Full text of Occupational Outlook Handbook : Sales Occupations : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 2400-12

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Sales
Occupations
Reprinted from the
Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1992-93 Edition
U.S. Department of Labor
Bureau of Labor Statistics
Bulletin 2400-12


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Cashiers
(D.O.T. 209.567-014; 211.362-010, .367, .462, .467, .482; 249.467; and
294.567)

Nature of the Work
Supermarkets, department stores, movie theaters, restaurants, and
many other businesses employ cashiers to facilitate the sale of their
merchandise. Most cashiers total bills, receive money, make change,
fill out charge forms, and give receipts. Bank tellers, who perform
similar duties but work in financial institutions, are discussed else­
where in the Handbook.
Although specific job duties vary by employer, cashiers are usually
assigned to a register and given a drawer at the beginning of each
shift The drawer contains a “bank” of money. Cashiers must count
their bank to insure that it contains the correct sum of money and that
there is an adequate amount of change. At the end of their shift, they
once again count its contents and compare them with sales data. An
occasional shortage of small amounts may be overlooked, but repeat­
ed shortages are grounds for dismissal in many establishments.
Cashiers traditionally have rung up customers’ purchases using a
cash register—manually entering the price of each product the con­
sumer was buying. However, most establishments are now using
more sophisticated equipment, such as scanners and computer termi­
nals. In stores with scanners, the cashier passes the product’s Univer­
sal Product Code over the scanning device, which transmits the code
number to a computer. The computer identifies the item and its price.
In other establishments, cashiers manually enter a code into a com­
puter terminal, and a description of the item and its price appear on
the screen.
After entering all items and subtracting the value of any coupons
or special discounts, cashiers total the bill and take payment. Depend­
ing on the type of establishment, payment may be by cash, check,
charge, or increasingly, debit cards. Cashiers must know the store’s
policies and procedures for accepting each type of payment. For
checks and charges, they may have to request additional identifica­
tion from the customer or call in for an authorization. When the sale
is complete, cashiers give the appropriate change and issue a receipt
to the customer. They may also wrap or bag the purchase.
In addition to counting the contents of their drawer at the end of
their shift, cashiers usually separate charge forms, return slips,
coupons, and any other noncash items. Cashiers may also handle
returns and exchanges. They must insure that the merchandise is in
good condition and determine where and when it was purchased and
the type of payment used.
Cashiers may have other duties as well. In many supermarkets and
convenience stores, for example, cashiers weigh produce and bulk
food as well as return unwanted items to the shelves. At movie the­
aters and ticket agencies, cashiers operate ticket-dispensing machines
and answer questions. Counter and rental clerks, who perform many
similar duties, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.
Working Conditions
Many cashiers work a standard 40-hour week. However, more than
one-half of all cashiers are on part-time schedules. Hours of work often
vary depending on the needs of the employer. Generally, cashiers are
expected to work weekends, evenings, and holidays to accommodate
customers’ needs. However, because of this, many employers offer
flexible schedules. Full-time workers who work on weekends receive
time off during the week. Because the holiday season is the busiest
time for most retailers, many employers restrict the use of vacation
time from Thanksgiving through the beginning of January.
Most cashiers work indoors, usually standing in small booths or
behind counters. In addition, they are often unable to leave their
workstations without supervisory approval since they are responsible
for large sums of money. The work of cashiers can be very repetitious

2

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but improvements in machine design are being made to combat prob­
lems caused by repetitive motion.
Dealing with angry customers can be very taxing but, overall, the
job can be rewarding for those who like working with people.
Employment
Cashiers held about 2,633,000 jobs in 1990. Although employed in
nearly every industry, more than one-third of all jobs were in super­
markets and other food stores. Department stores, gasoline service
stations, drug stores, and other retail establishments also employed
large numbers of these workers. Because cashiers are needed in busi­
nesses and organizations of all types and sizes, job opportunities are
found throughout the country.
Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
Cashier jobs tend to be entry level positions requiring little or no
work experience. Although there are no specific educational require­
ments, employers filling full-time jobs often prefer applicants with a
high school diploma.
Nearly all cashiers are trained on the job. In small firms, beginners
are often trained by an experienced worker. The first day is usually
spent observing the operation and becoming familiar with the store’s
equipment, policies, and procedures. After this, trainees are assigned
to a register—frequently under the supervision of a more experienced
worker. In larger firms, trainees spend several days in classes before
being placed on the sales floor. Topics covered typically include a
description of the industry and the company, instruction on the store’s
policies, procedures, and equipment operation, and security.
Training for experienced workers is not common except when new
equipment is introduced or when procedures change. In these cases,
training is given on the job by the employer or a representative of the
equipment manufacturer.
Persons who want to become cashiers should be able to do repeti­
tious work accurately. They also need basic arithmetic skills, good
manual dexterity and, because they deal constantly with the public,
cashiers should be neat in appearance and be able to deal tactfully
and pleasantly with customers. In addition, some firms seek persons
who have operated specialized equipment or who have business
experience, such as typing or selling.

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Advancement opportunities for cashiers vary. For those working
part time, promotion may be to a full-time position. Others advance
to head cashier or cash office clerk. In addition, the job offers a good
opportunity to learn an employer’s business and so may serve as a
steppingstone to a more responsible position.
Job Outlook
Employment of cashiers is expected to increase faster than the aver­
age for all occupations through the year 2005 due to expanding
demand for goods and services by a growing population. Although
growth will account for numerous openings, most jobs will result
from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other
occupations or leave the labor force. As in the past, replacement
needs will create a significant number of job openings, for the occu­
pation is large and turnover is much higher than average. Opportuni­
ties for part-time work are expected to continue to be excellent.
Workers under the age of 25 traditionally have filled many of the
openings in this occupation. This age group, which shrank in num­
bers during the decade of the 1980’s, will rebound but account for a
slightly smaller share of the 2005 workforce than in 1990. Thus,
employers can be expected to continue efforts to attract and retain
workers by offering higher wages, more generous benefits, and more
flexible schedules. These efforts are often focused toward non-traditional groups such as retired and disabled persons.
Earnings
Cashiers have earnings ranging from the minimum wage to several
times that amount. Wages tend to be higher in areas where there is
intense competition for workers. In establishments covered by Feder­
al law, those beginning at the minimum wage earned $4.25 an hour in
1991. However, employers can pay workers younger than 20 years a
lower training wage for up to 6 months. In some States, the minimum
wage in many establishments is governed by State law, and where
State minimums are higher, the establishment must pay at least that
amount.
In 1990, median weekly earnings for full-time cashiers were about
$215. The middle 50 percent earned between $170 and $291; 10 per­
cent earned below $142; and 10 percent earned above $397.
Benefits for full-time cashiers tend to be better than for those
working part time. Cashiers often receive health and life insurance
and paid vacations. In addition, those working in retail establishments
often receive a discount on purchases and those in restaurants may
receive free or low-cost meals.
Related Occupations
Cashiers receive payment for the purchase of goods and services.
Other workers with similar duties include food counter clerks, bank
tellers, counter and rental clerks, postal service clerks, and sales clerks.
Sources of Additional Information
Details about employment opportunities are available from local
businesses and the local office of the State employment service.

Counter and Rental Clerks
(D.O.T. 216.482-030; 249.362-010; .366-010; 295.357-010, -014 and -018;
.367-010, -014, and -026; .467-010, -014, and -018; .477-010; 299.367-018;
369.367-010 and -014; .477-014; and .677-010)

Nature of the Work
Whether choosing a video tape, dropping off clothes to be
drycleaned, or renting a car, we rely on counter and rental clerks to
handle these transactions efficiently. Although specific duties vary by
establishment, counter and rental clerks are responsible for answering
questions, taking orders, receiving payments, and accepting returns.
At times, they may also sell items. (Cashiers and retail sales workers,
occupations with similar duties, are discussed elsewhere in the
Handbook.)
Regardless of where they work, counter and rental clerks must be
knowledgeable about the company’s services, policies, and proce­

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dures. Often, customers are not sure what they want. To assist them,
counter and rental clerks may explain what is available, its cost, the
rental provisions, and any promotions that are in effect. For example,
in the car rental industry, they inform customers about the types of
automobiles available and the daily and weekly rental costs.
When taking orders, counter and rental clerks use various types of
equipment. In some establishments, they write out tickets and order
forms. However, computers and bar code scanners are quickly
becoming the norm. Most computer systems are user friendly and
usually require very little data entry. Scanners “read” the product
code and display a description of the item on a computer screen.
Clerks must insure, however, that the data on the screen match the
actual product.
Counter and rental clerks also note any special instructions and
check the condition of the merchandise. In drycleaning establish­
ments for example, they inform the customer when the items will be
ready. In rental agencies, they insure that customers meet any age or
other requirements and state when and in what condition the item
must be returned. When customers come to retrieve their clothing or
return rented merchandise, counter and rental clerks calculate the fee
and accept payment. They may also inspect the item to insure the
merchandise has not been damaged.
Counter and rental clerks’ duties also vary by the industry in
which they are employed. Those employed in supermarkets and gro­
cery stores may help customers select fresh flowers, delicatessen or
bakery products, or cosmetics. In shops that rent formal wear, they
may fit and measure garments; in video stores, they often make sug­
gestions about which movie the customer might enjoy.
Working Conditions
Because firms employing counter and rental clerks generally operate
at the convenience of their customers, these workers often work night
and weekend hours. However, because of this, many employers offer
flexible schedules. Many counter and rental clerks work a 40-hour
week but nearly one-half are on part-time schedules—usually during
rush periods, such as weekends, evenings, and holidays.
Working conditions are usually pleasant; most stores and service
establishments are clean, well-lighted, and temperature controlled.
However, clerks are on their feet much of the time and may be con­
fined behind a small counter area. This job requires constant interac­
tion with the public and can be taxing—especially when things go
wrong.
Employment
Counter and rental clerks held about 215,000 jobs in 1990. About 1
clerk in 3 worked for a laundry or drycleaning establishment. Other
large employers included automobile rental firms, equipment rental
firms and leasing services, grocery stores, and video rental stores.
Counter and rental clerks are employed throughout the country but
are concentrated in metropolitan areas where renting and leasing ser­
vices are in greater demand.
Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
Counter and rental clerk jobs are primarily entry level and require lit­
tle or no experience and little formal education. However, many
employers prefer high school graduates for these positions.
In most companies, counter and rental clerks are trained on the
job. Clerks usually learn how to operate the equipment and become
familiar with the establishment’s policies and procedures under the
observation of a more experienced worker. However, some employ­
ers have formal classroom training programs lasting from a few
hours to a few weeks. Topics covered in this training usually include
a description of the industry and the company, company policies and
procedures, equipment operation, sales techniques, and customer ser­
vice.
Persons who want to become counter and rental clerks should
enjoy working with people and have the ability to deal tactfully with
difficult customers. In addition, good oral and written communica­
tion skills are essential.
Advancement opportunities vary depending on the size and type of
company. However, jobs as counter and rental clerks offer good
opportunities for workers to learn about their company’s products
3

Related Occupations
Counter and rental clerks take orders and receive payment for ser­
vices rendered. Other workers with similar duties include cashiers,
retail sales workers, food counter clerks, postal service clerks, and
bank tellers.
Sources of Additional Information
For more information about opportunities as counter and rental clerks
contact:
American Rental Association, 1900 19th St., Moline IL 61265.

Insurance Agents and Brokers
(D.O.T. 239.267 and 250.257)

Many counter and rental clerks work for laundry or dry-cleaning
establishments.

and business practices. These jobs can be steppingstones to more
responsible positions, because it is common in many establishments
to promote counter and rental clerks into assistant manager positions.
Job Outlook
Employment in this occupation is expected to increase faster than the
average for all occupations through the year 2005 due to anticipated
employment growth in the industries where they are concentrated.
Despite this growth, however, most job openings will arise from the
need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other occupa­
tions or leave the labor force.
In recent years, employment in rental and leasing services has sky­
rocketed—creating thousands of new jobs for counter and rental
clerks. Like many other occupations in retail trade and food service,
workers under the age of 25 traditionally have filled many of the
openings in this occupation. This age group which shrank in numbers
during the decade of the 1980’s, will rebound but accounts for a
slightly smaller share of the 2005 workforce than in 1990. Thus
employers can be expected to improve efforts to attract and retain
workers and to increase the use of computerized equipment. To
attract workers, employers are likely to offer higher wages and more
generous benefits. To retain them, more emphasis will be placed on
training and advancement opportunities.
Earnings
Counter and rental clerks typically start at the minimum wage, which,
in establishments covered by Federal law, was $4.25 an hour in 1991.
Employers can pay workers younger than 20 years a lower training
wage for up to 6 months. However, in areas where there is intense
competition for workers, wages are often much higher. In addition to
their wages, some counter and rental clerks receive commissions
based on the number of contracts they complete or services they sell.
Retail counter clerks earned a median weekly income of $269 in
1990. The middle 50 percent earned between $197 and $366 a week.
The bottom 10 percent earned less than $160; the top 10 percent
earned more than $503.
Full-time workers typically receive health and life insurance and
paid vacation and sick leave. Benefits for counter and rental clerks
who work part time tend to be significantly less than for those who
work full time. Many companies offer both full- and part-time
employees discounts on the services they provide.
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Nature of the Work
Most people have their first contact with an insurance company
through an insurance agent or broker. These professionals help indi­
viduals or companies select the right policy for their needs. Insurance
agents and brokers sell policies that provide individuals and business­
es with financial protection against loss. They plan for the financial
security of individuals, families, and businesses; advise about insur­
ance protection for automobiles, homes, businesses, or other proper­
ties; prepare reports and maintain records; and help policyholders
settle insurance claims. Specialists in group policies may help an
employer provide employees the opportunity to buy insurance
through payroll deductions. Insurance agents may work for one com­
pany or as independent agents selling for several companies. Insur­
ance brokers do not sell for a particular company but place insurance
policies for their clients with the company that offers the best rate and
coverage.
Insurance agents sell one or more of several types of insurance:
Life, property/casualty, health, disability, and long-term care. Life
insurance agents offer policies that pay survivors when a policyholder
dies. Depending on the policyholder’s circumstances, a whole-life
policy also can be designed to provide retirement income, funds for
the education of children, or other benefits. (Life insurance agents
and brokers are sometimes called life underwriters; see the statement
on underwriters elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Property/casualty insurance agents and brokers sell policies that
protect individuals and businesses from financial loss as a result of
automobile accidents, fire or theft, or other losses. Property/casualty
insurance can also cover workers’ compensation, product liability, or
medical malpractice. Many life and property/casualty insurance
agents also sell health insurance policies covering the costs of hospi­
tal and medical care or loss of income due to illness or injury.
An increasing number of insurance agents and brokers offer com­
prehensive financial planning services to their clients, such as retire­
ment planning counseling. As a result, many insurance agents and
brokers are also licensed to sell mutual funds, annuities, and other
securities.
Since insurance sales agents obtain many new accounts through
referrals, it is important that agents maintain regular contact with
their clients to ensure their financial needs are being met as personal
and business needs change. Developing a satisfied clientele who will
recommend an agent’s services to other potential customers is a key
to success in this field.
Working Conditions
Most insurance agents and brokers work in small offices, contacting
clients and providing insurance policy information. However, most of
their time is spent outside their offices, traveling locally to meet with
clients and close sales. They generally arrange their own hours of
work, and often schedule evening and weekend appointments for the
convenience of clients. Many work more than 40 hours a week.
Employment
Insurance agents and brokers held about 439,000 jobs in 1990. Many
work part time, especially beginners who have other jobs while they

attempt to build up a clientele. Many agents and brokers are selfemployed. While most agents specialize in life insurance, a growing
number (called multiline agents) offer life, property/casualty, and
health and disability policies. The following tabulation shows the per­
cent distribution of wage and salary jobs by category of insurance.
Percent

Total........................................................................................

100

Life insurance.............................................................................
Insurance agents, brokers, and services.....................................
Fire, marine, and casualty insurance..........................................
Medical service and health insurance.........................................
Other industries..........................................................................

46
36
10
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Agents and brokers are employed in cities and towns throughout
the country, but most work in or near large population centers. Some
insurance agents and brokers are employed in the headquarters of
insurance companies, but most work out of local company offices or
independent agencies.
Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
Although many companies prefer college graduates—particularly
those who have majored in business or economics—for jobs selling
insurance, some hire high school graduates with potential or proven
sales ability or those who have been successful in other types of
work. In fact, most entrants have transferred from other occupations.
Understandably, they tend to be older, on average, than entrants to
other occupations.
College training may help the agent or broker grasp the fundamen­
tals and procedures of insurance selling more quickly. Many colleges
and universities offer courses in insurance, and some schools offer a
bachelor’s degree in insurance. College courses in finance, mathe­
matics, accounting, economics, business law, government, and busi­
ness administration enable the insurance agent or broker to
understand how social, marketing, and economic conditions relate to
the insurance industry. It is important for insurance agents and bro­
kers to keep current with issues concerning clients. Changes in tax
laws, government benefit programs, and other State and Federal regu­
lations can affect how insurance agents conduct business. Courses in
psychology, sociology, and public speaking can prove useful in
improving sales techniques. In addition, computer literacy is very
important. The use of computers to provide instantaneous informa­
tion on a wide variety of financial products has greatly improved
agents’ and brokers’ efficiency and enabled them to devote more time
to clients.
All insurance agents and brokers must obtain a license in the States
where they plan to sell insurance. In most States, licenses are issued
only to applicants who complete specified courses and then pass writ­
ten examinations covering insurance fundamentals and the State

Most insurance agents and brokers work in small offices.

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insurance laws. Agents and brokers who plan to sell mutual funds and
other securities must also obtain a separate securities license. New
agents usually receive training at the agencies where they work and,
frequently, also at the insurance company’s home office. Beginners
sometimes attend company-sponsored classes to prepare for examina­
tions. Others study on their own and accompany experienced agents
when they call on prospective clients.
As the diversity of financial products sold by insurance agents
and brokers increases, employers are placing greater emphasis on
continuing professional education. Agents and brokers can hone
their practical selling skills and broaden their knowledge of insur­
ance and other financial services and planning by taking courses at
colleges and universities and attending institutes, conferences, and
seminars sponsored by insurance organizations. A number of orga­
nizations offer professional designation programs which certify
expertise in specialties such as life, health, or property and casualty
insurance or financial consulting. Professional designation assures
clients and employers that an agent has a thorough understanding of
the relevant specialty. Many professional societies now require
agents to commit to continuing education in order to retain designa­
tion. A growing number of States are also making continuing educa­
tion mandatory.
Insurance agents and brokers should be enthusiastic, outgoing,
self-confident, disciplined, hard working, and able to communicate
effectively. They should be able to inspire customer confidence.
Some companies give personality tests to prospective employees
because personality attributes are important in sales work. Since they
usually work without supervision, agents and brokers must be able to
plan their time well and have the initiative to locate new clients.
An insurance agent who shows sales ability and leadership may
become a sales manager in a local office. A few advance to agency
superintendent or executive positions. However, many who have built
up a good clientele prefer to remain in sales work. Some, particularly
in the property/casualty field, establish their own independent agen­
cies or brokerage firms.
Job Outlook
Employment of insurance agents and brokers is expected to grow
about as fast as the average for all occupations through the year 2005.
Most job openings are expected to result from the need to replace
agents and brokers who leave the occupation. Many beginners find it
difficult to establish a sufficiently large clientele in this highly com­
petitive business. Opportunities should be best for ambitious people
who enjoy sales work and who develop expertise in a wide range of
insurance and financial services.
Future demand for agents and brokers depends on the volume of
sales of insurance and other financial products. The growing number
of working women should increase insurance sales. Rising incomes
as well as a concern for financial security also may stimulate sales of
mutual funds, variable annuities, and other financial products and ser­
vices. Growing demand for long-term healthcare and pension benefits
for retirees—an increasing proportion of the population—should spur
insurance sales. Sales of property/casualty insurance should rise as
more people seek coverage not only for their homes, cars, and valu­
ables, but also for expensive, advanced technology products such as
home computers. As new businesses emerge and existing firms
expand coverage, sales of commercial insurance should increase. In
addition, complex types of commercial coverage such as product lia­
bility, workers’ compensation, employee benefits, and pollution lia­
bility insurance are increasingly in demand.
Employment of agents and brokers will not keep pace with the ris­
ing level of insurance sales because many companies and agencies
are diversifying their marketing techniques to include some direct
mail or telephone sales, as well as other methods. Also, customer ser­
vice representatives are increasingly assuming some sales functions,
such as expanding accounts, and, occasionally, generating new
accounts. The trend toward multiline agents, self-insurance, and
group policies also will cause employment to rise more slowly than
the volume of insurance sales. In addition, large firms may increas­
ingly hire risk managers to analyze their insurance needs and select
the best policies.
5

Most individuals and businesses consider insurance a necessity,
regardless of economic conditions. Therefore, agents are not likely to
face unemployment because of a recession.
Earnings
The median annual income of salaried insurance sales workers was
$26,700 in 1990. The lowest 10 percent earned $14,900 or less, while
the top 10 percent earned over $58,700. Most independent agents are
paid on a commission only basis, whereas sales workers who are
employees of an agency may be paid in one of three ways: Salary
only, salary plus commission, or salary plus bonus. Bonuses are usu­
ally awarded when employer agents meet their production goals or
when an agency’s profit goals are met. The amount of the commis­
sion depends on the type and amount of insurance sold, and whether
the transaction is a new policy or a renewal. Some agents involved
with financial planning receive an hourly fee for their services rather
than a commission.
Earnings usually increase rapidly with experience. According to a
1989 survey of the insurance industry conducted by the Life Insur­
ance Marketing Research Association, agents in their second year
averaged $20,100, agents in their third year averaged $27,700, agents
in their fourth year averaged $30,200, while agents with 5 or more
years experience averaged $50,300 annually. Sales agents who work
primarily for one agency (captive agents) may also obtain a broker’s
license, enabling them to earn additional income on a part-time basis.
Agency-paid benefits to sales agent employees generally include
vacations and holidays, continuing education, group insurance plans,
and office space and support services. Many agencies also pay for
automobile and transportation expenses, conventions and meetings,
promotion and marketing expenses, and retirement plans. Independent
agents working for insurance agencies receive fewer benefits. They are
typically responsible for their own travel and automobile expenses, life
insurance and retirement plans, and receive no paid holidays or vaca­
tions, but their agencies often pay for office space and support ser­
vices, education, and promotion and marketing expenses.
Related Occupations
Other workers who sell financial products or services include real
estate agents and brokers, securities and financial services sales rep­
resentatives, financial advisors, estate planning specialists, and manu­
facturers’ sales workers.
Sources of Additional Information
General occupational information about insurance agents and brokers
is available from the home office of many life and casualty insurance
companies. Information, on State licensing requirements may be
obtained from the department of insurance at any State capital.
Information about a career as a life insurance agent or broker also
is available from:
»■ National Association of Life Underwriters, 1922 F St. NW., Washington,
DC 20006.

For information about insurance sales careers in independent agen­
cies and brokerages, contact:
Independent Insurance Agents of America, 127 South Peyton St., Alexan­
dria, VA 22314.
National Association of Professional Insurance Agents, 400 N. Washington
St., Alexandria, VA 22314.

Manufacturers’ and Wholesale Sales
Representatives
(List of D.O.T. codes available on request from the Chief, Division of Occu­
pational Outlook, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, DC 20212.)

Nature of the Work
A bag of potato chips, a piece of construction equipment, a romance
novel. These and thousands of other products are bought and sold
each day. Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives are an
important part of this process. They market their company’s products
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to manufacturers, wholesale and retail establishments, government
agencies, and other institutions. Regardless of the type of product
they sell, the primary job of these sales representatives is to interest
wholesale and retail buyers and purchasing agents in their merchan­
dise. (Retail sales workers, who sell directly to consumers, are dis­
cussed elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Depending on where they work, these sales representatives have dif­
ferent job titles. Many of those representing manufacturers are referred
to as manufacturers’ representatives and those employed by whole­
salers generally are called sales representatives. Those selling techni­
cal products, for both manufacturers and wholesalers, are usually
called industrial sales workers or sales engineers. In addition to those
employed directly by firms, manufacturers’ agents are self-employed
sales workers who contract their services to all types of companies.
Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives spend much of
their time traveling to and visiting with prospective buyers. During a
sales call, they discuss the customers’ needs and suggest how their
merchandise or services can meet those needs. They may show sam­
ples or catalogs that describe items that their company stocks and
inform customers about prices, availability, and how their products
can save money and improve productivity. In addition, because of the
vast number of manufacturers and wholesalers selling similar prod­
ucts, they try to emphasize the unique qualities of the products and
services offered by their company. They also take orders and resolve
any problems or complaints with the merchandise.
These sales representatives may have additional duties as well. For
example, sales engineers, who are among the most highly trained
sales workers, typically sell products whose installation and optimal
use require a great deal of technical expertise and support—products
such as material handling equipment, numerical-control machinery,
and mainframe computers. In addition to providing information on
their firm’s products, these workers help prospective buyers with
technical problems. For example, they may recommend improved
materials and machinery for a firm’s manufacturing process, draw up
plans of proposed machinery layouts, and estimate cost savings from
the use of their equipment. They then present this information and
negotiate the sale, a process that may take several months. In addi­
tion, they may work with engineers in their own companies, adapting
products to a customer’s special needs.
Increasingly, sales representatives who lack technical expertise
work as a team with a technical expert. For example, a sales represen­
tative will make the preliminary contact with customers, introduce his
or her company’s product, and close the sale. However, the technical­
ly trained person will attend the sales presentation to explain and
answer technical questions and concerns. In this way, the sales repre­
sentative is able to spend more time maintaining and soliciting
accounts and less time acquiring technical knowledge. After the sale,
sales representatives may make frequent followup visits to ensure
that the equipment is functioning properly and may even help train
customers’ employees to operate and maintain new equipment.
Those selling consumer goods often suggest how and where their
merchandise should be displayed. Working with retailers, they may
help arrange promotional programs and advertising.
Obtaining new accounts is an important part of this job. Sales rep­
resentatives follow leads suggested by other clients, from advertise­
ments in trade journals, and from participation in trade shows and
conferences. At times, they make “cold calls” upon potential clients.
Often, this may require meeting with and entertaining prospective
clients during evenings and weekends.
Sales representatives also analyze sales statistics, prepare reports,
and handle administrative duties, such as filing their expense account
reports, scheduling appointments, and making travel plans. They also
study literature about new and existing products and monitor the
sales, prices, and new products of their competitors.
In addition to all these duties, manufacturers’ agents must manage
their businesses. This requires organizational skills as well as knowl­
edge of accounting, marketing, and administration.
Working Conditions
Some manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives have large
territories and do considerable traveling. Because a sales region may

Jobs for manufacturers' and wholesale sales representatives are likely to
be most plentiful in wholesale firms.
cover several States, they may be away from home for several days
or weeks at a time. Others work near their “home base” and do most
of their traveling by automobile. Due to the nature of the work and
the amount of travel, sales representatives typically work more than
40 hours per week.
Although the hours are long and often irregular, most sales repre­
sentatives have the freedom to determine their own schedule. As a
result, they may be able to arrange their appointments so that they
can have time off when they want it.
Dealing with different types of people can be stimulating but
demanding. In addition, sales representatives often face competition
from representatives of other companies as well as from fellow work­
ers. Companies may set goals or quotas that the representatives are
expected to meet. Because their earnings depend upon commissions,
manufacturers’ agents are also under the added pressure to maintain
and expand their clientele.
Employment
Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives held about
1,944,000 jobs in 1990. Two of every three worked in wholesale
trade—mostly for distributors of machinery and equipment, groceries
and related products, and motor vehicles and parts. Others were
employed in manufacturing and mining. Due to the diversity of prod­
ucts and services sold, employment opportunities are available in
every part of the country.
In addition to those working directly for a firm, many were selfemployed manufacturers’ agents who worked for a straight commis­
sion based on the value of their sales. However, these workers
generally gained experience and recognition with a manufacturer or
wholesaler prior to going into business for themselves.
Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
The background needed for sales jobs varies by product line and mar­
ket. A college degree is increasingly desirable for a job as a sales rep­
resentative. Nevertheless, many employers hire individuals with
previous sales experience who do not have a college degree. In fact,
for many consumer products, such as food, sales ability and familiari­
ty with brands are more important than a degree. Firms selling indus­
trial products, on the other hand, often require a degree in science or
engineering in addition to industry experience. As a result, most
entrants to this occupation, even those with college degrees, transfer
from other occupations and tend to be older than entrants to other
occupations.
Many companies have formal training programs for beginning
sales representatives that last up to 2 years. In some programs,
trainees rotate among jobs in plants and offices to learn all phases of
production, installation, and distribution of the product. In others,
trainees take formal classroom instruction at the plant, followed by
on-the-job training under the supervision of a field sales manager.
In some firms, new workers are trained by accompanying more

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experienced workers on their sales calls. As these workers gain famil­
iarity with the firm’s products and clients, they are given increasing
responsibility until they are eventually assigned their own territory.
These workers must stay abreast of new merchandise and the
changing needs of their customers. They may attend trade shows
where new products are displayed or conferences and conventions
where they meet with other sales representatives and clients to dis­
cuss new product developments. In addition, many companies spon­
sor meetings of their entire sales force where presentations are made
on sales performance, product development, and profitability.
Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives should be goal
oriented, persuasive, and able to work independently. A pleasant per­
sonality and appearance, the ability to get along well with people, and
problem-solving skills also are important. In addition, patience and
perseverance are needed because completing a sale can take several
months. Because these workers may be on their feet for long periods
and may have to carry heavy sample cases, some physical stamina is
necessary. Sales representatives should also enjoy traveling because
much of their time is spent visiting current and prospective clients.
Frequently, promotion takes the form of an assignment to a larger
account or territory where commissions are likely to be greater. Expe­
rienced sales representatives may move into jobs as sales trainers—
workers who train new employees on selling techniques and
company policies and procedures. Those who have good sales
records and leadership ability may advance to sales supervisor or dis­
trict manager.
In addition to advancement opportunities within a firm, some go
into business for themselves as manufacturers’ agents. Others find
opportunities in buying, purchasing, advertising, or marketing
research.
Job Outlook
Employment of manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives is
expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations
through the year 2005 as the economy expands and as demand for
durable and nondurable goods increases. In addition to growth arising
from increasing demand for these products, many openings will result
each year as experienced sales workers transfer to other occupations,
retire, or stop working for other reasons.
Although overall employment is expected to increase significantly,
the outlook varies by industry and by type of sales job. Jobs are likely
to be most plentiful in wholesale firms, where the majority are
already employed. A growing number of firms will rely on whole­
salers and manufacturers’ agents to market their products as a way to
control their costs and expand their list of customers. However, the
nature of many products does not allow them to be marketed through
wholesalers. Those interested in this occupation should keep in mind
that direct selling opportunities in manufacturing are likely to be best
for products with strong demand, such as consumer products or com­
puters and related supplies and equipment.
Opportunities for manufacturers’ agents will also rise in response
to the anticipated increase in contracting out of the sales function. In
addition, these workers will benefit from the increased consumption
of imported goods because it is often more cost efficient for importers
to delegate their sales responsibilities than to hire a sales force. How­
ever, opportunities for self-employment vary by industry; some
industries such as the pharmaceutical industry traditionally do not use
manufacturers’ agents.
Although most manufacturers’ representatives work full time,
companies will increasingly use part-time representatives. As the
work force changes, firms anticipate difficulty in finding workers
with sufficient expertise and experience. To fill this gap, many estab­
lishments are using nontraditional workers—usually retirees looking
for part-time work—as an integral part of their sales force.
Although overall opportunities are expected to be good, those
entering this field should remember that sales are affected by chang­
ing economic conditions and consumer preferences. As a result,
employment opportunities and earnings may fluctuate from year to
year. Prospects will be best for those with the appropriate knowledge
or technical expertise as well as the personal traits necessary for suc­
cessful selling.
7

Earnings
Compensation methods vary significantly by the type of firm and
product sold. However, most employers use a combination of salary
and commission or salary plus bonus. Commissions are usually based
on the amount of sales, whereas bonuses may depend on individual
performance, on the performance of all sales workers in the group or
district, or on the company’s performance.
Median annual earnings of full-time manufacturers’ and wholesale
sales representatives were about $31,000 in 1990. The middle 50 per­
cent earned between $21,600 and $44,100 per year. The bottom 10
percent earned less than $15,500; the top 10 percent earned more than
$59,000 per year. Earnings vary by experience and the type of goods
or services sold, as shown in table 1.
Table 1. Compensation by position and industry group

Sales trainee.....
Middle-level....
Top-level..........

Consumer goods

Industrial goods

Services

$23,297
37,882
63,355

$28,455
39,614
54,573

$22,506
35,082
56,764

Compensation includes base salary, commission, and bonuses.
SOURCE:

Sales & Marketing Management, 1990 Survey of Selling Cost

In addition to their earnings, sales representatives working for an
employer are usually reimbursed for expenses such as transportation
costs, meals, hotels, and entertaining customers. They also often
receive benefits such as health and life insurance, a pension plan,
vacation and sick leave, personal use of a company car, and “frequent
flyer” mileage. Some companies offer incentives such as free vaca­
tion trips or gifts for outstanding sales workers.
Unlike those working directly for a manufacturer or wholesaler,
manufacturers’ agents work strictly on commission. Depending on
the type of product they are selling, their experience in the field, and
the number of clients, their earnings can be significantly higher or
lower than those working in direct sales. In addition, because manu­
facturers’ agents are self-employed, they must pay their own travel
and entertainment expenses as well as provide for their own benefits,
which can be a significant cost.
Related Occupations
Manufacturers’ and wholesale sales representatives must have sales
ability and knowledge of the products they sell. Workers in other
occupations that require similar skills are retail, services, real estate,
insurance, and securities sales workers, as well as wholesale and
retail buyers.
Sources of Additional Information
Information on manufacturers’ agents is available from:
«■ Manufacturers’ Agents National Association, 23016 Mill Creek Rd., P.O.
Box 3467, Laguna Hills, CA 92654.

Real Estate Agents, Brokers,
and Appraisers
(D.O.T. 191.267-010, 250.157, .357 except -022)

Nature of the Work
The purchase or sale of a home, or an investment property, is not only
one of the most important financial events in peoples’ lives, but one
of the most complex transactions as well. As a result, people general­
ly seek the help of real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers when
buying or selling real estate.
Real estate agents and brokers have a thorough knowledge of the
housing market in their community. They know which neighborhoods
will best fit their clients’ needs and budgets. They are familiar with
8

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local zoning and tax laws, and know where to obtain financing.
Agents and brokers also act as a medium for price negotiations
between buyer and seller.
Brokers are independent business people who not only sell real
estate owned by others, but also rent and manage properties for a fee.
In closing sales, brokers often provide buyers with information on
loans to finance their purchase. They also arrange for title searches
and for meetings between buyers and sellers when details of the
transactions are agreed upon and the new owners take possession. A
broker’s knowledge, resourcefulness, and creativity in arranging
financing that is most favorable to the prospective buyer often mean
the difference between success and failure in closing a sale. In some
cases, agents assume the responsibilities in closing sales, but, in
many areas, this is done by lawyers or lenders. Brokers also manage
their own offices, advertise properties, and handle other business mat­
ters. Some combine other types of work, such as the sale of insurance
or the practice of law, with their real estate business.
Real estate agents generally are independent sales workers who
provide their services to a licensed broker on a contract basis. In
return, the broker pays the agent a portion of the commission earned
from property sold through the firm by the agent. Today, relatively
few agents receive salaries as employees of a broker or realty firm.
Instead, most derive their income solely from commissions.
In selling real estate, brokers and agents generally first meet with
potential buyers to get a feeling for the type of home they would like
and can afford. Before showing properties to the buyer, it is very
important that the broker or agent knows all the features of the prop­
erty and understands the wants and needs of the buyer. Then, they
take the buyer to see a number of homes that are likely to meet the
needs and income of the buyer. Because buying real estate is such an
important part of the average person’s life, agents may have to meet
several times with a prospective buyer to discuss properties. In
answering questions, agents emphasize those selling points that are
likely to be most important to the buyer. To a young family looking at
a house, for example, they may point out the convenient floor plan
and the fact that schools and shopping centers are close by. To a
potential investor seeking the tax advantages of owning a rental prop­
erty, they may point out the proximity to the city and the ease of find­
ing a renter. If bargaining over price becomes necessary, agents must
carefully follow the seller’s instructions and may have to present
counteroffers in order to get the best possible price.
Once the contract has been signed by both parties, the real estate
broker or agent must see to it that all special terms of the contract are
carried out before the closing date. For example, if the seller has
agreed to a home inspection or a termite and radon inspection, the
agent must make sure that this is done. Also, if the seller has agreed
to any repairs, the broker or agent must see to it that they have been
made, otherwise the sale cannot be completed. While many other
details are handled by loan officers, attorneys, or other persons, the
agent must check to make sure that they are done.
There is more to agents’ and brokers’ jobs, however, than just
making a sale. Because they must have properties to sell, they spend
a significant amount of time obtaining “listings” (owner agreements
to place properties for sale with the firm). They spend much time on
the telephone exploring leads gathered from various sources, includ­
ing personal contacts. When listing property for sale, agents and bro­
kers make comparisons with similar properties that have been sold
recently to determine its fair market value.
Most real estate agents and brokers sell residential property. A few,
usually in large firms or specialized small firms, sell commercial,
industrial, agricultural, or other types of real estate. Each specialty
requires knowledge of that particular type of property and clientele.
Selling or leasing business property, for example, requires an under­
standing of leasing practices, business trends, and location needs.
Agents who sell or lease industrial properties must know about trans­
portation, utilities, and labor supply. To sell residential properties, the
agent must know the location of schools, religious institutions, shop­
ping facilities, and public transportation, and be familiar with tax
rates and insurance coverage. Agents and brokers increasingly use
computers to generate lists of properties for sale, their location and
description, and to identify available sources of financing.

Real estate transactions involve substantial financial commitments,
so parties to the transactions usually seek the advice of real estate
appraisers, objective experts who do not have a vested interest in the
property. An appraisal is an unbiased estimate of the quality, value,
and best use of a specific property. Appraisals may be used by
prospective sellers to set a competitive price, by a lending institution
to estimate the market value of a property as a condition for a mort­
gage loan, or by local governments to determine the assessed value of
a property for tax purposes. Many real estate appraisers are employ­
ees of banks, savings and loan associations, mortgage companies, and
multiservice real estate companies, while others work for indepen­
dent real estate appraisal firms that appraise property for a fee.
During an inspection, real estate appraisers evaluate the quality of
the construction, the overall condition of the property, and its func­
tional design. They gather information on properties by taking mea­
surements, interviewing persons familiar with the properties’ history,
and searching public records of sales, leases, assessments, and other
transactions. They then estimate the present cost of reproducing any
structures on the properties and how much the value of structures
may have depreciated over time. Taking into consideration the loca­
tion of the properties, current market conditions, and real estate
trends or impending changes that could influence the future value of
the properties, appraisers arrive at estimates of their value. Depend­
ing on the purpose of the appraisal, they may estimate the market
value of the property, the insurable value, the investment value, or
another kind of value. Appraisers often prepare formal reports that
document their findings.
Real estate appraisers often specialize in certain types of proper­
ties. Most appraise only homes, but others specialize in appraising
apartment or office buildings, shopping centers, or a variety of other
types of commercial, industrial, or agricultural properties.
Working Conditions
Although real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers generally work in
offices, much of their time is spent outside the office—showing prop­
erties to customers, analyzing properties for sale, meeting with
prospective clients, researching the state of the market, inspecting
properties for appraisal, and performing a wide range of other duties.
Brokers provide office space, but agents generally furnish their own
automobiles.

Real estate agents spend much time on the telephone exploring listing
leads.

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Agents, brokers, and appraisers often work more than a standard
40-hour week; almost one-half worked 50 hours or more a week in
1990. They often work evenings and weekends to suit the conve­
nience of their clients.
Employment
Real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers held about 413,000 jobs in
1990. Many worked part time, combining their real estate activities
with other careers. Most were self-employed, working on a commis­
sion basis.
Most real estate and appraisal firms are relatively small; indeed,
some are a one-person business. Some large real estate firms have
several hundred real estate agents operating out of many branch
offices. Many brokers have franchise agreements with national or
regional real estate organizations. Under this type of arrangement,
similar to many fast-food restaurant operations, the broker pays a fee
in exchange for the privilege of using the more widely known name
of the parent organization. Although franchised brokers often receive
help in training salespeople and in running their offices, they bear the
ultimate responsibility for the success or failure of the firm.
Real estate is sold and appraised in all areas, but employment is
concentrated in large urban areas and in smaller but rapidly growing
communities.
Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
Real estate agents and brokers must be licensed in every State and in
the District of Columbia. All States require prospective agents to be
a high school graduate, be at least 18 years old, and pass a written
test. The examination—more comprehensive for brokers than for
agents—includes questions on basic real estate transactions and on
laws affecting the sale of property. Most States require candidates for
the general sales license to complete at least 30 hours of classroom
instruction and those seeking the broker’s license to complete 90
hours of formal training in addition to a specified amount of experi­
ence in selling real estate (generally 1 to 3 years). Some States waive
the experience requirements for the broker’s license for applicants
who have a bachelor’s degree in real estate. A small but increasing
number of States require that agents have 60 hours of college cred­
it—roughly the equivalent of an associate degree. State licenses gen­
erally must be renewed every year or two, usually without
reexamination. Many States, however, require continuing education
for license renewal.
The Federal Government requires that appraisers of most types of
real estate be State licensed or certified. State requirements for
appraisers must meet Federal standards, but States are free to set
more stringent requirements. Appraisers must be “certified” to be
able to appraise property involved in any federally related transac­
tion of $ 1 million or more. Formal courses, appraisal experience, and
a satisfactory score on an examination are needed to be certified, but
college education may be substituted for a portion of the experience
requirement. “Licensed” appraisers, who meet somewhat less strin­
gent requirements, may appraise residential properties containing up
to four units.
Individuals enter real estate appraisal from a variety of back­
grounds. Traditionally, persons enter from real estate sales, manage­
ment, and finance positions. However, a growing number of people
are entering appraiser jobs directly from college. College courses in
real estate, finance and business administration, economics, and
English are helpful. Trainee appraisers usually assist experienced
appraisers until they become licensed.
Persons who take real estate agent, broker, and appraiser positions
are older, on average, than entrants to most other occupations. Many
homemakers and retired persons are attracted to real estate sales by the
flexible and part-time work schedules characteristic of this field and
may enter, leave, and later reenter the occupation, depending on the
strength of the real estate market, on family responsibilities, and on
other personal circumstances. In addition to those who are entering or
reentering the labor force, some transfer into real estate jobs from a
wide range of occupations, including clerical and other sales jobs.
As real estate transactions have become more complex, many firms
have turned to college graduates to fill positions. A laige number of
9

agents, brokers, and appraisers have some college training, and the
number of college graduates selling real estate has risen substantially
in recent years. However, personality traits are fully as important as
academic background. Brokers look for applicants who possess such
characteristics as a pleasant personality, honesty, and a neat appear­
ance. Maturity, tact, and enthusiasm for the job are required in order
to motivate prospective customers in this keenly competitive field.
Agents also should be well organized and detail oriented as well as
have a good memory for names and faces and business details, such
as taxes, zoning regulations, and local land-use laws.
Persons interested in beginning jobs as real estate agents often
apply in their own communities, where their knowledge of local
neighborhoods is an advantage. The beginner usually learns the prac­
tical aspects of the job, including the use of computers to locate or list
available properties or identify available sources of financing, under
the direction of an experienced agent.
Many firms offer formal training programs for both beginners and
experienced agents. Larger firms generally offer more extensive pro­
grams than smaller firms. Over 1,000 universities, colleges, and
junior colleges offer courses in real estate. At some, a student can
earn an associate or bachelor’s degree with a major in real estate; sev­
eral offer advanced degrees. Many local real estate boards that are
members of the National Association of Realtors sponsor courses
covering the fundamentals and legal aspects of the field. Advanced
courses in appraisal, mortgage financing, property development and
management, and other subjects also are available through various
National Association of Realtor affiliates.
Many real estate appraisers voluntarily earn professional designa­
tions that represent formal recognition of their professional compe­
tence and achievements. A number of appraiser organizations have
programs that, through a combination of experience, professional
education, and examinations, lead to the award of such designations.
Among the more common are various designations awarded by the
Appraisal Institute and the American Society of Appraisers.
Trained and experienced agents can advance in many large firms to
sales or general manager. Persons who have received their broker’s
license may open their own offices. Others with experience and train­
ing in estimating property value may become real estate appraisers, and
people familiar with operating and maintaining rental properties may
become property or real estate managers. Agents, brokers, and apprais­
ers who gain general experience in real estate and a thorough knowl­
edge of business conditions and property values in their localities may
enter mortgage financing or real estate investment counseling.
Job Outlook
Employment of real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers is expect­
ed to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through
the year 2005 as a result of the growing volume of sales of residen­
tial and commercial properties. However, most job openings will
occur each year as workers transfer to other occupations or leave the
labor force. Because turnover is high, real estate sales positions
should continue to be relatively easy to obtain. Not everyone is suc­
cessful in this highly competitive field, however; many beginners
become discouraged by their inability to close a sufficient number
of sales and subsequently leave the occupation. Well-trained,
ambitious people who enjoy selling should have the best chance for
success.
Employment growth in this field will stem primarily from
increased demand for home purchases and rental units. Shifts in the
age distribution of the population over the next 15 years will result
in a large number of persons in the prime working ages (25-54 years
old) with careers and family responsibilities. This is the most geo­
graphically mobile group in our society and the one that traditional­
ly makes most of the home purchases. As their incomes rise, these
people also may be expected to invest in additional real estate.
Employment of real estate agents, brokers, and appraisers is sen­
sitive to swings in the economy. During periods of declining eco­
nomic activity and tight credit, the volume of sales and the resulting
demand for sales workers may decline. During these periods, the
earnings of agents, brokers, and appraisers decline, and many work
fewer hours or leave the occupation.
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Earnings
Commissions on sales are the main source of earnings of real estate
agents and brokers—few receive a salary. The rate of commission
varies according to the type of property and its value; the percentage
paid on the sale of farm and commercial properties or unimproved
land usually is higher than that paid for selling a home.
Commissions may be divided among several agents and brokers.
The broker and the agent in the firm that obtained the listing general­
ly share their part of the commission when the property is sold; the
broker and the agent in the firm that made the sale also generally
share their part of the commission. Although an agent’s share varies
greatly from one firm to another, often it is about half of the total
amount received by the firm. The agent who both lists and sells the
property maximizes his or her commission.
According to a National Association of Realtors survey, the medi­
an income of full-time real estate agents was about $19,000 a year in
1990. Real estate brokers had a median gross personal income (after
expenses) of $50,000 a year. The most successful agents and brokers
earn considerably more. Some firms, especially the large ones, fur­
nish group life, health, and accident insurance.
Income usually increases as an agent gains experience, but indi­
vidual ability, economic conditions, and the type and location of the
property also affect earnings. Sales workers who are active in com­
munity organizations and local real estate boards can broaden their
contacts and increase their earnings. A beginner’s earnings often are
irregular because a few weeks or even months may go by without a
sale. Although some brokers allow an agent a drawing account
against future earnings, this practice is not usual with new employ­
ees. The beginner, therefore, should have enough money to live on
for about 6 months or until commissions increase.
Related Occupations
Selling expensive items such as homes requires maturity, tact, and a
sense of responsibility. Other sales workers who find these character
traits important in their work include automotive sales workers, secu­
rities and financial services sales workers, insurance agents and bro­
kers, yacht brokers, travel agents, and manufacturers’ representatives.
Other appraisers specialize in performing many types of appraisals
besides real estate, including aircraft, antiques and fine arts, business
valuations, and yachts.
Sources of Additional Information
Details on licensing requirements for real estate agents, brokers, and
appraisers are available from most local real estate and appraiser
organizations or from the State real estate commission or board.
For more information about opportunities in real estate work, contact;
National Association of Realtors, 875 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL 60611.

Information on careers and licensing and certification requirements
in real estate appraising is available from:
»■ Appraisal Institute, 875 North Michigan Ave., Suite 2400, Chicago, IL
60611-1980.
»■ American Society of Appraisers, P.O. Box 17265, Washington, DC 20041.

Retail Sales Workers
(List of D.O.T. codes available on request from the Chief, Division of Occu­
pational Outlook, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Washington, DC 20212.)

Nature of the Work
Millions of dollars are spent each day on all types of merchandise—
everything from sweaters and cosmetics to lumber and plumbing sup­
plies. Sales workers are employed by virtually every type of retailer
to assist customers in the selection and purchase of these items.
Whether selling shoes, computer equipment, or clothing, a sales
worker’s primary job is to interest customers in the merchandise. This
may be done by describing the product’s features, demonstrating its
use, or showing various models and colors. For some jobs, particular­
ly those selling expensive and complex items, special knowledge or

skills are needed. Workers who sell personal computers, for example,
must have sufficient knowledge of electronics to explain to customers
the features of various brands and models, the meaning of manufac­
turers’ specifications, and the types of software that are available.
In addition to selling, most retail sales workers make out sales
checks; receive cash, check, and charge payments; bag or package
purchases; and give change and receipts. Depending on the hours
they work, they may have to open or close the cash register. This may
include counting the money in the cash register; separating charge
slips, coupons, and exchange vouchers; and making deposits at the
cash office. Sales workers are often held responsible for the contents
of their register, and repeated shortages are cause for dismissal in
many organizations.
Sales workers also handle returns and exchanges of merchandise,
perform gift wrapping services, and keep their work areas neat. In addi­
tion, they may help stock shelves or racks, arrange for mailing or deliv­
ery of a purchase, mark price tags, take inventory, and prepare displays.
Sales workers must be aware of any promotions the store is spon­
soring and know the store's policies and procedures, especially on
returns and exchanges. Also, they often must recognize possible
security risks and know how to handle such situations.
Consumers often form their impressions of a store by its sales
force. The retail industry is very competitive and, increasingly,
employers are stressing the importance of providing courteous and
efficient service. When a customer wants an item that is not on the
sales floor, for example, the sales worker may check the stockroom
and, if there are none there, place a special order or call another store
to locate the item.
To provide better customer service, some firms employ personal
shoppers. Some personal shoppers assist consumers in purchasing a
particular item. For example, personal shoppers employed in depart­
ment stores often assist customers in updating their wardrobes. Oth­
ers actually choose the item for the client based on information
provided. For example, they may buy groceries and arrange for their
delivery for people confined to their homes.
Although most sales workers have many duties and responsibili­
ties, in jobs selling standardized articles such as food, hardware,
linens, and housewares, they often do little more than take payments
and wrap purchases. (Cashiers, who have similar job duties, are dis­
cussed elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Working Conditions
Most sales workers in retail trade work in clean, comfortable, welllighted stores. However, they often stand for long periods and often
need supervisory approval when they want to leave the sales floor.
On the other hand, some do not work in stores.
The 5-day, 40-hour week is the exception rather than the rule in
retail trade. Most salespersons can expect to work during some
evening and weekend hours and longer than normal hours may be
scheduled during Christmas and other peak periods. In addition, most
retailers restrict the use of vacation time from Thanksgiving until
early January.
This job can be rewarding for those who enjoy working with peo­
ple. Patience is required, however, when the work is repetitious and
the customers rude.
Employment
Retail sales workers held about 4,754,000 jobs in 1990. They worked
in stores ranging from small specialty shops employing several work­
ers to the giant department store with hundreds of salespersons. In
addition, some were self-employed representatives of direct sales
companies and mail-order houses. The largest employers of retail
sales workers, however, are department stores, apparel and acces­
sories stores, grocery stores, and car dealers.
This occupation offers many opportunities for part-time work and
is especially appealing to students, retirees, and others looking to sup­
plement their income. However, most of those selling “big ticket”
items, such as cars, furniture, and electronic equipment, work full
time and have substantial experience.
Because retail stores are found in every city and town, employment
is distributed geographically in much the same way as the population.

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wmm

SSBf*§

Salesworkers assist customers with their purchases.
Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
There usually are no formal education requirements for this type of
work—in fact, many people get their first job in retail sales. Employ­
ers look for persons who enjoy working with people and have the tact
and patience to deal with difficult customers. Among other desirable
characteristics are an interest in sales work, a neat appearance, and
the ability to communicate clearly. In addition, some employers may
conduct a background check before hiring—especially for jobs in
selling high-priced items.
In most small stores, an experienced employee or the proprietor
instructs newly hired sales personnel in making out sales checks and
operating the cash register. In larger stores, training programs are
more formal and usually are conducted over several days. Initially,
trainees are taught how to make cash, check, and charge sales. Next,
they are instructed on returns and special orders. Other topics usually
included are customer service, security, and the store’s policies and
procedures. Depending on the type of product they are selling, they
may be given specialized training. For example, those working in
cosmetics receive instruction on the types of products available and
for whom they would be most beneficial. This training is often pro­
vided by a manufacturer’s representative.
As salespersons gain experience and seniority, they usually move
to positions of greater responsibility and are given their choice of
departments. This often means moving to areas with potentially high­
er earnings and commissions. The highest earnings potential is usual­
ly found in selling big-ticket items. This work often requires the most
knowledge of the product and the greatest talent for persuasion.
Traditionally, capable sales workers without a college degree could
advance to management positions. However, a college education is
becoming increasingly important for management jobs. Large retail
businesses generally prefer to hire college graduates as management
trainees. Despite this trend, capable employees without a college
degree should still be able to advance to administrative or supervisory
work in large stores.
Opportunities for advancement vary in small stores. In some estab­
lishments, advancement opportunities are limited because one person,
often the owner, does most of the managerial work. In others, howev­
er, some sales workers are promoted to assistant managers.
Retail selling experience may be an asset when applying for sales
positions with larger retailers or in other industries, such as financial
services, wholesale trade, or manufacturing.
Job Outlook
Employment of retail sales workers is expected to increase faster than
the average for all workers through the year 2005 due to anticipated
growth in retail sales. In addition, numerous job openings will be cre­
ated as sales workers transfer to other occupations or leave the labor
force. As in the past, replacement needs will generate an exceptional­
ly large number of sales jobs because the occupation is large and
turnover is much higher than average. There will continue to be many
opportunities for part-time workers, and demand will be strong for
11

temporary workers during peak selling periods such as the Christmas
season.
Retail trade has always been a very competitive industry—tradi­
tionally dominated by large department stores. Recently, however,
consumers have been doing more of their shopping at specialty
stores, discounters, and nontraditional retailers—catalog, television,
and telephone shopping services. To combat this, many department
stores have renewed their emphasis on customer service and
increased the number of sales and other promotions. Although
increased sales volume by discounters and other nonstore retailers is
expected to slow demand for sales workers, this should be partially
offset by the increased demand for these workers by some department
and specialty stores as they strive to achieve better customer service
and satisfaction. Job opportunities should be best in these establish­
ments.
During recessions, sales volume and the resulting demand for sales
workers generally decline. Purchases of costly items such as cars,
appliances, and furniture tend to be postponed during difficult eco­
nomic times. In areas of high unemployment, sales of all types of
goods may decline. However, since turnover of sales workers is usu­
ally very high, employers often can cut employment simply by not
replacing all those who leave.
Workers under the age of 25 traditionally have filled many of the
openings in this occupation. However, this age group is projected to
decline through the year 2005. In fact, employers in many areas are
already facing a shortage of qualified applicants. As a result, employ­
ers can be expected to improve efforts to attract and retain workers by
offering higher wages, more generous benefits, and more flexible
schedules.
Earnings
The starting wage for many part-time retail sales positions is the Fed­
eral minimum wage, $4.25 an hour. However, employers can pay
workers younger than age 20 a lower training wage of $3.62 for up to
6 months. In some areas where employers are having difficulty
attracting and retaining workers, wages are much higher than the
established minimum. The following tabulation shows median week­
ly earnings by class of sales worker in six industries.
Motor vehicles and boats......................................................... $464
Hardware and building supplies.................................................
357
Radio, television, hi-fi, and appliances.......................................
350
Furniture and home furnishings..................................................
345
Apparel.......................................................................................
219
Other commodities.....................................................................
253
Compensation systems vary by type of establishment and merchan­
dise sold. Some sales workers receive only an hourly wage. Others
receive a commission or a combination of wages and commissions.
Under a commission system, salespersons receive a percentage of the
sales that they make. These systems offer sales workers the opportu­
nity to significantly increase their earnings, but they may find their
earnings depend on their ability to sell their product and the ups and
downs in the economy.
Benefits tend to be few in smaller stores, but in large establish­
ments they are comparable to those offered by other employers. In
addition, nearly all sales workers are able to buy their store’s mer­
chandise at a discount, often from 10 to 40 percent below regular
prices. In some cases, this privilege is extended to the employee’s
family as well.
Related Occupations
Sales workers use sales techniques coupled with their knowledge of
merchandise to assist customers and encourage purchases. These
skills are used by people in a number of other occupations, including
manufacturers’ and wholesale trade sales workers, service sales rep­
resentatives, counter and rental clerks, real estate sales agents, whole­
sale and retail buyers, insurance sales workers, and cashiers.
Sources of Additional Information
Information on careers in retail sales may be obtained from the per­
sonnel offices of local stores; from State merchants’ associations; or
12


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from local unions of the United Food and Commercial Workers Inter­
national Union.
In addition, general information about retailing is available from:
*■ National Retail Federation, 100 West 31st St., New York, NY 10001.

Securities and Financial Services Sales
Representatives
(D.O.T. 162.157-014, -042; 251.157, .257-010)

Nature of the Work
Securities sales representatives. Most investors—whether they are
individuals with a few hundred dollars to invest or large institutions
with millions—use securities sales representatives when buying or
selling stocks, bonds, shares in mutual funds, insurance annuities,
certificates of deposit, or other financial products. Securities sales
representatives often are called registered representatives, account
executives, or brokers.
When an investor wishes to buy or sell securities, sales representa­
tives may relay the order through their firms’ offices to the floor of a
securities exchange, such as the New York Stock Exchange. There,
securities sales representatives known as brokers’ floor representa­
tives buy and sell securities. If a security is not traded on an
exchange, the sales representative sends the order to the firm’s trad­
ing department, which trades it directly with a dealer in the over-thecounter market. After the transaction has been completed, the sales
representative notifies the customer of the final price.
Securities sales representatives also provide many related services
for their customers. Depending on a customer’s knowledge of the
market, they may explain the meaning of stock market terms and
trading practices; offer financial counseling; devise an individual
financial portfolio for the client including securities, life insurance,
corporate and municipal bonds, mutual funds, certificates of deposit,
annuities, and other investments; and offer advice on the purchase or
sale of particular securities.
Not all customers have the same investment goals. Some individu­
als may prefer long-term investments designed either for capital
growth or to provide income over the years; others might want to
invest in short-term securities that they hope will rise in price quickly.
Securities sales representatives furnish information about the advan­
tages and disadvantages of an investment based on each person’s
objectives. They also supply the latest price quotations on any securi­
ty in which the investor is interested, as well as information on the
activities and financial positions of the corporations issuing these
securities.
Most securities sales representatives serve individual investors
while others specialize in institutional investors. In institutional
investing, sales representatives usually concentrate on a specific
financial product such as stocks, bonds, options, annuities, or com­
modity futures. Some handle the sale of new issues, such as corporate
securities issued to finance plant expansion.
The most important part of a sales representative’s job is finding
clients and building a customer base. Thus, beginning securities sales
representatives spend much of their time searching for customers—
relying heavily on telephone solicitation. They may meet some
clients through business and social contacts. Many sales representa­
tives find it useful to get additional exposure by teaching adult educa­
tion investment courses or by giving lectures at libraries or social
clubs. Brokerage firms may give sales representatives lists of people
with whom the firm has dealt in the past. Sometimes sales representa­
tives may inherit the clients of representatives who have retired.
Financial services sales representatives. Financial services sales
representatives call on various businesses to solicit applications for
loans and new deposit accounts for banks or savings and loan associ­
ations. They also locate and contact prospective customers to present
their bank’s financial services and to ascertain the customer’s banking

needs. At most small and medium-size banks, branch managers and
commercial loan officers are responsible for marketing the bank’s
financial services. As banks offer more and increasingly complex
financial services—for example, securities brokerage and financial
planning—the job of the financial services sales representative will
assume greater importance.
Working Conditions
Securities sales representatives usually work in offices where there is
much activity. They have access to “quote boards” or computer ter­
minals that continually provide information on the prices of securi­
ties. When sales activity increases, due perhaps to unanticipated
changes in the economy, the pace may become very hectic.
Established securities sales representatives usually work the same
hours as others in the business community. Beginners who are seek­
ing customers may work much longer hours, however. Most securi­
ties sales representatives accommodate customers by meeting with
them in the evenings or on weekends.
Financial services sales representatives generally work in a com­
fortable, less stressful office environment. They generally work 40
hours a week. They may spend considerable time outside the office
meeting with present and prospective clients, attending civic func­
tions, and participating in trade association meetings. Some financial
services sales representatives work exclusively inside banks, provid­
ing service to “walk-in” customers.
Employment
Securities and financial services sales representatives held about
191,000 jobs in 1990. In addition, a substantial number of people in
other occupations sold securities. These include partners and branch
office managers in securities firms as well as insurance agents and
brokers offering securities to their customers.
Securities sales representatives are employed by brokerage and
investment firms in all parts of the country. Many of these firms are
very small. Most sales representatives, however, work for a small
number of large firms with main offices in big cities (especially in
New York) and approximately 23,000 branch offices in other areas.
Financial services sales representatives are employed by banks,
savings and loan associations, and other credit institutions.

, -T—

L. - M
Securities sales representatives spend a considerable amount of their time
talking to their clients.

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Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
Because securities sales representatives must be well informed about
economic conditions and trends, a college education is increasingly
important, especially in the larger securities firms. In fact, the over­
whelming majority of entrants to this occupation are college graduates.
Although employers seldom require specialized academic training,
courses in business administration, economics, and finance are helpful.
Many employers consider personal qualities and skills more impor­
tant than academic training. Employers seek applicants who have
sales ability and good communication skills, are well groomed, and
have a strong desire to succeed. Self-confidence and an ability to han­
dle frequent rejections also are important ingredients for success.
Because maturity and the ability to work independently also are
important, many employers prefer to hire those who have achieved
success in other jobs. Some firms prefer candidates with sales experi­
ence, particularly those who have worked on commission in areas
such as real estate or insurance. Understandably, most entrants to this
occupation transfer from other jobs. Some begin working as securi­
ties sales representatives following retirement from other fields.
Securities sales representatives must meet State licensing require­
ments, which generally include passing the examination and, in some
cases, furnishing a personal bond. In addition, sales representatives
must register as representatives of their firm according to regulations
of the securities exchanges where they do business or the National
Association of Securities Dealers, Inc. (NASD). Before beginners can
qualify as registered representatives, they must pass the General
Securities Registered Representative Examination, administered by
the NASD. Most States require a second examination—the Uniform
Securities Agents State Law Examination. These tests measure the
prospective representative’s knowledge of the securities business,
customer protection requirements, and recordkeeping procedures.
Most employers provide on-the-job training to help securities sales
representatives meet the requirements for registration. In most firms,
the training period generally takes about 4 months. Trainees in large
firms may receive classroom instruction in securities analysis, effec­
tive speaking, and the finer points of selling; take courses offered by
business schools, such as the New York Institute of Finance, or other
institutions and associations; and undergo a period of on-the-job
training lasting up to 2 years. In small firms, sales representatives
generally receive training in outside institutions and on the job. Many
trainees take correspondence courses in preparation for the securities
examinations.
Securities sales representatives must understand the basic charac­
teristics of a wide variety of financial products offered by brokerage
firms. Representatives periodically take training, through their firms
or outside institutions, to keep abreast of new financial products as
they are introduced on the market and to improve their sales tech­
niques. Training in the use of computers is important, as the securities
sales business is highly automated.
The principal form of advancement for securities sales representa­
tives is an increase in the number and size of the accounts they han­
dle. Although beginners usually service the accounts of individual
investors, eventually they may handle very large institutional
accounts such as those of banks and pension funds. Some experi­
enced sales representatives become branch office managers and
supervise other sales representatives while continuing to provide ser­
vices for their own customers. A few representatives advance to top
management positions or become partners in their firms.
Banks and other credit institutions prefer to hire college graduates
for financial services sales jobs. A business administration degree
with a specialization in finance or a liberal arts degree including
courses in accounting, economics, and marketing serves as excellent
preparation for this job.
Financial services sales representatives learn through on-the-job
training under the supervision of bank officers. Outstanding perfor­
mance can lead to promotion to managerial positions.
Job Outlook
Employment of securities and financial sales representatives is
expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations
through the year 2005 as economic growth, rising personal incomes,
13

and greater inherited wealth increase the funds available for invest­
ment. More individual investors are expected to purchase common
stocks, mutual funds, and other financial products after seeking
advice from securities sales representatives regarding the increasing
array of investment alternatives. Deregulation has enabled brokerage
firms to sell certificates of deposit, offer checking and deposit ser­
vices through cash management accounts, and sell insurance products
such as annuities and life insurance. Growth in the number and size
of institutional investors will be strong as more people enroll in pen­
sion plans, set up individual retirement accounts, establish trust
funds, and contribute to the endowment funds of colleges and other
nonprofit institutions. More representatives also will be needed to sell
securities issued by new and expanding corporations and by State and
local governments financing public improvements. Demand also
should increase as banks and credit institutions expand the financial
services they offer, and issue more loans for personal and commercial
use.
Due to the highly competitive nature of securities sales work,
many beginners leave the field because they are unable to establish a
sufficient clientele. Once established, however, securities and finan­
cial services sales representatives have a very strong attachment to
their occupation because of high earnings and the considerable
investment in training.
The demand for securities sales representatives fluctuates as the
economy expands and contracts. Thus, in an economic downturn, the
number of persons seeking jobs usually exceeds the number of open­
ings—sometimes by a great deal. Even during periods of rapid eco­
nomic expansion, however, competition for securities sales training
positions—particularly in larger firms—is keen because of potentially
high earnings. Job opportunities should be best for mature individuals
with successful work experience. Opportunities for inexperienced
sales representatives should be best in smaller firms.
Earnings
In 1990, median earnings of securities and financial services sales
representatives were $36,800 a year; the middle 50 percent earned
between $25,500 and $53,200. Ten percent earned less than $19,200
and 10 percent earned more than $95,000. On average, financial ser­
vices sales representatives earn considerably less than securities sales
representatives.
According to the Securities Industry Association, average annual
earnings of beginning securities sales representatives were $28,000 in
1990. Earnings of full-time, experienced securities sales representa­
tives who served individual investors averaged about $79,000 a year,
while the relatively small number of sales representatives who han­
dled institutional accounts averaged about $166,000.
Trainees usually are paid a salary until they meet licensing and reg­
istration requirements. After registration, a few firms continue to pay
a salary until the new representative’s commissions increase to a stat­
ed amount. The salaries paid during training usually range from
$ 1,200 to $ 1,500 a month.
After candidates are licensed and registered, their earnings depend
on commissions from the sale or purchase of stocks and bonds, life
insurance, or other securities for customers. Commission earnings are
likely to be high when there is much buying and selling and lower
when there is a slump in market activity. Most firms provide sales
representatives with a steady income by paying a “draw against com­
mission”—that is, a minimum salary based on the commissions
which they can be expected to earn. Securities sales representatives
who can provide their clients with the most complete financial ser­
vices should enjoy the greatest income stability.
Financial services sales representatives usually are paid a salary;
some receive a bonus if they meet certain established goals.
Related Occupations
Similar sales jobs requiring specialized knowledge include insurance
agents and real estate agents.
Sources of Additional Information
Further information concerning a career as a securities sales represenatives is available for $1 from:
14

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Securities Industry Association, 120 Broadway, New York, NY 10271.

Career information also may be obtained from the personnel
departments of individual securities firms.
For information about job opportunities for financial services sales
representatives in various States, contact State bankers’ associations
or write directly to a particular bank to inquire about job openings.
For the names and addresses of banks in a specific location as well as
the names of their principal officers, consult one of the following
directories.
•“ The American Bank Directory (Norcross, Ga., McFadden Business Publi­
cations).
*" Polk’s World Bank Directory (Nashville, R.L. Polk & Co.).
*" The U.S. Savings and Loan Directory (Chicago, Rand McNally <6 Co.).

Services Sales Representatives
(D.O.T. 165.157; 236.252; 250.357-022; 251.157-014, .257-014 and -018,
.357; 252.257, .357; 253; 254; 259 except .257-014 and .357-026; 269.357­
018; 273.357-014; 279.357-042; and 293 except .357-018)

Nature of the Work
Services sales representatives sell a wide variety of services, from
pest control and printing services to advertising services and tele­
phone communications systems. Sales representatives for data pro­
cessing services firms sell complex services such as inventory
control, payroll processing, sales analysis, and financial reporting
systems. An educational services sales representative might persuade
States to use a particular licensing examination on insurance laws
and regulations. Hotel sales representatives contact government,
business, and social groups to solicit convention and conference
business for the hotel. They contact prospective clients and deter­
mine their needs, outline the types and prices of services offered by
the hotel, and prepare contracts when clients reserve space at the
hotel. Fundraisers plan programs to raise money for charities or
other causes such as the Special Olympics for handicapped children
and mentally retarded adults. They write, telephone, or visit potential
contributors and persuade them to donate money by explaining the
purpose and benefits of various sports programs. They also may
organize volunteers and plan special events to raise money. Sales
representatives for temporary help services firms locate and acquire
clients who will hire the firm’s employees. Telephone services sales
representatives contact and visit commercial customers to review
their telephone systems, analyze their communications needs, and
recommend services such as installation of additional telephone
instruments, lines, and switchboard systems. Other representatives
sell automotive leasing, public utility, burial, shipping, protective,
and management consulting services. (Information on other sales
workers, including insurance agents and brokers, real estate agents
and brokers, securities and financial services sales representatives,
and travel agents, appears elsewhere in the Handbook.)
Despite the diversity of services being sold, the jobs of virtually all
services sales representatives have much in common. First, all sales
representatives must fully understand and be able to discuss the ser­
vices their company offers. Second, the procedures they follow are
similar. They develop lists of prospective clients through selected use
of telephone and business directories, asking business associates and
customers for leads, and looking for new clients as they cover their
assigned territory. Sometimes they acquire clients through persons who
call to inquire about the company’s services. Then, they meet with
clients and explain how the services being offered can meet their
needs, sometimes using literature or demonstrations to describe their
company’s services. They answer questions about the nature and cost
of the services and try to persuade potential customers to purchase the
services. If they fail to make a sale on the first visit, they may follow
up with more visits, letters, and phone calls. After making a sale, rep­
resentatives call on their customers to see that the services have met
their needs, to determine if additional services are needed, and to
obtain referrals.

Because services sales representatives obtain many new accounts
through referrals, it is important that they maintain regular contact with
their clients to ensure that they are satisfied with the services. Develop­
ing a satisfied clientele who will continue to use the services and will
recommend the services to other potential customers is an important
key to success in this field. Like other types of sales jobs, a services
sales representative’s reputation is very important to his or her success.
Some aspects of service sales work vary with the kind of service
sold. Selling highly technical services such as communications sys­
tems or computer consulting services usually involves more complex
and lengthy sales processes. In these situations, sales representatives
usually operate according to policies outlined in the company’s mar­
keting and business plans. Such work plans identify prospective
clients, establish marketing strategies, and set forth staff responsibili­
ties and timetables to achieve set goals. In selling technical services,
sales representatives must become familiar with the intricacies of their
customers’ operations in order to best serve their needs. Sales repre­
sentatives often work as part of a team and receive technical assistance
from support personnel. For example, those who sell data processing
services might work with a systems engineer, and those who sell tele­
phone services might receive technical assistance from a communica­
tions consultant. Because of the length of time between the initial
contact with a customer and the actual sale, representatives who sell
technical sen. es generally work with several customers at one time.
Since prospective sales might be at different stages of the process,
sales representatives must be well organized and efficient in schedul­
ing their time. On the other hand, some sales representatives deal
exclusively with one large client. Selling less complex services such as
linen supply, detective, or exterminating services generally involves
simpler and shorter sales processes.
A sales representative’s job can also vary with the size of the compa­
ny. Those working for relatively large companies generally are more
specialized and are assigned territorial boundaries and specific services
and accounts. Those in smaller companies generally have more inde­
pendence. Representatives in smaller companies may have administra­
tive and public relations responsibilities in addition to their sales duties.
A sales representative’s job also depends on the size of his or her
territory. A representative for a pest control company may sell
primarily by telephone from an office. A linen supply sales represen­
tative may serve a small territory in a large city, but a sales represen­
tative for a national educational services organization may be
responsible for serving several States.

Services sales representatives maintain regular contact with their clients.

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Working Conditions
Working conditions for sales representatives vary. Those responsible
for a large territory may spend a great deal of time traveling, some­
times for weeks at a time. Representatives who cover a small territory
may spend a certain amount of time in the office each day keeping
records, preparing various documents, and setting up appointments
with customers. Appointments must be scheduled for a time most
convenient to customers. Representatives who sell exclusively by
telephone spend all their time in the office. Many representatives
have the flexibility to set their own schedules so long as they meet
their company’s goals.
Selling can be stressful work. Sales representatives face competi­
tion not only from representatives of other companies but also from
fellow workers. Companies may set goals or quotas and hold contests
with prizes for those who make the most sales.
Employment
Services sales representatives held about 588,000 salaried jobs in
1990. Four of every 10 were in firms providing business services,
including computer and data processing, advertising, personnel supply,
equipment rental and leasing, and mailing, reproduction, and steno­
graphic services. Other sales representatives worked for firms that
offer a wide range of other services. The following tabulation shows
the distribution of services sales representative jobs by industry.
Percent
Total........................................................................................

100

Business services........................................................................
Advertising.............................................................................
Personnel supply services.......................................................
Computer and data processing services.................................
Other business services..........................................................
Motion pictures..........................................................................
Engineering and management services......................................
Personal services........................................................................
Amusement and recreation, except motion pictures..................
Automotive repair......................................................................
Hotels and other lodging places.................................................
Membership organizations.........................................................
Other...........................................................................................

42
7
4
9
22
14
7
6
5
4
4
4
14

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
Many employers require that services sales representatives have a
college degree, but specific requirements vary depending on the ser­
vices that a particular company sells. Employers who market adver­
tising services seek individuals with a college degree in advertising or
marketing or a master’s degree in business administration; companies
that market educational services prefer individuals with an advanced
degree in marketing or related fields. Many hotels seek graduates
from college hotel administration programs, and companies that sell
computer services and telephone systems prefer sales representatives
with a background in computer science or engineering. Courses in
business, economics, and marketing are helpful in obtaining most
jobs as services sales representatives.
Some employers hire sales representatives with a high school
diploma if they have a proven sales record. This is particularly true
for those who sell nontechnical services such as linen supply, exter­
minating, laundry, and funeral services.
Many firms conduct formal intensive training programs for their
sales representatives. Individuals learn about the company’s opera­
tions and services. They also receive instruction in various sales tech­
niques such as prospecting for clients, probing customer needs,
interviewing, sales presentations, and closing a sale. They may also
receive motivational and sensitivity training to help them understand
different personality types and make them more effective in dealing
with people. Sales representatives may also attend seminars on a
wide range of subjects given by outside training institutions such as
technical schools and colleges and universities. In addition, frequent
“in-house” training sessions acquaint them with new services and
products and help them maintain and update their sales techniques.
15

They may also receive training in the use of computers to increase
their productivity.
Many large companies prefer to hire sales representatives directly
out of school, while smaller companies prefer to hire individuals who
have a proven sales record. Smaller companies generally lack the
resources to provide training programs for their sales representatives.
Sales representatives must have a pleasant, outgoing personality and
good rapport with people. They must be highly motivated, well orga­
nized, and efficient. Good grooming and a neat appearance are essen­
tial. Self- confidence, reliability, and the ability to communicate are
also vital characteristics. Sales representatives should be self-starters
who have the ability to work under pressure to meet sales goals.
Sales representatives who have good sales records and leadership
ability may advance to sales supervisor, then branch or district man­
ager. Frequent contact with business people in other firms can pro­
vide sales workers with leads about job openings, thus facilitating
advancement possibilities. Some go into business for themselves as
independent representatives. Others find opportunities in advertising
and market research.
Job Outlook
Employment of services sales representatives, as a group, is expected
to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the
year 2005 in response to the continued rapid increase in demand for
services in general. However, growth of services sales jobs is directly
related to growth of the particular industries where they are found.
Some industries are expected to grow faster than others. For example,
the continued growth in factory and office automation should lead to
extremely rapid employment growth for data processing services
sales representatives; the burgeoning growth in health services, such
as membership in health maintenance organizations, should prompt
very rapid growth for services sales representatives; and growth in
the advertising industry should also spur much faster than average
growth in employment of this industry’s sales force. Employment of
those who sell personal services and miscellaneous repair services is
expected to increase at a somewhat slower pace but still much faster
than the average for all workers due to the continued increase in
demand for their services.
In addition to the jobs generated by this growth in demand, many
openings will occur each year because of the need to replace workers
who transfer to other occupations or leave the labor force. As in other
sales occupations, turnover is relatively high—particularly among
representatives who sell nontechnical services. Each year, many new
services sales representatives discover that they are unable to earn
enough money at selling and leave the occupation.
Prospective services sales representatives with a college
background or a proven sales record should have the best job oppor­
tunities.
Earnings
In 1990, median annual earnings of full-time advertising sales repre­
sentatives were about $26,200. Representatives selling other business
services had median annual earnings of $24,400. Earnings of repre­
sentatives who sold technical services such as computer or communi­
cation services were generally higher than for those who sold
nontechnical services.
Earnings of experienced sales representatives depend on perfor­
mance. Successful sales representatives can quickly establish a clien­
tele and build up their income. Experienced sales representatives
often earn more than managers in their firm; some sales representa­
tives earn over $100,000 a year. A select few may earn as much as
$200,000 a year.
Sales representatives work on different types of compensation
plans. Some get a straight salary; others are paid solely on a com­
mission basis—a percentage of the dollar value of their sales. Most
firms use a combination of salary and commissions. In addition to
the same benefits package received by other employees of the firm,
many sales representatives have expense accounts to cover meals
and travel, and some drive a company car. Some employers offer
bonuses, extra vacation time, trips, and prizes for sales that exceed
company quotas.
16


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Because sales are affected by changing economic conditions and
consumer and business preferences, earnings may fluctuate widely
from year to year.
Related Occupations
Services sales representatives must have sales ability and a knowl­
edge of the service they sell. Workers in other occupations that
require these skills include buyers, real estate agents, insurance
agents, securities sales representatives, wholesale and retail trade
sales representatives, telephone solicitors, and travel agents.
Sources of Additional Information
For details about employment opportunities for services sales repre­
sentatives, contact employers who sell services in your area.

Travel Agents
(D.O.T. 252.157-010)

Nature of the Work
Constantly changing air fares and schedules, a proliferation of vaca­
tion packages, and business/pleasure trip combinations make travel
planning frustrating and time consuming. Many travelers, therefore,
turn to travel agents, who can make the best possible travel arrange­
ments for them.
Depending on the needs of the client, travel agents give advice on
destinations, make arrangements for transportation, hotel accommo­
dations, car rentals, tours, and recreation, or plan the right vacation
package or business/pleasure trip combination. They may also advise
on weather conditions, restaurants, and tourist attractions and recre­
ation. For international travel, agents also provide information on
customs regulations, required papers (passports, visas, and certifi­
cates of vaccination), and currency exchange rates.
Travel agents consult a variety of published and computer-based
sources for information on departure and arrival times, fares, and
hotel ratings and accommodations. They often base recommendations
on their own travel experiences or those of colleagues or clients.
Travel agents may visit hotels, resorts, and restaurants to rate, first­
hand, their comfort, cleanliness, and quality of food and service.
Travel agents also promote their services. They present slides or
movies to social and special interest groups, arrange advertising dis­
plays, and suggest company-sponsored trips to business managers.
Working Conditions
Travel agents spend most of their time behind a desk conferring with
clients, completing paperwork, contacting airlines and hotels for trav­
el arrangements, and promoting group tours. They may be under a
great deal of pressure during vacation seasons. Many agents, espe­
cially those who are self-employed, frequently work long hours.
Employment
Travel agents held about 132,000 jobs in 1990 and are found in every
part of the country. More than 9 out of 10 worked for travel agencies;
some worked for membership organizations. Nearly one-half are in
suburban areas; about 40 percent are in large cities; and the rest, in
small towns and rural areas. Many travel agents are self-employed.
Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
Formal or specialized training is becoming increasingly important for
travel agents since few agencies are willing to train people on the job.
Many vocational schools offer 3- to 12-week full-time programs, as
well as evening and Saturday programs. Travel courses are also
offered in public adult education programs and in community and 4year colleges. A few colleges offer a bachelor’s and a master’s degree
in travel and tourism. Although few college courses relate directly to
the travel industry, a college education is sometimes desired by
employers. Courses in computer science, geography, foreign lan­
guages, and history are most useful. Courses in accounting and busi-

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Many travel agents are self-employed.

ness management also are important, especially for those who expect
to manage or start their own travel agencies. Several home-study
courses provide a basic understanding of the travel industry. The
American Society of Travel Agents (ASTA) and the Institute of Certi­
fied Travel Agents offer a travel correspondence course. Travel agen­
cies also provide on-the-job training for their employees. Employers
require computer skills—a significant part of training programs con­
sists of computer instruction.
Travel experience is an asset since personal knowledge about a city
or foreign country often helps to influence clients’ travel plans. Expe­
rience as an airline reservation agent also is a good background for a
travel agent. Travel agents need good selling skills—they must be
pleasant and patient and able to gain the confidence of clients.
Some people start as reservation clerks or receptionists in travel
agencies. With experience and some formal training, they can take on
greater responsibilities and eventually assume travel agent duties. In
agencies with many offices, travel agents may advance to office man­
ager or to other managerial positions.
Experienced travel agents can take an advanced course, leading to
the designation of Certified Travel Counselor, offered by the Institute
of Certified Travel Agents. The institute awards a certificate to those
completing an 18-month part-time course. It also offers certification,
called designation of competence, in Western European, Carribbean,
or South Pacific tours. Another recognized mark of achievement in
this field is a certificate of proficiency from the American Society of
Travel Agents, awarded to those who pass a 3-hour test.
Those who start their own agencies generally have experience in
an established agency. They must generally gain formal supplier or
corporation approval before they can receive commissions. Suppliers
or corporations are organizations of airlines, shiplines, or rail lines.
The Airlines Reporting Corporation, for example, is the approving
body for airlines. To gain approval, an agency must be in operation,
be financially sound, and employ at least one experienced manager/
travel agent.
There are no Federal licensing requirements for travel agents.
However, Rhode Island requires licensing, and Ohio, Hawaii, and
California require registration. In California, travel agents not
approved by a corporation are required to have a license.
Job Outlook
Employment of travel agents is expected to grow much faster than
the average for all occupations through the year 2005. Many job

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openings will arise as new agencies open and existing agencies
expand, but most will occur as experienced agents transfer to other
occupations or leave the labor force.
Spending on travel is expected to increase significantly through the
year 2005. As business activity expands, so will business-related
travel. Employment of managerial, professional specialty, and sales
representative occupations—those who do most business travel—is
projected to grow rapidly. Also, with rising incomes, more people are
expected to travel on vacation—and to do so more frequently—than
in the past. In fact, many people take more than one vacation a year.
Charter flights and larger, more efficient planes have brought air
transportation within the budgets of more people. So has the easing of
Government regulation of air fares and routes, by fostering greater
competition among airlines to offer better and more affordable ser­
vice. In addition, American travel agents organize tours for the grow­
ing number of foreign visitors. Although most travel agencies now
have automated reservation systems, this has not weakened demand
for travel agents.
The travel industry generally is sensitive to economic downturns
and political crises, when travel plans are likely to be deferred.
Therefore, the number of job opportunities fluctuates.
Earnings
Experience, sales ability, and the size and location of the agency deter­
mine the salary of a travel agent. According to a Louis Harris survey,
conducted for the Travel Weekly Magazine, the 1990 annual earnings
of travel agents with less thn 1 year experience were $12,056; from 1
to 3 years, $14,388; from 3 to 5 years, $17,825; from 5 to 10 years,
$19,209; and more than 10 years, $21,715. Salaried agents usually
have standard benefits, such as insurance coverage and paid vacations,
that self-employed agents must provide for themselves.
Earnings of travel agents who own their agencies depend mainly
on commissions from airlines and other carriers, cruise lines, tour
operators, and lodging places. Commissions for domestic travel
arrangements, cruises, hotels, sightseeing tours, and car rentals are
about 10 percent of the total sale; and for international travel, about
11 percent. They may also charge clients a service fee for the time
and expense involved in planning a trip.
During the first year of business or while awaiting corporation
approval, self-employed travel agents generally have low earnings.
Their income is generally limited to commissions from hotels, cruis­
es, and tour operators and to nominal fees for making complicated
arrangements. Even established agents have lower profits during eco­
nomic downturns.
When they travel, agents usually get substantially reduced rates for
transportation and accommodations.
Related Occupations
Travel agents organize and schedule business, educational, or recre­
ational travel or activities. Other workers with similar responsibilities
include secretaries, tour guides, airline reservation agents, rental car
agents, and travel counselors.
Sources of Additional Information
For further information on training opportunities, contact:
American Society of Travel Agents, 1101 King St. Alexandria, VA 22314.

For certification information, contact:
The Institute of Certified Travel Agents, 148 Lindon St., P.O. Box 82-56,
Wellesley, MA 02181, Toll Free Number 1-800-542-4282.

Wholesale and Retail Buyers and
Merchandise Managers
(D.O.T. 162.157-018,-022; and 185.167-034)

Nature of the Work
Shop till you drop! Wholesale and retail buyers and merchandise
managers do just that. Working for wholesalers and retailers, buyers
purchase merchandise for resale. Merchandise managers supervise
17

buyers and set general buying and pricing policy for their department,
division, or store. Regardless of what they are buying—from clothing
to machinery—they seek the best available merchandise at the lowest
possible price. Working with sales and marketing managers, they also
determine how the merchandise will be distributed and marketed.
Wholesale and retail buyers are an integral part of a complex system
of production, distribution, and merchandising that caters to the vast
variety of consumer needs and desires. Buyers working for large and
medium- sized firms usually specialize in acquiring one or two lines of
merchandise. However, buyers working for small stores may purchase
their complete stock of merchandise. Wholesale buyers purchase goods
directly from manufacturers or from other wholesale firms for resale to
retail firms or to commercial establishments and other institutions.
Retail buyers purchase goods from wholesale firms or directly from
manufacturers for resale to the public. (Information about purchasing
agents—buyers who purchase goods and services for their firm’s inter­
nal use—can be found elsewhere in the Handbook.)
The success of any wholesale or retail firm depends on its ability to
sell merchandise. Because buyers determine which products the
establishment will sell, it is essential that they be knowledgeable
about the products they are buying and know what will appeal to con­
sumers. These skills usually are developed through several years of
experience as an assistant buyer—an entry level position. Assistant
buyers perform many of the same duties as buyers but have the guid­
ance of an experienced buyer to help them.
In order to purchase the best selection of goods, buyers must be
familiar with the merchandise, its domestic and foreign manufactur­
ers and distributors, and its sales record. As a result, they must keep
informed about changes in existing products and the development of
new ones. To learn about merchandise, buyers read industry periodi­
cals, attend trade shows and conferences, and visit manufacturers’
showrooms.
Both wholesalers and retailers are continuing to expand their use of
computers, which has simplified many of the routine buying func­
tions and improved efficiency. Traditionally, buyers have relied on
sales staff and inventory counts to determine which products were
selling. However, computerized systems have dramatically changed
this. For example, cash registers connected to computers, known as
point-of-sale terminals, allow organizations to maintain centralized,
up-to-date sales and inventory records. Information such as the price,
color, or model number is often fed into the computer using bar codes
or magnetic strips attached to the goods. This information can then be
used to produce weekly sales reports that reflect the types of products
in demand. With the data generated by these systems, buyers spend
their time analyzing data and not collecting it.
In addition to monitoring their company’s sales, buyers use com­
puters to gain instant access to the specifications for thousands of
commodities, inventory records, and their customers’ purchase
records. Buyers also follow ads in newspapers and other media to
check competitors’ sales activities and watch general economic con­
ditions to anticipate consumer buying patterns.
Once buyers decide what to purchase, they determine from whom
to purchase it. They base their decision on price, availability, reliabil­
ity of the supplier, and selection. Buyer’s responsibilities have
expanded with the use of private-label merchandise. This merchan­
dise is produced for a particular store and carries that store’s label.
Buyers often work closely with vendors to develop and obtain the
desired product. Because most buyers work within a limited budget,
they must plan their purchases to keep needed items in stock, but also
allow for unexpected purchases when a “good buy” presents itself.
The ordering process varies by firm. Many orders are placed dur­
ing buying trips, but they are also made when wholesale and manu­
facturers’ sales workers call on buyers to display their merchandise.
Some firms are linked with manufacturers or wholesalers by electron­
ic purchasing systems. These systems speed selection and ordering
and provide information on availability and shipment. Often, assistant
buyers are responsible for placing orders and checking shipments.
Many buyers and merchandise managers assist in the planning and
implementation of sales promotion programs. Working with mer­
chandising executives, they determine the nature of the sale and buy
accordingly. They also work with advertising personnel to create the
18

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ad campaign. For example, they may determine the media in which
the advertisement will be placed—newspapers, direct mail, televi­
sion, or some combination of these. In addition, retail buyers often
visit the selling floor to ensure that the goods are being displayed
properly.
Working Conditions
Buyers and merchandise managers work in comfortable, well-lighted
offices at stores or in corporate headquarters. They frequently work
more than a 40-hour week because of special sales and conferences.
Also, they may have to work evenings and weekends to complete
work on time. For those working in retail trade, this is especially true
prior to holiday seasons. In addition, many retail firms discourage the
use of vacation time from Thanksgiving until early January.
Buyers and merchandise managers often work under great pressure
since wholesale and retail trade establishments are highly competi­
tive. Substantial traveling usually is required, and most buyers spend
at least several days a month on the road.
Employment
Wholesale and retail buyers and merchandise managers held about
361,000 jobs in 1990. Nearly all were in full-time positions. About
three-fifths of all buyers and merchandise managers were employed
in retail establishments, such as department stores, supermarkets and
groceries, and clothing stores. The remainder worked for wholesalers
of groceries; machinery; electrical goods; hardware, plumbing, and
heating equipment; and other durable and nondurable goods.
Although buyers and merchandise managers work in all parts of the
country, many are located in major metropolitan areas, where whole­
sale distributors and retail stores are concentrated.

Merchandise managers coordinate the work of buyers.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement
This is not an entry level job. Qualified persons usually begin as
assistant buyers or trainees. Firms prefer to hire applicants who are
familiar with the merchandise they sell as well as with wholesaling
and retailing practices. Some firms promote qualified employees to
assistant buyer positions; others recruit and train college graduates as
assistant buyers. Most employers use a combination of methods.
Educational requirements for entry level assistant buying positions
tend to vary with the size of the organization. The largest stores and
distributors seek applicants who have completed associate or bache­
lor’s degree programs from any field of study. Training and job experi­
ence introduce the new worker to retail or wholesale trade operations
and the policies fundamental to merchandising and management.
Although training periods vary in length, most last several years.
Most trainees begin by selling merchandise, supervising sales work­
ers, checking invoices on material received, and keeping track of
stock on hand, although widespread use of computers in both whole­
sale and retail trade has simplified some of these tasks. As they
progress, trainees are given more buying-related responsibilities.
In order to maintain their effectiveness, buyers must constantly be
aware of what their customers want. To stay abreast of new develop­
ments and products, they take courses in merchandising techniques,
attend trade shows and conferences, and read industry periodicals.
Persons who wish to become buyers should be good at planning
and decisionmaking and have an interest in merchandising. Anticipat­
ing consumer preferences and ensuring that goods are in stock when
they are needed require resourcefulness, good judgment, and self­
confidence. Buyers must be able to make decisions quickly and take
risks. Marketing skills and the ability to identify products that will
sell are also very important. Employers often look for leadership abil­
ity and communications skills because buyers spend a large portion
of their time supervising assistant buyers and dealing with manufac­
turers’ representatives and store executives. In addition, buyers need
physical stamina to keep up with the fast-paced nature of their work.
Experienced buyers may advance by moving to a department that
manages a larger volume or by becoming a merchandise manager.
Others “jump to the other side of the fence” and go to work in sales
for a manufacturer.

year 2005. Although sales volume will continue to increase with pop­
ulation growth, demand for these workers will slow because of
changes taking place in wholesale and retail trade. Most job open­
ings, therefore, will result from replacement needs, which occur as
experienced buyers and merchandise managers transfer to other occu­
pations in sales or management or leave the labor force.
Over the past few years, the organizational structure of the whole­
sale and retail trade industries has been changing. Many firms have
purchased or merged with other firms. When buying functions are
centralized by the new organization, fewer buyers and managers are
needed.
Because merchandising attracts many college graduates, the num­
ber of qualified jobseekers should continue to exceed the number of
openings. Prospects are likely to be best for those with previous
wholesale or retail experience and a college degree.
Wholesale and retail buyers, especially those who buy items affect­
ed by shifting consumer preferences such as apparel or toys, have less
job security than people in many other occupations. Buyers who buy
items that don’t sell well are often fired.

Job Outlook
Employment of buyers and merchandise managers is expected to
increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the

Sources of Additional Information
General information about a career in retailing is available from;


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Earnings
Median annual earnings of buyers were $25,100 in 1990. Most buy­
ers earned between $17,600 and $34,600 a year. The lowest 10 per­
cent averaged less than $13,500, while the top 10 percent earned
more than $46,700. A buyer’s income depends upon the amount and
type of product purchased, the employer’s sales volume and, to some
extent, the buyer’s seniority.
Buyers and merchandise managers receive a variety of benefits. In
addition to standard benefits, buyers often earn cash bonuses based
on their performance and may receive discounts on merchandise
bought from the employer.
Related Occupations
Workers in other occupations who need a knowledge of marketing
and the ability to assess demand are purchasing agents and managers,
retail sales workers, sales managers, comparison shoppers, manufac­
turers’ and wholesales sales representatives, insurance sales agents,
and services sales representatives.

»■ National Retail Federation, 100 West 31st St., New York, NY 10001.

19

New from BLS

cienceocPJiysics
ilW*

Coal, Iro
luminumTPuttiejm
Do you want to know
more about work in
industries?
• Number of jobs
• Geographic areas having the most jobs
• Size of establishments
• Goods and services produced
• Kinds of workers employed—what types of
work is done
• Common working conditions and hazards
• Jobs that can be entered from high school;
from college
• Jobs that do not require specialized
education or training
• Opportunities for acquiring skills

Then, don’t miss this
new publication!

Career
Guide to
Industries
Career Guide to Industries, BLS Bulletin
2403, was produced by the same staff that
prepares the Occupational Outlook
Handbook—the Federal Goverment’s premier
career guidance publication. This new book is
a must for guidance counselors, individuals
planning their careers, job seekers, and others
who want the latest word on career information
from an industry perspective.

• Prospects for upward mobility
• Long-term employment outlook
• Reasons for changing staffing patterns
• Earnings
of key

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occupations

Note: At press time, the price for this publication was not
available. Contact any of the Bureau of Labor Statistics
Regional Offices listed on the inside front cover, or the
Division of Occupational Outlook, Bureau of Labor
Statistics, Washington, DC 20212.