisions of the act as to hours of labor, rest periods for meals, and
holidays shall not apply to young persons and women engaged in
processes in the preserving and curing of fish, which must be carried
out immediately on the arrival of the fishing boats in order to pre­
vent the fish from being destroyed or spoiled. There is no limitation
to the hours of work—
where an employer avails himself of this exception; the notice required to be served
and posted in such instance need not specify the hours for the beginning and termi­
nation of the hours of labor or the rest periods to be allowed for meals.

A similar exception is allowed in the cases of young persons and
women engaged in the process of cleaning and preserving fruit, so
far as is necessary to prevent the spoiling of the fruit immediately
on its arrival at a factory or workshop during the months of June,
July, August, and September, subject to such conditions as the
secretary of state may by special order prescribe (art. 41 of the
Factory Act, 1901).
Under the order of September 11, 1907 (Fruit Preserving Order),
which is similar to that in force in the Netherlands, the period of
employment must fall between 6 a. m. and 10 p. m. In the case of
young persons, a period of not less than 10 hours must elapse between
the termination of work on one day and the commencement of work
on the following day. The employer has to keep and produce to
the inspector on demand a register showing the hour at which the
fruit arrived at the factory or workshop, the processes in which
women or young persons were employed, the period of employment
of such women and young persons, and the intervals allowed them
for meals. Other conditions are also imposed. The two foregoing
exceptions are, however, used only to a very limited extent, so far
as male young persons are concerned.




PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

27

Belgium and France are the only States which allow real night
work in these industries. The degree, however, differs. In Belgium
(Decree of Dec. 13, 1889, art. 6, and Royal decree of Nov. 3, 1898,
art. 5) work may be performed in fish-preserving factories by male
young persons between 14 and 16 years of age and by female young
persons between 16 and 21 years of age between 9 and 12 p. m. on
30 days in the year. The total period of employment must not,
however, exceed 12 hours and must be interrupted by three rest
periods of altogether 1£ hours.
In France (Decree of July 15, 1893) young persons from 13 years
of age upward, employed in fish, fruit, and vegetable preserving
factories, may work at night for not more than 10 hours in the 24
on not more than 90 days in the year. Night work may be author­
ized temporarily in the case of factories where fish barrels are made
(90 days), butter factories, cheese factories, glue and gelatin factories
(60 days), and pastry factories where fresh butter is used (30 days).
III.—EXCEPTIONS SANCTIONED FOR MALE YOUNG PERSONS IN CERTAIN
INDUSTRIES.

A factory may work continuously, for technical reasons on account
of the nature of the smelting or extractive processes, or in order to
satisfy the demand (either permanent or temporary) more promptly,
or in order that profits on the capital may be obtained as quickly as
possible.
In the first case day and night work is general in the principal
departments of the factories. In the second and third cases only a
small number of workers or those employed in a single department
may be required to work at night. We will call the first class of
establishment where for technical reasons the work must be uninter­
rupted “ establishments with continuous fire” and the other classes
“ establishments with (wholly or partially) continuous operation.
In the latter, human labor may be suspended at any moment, i. e.,
for the weekly rest, which is not the case or only to a limited extent
the case in “ establishments with continuous fire.” In the latter
case it becomes easier for the smelting process to be left to its own
devices for some time in proportion as the technical appliances have
been perfected. The larger the establishment the smaller is the
relative number of persons working day and night. It is, however,
not possible to draw in any other respect a strict distinction between
establishments with continuous fire and establishments with wholly
or partly continuous operation.
In his report on establishments with continuous operations the
Dutch director general of labor shows the following variations in the
method of operation of glass works:
In three factories glass blowing was carried on entirely by day and not at all by
night. This was the case not only in a small factory in Amsterdam, but also in the



28

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OP LABOR STATISTICS.

two large factories in Maastricht, where night work is prohibited. This total abolition
of night work is due to the energy and initiative of Dr. (of Law) L. H. W. Eegout,
formerly chemical factory director and now minister of public works. This shows
conclusively that continuous work is not technically necessary in glass-blowing work
as it is for stoking furnaces, but that it is carried on for motives of economy. Our
chief competitors are Germany and France.1

At present these conditions are found in only a small number of
factories, and we therefore find that the law sanctions the night work
of young persons without discriminating between establishments
with continuous fire and establishments with continuous operation.
In this connection the argument is always brought forward that the
adult workman employed at night requires young apprentices to
assist him.
We give below the exceptions in force with regard to these estab­
lishments.
1. NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS IN THE GLASS INDUSTRY.

The branches of the glass industry are the manufacture of hollow
(bottle) glass, window (sheet) glass, crystal glass, and plate glass.
The glass industry has for 10 years been undergoing a technical
revolution, which is differently developed in the different branches.
The principal motives for the introduction of machinery were, in the
United States, the high wages of skilled workmen; in Europe, the
difficulties of recruiting young workers. The complete automatiza­
tion of the manufacture of hollow and sheet glass is only a question
of time. Plate glass for mirrors is produced in a perfectly automatic
way (e. g., at Jeumont). In a great part of the manufacture of bottle
glass the work of young persons is beginning to be abolished by the
introduction of mechanical appliances, as well in the process of
blowing as in that of placing the bottles in the cooling furnaces. The
skilled blower and gatherer have been replaced on the latest type of
machine by a machine boy. On account of the necessity of concen­
trated attention on the part of this machine boy, a higher age is
required than was necessary on the earlier types of machines. In
the United States the investigation of the Commissioner of Labor
showed that 30.6 per cent of the machine boys on the earlier types
of machines were less than 16 years of age, while on the most
recent machines only 18.4 per cent are under that age.2 The most
recent automatic machine of this kind, which has been used only for
fruit jars, has entirely eliminated child labor under 16 years. The
1 Die kontinuierliche Arbeit in der niederlandischen Industrie. Jahresbericht
des Generaldirektor H. A. van Ysselsteyn, 1909, S. 16.
2 Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage-Eamers in the United States,
Vol. Ill, Glass Industry, pp. 190-198. (Sen. Doc. No. 645,61st Cong., 2d Sess.) Wash­
ington, 1911.




PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

29

same observation applies to cases in which the removal of the blown
bottles to the cooling furnace has been replaced by peanut roasters
or mechanical conveyors, which by an overhead track eliminate about
three-fourths of the carrying boys. Hitherto only certain homoge­
neous staple articles (like beer bottles, mineral water bottles, and milk
bottles and fruit jars) have been produced by the new machines. In
window-glass manufacture the technical revolution is only in view.
In the crystal-glass industry so few children are employed that the
prohibition of night work would offer no difficulty.
At the present time the law of most States allows exceptions which
correspond to the requirements of a far less advanced stage of the
glass industry than we have described.
The law of the various States is as follows:
In Germany the work of young persons in the glass industry is
regulated by the provisions of the decree of the Federal Council of
March 5, 1902, and by those of the decree of May 23, 1906, which
deals with Sunday rest. The following are the provisions applying
to the night work of young persons employed at melting furnaces,
cooling furnaces, annealing ovens, and at flattening ovens.
I. Glass works (sheet and hollow glass) where smelting and transforming processes are
carried on during the same shifts (plate-glass factories where rolled plate glass is manu­
factured are not included),

A. D a y W o r k .— Y oung persons must not be employed for more than
12 hours, or 10 hours not including rest periods, nor for more than
60 hours per week. They must be allowed one rest period of at least
one hour and short rest periods are not counted excepting (subject
to the special sanction of the authorities) in the case of 8-hour shifts
and of an uninterrupted rest between shifts of 24 hours in the sheetglass industry and of 16 hours in the hollow-glass industry.
B. D a y a n d N ig h t W o r k .—Night shifts must not exceed 12 hours
(or 10 hours exclusive of rest periods). An uninterrupted rest of 12
hours must be allowed between two shifts, and the shifts must be
alternated every week unless a rest of 24 hours is allowed between
two shifts.
C. S u n d a y B e s t .—A weekly rest must be granted every Sunday
from 6 a. m. until 6 p. m.
II. Glass works with alternating shifts for melting and transforming.

A.
D a y W o r k .—Young persons must not be employed for more
than 60 hours per week; rest periods of one hour or of 1| hours in
the case of 10 hour shifts must be allowed. If a shift is longer than
10 hours one rest period of at least one-half hour must be allowed.
Rest periods of less than one-fourth hour are not to be included*




30

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

B. D a y a n d N ig h t W o r k .—Night shifts must not exceed 12 hours
(or 10 exclusive of rest periods); the period of rest between two
shifts must be at least as long as the shift immediately preceding the
rest. The performance of auxiliary labor during rest periods is per­
missible, such work, however, must be reckoned in computing the
total hours of labor. Not more than half the number of hours worked
during a fortnight may be worked in night shifts.
C. S u n d a y R e s t .— Sunday rest must be granted on alternate
Sundays from 6 a. m. until 6 p. m.
Austria*—Under the Industrial Code (art. 96b, as also the order
of May 27, 1885, and the ministerial decree of Apr. 24, 1895, art. 2,
p. 9) the following exceptions are allowed in the glass industry “ for
the purpose of opening and closing the molds in which the glass is
blown, of transporting the blown articles to the annealing furnaces,
and of similar light manual operations” :
1. Unlimited night work for persons between 14 and 16 years of age.
2. S u n d a y R e s t .—Twenty-four hours on alternate Sundays, or a
substitute rest by interruptions in the work.
In Belgium the exceptions are regulated in detail by the royal
decrees of December 26, 1892, and of July 28, 1906.
I. THE MANUFACTURE OF CRYSTAL GLASS.

1. The daily period of employment of young persons under 16
years of age is 10 hours and 20 minutes instead of the ordinary legal
maximum of 12 hours. Two rest periods, each of 20 minutes, and a
midday rest of 30 minutes must be allowed (i. e., 1 hour and 10
minutes instead of the ordinary legal maximum of 1J hours).
2. Night shifts are authorized for persons of all ages. The daily
hours of labor, for day shifts and night shifts taken together, may
not exceed 10 hours and 20 minutes.
3. A full day of rest must be allowed on alternate weeks. In every
subsequent week the maximum hours of labor on Sunday in the manu­
facture of glass tabes and other similar articles for which cooled glass
is used may not exceed 6 hours (including a rest period of 30 minutes).
II. THE MANUFACTURE OF WINDOW GLASS (ALL KINDS OF FURNACES).

1. The daily period of employment of young persons under 16
must not exceed 10J hours. Rest periods of a total duration of 1£
hours must be allowed, and may be reduced proportionately to any
reduction in the hours of labor.
2. Night shifts not exceeding 10£ hours are authorized for workers
of all ages, and the rest periods altogether amount to 1$ hours.
3. A weekly rest is to be allowed after 13 of 14 shifts, or after 6£ of
7 days. The period of employment on rest days must not exceed 5
hours (including a rest period of 15 minutes) and must terminate
before 1 o’clock.



PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

in.

31

THE MANUFACTURE OF PLATE GLASS.

1. The daily period of employment of young persons under 16 must
not exceed 10 hours. Rest periods of a total duration of 1J hours,
including a midday rest of 1 hour, must be allowed.
2. Night work is not allowed except in the smelting processes.
3. No person may be employed for more than 10 hours in 24 (rest
periods of 1J hours).
4. A full day of rest must be allowed on alternate weeks; every
subsequent week work may be performed on Sunday for 6 hours (30
minutes rest period). The worker has the option of renouncing the
full day’s rest and of working for four hours before or after 1 p. m.
instead on one day every week.
In France the exceptions applying to the glass industry are regu­
lated by articles 6, 12, and 13 of the act of November 2, 1892, and by
the decrees of May 13, 1893, June 21, 1897, April 20, 1899, May 3,
1900, November 22, 1905, March 7, September 10, December 15,
1908, and March 7, 1910. A decree of October 8, 1911, modifies
entirely these provisions.
1. The gathering of glass is prohibited to young persons of less than
15 years of age in bottle and window glass factories, and to those
under 14 years of age in all other branches of the glass industry; to
blow the glass in bottle-glass factories and window-glass factories is
prohibited before the age of 16, and before the age of 14 in all other
glass factories. The weight of glass which has to be handled by
workmen between 14 to 16 years of age is not allowed to exceed 1,000
grams (2.2 pounds). In bottle-glass factories with automatic ma­
chinery the operation of gathering required for the service of machines
can be performed only by persons over 16 years of age. The drawing
of glass into tubes or strips is allowed only to persons over 15 years
of age. Still, with the exception of Venetian pearl factories, children
may be employed after the 14th year of age if the weight which has
to be carried by the child does not exceed 5 kilograms (11 pounds)
including the pipe.
2. Young persons between 12 and 18 years of age may be employed
at night in handling tools, in the preliminary gathering, in assisting
in the blowing and casting operations, in transporting the articles to
and in removing them from the annealing furnaces.
3. Night shifts must not exceed 10 hours.
4. Rest periods of a total duration of 2 hours must be allowed.
5. A full day’s rest must be allowed every Sunday.
In Great Britain the Factory and Workshop Act of 1901 (sec.
55) prescribes as follows:
1.
Male young persons between 14 and 18 years of age may be
employed in night work.
85605°—Bull. 117—13----- 3



32

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

2. Their total hours of labor in a week must not exceed 60 hours.
The periods of employment during a week may be—
4 shifts of 14 hours each, or
5 shifts of 12 hours each, or
6 shifts of 10 hours each, or
9 shifts of shorter duration.
3. After each shift a period of rest of the same length as the pre­
ceding shift must be allowed.
4. A rest period of one-half hour must be allowed after every 5
hours' work.
5. A full day of rest must be allowed on Sunday.
Most advanced are the prescriptions in Norway and in the
Netherlands.
Netherlands (Royal decree of July 12, 1909, as amended by
Royal decree of July 27, 1910)—
1. Night shifts may be worked on alternate weeks by young per­
sons between the ages of 14 and 16 years until January 1, 1912.
2. Night shifts must not exceed 11 hours.
3. A rest period of one-half hour must be allowed after every 5
hours' work.
4. A full day of rest must be allowed every Sunday.
From January 1, 1912, night work of young persons under 17 years
of age, between 10 p. m. and 5 a. m., is prohibited; further, an unin­
terrupted rest of 11 hours must be granted between two alternate
shifts.
In Norway articles 26 and 27 of the Factory Act of September 10,
1909, prescribe as follows:
1. The night work of young persons below 16 years of age is alto­
gether prohibited.
2. The inspector may sanction the night work of young persons
between 16 and 18 years for not more than 8 hours.
3. A day of rest must be allowed every week from 6 p. m. on
Saturday to 10 p. m. on Sunday.
Spain.—The Royal decree of January 25, 1908, prohibits any
employment in the glass and crystal industry to female minors and
to boys below 16 years.
Italy.—The law of July 7, 1907, and the Royal decree of Novem­
ber 10, 1907, articles 5 and 7, prescribe as follows:
1. Night work is prohibited below the age of 15 years. The defi­
nition of night work is the employment from 8 p. m. to 6 a. m., from
October 1 to March 31; from 9 p. m. to 5 a. m. from April 1 to Sep- '
tember 30.
2. A weekly rest of 24 hours, if possible on Sunday, is prescribed.
Exceptions concerning prohibition of Sunday work are in force only
for the employees of the iron industry and for firemen in gas works.




PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

33

In the latter case their shifts on Sunday are of a maximum duration
of 8 hours, their times of rest 36 hours every two weeks.
In Russia article 110 (subsecs. 3 and 5) of the Industrial Code
allows the following exceptions:
1. Night shifts may be worked by young persons between 12 and
15 years of age.
2. Night shifts must not exceed 10 hours in any period of 24
hours.
3. A period of rest of 12 hours must be allowed after every shift.
4. Sunday work in company with adults is allowed.
Sweden (art. 8 of the act of Oct. 17, 1900)1 allows—
1. The night work of young male persons between 14 and 18 years
in all establishments with continuous operation and in sawmills.
2. The maximum duration of night work is 12 hours, but only in
establishments which have arranged the change of shifts in such a
manner that the same group of workers is not employed on two suc­
cessive nights in the midnight shift. In establishments in which
8-hour shifts have been introduced young persons may be employed
at night during every third week.
3. A period of rest of at least 8 hours must be allowed after every
shift.
In Switzerland, under the Factory Act (art. 16), the Federal
Council may in exceptional cases authorize—
1. The night work of young persons between 14 and 18 years in
establishments with continuous operation, if the work of young per­
sons is considered to be indispensable, and in particular when it
appears to be necessary in order to give them a thorough training.
2. Night shifts must not exceed 11 hours, and a system of alternate
shifts must be introduced.
United States of America.—The State of New Jersey (Stats.
1895, p. 2350, secs. 66, 67) allowed an exception to the prohibition
of the night work of young persons under 18 years of age in the case
of glassworks, where they may be employed from 6 p. m. to 7 a. m.
This exception has been repealed by the law of 1904, section 64, and
that of 1910, chapter 277.
It appears from the above account of the exceptions in force in
the glass industry that such exceptions are particularly numerous in
the exporting countries such as Germany, Great Britain, France,
Austria, and Belgium, but that the extent to which night work is
allowed varies considerably. Thus the minimum age at which night
work may be performed is 17 in the Netherlands; 16 in Norway and
1After this memorandum was prepared this act was repealed by the law of June
29, 1912 (Lag om arbetarskydd), which prohibits night work up to 18 years, but
allows exceptions after age 16. The night shift must not exceed 8 hours.




34

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

Spain; 15 in Italy; 14 in Germany, Austria, Belgium, Great Britain,
Sweden,1 and Switzerland; 13 in France; and 12 in Portugal and
Russia. The duration of the night shifts varies from 14 hours (Great
Britain), 12 hours (Germany, Austria, Sweden1), below 11 hours
(Switzerland), 10J hours (Belgium), 10 hours (Russia), to 8 hours
(Norway). The period of rest following the shift is the same length
as the preceding employed shift in England, and is 12 hours in
Germany and Russia, 11 hours in the Netherlands, 8 in Sweden,1 and
6 in Hungary. A regular Sunday rest is prescribed for young per­
sons employed in night shifts in France, England, and Holland,
while in all other countries it is allowed only on alternate weeks and
then only for half the day.
Several questions must be considered in this connection, namely:
1. Under what hygienic conditions is the night work of young
persons performed ?
2. Is the work at which they are employed necessary to their
industrial training? Is it necessary to employ them at night, both
in order that they may be able to have a choice of occupation and that
skilled workmen may be available for the industry ?
3. What has been the effect of this work on the moral, economic,
and mental welfare of the young persons ?
1.
In answer to the first question we here reproduce the report of
an industrial inspector on hygienic conditions in glass factories in
Upper Franconia:
The hygienic conditions may on the whole be said to be less favorable in glass works
than in many other industries. Quite apart from the nature of the work, the health
of the workers must inevitably be affected by the excessive number of hours spent
by them in overheated workrooms where they are exposed to drafts and almost always
to smoke and dust. The danger is accentuated by the fact that because the mucous
membranes are excessively irritated the workmen are tempted to unreasonable
behavior, to excessive drinking of cold water, and especially of alcoholic beverages,
and to expose themselves to the open air when they are bathed in perspiration. Owing
to this imprudent behavior, and in particular to their excessive drinking, the work­
men require and can digest less solid food, although, owing to their high wages, the
food of the glassworkers is in itself good.
In effect, the hygienic conditions under which glassworkers are employed appear
to be much less favorable than those of many other classes of workers. Heart and
kidney complaints, catarrh of the stomach and the intestines and rheumatism are
very frequently found, in particular in the plate-glass industry; cases of tuberculosis
and diseases of the respiratory organs are also very general.
Each factory must, however, be judged on its own merits, according to its nature
and operating conditions. The effect of the unhygienic conditions found in many
glass factories is naturally accentuated by the strain of the work, by the hours of
labor which are still too long in many cases, and by the irregularity of the night’s
rest * * *
Catarrh of the stomach and the intestines are among the most frequest diseases.
They are no doubt caused by the drinking of cold beverages, which is often excessive




1 See footnote to p. 33.

PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

35

and which the workmen consider to be absolutely necessary. Alcohol in the form of
beer and spirits is also taken to an excessive extent in many factories, and leads to
heart and kidney complaints and other diseases. The excessive drinking of spirits
is particularly to be deplored in the artificial-pearl factories in the Fichtel Mountains,
in one of which several cases of delirium tremens were recorded last year.1

In what does the night work of young persons consist ?
Three classes of workers are generally employed in bottle-glass
factories, namely: Glass blowers who blow the glass in the molds,
gatherers, and carriers. While the glass blowers are always adults,
some of the gatherers and most of the carriers are young persons. The
chief duty of the carrier consists in lifting with the aid of a proper
tool the completed bottle while it is still hot and in carrying it to the
annealing oven, where it may slowly cool, because glass that has been
cooled too quickly is exceedingly brittle and often cracks without
any preceptible cause.
After the boy has worked as a carrier for from one to three years,
he becomes a gatherer. This work is to gather up at the end of the
blowpipe sufficient liquid glass to make a bottle, and to blow it into
a ball, which he passes to the blower who finishes the blowing. Usu­
ally he must also assist in forming the neck of the bottle and the lip
at the top of it.
The number of young persons employed in bottle-glass factories
is generally from 15 to 20 per cent of the total number of workmen
employed.
The number of young persons employed in sheet-glass factories is
considerably smaller than that employed in bottle-glass factories,
because muscular strength rather than agility is required of the
gatherers and carriers.
In the process of blowing sheet glass the young person (gatherer)
takes up from the tank a gathering of liquid glass on the pipe, and
blows it up to a certain measure; in doing this he reheats the mass of
glass from time to time, and several other gatherings of liquid glass
are taken up on top of the first gathering. To give to the gathering
a specified, suitable form it is turned in a wet wooden trough called
a marver. The blower then, without using any molds, forms the
metal into a cylindrical mass simply by his manual dexterity, by
swinging and rotating the pipe. This cylinder is now closed at the
top (at which it is held fast to the pipe) and at the end by a rounded
dome; the rounded end is later opened.
When large glass cylinders are to be made, a second helper, called
the snapper (always over 16 years old), is placed between the gatherer
and the blower to continue the work of the former.
1 Jahresberichte der Gewerbeaufsichtsbeamten und Bergbehorden, 1906, Band II,
Abteilung 2, p. 468-470. Berlin, 1907.




36

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

As a great expenditure of physical energy is required of the kiln
man employed at the annealing oven, an 8-hour shift has been estab­
lished almost everywhere, and in one Austrian glass factory a period
of 24 hours rest is allowed after each shift.
The number of young persons employed in sheet-glass factories is
generally from 6 to 7 per cent of the total number of workmen
employed. The work of young persons at the flattening ovens is not
absolutely necessary, because any unskilled workman can learn the
work without any difficulty and because the fires can be let out at
night if there is a sufficient number of them.
In the case of tank furnaces an 8-hour shift is especially desirable,
because the excessively long shifts of 18 hours on alternate Sundays
could be replaced by shifts of 12 hours.1
2.
The reports of inquiries undertaken by the German inspectors
throw considerable light on the second question, i. e., as to whether
night work is necessary in order that the young persons may have a
proper training. These reports are particularly valuable because the
inquiries were undertaken by inspectors coming from different States
and the subject was approached from an entirely unprejudiced
standpoint. The following is the account given by the inspector of
Wtirttemberg:
There is no actual system of apprenticeship for a fixed term in the glass industry.
Intelligent gatherers who show that they have special ability for blowing may become
snapping-up boys after 2 years, while others are not promoted for 5 or 6 years and
sometimes never. The case of the snapping-up boys is similar, for they, according
to their ability, become foremen glass blowers in from 3 to 7 years.2

The inspector of Hildesheim gives the following report:
In one glass factory, employing 35 young persons, they are employed in transport­
ing the white and green hollowware to the annealing ovens and are thus only engaged
in mechanical work. They generally leave after two or three years, as soon as they
are able to find a better-paid job. The management of the factory does not undertake
to train such young persons, and vacancies are filled by glass workers coming from
other districts. The night work of the young persons has in this instance nothing to
do with their training, but they are so employed in order that the blown bottles may
be transported by cheap labor. In the other factory, employing 108 persons, the 6
young persons employed in day and night shifts go through a systematic four-year
training as glass blowers. In the first year they learn simple operations by assisting
in their work the glass blowers who have already finished or very nearly finished their
training. The extent to which they are employed in more difficult operations in the
second year depends on their industry and skill and upon the inclination and views
of the foreman glass blower, and they gradually become conversant with the whole
art of glass blowing. It is considered that a skillful workman may be able to become
a glass blower after three years’ work at the furnace.
1 K. Hauck, Die Nachtarb'eit der Jugendlichen in der osterreichischen Industrie,
pp. 37-48. Wien, 1907.
2Jahresberichte der Gewerbeaufsichtsbeamten und Bergbehorden, 1909, Band IV,
p. 35. Berlin, 1910.




p r o h ib itio n

o f n ig h t w o rk

o f young p erson s

.

37

Approximately one-half of the 641 workmen employed in the district have learned
glass blowing in this manner. Although it appears to be desirable for young persons
to commence work at the furnaces as soon as possible and although, as a rule, it is
not often possible to employ them in other work and only in day shifts, e. g., in cut­
ting and packing, the conditions in this district do not make the night work of young
persons indispensable in order to train a sufficient supply of glass blowers. For
apart from the factories where work at the furnaces is only done during the day and
melting is done at night, and where it is therefore unnecessary for the young persons
to work at night in order to learn their trade, those employed at tank furnaces in one
sheet-glass factory, where the work is done in four shifts, do not commence their
training at the furnaces as glass blowers until they are over 16. These factories have
not had any difficulty in getting skilled workmen. I consider it to be very doubtful
whether the increased cost of production which may be caused by the abolition of
night work in a few factories can be weighed against the injurious effect of the night
work on the young workers.
The overstrain to which young persons working in 12-hour shifts may be exposed
can be prevented by reducing the shifts to 8 hours, i. e., by introducing a three-shift
system. There would be no technical objection to the introduction of the threeshift system in one of the factories in this district which still employs young persons
in regular day and night shifts. There is, however, no doubt that in case 8-hour
shifts should be adopted the young persons employed would leave the work on account
of the resulting reduction in wages. In another factory it is impossible to introduce
the three-shift system because the tank is not large enough to furnish sufficient liquid
glass and the annealing ovens can only hold the present lower output of glass.1

The inspector of Cologne, who doubts the possibility of prohibiting
night work, writes as follows:
There is no system of apprenticeship, properly so-called, in the glass industry,
and it has therefore been impossible to find a glass worker who was apprenticed under
contract. The home circumstances of young persons employed in glass works make
it generally necessary that they should earn the largest possible amount as soon as they
begin work. For the same reason the majority of them leave the work as soon as they
find better-paid employment elsewhere. In hollow-glass factories where goods of a
high quality are made, young persons are at first employed in simple unskilled work.
Those of them who remain after three or four years are employed according to their
ability in work of a more or less skilled nature (gathering and first blowing and press­
ing), and they are not considered to be skilled glass blowers until they have been so
employed for seven or eight years.
In hollow-glass factories where only common goods are made, a young workman is
considered to be fully trained after three or four years. About 60 per cent of the young
persons work either as assistants or as trained glass blowers, and may therefore be con­
sidered to be skilled workmen.2

The above reports show that it is impossible to speak of an appren­
ticeship system, except in the case of a very small proportion of the
young persons. The inspector of Diisseldorf observes that the
demand for skilled glass blowers in the bottle-glass industry will
continue to diminish with the general introduction of blowing
machines. He thinks, however, that the present conditions will, to
a certain extent, be maintained in the bottle-glass industry for the
1Jahresberichte der Gewerbeaufsichtsbeamten und Bergbehorden, 1909, Band I,
p. 253-255.
Berlin, 1910.
2 Idem, p. 44S.




38

BULLETIN OP THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

manufacture of special shapes of which a large number is not
required. But so long as glass workers require training the prohibi­
tion of night work would lead to such radical alterations, in view of
the large number of young persons employed and the economic
difficulties under which the glass industry labors in this district,
that it is possible that the factories affected would have to be closed
down.1
The following are the conclusions which may be drawn from the
information at our disposal. The glass industry is on the verge of a
technical revolution, of which the result will be that highly trained
workmen will no longer be required. The prohibition of the night
work of young persons will make it possible for the workmen to
adapt themselves to the new conditions, after a suitable period of
transition, and will stimulate technical improvements in the glass
industry.
3.
A third question arises, namely, as to whether, in view of the
hygienic conditions in glass factories, the night work of young per­
sons is especially undesirable, and in particular whether the morality
of the young persons is injuriously affected by the night work.
The following report of an industrial inspector shows that night
work may cause serious physical and moral defects:
The local school inspector of a locality where the glass industry is carried on reports
that the young persons employed in glass factories drink spirits to an alarming extent.
He has noticed that young persons employed on night shifts on Saturday not infre­
quently arrive at a continuation school, which commences at 7 a. m., in a state of in­
toxication. The proper district court has taken up the question from the point of
view of enforcing the rules for the prevention of accidents of the Glass Workers Trade
Association which prohibits the taking of spirits into the work places.2

The most detailed investigation of the relation between night work
and juvenile delinquency has been published by the Bureau of Labor
of the United States. Among 3,464 young delinquents 18 per cent
(629) only had been employed during the night; but this ratio is
increased to 30.3 per cent in the glass industry, to 26 per cent in
bakeries, and to 22.5 per cent in the metal trades.3 Apart from
amusement resorts, hotel work, and street trades these are the highest
figures. From particular inquiry it results that of 83 boy delinquents
two boys of 13 to 14 years of age, employed in glass factories, were
working 11 hours during the night and five boys between 14 and 15
years of age, employed in steel works, had been working 12 hours
during the night. “ On the whole, this subject of long hours gives
rather depressing results. It is evident that where the laws are not
1Jahresberichte der Gewerbeaufsichtsbeamten und Bergbehorden, 1909, Band I,
p. 415. Berlin, 1910.
2 Idem, 1908, Band II, sec. 2, p. 113. Berlin, 1909.
3 Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage-Earners in the United States, Vol.
VIII, Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment, p. 115, S. Doc. No.
645, 61st Cong., 2d sess. Washington, 1911.



PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

39

directly violated they are evaded to an unfortunate extent. The
employer practically nullifies the laws which conflict with his own
interest; is it surprising that the child he employs attempts a
cruder and less indirect form of lawlessness?” 1 The principal offenses
of young glass workers are larceny and malicious mischief. “ The
night shift of workers in a glass factory customarily finish their
labors at about 3 in the morning. If the boys working on this shift
live near at hand, they go home; but if, as is often the case, their
homes are a long walk away, they sometimes hang about the neigh­
borhood of the factory until daylight. This means several hours of
more than dubious companionship at a time when ordinary restraints
are removed, and what is worst in human nature is apt to come to
the surface.” 2
The gravity of this situation is accentuated by the fact that in some
States even the exceptions authorized for the glass industry are con­
travened and children are unlawfully employed. The privileges
accorded to this industry have only led to an increasing number of
violations of law.
With regard to Belgium, the industrial inspector of the district
of Houdeng-Goegnies, in his report for 1907 (p. 290), writes as follows:
It is only in one industry, the glass industry, that children under the legal age are
employed. The condition of affairs, particularly in the window-glass industry, and
even in the crystal glass industry, to which we have called attention every year,
remains unchanged and as deplorable as ever.

The same inspector, writing in 1908, says:
It becomes monotonous to repeat in each report the remarks made by us on this
serious question, for which no solution has been found (p. 329).

The inspector of the district of Liege declared, in 1907 (p. 354),
that—
The provisions of the regulations are observed in all establishments in respect of
which exceptions have been allowed, except with regard to night work and to the age
at which young persons may be employed in the crystal-glass industry. The situation
does not improve on account of the increasing difficulty of getting young workers.

The inspector again calls attention to this situation in 1908 (p. 398),
1910 (p. 348), and in the report for the district of Charleroi in 1910
(p. 283). On the other hand, in the district of Namur, in the plateglass factory of Jambes (p. 338)—
night work has been abolished (in 1907) mainly in order to make it easier to get young
workers. It was thought that the employer would be able to employ children from 12
years of age and that the parents would not be less willing to send their children into
the glass industry than to any other industry where work is only done by day.
1Jahresberichte der Gewerbeaufsichtsbeamten und Bergbehorden, p. 123.
2 Report on Condition of Woman and Child Wage-Earners in the United States, Vol.
VIII, Juvenile Delinquency and its Relation to Employment, p. 72, S. Doc. No.
645, 61st Cong., 2d sess. Washington, 1911.




40

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

The children have lodgings, heat, light, and food, and receive medical
treatment. They receive 10 francs ($1.93) per month and a weekly
bonus of 2 francs (39 cents). The work of children between 12 and
15 years of age consists in passing tools, putting the glasses in the
annealing ovens, stoking, etc.1 A glass manufacturer in Mons con­
siders that less and worse work is done at night than during the day
and intends to abolish night work altogether.2
This experiment resulted, in 1909, in the following conclusions:
It is evident that the abolition of night work presupposes in the first place that one
condition should be fulfilled, namely, that sufficient room can be disposed of in the
furnace department to allow a simultaneous working of two shifts. It is also necessary
to increase the number of tools which these shifts are to handle (pipes, molds, benches,
etc.) and to double the annealing ovens. The fire has also to be maintained during
the night in the annealing ovens and fresh heating to be provided. To maintain also
the same production of every furnace the number of pots for smelting the glass must
be increased; the same quantity of molten and flint glass having to be taken from them
during 12 hours instead of 24 hours. In consequence the expenses for fuel are larger.
All these circumstances lead to an increase of cost price. Still the exclusive work
during the day affords a series of advantages. The supervisory staff and the cost of
light may be reduced, the production is conducted in a more careful fashion, and less
losses sustained from breakages.
Still other advantages result from the abolition of night work.
The production per worker is greater and the earnings are increased, being piece­
work; disputes concerning spoiled work or concerning the amount of production are
less frequent because on one and the same day the production counted in the furnaces
can be controlled in the cooling room. Accidents seem to be less numerous. It is
easier to recruit young workers, from two motives: Parents are more willing to send
children into an occupation in which they are not bound to work at night. During
the day children may also be employed at 12 years of age instead of 14 years, as is
required by law for night work. The adult worker is more satisfied and declares that
his cost of living is diminished if he is only working during the day, being not obliged
to take a meal during the night; furthermore, he is bound to give less time to sleep if
he must sleep during the day. These are the results of a six months’ experiment.
This period is not yet very extensive, but the manufacturers interested have told us
that it seemed to be sufficient to confirm that they do not wish to return to the old
manner of organization.3

The report of 1910 states that after a further experimental period
of one year the manufacturers have declared that they were satisfied
with the abolition of night work, and that henceforward they would
prefer the operation exclusively during the day.4
The tendency of manufacturers to employ boys who receive no
training, and are turned off later on, has resulted in a scarcity of
boys willing to enter this unremunerative industry.
1 Belgium Office du Travail, Rapports Annuals de r Inspection du Travail, 1908,
p. 371. Brussels, 1909.
2 Idem, p. 349.
3 Idem, 1909, pp. 318, 319. Brussels, 1910.
4 Idem, pp. 302, 303. 1910.




PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

41

As early as 1893 a witness before the British Royal Commission
on Labor declared that “ many workmen would prefer to bring their
children up to any trade rather than that of a glass worker.” 1
The same phenomenon is to be observed in France and Germany.
Mr. Fagnot declared before the Special Commission of the Interna­
tional Association at Basel in 1908, that the glassworkers themselves
objected to their children entering the glass industry. The French
section believed that the prohibition of the night work of children
would be rendered possible—

(a)

B y s u b s t it u t in g m a c h in e r y fo r c h ild la b o r ;

(& ) B y s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e l a b o r o f o l d e r p e r s o n s f o r t h a t o f c h i l d r e n .
B u t th e s e c tio n

t h o u g h t t h a t fo r th e m o m e n t e x c e p tio n

sh o u ld

be

a llo w e d in fa v o r o f t h e g a th e r e r s , a n d t h a t s u ffic ie n tly lo n g p e r io d s
o f tr a n s itio n
num ber

s h o u ld

be

o f g a th e rers

a llo w e d , s u b je c t t o

s h o u ld

be

reduced

th e

to

th e

c o n d itio n

th a t th e

m in im u m

num ber

r e q u ir e d fo r t r a in in g a n d t h a t a th r e e - s h ift s y s t e m s h o u ld b e a d o p te d .
T h e G e r m a n d e le g a t e , D r . P ie p e r , d e c la r e d t h a t —

in Germany there is a strong feeling against night work, even in the casa of adult
workmen. The only difficulties are in the bottle and sheet glas3 industries because
one-fourth of the workers are young persons. The German section demands that
where night work is performed at the furnaces (by gatherers) young persons must be
over 16 yeara of age; that they shall only be employed for six night shifts every third
week, or on every fourth night, and only to the extent required to train sufficient
workers to satisfy the needs of the industry.

Mr. Fagnot, in his “ Report on the Night Work of Children in
Factories with Continuous Fires” (1908), gave interesting details
respecting the recent attempts that have been made in the French
glass industry to suppress the night work of children. The means
adopted were as follows:
(а) An interruption of work for 8 hours out of the 24, as is already
done for 16 hours on Sunday in the glass factories of the Rhone and
Loire districts;
(б) The use of mechanical carriers (Chappuy and Wagret systems,
etc.), which make 35 out of every 50 carriers unnecessary;
(c) The introduction of the automatic bottle machine (Owen’s
patents).
In

th e

s o lv e d ,

p la te - g la s s

th a n k s

m a c h in e s ).

The

to

in d u s tr y

m e c h a n ic a l

o n ly

th e

p r o b le m

appears

in v e n tio n s

d iffic u lty ,

w h ic h

is

to

(F o u r c a u lt
s t ill fe lt

as

have
and

been

G obbes

w e ll in

th e

b o t t le a s in t h e w in d o w g la s s in d u s tr y , is w it h r e g a r d t o t h e g a th e r e r s
w h o t a k e u p t h e liq u id g la s s fr o m t h e fu r n a c e s .
te c h n ic a l

p rogress

it

seem s

n ecessa ry

th a t

U n t il th e r e is fu r th e r
young

p erson s

s h o u ld

te m p o r a r ily b e a llo w e d t o w o r k a t n ig h t a s g a th e r e r s , n o t b e g in n in g ,
h o w e v e r , w it h t h e le g a l a g e o f a d m is s io n , b u t w it h t h e

16th y e a r . 2

1 Royal Commission on Labor, Minutes of Evidence, Vol. III. (C 6894, IX.), 1893, p.
381, q. 30,020.
3 F. Fagnot, Rapport sur le travail de nuit des enfants dans les usines k feu continu*
Paris, 1908.



42

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

2. NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS IN LARGE-SCALE IRON AND STEEL
W O RK S.
C e r ta in s t a g e s in t h e s m e lt in g , c a s tin g , r o llin g , a n d o t h e r w o r k in g - lip
p r o c e s s e s o f ir o n r e q u ir e o p e r a t io n d u r in g d a y a n d n ig h t .
th e

f o llo w in g

e s ta b lis h m e n ts : B la s t- fu r n a c e

fo u n d r ie s , s t e e l w o r k s ,
ir o n

and

p u d d lin g

s te e l), h a m m er,

r o llin g m ills .

and

(fo r t h e

w ork s,

m a n u fa c tu r e

fo r g in g w o r k s, s c y th e

T h ese are

ty a st- fu r n a c e
of w rought

f a c to r ie s ,

and

W e m u s t, h o w e v e r , d iffe r e n tia te b e tw e e n t h e s e e s ta b ­

lis h m e n ts , b o th w it h r e g a r d t o t h e im p o r ta n c e o f t h e w o r k a n d t h e
n u m b e r o f y o u n g p e r s o n s e m p lo y e d .
O f e s ta b lis h m e n ts in t h e s a m e b r a n c h o f t h e ir o n a n d s t e e l in d u s tr y ,
t h o s e w it h t h e m o s t u p - to - d a te t e c h n ic a l im p r o v e m e n t s a r e a b le t o
a v o id e m p lo y in g y o u n g p e r s o n s fa r m o r e e a s ily t h a n a r e le s s a d v a n c e d
e s ta b lis h m e n ts .
1 . P a r t ic u la r ly m in u t e in q u ir ie s r e s p e c t in g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e w o r k
of young

p erson s

A u s tr ia .

T h ese

e m p lo y e d
in q u ir ie s

at

b la s t

sh ow ed

fu r n a c e s h a v e
th a t

been

a p p r o x im a te ly

m a d e in
5

young

p e r s o n s a re e m p lo y e d a t e a c h b la s t fu r n a c e (e s p e c ia lly in t h e m a n u ­
fa c tu r e o f p ig ir o n ), a n d t h a t w h e r e c o k e o v e n s a re a tta c h e d to th e
b la s t f u r n a c e d o u b le t h a t n u m b e r a r e e m p lo y e d

(a s d o o r g rea sers,

c o a l w a s h e r s , tr u c k w h e e le r s , e t c .), h a lf o f w h o m

a lte r n a te in s h ifts

o f 1 2 h o u rs.
I t w o u ld b e r a s h t o
s h o u ld

b e c o n s id e r e d

a tte m p t to
to

be

p ro v e th a t th e se y o u n g

a p p r e n tic e s ,

and

p erson s

t h a t if o ld e r w o r k e r s

w e r e t o b e e m p lo y e d in w o r k o f t h is k in d t h e n u m b e r o f a p p r e n tic e s
to

o th e r b ra n ch es o f th e

in d u s t r y

w o u ld

d im in is h .

On

th e

o th e r

h a n d t h e a g ilit y a n d d e x t e r it y w h ic h is p e c u lia r t o y o u n g p e o p le o n ly
p la y s a v e r y m in o r p a r t in t h e s e o p e r a tio n s , a n d p a r t ic u la r ly r o b u s t
y o u t h s a r e r e q u ir e d .

W e n e e d n o t lo o k fa r th e r t h a n t o t h e d iffe r e n c e

in t h e s a la r ie s o f a d u lts a n d y o u n g p e r s o n s fo r t h e c a u s e o f t h is s t a t e
o f a ffa ir s .1
2 . I n s t e e l w o r k s u s in g t h e B e s s e m e r a n d o p e n h e a r th s y s t e m s a n d
in c r u c ib le s t e e l w o r k s , t h e n u m b e r o f y o u n g p e r s o n s a c t u a lly e m p lo y e d
is v e r y sm a ll.
th a t th e y

I n F r a n c e s e v e r a l m a n u fa c tu r e r s , w h o h a v e d e c la r e d

ca n n o t sto p

e m p lo y in g y o u n g p e r s o n s in

o th e r d ep a r t­

m e n ts , a d m it t h a t i t is q u ite p o s s ib le t o s u p p r e s s t h e e m p lo y m e n t o f
y o u n g p e r s o n s in o p e r a t io n s o f t h is k in d .
in

th e se

o p e r a tio n s is in t h e fir s t p la c e d e s ir a b le fo r h y g ie n ic r e a s o n s .

The

s u p p r e s s io n

of

th e

e m p lo y m e n t

of

young

p erson s

The

f o llo w in g a r e t h e v ie w s o f a n e x p e r t:

Workmen employed in rolling mills, in the Bessemer process, and at puddling
furnaces, Martin furnaces, gas producers, and blast furnaces are exposed to the direct
action of heat. To work in a temperature of 40° C. [104° F.] is a martyrdom. Let us




XK. Hauck, op. cit., p. 33.

PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

43

take as an example the work at a Siemens-Martin (open hearth) furnace. The charging
is still performed almost entirely by the workmen, who open a door of the furnace and
insert the charge. These workmen suffer terribly from the heat, which radiates from
the opened door of the furnace, which latter is often heated above 1500° C. [2732° F.].
They are not able to stand this heat for many years and they choose another occupation
if they do not die first. They are completely worn out after 10 years of the work.
The enormous heat which radiates when the furnace is charged makes it absolutely
necessary for the workmen to be only very lightly clad. A fireman may be identified
by his blue flannel blouse; the perspiration, which runs like water down his body,
often washes out the color in places. Streaks of perspiration appear on his clothing.
Both the hair and skin of his face and arms are scorched. The introduction of the
mechanical charging of furnaces is consequently an enormous step in advance, both
from the technical and the social point of view. This change is of course advantageous
to the production, because when a mechanical charging system is used the furnace
and the processes carried on in the furnace do not suffer from currents of cold air
which enter through the open door. At least two hours spent in charging are saved,
a number of workmen can be dispensed with, and the charge is also larger. Mechanical
charging is generally performed by means of charging cranes operated by electricity.1

Another expert says:
The chief sufferers, especially in summer, are the workmen employed at basic
Bessemer furnaces, at the converters, ladles, molds, and casting pits, who are exposed
to the excessive heat radiating from the ingots, ladles, and converters. They have
also to do very exhausting work with heavy iron tools. Even the strongest people
are not able to do work of this sort permanently. A workman who is capable of
working for five consecutive days in summer must have a very unusually robust
constitution. Workmen may be seen fainting from exhaustion almost every day
during the summer. They are in addition exposed to the effects of poisonous gases,
and of the fumes of phosphorus and sulphur, which escape from the converters during
the refining of the charge.
No less exhausting is the work at the large rolling mills, where the temperature is
equally excessive and the workmen are obliged to inhale dust mixed with oil vapors
which arise from the greasing of the rolls in the heat.2

In the Rhenish Westphalian districts the number of accidents in
establishments of this kind increased from 13.6 and 14.2 (1902-3) to
14.6 and 16 (1905-6) per thousand workmen, and the figures for
hammer works and rolling mills are not much more satisfactory.
In these establishments also the employment of young persons at
night is given up in proportion as technical improvements have been
introduced. In the district of Amsberg “ the large mixed works
gave up employing young persons at night a long time ago.” 3 Only
60.3 per cent of the works still employ young persons at night, and
they are chiefly the small and medium sized works.
We must now consider whether the training of young persons
would suffer seriously by the abolition of night work. The answers
1 O. Stillich und H. Steudel, Eisenhutte. Leipzig, 1907, p. 37-38.
2 Franz Wieber: Der Arbeiterschutz in der gesundheitsschadlichen und schweren
industrie. Duisburg, 1909, p. 35.
3Jahresberichte der Gewerbeaufsichtsbeamten und Bergbehorden, 1909, Band I,
p. 332. Berlin, 1910.




44

BULLETIN OF THE BUBEAU OF LABOB STATISTICS.

to this question obtained as a result of inquiries made by the German
industrial inspectors leave no room for doubt.
The inspector for the district of Diisseldorf says:
It is indisputable that all the operations in which young persons are still employed
at night in rolling mills, properly so called, could be done either by adults or by
machinery without any injury to the industry.1

The inspector of the district of Cologne gives the following detailed
description of the work done by young persons:
Young persons are employed in day and night shifts in forge works as hammer boys.
They are sometimes also employed at the furnaces for heating small pieces of forged
iron and in transporting them to the forge. Young persons are employed at night as
hookers in finishing rolling mills. In such case they have to seize the rolled pieces by
means of a fork (fork men) and to stretch them on the ground in such a way as to prevent
them from curling up and thickening. For this work a considerable amount of agility
is required, the extent of which depends on the speed at which the rolls work. For
this reason manufacturers prefer to employ young persons instead of adults at this
work. Young persons are not employed at all in roughing mills, because there is no
work suitable to their physical powers. Even the operations which are relatively
easy, such as working hydraulic hoisting machinery, requires an amount of care
which can not be expected of young persons. Young persons are not employed in
wire-rolling mills except in fixing the wire to the cylinders of the winches and in
cutting the wire. Since the introduction of mechanical winches it has become
unnecessary to employ young persons in wire-rolling mills.
Young persons employed in rolling mills and forge works are not as a rule required
to go through an apprenticeship. It is only in the repairing and turning workshops
attached to rolling mills that an apprenticeship of three to four years is required.
Consequently hardly any rollers and forgemen have gone through an apprenticeship,
though the contrary is the case with regard to approximately 80 per cent of the work­
men employed in the repairing workshops. The introduction of a system of apprentice­
ship giving a definite training is not compatible with the conditions of work in rolling
mills and forge works. The nature of the work in both kinds of establishments pre­
cludes young persons from doing the greater part of the work, and they are employed
in certain kinds of operations only which can not be considered to constitute a thorough
apprenticeship. In these establishments young persons are supposed to get their
training by seeing how other operations are performed, i. e., to learn by observation.
In forge works a young person sees how different kinds of iron and steel are affected
by heating and forging, and in rolling mills he can watch the work of the manipulator,
the rollers, and the rougher. He has the opportunity of perfecting his industrial
training to a greater or lesser extent according as he has good physical and mental
ability.
There can be no doubt that the regular night work of young persons in establish­
ments with continuous fire is undesirable from the point of view of the protection of
workers. It is therefore necessary to consider whether it is possible to abolish the
night work of young persons without prejudicing the interests of the employers or the
workmen to too great an extent.
The arguments brought by manufacturers against the total abolition of the night
work of young persons are, firstly, the increased cost of production and, secondly, that
the supply of trained workmen would decrease. In answer to the first argument we
may quote the case of an establishment in this district where, under the mistaken
impression that such employment is illegal, the employment of young persons was
1Jahresberichte der Gewerbeaufsichtsbeamten und Bergbehorden, Band I, p. 413.
Berlin, 1910.



45

PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

discontinued and no appreciable loss was incurred. In order to get rid of the super­
vision previously exercised certain manufacturers in a district mainly occupied with
the metal industry have given up employing young persons without taking into
consideration that thereby a considerable number of young persons will have lost a
means of livelihood. The result of the prohibition of night work would doubtless be
that young persons would not be employed in the operations under consideration.
The economic effect of this change would not be serious, because the young persons
would be replaced by workmen who have not reached the age at which they could
expect to be paid the wages of adult workmen. The objection that the result of the
exclusion of young persons would be a scarcity of workmen is without foundation
because the number employed is very small. It must, however, be taken into con­
sideration in the interests of the young persons themselves, from whom all opportunity
of being trained and commencing work as soon as they possess the necessary physical
powers should not be taken. We, therefore, recommend that young persons should
be allowed to work at night, subject to the condition that the shifts must not exceed
8 hours and must be followed by a period of rest of 16 hours. This regulation can be
easily adopted without prejudicing the operation of the establishments.
It may be objected from the point of view of the employer that this regulation would
look like a sort of official approval of the movement in favor of the introduction of
8-hour shifts for all workers employed in establishments with continuous fire. If
this is a valid objection from the point of view of social politics, and the 8-hour shift
for young persons is considered to be undesirable, there is no reason why manufac­
turers should not be authorized to employ the young persons for two additional hours
in other work and in particular in work which would contribute towards their indus­
trial training. There also arises the question of wages. If the iron industry, which
is in such a flourishing condition, is really anxious to train efficient apprentices, it
is in a position to bear also this additional charge in spite of the heavy charges imposed
in the interests of social welfare.1

For these reasons the abolition of the night work of young persons
in rolling mills and forge works is to be recommended, even in the
interests of the development of those establishments. The fact that
in the iron and steel industry in the United States barely 2,000
young persons are employed as against a quarter of a million adults
reinforces our argument in a most striking manner.
F u r th e r , i t is o n ly in c e r t a in m e d iu m - s iz e d e s ta b lis h m e n ts w it h a
t r a d itio n a l o p e r a tin g

sy stem

th a t

su ch

im p o r ta n c e

is

a tta c h e d

to

t h e e m p lo y m e n t o f y o u n g p e r so n s.

T h e fo llo w in g r e p o r t h a s b e e n

r e c e iv e d

of you ng

r e g a r d in g

th e

e m p lo y m e n t

p e r s o n s in

A u s tr ia n

s c y th e - b la d e fa c to r ie s :

The number of boys under 16 employed in scythe-blade factories is 4 to 6 per cent
of the total number of workmen; about two-thirds of this number are employed as
polishers during the day only, so that out of every 100 workmen there are three or four
boys who have temporarily to work for a part of the night. These boys either assist
the foigemen who beat the scythes under the hammer or the workmen who have to
iorge the backs of the scythes. They have to heat the pieces of metal, hand them
to the workmen, and do other accessory work. A few of these lads are employed at
the small hammers in hammering out small irregularities in the cold scythes. This
work is prohibited according to the literal meaning of the code. At the present time
it seems hardly possible to affect the prohibition of the night work of children, because
1Jahresberichte der Gewerbeaufsichtsbeamten und Bergbehorden. Band I, pp.
445-447. Berlin, 1910.



46

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

the work oi a heater is considered to be one of those preparatory operations which a
young workman must learn and perform for a considerable time before he can become
a forgeman. It might be suggested that the age at which boys may be employed as
heaters who are obliged to work temporarily at night should be higher than 14. But
the result of such a measure would be that it would soon be impossible to get any
boys for this work. Where other industries besides the scythe industry are estab­
lished, boys leaving school at 14 already prefer to enter those other more agreeable
and more remunerative industries, so that even now the scythe factories in these
ocalities complain of a scarcity oi heaters. A young man who has once worked in a
spinning or weaving mill, etc., will never be willing to enter a scythe factory, because
the greater freedom, higher wages, the less exhaustive work, and the knowledge that
he will be free every day at a certain hour, effectually keep him away from the scythe
factories. It is, moreover, impossible to ask parents to let a boy remain at home with
nothing to do till he is 15 or 16, because he will become idle and incapable of work
and will become a burden to his parents which they will be unable and unwilling to
bear.
Recently some old scythe works have been reorganized into modem factories,
which work either by day only or with two regular shifts.1

The exceptions in force with regard to night work differ very
considerably. The most important States of the American Union
prohibit night work; France and Belgium authorize 10 to 10J hour
shifts, and other States 12-hour night shifts. These variations are
not due to technical considerations.
Germany.—The orders of May 27, 1902, July 6, 1906, and
December 19, 1908, regulate the admission of workers to various
industries, the hours of labor and rest periods, and the order of
February 5, 1895, regulates the Sunday rest in metal smelters, iron
and steel works, blast furnaces, puddling works, rolling mills, hammer
works, and foundries. The following are the chief provisions:
1. The employment of children under 14 years of age is prohibited.
Young persons employed in work immediately connected with the
furnaces, and who are in possession of a certificate signed by an
officially approved physician appointed for the purpose, may be
employed all night.
2. The period of employment is 12 hours per day including rest
periods, 10 hours not including rest periods, and 60 hours per week.
3. Duration of rest periods:
(a) In the case of 8-12 hour shifts, 2 hours, of which 1 hour
must be given at midday or midnight, between the
end of the fifth and the commencement of the ninth
hour.
(jb) In the case of 8-hour shifts, the principal rest period
must be at least one-half hour.
4. The minimum uninterrupted period of rest is 12 hours (adults
8 hours);




1 K. Hauck, op. cit., p. 22-24.

PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

47

5. The number of weekly shifts in establishments with a two-shift
system is not more than 6 night shifts (from 8.30 p. m. to 5.30 a. m .);
6. S u n d a y R e s t .—Prohibition of work from 6 a. m. to 6 p. m.
on Sunday. Work before and after this period is allowed only if a
24-hour rest before or after the shift is granted.
Of great value is the provision (order of Dec. 19, 1908, art. 2)
requiring a register containing the names of the workmen who are
employed for longer than the period of employment specified in the
shop rules to be kept and sent in every month to the local police
authority.
Austria.—Night work is regulated by the orders of the minister
of commerce of May 27, 1885, R. G. Bl. No. 82, 84, and 86, and the
order of the minister of public works of July 22, 1908, R. G. Bl.
No. 180.
1. Night work is authorized in iron and steel works in the case of
children between the ages of 14 and 16, employed under a regular
system of alternate shifts (in establishments with blast furnaces and
in coke ovens and in rolling mills), as molders of pig iron, oilers,
bloom boys, helpers, etc.
2. Rest periods are to be granted during the interruptions of work
caused by the nature of operation (their legal duration is not set
forth as in the case of the other exceptions).
3. The employment of young persons under 18 years is prohibited
in lead smelters in certain operations where there is danger of lead
poisoning (the provision applies to day work also).
4. In scythe-blade factories young persons who assist workmen
working at the fires may be employed at night, provided that there
is a proper system of alternating shifts.
Belgium.—Night work is regulated by the Royal decrees of
March 15, 1893, December 26, 1892, and April 15, 1907, and by the
act of July 17, 1905.
A. Blast furnaces, iron} steel, and copper works, rolling mills, zinc and lead foundries,
and other metal foundries, silver and lead roasting furnaces, and the auxiliary works
attached to these establishments.

1. Night work (9 p. m. until 5 a. m.) authorized for children be­
tween 14 and 16, but not for auxiliary work;
2. Length of night shifts, 10J hours;
3. Duration of rest periods, 1^ hours (regulated in the same way
as for day work);
4. The day shift is 10£ hours; rest periods, 1$ hours, and the prin­
cipal rest period at least one-half hour between 11 and 2 o’clock for
furnace men, and of at least 1 hour (at about midday) for workmen
employed in auxiliary work.
(If the shifts are shortened the rest periods are reduced propor­
tionately.)
85605°—Bull. 117—13----- 1



48

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

5. One shift of rest must be granted after every thirteenth shift
of work, or after
days, within 7 days. The half day of rest must
be given until 1 p. m. or has to begin after 1. p. m. The hours of
labor on these days may not exceed 5 hours.
B. Zinc rolling mills.

1. Night work authorized for children between the ages of 14 and
16;
2. Length of night shift, 10 hours;
3. Rest periods of a total of 1^ hours to include an uninterrupted
rest of at least half an hour between 11 p. m. and 2 a. m.;
4. The day shift (or day shift and night shift together) is 10 hours
for young persons (only 5 hours for children between 12 and 14, with
one-half hour rest period);
5. Rest periods of 1£ hours; principal rest period of 1 hour be­
tween 11 and 2 o’clock.
These provisions also apply to—
C. Tin and lead rolling mills.
S u n d a y R e s t .—In establishments with continuous operation the
period of rest may commence at 6 a. m. on Sunday and terminate at
the same hour on Monday.
France,—The provisions of the act of November 2, 1892, article
6, of the decree of July 13, 1893, and July 26, 1895, article 4 C, and
of the act of July 15, 1906, article 3, are the following:
1. Night work authorized for young persons, between the ages of
13 and 18 years, employed in metallurgical works in the following
operations: Assisting in the work of charging, in auxiliary refining,
rolling, forging and wire-drawing work, the preparation of molds for
casting objects, arranging the plates, sheets, pipes, and wires;
2. Night work, 10 hours;
3. Rest periods, 2 hours;
4. Day work, same shifts (10 hours);
5. Weekly rest, in rotation, every second week.
Great Britain.—Article 54 of the Factory and Workshop Act,
1901, for blast furnaces and rolling mills:
1. Night work is authorized for young persons between 14 and 18
years;
2. Night shifts, 12 or 8 hours;
3. Rest periods, 1J hours;
4. The period of employment must be preceded by a period of
rest of 12 hours;
5. Number of night shifts, 7 in 2 weeks at blast furnaces and 6
shifts in other establishments, or 3 shifts of 8 hours each, with an
interval of 16 hours after each shift;




PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

49

6.
Sunday rest is compulsory in the iron industries, in blast fur­
naces only on alternate Sundays.
Sweden.1—For young persons employed at night in blast furnaces,
iron and steel works, and rolling mills the above-mentioned provisions
of October 17, 1900, are in force.
Portugal allows the most extensive exceptions. Articles 8 and 9
of the act of April 14, 1891, and the act of June 24, 1911.
1. The night work of children between 12 and 14 is authorized in
establishments with continuous fire and foundries and is prohibited
in mines;
2. Length of night shift, 10 hours;
3. Rest periods, 1 hour altogether;
4. In cases where the work partly falls during the day and partly
during the night, the night work must not exceed 6 hours, with a
rest period of 1 hour;
5. The 10-hour night shift may be worked on not more than 3
consecutive days, or it may be replaced by a permanent 8-hour night
shift;
6. Maximum number of night shifts, 12 in 14 days by double
shifts; on the day when the shifts are changed the night work must
not be prolonged by more than 3 hours (3J hours in the case of
8-hour shifts);
7. Sunday work is prohibited.
United States o f America— Pennsylvania.—No young persons
may be employed at night until they have completed their 18th
year, at least, in certain specified dangerous operations (laws 1909,
act No. 182).
The number of hours worked at night is limited: (a) To 8 hours
for children from 16 to 18 years of age in Alabama; (b) to 9 hours
for children from 14 to 16 years of age in certain continuous occupa­
tions in Pennsylvania (laws 1909, act No. 182); (c) to 10 hours, with
double shifts (14 to 16 years), in Connecticut.
Eight-hour shifts in certain dangerous occupations, as mining,
smelting and ore reduction works, are prescribed by law without
distinction of age in—
Colorado (Acts 1911, ch. 149).
Idaho (Acts 1909, p. 4).
Montana (Acts 1907, ch. 108).
Missouri (Acts 1905, p. 236).
Nevada (Acts 1903, ch. 10).
Utah (Oomp. Laws 1907, sec. 1337).
California (Acts 1909, ch. 181).
W yoming (Acts 1909, ch. 17).




1 See footnote to p. 33.

50

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

According to the United States census of occupations of 1900,
168,583 children under 16 were in industrial employment (3.2 per
cent of the total number of persons in industrial employment).
In iron and steel works only 1,901 children (0.85 per cent) out of
a total of 222,490 workers were employed. Of those 1,901 children
1,136 (60 per cent) were employed in Pennsylvania. The next
greatest number was not found in the State which had the greatest
output after Pennsylvania, namely Ohio (49 children), but in Illinois
(193) where 8-hour shifts have been introduced by law.1 These facts
show that children under 16 years of age can not be employed for
more than 9 hours at night in those States of the Union which pro­
duce iron and steel and that the employment of young persons is
reduced to a minimum. Between 1880 and 1900 the number fell
from 7,730 to 1,901, while the number of women rose from 45 to
1,07*1, and the number of men from 133,203 to 219,518. The num­
ber of firms fell from 1,005 to 668; the capital increased from 231 to
573 millions and the value of the output from 297 to 804 million
dollars. The restriction of the work of young persons in the United
States appears then to have accompanied technical and economic
concentration. * * *
According to Mr. Fagnot’s report it would not be easy to abolish
night work of young persons in certain French rolling mills, e. g.,
rolling mills where water pipes and gas pipes are manufactured.
Here also the chief objection is the difficulty of getting workmen.
One of the most important establishments situated near the Belgian
frontier employs 100 children. The manager of this establishment,
however, considers the abolition of night work feasible.2
This would be a great step in advance. For, as Abbe Lemire
pointed out in the Chamber of Deputies on January 12, 1910, the
proportion of accidents in 1907 in the French metal industry was
298.5 per 1,000 adult workmen and 344 per 1,000 young persons
under 18. The number of young persons employed in this industry
was 4,968.
3. NIGHT

WORK

OF YOUNG

PERSONS

IN

OTHER

ESTABLISHMENTS

WITH CONTINUOUS OPERATION.

We include under this head establishments which are carried on
without interruption for other than purely technical reasons, and
establishments where some of the operations must be carried on
without interruptions for technical reasons, but which employ
children as laborers only and not in order to teach them the trade.
Children are, in fact, merely cheap laborers in the paper and sugar
1 Twelfth Census of the United States, 1900, Vol. VII, Manufactures, Pt. I, pp.
9, 256.
2 F. Fagnot, op. cit., p. 30.




PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

51

industries and in sawmills. In mines, enamel works, printing
establishments, lace factories, and bakeries it is not necessary for
them to work at night in order to learn their trade. .About 14 per
cent of the children employed in England and Germany in other
than mining undertakings belong to these groups.
From information obtainable from Belgium, but from no other
country, we may conclude that about one-tenth of these children,
i. e., about 1.4 per cent of all children in industrial occupations, are
employed regularly at night. The abolition of the exceptions allowed
iji favor of these industries would then occasion only a very slight
inconvenience to the industries in question. These exceptions are
often recognized to be unnecessary. For instance, in Germany the
night work of children in sugar factories has been abolished, and
the object of the bill of July 12, 1909, enacted in the Netherlands,
was to abolish the exceptions in favor of engraving and newspaper
printing establishments, brick works, silk netting factories, bakeries,
and dairies. The labor law amendment act, which is in force since
January 1, 1912, generally prescribes an 11-hours rest in perfect
harmony with the resolutions of the International Association.
Under these circumstances it will not be necessary to criticize these
exceptions in detail, but it will be sufficient if we give the following
general account of the work performed by young persons at night.
1. Paperfactories.

Austria (Order of May 27, 1885).—No restriction on night work
in continuous establishments, for the paper and pulp manufacture,
for young persons of from 14 to 16 years.
Belgium (Decree of Dec. 26, 1892, as amended by the decree
of March 31, 1903).—The employment of young persons (14 to 16
years) at night work (between 9 p. m. and 5 a. m.) is permitted,
provided their total hours of labor during the day and night shift
do not exceed 10 hours, and are interrupted by three rest periods of
a total duration of 1J hours.
France ( D e c r e e o f J u l y 26, 1895, c f . a b o v e ) . — T e n h o u r n i g h t
s h ift w ith

r e s t p e r io d s o f 2 h o u r s .

a d u lt w o r k m e n

e m p lo y e d

W o r k a u th o r iz e d , a s s is t in g t h e

a t m a c h in e s , c u t t in g , s o r tin g , a r r a n g in g ,

r o llin g , a n d fin is h in g t h e p a p e r .

I t w ill b e s e e n t h a t t h is is w o r k

t h a t c a n b e d o n e e n t ir e ly b y u n tr a in e d

w ork ers.

Great Britain (Cf. above).—As in the iron industry, 12-hour
night shifts with rest periods of 1J hours and followed by a period
of 12 hours rest, or 8-hour night shifts with a half hour rest period,
and followed by an uninterrupted rest of 16 hours.
I n t h e Netherlands c h i l d r e n a r e n o t a l l o w e d t o b e e m p l o y e d a t
n ig h t in t h e la r g e p a p e r f a c to r ie s .
T h e s a m e i s t h e c a s e i n Germany
a n d Switzerland.



52

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

2. Sugar and beet sugarfactories.

Germany, which is the greatest sugar producer, has already
abolished this exception.
Belgium (Decree of December 26, 1892, and ministerial decision
of September 14, 1899, applying to brown-sugar factories).—Night
work authorized for persons between the ages of 14 and 16; maximum
number of hours worked during the day and night, 10J hours, with
rest periods amounting altogether to 1J hours.
France (Cf. decree quoted above).—Persons between the ages of
13 and 18 may work at night in raw-sugar factories and refineries
and in beet-sugar factories, the duration of period of employment,
however, being limited to 10 hours in any period of 24 hours. In
1907 the number of young persons under 18 working in sugar fac­
tories was 271 out of a total of 3,009 persons employed, and the num­
ber of those working in beet-sugar factories was 54. Work which
may be performed at night is washing, weighing, and sorting the
beet roots, manipulating the sirup and water taps, assisting at the
diffusing batteries and at the distilling apparatus, cutting the muslin
for the filters, washing the apparatus, and working up the sugar into
tablets. Here, also, young persons are employed solely as laborers.
Their work, however, requires a certain degree of application.
Great Britain (Cf. p. 93) allows night work of young persons of
more than 16 years of age only in those departments of the sugar
refineries in which the knocking-out and cutting of loaf sugar is
performed.
Austria.—The order cited above authorizes the employment at
night of young persons (between 14 and 16) working at continuous
processes in sugar factories as well as in refineries.
3. Oil mills.

The exception granted in France to sugar factories applies also to
oil mills. The processes at which children may be employed are
filling the sacks, shaking them after they have been pressed, and
carrying empty sacks and wire hurdles. In this case the children are
employed only in the capacity of porters. The majority of oil mills
have ceased to make use of this privilege, which in 1907 affected 128
children.
4. Book and newspaper printing establishments.

Great Britain (Factory and Workshop Act 1901, art. 54).—
Night work authorized for persons between 14 and 18 years of age.
Length of shift, 12 hours including rest periods of altogether 1£ hours
and an uninterrupted period of 12 hours' rest. Not more than six
night shifts may be worked in a fortnight. Employment on the three-




PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

53

shift system (8 hours' work and 16 hours' rest) is allowed. In news­
paper printing offices (Factory and Workshop Act 1901, sec. 56) in
which the printing is done only twice during the week, the night work
of young persons from 16 to 18 years of age is allowed with a maximum
working day of 12 hours in 24 hours. England is the only State
allowing this exception. Inspector Hoare (Norwich) made, in 1899,
the following declaration:
I am still of opinion that in newspaper printing offices boys 16 years of age should
not be permitted to work the same hours as adults. In provincial towns it is the
general consensus of employers that overtime work should be avoided, as there is no
profit in it.1
5. Lacefactories.

Great Britain (Factory and Workshop Act, 1901, art. 37).—
Young persons between the ages of 16 and 18 may be employed in
lace factories operated by motive power between 4 a. m. and 10 p. m.
Nine hours' rest must, however, be allowed during that period.
On page 36 of their Report to the Local Government Board on
Proposed Changes in Hours and Ages of Employment in Textile
Factories (London, 1873) Messrs. J. H. Bridges and T. Holmes say:
The machines for the manufacture of lace are worked exclusively by men. Owing
to the irregularity of the demand and its dependence upon fashion, the ordinary
restriction upon the moving power is modified, and the machines are allowed to run
from 4 in the morning till 12 at night. This is done by two relays of workmen. The
first comes at 4 and works till 9. His place is then taken by another, who works till 1.
The first then resumes his work till 6. The second continues till 12. The payment is
by the piece, and the two who work at the same machine are paid as one man, no
attempt being made to discriminate their share of the work done. No practical
difficulty is experienced in this arrangement.
A few women are employed in reeling cotton for the machines, and a few lads are
engaged in filling the bobbins with thread, in replacing the empty bobbins by full
ones, and in fitting them into their “ carriages. ”

The inspector of factories, Mr. Rogers, of Derby, says in the report
of 1900 (p. 247):2
There are comparatively few young persons working (nights in the lace industry)
under the special exceptions in Derbyshire. The number is about 50. (Mr. Price
enumerated in his memorandum on lace dressing, 1907, p. 269, about 100 male young
persons.) The threading is done by boys, and as the time of a machine’s run can
not be exactly computed, it follows that some of this work has to be done at night, or
the machine be stopped till morning in some cases. The necessity for this would
be largely obviated by having duplicate “ carriages, ” but the cost is so high (£130
to £160 [$632.65 to $778.64] per machine) that only very few firms have them.

He proposes to introduce double shifts of 5 hours during the day.
1 Cited by Mrs. H. J. Tennant, Night Work of Young Persons in the United King­
dom, London, 1906, p. 41.
2 Cited by Mrs. H. J. Tennant, op. cit., p. 42.




54

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

6. Enamel-warefactories.

Belgium (Decree of Nov. 29, 1898).—Children between the ages
of 14 and 16 may be employed at night (9 p. m. to 5 a. m.) during one
week in every fortnight at enamel furnaces. Maximum period of
employment (day and night shift), 11 hours; rest periods, 1£ hours;
midday rest, 1 hour.
France (Decree of July 15, 1893).—Young persons between the
ages of 13 and 18 may be employed at night for 10 hours out of 24,
and must be granted rest periods amounting to 2 hours.
Two hundred and one young persons are employed in looking after
the doors of the furnaces (e. g. in unskilled work).
Austria (Ministerial decree of Feb. 12, 1906) has prescribed that in
factories in which the work is done in three 8-hour shifts young
persons of 14 to 16 years of age who are employed at annealing,
enameling, cleaning, carrying, and fetching cast articles and their
sorting out may also be employed during their 8-hour shifts from 8
to 9 p. m.
7. Mines and coke ovens.

Germany (Order of March 24, 1903, respecting the employment
of children in anthracite coal mines in Prussia, Baden, and AlsaceLorraine).—In mines where an 8-hour shift is in force the first
shift for children (between 14 and 16 years of age) may commence
at 5 a. m. and the second shift may terminate at 11 p. m. On
the eves of festivals they may be employed in 2 shifts from 4
a. m. to 1 a. m. The period of uninterrupted rest must be 15
hours. The period of rest preceding the shifts on the eve of holidays
must be one of 13 hours. Rest periods of altogether 1 hour must
be allowed, of which two must last at least 15 minutes, or three at
least 10 minutes.
Austria (Decree of the Ministry of Agriculture, June 8, 1907,
art. 3) does in general not permit the employment of young persons
(14 to 16 years of age) during the night (8 p. m. to 5 a. m.). If,
however, two day shifts are worked young persons may be employed
until 11 p. m.
Belgium (Decree of March 15, 1893, and act of Dec. 31, 1909,
and of June 5, 1911).—The night work of young persons between
the ages of 14 and 16 is authorized in coal mines below ground from
9 p. m. to 5 a. m., and to 4 a. m. for those 12 to 13 years of age.
Maximum night shift 9 hours. Young persons are employed as
crutters and road men and in gathering up mine timber. Rest
periods, one-eighth of the period of employment. On the surface
of mines the employment of young persons under 16 years of age
is prohibited.




PROHIBITION OP NIGHT WORK OP YOUNG PERSONS.

55

An order of the same date authorized night work of young persons
between the ages of 14 and 16 in the mines of Mariemont from 9
p. m. till midnight. The rest periods are the same as above. Occu­
pations authorized, transport work during the second extracting
shift in addition to the operations authorized by the general order
cited above.
At coke ovens (order of the same date) young persons between
the ages of 14 and 16 may be employed at night between 9 p. m. and
5 a. m. during a total working period of 10J hours. Rest periods,
1£ hours, of which a principal rest must be of 1 hour’s duration.
The occupations authorized are work at the coke ovens and in
recovery of the by-products.
Great Britain.—The coal mines act, 1911, provides that no boy
under the age of 14 shall be employed in any mine below ground
unless so employed before the passing of the act. Employment of
boys over that age below ground at night is allowed, but the hours
of work are subject to the provisions of the Coal Mines Regulation
Act, 1908 (eight hours act). On the surface of mines the employ­
ment of boys under 16 is prohibited between the hours of 9 p. m.
and 5 a. m., and there must be allowed an interval of not less than 12
hours between the termination of employment on one day and the
commencement of the next employment.
The Metalliferous Mines Regulation Act, 1872, allows the employ­
ment of boys under 16 below ground at night, but provides that
boys under 16 shall not be employed in or allowed to be for the
purposes of employment in a mine below ground for more than 54
hours in any week or more than 10 hours in one day, with an interval
of not less than 12 hours between each period of employment, or
between the period of employment on Friday and the period of
employment on the following Saturday of not less than 8 hours.
8. Bakeries.

Throughout Europe these are mainly small establishments serving
the local demand. The exceptions in force have been authorized
solely in the interests of the employers and their customers. During
the last few years, however, several States have for hygienic reasons
affecting the workmen and the consumers abolished night work in
bakeries for adults as well as young persons.
(a) These States are as follows:
Norway abolished night work on June 11, 1883. The act of
April 24, 1906, at present in lorce—
1. Prohibits the employment of children under 14;
2. Prohibits the night work of young persons between the ages
of 14 and 18 between 8 p. m. and 6 a. m. without exception;



56

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

3. Establishes a maximum period of employment of 12 hours;
4. Includes rest periods amounting altogether to 2 hours, of which
one must be allowed at midday;
5. Prohibits work on Sunday and holidays from 6 p. m. on the
preceding day until midnight on the day in question.
Finland has also prohibited night work in a similar manner (Act
of 22d May, 14th June, 1908):
1. No workman may be employed between 9 p. m. and 6 a. m.;
2. Maximum period of employment is 10 hours per day and 48
per week;
3. The weekly rest begins at 6 p. m. on Saturday and ends at
midnight on Sunday.
Italy (Act of Mar. 22,1908) prohibits night work between 9 p. m.
and 4 a. m., and on Saturday between 11 p. m. and 4 a. m.
Proposals of a similar nature were laid before the English Par­
liament by a member in 1906 and the Dutch States General in 1909.
(b) Denmark and Great Britain only prohibit the night work
of young persons.
Denmark (Act of Apr. 6, 1906).—The employment of young per­
sons between the ages of 14 and 16 between 6 p. m. and 4 a. m.1 is
prohibited, and the period of employment of young persons between
the ages of 16 and 18 must not exceed 9£ hours at night (10 hours in
all communes excepting Copenhagen and Frederiksberg). Rest
periods of not less than 1£ hours (2 hours in all communes excepting
Copenhagen and Frederiksberg) must be allowed, and the uninter­
rupted period of rest preceding or succeeding night work must not
be less than 8 hours. The weekly rest commences at noon on Sun­
day and lasts at least 24 hours in Copenhagen and Frederiksberg and
16 hours in all other communes.
Great Britain.—The night work of young persons under 16 is
prohibited. Young persons between the ages of 16 and 18 may be
employed in the part of a bake house in which the process of baking
bread is carried on between 5 a. m. and 9 p. m. (Factory and Work­
shop Act, 1901, art. 38.) During this period of 16 hours, 7 hours
must be allowed for rest and certain other conditions be complied
with.
(c) On the other hand the night work of young persons in bakeries
is allowed in—
Germany (Order of Mar. 4, 1896, relating to work in bakeries
and confectioneries).—
1. Workmen and apprentices may be employed at night;
2. Period of employment, 12 hours, or 13 hours including a rest
period of 1 hour.
1By the act of June 8,1912, the prohibited hours are changed to 8 p. m. and 4 a. m.




PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

51

Period of employment of apprentices— 1st year of apprenticeship,
10 to 11 hours; 2d year, 11 to 12 hours; an uninterrupted period of
rest of 10 hours in the first year and 9 in the second.
In addition to any supplementary work required to meet an extraor­
dinary press of work, due to feast days or any other special circum­
stances, the employer may cause overtime to be worked on any 20
days in the year, to be determined by himself. The shifts may be
increased by 2 hours each, if a weekly rest of 24 hours is allowed rom
10 p. m. on Saturday.
Austria (Ministerial order of June 17, 1898).—Apprentices may
be employed at night at the tables for not more than 4 hours in
white-bread bakeries only. The Minister of Commerce issued the
following circular respecting this work:
The only strictly industrial work in which young apprentices in white-bread
bakeries should be employed is in table work, and it is only while that work is being
carried on that the employment of apprentices at night is justifiable. The other
work in which apprentices are habitually employed, and which consists in fetching
and carrying, does not constitute part of their industrial training and can not there­
fore be considered to be proper work for them to do at night. This must be espe­
cially emphasized in view of the facts that it is particularly in work of this kind that
children are illegally employed all night, and it is this work and the errand work in
which apprentices are often employed which gives rise to the excessive hours of
work so often denounced. Since the table work, which is the only kind of night
work which is learned, does not take more than three to four hours, the employment
of apprentices at night must be limited to that period.

Night work is also authorized in France, because the hours of
work are not regulated there in establishments where no mechanical
power is used employing less than 20 persons and no women, and
because bakeries in general do not employ women or young persons
during the night. Bread factories, however, are subject to the com­
mon rule.
In Russia “ handwork” is not subject to any restriction as regards
the period of employment.
9. Isolated operations of a continuous character.

In Great Britain, section 54, subsection 4, of the Factory and
Workshop Act, 1901, provides that the secretary of state, by special
order, may sanction the employment at night of young persons
between the ages of 16 and 18 in any class of nontextile factories and
workshops, provided that proof is produced that such employment
will not injure their health and that it is necessary by reason of the
nature of the operations. In pursuance of this provision the orders
of March 11, 1903 (No. 187); of May 4, 1903 (No. 363); of August 9,
1904 (No. 1429); of February 18, 1905 (No. 108); and of April 10,




58

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS.

1911 (No. 360), have been issued authorizing the night work of
male young persons of 16 to 18 years of age in the following cases:
1. In electrical stations (subject to certain conditions);
2. In those parts of a factory in which reverberatory or regenerative
furnaces are used and are necessarily kept in operation day and night
to avoid waste of material or fuel;
3. In the knocking out and cutting departments of sugar factories
engaged in the refining of loaf sugar;
4. In the process of galvanizing sheet metal and wire in factories;
5. In such parts of mineral dressing floors in Cornwall as are appro­
priated to the processes of calcining and stamping;
6. In china clay works;
7. In factories and workshops connected with lead and zinc mines
in which the concentration of ores is carried on;
8. In the processes of pressing and reeling cordite and nitrating
and molding guncotton, in nontextile factories where the young
persons are employed on the system of three shifts (8 hours);
9. In the process of continuous wire drawing carried on in non­
textile factories;
10. In the process of making artificial silk fiber carried on in non­
textile factories.
France (Decree of July 15, 1893, Table B).—Young persons
between the ages of 16 and 18 may be employed at night on 120
days in the year in urgent work in the repairing of ships and power
machines.
None of these occupations can be said to constitute part of an
industrial training.
10. Establishments with continuous operation in general.

The countries where night work is most extensive are those which
authorize night work in all establishments with continuous operation,
whether it is necessary or not.
These are Russia (night work is prohibited only in the textile
industries), Hungary, and Sweden.1 Portugal may also be
included because the age of protection is very low.
Hungary (Industrial Code, 1884, art. 115).—Five hours7 night
work is allowed in establishments where it is unavoidable.
Sweden (Act of Oct. 17, 1900, art. 8), on the other hand, au­
thorizes the employment for 1*2 hours at night of young persons
over 14 years of age in mines, metal works, rolling mills, factories,
and other establishments with continuous fires, and also sawmills
and the establishments annexed to them.1
1 By the act of June 29, 1912, such night work is permitted only by way of excep­
tion to young persons over 16 years of age.




PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

59

Young persons must not, however, be employed on two consecu­
tive nights, and 8 hours rest must be allowed between two shifts.
But they may be employed at night continuously every third week
in establishments working on the three-shift system.
Denmark (sec. 10, subsec. 2, of the factory act of April 11, 1901)
allows limited night work (8 p. m. to 6 a. m.) of young persons of
more than 15 years, by way of exception granted by the minister
upon a proposal of the Labor Council, provided that this night work
is necessary for occupational training.
11. Limited night work on account of climatic conditions.

Austria (order of May 27, 1885) authorizes a limited exception to
the prohibition of night work in the case of silk mills.
Since, in view of the climatic conditions, work in silk mills in the months of June
and July commences before 5 a. m. and terminates after 8 p. m., and the midday
rest is correspondingly increased, young persons may be employed at night, provided
that the legal maximum period of employment is not exceeded.




CHAPTER Y.
TRANSITIONAL MEASURES.

The International Association regards the exception authorizing
the night work of young persons over 16 in the glass industry as a
purely temporary measure.1 The authorization of unlimited night
work which exists in some countries ought not to be continued, even
daring the period of transition. The number of hours ought to be
fixed and the employment of young persons should be restricted to
the minimum number which is required, in order to train the next
generation of workmen.
T h is a r r a n g e m e n t c o r r e sp o n d s t o t h e p r e s e n t te c h n ic a l c o n d itio n s
o b ta in in g in

th e

g la s s in d u s tr y , w h ic h

I t is tr u e t h a t te c h n ic a l p r o g r e ss in
lo n g e r sh ifts , o w in g t o

is in

a sta te

o f tr a n s itio n .

t h e g la s s in d u s t r y h a s le d

t h e in tr o d u c tio n

o f ta n k

c h ild r e n h a v e b e n e fite d b y t h e a b o litio n o f

to

fu r n a c es, b u t th e

unskilled w o r k , w h i c h i s

d u e t o n e w im p r o v e m e n ts .

With the introductions of pedal molds and mechanical carriers all
pretext for employing children in glass works should have disap­
peared. In the district of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, the introduction
of pedal molds in 1880 has resulted in a considerable reduction in the
number of children employed; in 1886 the number had fallen by 33
per cent in the space of two years, and in the district of Breslau and
Liegnitz the introduction of improved methods of production is
leading gradually to the disappearance of child labor. By 1901, 17
Prussian glass works employed no children at all. Similarly in
France, where children were very extensively employed in glass
works, the introduction of mechanical carriers has led to the complete
discontinuance of their employment in many localities.2
T h is is t h e o p in io n o f a ll fr ie n d s o f t e c h n ic a l p r o g r e ss.

T h e w is h e s

o f m a n y o f t h e m g o s t ill fu r th e r , a n d s o m e e v e n w a n t t o s e e e n fo r c e d
t h e th r e e - s h ift s y s t e m , w h ic h h a s a lr e a d y b e e n in tr o d u c e d in s e v e r a l
a d v a n c e d g la s s w o rk s.
“ I t is v e r y d e s ir a b le ,” s a y s a r e p o r t o f t h e in d u s tr ia l in s p e c t o r fo r
B r e s la u ,

“ th a t

th e

d a ily

p e r io d

of

e m p lo y m e n t

of

g la s s

s h o u ld b e lim it e d b y t h e F e d e r a l C o u n c il t o e ig h t h o u r s .

b lo w e r s
A p e r io d

o f t r a n s it io n , s a y o f f iv e y e a r s , w o u ld o f c o u r s e b e r e q u ir e d in o r d e r

1 Decision of the subcommission on reason for this memorandum, p. 7.
2 It. Grossmann, Die technische Entwicklung der Glasindustrie, p. 115. Leipzig,
1908.
60



PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

61

that the glass manufacturers should have time to introduce the
necessary alterations in their technical equipment.”
The inspector of the district of Coblenz says:
Seeing that the period of employment is reduced by voluntary agreement in many
establishments, it would be desirable and would inflict less hardship if the reduction
was prescribed by law, in order that the small number of backward establishments
should be brought into line.

The International Association has not adopted any attitude
toward this suggestion. Since, however, the object of the resolu­
tions of the association is the protection of young persons in order
to preserve their vitality, they aim especially at accelerating the
evolution which is clearly taking place in the industry. This acceler­
ation is also in the interest of the industry itself, which will certainly
be able within a period of five years to introduce the innovations
which have already been used for years in the more advanced estab­
lishments. A fact which proves conclusively that five years would
be an adequate period of transition is that the number of young
persons employed at night is diminishing, even in those countries
which authorize the most extensive exceptions. Thus in France the
number fell from 11,721 in 1902 to 11,688 in 1907; and in the glass
industry from 5,568 in 1902 to 5,389 in 1907. During that period
the metal industry alone shows a considerable increase in the number
of young persons employed at night (from 3,863 to 4,968), while on
the other hand the diminution in the sugar industry (from 1,031 to
271) and in sugar-beet factories (from 103 to 54) was very marked.
If the period of transition of five years suggested by the resolutions
of the association were to be adopted, the increase in the number of
young persons between 16 and 18 years of age employed in the glass
and metal industries would be checked and a downward movement
introduced without any serious revolution.
In this sense the French Chamber of Deputies accepted, without
discussion, on the sitting of June 2, 1911, the following bill of Abbe
Lemire, which will repeal all exceptions, provided it is passed by
the Senate:
Sole section: Article 6 of the law of November 5,1892, is repealed. In consequence
all exceptions granted by this article are no more in force six months after the publi­
cation of this law.
At the same time the decree of administration concerning this article is repealed.




CHAPTER VI.
ADVANTAGES OF INTERNATIONAL REGULATION.

The international regulation of the prohibition of the night work of
women in industrial employment, demanded both by associations of
employers and of workmen, was carried out by the Berne Convention
of September 26, 1906, and now a similar regulation of the prohibition
of the night work of young persons is urged from many quarters.
Thus, Mr. Lev^que, divisional inspector at Lille, declares that it will
not be possible to suppress night work in sheet-glass factories unless
all the States concerned give their consent.1
It is constantly argued that if one State alone took the initiative in
this matter, the expenses of production of establishments employing
only adults at night would be greater than in the case of those au­
thorized to employ young persons. It has not been possible, from a
technical point of view, to replace young persons everywhere by
machinery, and even where this is possible from a technical point of
view, the change could not be made without difficulty, in establish­
ments which have not a large capital at their disposal.
The prohibition of night work by international agreement might
lead to a temporary rise in the cost of production, which would be so
slight that the efficacy of the reform would be much increased by
this method of dealing with the question.
The consequences of the inequality of social legislation can be
shown statistically only for those countries which publish statistics
of night work, i. e., Belgium, France, and Sweden. These statistics
date from 1896 in Belgium, 1902 in France, and 1905 in Sweden, and
were therefore introduced before the Berne Convention respecting the
prohibition of the night work of women came into operation.
At that time France had already prohibited the night work of
women, while Belgium had regulated the hours of labor and rest
periods for women under 21 years of age, and Sweden for women under
18 years of age. The result was as follows: Of every hundred persons
working alternately on day and night shifts (the total number in
Belgium was 53,895 in 1896, and in France there were 117,021 in 1902
and 143,549 in 1907, and in Sweden there were 43,157 in 1905) there
were:
1 Le travail de nuit des enfants dans les usines. Rapport de M. Levlque, Asso­
ciation du Nord de la Association nationale franpaise pour la protection legale des.
travailleurs. Lille, 1909,
62



PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

B el­
g iu m ,
1896.

Male young persons under 16 years of age........................................
Females (young persons and adults)................................................
Male adults.............................................................................................

7.86
5.68
86.46

68

F ra n ce .
Sw eden,
1905.
1902
1 6.4
1.2
92.4

1 10.02
.80
89.18

1907
1 8.14
.18
91.68

1 Male young persons under 18 years of age.

These figures show that the proportion of young persons under 18
employed at night in France was slightly higher (in 1907) than that
of young persons under 16 so employed in Belgium, while, on the other
hand, the proportion of male adults (i. e., over 18) employed at night
in France and Sweden was 5 per cent higher than in Belgium.
The mission of international protection is so to modify the condi­
tions of employment in unhealthy and dangerous employments that
in all countries only a minimum of young persons and women need
be exposed to injurious influences. Thus the example quoted shows
that for some years adult workmen will be employed at night instead
of women. There exists here and there, however, although not in a
very strong degree, a tendency to replace women7s work by yet cheaper
labor, and in particular by that of young persons, especially in paper
and sugar factories and in printing establishments.
It is most important that this tendency should be checked, because
the employment of young persons at night will increase the number
of unskilled workers, who will later on swell the ranks of the unem­
ployed. It is only where this danger does not exist, i. e., where the
young persons working at night are employed as factory apprentices
and not as cheap laborers, that there can be any question of par­
tially retaining night work. But the assertion that in certain indus­
tries apprenticeship should commence at the age of 12 is absolutely
refuted by experience. The night work of children between 12 and
14 should therefore not be tolerated *in any circumstances, because
even the employment by day of children of that age reacts unfavor­
ably upon the vital forces of nations. In their petitions to the
Reichstag and Bundesrat, the German glass manufacturers lay
stress upon the effects of the competition which they encounter in
consequence of the admission to employment of children of 12 years
of age at night in France. It would, therefore, be more equitable
to insist on the prohibition of the night work of children in France
than to secure equality in the conditions of work by permitting the
night work of children in Germany.
It is certain that these reforms would require from the manufac­
turers greater organizing power rather than financial sacrifices. In
many industries greater innovations than those wtich, for the reasons
set out in the memorandum, the International Association considers
85605° Bull. 117—13----- 5



64

BULLETIN OF THE BUREAU OF LABOB STATISTICS.

to be indispensable have been introduced, thanks to the salutary
constraint of the law. In the present case it is not only vital ques­
tions, such as education and hygiene which are affected, but the
object of this policy is also to safeguard the energies and capabilities
of future generations.
The wish of the association that the minimum age at which night
work may be performed should be fixed as a rule at 18 is already
realized in France, Great Britain, Denmark, Finland, Norway,
Sweden, Servia, Greece,1 and Switzerland; and in the United
States in California and Massachusetts (to 21 years).
In many other States, such as Germany, where only the night
work of young persons under 16 years of age is prohibited, the pro­
visions relating to the prevention of accidents and to the hygiene of
labor recognize so plainly that young persons between the ages of 16
and 18 are especially exposed to dangers of all kinds, that the raising
of the age limit for admission to night work seems to be but the
logical consequence of the attitude taken otherwise by the legislature.2
The wish that children under 14 should not be employed at night
even in exceptional circumstances corresponds more closely to the
existing condition of affairs. France, Russia, and Portugal would
be the only States which would have to alter the law applying to the
glass and iron industries. All the other countries of Europe, even
those which allow work to commence at 12 or 13 years of age, in
general only authorize the night work of children over 14 and that
only in exceptional circumstances.
The International Association expresses the wish that the duration
of the night's rest shall be at least 11 hours. German legislation was
the first on the Continent to accept this definition, and the Netherlands followed January 1,1912. But none of the States which signed
the Berne Convention of 1906, which prescribed an 11-hour night’s
rest for women, will find it difficult to enforce this rule in establish­
ments where both women and young persons are employed.
And, further, since it is the intention to restrict the existing and
greatly varying exceptional provisions by uniformly abrogating excep­
tions which have become technically superfluous, and which are
harmful from the social point of view, only those exceptions should
be considered justifiable which are indispensable for technical reasons.
These are concerned with certain specified operations in the glass and
iron and steel industries for which systematic apprenticeship is
required.
The International Association, then, only asks that “ the duration
of the exceptional night work of young persons shall be regulated by
1 By act of Jan. 24-Feb. 6, 1912; see footnote, p. 10.
2 K. Bittmann, die Jugendlichen Arbeiter in Deutschland, pp. 21, 34, 40,49 et seq.
Jena, 1910




PROHIBITION OF NIGHT WORK OF YOUNG PERSONS.

65

law.” The law at present in force limits the night work of young
persons in the glass and iron and steel industries to 8 hours in Norway;
10 hours in France, Great Britain, and Russia; 10J hours in
Belgium; less than 11 hours in Switzerland and 11 hours in the
Netherlands; 12 hours in Germany, Austria, Great Britain, and
Sweden; 1 in the British glass manufacture even shifts of 14 hours are
allowed.
I n t h e Netherlands t h e n i g h t w o r k o f y o u n g p e r s o n s i s a l t o g e t h e r
p r o h i b i t e d s i n c e J a n u a r y 1, 1912; i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s New Jersey
h a s s i n c e 1904 a b r o g a t e d t h e f o r m e r e x i s t i n g e x c e p t i o n .
A d a y o f r e s t o n a t le a s t a lt e r n a te S u n d a y s is p r e s c r ib e d in a lm o s t
a ll t h e s e S ta t e s .

In

t h e N e th e r la n d s S u n d a y r e s t is g r a n te d e v e r y

w e e k , a n d th e R u s s ia n la w

c o n ta in s n o p r o v is io n d e a lin g w it h th is

su b je c t.

An international agreement respecting the duration of the night
shift would be made valuable by imposing restrictions on the employ­
ment of young persons in alternate shifts of from 18 to 24 hours. The
chief cause of the infractions committed in this connection would no
longer hold good, and the way would be prepared for a general satis­
factory arrangement of shifts in establishments with continuous oper­
ation. For this reason the international regulation of the employ­
ment of young persons offers the best guaranty that the temptation
to exploit the labor of young persons will be reduced to a minimum,
that the latter will be given a chance to acquire an education, and
that the hope for a reform corresponding to technical developments
and introduced with a full and expert understanding of the situation
will be realized.
1 By act of June 23, 1912, changed to 8 hours in Sweden.




A P P E N D IX .
AGE OF LEGAL EMPLOYMENT AND M AXIM U M LEGAL HOURS OF LABOR OF
CHILDREN EMPLOYED IN FACTORIES IN THE UNITED STATES, JANUARY
1, 1913.
[This appendix was furnished for this memorandum b y the United States Bureau o f Labor Statistics.]
Age below which —
States.

Alabam a...........................................................................
Arizona.. . . ________________________, _________ ,.
r„ ,
Arkansas............................ ......... ......... .. .................... .........

California..........................................................................
Colorado............................................................................
Connecticut......................................................................
Delaware..........................................................................
District of Columbia......................................................
Florida..............................................................................
Georgia..............................................................................
Idaho.................................................................................
Illinois...............................................................................
Indiana.............................................................................
Iowa..................................................................................
Kansas..............................................................................
K en tu cky........................................................................
Louisiana.........................................................................

................................................

MfllnA

Maryland..........................................................................
Massachusetts.................................................................
Michigan.................... .....................................................
Minnesota........................................................................
Mississippi........................................................................
Missouri............................................................................
Montana...........................................................................
Nebraska..........................................................................
New Hampshire..............................................................
New Jersey.......................................................................
New Y ork........................................................................
North Carolina................................................................
N orth Dakota.................................................................
Ohio...................................................................................
Oklahoma........................................................................
Oregon..............................................................................
Pennsylvania...................................................................
R hode Island...................................................................
South Carolina................................................................
South Dakota..................................................................
Tennessee.........................................................................
Texas................................................................................
U tah.................................................................................
Verm ont...........................................................................
Virginia....................................................................................

W ashington.....................................................................
W est Virginia.................................................................
W isconsin........................................................................

66




E m ploy­ Hours of
ment is
labor
prohib­
are re­
ited.
stricted.

Night
work is
prohib­
ited.

Maxi­
mum
legal
hours
of labor
per day.

Night
work pro­
hibited
between—

p.m . a.m.
12
14
14
15
14
14
14
14
12
12
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
14
12
14
16
14
14
14
14
12
14
14
14
14
14
14
12
15
14
15
14
14
14
14
14
14

. 14

2 16
14
18
16
16
16
16
12
12
16
16
16
16
16
6 16
18
2 16
16
18
18
16
2 16
16
16
2 16
16
16
18
16
2 16
16
16
2 16
16

16
2 16
14
18
14
16
16
16
12
14
16
16
16
16
16
16
2 16
16
21
2 16
16
2 16
16
1.6
2 16
16
16
14
16
2 16
2 16
16
2 16
16
16

m u
16
«14
16
14
16

160
7 and 6
8
7 and 7
7 and 6
10
9 10 and 5
8
8 and 7
10
(*)
9
6 and 7
8
7 and 6
9
9 and 6
10
7 and 6
9
9 and 6
8
7 and 7
8
6 and 7
9 and 6
4 10
8
6 and 7
7 and 7
10
7 and 6
10
10 (1 58)
8 and 8
10
10 (i 54) 610 and 6
1 54
6 and 6
8
7 and 7
8
7 and 6
8
7 and 7
8
11 (i 58)
10 C1 55)
8
7 60
8
8
8
10
10 (i 58)
10 (i 56)
10
10
160

8 and
7 and
6 and
5 and
8 and
7 and
6 and
6 and
6 and
9 and
8 and
8 and

6
6.30
6
8
5
7
7
7
7
6
6
6

154
16
14
16

10

(10)
6 and 7
H8 and 5

16

8

6 and 7

1 Per week.
2 T o 18 years for females,
s After io p. m.
* 9 hours if written consent of parent is obtained.
# T o 21 years for females.
« 6 and 6 in textile factories.
7 Per week; no more m ay be required,
s Law is general for cotton and woolen mills; no age limit.
» T o 16 years for females.
After 8 p. m .
11 In bakeries.

INDEX.
Accidents—
Page.
Exceptions to prohibition of night work, in order to prevent, in Germany.................................
24
Per cent of young persons under specified ages receiving benefits on account of sickness due to,
in Germany.................., ............................................................................................................
14
Proportion of, among young persons, in England, 1908...............................................................
14
Rates of, among adults and young persons in metal industry in France, 1907 .............................
50
Age at which night work of young persons is permitted as exceptions in Austria...................................................................................................................... 30,34,47,51,52,54
Belgium........................................................................................................... 27,34,47,48,51,52,54,55
Denmark......................................................................................................................................56,59
France.................................................................................................................. 27,31,34,48,52,54,58
Germany................................................................................................................................. 34,46,54
Great Britain........................................................................................................ 31,34,48,52,53,55-58
Italy...................................................................................................................................................................32,34

N orway............................................................................................................................................................. 32,33
Portugal............................................................................................................................................................34,49
Russia............................................................................................................................................................... 33,34
Spain................................................................................................................................................................. 33,34
S w ed en....................................................................................................................................................... 33,34,58
Switzerland........................................ ..............................................................................................................33,34
Age at which night work of young persons is prohibited i n Alabama.................................................................................................................................................11,20,21,66
Argentina.................................................................................................................................................... 11,20,21
Arizona............................................................................................................................................................. 11,66
Arkansas...................................................................................................................................................... 11,22,66
Austria.............................................................................................................................................................. 11,20
Belgium............................................................................................................................................................ 11,20
Bosnia............................................................................................................................................................... 11,20
Bulgaria............................................................................................................................................................11,21
California.......................................................................................................................................... 12,19,20,64,66
Colorado................................................................................................................................................. 11,20,21,66
Connecticut...................................................................................................................................................... 11,66
Delaware..................................................................................................................................................... 11,20,66
Denmark............................................................................................................................................... 12,19,20,64
District of Columbia............................................................................................................................ 11,20,21,66
E gypt (cotton-ginning factories)................................................................................................................. 10,22
Finland.................................................................................................................................................. 12,19,20,64
Florida.........................................................................................................................................................11,22,66
France.................................................................................................................................................... 12,19,^0,64
Georgia....................................................................................................................................................... 11,22,66
Germany.......................................................................................................................................... 11,19,20,46,64
Great Britain........................................................................................................................................ 12,19,20,64
Greece.....................................................................................................................................................10,19,20,64
Herzegovina.....................................................................................................................................................
20
Hungary............................................................................................................................................................11,20
Idaho...................................................................................................................................................... 11,20,21,66
Illinois..........................................................................................................................................................11,20,66
India..................................................................................................................................................................10,22
Indiana........................................................................................................................................................ 11,20,66
Iow a........................................................................................................................................................ 11,20,21,66
Italy............................................................................................................................................................. 11,21,32
Japan............................................................................................................................................................... 11,22
Kansas......................................................................................................................................................... 11,20,66
K entucky............................................................................................................................................... 11,20,21,66
Liechtenstein................................................................................................ #................................................ 12,20
Louisiana..........................................................................................................................................................
66
Luxem burg...................................................................................................................................................... 11,20
Maryland............................................................................................................................................... 11,20,21,66
Massachusetts.................................................................................................................................. 12,19,20,64,66
Michigan......................................................................................................................................... .
11,20,21,66
Minnesota.................................................................................................................................................... 11,20,66
Mississippi............................................................................................................................................. 11,20,21,66
Missouri....................................................................................................................................................... 11,20,66
Nebraska................................................................................................................................................ 11,20,21,66
Netherlands........................................................................................................................................... 11,12,19,20
New Hampshire................................................................................................................................... 11,20,21,66
N ew Jersey............................................................................................................................................ 11,20,21,66
New South Wales...................................................................................................................................... 11,20,21
N ew Y o r k ................................................................................................................................................... 11,20,66
N ew Zealand.................................................................................................................................................... 11,20
North Carolina........................................................................................................................................... 11,22,66
North Dakota............................................................................................................................................. 11,20,66
N orw ay........................................................................................................................................ 12,19,20,32,55,64
O hio............................................................................................................................................................. 11,20,66




67

68

INDEX.

A ge at which night work of young persons is prohibited in—Concluded.
P a go .
Oklahoma................................................................................................................................................... 11,20,66
Ontario........................................................................................................................................................ 11,20,21
Oregon......................................................................................................................................................... 11,20,66
Pennsylvania................................................................................................................................... 11,20,21,49,66
Portugal................................................................................................................................................. 10,21,49,64
Quebec (cotton and woolen m ills)......................................................................................................... 12,19,20
Queensland................................................................................................................................................. 11,20,21
Rhode Island........................................................................................................................................ 11,20,21,66
Roum ania......................................................................................................................................................... 11,21
Russia (textile factories).......................................................................................................................... 11,21,64
Saskatchewan............................................................................................................................................. 11,20,21
Servia...................................................................................................................................................... 12,19,20,64
South Carolina...................................................................................................................................... 11,20,21,66
Southern Australia.........................................................................................................................................
11
Spain............................................................................................................................................................ 10,21,32
Sweden................................................................................................................................................... 12,19,20,64
Switzerland........................................................................................................................................... 12,19,20,64
Tunis............................................................................................................................................................ 11,20,21
V erm ont........................................................................................................................................................... 11,66
Victoria........................................................................................................................................................ 11,20,21
Virginia........................................................................................................................................................ 11,22,66
Washington......................................................................................................................................................
66
W isconsin.................................................................................................................................................... 11,20,66
Age below which hours of labor are restricted in the United States, b y States.........................................
66
Age limit of persons protected against night work, effect upon industry of increasing from 16 to 18
y e a r s ....................................................................................................................................................................
13
Alabama, night work of young persons in—
Permission of, as exceptions.........................................................................................................................
49
Prohibition of, regulations as t o ........................................................................................................ 11,20,21,66
Analysis of report...................................................................................................................................................
9
Anthracite coal mines, night work of young persons permitted as exception in, Germany...................
54
Apprenticeship in glass factories, reports of German inspectors as to necessity of night work instead of 36-38
Argentina, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o .......................................11,20,21
Arizona, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ................................................ 11,66
Arkansas, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ........................................ 11,22,66
Artificial silk fiber making in nontextile factories, night work of young persons permitted as excep­
tions in, Great Britain.......................................................................................................................................
58
Asia (except Japan and India), absence of laws for protection of workers in ............................................
10
Austria, employment of young persons in—
Blast furnaces in .............................................................................................................................................
42
Scythe-blade factories in ............................................................................................................................... 45,46
Austria, night work of young persons in—
Permission of, as exceptions.............................................................................. 24,30,34,47,51,52,54,57,59,65
Prohibition of, regulations as t o ....................................................................................................... 11,20,24,47
Austria, proportion of young persons among industrial employees in ........................................................
13
Auxiliary works in iron and steel industry, restrictions as to night work of young persons in, in
Belgium................................................................................................................................................................47,48
Bakeries, night work of young persons in ......................................................................................................... 55-57
Belgium, night work of young persons in—
Permission of, as exceptions......................................................................... 24,27,30,31,34,47,48,51,52,54,65
Prohibition of, regulations as t o ................................................................................................................... 11,20
Belgium, per cent of male young persons under 16, females (young persons and adults), and male
adults working alternately on day and night shifts in, 1896......................................................................
63
Belgium, proportion of young persons among industrial employees in ......................................................
13
Blast furnaces—
Employment of young persons in, in Austria...........................................................................................
42
Night work of young persons permitted in, as exceptions, Belgium................................................... 47,48
Night work of young persons permitted in, as exceptions, Sweden...................................................... 33,49
Book and newspaper printing establishments, night work of young persons permitted as exceptions
in, Great Britain.................................................................................................................. ..............................52,53
Bosnia, prohibition of night work of young persons in .................................................................................. 11,20
British Columbia, absence of laws as to night work in ..................................................................................
10
British R oyal Commission on the Poor Laws, minority report of, as to effects of employing young
persons as helpers at night w ork.....................................................................................................................
17
Bulgaria, prohibition of night work of young persons in .............................................................................. 11,21
Butter factories in France, exceptions as to prohibition of night work of young persons in .................
27
Calcining and stamping, night work of young persons permitted as exceptions in process of, Great
Britain......................................... * .....................................................................................................................
58
California—
Eight-hour shifts prescribed b y law in certain dangerous occupations in, regardless of age...........
49
Prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ......................................... 12,19,20,64,66
Central America, absence of laws for protection of workers in .....................................................................
10
Cheese factories in France, exceptions as to prohibition of night work o f young persons in .................
27
Children under 16 in industrial employment in the United States, 1900 ...................................................
50
Children. (See Y oung persons.)
China-clay works, night work of young persons permitted as exceptions in, Great B ritain.................
58
Climatic conditions, limited night work on account o f..................................................................................
59
Colorado—
Eight-hour shifts prescribed b y law in certain dangerous occupations in, regardless of age.........
49
Prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ..............................................11,20,21,66
Connecticut, night work of young persons in—
Permission of. as exceptions.........................................................................................................................
49
Prohibition of, regulations as t o ...................................................................................................................11,66
Continuation schools, importance o f.................................................................................................. ............... 18,19
Continuous operation, night work of young persons in establishments w ith ................................. 33,49,57-59
Copper works, restrictions as to night work of young persons in, in Belgium .......................................... 47,48




INDEX.

69
Page.

Cordite and guncotton making in nontextile factories, night work of young persons permitted as ex­
ceptions in, Great Britain.................................................................................................................................
58
Cotton-ginning factories, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as to, E g y p t. . .
10
Dangerous work, exclusion of young persons from, as result ofintroduction of mechanical processes..
14
Daywork o f young persons, provisions as to, in Belgium and Germany................................................... 29-31
Delaware, prohibition of nignt work of young persons in, regulations as to........................................ 11,20,66
Denmark, night work of young persons in—
Permission of, as exceptions..........................................................................................................................56,59
Prohibition of, regulations as t o ............................... ............................................................ 12,13,16,19,20,64
Denmark, proportion of young persons among industrial employees in ....................................................
13
District of Columbia, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o .............. 11,20,21,66
Education, effect of night work of young persons u p on ................................................................................
16
Efficiency, physical and intellectual, of adult workers, effect of protection of young persons u p o n ...
15
E gypt (cotton-ginning factories), prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o .. 10,12,22
Electrical stations, night work of young persons permitted as exceptions in, Great B rita in ...............
58
Employees, industrial, in States prohibiting em ploym ent at specified ages.............................................12,13
Em ploym ent of men and women, increase in, as result of reduction of proportion of young persons
em ployed..............................................................................................................................................................
14
Enamel-ware factories, night work of young persons in ................................................................................
54
England—
Proportion of accidents among young persons in, 1908...........................................................................
14
Reduction in proportion of male juvenile workers in, as result of legislation...................................
14
Establishment, size of, to which prohibition of night work of young persons is limited in various
States and countries........................................................................................................................................... 11,12
Exceptions to prohibition of night work of young persons—
Critical account o f........................................................................................................................................... 23-59
Effect of, on value of laws for protection of workers................................................................................
8
Finland, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ............................... 12,19,20,56,64
Fish preserving industry, exceptions to prohibition of night work of young persons in, for various
countries............................................................................................................................................................... 25-27
Florida, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ............................................11,22,66
Force majeure, exceptions to prohibition of night work of young persons on account o f.......................23-25
France, night work of young persons in—
Permission of, as exceptions........................................ : .................................... 24,27,31,48,51,52,54,58,61-65
Prohibition of, regulations as t o ........................................................................................................12,19,20,64
France, per cent o f male young persons under 16, females (young persons and adults), and male adults
working alternately on day and night shifts in, 1902 and 1907..................................................................
63
France, proportion of young persons among industrial employees in .........................................................
13
Franconia, Upper, report on nygienic conditions in glass factories in ........................................................ 34,35
Fruit preserving industry, night work of young persons in, permission of, as exceptions..................... 26,27
Furnaces, reverberatory or regenerative, night work of young persons permitted as exceptions in
departments of factories havm g.......................................................................................................................
58
Galvanizing sheet metal and wire in factories, night work of young persons permitted as exceptions
in processes of, Great B rita in ..........................................................................................................................
58
Georgia, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o .......................................11,22,66
Germany, night work of young persons in—
Permission of, as exceptions.................................................................................... 24,25,29,30,34,46,54,56,65
Prohibition of, regulations as t o .................................................................................. 11,19,20,25,46,51,52,64
Germany, per cent of young persons under specified ages receiving benefits on account o f sickness
due to accidents i n ............................................................................................................................................
14
Germany, proportion of young persons among industrial employees in.....................................................
13
Glass industry—
Hygienic conditions in, in upper Franconia............................................................................................. 34,35
Moral and physical effects of em ploym ent of young persons in ............................................................ 38-41
Necessity of night work instead of apprenticeship in, reports of German inspectors as t o ............. 36-38
Night work in, relation of, to |uvenile delinquency................................................................................ 38,39
Night work of young persons in .................................................................................................................. 28-41
Proportion of young persons em ployed in various kinds of factories in ..............................................35,36
Restrictions as to em ploym ent of young persons in, in France............................................................
31
Glue and gelatin factories in France, exceptions as to prohibition of night work of young persons in.
27
Great Britain, night work o f young persons in—
Permission of, as exceptions................................................................................... 24-26,31,32,48,51-58,64,65
Prohibition of, regulations as t o ........................................................................................................ 12,19,20,64
Great Britain, proportion o f young persons among industrial employees in .............................................
13
Greece, prohibition of night work o f young persons in, regulations as to........................................10,19,20,64
Gun cotton and cordite making in nontextile factories, night work of young persons permitted as
exceptions in, Great B rita in ............................................................................................................................
58
Health, effects of night work upon......................................................................................................................15-17
Herzegovina, prohibition of night work of young persons in ........................................................................
20
Holland, Sunday rest of young persons employed on night work in ..........................................................
34
Hours between which night work of young persons is prohibited in the United States, b y States,
January 1,1913....................................................................................................................................................
66
Hours of laborj daily, reduction of, and prohibition of night work of young persons under 18, justifica­
tion of principle of.............................................................................................................................................. 14-17
Hours of labor, maximum, in various States and countries. (See W orking day, maximum.)
Hours of labor, maximum legal, of children employed in factories in the United States, b y States,
January 1,1913....................................................................................................................................................
66
Hungary, night work of young persons—
Permitted in establishments with continuous operation.......................................................................
58
Prohibition of, regulations as to ............................................................................................................. 11,20,34
Hygienic conditions in glass factories in U pper Franconia, report o n ........................................................ 34,35
Hygienic effect of employment in steel works..................................................................................................42,43
Hygienic effect of night w ork.............................................................................................................................. 15-17
Eight-hour shifts prescribed b y law in certain dangerous occupations in, regardless of age...........
49
Prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o .............................................. 11,20,21,66




*70

INDEX.

Illinois—
Page.
Prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o .................................................. 11,20,66
Young persons em ployed in iron and steel works in ...............................................................................
50
India, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ............................................... 10,12,22
Indiana, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ........................................... 11,20,66
Industrial employees—
In States prohibiting em ploym ent at specified ages..............................................................*.......... . *. 12,13
Proportion of young persons among, in various European countries..................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
Industrial em ploym ent, children under 16 in, in the United States, 1900....................................
50
Industries, exceptions as to prohibition of night work sanctioned for male young persons in certain. 23,27-59
International Association for Labor Legislation, history of efforts of, for prohibition of night work
of young persons.................................................................................................................................................
5-7
International regulation of the prohibition of night work, advantages o f..................................................02-65
Iowa, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ........................................... 11,20,21,66
Iron and steel works, large scale, night work of young persons in ............................................................... 42-50
Italy, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ................................ 31,21,22,32,34,56
Japan, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as to .............................................. 11,12,22
Juvenile delinquency, relation of, to night work in glass factories...............................................................38,39
Kansas, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ............................................ 11,20, C6
Kentucky, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ................................. 11,20,21,66
8
Labor legislation, general effect of, as regards work of young persons........................................................
Labor Legislation, International Association for, history o f efforts of, for prohibition of night work
of young persons.................................................................................................................................................
5-7
Lace factories, night work of young persons in ................................................................................................
53
Laws for protection of women and young persons, discussion of aims and results o f..............................
8
Lead ana zinc mines, factories and workshops connected with, night work of young persons per­
mitted as exceptions in, Great B rita in ........................................................................................................
58
Legislation as to prohibition of night work of young persons in force in various countries, critical
account of............................................................................................................................................................. 10-13
Legislation in force as to legal minimum night’s rest and maximum working day compared with
demands made b y International Association...............................................................................................
22
Liechtenstein, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as to ................................... 12,20
Louisiana, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as to ............................................
66
Luxemburg, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as to ....................................... 11,20
Maine, employment of young persons in, regulations as t o ...........................................................................
66
Manitoba, absence of laws as to night work in ................................................................................................
10
Maryland, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o .................................. 11,20,21,66
Massachusetts, prohibition of night work of young persons, regulations as t o .......................... 12,19,20,64,66
Materials, nature of, to be treated, exception to prohibition of night work of young persons justi­
fied b y .............................................................................................................................................................. 23,25-27
Mechanical processes, effect of introduction of, upon employment of young persons..............................14,15
Mental and moral effects of 11-hour workday ana of nignt work upon young persons.......................... 15-17
Metal foundries, restrictions as to night work of young persons in, in Belgium .......................................47,48
Metal industry, accident rates among adults and young persons in, in France.......................................
50
Metallurgical works, night work of young persons permitted as exceptions in, France..........................
48
Michigan, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ......... ......................... 11,20,21,66
Mines and coke ovens, night work of young persons in ................................................................................. 54,55
Minnesota, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ....................................... 11,20,66
Mississippi, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ................................11,20,21,66
Missouri—
49
Eight-hour shifts prescribed b y law in certain dangerous occupations in, regardless of age...........
Prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ................................................... 11,20,66
Monaco, absence of laws for protection of workers in......................................................................................
10
Montana—
Eight-hour shifts prescribed b y law in certain dangerous occupations in, regardless of age...........
49
Em ploym ent of young persons in, regulations as to................................................................................ 49,66
Montenegro, absence of laws for protection of workers in..............................................................................
10
Moral and physical effects of employment of young persons in glass.industry.......................................... 38-41
Moral effects o f night work upon young persons............................... .‘........................................................... 15-17
Nebraska, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o .................................. 11,20,21,66
Netherlands, night work of young persons in—
Permission of, as exceptions.............................................................................................................. 25,26,32-34
Prohibition of, regulations as t o .............................................................................................11-13,19,20,51,65
Netherlands, proportion of young persons among industrial employees in ...............................................
13
Nevada, eight-hour shifts prescribed b y law in certain dangerous occupations in, regardless of age. .
49
New Brunswick, absence of laws as to night work in ....................................................................................
10
New Hampshire, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ......................11,20,21,66
New Jersey, prohibition o f liight work of young persons in, regulations as t o .................... 11,20,21,33,65,66
New South Wales, prohibition of night work o f young persons in, regulations as t o ........................ 11,20,21
N ew York, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ...................................... 11,20,66
New Zealand, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o .......................................11,20
Night shifts of young persons, restrictions as to length of, i n Alabam a...........................................................................................................................................................
49
Austria................................................................................................................................................... 34,54,57,65
Belgium ................................................................................................................. 30,31,34,47,48,51,52,54,55,65
California..........................................................................................................................................................
49
Colorado............................................................................................................................................................
49
Connecticut......................................................................................................................................................
49
Denm ark...........................................................................................................................................................56,59
France.......................................................................................................................................... 27,31,51,52,54,65
Germany..................................................................................................................................... 29,30,34,56,57,65
Great Britain........................................................................................................................ 32,34,48,51-53,55,65
Hungary............................................................................................................................................................
58
Id a h o.................................................................................................................................................................
49
Missouri.............................................................................................................................................................
49
Montana............................................................................................................................................................
49
Netherlands...................................................................................................................................................... 32,65
N evada......................................................................................: ......................................................................
42




71

INDEX.

Night shifts of young persons, restrictions as to length of, in—Concluded.
P a ge.
Norway................................................................................................................................................
32,34,66
Pennsylvania...................................................................................................................................................
49
Portugal...........................................................................................................................................................
49
Russia.......................................................................................................................................................... 33,34,65
Sweden............. ........................................................................................................................................ 33,34,58
Switzerland................................................................................................................................................. 33,34,65
U tah.................................................................................................................................................................
49
W yom ing..........................................................................................................................................................
49
Night work of young persons—
Advantages of international regulation of prohibition o f....................................................................... 62-65
Exceptions to prohibition of, critical account o f ................. ....................................................................23-59
History of efforts of International Association for Labor Legislation for prohibition o f.................
5-7
Hygienic effects o f...........................................................................................................................................15-17
In establishments with continuous operation (other than glass and iron and steel w orks)............50-59
In the glass industry...................................................................................................................................... 28-41
Juvenile delinquency in various industries as related t o ....................................................... ............... 38,39
Large-scale iron and steel works........................ ..........................................................................................42-50
Legislation as to prohibition of, in force in various countries, critical account of............................. 10-13
Necessity of, instead of apprenticeship in glass factories, reports of German inspectors as to ..........36-38
Prohibition of, and reduction of daily hours of labor of young persons under 18, justification of
principle o f....................................................................................................................................................14-17
Prohibition of, effect of, upon training of young persons in iron and steel works.............................43-45
Transition period necessary to abolish restrictions as to prohibition of, discussion o f..................... 60,61
Night work of young persons permitted as exceptions in—

Alabam^

#

49

Austria. . *. *. *. ** .*’ **.**’ ** *’ *‘ **’ *’ ******* *.****’ *.*********** **** ’ ** 24,30,*34,*47,*5i,*52*54,*57,59,65
B elgium ........................................................................................................... 24,27,30,31,34,47,48,51,52,54,65
Connecticut......................................................................................................................................................
49
Denmark....................................................... ...................................................................................................56,59
France.................................................................................................................... 24,27,31,48,51,52,54,58,61-65
Germany.................................................................. .................................................. 24,25,29,30,34,46,54,56,65
Great Britain............................................................................................................. 24r-26,31,32,48,51-58,64,65
Hungary..................................................................................................................................... .....................
58
Netherlands.......................................................................................................................................... 25,26,32-34
N orw ay............................................................................................................................................................. 32-34
Pennsylvania...................................................................................................................................................
49
Portugal...................................................................................................................................................... 34,49,58
Russia............................................................................................................................................... 25,33,34,58,65
Spain................................................................................................................................................................. 33,34
Sweden........................................................................................................................................ 33,34,49,58,59,65
Switzerland................................................................................................................................................. 33,34,65
N ight work of young persons, prohibition of, regulations as to, i n Alabama........................... .................................................................................................................... 11,20,21,66
Argentina.................................................................................................................................................... 11,20,21
Arizona................................................................... .........................................................................................11,66
Arkansas..................................................................................................................................................... 11,22,66
Austria................................................................................................................................................... 11,20,24,47
Belgium ............................................................................................................................................................ 11,20
Bosnia............................................................................................................................................................... 11,20
Bulgaria............................................................................................................................................................11,21
California.......................................................................................................................................... 12,19,20,64,66
Colorado................................................................................................................................................. 11,20,21,66
Connecticut...................................................................................................................................................... 11,66
Delaware.....................................................................................................................................................11,20,66
Denmark.......................................................................................................................................... 12,16,19,20,64
District of Columbia............................................................................................................................11,20,21,66
Egvpt (cotton-ginning factories)............................................................................................................ 10,12,22
Finland............................................................................................................................................. 12,19,20,56,64
Florida........................................................................................................................................................ 11,22,66
France.................................................................................................................................................... 12,19,20,64
Georgia........................................................................................................................................................ 11,22,66
Germany............................................................................................................................... 11,19,20,46,51,52,64
Great Britain........................................................................................................................................ 12,19,20,64
Greece..................................................................................................................................................... 10,19,20,64
Herzegovina (factory trades)......................................................................................................................
20
Hungary...................................................................................................................................................... 11,20,34
Id aho...................................................................................................................................................... 11,20,21,66
Illinois..........................................................................................................................................................11,20,66
India............................................................................................................................................................ 10,12,22
Indiana........................................................................................................................................................ 11,20,66
Iow a........................................................................................................................................................ 11,20,21,66
Italy............................................................................................................................................. 11,21,22,32,34,56
Japan........................................................................................................................................................... 11,12,22
Kansas......................................................................................................................................................... 11,20,66
K en tu cky.............................................................................................................................................. 11,20,21,66
Liechtenstein................................................................................................................................................... 12,20
Louisiana..........................................................................................................................................................
66
Luxem burg...................................................................................................................................................... 11,20
Maryland............................................................................................................................................... 11,26,21,66
Massachusetts.................................................................................................................................. 12,19,20,64,66
Michigan................................................................................................................................................ 11,20,21,66
Minnesota....................................................................................................................................................11,20,66
Mississippi............................................................................................................................................. 11,20,21,66
Missouri.......................................................................................................................................................11,20,66
Nebraska............................................................................................................................................... 11,20,21,66
Netherlands................................................................................................................................11-13,19,20,51,65
New Hampshire...................................................................................................................................11,20,21,66
New Jersey................................................................................................................................. 11,20,21,33,65,66
New South W ales..................................................................................................................................... 11,20,21




72

INDEX.

Night work of young persons, prohibition of, regulations as to—Concluded.
P a ge.
New Y o r k ................................................................................................................................................... 11,20,66
New Zealand................................................................................................................................................... 11,20
North Carolina...........................................................................................................................................11,22,66
North Dakota............................................................................................................................................ 11,20,66
Norway.................................................................................................................................. 12,19,20,32,55,56,64
Ohio............................................................................................................................................................. 11,20,66
Oklahoma................................................................................................................................................... 11,20,66
Ontario........................................................................................................................................................ 11,20,21
Oregon......................................................................................................................................................... 11,20,66
Pennsylvania........................................................................................................................................11,20,21,66
Portugal...................................................................................................................................................... 10,21,22
Quebec (cotton and woolen m ills)......................................................................................................... 12,19,20
Queensland.................................................................................................................................................11,20,21
R hode Island........................................................................................................................................ 11,20,21,66
Roum ania.........................................................................................................................................................11,21
Russia (textile factories)..........................................................................................................................11,12,21
Saskatchewan............................................................................................................................................ 11,20,21
Servia..................................................................................................................................................... 12,19,20,64
South Carolina......................................................................................................................................11,20,21,66
Southern Australia.........................................................................................................................................
11
Spain.................................................................................................................................................10,12,21,22,32
Sweden................................................................... ............................................................................ 12,19,20,64
Switzerland................................................................................................................................ 12,19,20,25,51,64
Tunis........................................................................................................................................................... 11,20,21
Vermont............................................................................................................................................................11,66
Victoria........................................................................................................................................................11,20,21
Virginia....................................................................................................................................................... 11,22,66
Washington......................................................................................................................................................
66
W isconsin................................................................................................................................................... 11,20,66
Night’s rest, legal minimum for young persons, provisions as t o ................................................ 18-22,25,26,64
North Carolina, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ..............................11,22,66
North Dakota, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ............................... 11,20,66
Norway, night work of young persons in—
Permission of. as exceptions......................................................................................................................... 32-34
Prohibition of, regulations as t o ...................................................................................... 12,19,20,32,55,56,64
N ova Scotia, absence of laws as to night work in ...........................................................................................
10
Ohio, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ................................................ 11,20,66
Ohio, young persons employed in iron and steel works in ............................................................................
50
Oil mills, night work of young persons in .........................................................................................................
52
Oklahoma, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as to.......................................11,20,66
Ontario, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ...........................................11,20,21
Oregon, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ............................................ 11,20,66
Overtime, permission of, in Austria on account of force majeure................................................................
24
Paper factories, night work of young persons in .............................................................................................
51
Pastry factories in France, exceptions as to prohibition of night work of young persons in .................
27
Pennsylvania, night work of young persons in—
Permission of, as exceptions.........................................................................................................................
49
Prohibition of, regulations as t o ............................................ .......................................................... 11,20,21,66
Pennsylvania, young persons employed in iron and steel works in............................................................
50
Portugal, night work of young persons in—
Permission of. as exceptions.................................................................................................................... 34,49,58
Prohibition of, regulations as t o .............................................................................................................10,21,22
Printing establishments, book and newspaper, night work of young persons in ..................................... 52,53
Protection of women and male juvenile workers, main reasons for, and general character of laws
regarding......................................... ....................................................................................................................
8
Purpose of the report............................................................................................................................................
7,8
Quebec (cotton and woolen m ills), prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o . 12,19,20
Quebec (nontextile factories), absence of laws as to prohibition of night work i n ...................................
10
Queensland, prohibition of night work o f young persons in, regulations as t o ......................................... 11,21
Regulation, international, of the prohibition of night work, advantages o f .............................................. 62-65
Repairing ships and power machines, night work of young persons permitted as exceptions in,
France...................................................................................................................................................................
58
Rest period, minimum length of, for young persons, favored b y International Association for Labor
Legislation...........................................................................................................................................................
18
Rest periods allowed young persons i n Austria................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Belgium ...................................................................................................................... 27,30,31,47,48,51,52,54,55
Finland.............................................................................................................................................................
56
France.....................................................................................................................................................31,48,51,54
Germany............................................................................................................................... 29,30,34,46,54,56,57
Great Britain................................................................................................................... 26,32,34,48,51-53,55,56
Hungary..................................................................................... ......................................................................
34
Netherlands..................................................................................................................................................... 32,34
Norway..............................................................................................................................................................32,56
Portugal............................................................................................................................................... ............
49
Russia............................................................................................................................................................... 33,34
Sweden........................................................................................................................................................ 33,34,59
Rest periods. (See also Night’s rest; Sunday rest.)
Restrictions as to prohibition of night work of young persons, transition period necessary to abolish,
discussion o f.........................................................................................................................................................60,61
R hode Island, prohibition of night w ork of young persons in, regulations as t o ........................ 11,20,21,66
R olling mills, night work of young persons permitted as exceptions in................................................ 33,47-49
Roumania, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as to___ : .................................... 11,21
Russia, night work of young persons in—
Permission of. as exceptions......................................................................................................... 25,33,34,58,65
Prohibition oi, regulations as t o ........................................................................................................ 11,12,20,21
Saskatchewan, prohibition of night work of young persons in textile industrv in; regulations as t o . 11,20,21
Saxony, reduction in proportion of young persons em ployed in, as result o f legislation........................
14
~
' ’ 3 factories in Austria, em ploym ent of young persons in .......................................................... 45,46




INDEX.

73
Page.

Schools, continuation, importance o f................................................................................................................. 18,19
Seasonal industries, night work and reduction of nights' rest in ............................................................ 23,25-27
Servia, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ........................................ 12,19,20,64
Silver and lead roasting furnaces, restrictions as to night work of young persons in, B elgiu m ........... 47,48
Sleep, length of, necessary for young persons...................................................................................................
19
South Africa, absence of laws for protection of workers in ...........................................................................
10
South America (except Argentina),' absence of laws for protection of workers in ....................................
10
South Carolina, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ........................ 11,20,21,66
South Dakota, absence of laws as to night work in ........................................................................................ 10,66
Southern Australia, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ...............................
11
Spain, night work o f young persons in—
Permission of, as exceptions......................................................................................................................... 33,34
Prohibition of, regulations as t o .................................................................................................. 10,12,21,22,32
States prohibiting and not prohibiting night work of young persons......................................................... 10-12
Steel works, employment of young persons in .................................................................................................42-50
Sugar and beet sugar factories, night work of young persons in ..................................................................
52
Sugar factories, knocking out and cutting departments of, night work of young persons permitted as
exceptions in, Great B rita in ...........................................................................................................................
58
Sunday rest of young persons, provisions as to—
Austria..............................................................................................................................................................
30
Belgium ............................... ...................................................................................................................... 30,31,48
Finland.............................................................................................................................................................
56
France..............................................................................................................................................................31,34
Germany..................................................................................................................................................... 29,30,47
Great Britain............................................................................................................................................. 32,34,49
Italy..................................................................................................................................................................32,33
Netherlands............................................................................................................................................... 32,34,65
Norway.............................................................................................................................................................
32
Portugal...........................................................................................................................................................
49
Sweden, night work of young persons in—
Permission of. as exceptions................................................................................................... 33,34,49,58,59,65
Prohibition or, regulations as t o ............................................................................................................. 12,19,20
Per cent of male young persons under 16, females (young persons and adults), and male adults
working alternately on day and night shifts in, 1905...........................................................................
63
Report o f 51 physicians in, regarding effects of night work upon health and physical develop­
ment of young persons...............................................................................................................................
16
Switzerland, night work of young persons in—
Permission of. as exceptions.................................................................................................................... 33,34,65
Prohibition of, regulations as t o ............................................................................................ 12,19,20,25,51,64
Switzerland, proportion of young persons among industrial employees in ...............................................
13
Tasmania, absence of laws as to night work in ................................................................................................
10
Tennessee, legal provisions as to em ploym ent of young persons in .............................................................
66
Texas, legal provisions as to em ploym ent of young persons in ....................................................................
66
Tin and lead rolling mills, Sunday rest of young persons employed in, in Belgium............................
48
Transitional measures and period required for abolition of most important exceptions to prohibi­
tion of night work of young persons, discussion o f......................................................................................60,61
Tunis, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o ............................................... 11,20,21
Turkey, absence of laws for protection of workers in .....................................................................................
10
U ta h 49
Eight hour shifts prescribed b y law in certain dangerous occupations in, regardless of age.........
Legal provisions as to employm ent of young persons in ........................................................................ 49,66
Vegetable preserving industry in France, exceptions as to prohibition of night work of young per­
sons in ...................................................................................................................................................................
27
Vermont, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o .............................................. 11,66
Victoria, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o .......................................... 11,20,21
Virginia, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as t o .......................................... 11,22,66
Washington, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as to ........................................
66
Western Australia, absence of laws as to night work in ................................................................................
10
W est Virginia, legal provisions as to employment of young persons in .....................................................
66
Wire drawing, continuous, in nontextile factories, night work of young persons permitted as excep­
tions in, Great Britain.......................................................................................................................................
58
Wisconsin, prohibition of night work of young persons in, regulations as to ...................................... 11,20,66
W ork of young persons, effect of limitation o f.................................................................................................14,15
W orking day, maximum, and legal minimum night’s rest in States prohibiting night work of young
persons under specified ages.................... ........................................................................................................ 19-22
Working day, maximum, i n Alabama........................................................................................................................................................... 21,66
Argentina.........................................................................................................................................................
21
Arizona.............................................................................................................................................................
66
Arkansas.......................................................................................................................................................... 22,66
Austria............................................................................................................................................................. 20,24
Belgium...................................................................................................................... 20,27,30,31,47,48,51,52,54
Bosnia...............................................................................................................................................................
20
Bulgaria............................................................................................................................................................
21
California.......................................................................................................................................................... 20,66
Colorado........................................................................................................................................................... 21,66
Connecticut......................................................................................................................................................
66
Delaware.......................................................................................................................................................... 20,66
Denmark..........................................................................................................................................................
20
District of Columbia...................................................................................................................................... 21,66
E g p t ((cotton-ginning factories).................................................................................................................
22

22^66

France......................................................................................................................................................... 20,48,52
Georgia (textile factories)............................................................................................................................. 22,66
Germany............................................................................................................................................... 20,46,56,57
Great Britain................................................................................................................................... 20,24-26,32,53




74

INDEX.

W orking day, m aximum, in—Concluded.
Page..
Greece...............................................................................................................................................................
20
Herzegovina (factory trades)......................................................................................................................
20
Hungary................................................... ........................................................................................................
20
Idaho................................................................................................................................................................. 21,66
Illinois............................................................................................................................................................... 20,66
India..................................................................................................................................................................
22
Indiana............................................................................................................................................................. 20,66
Iow a................................................................................................................................................................... 21,66
Italy...................................................................................................................................................................
21
Japan.................................................................................................................................................................
22
Kansas.............................................................................................................................................................. 20,66
Kentucky......................................................................................................................................................... 21,66
Liechtenstein...................................................................................................................................................
20
Louisiana..........................................................................................................................................................
66
Luxem burg......................................................................................................................................................
20
Maine.................................................................................................................................................................
66
Maryland.......................................................................................................................................................... 21,66
Massachusetts.................................................................................................................................................. 20,66
Michigan........................................................................................................................................................... 21,66
Minnesota.........................................................................................................................................................20,66
Mississippi........................................................................................................................................................21,66*
Missouri............................................................................................................................................................ 20,66
Nebraska.......................................................................................................................................................... 21,66
Netherlands................................................................................................................................................ 20,25,26
New Hampshire............................................................................................................................................. 21, Q6
New Jersey...................................................................................................................................................... 21,66
New South W ales..........................................................................................................................................
21
N ew Y o r k .............................................................. .........................................................................................20,66
New Zealand...................................................................................................................................................
20
North Carolina................................................................................................................................................ 22,66
North Dakota................................................................................................................................................. 20,66
Norway.............................................................................................................................................................
20
O hio.................................................................................................................................................................. 20,66
Oklahoma......................................................................................................................................................... 20,66
Ontario..............................................................................................................................................................
21
Oregon....... ...................................................................................................................................................... 20,66
Pennsylvania...................................................................................................................................................21,66
Portugal............................................................................................................................................................
21
20
Quebec (cotton and woolen factories).........................................................................................................
Queensland......................................................................................................................................................
21
B hode Island................................................................................................................................................... 21,66
Roum ania........................................................................................................................................................
21
R ussia...............................................................................................................................................................
21
Saskatchewan..................................................................................................................................................
21
Servia................................................................................................................................................................
20
South Carolina.................................................................................................................................................21,66
South Dakota...................................................................................................................................................
66
Spain.................................................................................................................................................................
21
Sweden..............................................................................................................................................................
20
Switzerland......................................................................................................................................................
20

Tunis............................................................................................................................................
21
Utah.............................................................................................................................................
66
21
Victoria............................................................................................................ ...........................
Virginia.........................................................................................................................................22,66
Wisconsin..................................................................................................................................... 20,66
Wyoming, eight-hour shifts by law in certain dangerous occupations in, regardless of age................
49
Young persons—
E fleet of labor legislation as regards work of............................................................... ................
8
Effect of limitation of work of...................................................................................................... 14,15
Effect of prohibition of night work upon training of, in iron and steel works.............................. 43-45
Employment of, in Austrian scythe-blade factories......................................................................45,46
Iaindustrial employment in the United States, 1900...................................................................
50
Proportion of, among all industrial employees in various European countries.............................
13
Proportion of, arppng iron and steel employees in the United States...........................................
45
Zinc ana lead industries, restrictions as to night work of young persons in, in Belgium.....................47,48