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Places of Employment About 20,000 biochemists were employed in 1978. About one-half worked for colleges and universities and about one-fourth for pri vate industry, primarily in companies manu facturing drugs, insecticides, and cosmetics. Some work for nonprofit research institutes and foundations; others, for Federal, State, and local government agencies. Most govern ment biochemists do health and agricultural research for Federal agencies. A few selfemployed biochemists are consultants to in dustry and government. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum educational requirement for many beginning jobs as a biochemist, espe cially in research or teaching, is an advanced degree. A Ph. D. degree is a virtual necessity for persons who hope to contribute signifi cantly to biochemical research and advance to many management and administrative jobs. A bachelor’s degree with a major in biochemistry or chemistry, or with a major in biology and a minor in chemistry, may qual ify some persons for entry jobs as research assistants or technicians. About 100 schools award the bachelor’s degree in biochemistry, and nearly all col leges and universities offer a major in biology or chemistry. Persons planning careers as bi ochemists should take undergraduate courses in chemistry, biology, biochemistry, mathe matics, and physics. About 150 colleges and universities offer graduate degrees in biochemistry. Graduate students generally are required to have a bachelor’s degree in biochemistry, biology, or chemistry. Many graduate programs empha size one specialty in biochemistry because of the facilities or the research being done at that particular school. Graduate training re quires actual research in addition to ad vanced science courses, so students should select their schools carefully. For the doc toral degree, the student does intensive re search and a thesis in one field of biochemis try. Persons planning careers as biochemists should be able to work independently or as part of a team. Biochemists should have ana lytical ability and curiosity, as well as the patience and perseverance needed to com plete the hundreds of experiments necessary to solve a single problem. They should also express themselves clearly when writing and speaking to communicate the findings of their research effectively. Graduates with advanced degrees may begin their careers as teachers or researchers in colleges or universities. In private indus try, most begin in research jobs and with ex perience may advance to positions in which they plan and supervise research. New graduates with a bachelor’s degree usually start work as research assistants or technicians. These jobs in private industry often involve testing and analysis. In the drug industry, for example, research assistants an alyze the ingredients of a product to verify and maintain its purity or quality. Employment Outlook Job opportunities for biochemists with ad vanced degrees should be favorable through the 1980’s. The employment of biochemists is expected to grow slightly faster than the av erage for all occupations during this period. Some additional job openings will result each year as biochemists retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. The anticipated growth in this field should result from the effort to find cures for cancer, heart disease, and other diseases, and from public concern with environmental protec tion. Colleges and universities may need ad ditional teachers" if biochemistry enrollments continue to increase. Earnings Average earnings of biochemists were about twice the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. According to a 1978 survey by the American Chemical Society, salaries for ex perienced biochemists averaged about $17,000 for those with a bachelor’s degree; $21,000 for those with a master’s degree; and $28,000 for those with a Ph. D. Starting salaries of biochemists employed in colleges and universities are comparable to those for other faculty members. (See state ment on college and university faculty else where in the Handbook.) Related Occupations Biochemistry is closely related to biology and chemistry. Medical laboratory workers often use biochemical procedures in their work, and physicians, pharmacists, and other health practitioners need to know a great deal about biochemistry. Sources of Additional Information For general information on careers in bio chemistry, contact: American Society of Biological Chemists, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md. 20014. ing crop yields, and in improving the natural environment. When working in laboratories, life scientists must be familiar with research techniques and laboratory equipment such as electron microscopes. Knowledge of comput ers also is useful in conducting experiments. Not all research, however, is performed in laboratories. For example, a botanist who ex plores the volcanic Alaskan valleys to see what plants grow there also is doing research. More than one-fifth of all life scientists work in management or administration rang ing from planning and administering pro grams for testing foods and drugs to directing activities at zoos or botanical gardens. About one-fifth teach in colleges or universities; many also do independent research. Some life scientists work as consultants to business firms or to government in their areas of spe cialization. Others write for technical publi cations or test and inspect foods, drugs, and other products. Some work in technical sales and services jobs for industrial companies where, for example, they demonstrate the proper use of new chemicals or technical pro ducts. Scientists in many life science areas often call themselves biologists (D.O.T. 041.061030). However, the majority are classified by the type of organism they study or by the specific activity they perform. Botanists (D.O.T. 041.061-038) deal pri marily with plants and their environment. Some study all aspects of plant life, while others work in specific areas such as identify ing and classifying plants or studying the structure of plants and plant cells. Other botanists concentrate on causes and cures of plant diseases. Agronomists (D.O.T. 040.061-010), who are concerned with the mass development of plants, improve the quality and yield of crops, such as com, wheat, and cotton, by developing new growth methods or by con trolling diseases, pests, and weeds. They also analyze soils to determine ways to increase acreage yields and decrease soil erosion. Hor ticulturists (D.O.T. 040.061-038) work with orchard and garden plants such as fruit and nut trees, vegetables, and flowers. They seek to improve plant culture methods for the beautification of communities, homes, parks, and other areas as well as for increasing crop quality and yields. Life scientists, who study all aspects of liv ing organisms, emphasize the relationship of animals and plants to their environment. Zoologists (D.O.T. 041.061-090) study various aspects of animal life—its origin, be havior, and life processes. Some conduct ex perimental studies with live animals in con trolled or natural surroundings while others dissect animals to study the structure of their parts. Zoologists are usually identified by the animal group studied—ornithologists (birds), entomologists (insects), and mammalogists (mammals). About one-third of all life scientists are primarily involved in research and develop ment. Many conduct basic research to in crease our knowledge of living organisms which can be applied in medicine, in increas Animal scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-014) do research on the breeding, feeding, and dis eases of domestic farm animals. Veterinari ans (D.O.T. 073-061) study diseases and ab normal functioning in animals. (See Life Scientists (D.O.T. 040.061, except -034, -046, -054 and -058; 041.061 except -026; and 041.261-010) Nature of the Work LIFE SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS/301 statement on veterinarians elsewhere in the Handbook.) Anatomists (D.O.T. 041.061-010) study the structure of organisms, from cell struc ture to the formation of tissues and organs. Many specialize in human anatomy. Re search methods may entail dissections or the use of electron microscopes. Some life scientists apply their specialized knowledge across a number of areas, and may be classified by the functions performed. Ecologists, for example, study the relation ship between organisms and their environ ments, particularly the effects of environ mental influences such as rainfall, temperature, and altitude on organisms. For example, ecologists extract samples of plank ton (microscopic plants and animals) from bodies of water to determine the effects of pollution, and measure the radioactive con tent of fish. Embryologists study the development of an animal from a fertilized egg through the hatching process or gestation period. They investigate the causes of healthy and abnor mal development in animals. Microbiologists (D.O.T. 041.061-058) are life scientists who investigate the growth and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, viruses, and molds. They isolate and grow organisms for close exami nation under a microscope. Medical microbi ologists are concerned with the relationship between bacteria and disease or the effect of antibiotics on bacteria. Other microbiologists may specialize in soil bacteriology (effect of microorganisms on soil fertility), virology (viruses), or immunology (mechanisms that fight infections). Physiologists (D.O.T. 041.061-078) study how the various life functions of plants and animals work under normal and abnormal conditions. Physiologists may specialize in functions such as growth, reproduction, res piration, or movement, or in the physiology of a certain body area or system. Pharmacologists (D.O.T. 041.061-074) and toxicologists conduct tests on animals such as rats, guinea pigs, and monkeys to determine the effects of drugs, gases, poisons, dusts, and other substances on the function ing of tissues and organs. Pharmacologists may develop new or improved drugs and medicines. Pathologists specialize in the effects of dis eases, parasites, and insects on human cells, tissues, and organs. Others may investigate genetic variations caused by drugs. Biochemists and biological oceanogra phers, who are also life scientists, are in cluded in separate statements elsewhere in the Handbook. Working Conditions Life scientists generally work regular hours in offices, laboratories, or classrooms and usually are not exposed to unsafe or un healthy conditions. Some life scientists such 302/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK as botanists, ecologists, and zoologists may take field trips which may involve strenuous physical labor and primitive living condi tions. Places of Employment An estimated 215,000 persons worked as life scientists in 1978. Almost 40,000 were agricultural scientists, over 110,000 were bio logical scientists, and about 65,000 were medical scientists. Colleges and universities employ nearly three-fifths of all life scientists, in both teach ing and research jobs. Medical schools and hospitals also employ large numbers of medi cal investigators. Sizable numbers of special ists in agronomy, horticulture, animal hus bandry, entomology, and related areas work for State agricultural colleges and agricul tural experiment stations. About 15,000 life scientists worked for the Federal Government in 1978. Of these, al most half worked for the Department of Ag riculture, with large numbers also in the De partment of the Interior and in the National Institutes of Health. State and local govern ments combined employed about 22,000 life scientists. Approximately 40,000 life scientists worked in private industry, mostly in the pharmaceutical, industrial chemical, and food processing industries in 1978. About 6,000 worked for nonprofit research organiza tions and foundations; a few were selfemployed. Life scientists are distributed fairly evenly throughout the United States, but employ ment is concentrated in some metropolitan areas—for example, nearly 6 percent of all agricultural and biological scientists work in the Washington, D.C., metropolitan area. Life science teachers are concentrated in communities with large universities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Persons seeking a career in the life sciences should plan to obtain an advanced degree. The Ph. D. degree generally is required for college teaching, for independent research, and for many administrative jobs. A master’s degree is sufficient for some jobs in applied research and college teaching. A health sci ence degree is necessary for some jobs in medical research. (See section on health oc cupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) The bachelor’s degree is adequate prepara tion for some beginning jobs, but promotions often are limited for those who hold no higher degree. New graduates with a bache lor’s degree can start their careers in testing and inspecting jobs, or become technical sales and service representatives. They also may become advanced technicians, particularly in medical research or, with courses in educa tion, a high school biology teacher. (See statement on secondary school teachers else where in the Handbook.) Most colleges and universities offer life sci ence curriculums. However, different schools may emphasize only certain areas of life sci ence. For example, liberal arts colleges may emphasize the biological sciences, while many State universities and land-grant col leges offer programs in agricultural science. Students seeking careers in the life sciences should obtain the broadest possible under graduate background in biology and other sciences. Courses taken should include biol ogy, chemistry, physics, and mathematics. Many colleges and universities confer ad vanced degrees in the life sciences. Require ments for advanced degrees usually include field work and laboratory research as well as classroom studies and preparation of a thesis. Prospective life scientists should be able to work independently or as part of a team and must be able to communicate their findings in clear and concise language, both orally and in writing. Some life scientists, such as those conducting field research in remote areas, must have stamina. Life scientists who have advanced degrees usually begin in research or teaching jobs. With experience, they may advance to jobs such as supervisors of research programs. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for life scien tists are expected to be good for those with advanced degrees through the 1980’s, but those with lesser degrees may experience competition for available jobs. However, a life science degree also is useful for entry to occupations related to life science such as laboratory technology and the health care oc cupations. Employment in the life sciences is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations over this period. In addi tion, job openings will occur as life scientists retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Employment in the life sciences is expected to grow as a result of increased attention to preserving the natural environment and a continuing interest in medical research. Em ployment opportunities in industry and gov ernment should grow as environmental re search and development increase and new laws and standards protecting the environ ment are enacted. The Toxic Substances Control Act is creating many new openings for toxicologists and other life scientists who are skilled in testing for cancer-causing sub stances. Additional life science teachers will be needed if college and university enroll ments increase as expected. Earnings Life scientists receive relatively high sala ries; their average earnings are more than twice those of nonsupervisory workers in pri vate industry, except farming. According to the College Placement Council surveys, beginning salary offers in private industry in 1978 averaged $11,500 a year for bachelor’s degree recipients in permits for lots on which residences using septic systems are to be built. Besides the many soil scientists who are employed mapping soils, some conduct re search into the chemical and biological prop erties of soils to determine their agricultural uses. With the assistance of agricultural tech nicians, they set up experiments in which they grow crops in different types of soils to determine which are most productive for cer tain crops. They also may test and develop fertilizers for particular soils and try to find ways to improve less productive soils. Other soil scientists, who have backgrounds in the biological sciences, may investigate and study the effect of organic materials in soils on plant growth. Life scientists study living organisms and their life processes. agricultural science and $12,400 a year for bachelor’s degree recipients in biological science. In the Federal Government in 1979, life scientists having a bachelor’s degree could begin at $10,507 or $13,014 a year, depend ing on their college records. Life scientists having the master’s degree could start at $13,014 or $15,920, depending on their aca demic records or work experience. Those having the Ph. D. degree could begin at $19,263 or $23,087 a year. Agricultural and bio logical scientists in the Federal Government averaged $23,800 a year. Salaries paid to college and university life science teachers are comparable to those paid to other faculty members. (See statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Handbook.) Life scientists who have the M.D. degree generally earn more than other life scientists but less than physicians in pri vate practice. Related Occupations Many occupations are related in some way to life science since they deal with living or ganisms. These occupations include the con servation occupations of forester, forestry technician, range mananger and soil conser vationist, as well as biochemist, soil scientist, oceanographer, and life science technician. The wide array of health occupations are all related to life science, as are occupations dealing with raising plants and animals such as farmer and farm worker, florist, and nur sery worker. Sources of Additional Information General information on careers in the life sciences is available from: American Institute of Biological Sciences, 1401 Wilson Boulevard, Arlington, Va. 22209. American Society for Horticultural Science, 70 North Saint Asaph St., Alexandria, Va. 22314. American Physiological Society, Education Office, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md. 20014. Information on Federal job opportunities is available from State Employment Service offices or from U.S. Office of Personnel Man agement area offices or Federal Job Informa tion Centers located in various large cities throughout the country. Soil Scientists (D.O.T. 040.061-058) Nature of the Work Soil scientists study the physical, chemical, biological, and behavioral characteristics of soils, one of our most valuable resources. After investigating the soil at various places within an area and analyzing samples in the laboratory, the soil scientist prepares a map, usually based on aerial photographs, which shows soil types throughout the area as well as landscape features, such as streams or hills, and physical features, such as roads. Because different types of soil are better suited for some uses than others, soil type maps are invaluable for urban and regional planners concerned with land use. A planner who may wish to locate large buildings, such as factories or apartment buildings, on a se cure base would look for firm soils containing clay. In contrast, sandy soils drain much bet ter than clays, and thus are better suited for uses that require good drainage, such as farming. In addition, a small but increasing number of States require certified soil scien tists to examine soils and determine their drainage capacities before issuing building In recent years, research spurred by mounting concern over water pollution has found that sediment, or soil runoff, is respon sible for much of the problem. To meet stan dards of Federal anti-pollution laws, many States now employ soil scientists to inspect large highway and building sites where vege tation has been removed, and agricultural lands where fertilizers have been applied, to make sure proper erosion control methods have been followed. Working Conditions Soil scientists spend much time outdoors. Their work requires a good deal of travel within an assigned area—usually a county. Their employers generally provide a car. During bad weather, soil scientists do their office work, such as preparing maps and writing reports. Research scientists conduct experiments in fields, greenhouses, and laboratories much of the time. Places of Employment The estimated 3,500 soil scientists em ployed in 1978 worked in every State and nearly every county. About half were em ployed by the Soil Conservation Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Some worked for other agencies of the Federal Government, State agricultural experiment stations, and colleges of agriculture. Others were employed in a wide range of other pub lic and private institutions, including fertili zer companies, private research laboratories, insurance companies, banks and other lend ing agencies, real estate firms, land appraisal boards, State conservation departments, and farm management agencies. A few were inde pendent consultants, and others worked for consulting firms. In addition, some soil scien tists worked in foreign countries as research leaders, consultants, and agricultural manag ers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training in a college or university is im portant to obtain employment as a soil scien tist. For Federal employment, the minimum qualification for entrance is a bachelor’s de gree with a major in soil science or in a LIFE SCIENCE OCCUPATIONS/303 Many colleges and universities offer fel lowships and assistantships for graduate training, or employ graduate students for part-time teaching or research. A few States now require certification of soil scientists who inspect soil conditions be fore construction is started. One program re quires that candidates for certification have a bachelor’s degree and 3 years of experience as a soil scientist, or a master’s degree and 2 years of experience. In addition, candidates must complete a written examination to dem onstrate their knowledge of soil science. Soil scientists often can transfer to other occupations that require a knowledge of soil and land, such as land appraiser or farm management advisor. Employment Outlook Construction companies hire soil scientists to evaluate soils for their suitability for various kinds of buildings. closely related field of study, with 30 se mester hours of course work in the bi ological,physical, and earth sciences, in cluding a minimum of 12 semester hours in soils. For students interested in working in the Soil Conservation Service, one of the best courses of study is agronomy, the study of how plants and soils interact. Also, a major in agriculture may enable an applicant to find employment with the Soil Conservation Service. Soil scientists trained in both field work and laboratory research may have the edge in obtaining the best jobs, and an advanced de gree—especially a doctorate degree—may be needed to advance to more responsible and better paying research jobs. Also, a strong background in chemistry may be necessary to obtain research positions. 304/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK A major objective of the Soil Conservation Service is to complete the classification of soils of all rural lands in the United States. Although the number of soil scientists work ing on this project has not changed over the past decade, about 100 openings arise each year to replace those scientists who retire, die, or leave the Soil Conservation Service for other reasons. Some additional employment of soil scien tists may be expected in State and local gov ernment agencies as concern for pollution and destruction of our soil resources in creases. Growth also is expected in busi nesses such as fertilizer manufacturers, and in institutions that make loans for farm lands, such as banks, mortagage companies, and life insurance companies. Earnings In 1978, soil scientists in the Federal Gov ernment—the major employer of these work ers—had estimated average annual salaries of $22,000. The incomes of soil scientists, how ever, depend upon their education, profes sional experience, and individual abilities. The entrance salary in the Federal service for graduates having a B.S. degree was $10,507 in early 1979. They may expect advancement to $13,014, after 1 year of satisfactory per formance. Those who had outstanding rec ords in college, or a master’s degree, started at $13,014, and could advance to $15,920 after 1 year. Further promotion depends upon the individual’s ability to do high qual ity work and to accept responsibility. Wellqualified Federal soil scientists with several years of experience earned between $19,263 and $32,442 a year. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who are concerned with improving the productivity of agriculture through science include agronomists, animal scientists, aquatic biolo gists, botanists, geneticists, parasitologists, plant pathologists, range managers, and soil conservationists. Other occupations that re quire a knowledge of soil and land include land appraisers and farm management advi sors. Sources of Additional Information Additional information may be obtained from the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Personnel, Washington, D.C. 20250; any office of the Department’s Soil Conservation Service; any college of agricul ture; or the Soil Society of America, 677 S. Segoe Rd., Madison, Wis. 53711. Information on soil scientists jobs in the Federal Government also is available from Federal Job Information Centers operated by the U.S. Office of Personnel Management. These centers, located throughout the coun try, are listed in the telephone directory. See also the statements on chemists, life scientists, and soil conservationists elsewhere in the Handbook. Mathematics Occupations Mathematics is both a science and a tool essential for many kinds of work. As a tool, mathematics is necessary for understanding and expressing ideas in science, engineering, and, increasingly, in human affairs. The ap plication of mathematical techniques in these fields has increased greatly because of the widespread use of computers, which enable mathematicians to solve complex problems rapidly and efficiently. As a result, persons trained in mathematics are employed in all sectors of the economy including private in dustry, government, and colleges and univer sities. Persons considering careers in mathemat ics should be good at understanding and working with abstract concepts—ideas that cannot be easily understood in terms of ev eryday events and objects. They should enjoy working independently with ideas and solv ing problems and must be able to present their findings in written reports. This section describes two occupations— mathematician and statistician. A statement on actuaries, a closely related mathematics occupation, is discussed in the section on in surance occupations. Entrance into any of these fields requires college training in math ematics. For many types of work, graduate education is necessary. Many other workers in the natural and social sciences and in data processing use mathematics extensively, although they are not primarily mathematicians. These occu pations are discussed elsewhere in the Hand book. this pure and abstract knowledge has been instrumental in producing many scientific and engineering achievements. For example, in 1854 Bernard Riemann invented a seem ingly impractical non-Euclidian geometry that was to become part of Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity. Years later, this theory contributed to the creation of atomic power. Applied mathematicians use mathematics to develop theories, techniques, and ap proaches to solve practical problems in busi ness, government, engineering, and the natu ral and social sciences. Their work ranges from analysis of the mathematical aspects of launching Earth satellites to studies of the effects of new drugs on disease. Much work in applied mathematics, how ever, is carried on by persons other than mathematicians. In fact, the number of work ers who depend upon mathematical expertise is many times greater than the number actu ally designated as mathematicians. Working Conditions Mathematicians work almost exclusively in offices and classrooms. Most work regular hours and travel infrequently. Places of Employment About 33,000 persons worked as math ematicians in 1978. Roughly three-fourths of all mathematicians worked in colleges and universities. Most were teachers; some worked mainly in research and development with few or no teaching duties. Most other mathematicians worked in pri vate industry and government. In the private sector, major employers were the aerospace, Mathematicians (D.O.T. 020.067-014) Nature of the Work Mathematicians work in one of the oldest and most vital of all sciences. Mathemati cians today are engaged in a wide Variety of activities, ranging from the creation of new theories to the translation of scientific and managerial problems into mathematical terms. Mathematical work falls into two broad classes: Theoretical (pure) mathematics; and applied mathematics. However, these classes are not sharply defined and often overlap. Theoretical mathematicians advance mathematical science by developing new principles and new relationships between ex isting principles of mathematics. Although they seek to increase basic knowledge with out necessarily considering its practical use, com m unications, m achinery, and electrical equipment industries. The Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration employed most of the mathematicians working in the Federal Gov ernment. Mathematicians work in all States, but are concentrated in those with large industrial areas and large college and university enroll ments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement An advanced degree is the basic require ment for beginning teaching jobs, as well as for most research positions. In most colleges and universities, the Ph. D. degree is neces sary for full faculty status. Although the bachelor’s degree may be ad equate preparation for some jobs in private industry and government, employers usually require an advanced degree. Those bachelor’s degree holders who find jobs usually assist senior mathematicians by performing com putations and solving less advanced problems in applied mathematics. However, advance ment often depends on achieving an ad vanced degree. Other bachelor’s degree hold ers work as research or teaching assistants in colleges and universities while studying for an advanced degree. Many bachelor’s degree holders work in related fields. The bachelor’s degree in mathematics is offered by most colleges and universities. Mathematics courses usually required for a degree are analytical geometry, calculus, dif ferential equations, probability and statistics, mathematical analysis, and modem algebra. Many colleges and universities urge or even require students majoring in mathematics to take several courses in a field closely related to mathematics, such as computer science, operations research, a physical science, or economics. A prospective college mathemat ics student should take as many mathematics courses as possible while still enrolled in high school. More than 400 colleges and universities have programs leading to the master’s degree in mathematics; about 150 also offer the Ph. D. In graduate school, students build upon the basic knowledge acquired in earlier stud ies. They usually concentrate on a specific field of mathematics, such as algebra, mathe matical analysis, or geometry, by conducting research and taking advanced courses. For work in applied mathematics, training in the field in which the mathematics will be used is very important. Fields in which ap plied mathematics is used extensively include physics, engineering, and operations re search; of increasing importance are business and industrial management, economics, sta tistics, chemistry and life sciences, and the behavioral sciences. Mathematicians should have a good knowledge of computer programming since most complex mathematical computation is done by computer. Mathematicians need good reasoning abil ity, persistence, and the ability to apply basic principles to new types of problems. They must be able to communicate well with oth ers since they often must listen to a nonmath ematician describe a problem in general terms, and check and recheck to make sure they understand the mathematical solution that is needed. Employment Outlook Employment of mathematicians is ex pected to increase more slowly than the averMATHEMATICS OCCUPATIONS/305 ing certificate. (See statement on second ary school teachers elsewhere in the Hand book.) Earnings In 1978, mathematicians earned about twice the average for nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Starting salaries for mathematicians with a bachelor’s degree averaged about $14,800 a year. Those with a master’s degree could start at about $17,000 annually. Salaries for new graduates having the Ph. D., most of whom had some experience, averaged over $22,500. In the Federal Government in early 1979, mathematicians having the bachelor’s degree and no experience could start at either $10,507 or $13,014 a year, depending on their college records. Those with the master’s de gree could start at $15,920 or $19,263; and persons having the Ph. D. degree could begin at either $19,263 or $23,087. The average salary for all mathematicians in the Federal Government was about $25,900 in early 1979. Salaries paid to college and university mathematics teachers are comparable to those for other faculty members. (See state ment on college and university faculty else where in the Handbook.) Related Occupations About three-fourths of all mathematicians work in colleges and universities. age for all occupations through the 1980’s because the majority of mathematicians work in colleges and universities where little em ployment growth is expected. Although the number of degrees granted in mathematics each year is expected to decline, the number of people seeking employment is expected to exceed job openings. As a result, persons seeking employment as mathematicians are likely to face keen competition throughout the period. Individuals with Ph. D. degrees will have better prospects than those with bachelor’s or master’s degrees, but some Ph. D.’s may have to seek employment in other than the traditional academic areas. Theoretical mathematicians, who have tra ditionally found jobs in colleges and universi ties, are expected to experience the most dif ficulty in finding employment because colleges and universities are not expected to increase their employment of mathemati cians much, if any, beyond present levels. Mathematicians hired by colleges and uni versities may find it increasingly difficult to acquire tenure because large proportions of many faculties already have this status but are years from retirement age. Those who do not attain tenure usually will not ad vance and in some schools may be forced to resign. Holders of advanced degrees in applied mathematics should have the least difficulty 306/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK in finding satisfactory employment. Al though some limited opportunities may be available to theoretical mathematicians in nonacademic areas, most nonacademic em ployers will seek applied mathematicians who are capable of applying their special mathematical skills to practical problems. Private industry and governmental agencies will need applied mathematicians for work in operations research, numerical analysis, computer systems programming, applied mathematical physics, market research, and commercial surveys, and as consultants in industrial laboratories. Although mathematician jobs may be dif ficult to obtain, college graduates with de grees in mathematics should find their back ground helpful for careers in other areas. Many jobs rely heavily on the application of mathematical theories and methods. Mathe matics majors are likely to find openings as statisticians, actuaries, computer program mers, systems analysts, economists, engi neers, and physical and life scientists. Em ployment opportunities in these fields will probably be best for those who combine a major in mathematics with a minor in one of these subjects. New graduates may also find openings as high school mathematics teachers after completing professional education courses and other requirements for a State teach The occupations of actuary, statistician, computer programmer, systems analyst, and operations research analyst are closely related to mathematics. In addition, workers in many fields such as natural and social sci ence, engineering, and finance use mathemat ics extensively. Sources of Additional Information Several brochures are available that give facts about the field of mathematics, includ ing career opportunities, professional train ing, and colleges and universities with degree programs. Seeking Employment in the Mathematical Sciences is available for 50 cents from: American Mathematical Society, P.O. Box 6248, Providence, R.I. 02940. Professional Opportunities in Mathematics is available for $1.50 from: Mathematical Association of America, 1225 Con necticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. For specific information on careers in ap plied mathematics, contact: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 33 S. 17th St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19103. Information on Federal job opportunities is available from State employment service offices or from U.S. Office of Personnel Man agement area offices or Federal Job Informa tion Centers located in various large cities throughout the country. Statisticians (D .O .T. 020.067-022 and .167-026) Nature of the Work Statistics are numbers that help describe the characteristics of the world and its in habitants. Statisticians devise, carry out, and interpret the numerical results of sur veys and experiments. In doing so, they apply their knowledge of statistical meth ods to a particular subject area, such as economics, human behavior, natural sci ence, or engineering. They may use statisti cal techniques to predict population growth or economic conditions, develop quality control tests for manufactured pro ducts, or help business managers and gov ernment officials make decisions and evalu ate the results of new programs. Often statisticians are able to obtain accu rate information about a group of people or things by surveying a small portion, called a sample, rather than the whole group. For example, television rating services ask only a few thousand families, rather than all view ers, what programs they watch to determine the size of the audience. Statisticians decide where to get the data, determine the type and size of the sample group, and develop the survey questionnaire or reporting form. They also prepare instructions for workers who will tabulate the returns. Statisticians who design experiments prepare mathematical models and written reports. Some statisti cians, called mathematical statisticians, use mathematical theory to design and improve statistical methods. Because the field of statistics has such a wide application, it sometime is difficult to distinguish statisticians from specialists in other fields who use statistics. For exam ple, a statistician working with data on ec onomic conditions may have the title of economist. Working Conditions Statisticians usually work regular hours in offices. Some statisticians may travel occa sionally to supervise or set up a survey, or to gather statistical data. Some statisticians spend all day at their desk doing fairly repeti tive tasks, while others may be involved in a variety of tasks. Places of Employment Approximately 23,000 persons worked as statisticians in 1978. Over half of all statisti cians were in private industry, primarily in manufacturing, finance, and insurance com panies. Roughly one-fifth worked for the Federal Government, primarily in the De partments of Commerce; Health, Education, and Welfare; Agriculture; and Defense. Oth ers worked in State and local government and in colleges and universities. Although statisticians work in all parts of Statisticians devise, carry out, and interpret the numerical results of surveys and experiments. the country, most are in metropolitan areas, and about one-fourth work in three areas— New York City; Washington, D.C.; and Los Angeles-Long Beach, Calif. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in statis tics or mathematics is the minimum educa tional requirem ent for m any beginning job s in statistics. For other beginning statistical jobs, however, a bachelor’s degree with a major in an applied field such as economics or natural science and a minor in statistics is preferable. A graduate degree in mathemat ics or statistics is essential for college and university teaching. Most mathematical sta tisticians have at least a bachelor’s degree in mathematics and an advanced degree in sta tistics. Over 100 colleges and universities offered statistics as a concentration for a bachelor’s degree in 1978. Many schools also offer ei ther a degree in mathematics or a sufficient number of courses in statistics to qualify graduates for beginning positions. Required subjects for statistics majors include mathe matics through differential and integral cal culus, statistical methods, and probability theory. Courses in computer uses and tech niques, if not required, are highly recom mended. For quality-control positions, training in engineering or physical or bio logical science and in the application of sta tistical methods to manufacturing processes is desirable. For many market research, business analysis, and forecasting jobs, courses in economics and business adminis tration are helpful. Nearly 90 colleges and universities of fered graduate degrees in statistics in 1978, and many other schools offered one or two graduate level statistics courses. Accept ance into graduate programs does not re quire an undergraduate degree in statistics although a good mathematics background is essential. Beginning statisticians who have only the bachelor’s degree often spend much of their time performing routine work under the supervision of an experiened statistician. Through experience, they may advance to positions of greater technical and supervisory responsibility. However, opportunities for promotion are best for those with advanced degrees. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for persons who combine training in statistics with knowledge of a field of application are ex pected to be favorable through the 1980’s. Besides the faster-than-average growth ex pected in this field, additional statisticians MATHEMATICS OCCUPATIONS/307 will be needed to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other occupations. Private industry will require increasing numbers of statisticians for quality control in manufacturing. Statisticians with knowledge of engineering and the physical sciences will find jobs working with scientists and engi neers in research and development. Business firms will rely more heavily than in the past on statisticians to forecase sales, analyze business conditions, modernize accounting procedures, and help solve management problems. Many fields such as law and history have recognized the usefulness of statistics, and statistical techniques are being used increas ingly to determine such things as the effects of pollution and toxic substances. As the use of statistics expands into new areas, more statisticians will be needed. Federal, State, and local government agencies will need statisticians for existing and new programs in fields such as trans portation, social security, health, and edu cation. The broader use of statistical meth ods is also likely to result in a need for 308/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK more teachers of statistics in colleges and universities. Earnings In the Federal Government in 1979, statis ticians who had the bachelor’s degree and no experience could start at either $10,507 or $13,014 a year, depending on their college grades. Beginning statisticians with the mas ter’s degree could start at $15,920 or $19,263. Those with the Ph. D. could begin at $19,263 or $23,087. The average annual salary for statisticians in the Federal Government was about $26,000 in 1979. Salaries in private industry were compara ble to those in the Federal Government, ac cording to the limited data available. Statisticians employed by colleges and universities generally receive salaries com parable to those paid other faculty mem bers. (See the statement on college and uni versity faculty.) In addition to their regular salaries, statisticians in educational institu tions sometimes earn extra income from outside research projects, consulting, and writing. Related Occupations Workers in the following occupations use statistics to such an extent their job is similar to that of a statistician: marketing research workers, urban planners, engineers, environ mental scientists, life scientists, physical scientists, and social scientists. Others who work with numbers are actuaries, math ematicians, financial analysts, computer pro grammers, and systems analysts. Sources of Additional Information For information about career opportuni ties in statistics, contact: American Statistical Association, 806 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. Information on Federal job opportunities is available from State employment service offices or from U.S. Office of Personnel Man agement area offices or Federal Job Informa tion Centers located in various large cities throughout the country. For information on a career as a mathe matical statistician, contact: Institute of Mathematical Statistics, 3401 Invest ment Blvd. # 6 , Hayward, Calif. 94545. Physical Scientists Physical scientists investigate the structure and composition of the earth and the uni verse. Three physical science occupations are described in this section: Astronomers, chemists, and physicists. Astronomers study the nature of the universe, while chemists examine the composition and interaction of substances in the world around us. Physicists study the interaction of matter and energy. A knowledge of the physical sciences is also re quired by engineers, environmental scien tists, and life scientists; these occupations are described in separate sections elsewhere in the Handbook. Many physical scientists perform research directed toward increasing our knowledge of the universe. Physical scientists also employ the results of research in the development of new products and production processes. Some physical scientists teach in colleges and universities. Others, particularly chemists, work in production and sales-related activi ties in industry. Many high level jobs in the physical sciences require graduate education and often a Ph. D. degree. Astronomers (D.O.T.021.067-010) Nature of the Work Astronomers seek answers to questions about the fundamental nature of the uni verse, such as its origin and history and the evolution of our solar system. Astronomers —sometimes called astrophysicists—use the principles of physics and mathematics to study and determine the behavior of matter and energy in distant galaxies. One applica tion of the information they gain is to prove or disprove theories of the nature of m atter' and energy such as Einstein’s theory of rela tivity. To make observations of the universe, as tronomers use large telescopes, radiotele scopes, and other instruments that can de tect electromagnetic radiation from distant sources. Astronomers of today seldom ob serve stars visually through telescopes be cause photographic and electronic light detecting equipment is more effective with dim or distant stars and galaxies. By using spectroscopes to analyze light from stars, astronomers can determine their chemical composition. Astronomers also use radiotelescopes and other electronic means to ob serve radio waves, X-rays, and cosmic rays. Computers are used to analyze data and to solve complex mathematical equations that astronomers develop to represent various theories. Computers also are useful for processing astronomical data to calculate orbits of asteroids or comets, guide space craft, and work out tables for navigational handbooks. Astronomers usually specialize in one of the many branches of the science such as instruments and techniques, the Sun, the solar system, and the evolution and interiors of stars or galaxies. Astronomers who work on observational programs begin their studies by deciding what stars or other objects to observe and the methods and instruments to use. They may need to design optical measuring devices to attach to the telescope to make the required measurements. After completing their obser vations, they analyze the results, present them in precise numerical form, and explain them on the basis of some theory. Astromomers usually spend relatively little time in actual observation and relatively more time in analyzing the large quantities of data that observatory facilities collect. Some astronomers concentrate on theoret ical problems and seldom visit observatories. They formulate theories or mathematical models to explain observations made earlier by other astronomers. These astronomers de velop mathematical equations using the laws of physics to compute, for example, theoreti cal models of the internal structure of stars, and how stars change as they grow older and exhaust the energy sources deep in their in teriors. Almost all astronomers do research or teach; those in colleges and universities often do both. In schools that do not have separate departments of astronomy or only small en rollments in the subject, they often teach courses in mathematics or physics as well as astronomy. Some astronomers administer re search programs, develop and design astro nomical instruments, and do consulting work. Working Conditions Most astronomers spend the majority of their time working in offices or classrooms, although astronomers who make observa tions may need to travel to the observing fa cility and frequently work at night. Astro nomers are often under considerable pressure to produce research results which are of pub lishable quality. In some universities, rela tively new astronomers who do not produce significant research results are not granted tenure, which is in effect a permanent, secure position. Those not granted tenure face the possibility of losing their jobs. Places of Employment Astronomy is the smallest physical sci ence; fewer than 2,000 persons worked as astronomers in 1978. Most astronomers work in colleges and universities. Some work in observatories operated by universities, nonprofit organizations, and the Federal Government. The Federal Government employed al most 550 astronomers and space scientists in 1978. Most worked for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Oth ers worked for the Department of Defense, mainly at the U.S. Naval Observatory and the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. A few astronomers worked for firms in the aero space field, or in museums and planetariums. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The usual requirement for a job in astron omy is a Ph. D. degree. Persons with less education may qualify for some jobs related to astronomy, but higher level positions in teaching and research and advancement in most areas are open only to those with the doctorate. Many students who undertake graduate study in astronomy have a bachelor’s degree in astronomy. In 1978, about 50 colleges and universities had programs leading to the bachelor’s degree in astronomy. However, students with a bachelor’s degree in physics, or in mathematics with a physics minor, usu ally also can qualify for graduate programs in astronomy. About 50 universities offer the Ph. D. de gree in astronomy. These programs include advanced courses in astronomy, physics, and mathematics. Some schools require that graduate students spend several months working at an observatory. In most institu tions, the work program leading to the doc torate is flexible and allows students to take courses in their own area of interest. Persons planning careers in astronomy should have great interest and ability in sci ence and mathematics, as well as imagination and an inquisitive mind. Perseverance and the ability to concentrate on detail and to work independently also are important. New graduates with a doctorate may work for several years on a postdoctoral fellow ship, doing research and gaining further re search experience before obtaining a perma nent position. A postdoctoral fellowship provides an opportunity to gain additional qualification in astronomical research. It also provides employment while looking for a per manent job. Other new Ph. D.’s, however, PHYSICAL SCIENTISTS/309 development, new products are created or improved. The process of developing a prod uct begins with descriptions of the character istics it should have. If similar products exist, chemists test samples to determine their in gredients. If no such product exists, ex perimentation with various substances yields a product with the required specifications. Nearly one-eighth of all chemists work in production and inspection. In production, chemists prepare instructions (batch sheets) for plant workers that specify the kind and amount of ingredients to use and the exact mixing time for each stage in the process. At each step, samples are tested for quality con trol to meet industry and government stan dards. Records and reports show results of tests. Others work as marketing or sales repre sentatives to obtain technical knowledge of products sold. A number of chemists teach in colleges and universities. Some chemists are consultants to private industry and to gov ernment agencies. enter teaching or research jobs immediately after attaining their degree. Astronomy is also related to other physical sciences and mathematics. Employment Outlook Sources of Additional Information Persons seeking positions as astronomers will face keen competition for the few availa ble openings expected through the 1980’s. Employment of astronomers is expected to grow slowly, if at all, because the funds avail able for basic research in astronomy, which come mainly from the Federal Government, are not expected to increase enough to create many new positions. Most openings will occur as replacements for those who die or retire. Since astronomy is such a small pro fession, there will be few openings arising from the need for replacements. There will be keen competition for these openings because the number of degrees granted in astronomy probably will continue to exceed available openings. For information on careers in astronomy and on schools offering training in the field, contact: Earnings Astronomers have relatively high salaries, with average earnings more than twice the average earnings for nonsupervisory In the Federal Government in 1979, astro nomers holding the Ph. D. degree could begin at $19,263 or $23,087, depending on their college record. The average annual sal ary for astronomers and space scientists in the Federal Government was over $33,000 in 1978. Astronomers teaching in colleges and universities received salaries equivalent to those of other faculty members. (See state ment on college and university faculty else where in the Handbook.) Related Occupations Astronomy is closely related to physics, and often is thought of as a branch of physics. 310/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Education Office, American Astronomical Soci ety, University o f Delaware, Newark, Del. 19711. Chemists___________ (D.O.T. 022.061-010 and -014, .137-010, .161-010, and .281-014) Nature of the Work The clothes we wear, the foods we eat, the houses in which we live—in fact most things that help make our lives better, from medical care to a cleaner environment—result, in part, from the work done by chemists. Chemists search for and put into practical use new knowledge about substances. Their research has resulted in the development of a tremendous variety of synthetic materials, such as nylon and polyester fabrics, ingredi ents that have improved other substances, and processes which help save energy and reduce pollution, such as improved oil refin ing methods. Nearly one-half of all chemists work in research and development. In basic research, chemists investigate the properties and com position of matter and the laws that govern the combination of elements. Basic research often has practical uses. For example, syn thetic rubber and plastics have resulted from research on small molecules uniting to form larger ones (polymerization). In research and Chemists often specialize in one of the sub fields of chemistry. Analytical chemists deter mine the structure, composition, and nature of substances, and develop new techniques. An outstanding example was the analysis of moon rocks by an international team of ana lytical chemists. Organic chemists at one time studied the chemistry of only living things, but this area has been broadened to include all carbon compounds. When combined with other elements, carbon forms a vast number of substances. Many modern commercial products, including plastics and other syn thetics, have resulted from the work of or ganic chemists. Inorganic chemists study compounds other than carbon. They may, for example, develop materials to use in solid state electronic components. Physical chem ists study energy transformations to find new and better energy sources. Increasingly, how ever, chemists consider themselves members of new specialties that include two or more of the preceding fields. Biochemists, often con sidered as either chemists or life scientists, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Some chemists specialize in the chemistry of foods. (See statement on food technologists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Chemists usually work in offices, laborato ries, or classrooms. Some are exposed to health or safety hazards when handling cer tain chemicals, but there is little risk if proper procedures are followed. Chemists usually work regular hours and seldom travel. Places of Employment Over 140,000 persons worked as chemists in 1978. About one-half of all chemists work for manufacturing firms—about one-half of them are in the chemical manufacturing in dustry, with the rest scattered throughout other manufacturing industries. Colleges and universities employed about 25,(XX) chemists in 1978. Chemists also work for State and local governments, primarily in health and agriculture, and for Federal agen cies, chiefly the Department of Defense; Health and Human Services; Agriculture; and Interior. Smaller numbers worked for nonprofit research organizations. Chemists are employed in all parts of the country, but they are concentrated in large industrial areas. Nearly one-fifth of all chem ists were located in four metropolitan areas— New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, and New ark. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in chem istry or a related discipline is sufficient for many beginning jobs as a chemist. However, graduate training is required for many re search jobs and most college teaching jobs require a Ph. D. degree. Beginning chemists should have a broad background in chemis try, with good laboratory skills. About 1,175 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in chemistry. In addition to required courses in analytical, inorganic, organic, and physical chemistry, under graduates usually study mathematics and physics. More than 350 colleges and universities award advanced degrees in chemistry. In graduate school, students generally specialize in a particular subfield of chemistry. Re quirements for the master’s and doctor’s de gree usually include a thesis based on inde pendent research. Although many chemists spend much of their time in laboratories, chemists also work in offices, classrooms, and industrial plants. Students planning careers as chemists should enjoy studying science and mathemat ics, and should like working with their hands building scientific apparatus and performing experiments. Perseverance and the ability to concentrate on detail and to work indepen dently are essential. Other desirable assets include an inquisitive mind and imagination. Graduates with the bachelor’s degree gen erally begin their careers in government or industry by analyzing or testing products, working in technical sales or service, or as sisting senior chemists in research and devel opment laboratories. Some employers have special training and orientation programs which provide special knowledge needed for the employer’s type of work. Candidates for an advanced degree often teach or do re search in colleges and universities while working toward advanced degrees. Beginning chemists with the master’s de gree can usually go into applied research in government or private industry. They also may qualify for teaching positions in 2-year colleges and some universities. The Ph. D. generally is required for basic research, for teaching in colleges and univer sities, and for advancement to many adminis trative positions. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities in chemistry are expected to be good for graduates at all degree levels through the 1980’s. The em ployment of chemists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupa tions during this period, creating many job openings. In addition, openings will result each year as chemists retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. This outlook for chemists is based on the assumption that research and development expenditures of government and industry will increase through the 1980’s, although at a slower rate than during the 1960’s. If actual expenditures differ significantly from those assumed, the outlook for chemists would be altered. Approximately three-fourths of total em ployment is expected to be in private indus try, primarily in the development of new pro ducts. In addition, industrial companies and government agencies will need more chem ists to help solve problems related to energy shortages, pollution control, and health care. Little growth in college and university em ployment is expected, and competition for teaching positions will be keen. (See state ment on college and university faculty else where in the Handbook.) Some graduates will find openings in high school teaching after completing professional education courses and other requirements for a State teaching certificate. They usually are then regarded as teachers rather than chemists. (See statement on secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) PHYSICAL SCIENTISTS/311 Earnings Earnings of chemists averaged more than twice as much as those of nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. According to the American Chemical Soci ety, salaries of experienced chemists having a bachelor’s degree averaged $23,900 a year in 1978; for those with a master’s degree, $25,400; and for those with a Ph. D., $29,200. Private industry paid chemists with the bachelor’s degree starting salaries averaging $13,500 a year in 1978; those with the mas ter’s degree, $15,600; and those with the Ph. D., $21,500. In colleges and universities, the average salary of those with the master’s degree was $18,100 and of those with the Ph. D., $23,400. In addition, many experienced chemists in educational institutions supplement their regular salaries with income from consulting, lecturing, and writing. Depending on a person’s college record, the annual starting salary in the Federal Gov ernment in early 1979 for an inexperienced chemist with a bachelor’s degree was either $10,507 or $13,014. Those who had 2 years of graduate study could begin at $15,920 a year. Chemists having the Ph. D. degree could start at $19,263 or $23,087. The aver age salary for all chemists in the Federal Government in early 1979 was $26,000 a year. Related Occupations The occupations of biochemist, life scien tist, food scientist, and chemical technician are closely related to chemistry. Other physi cal science and environmental science occu pations are also related to chemistry. Sources of Additional Information mathematical terms the structure of the uni verse and interaction of matter and energy. Physicists develop theories that describe the fundamental forces and laws of nature. De termining the basic laws governing phenomena such as gravity, electromagnet ism, and nuclear interaction leads to discov eries and innovations. For instance, the de velopment of irradiation therapy equipment which destroys harmful growths in humans without damaging other tissues resulted from what physicists know about nuclear radia tion. Physicists have contributed to scientific progress in recent years in areas such as nu clear energy, electronics, communications, aerospace, and medical instrumentation. The majority of all physicists work in re search and development. Some do basic re search to increase scientific knowledge. For example, they investigate the structure of the atom or the nature of gravity. The equipment that physicists design for their basic research can often be applied to other areas. For ex ample, lasers (devices that amplify light and emit electromagnetic waves in a narrow, in tense light beam) are utilized in surgery; mi crowave devices are used for ovens; and mea surement techniques and instruments can detect and measure the kind and number of cells in blood or the amount of mercury or lead in foods. Some engineering-oriented physicists do applied research and help develop new pro ducts. For instance, their knowledge of solidstate physics led to the development of tran sistors and microcircuits used in electronic equipment that ranges from hearing aids to missile guidance systems. Many physicists teach and do research in colleges and universities. A small number work in inspection, quality control, and other production-related jobs in industry. Some do consulting work. Most physicists specialize in one branch or more of the science—elementary-particle physics; nuclear physics; atomic, electron, and molecular physics; physics of condensed matter; optics, acoustics, and plasma physics; and the physics of fluids. Some specialize in a subdivision of one of these branches. For example, solid-state physics subdivisions in clude ceramics, crystallography, and semi conductors. However, since all physics in volves the same fundamental principles, several specialties may overlap. Growing numbers of physicists are special izing in fields that combine physics and a related science—such as astrophysics, bio physics, chemical physics, and geophysics. Furthermore, the practical applications of physicists’ work increasingly have merged with engineering. Working Conditions Physicists generally work regular hours in laboratories, classrooms, and offices. Most physicists do not encounter unusual hazards in their work. Places of Employment Over 40,000 people worked as physicists in 1978. Private industry employed over one-half of all physicists, primarily in com panies manufacturing chemicals, electrical equipment, and aircraft and missiles. Many others worked in hospitals, commercial laboratories, and independent research or ganizations. Almost one-half of all physicists taught or did research in colleges and universities; some did both. About 5,000 physicists were employed by the Federal Government in 1978, mostly in the Departments of Defense and Commerce. Although physicists are employed in all General information on career opportuni ties and earnings for chemists is available from: American Chemical Society, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Chemical Manufacturers Association, 1825 Con necticut Ave. NW., Washington D.C. 20009. Information on Federal job opportunities is available from State employment service offices or from U.S. Office of Personnel Man agement area offices or Federal Job Informa tion Centers located in various large cities throughout the country. Physicists (D.O.T. 023.061-014 and .067-010) Nature of the Work The flight of astronauts through space, the probing of ocean depths, and even the safety of the family car depend on research by physicists. Through systematic observation and experimentation, physicists describe in 312/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Physicist “ growing” germanium crystals in a laboratory. parts of the country, their employment is greatest in areas that have heavy industrial concentrations and large college and univer sity enrollments. Nearly one-fourth of all physicists work in four metropolitan areas— Washington, D.C.; Boston, Mass.; New York, N.Y.; and Los Angeles-Long Beach, Calif., and more than one-third are concen trated in three States—California, New York, and Massachusetts. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Graduate training in physics or a closely related field is almost essential for most entry level jobs in physics and for advancement in all types of work. The doctorate usually is required for full faculty status at colleges and universities and for industrial or government jobs administering research and development programs. Those having master’s degrees qualify for many research jobs in private industry and in the Federal Government. In colleges and uni versities, some teach and assist in research while studying for their Ph. D. Those having bachelor’s degrees may qual ify for some applied research and develop ment jobs in private industry and in the Fed eral Government. Some are employed as research assistants in colleges and universi ties while studying for advanced degrees. Many work in engineering and other scien tific fields. (See statements on engineers, geo physicists, programmers, and systems ana lysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) ate student, especially the candidate for the Ph. D. degree, spends a large portion of his or her time in research. Students planning a career in physics should have an inquisitive mind, mathemati cal ability, and imagination. They should be able to work on their own, since physicists, particularly in basic research, often receive only limited supervision. Physicists often begin their careers doing routine laboratory tasks. After some experi ence, they are assigned more complex tasks and may advance to work as project leaders or research directors. Some work in top man agement jobs. Physicists who develop new products sometimes form their own compa nies or join new firms to exploit their own ideas. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities in physics are expected to be favorable through the 1980’s for persons with graduate degrees in physics. Although employment of physicists is pro jected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations over the period, fewer physics graduates are expected to enter the labor force than in the past. The number of graduate degrees awarded annually in phys ics has been declining since 1970, and may remain at about the current level through 1990. Most job openings will arise as physi cists retire, die, or transfer to other occupa tions. Many physicists work in research and de velopment (R&D). The anticipated increase in R&D expenditures through the 1980’s should result in increased requirements for physicists. If actual R&D expenditure levels and patterns differ significantly from those assumed, however, the outlook would be al tered. Over 800 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in physics. In addition, many engineering schools offer a physics major as part of the general curriculum. The undergraduate program provides a broad background in the science and serves as a base for later specialization either in graduate school or on the job. Some typical physics courses are mechanics, electricity and mag netism, optics, thermodynamics, and atomic and molecular physics. Students also take courses in chemistry and many courses in mathematics. Some physicists with advanced degrees will be needed to teach in colleges and univer sities, but competition for these jobs is ex pected to be keen. Since employment growth is not anticipated in this area, most openings will occur to replace physicists who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. About 275 colleges and universities offer advanced degrees in physics. In graduate school, the student, with faculty guidance, usually works in a specific field. The gradu Persons with only a bachelor’s degree in physics are expected to face keen competition for physicist jobs through the 1980’s. Some new graduates will find employment as engi neers or technicians. Others will find oppor tunities as high school physics teachers after completing the required educational courses and obtaining a State teaching certificate. However, they are usually regarded as teach ers rather than as physicists. (See statement on secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings Physicists have relatively high salaries, with average earnings more than twice those of nonsupervisory workers in private indus try, except farming. According to an Ameri can Institute of Physics Survey in 1978, start ing salaries for physicists in manufacturing industries averaged about $17,400 for those with a master’s degree and $23,000 for those with a Ph. D. Depending on their college records, physi cists with a bachelor’s degree could start in the Federal Government in 1977 at either $10,507 or $13,014 a year. Beginning physi cists having a master’s degree could start at $13,014 or $15,920, and those having the Ph. D. degree could begin at $19,263 or $23,087. Average earnings for all physicists in the Federal Government in 1978 were $30,200 a year. Starting salaries on college and university faculties for physicists having a master’s de gree averaged $12,900 in 1978, and for those having the Ph. D., $13,900, according to the American Institute of Physics. (See state ment on college and university faculty else where in the Handbook.) Many faculty physicists supplement their regular incomes by working as consultants and taking on spe cial research projects. Related Occupations Physics is closely related to astronomy and other scientific occupations such as chemists, geologists, and geophysicists. Engineers and engineering and science technicians also use a knowledge of the principles of physics in their work. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportuni ties in physics is available from: American Institute of Physics, 335 East 45th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. PHYSICAL SCIENTISTS/313 Other Scientific and Technical Occupations Broadcast Technicians (D.O.T. 003.167-030 and -034; 193.167-014, .262-018 and -038; 194.262-010 and -018, .282, .362, and .382-014; 822.281-030; 962.162, .167-010, .281-014 and -018, .362-014, .384, and .665) Nature of the Work Broadcast technicians operate and main tain the electronic equipment used to record and transmit radio and television programs. They work with microphones, sound record ers, light and sound effects, television cam eras, video tape recorders, and other equip ment. In the control room, broadcast technicians operate equipment that regulates the quality of sounds and pictures being recorded or broadcast. They also operate controls that switch broadcasts from one camera or studio to another, from film to live programming, or from network to local programs. By means of hand signals and, in television, by use of tele phone headsets, they give technical direc tions to personnel in the studio. When events outside the studio are to be broadcast, technicians may go to the site and set up, test, and operate the equipment. After the broadcast, they dismantle the equipment and return it to the station. As a rule, broadcast technicians in small stations perform a variety of duties. In large stations and in networks, on the other hand, technicians are more specialized, although specific job assignments may change from day to day. Transmitter technicians monitor and log outgoing signals and are responsible for transmitter operation. Maintenance tech nicians set up, maintain, and repair elec tronic broadcasting equipment. Audio control technicians regulate sound pickup, transmis sion, and switching, and video control techni cians regulate the quality, brightness, and contrast of television pictures. The lighting of television programs is directed by lighting technicians. For programs originating out side the studio, field technicians set up and operate broadcasting equipment. Recording technicians operate and maintain sound re cording equipment; video recording techni cians operate and maintain video tape re cording equipment. Some technicians operate equipment designed to produce special effects. Sometimes the term “oper ator” or “engineer” is substituted for “tech nician.” Supervisory personnel with job titles such as chief engineer or transmission engineer di rect activities concerned with the operation and maintenance of studio broadcasting equipment. 314/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Working Conditions Broadcast technicians generally work in doors in pleasant surroundings. Many sta tions are air-conditioned since transmitters and other electronic equipment must be ope rated at cool temperatures. Broadcasts out side the studio, however, may require techni cians to work out of doors under less favorable conditions. Network technicians may ocasionally have to work long hours under great pressure to meet broadcast deadlines. Places of Employment About 40,000 broadcast technicians were employed in radio and television stations in 1978. Television stations employ, on the av erage, many more technicians than radio sta tions. Although broadcast technicians are employed in every State, most are located in large metropolitan areas. The highest paying and most specialized jobs are concentrated in New York City, Los Angeles, and Washing ton, D.C.—the originating centers for most of the network programs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement While broadcast technicians have some duties that do not require a high degree of training in electronics, employers prefer ap plicants who can handle the full range of technical duties. A person interested in becoming a broadcast technician therefore should plan to get a first class radiotelephone operator license from the Federal Communi cations Commission (FCC). Federal law re quires that anyone who operates broadcast transmitters in television stations must hold such a license. In radio stations, technicians who maintain, repair, or adjust transmitters also need the first class license; however, in most cases, those involved in the most rou tine operation of transmitters only need a restricted radiotelephone operator permit, for which no examination is required. Appli cants for an FCC license, however, must pass a series of written examinations. These cover construction and operation of transmission and receiving equipment; characteristics of electromagnetic waves; and regulations and practices, both Federal and international, which govern broadcasting. Among high school courses, algebra, trigo nometry, physics, electronics, and other sciences provide valuable background for persons anticipating careers in this occupa tion. Building and operating a radio also are good training. Taking an electronics course in a technical school is still another good way to acquire the knowledge for becoming a broadcast technician. Some persons gain work experience as temporary employees while filling in for regular broadcast techni cians who are on vacation. Many schools give courses especially de signed to prepare the student for the FCC’s first class license test. Technical school or college training is an advantage, particularly for those who hope to advance to supervisory positions or to the more specialized jobs in large stations and in the networks. Broadcast technicians must have an apti tude for working with electrical and mechan ical systems and equipment. Manual dexter ity, the ability to perform tasks requiring precise hand skills, is necessary for success in this occupation. Persons with FCC first class licenses who get entry jobs are instructed and advised by the chief engineer, or by other experienced technicians, concerning the work procedures of the station. They begin their careers in small stations, operating the transmitter and handling other technical duties, after a brief instruction period. As they acquire more ex perience and skill, they are assigned to more responsible jobs. Those who demonstrate above-average ability may move into top level technical positions such as supervisory technician or chief engineer. A college degree in engineering is becoming increasingly im portant for advancement to supervisory and executive positions. (See the statement on oc cupations in the radio and television broad casting industry elsewhere in the Handbook.) Employment Outlook People seeking beginning jobs as broadcast technicians face strong competition, espe cially in major metropolitan areas where the number of qualified jobseekers greatly ex ceeds the number of openings. Prospects for entry level positions are best in smaller cities for people with appropriate training in elec tronics. As is the case with other occupations in the radio and television broadcasting in dustry, stations in major metropolitan areas seek highly experienced personnel. Employment of broadcast technicians is expected to increase about as fast as the aver age for all occupations through the 1980’s. Some job openings also will result from the need to replace experienced technicians who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Some new job opportunities for techni cians will arise as new radio and television stations go on the air. Demand for broadcast technicians also will increase as cable televi sion stations broadcast more of their own programs. At the same time, technological developments are likely to limit future de- the strength, quality, quantity, and cost of materials. Final drawings contain a detailed view of the object from all sides as well as specifications for materials to be used, proce dures followed, and other information to carry out the job. In preparing drawings, drafters use com passes, dividers, protractors, triangles, and other drafting devices. They also use techni cal handbooks, tables, and calculators to help solve problems. y .. „ Broadcast technicians must have an aptitude for working with electrical and mechanical equipment. mand; such laborsaving technical advances as automatic programming and remote con trol of transmitters will hold down demand for additional technicians. Technological de velopments such as these have shifted the emphasis from operations to maintenance work, which calls for a strong technical back ground. Earnings In 1978, technicians generally started at $ 140 to $ 150 a week in small stations, accord ing to the limited information available. / Earnings of experienced technicians were much higher. Licensed technicians who can perform the full range of tasks are, of course, the highest paid. As a rule, technicians’ wages are highest in large cities and in large stations. Technicians employed by television stations usually are paid more than those who work for radio stations because televi sion work is generally more complex. Techni cians employed by educational broadcasting stations generally earn less than those who work for commercial stations. Most technicians in large stations work a 40-hour week with overtime pay for addi tional hours. Broadcast technicians in small stations generally work a considerable amount of overtime. Evening, night, and weekend work frequently is necessary since many stations are on the air 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Related Occupations Broadcast technicians need the knowledge and hand coordination to operate technical equipment; they generally complete special ized postsecondary training programs, in cluding courses in science and engineering. Others whose jobs have similar requirements include drafters, engineering and science technicians, surveyors, air traffic controllers, radiologic technologists, respiratory therapy workers, electrocardiograph technicians, electroencephalographic technicians, and medical laboratory technicians. Sources of Additional Information For information about radiotelephone op erator permits and licenses, and examination study guides, write to: Federal Communications Commission, Policy Analysis Branch, 1919 M St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20554. For information on careers for broadcast technicians, write to: National Association of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. For a list of schools that offer programs or courses in broadcasting, contact: Broadcast Education Association, National Asso ciation of Broadcasters, 1771 N St. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. Drafters_________ (D.O.T. 001.261-010 and -014; 002.261-010; 003.281- 010 and 014; 005.281-010 and -014; 007.261-010, -014, -018, -022, and .281-010; 010.281- 010, -014, -018; 014.281-010; and -017) Nature of the Work When building a satellite, television set, or bridge, workers follow drawings that show the exact dimensions and specifications of the entire object and each of its parts. Workers who draw these plans are drafters. Drafters prepare detailed drawings based on rough sketches, specifications, and calcu lations made by scientists, engineers, ar chitects, and designers. They also calculate Drafters are classified according to the work they do or their level of responsibility. Senior drafters translate an engineer’s or ar chitect’s preliminary plans into design “lay -o u ts” (scale drawings of the object to be built). Detailers draw each part shown on the layout, and give dimensions, materials, and other information to make the drawing clear and complete. Checkers carefully examine drawings for errors in computing or record ing dimensions and specifications. Under the supervision of experienced drafters, tracers make minor corrections and trace drawings for reproduction on paper or plastic film. Drafters usually specialize in a particular field of work, such as mechanical, electrical, electronic, aeronautical, structural, or ar chitectural drafting. Working Conditions Although drafters usually work in welllighted and well-ventilated rooms, they often must sit and do very detailed work for long periods of time. This work may cause eye strain. Places of Employment About 296,000 persons worked as drafters in 1978—more than 9 out of 10 worked in private industry. Engineering and architec tural firms were the single largest employers of drafters. Other major employers included the fabricated metals, electrical equipment, machinery, and construction industries. About 20,000 drafters worked for Federal, State, and local governments in 1978. Most drafters in the Federal Government worked for the Defense Department; those in State and local governments were mainly in high way and public works departments. Some drafters worked for colleges and universities and nonprofit organizations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Persons interested in becoming drafters can acquire the necessary training in techni cal institutes, junior and community colleges, extension divisions of universities, and voca tional and technical high schools. Some per sons receive training and experience in the Armed Forces. Others qualify through onthe-job training programs combined with part-time schooling or 3- to 4-year appren ticeship programs. Training for a career in drafting, whether in a high school or post-high school program, OTHER SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL OCCUPATIONS/315 Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers are required to prepare or understand detailed drawings, make accurate and precise calcu lations and measurements, and use various measuring devices include architects, engi neering technicians, engineers, landscape architects, photogrammetrists, and survey ors. Sources of Additional Information General information on careers for draft ers is available from: American Institute for Design and Drafting, 3119 Price Rd., Bartlesville, Okla. 74003. International Federation of Professional and Tech nical Engineers, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. See Sources of Additional Information in the statement on engineering and science technicians elsewhere in the Handbook. Engineering and Science Technicians Nature of the Work In preparing drawings, drafters use rulers, triangles, and other drafting devices. should include courses in mathematics, phys ical sciences, mechanical drawing, and draft ing. Shop practices and shop skills also are helpful since most higher level drafting jobs require knowledge of manufacturing or con struction methods. Many technical schools offer courses in structural design, architec tural drawing, and engineering or industrial technology. Those planning careers in drafting should be able to do freehand drawings of threedimensional objects and also detailed work requiring a high degree of accuracy. They should have good eyesight and manual dex terity. In addition, they should be able to function as part of a team since they work directly with engineers, architects, and craft workers. Artistic ability is helpful in some specialized fields. High school graduates usually start out as tracers. Those having post-high school tech nical training may begin as junior drafters. After gaining experience, they may advance to checkers, detailers, senior drafters, or supervisors. Some may become independent designers. Courses in engineering and mathe matics sometimes enable drafters to transfer to engineering positions. Employment Outlook Employment of drafters is expected to in crease about as fast as the average for all http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 316/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis occupations through the 1980’s because of industrial growth and the increasingly com plex design problems of products and pro cesses. Openings also will result from the need to replace drafters who retire, die, or move into other fields of work. Holders of an associate (2-year) degree in drafting will have the best prospects. Many large employers already require post-secondary technical education, though well-qualified high school graduates who have studied drafting may find opportuni ties in some types of jobs. Photoreproduc tion of drawings and the expanding use of electronic drafting equipment and comput ers, however, will reduce the need for less skilled drafters. Earnings In private industry, tracers averaged about $9,800 a year in 1978, while more ex perienced drafters averaged between $11,200 and $13,700 a year. Senior drafters averaged about $16,900 a year in 1978. The Federal Government paid drafters having an associate degree starting salaries of $9,391 a year in 1979. Those with less educa tion or experience generally started at $8,366. The average Federal Government salary for all drafters was about $12,200 a year in 1978. Knowledge of science, mathematics, in dustrial machinery, and technical processes enables engineering and science technicians to work in all phases of business and govern ment, from research and design to manufac turing, sales, and customer service. Although their jobs are more limited in scope and more practically oriented than those of engineers or scientists, technicians often apply the the oretical knowledge developed by engineers and scientists to actual situations. Techni cians frequently use complex electronic and mechanical instruments, experimental labo ratory equipment, and drafting instruments. Almost all technicians described in this state ment must be able to use technical hand books and calculators, and some must work with computers. In research and development, one of the largest areas of employment, technicians set up experiments and calculate the results, sometimes with the aid of computers. They also assist engineers and scientists in develop ing experimental equipment and models by making drawings and sketches and, fre quently, by doing routine design work. In production, technicians usually follow the plans and general directions of engineers and scientists, but often without close super vision. They may prepare specifications for materials, devise tests to insure product qual ity, or study ways to improve the efficiency of an operation. They often supervise produc tion workers to make sure they follow pre scribed plans and procedures. As a product is built, technicians check to see that specifica tions are followed, keep engineers and scien tists informed on progress, and investigate production problems. As sales workers or field representatives for manufacturers, technicians give advice on installation and maintenance of complex ma chinery, and may write specifications and technical manuals. (See statement on techni cal writers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Still others, in customer service, are responsi ble for supervising the installation and main tenance of equipment. (See statement on re frigeration and air-conditioning mechanics elswhere in the Handbook.) Technicians may work in engineering, physical science, or life science. Within these general fields, job titles may describe the level (biological aide or biological technician), du ties (quality control technician or time study analyst), or area of work (mechanical, electri cal, or chemical). Civil Engineering Technology. Technicians in this area assist civil engineers in planning, designing, and constructing highways, bridges, dams, and other structures. They often specialize in one area, such as highway or structural technology. During the plan ning stage, they estimate cost, prepare specifications for materials, or participate in surveying, drafting, or designing. Once con struction begins, they assist the contractor or superintendent in scheduling construction activities or inspecting the work to assure conformance to blueprints and specifications. (See statements on civil engineers, drafters, and surveyors elsewhere in the Handbook.) An engineering technician might work in any of the following areas: Aeronautical Technology. Technicians in this area work with engineers and scientists to design and produce aircraft, rockets, guided missiles, and spacecraft. Many aid engineers in preparing design layouts and models of structures, control systems, or equipment in stallations by collecting information, making computations, and performing laboratory tests. For example, a technician might esti mate weight factors, centers of gravity, and other items affecting load capacity of an air plane or missile. Other technicians prepare or check drawings for technical accuracy, prac ticability, and economy. Aeronautical technicians frequently work as manufacturers’ field service representa tives, serving as the link between their com pany and the military services, commerical airlines, and other customers. Technicians also prepare technical information for in struction manuals, bulletins, catalogs, and other literature. (See statements on aerospace engineers, airplane mechanics, and occupa tions in aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing elsewhere in the Handbook.) Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Refrigeration Technology. Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration technicians design, manufac ture, sell, and service equipment to regulate interior temperatures. Technicians in this field often specialize in one area, such as re frigeration, and sometimes in a particular type of activity, such as research and devel opment. When working for firms that manufacture temperature-controlling equipment, techni cians generally work in research and engi neering departments, where they assist engi neers and scientists in the design and testing of new equipment or production methods. For example, a technician may construct an experimental model to test its durability and operating characteristics. Technicians also work as sales workers for equipment manu facturers or dealers, and must be able to sup ply engineering firms and other contractors that design and install systems with informa tion on installation, maintenance, operating costs, and the performance specifications of the equipment. Other technicians work for contractors, where they help design and pre pare installation instructions for air-condi tioning, heating, or refrigeration systems. Electronics Technology. Technicians in this field develop, manufacture, and service elec tronic equipment and systems. The types of equipment range from radio, radar, sonar, and television to industrial and medical mea suring or control devices, navigational equip ment, and computers. Because the field is so broad, technicans often specialize in one area, such as automatic control devices or electronic amplifiers. Furthermore, techno logical advancement is constantly opening up new areas of work such as integrated circuit technology. When working in design, production, or customer service, electronic technicians use sophisticated measuring and diagnostic de vices to test, adjust, and repair equipment. In many cases, they must understand the field in which the electronic device is being used. To design equipment for space explo ration, for example, they must consider the need for minimum weight and volume and maximum resistance to shock, extreme tem perature, and pressure. Some electronics technicians also work in technical sales, while others work in the radio and televi sion broadcasting industry. (See statements on broadcast technicians and occupations in radio and television broadcasting elsewhere in the Handbook.) Industrial Production Technology. Techni cians in this area, usually called industrial or production technicians, assist industrial engi neers on problems involving the efficient use of personnel, materials, and machines to pro duce goods and services. They prepare lay outs of machinery and equipment, plan the flow of work, make statistical studies, and analyze production costs. Industrial techni cians also conduct time and motion studies (analyze the time and movements a worker needs to accomplish a task) to improve the production methods and procedures in manufacturing plants. Many industrial technicians acquire expe rience that enables them to qualify for other jobs. For example, those specializing in ma chinery and production methods may move into industrial safety. Others, in job analysis, may set job standards and interview, test, hire, and train personnel. Still others may move into production supervision. (See state ments on personnel workers and industrial engineers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Mechanical Technology. Mechanical tech nology is a broad term that covers a large number of specialized fields including auto motive, diesel, and production technology and tool and machine design. Technicians assist engineers in design and development work by making freehand sketches and rough layouts of proposed ma- An electronics technician works on solid-state components in the production of TV parts. OTHER SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL OCCUPATIONS/317 chinery and other equipment and parts. This work requires knowledge of mechanical prin ciples involving tolerance, stress, strain, fric tion, and vibration factors. Technicians also analyze the costs and practical value of de signs. In planning and testing experimental ma chines and equipment for performance, dura bility, and efficiency, technicians record data, make computations, plot graphs, analyze re sults, and write reports. They sometimes rec ommend design changes to improve perform ance. Their job often requires skill in the use of complex instruments, test equipment, and gauges, as well as in the preparation and in terpretation of drawings. When a product is ready for production, technicians help prepare layouts and draw ings of the assembly process and of parts to be manufactured. They frequently help esti mate labor costs, equipment life, and plant space. Some mechanical technicians test and inspect machines and equipment in manufac turing departments or work with engineers to eliminate production problems. Others are technical sales workers. Tool designers are among the better known specialists in mechanical engineering technology. Tool designers prepare sketches of designs for cutting tools, jigs, dies, special fixtures, and other devices used in mass pro duction. Frequently, they redesign existing tools to improve their efficiency. They also make, or supervise others who make detailed drawings of tools and fixtures. Machine drafting with some designing, an other major area often grouped under me chanical technology, is described in the state ment on drafters. (Also see statements on mechanical engineers, automobile mechan ics, and manufacturers’ sales workers else where in the Handbook.) Instrumentation Technology. Automated manufacturing and industrial processes, oceanographic and space exploration, weather forecasting, satellite communication systems, environmental protection, and med ical research have helped to make instrumen tation technology a fast-growing field. Tech nicians help develop and design complex measuring and control devices such as those in a spacecraft that sense and measure changes in heat or pressure, automatically record data, and make necessary adjust ments. These technicians have extensive knowledge of physical sciences as well as electrical-electronic and mechanical engi neering. Several areas of opportunity exist in the physical sciences: Chemical technicians work with chemists and chemical engineers to de velop, sell, and utilize chemical and related products and equipment. Most chemical technicians do research and development, testing, or other laboratory work. They often set up and conduct tests on processes and products being developed or improved. For example, a technician may ex http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 318/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis amine steel for carbon, phosphorus, and sul fur content or test a lubricating oil by subject ing it to changing temperatures. The technician measures reactions, analyzes the results of experiments, and records data that will be the basis for decisions and future re search. Chemical technicians in production gener ally put into commerical operation those pro ducts or processes developed in research laboratories. They assist in making the final design, installing equipment, and training and supervising operators on the production line. Technicians in quality control test materials, production processes, and final products to insure that they meet the manu facturer’s specifications and quality stan dards. Many also sell chemicals or chemical products as technical sales personnel. Many chemical technicians use computers and instruments, such as a dilatometer (which measures the expansion of a sub stance.) Because the field of chemistry is so broad, chemical technicians frequently spe cialize in a particular industry, such as food processing or pharmaceuticals. (See state ments on chemists, chemical engineers, and occupations in the industrial chemical indus try elsewhere in the Handbook.) Meteorological technicians support meteorologists in the study of atmospheric conditions. Technicians calibrate instru ments, observe, record, and report meteoro logical occurrences, and assist in research projects and the development of scientific in struments. Geological technicians assist geologists in evaluating earth processes. Currently much research is being conducted in seismology, petroleum and mineral exploration, and ecol ogy. These technicians install and record measurements from seismographic instru ments, assist in field evaluations of earth quake damage and surface displacement, or assist geologists in earthquake prediction re search. In petroleum and mineral explora tion, they help conduct tests and record sound wave data to determine the likelihood of successful drilling, or use radiation detec tion instruments and collect core samples to help geologists evaluate the economic pos sibilities of mining a given resource. Hydrologic technicians gather data to help hydrologists predict river stages and water quality levels. They monitor instru ments that measure water flow, water table levels, or water quality, and record and ana lyze the data obtained. (See statement on environmental scientists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Technicians in the life sciences generally are classified in either of two broad catego ries: Agricultural technicians work with agri cultural scientists in food production and processing. Plant technicians conduct tests and experiments to improve the yield and quality of crops, or to increase resistance to disease, insects, or other hazards. Techni cians in soil science analyze the chemical and physical properties of various soils to help determine the best uses for these soils. Ani mal husbandry technicians work mainly with the breeding and nutrition of animals. Other agricultural technicians are employed in the food industry as food processing technicians. In quality control or in food science research they help scientists develop better and more efficient ways of processing food material for human consumption. (See statement on food technologists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Biological technicians work primarily in laboratories where they perform tests and ex periments under controlled conditions. Mi crobiological technicians study microscopic organisms and may be involved in im munology or parasitology research. Labora tory animal technicians study and report on the reaction of laboratory animals to certain physical and chemical stimuli. They also study and conduct research to help biologists develop cures for human diseases. By con ducting experiments and reporting the re sults to a biochemist, technicians assist in analyzing biological substances (blood, other body fluids, foods, and drugs). A biological technician also might work with insects to study insect control, develop new insecti cides, or determine how to use insects to con trol other insects or undesirable plants. (See statements on life scientists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Technicians also specialize in fields such as metallurgical (metal), electrical, and optical technology. In the atomic energy field, tech nicians work with scientists and engineers on problems of radiation safety, inspection, and decontamination. (See statement on occupa tions in the atomic energy field elswhere in the Handbook.) New areas of work include environmental protection, where technicians study the problems of air and water pollu tion, and industrial safety. Working Conditions Technicians work under a wide variety of conditions. Most work regular hours in laboratories and industrial plants. Others work part or all of their time outdoors. Some occasionally are exposed to safety or health hazards from equipment or materials. Places of Employment Over 600,000 persons worked as engineer ing and science technicians in 1978. About two-thirds of all technicians worked in pri vate industry. In the manufacturing sector, the largest employers were the electrical equipment, chemical, machinery, and aero space industries. In nonmanufacturing, large numbers worked in wholesale and retail trade, communications, and in engineering and architectural firms. In 1978, the Federal Government em ployed about 90,000 technicians, chiefly as engineering and electronics technicians, bio logical technicians, cartographic (mapmak ing) technicians, meteorological technicians, and physical science technicians. The largest number worked for the Department of De fense; most of the others worked for the De partments of Transportation, Agriculture, Interior, and Commerce. dents from surrounding areas and emphasize training in skills needed by employers in the local area. Most require a high school degree or its equivalent for admission. State government agencies employed nearly 50,000 engineering and science techni cians, and local governments about 11,500. The remainder worked for colleges and uni versities and nonprofit organizations. Other Training. Some large corporations conduct training programs and operate pri vate schools to meet the needs of technically trained personnel in specific jobs; such train ing rarely includes general studies. Training for some technician occupations, for instance tool designers and electronic technicians, is available through formal 2- to 4-year appren ticeship programs. The apprentice gets onthe-job training under the close supervision of an experienced technician and related technical knowledge in classes, usually after working hours. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although persons can qualify for techni cian jobs through many combinations of work experience and education, most em ployers prefer applicants who have had some specialized technical training. Specialized training is available at technical institutes, junior and community colleges, area voca tional-technical schools, extension divisions of colleges and universities, and vocationaltechnical high schools. Some engineering and science students who have not completed the bachelor’s degree and others who have de grees in science and mathematics also are able to qualify for technician positions. Persons also can qualify for technician jobs by less formal methods. Workers may learn through on-the-job training, apprenticeship programs, or correspondence schools. Some qualify on the basis of experience gained in the Armed Forces. However, postsecondary training is becoming increasingly necessary for advancement to more responsible jobs. Some of the types of postsecondary and other schools that provide technical training are discussed in the following paragraphs: Technical Institutes. Technical institutes offer training to qualify students for a job immediately after graduation with a mini mum of on-the-job training. In general, stu dents receive intensive technical training but less theory and general education than in en gineering schools or liberal arts colleges. A few technical institutes and community col leges offer cooperative programs in which students spend part of the time in school and part in paid employment related to their studies. Some technical institutes operate as regu lar or extension divisions of colleges and uni versities. Other institutions are operated by States and municipalities, or by private or ganizations. Junior and Community Colleges. Curriculums in junior and community colleges which prepare students for technician occu pations are similar to those in technical insti tutes but emphasize theory and liberal arts. After completing the 2-year programs, some graduates qualify for technician jobs while others continue their education at 4-year col leges. Area Vocational-Technical Schools. These postsecondary public institutions serve stu The Armed Forces have trained many technicians, especially in electronics. Al though military job requirements generally differ from those in the civilian economy, military technicians often find employment with only minimal additional training. Many private technical and correspon dence schools often specialze in a single field of technical training such as electronics. Some of these schools are owned and ope rated by large corporations that have the re sources to provide up-to-date training in a technical field. Those interested in a career as a technician should have an aptitude for mathematics and science and enjoy technical work. An ability to do detailed work with a high degree of accuracy is necessary; for design work, crea tive talent also is desirable. Technicians are part of a scientific team, and often work closely with engineers and scientists as well as other technicians and skilled workers. Some technicans, such as repair and mainte nance technicians, should be able to work independently and to deal effectively with customers. complexity of modem technology underlie the anticipated increase in demand for tech nicians. Many will be needed to work with the growing number of engineers and scien tists in developing, producing, and distribut ing new and technically advanced products. Automation of industrial processes and con tinued growth of new areas of work such as environmental protection and energy devel opment will add to the demand for technical personnel. The anticipated growth of research and de velopment expenditures in industry and gov ernment also should increase requirements for technicians. Earnings In private industry in 1977, technicians who completed a 2-year post-high school program earned starting salaries of about $10,500 a year, according to a survey by the Engineering Manpower Commission; those who did not complete a 2-year program started at about $9,000 a year. Graduates of 2-year programs with 5 years’ experience earned about $12,800 a year in 1977, while nongraduates with some experience earned about $11,100. Senior technicians averaged about $18,700 a year in 1978, according to a Department of Labor survey. Starting salaries for all technicians in the Federal Government were fairly uniform in 1979. A high school graduate with no experi ence could expect $8,366 annually to start. With an associate degree, the starting salary was $9,391, and with a bachelor’s, $10,507 or $13,014. With more experience, however, earnings are significantly higher. The average annual salary for all engineering technicians employed by the Federal Government in 1978 was $19,617; for physical science tech nicians, $15,935; and for life science techni cians, about $11,375. Related Occupations Engineering and science technicians usu ally begin work as trainees in routine posi tions under the direct supervision of an ex perienced technician, scientist, or engineer. As they gain experience, they receive more responsibility and carry out a particular as signment under only general supervision. Technicians may eventually move into super visory positions. Those who have the ability and obtain additional education occasionally may be promoted to positions as scientists or engineers. Engineering and science technicians apply scientific principles in their work. Other oc cupations whose work activities involve the application of scientific principles include foresters, forestry technicians, range manag ers, soil conservationists, engineers, environ mental, life, and physical scientists, broad cast technicians, drafters, surveyors, television and radio service technicians, den tal laboratory technicians, and medical tech nologists and technicians. Employment Outlook Sources of Additional Information ... vsr- •"-i Employment opportunities for engineering and science technicians are expected to be favorable through the 1980’s. Opportunities will be best for graduates of postsecondary school technician training programs. Besides openings resulting from the slightly faster than average growth expected in this field, additional technicians will be needed to re place those who die, retire, or leave the occu pation. National Association of Trade and Technical Schools, 2021 K St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006. Industrial expansion and the increasing State departments of education also have For information on careers in engineering and technology contact: Engineers Council for Professional Development, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Information on schools offering technician programs is available from: OTHER SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL OCCUPATIONS/319 information about approved technical insti tutes, junior colleges, and other educational institutions within the State offering posthigh school training for specific technical oc cupations. Other sources include: American Association of Community and Junior Colleges, One Dupont Circle, Suite 410, Washing ton, D.C. 20036. National Home Study Council, 1601 18th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. Food Technologists (D.O.T. 041.081-010) Nature of the Work In the past, consumers processed most food in the home, but today industry pro cesses almost all foods. A key worker in volved in the development and processing of the large variety of foods available today is the food technologist. Food technologists investigate the chemi cal, physical, and biological nature of food and apply this knowledge to processing, preserving, packaging, distribution, and storing an adequate, nutritious, wholesome, and economical food supply. Over one-third of all food technologists work in research and development. Others work in quality assurance laboratories or in production or processing areas of food plants. Some teach or do basic research in colleges and univer sities, and others work in sales or manage ment positions. Food technologists in basic research study the structure and composition of food and the changes it undergoes in storage and proc essing. For example, they may develop new sources of proteins, study the effects of proc essing on micro-organisms, or search for fac tors that affect the flavor, texture, or appear ance of foods. Food technologists who work in applied research and development create new foods and develop new processing meth ods. The also work to improve existing foods by making them more nutritious and enhanc ing their flavor, color, and texture. mineral content. They make sure that, after processing, various enzymes are inactive and microbial levels are adequately low so that the food will not spoil during storage or pre sent a safety hazard. Other food technolo gists are involved in developing and improv ing packaging and storage methods. Food technologists in processing plants prepare production specifications, schedule processing operations, maintain proper tem perature and humidity in storage areas, and supervise sanitation operations, including the efficient and economical disposal of wastes. To increase efficiency, they advise manage ment on the purchase of equipment and rec ommend new sources of materials. Some food technologists apply their knowledge in areas such as market research, advertising, and technical sales. Others teach in colleges and universities. Working Conditions Food technologists work under a variety of conditions. Most work regular hours in of fices, laboratories, or classrooms. Food tech nologists who work in production or quality control positions work in or near food proc essing areas, sometimes under noisy, hot, or cold conditions, but they usually do not en counter unhealthy or unsafe conditions. Places of Employment An estimated 15,000 persons worked as food technologists in 1978. Food technolo gists work in all sectors of the food industry and in every State. The types of products and processes with which they work may depend on the locality. For example, in Maine and Idaho, they work with potato processing; in the Midwest, with cereal products and meat packing; and in Florida and California, with citrus fruits and vegetables. Some food technologists do research for Federal agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration and the Departments of Agriculture and Defense; others work in State regulatory agencies. A few work for private consulting firms and international organizations such as the United Nations. Some teach or do research in colleges and universities. (See statement on college and university faculty elsewhere in the Hand book.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with a major in food technology or in one of the physical or life sciences, such as chemistry or biology, is the usual minimum requirement for beginning jobs in food techology. An advanced degree is necessary for many jobs, particularly re search and college teaching and for some management jobs in industry. Over 60 colleges and universities offered programs leading to the bachelor’s degree in food technology in 1978. Undergraduate stu dents majoring in food technology usually take courses in physics, chemistry, mathe matics, biology, the social sciences and humanities, and business administration, as well as a variety of food technology courses. Food technology courses cover areas such as preservation, processing, sanitation, and marketing of foods. Most of the colleges and universities that provide undergraduate food technology pro grams also offer advanced degrees. Graduate students usually specialize in a particular area of food technology. Requirements for the master’s or doctor’s degree vary by insti tution, but usually include extensive re search. A thesis, which is a report of original research findings, is required for the doctor’s Food technologists seek to have each prod uct retain its characteristics and nutritive value during processing and storage. They also conduct chemical and microbiological tests to see that products meet industry and government standards, and they may deter mine the nutritive contents of products in order to comply with Federal nutritional la beling requirements. In quality control laboratories, food tech nologists check raw ingredients for freshness, maturity, or suitability for processing. They may use machines that test for tenderness by finding the amount of force necessary to puncture the item. Periodically, they inspect processing line operations to insure confor mance with government and industry stan dards. For example, they test processed foods for sugar, starch, protein, fat, vitamin, and 320/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Many food technologists work in quality control laboratories. degree and, in some institutions, for the mas ter’s degree. People planning careers as food technolo gists should have analytical minds and like details and technical work. Food technolo gists must be able to express their ideas clearly to others. Food technologists with a bachelor’s de gree might start work as quality assurance chemists or as assistant production manag ers. After gaining experience, they can ad vance to more responsible management jobs. A food technologist might also begin as a junior food chemist in a research and devel opment laboratory of a food company, and be promoted to section head or another research management position. People who have master’s degrees may begin as food chemists in a research and de velopment laboratory. Those who have the Ph. D. degree usually begin their careers doing basic research or teaching. Employment Outlook Employment of food technologists is ex pected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Most openings will result from the need to replace those who die, retire, or transfer to other fields, although some openings will arise from growth in demand for these workers. Employment is expected to grow some what as the food industry responds to the challenge of providing wholesome and eco nomical foods that can meet changing con sumer preferences and food standards. In ad dition, both private households and food service institutions that supply customers such as airlines and restaurants will demand a greater quantity of processed convenience foods. However, the expected slow growth of the food processing industry will result in the slower than average growth in employment of food technologists. An increasing number of food technolo gists are expected to find jobs in research and product developm ent. In recent years, expen ditures for research and development in the food industry have increased moderately and probably will continue to rise. Through re search, new foods are being produced from modifications of wheat, com, rice, and soy beans. For example, food scientists are work ing to improve “meat” products made from vegetable proteins. There will be an increased need for food scientists in quality control and production because of the complexity of pro ducts and processes and the application of higher processing standards and new govern ment regulations. a year. Those with a master’s degree started at about $15,000, and those with the Ph. D. degree at about $18,000. In the Federal Government in 1978, food technologists with a bachelor’s degree could start at $10,507 or $13,014 a year, depending on their college grades. Those with a master’s degree could start at $13,014 or $15,920, and those with a Ph. D. could begin at $19,263 or $23,087. The average salary for experienced food technologists in the Federal Govern ment was about $26,600 a year in 1978. Related Occupations Food technology is closely related to chemistry and, to a lesser extent, to biology. Other occupations in which the work is related to food technology are life and envi ronmental scientists, engineers, and engi neering and science technicians. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers in food tech nology contact: Institute of Food Technologists, Suite 2120, 221 North LaSalle St., Chicago, 111. 60601. Surveyors and Surveying Technicians_______ (D.O.T. 018.167-010, -018, and -034 through -050) Nature of the Work Surveyors with the assistance of surveying technicians establish official land boundaries, research deeds, write descriptions of land to satisfy legal requirements, assist in setting land valuations, measure construction and mineral sites, and collect information for maps and charts. Earnings Surveys are usually conducted by a survey party that determines the precise measure ment of distances, directions, and angles be tween points and of elevations, of points, lines, and contours on the earth’s surface. Land surveyors (D.O.T. 018.167-018), who may head one or more survey parties, are directly responsible for the party’s activities and the accuracy of its work. They plan the fieldwork, select survey reference points, and determine the precise location of natural and constructed features of the survey project area. They record the information disclosed by the survey, verify the accuracy of the sur vey data, and prepare sketches, maps, and reports. Food technologists had relatively high earnings in 1978, about twice the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private indus try, except farming. According to a survey of the Institute of Food Technologists in 1977, food technologists with the bachelor’s degree had average starting salaries of about $12,000 A typical survey party is made up of the party chief (D.O.T. 018.167-010) and one to six assistants and helpers. The party chief leads the day-to-day work activities of the party. Instrument assistants (D.O.T. 018.167-034) adjust and operate surveying instru ments such as the theodolite (used to mea sure horizontal and vertical angles) and electronic equipment used to measure dis tances. These workers also compile notes, sketches, and records of the data obtained from using these instruments. Suveyor helpers (D.O.T. 869.567-010) use a steel tape to mea sure distances between surveying points and use a level rod, a stadia rod, range pole, or other equipment to aid instrument assistants in determining elevations, distances, and di rections. Surveyor helpers also may clear brush and trees from the survey line and as sist in setting survey markers. Surveyors may specialize in a particular type of survey. Many perform land surveys to locate boundaries of a particular tract of land. They then prepare maps and legal de scriptions for deeds, leases, and other docu ments. Surveyors doing topographic surveys determine elevations, depressions, and con tours of an area, and indicate the location of distinguishing surface features such as farms, buildings, forests, roads, and rivers. Geodetic surveyors (D.O.T. 018.167-038) make pre cise, broad-area measurements which take into account the earth’s curvature and its geophysical characteristics. Geophysical pros pecting surveyors (D.O.T. 018.167-042) mark sites for subsurface exploration, usually pe troleum related. Marine surveyors (D.O.T. 018.167-046) survey harbors, rivers, and other bodies of water to determine shorelines, topography of the bottom, depth, and other features. Several closely related occupations are geodesy and photogrammetry. Geodesists (D.O.T. 024.061-014) study the size, shape, and gravitational field of the earth. They make the measurements and computations necessary for accurate mapping of the earth’s surface. (See statement on geophysicists else where in the Handbook.) Photogrammetrists (D.O.T. 018.261-026) measure and interpret photographic images to determine the vari ous physical characteristics of natural or con structed features of an area. By applying ana lytical processes and mathematical techniques to photographs obtained from aerial, space, ground, and underwater loca tions, photogrammetrists are able to make detailed maps of areas that are inaccessible or difficult to survey by other methods. Control surveys on the ground are made to insure the accuracy of maps derived from photogrammatic techniques. Working Conditions Surveyors and surveying technicians usu ally work an 8-hour day, 5-day week. Some times they work longer hours during the summer months when weather conditions are most suitable for surveying. The work of a survey party is active and sometimes strenuous. Party members often stand for long periods and walk long dis tances or climb hills with heavy packs of in struments and equipment. They also are ex posed to all types of weather. Occasionally they must commute long distances or find temporary housing near the site. OTHER SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL OCCUPATIONS/321 All 50 States require licensing of land sur veyors. Licensing requirements are generally quite strict, because once licensed, surveyors can be held legally responsible for their work. Requirements for licensure vary among the States. Generally, the quickest route to licen sure is a combination of 4 years of college, 2 to 4 years of experience, and passage of a State licensing exam. In most States, persons also may qualify to take the licensing exam after 5 to 12 years of surveying experience. A few States now require a bachelor’s degree, emphasizing surveying, as a prerequisite to licensure. Surveyors and surveying technicians should have the ability to visualize and un derstand objects, distances, sizes, and other abstract forms. Also, because surveying mis takes can be very costly, surveyors must per form mathematical calculations quickly and accurately while paying close attention to the smallest detail. Leadership qualities also are important as surveyors must supervise the work of others. Members of a survey party must be in good physical condition to work outdoors and carry equipment over difficult terrain. They also need good eyesight, coordination, and hearing to communicate over great distances by hand or voice signals. Employment Outlook Surveyor measures land boundaries before construction starts. Surveyors spend considerable time per forming office duties, such as planning sur veys, preparing reports and computations, and drawing maps. Places of Employment About 62,000 persons worked as surveyors or surveying technicians in 1978. Federal, State, and local government agencies employ about 1 out of every 10 of these workers. Among the Federal Government agencies are the U.S. Geological Survey, the Bureau of Land Management, the Army Corps of Engi neers, the Forest Service, the National Ocean Survey, and the Defense Mapping Agency. Most surveyors and surveying technicians in State and local government agencies work for highway departments and urban planning and redevelopment agencies. Nearly three-fourths of all surveyors and surveying technicians work for construction companies and for engineering and architec tural consulting firms. A sizable number ei ther work for or own firms that conduct sur veys for a fee. Surveyors and surveying technicians also work for crude petroleum and natural gas companies and for public utilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most persons prepare for surveying work by combining postsecondary school courses http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 322/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis in surveying with extensive on-the-job train ing. Some prepare by obtaining a college de gree. Junior and community colleges, techni cal institutes, and vocational schools offer 1-, 2-, and 3-year programs in surveying. A few 4-year colleges offer bachelor’s degrees specifically in surveying, while many others offer several courses in the field. High school students interested in pursu ing a career in surveying should take courses in algebra, geometry, trigonometry, drafting, and mechanical drawing. High school graduates with no formal training in surveying usually start as sur veyor helpers. After several years of on-thejob experience and some formal training in surveying, it is possible to advance to instru ment assistant, then to party chief, and fi nally to licensed surveyor. Beginners with postsecondary school training in surveying can generally start as instrument assistants. After gaining experi ence, they usually advance to party chief, and may later seek to become a licensed surveyor. In many instances, promotions to higher level positions are based on written examina tions as well as experience. For those interested in a career as a photogrammetrist, a bachelor’s degree in engineer ing or the physical sciences is usually needed. Most photogrammetry technicians have had some specialized postsecondary school train ing. Employment of surveyors and surveying technicians is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to the openings resulting from employment growth, many will result from the need to replace those who die, re tire, or transfer to other fields of work. The anticipated rapid growth in construc tion should create additional jobs for survey ors and surveying technicians to lay out streets, shopping centers, housing develop ments, factories, office buildings, and recrea tion areas. In addition, as the value of land and thus the need for accurate surveys in crease, more jobs will arise. Construction and improvement of the Nation’s roads and high ways also will create many new surveying positions. However, employment may fluctu ate from year to year because construction activity in sensitive to changes in economic conditions. Earnings In the Federal Government in 1979, high school graduates with little or no training or experience started as surveyor helpers with an annual salary of $7,422. Those with 1 year of related postsecondary training earned $8,366. Those with an associate degree that in cluded courses in surveying generally started as instrument assistants with an annual sal ary of $9,391. In 1978, surveying technicians who worked as party chiefs in the Federal Government earned between $11,000 and $15,000 per year. Land surveyors in the Fed eral Government averaged about $20,400 per year in 1978. A lth ou gh salaries in private industry vary by geographic area, lim ited data indicate that salaries are generally com parable to those in Federal service and are above the average earnings o f nonsupervisory w orkers in pri vate industry, except farming. areas, coastlines, and natural and co n structed features include cartographic draft ers, field-m ap editors, geodesists, m ap edi tors, m osaicists, photogram m etric engi neers, photogram m etrists, and topological drafters. Related Occupations Sources of Additional Information O ther occu pations concerned w ith accu rate m easurem ent and delineation o f land Inform ation about training and career op portunities in surveying is available from: American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, 210 Little Falls St., Falls Church, Va. 22046. G eneral inform ation on careers in photogram m etry is available from: American Society of Photogrammetry, 105 North Virginia Ave., Falls Church, Va. 22046. OTHER SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL OCCUPATIONS/323 MECHANICS AND REPAIRERS In the technologically advanced society we live in today, mechanical equipment of one type or another touches almost all as pects of our lives. Transportation equip ment such as cars, trucks, buses, and air planes carry both goods and people anywhere in the world. Telephones and other communication equipment enable messages to be conveyed quickly and effi ciently. Household appliances and machin ery such as air-conditioners make our lives easier and more comfortable. Mechanics and repairers keep these and other types of machinery in good working order. Approximately 4 million people worked as mechanics and repairers in 1978; one-third worked on motor vehicles in occupations such as automobile mechanic, truck or bus mechanic, and automobile body repairer. Other large occupations—each employing more than 100,000 workers—were appliance repairer, industrial machinery repairer, air plane mechanic, and television and radio ser vice technician. Employment in some occu pations, including vending machine http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 324/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis mechanic, electric sign repairer, and piano technician, was relatively small. Almost one-fourth of the mechanics and repairers worked in manufacturing industries —the majority in plants that produce durable goods such as steel, automobiles, and air craft. About one-fifth worked in retail trade —mainly in firms that sell and service au tomobiles, household appliances, farm imple ments, and other mechanical equipment. An other one-fifth worked in shops that service such equipment. Most of the remaining me chanics and repairers worked for transporta tion, construction, and public utilities indus tries, and all levels of government. Mechanics and repairers work in every section of the country, but most employment opportunities are in populous and industrial ized areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many mechanics and repairers learn their skills on the job or through apprenticeship training. Some acquire basic training or in crease their skills in vocational schools; oth ers take correspondence courses. Training and experience in the Armed Forces also may help people prepare for some qf these occupa tions, including television and radio service technician, airplane mechanic, and telephone craft worker. Employers look for applicants who have mechanical aptitude and like to work with their hands. A high school education often is required, and employers generally prefer ap plicants who have had courses in mathemat ics, chemistry, physics, blueprint reading, and shop. Physical requirements for work in this field vary greatly among occupations. For example, telephone lineworkers should be strong and agile to climb poles, lift heavy equipment, and work in awkward positions. Jewelers and watch repairers need patience, finger dexterity, and good vision. Many maintenance and repair workers ad vance to supervisory jobs; others to sales jobs. Some open their own businesses. Employment Outlook Employment in maintenance and repair occupations as a whole is expected to in crease about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to jobs created by employment growth, many thousands of openings will arise in this rela tively large occupational category as ex perienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other fields. Many factors are expected to contribute to the growing need for mechanics and repair ers, including increased demand for house hold appliances, automobiles, and other con sumer items, and increased use of complex machinery in industry. This chapter includes statements on many maintenance and repair occupations. Other maintenance and repair workers are dis cussed in other sections of the Handbook. For example, airplane mechanics are dis cussed with air transportation occupations and millwrights with industrial production and related occupations. Telephone Craft Occupations More than 1 out of every 3 employees in the telephone industry is a craft worker who installs, repairs, and maintains phones, ca bles, and related equipment. This section dis cusses the four groups of telephone craft oc cupations: Central office craft occupations, central office equipment installers, line in stallers and cable splicers, and telephone in stallers and repairers. Central Office Craft Occupations________ Nature of the Work Telephone companies employed about 135,000 craft workers in 1978 to maintain and repair the complex equipment in their central offices. Most worked as frame wirers, central office repairers, and trouble locators. In small telephone companies, central office craft workers must perform a variety of jobs, but most specialize in one of these three areas. Frame wirers (D.O.T. 822.684-010) con nect and disconnect wires that run from tele phone lines and cables to equipment in cen tral offices. This equipment consists of a frame having many terminal lugs mounted on it, each of which is assigned a specific telephone number. It also contains one pair of wires for each customer’s telephone that is connected to that central office. To connect a new telephone, the frame wirer solders the customer’s pair of wires to a set of terminal lugs. To disconnect a telephone, a frame wirer melts off the solder and removes the wires from the terminal. Frame wirers occa sionally change a customer’s phone number by reconnecting the customer’s pair of wires to a different set of terminal lugs. Frame for wirer solders a pair of wires to a set of terminal lugs. Digitized FRASER Central office repairers (D.O.T. 822.281014) maintain the switching equipment that automatically connects lines when customers dial numbers. Electromechanical switching systems contain moving parts that must be cleaned and oiled periodically. Also, elec tronic switching circuits must be checked oc casionally for breakages. When customers report trouble with their telephones, trouble locators (D.O.T. 822.361030) work at special switchboards to find the source of the problem. To do this, they com municate with telephone installers and re pairers as they attempt to connect a portable telephone through the customer’s service line to the central office. The trouble shooter lo cates the problem by having the telephone repairer connect the portable phone at vari ous places on the customer’s line until a con nection can be made through to the central office. For a problem at the central office, the trouble locator repeats this procedure with a central office repairer. In addition, trouble locators must also test new equipment to make sure installations are made correctly. They also work with other employees, such as central office repairers and cable splicers, who help find the cause of trouble and make repairs. Working Conditions Because the telephone industry gives con tinuous service to its customers, central of fices operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Some central office craft workers, therefore, have work schedules that include shifts, TELEPHONE CRAFT OCCUPATIONS/325 weekends, and holidays. Central office craft workers work in clean, well-lighted, air-con ditioned surroundings. Depending on their particular job, they may have to stand for long periods, climb ladders, and do some reaching, stooping, and light lifting. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Telephone companies give classroom in struction and on-the-job training to new cen tral office craft employees. In addition, tele communications equipment manufacturers often train central office craft workers to use, maintain, and repair equipment that they sell to telephone companies. Some vocational schools, particularly in rural areas served by small independent telephone companies, also train persons interested in becoming central office craft workers. A few people may learn these crafts through apprenticeship pro grams designed by State employment agen cies in conjunction with local telephone com panies. Sometimes classrooms are supplied with equipment similar to that which the trainee will be using on the job. Trainee jobs generally are filled by em ployees already with the company, such as telephone operators or line installers. Occa sionally, workers are hired from outside. Usually, trainees are assigned to the starting job of frame wirer, and take basic courses in telephone communications. They gain practi cal experience by observing and helping ex perienced frame wirers under the direction of supervisors. With additional training and ex perience, a frame wirer can advance to cen tral office repairer or trouble locator. Usually it takes at least 5 years for an inexperienced worker to advance to the top pay rate in ei ther of these two jobs. Because electrical wires are usually color coded, persons who are considering careers in central office crafts should not be color blind. They also should be able to work closely with others, because teamwork often is essential in solving complex problems. A basic knowledge of electricity and electronics and telephone training in the Armed Forces are helpful. Telephone companies give central office craft employees continued training through out their careers to keep them abreast of the latest developments. As new types of equip ment and tools and new maintenance meth ods are introduced, employees are sent to schools to learn about them. Central office craft workers who have managerial ability can advance to supervi sory positions. However, central office workloads are not expected to rise as fast as productivity. Elec tromechanical switching systems are being replaced with electronic switching systems to increase call- carrying capacity and to pro vide improved service to remote areas. This substitution will slow the rate of construction of new central offices. Because the new, elec tronically equipped central offices utilize so phisticated, self-diagnosing test equipment that requires fewer maintenance personnel, employment of central office craft workers should decline slightly over the next decade. While overall employment in central office craft occupations is expected to drop slightly through the 1980’s, job openings will arise as experienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Although many job open ings for central office craft workers are filled by the advancement of other workers already employed by telephone companies, some en try-level positions—frame wirers, for exam ple—should be available for new employees. After the new equipment has been put in place, installers connect the outgoing and in coming telephone trunklines, often consult ing diagrams to ensure that connections are made correctly. Once this is completed, in stallers then test the system, using electrical testing equipment, such as electrical pulse re peaters and ohmmeters, to measure the strength and consistency of the current flow. If installers discover that the system is not functioning properly, they must check the equipment and all connections to determine the cause, and then correct it. Earnings Working Conditions In late 1978, average hourly rates were $8.80 for trouble locators and $8.30 for cen tral office repairers compared with $5.69 for nonsupervisory workers in all private indus tries, except farming. Central office equipment installers often work in buildings under construction. They have to lift and carry heavy tools, climb lad ders, and do a lot of stooping, crouching, and reaching. They face certain hazards, such as falls from ladders, injuries from falling ob jects, and cuts from tools. Earnings increase considerably with length of service. Under a major union contract in effect in late 1978, frame wirers started at $4.96 an hour and could work up to a maxi mum of $8.36 an hour after 4 years. Central office repairers and trouble locators could earn a maximum of $9.18 an hour after 5 years. Central office craft workers are covered by the same provisions governing overtime pay, vacations, holidays, and other benefits that apply to telephone workers generally. Related Occupations Other workers who have the skills needed to do technical, manual work with tools and machines include automobile mechanics, carpenters, cement masons, electricians, ma chinists, plumbers, toolmakers, and welders. See the statement on the telephone indus try elsewhere in the Handbook for sources of additional information and for general infor mation on fringe benefits. Central Office Equipment Installers (D.O.T. 822.361-014) Employment Outlook Employment of central office craft work ers will be subject to conflicting trends. As the population grows and becomes more mo bile and is offered a wider array of telecom munications services, demand should rise for workers to handle the growing number of telephone installations and disconnections. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 326/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis On a job, installers follow blueprints, dia grams, and floor plans in order to position the equipment properly and wire it correctly. They often use hoists to lift heavy items into place and use handtools, such as screwdrivers or soldering guns, to connect equipment once it is in place. Recently developed equipment sometimes comes in preassembled compo nents and often requires only simple plug-in connections. Nature of the Work Central office equipment installers set up the complex switching and dialing equipment used in central offices of telephone compa nies. They may install equipment in new cen tral offices, add equipment in an expanding office, or replace outdated equipment. Places of Employment About 21,400 installers were employed in 1978. Most worked for manufacturers of cen tral office equipment. Others worked directly for telephone companies or for private con tractors who specialize in large-scale installa tions. Most central office equipment installers work in metropolitan areas, where large cen tral offices are found. Hundreds of installers may be required to work on large jobs such as a long-distance toll center in a big city. Other installers are assigned areas that in clude several States, and, therefore, they must travel frequently to small towns within their area. Installing equipment in small communities often requires only two or three installers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Individuals considering careers as central office equipment installers should have man ual dexterity, good eyesight, and, because electrical wires are generally color coded, should not be colorblind. They should be able to work with others, for teamwork often is essential to solving a complex problem. Al though manufacturers generally provide all the necessary training to perform this job, courses in blueprint reading and electronic theory are helpful to those interested in this career. New employees attend classes the first few weeks to learn basic installation and then begin on-the-job training. Often trainees will tions and modernization of central offices may occur at an above-average pace. Con versely, when the economy slows down, there may be a reduction of this activity. Earnings Under the terms of a major union contract in effect in late 1978, covering most central office equipment installers, starting rates for inexperienced installers ranged from $4.66 to $4.99 an hour. The contract provided for pe riodic increases, and employees could reach rates of $8.21 to $8.97 an hour after 5 years’ experience. Travel and expense allowances also were provided. The average earnings of experienced central office equipment install ers are above the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Installers must not be color blind because elec trical wires generally are color coded. be transported to the plant where the equip ment is manufactured to receive training. Workers who have several years of experi ence may qualify as skilled installers. Train ing continues, however, even after they be come skilled; additional courses are given from time to time to improve skills and to teach new techniques in installing telephone equipment. Also, technological innovations are constantly resulting in changes in equip ment. When manufacturers develop new equipment, installers must be trained to in stall it. Installers who have managerial ability can advance to supervisory positions. The Communications Workers of America union represents most central office equip ment installers, including those with theBell System. The International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers represents some installers employed by various telephone companies, by manufacturers supplying the independent segment of the telephone industry, and by large installation contractors. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations in which skill training is needed to do technical, man ual work with tools and machines include automobile mechanics, carpenters, cement masons, electricians, machinists, plumbers, toolmakers, and welders. Sources of Additional Information See the statement on the telephone indus try elsewhere in the Handbook for sources of additional information and for general infor mation on fringe benefits. Employment Outlook Employment of central office equipment installers is expected to decline through the 1980’s. However, a few hundred openings will arise each year to replace experienced installers who transfer to other work, retire, or die. The introduction of remote switching sys tems is expected to slow the rate of construc tion of new central offices during the next decade. Although obsolete manual and dial switching equipment will be replaced with more efficient electronic switching systems (ESS), this new equipment is manufactured in components and modules that greatly re duce the time needed for installation. This greater efficiency should offset the demand stemming from new construction and con version of existing equipment, resulting in an overall reduction in employment through the 1980’s. Employment may fluctuate from year to year because investment in central office equipment is subject to changes in business conditions and availability of funds. Thus, when the economy is prospering, installa Line Installers and Cable Splicers______ Nature of the Work The vast network of wires and cables that connect telephone central offices to each other and to customers’ telephones and switchboards is constructed and maintained by line installers and cable splicers and their helpers. Telephone companies employed al most 59,000 of these workers in 1978, includ ing about 24,000 cable splicers, 33,000 line installers, and 2,000 helpers, laborers, and other workers. To construct new telephone lines, line in stallers (D.O.T. 822.381-014) place wires and cables that lead from the central office to customers’ premises. They use power-driven equipment to dig holes and set in telephone poles that support cables. Line installers climb the poles to attach the cables, usually leaving the ends free for cable splicers to con nect later. In cities where telephone lines are below the streets, installers place cables in underground conduits. On construction jobs, installers work in crews of two persons or more. A supervisor may direct the work of several crews. When wires or cables break or a pole is knocked down, line installers often are called upon to make emergency repairs. These re pairs are most common in parts of the coun try that have hurricanes, tornadoes, and heavy snowfalls. The linecrew supervisor keeps in radio contact with the central office, which directs the crew to problem locations on the lines. Some installers periodically in spect sections of lines in rural areas and make minor repairs. After line installers place cables on poles or in underground conduits, cable splicers (D.O.T. 829.361-010) generally complete the line connections. Splicers work on poles, on aerial ladders and platforms, in manholes, or in basements of large buildings. They connect individual wires within the cable and rear range wires when lines have to be changed. At each splice, they place insulation over the spliced conductor, and seal the joint with a lead sleeve or cover the splice with some other type of closure. Sometimes, they fill the cable sheathing with compressed air to keep out moisture. Splicers also install terminal boxes that connect customers’ telephones to outside ca bles. An innovation in telephone connecting, these terminal boxes are often placed in the basements of apartment buildings or other buildings containing multiple telephone cus tomers. When a telephone installer wishes to connect or disconnect a customer’s tele phone, it can be done quickly at the terminal box. Splicers also maintain and repair cables. The preventive maintenance work that they do is extremely important, because a single defect in a cable may cause a serious inter ruption in service. Many trouble spots are located through air pressure or electric tests. Working Conditions Line installers and cable splicers usually work outdoors. When severe weather dam ages telephone lines, line installers and cable splicers may be called upon to work long and irregular hours to restore service. They must do a lot of climbing and lifting, and often work in stooped and cramped positions. They face certain hazards such as falls and electric shocks, but these have been greatly reduced by safety standards developed over the years by telephone companies, in cooper ation with labor unions. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Telephone companies hire inexperienced workers to train for jobs as line installers or cable splicers. Knowledge of the basic princi ples of electricity and training in installing telephone systems with the Armed Forces TELEPHONE CRAFT OCCUPATIONS/327 ceive classroom training in courses such as mathematics and electronic theory spon sored by outside agencies—for example, State employment agencies—while they re ceive on-the-job training. Apprenticeships generally last 4 years. Line installers and cable splicers con tinue to receive training throughout their careers, to qualify for more difficult assign ments and to keep up with technological changes. Due to the strenuous nature of the job, some line installers and cable splicers find it necessary to transfer to other occupations as they advance in age. Those having the necessary qualifications find advancement opportunities in the tele phone industry. For example, a line in staller may be transferred to telephone in staller and later to telephone repairer or to another higher rated job. Employment Outlook Employment of cable splicers is expected to show little or no change through the 1980’s. Technological developments, such as new kinds of splices and the telephone splic ing van that uses the truck engine to heat and ventilate manholes and drive power tools and equipment, will improve the efficiency of splicers, thus limiting the need for additional workers. Nevertheless, many job openings will arise due to the need to replace ex perienced splicers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Line installers must be agile. are helpful. Physical examinations usually are given to prospective employees, since line and cable work is strenuous, requiring work ers to climb poles and lift heavy cables and equipment. The ability to distinguish colors is necessary because wires usually are coded by color. Telephone companies have training pro grams for line installers and cable splicers that include classroom instruction as well as on-the-job training. Classrooms are equipped with actual telephone apparatus, such as poles, cable-supporting clamps, and other fixtures to simulate working conditions as closely as possible. Trainees learn to climb poles and are taught safe working practices to avoid falls and contact with power wires. After a short period of classroom training, some trainees are assigned to a crew to work with experienced line installers and cable 328/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK splicers under the supervision of a line super visor. In addition to the training provided by the telephone companies, some manufacturers of cable installation equipment also train line installers and cable splicers in the use of equipment that the manufacturers sell to tele phone companies. Often a telephone com pany will send its line and cable workers to the manufacturer’s training school. At other times, manufacturers send their instructors to the job site. Some small independent telephone compa nies, particularly those in rural areas, do not have adequate facilities to train their em ployees. Therefore, they may rely on local vocational and technical schools to provide classroom training to craft employees. A few apprenticeships also are available for line and cable workers. In these cases, employees re Little or no change is expected in the num ber of line installers because the increasing use of mechanical improvements, such as plows that can dig a trench, lay cable, and cover it in a single operation, have eliminated much of the heavier physical work of the linecrews and have caused reductions in crew size. Also, satellites are expected to carry an increasing volume of telephone traffic, thus slightly reducing the emphasis on cable in stallation. On the other hand, some employ ment opportunities for line installers and cable splicers may be created by the need to modernize old cables or replace them with new waterproof ones. In addition, some job openings will occur as experienced line in stallers retire, die, or transfer to other occu pations. Earnings In late 1978, wage rates of cable splicers averaged $8.60 an hour, line installers ave raged $8.46, and cable splicers’ helpers, $6.22. By comparison, nonsupervisory work ers in all private industries, except farming, averaged $5.69 an hour. Pay rates for cable splicers and line install ers depend to a large extent upon length of service and geographic location. For exam ple, under the terms of a major union con tract in effect in late 1978, new workers in line construction jobs in the highest pay-scale cities began at $4.96 an hour and could reach a maximum of $9.64 after 5 years of service. The maximum hourly rate for cable splicers also was $9.64. Line installers and cable splicers are covered by the same contract provisions governing overtime pay, vaca tions, holidays, and other benefits that apply to telephone workers generally. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations in which skill training is needed to do technical, man ual work with tools and machines include automobile mechanics, carpenters, cement masons, electricians, machinists, plumbers, toolmakers, and welders. Sources of Additional Information See the statement on the telephone indus try elsewhere in the Handbook for sources of additional information and for general infor mation on fringe benefits. Telephone and PBX Installers and Repairers___________ Nature of the Work About 1 in every 3 telephone craft workers is a telephone installer or repairer. About 115,000 were employed in 1978. They install and service telephones and switchboard sys tems on customers’ property, such as PBX and CENTREX, and make repairs when trouble develops. These workers generally travel to customers’ homes and offices in trucks equipped with telephone tools and supplies. When customers move or request new types of service, installers relocate tele phones or make changes on existing equip ment. For example, they may install a switchboard in an office, or change a twoparty line to a single-party line in a residence. Installers also may fill a customer’s request to add an extension in another room, or to replace an old telephone with a new model. Most installers and repairers specialize in one or two of the jobs described below; however, installers and repairers employed at small tel ephone companies may perform all of these jobs. for mobile radiotelephones, data processing equipment, and telephone switchboard sys tems for radio and television broadcasts that involve receiving phone calls from the audience. Telephone repairers (D.O.T. 822.281-022), with the assistance of trouble locators in the central office, locate trouble on customers’ equipment. A repairer finds the source of the problem by connecting a portable telephone to the customer’s telephone cord and then dialing the trouble locator in the central of fice. If the proper connection is made, the problem is in the customer’s telephone. If a connection cannot be completed, the prob lem is in the service line between the phone and the central office, and the repairer re peats this procedure at various points along the service line until the problem is located. The repairer then makes the necessary re pairs to restore service. PBX repairers (D.O.T. 822.281-022), with the assistance of trouble locators, lo cate trouble on customers’ PBX, CEN TREX, or other complex telephone sys tems and make the necessary repairs. They also maintain associated equipment such as batteries, relays, and powerplants. Some PBX repairers maintain and repair equip ment for radio and television broadcasts, mobile radiotelephones, and data process ing equipment. Working Conditions Telephone and PBX installers and repair ers work indoors and outdoors in all kinds of weather. Their work involves lifting, climb ing, reaching, stooping, crouching, and crawling. They may have to work extra hours when breakdowns occur in lines or equip ment. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Telephone companies give new service workers classroom instruction in subjects such as mathematics and electrical and elec tronic theory. Trainees supplement their classroom instruction with on-the-job train ing. Often additional training is conducted in classrooms that simulate actual working con ditions. For example, telephone installer trainees are instructed in classrooms equipped with telephone poles, lines and ca bles, terminal boxes, and other equipment. They practice installing telephones and con necting wires just as they would on the job. After a few weeks in the classroom, trainees are assigned to the field for on-the-job train ing by experienced workers, often supervi sors. Many small, independent telephone com panies, especially those located in rural areas, do not have the facilities, such as simulated Telephone installers (D.O.T. 822.261-022), sometimes called station installers, install and remove telephones in homes and busi ness places. They connect telephones to out side service wires and sometimes must climb poles to make these connections. Occasion ally, especially in apartment buildings, the service wires or terminals are in the basement of the building. PBX installers (D.O.T. 822.381-018) per form the same duties as telephone install ers, but they specialize in more complex telephone system installations. They con nect wires from terminals to switchboards and make tests to check their installations. Somefor PBX installers also set up equipment Digitized FRASER Telephone installers sometimes work outdoors. TELEPHONE CRAFT OCCUPATIONS/329 work sites, necessary to train their em ployees. Therefore, vocational and technical schools may provide training for installers and repairers employed by telephone compa nies in the area. A few installers and repairers may enter apprenticeship programs con ducted jointly by State employment agencies and telephone companies. In these programs, apprentices receive on-the-job training at the company where they are employed. At the same time, they receive classroom instruction from the State agencies. Generally appren ticeships last 4 years. Applicants must have good eyesight and must not be color blind. Physical examina tions are sometimes required because the work may involve strenuous activity such as climbing poles. In addition, applicants may have to pass an aptitude test. Often trainees are chosen from telephone com pany employees, such as operators or line installers. as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Most job openings will result from industry growth, but many openings will arise from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. These openings usually are filled by workers in other telephone jobs, such as operators, service representatives, line installers, or cable splicers, but some should be available to new employees. Employment will increase due to the grow ing demand for telephones and PBX and CENTREX systems. Employment of install ers will increase most rapidly in areas where the population is growing rapidly, thus creat ing a large demand for telephone installa tions. Also, areas that have a large influx or outflow of people, such as those with military bases or colleges nearby, will have a relatively large demand for telephone installations and removals. Telephone service workers receive training throughout their careers to qualify for more responsible assignments and to keep up with technical changes. Those who have managerial ability can advance to supervi sory jobs. On the other hand, technological improve ments may limit the demand for installers and repairers. For example, terminal boxes allow a number of installations to be con nected at one central location and make it unnecessary for installers to climb telephone poles. Employment Outlook Earnings Employment of telephone installers and repairers is expected to increase about as fast In late 1978, the average hourly rate for PBX repairers was $8.58, and the average for 330/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK telephone and PBX installers was $8.90. In comparison, nonsupervisory workers in all private industries, except farming, had aver age earnings of $5.69 an hour. Earnings increase considerably with length of service. Under the terms of a major union contract in effect in late 1978, telephone installers and repairers in one of the higher pay-scale cities earned a starting rate of $4.96 an hour, with periodic pay increases up to a maximum of $9.64 an hour after 5 years of service. Installers and repairers are covered by the same provi sions governing overtime pay, vacations, holidays, and other benefits that apply to telephone workers generally. Related Occupations Other skilled workers who do technical, manual work with tools and machines in clude automobile mechanics, carpenters, ce ment masons, electricians, machinists, plum bers, toolmakers, and welders. Sources of Additional Information See the statement on the telephone indus try elsewhere in the Handbook for sources of additional information and for general infor mation on fringe benefits. Other Mechanics and Repairers Air-Conditioning, Refrigeration, and Heating Mechanics (D.O.T. 637.261-010, -014, -018, -026, and .381-010; 827.464-010; 862.281-018, .361-010; and 869.281-010) ~ Nature of the Work People always have sought ways to make the buildings they live, work, and play in more comfortable. Today air-conditioning and heating systems control the temperature, the humidity, and even the cleanliness of the air in homes, offices, factories, and schools. In addition, refrigeration equipment makes it possible to safely store food, drugs, and other perishable items. Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration mechanics are skilled work ers who install, maintain, and repair such systems and equipment. Air-conditioning, heating, and—in some cases—refrigeration is not done by a single machine. Central air-conditioning, for exam ple, requires fans, compressors, condensers, evaporators, and other components. Metal ducts or special piping are needed to distrib ute cooled air or chilled water throughout a building. Mechanics must be able to work with the complete system—the machinery, and the ducts and the pipes. Mechanics may specialize in installation or in service—maintenance and repair. Some work only with certain equipment, such as Air-conditioning mechanics work with both elec trical and mechanical equipment. gas furnaces or commercial refrigerators. However, it is not uncommon for mechanics to do installations and service and to work with cooling, heating, and refrigeration equipment. The following are some specific jobs in this field. Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechan ics (D.O.T. 637.261-010, 014, 026 and 827.464-010) install and service central air-condi tioning systems and a variety of refrigeration equipment. When installing air-conditioning or refrigeration systems, mechanics put the motors, compressors, condensing units, evaporators, and other components in place, following blueprints and design specifica tions. They connect this equipment to the duct work, refrigerant lines, and electrical power source. After making the connections, they charge the system with refrigerant and check it for proper operation. When air-conditioning and refrigeration equipment breaks down, mechanics diagnose the cause and make repairs. To find defects they inspect parts such as relays and thermo stats. During the winter, air-conditioning mechanics inspect the systems and do re quired maintenance, such as overhauling compressors recharging the system’s refriger ant, or adusting the air flow in the ducts. Some mechanics service heating systems. Furnace installers (D.O.T. 862.361-010 and 869.281-010), also called heating equip ment installers, follow blueprints or other specifications to install oil, gas, and electric heating systems. After setting the furnace in place, they install fuel supply lines, air ducts, pumps, and other components. They then connect electrical wiring and controls, and check the unit for proper operation. Oil burner mechanics (D.O.T. 862.281018) keep oil-fueled heating systems in good operating condition. During the fall and win ter, when the system is needed most, they service and adjust oil burners. If a burner is not operating properly, mechanics check the thermostat, burner nozzles, controls, and other parts to locate the problem. The me chanic corrects the problem by adjusting or replacing broken parts. During the summer, mechanics do maintenance work, such as re placing oil and air filters and vacuum-clean ing vents, ducts, and other parts of the heat ing system that accumulate soot and ash. Gas burner mechanics (D.O.T. 637.261018), also called gas appliance servicers, have duties similar to those of oil burner mechan ics. During the winter, they locate malfunc tions in gas-fueled heating systems and make necessary repairs and adjustments. During the summer they inspect and clean the heat ing system to prepare it for the heating sea son. Mechanics also repair cooking stoves, clothes dryers, hot water heaters, and out door lights and grills. Air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heat ing mechanics use a variety of tools. Ham mers, wrenches, metal snips, electric drills, pipe cutters and benders, and acetylene tor ches and other tools are used to work with refrigerant lines and air ducts. Volt-ohmmeters, manometers, and other testing devices are used to check electrical circuits, burners, and other components. Cooling and heating systems sometimes are installed or repaired by other craft work ers. For example, on a large air-conditioning installation job, especially where workers are covered by union contracts, duct work might be done by sheet-metal workers; electrical work by electricians; and installation of pip ing, condensers, and other components by pipefitters. Additional information about these occupations appears elsewhere in the Handbook. Working Conditions Mechanics work in homes, office build ings, factories—anywhere their is air-condi tioning or heating equipment. They bring the tools and parts they need to the job sites. During the repair season, mechanics may do considerable driving. Radios may be used to dispatch them to the jobs. If major repairs are necessary, mechanics will transport broken machinery or parts to a repair shop. Mechanics may work outside in cold or hot weather. The buildings that they work in may be uncomfortable because the air-condi tioning or heating equipment is broken. Me chanics often work in awkward or cramped positions and sometimes are required to work in high places. Other hazards in this trade include electrical shock, torch bums, muscle strains, and other injuries from handling heavy equipment. Places of Employment Approximately 210,000 persons worked as air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics in 1978. Cooling and heating con tractors employed most air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics and furnace install ers. Fuel oil dealers employed most oil burner mechanics, and gas utility companies, most gas burner mechanics. Mechanics also work for foodstore chains, school systems, manufacturers, and other organizations that operate large air-conditioning, refrigeration, or heating systems. Approximately 1 out of 7 mechanics was self-employed. Air-conditioning and refrigeration me chanics and furnace installers work in all parts of the country. Generally, the geo OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRERS/331 graphic distribution of these workers is simi lar to that of our population. Oil burner me chanics are concentrated in States where oil is a major heating fuel. Similarly, gas burner mechanics are concentrated in States where gas is a major heating fuel. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics start as helpers and ac quire their skills by working for several years with experienced mechanics. New workers usually begin by assisting experienced me chanics and doing simple jobs. They may carry materials, insulate refrigerant lines, or clean furnaces. In time, they do more dif ficult jobs, such as cutting and soldering pipes and sheet metal and checking electrical circuits. In 4 to 5 years the new mechanics are capable of doing all types of repairs and installations. Apprenticeship programs are run by un ions and air-conditioning and heating con tractors. In addition to on-the-job training, apprentices receive 144 hours of classroom instruction each year in related subjects, such as the use and care of tools, safety practices, blueprint reading, and air-conditioning the ory. Applicants for apprenticeships must have a high school diploma and are given a mechanical aptitude test. Apprenticeships last 4 years. Many high schools, private vocational schools, and junior colleges offer programs in air-conditioning and refrigeration. Students study air-conditioning and refrigeration the ory and the design and construction of the equipment. They also learn the basics of in stallation, maintenance, and repair. Employ ers may prefer to hire graduates of these pro grams because they require less on-the-job training. When hiring helpers, employers prefer high school graduates with mechanical apti tude who have had courses in mathematics, mechanical drawing, electricity, physics, and blueprint reading. Good physical condition also is necessary because workers sometimes have to lift and move heavy equipment. To keep up with changes in technology and to expand their skills, experienced me chanics may take courses offered by associa tions such as the Refrigeration Service Engi neers Society, the Petroleum Marketing Education Foundation, and the Air-condi tioning Contractors of America. Mechanics can advance to positions as supervisors. Some open their own contract ing businesses. However, it is becoming dif ficult for one-person operations to operate successfully. Employment Outlook Employment of air-conditioning, refriger ation, and heating mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Many open 332/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ings will occur as experienced mechanics transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. For information about training in oil heat ing systems, write to: Opportunities for air-conditioning, heat ing, and refrigeration mechanics are expected to follow trends in residential and commer cial construction. Even during periods of slow growth, many mechanics will be needed to service existing air-conditioning and heat ing systems. Installations of new energy-sav ing heating and air-conditioning systems also will cause employment of mechanics to grow. In addition, more refrigeration equipment will be needed in the production, storage, and marketing of food and other perishables. Be cause these trades have attracted many peo ple, beginning mechanics may face competi tion for jobs as helpers or apprentices. Petroleum Marketing Education Foundation, P. O. Box 11187, Columbia, S.C. 29211. Earnings Hourly rates for skilled air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics ranged from about $8 to $13 in 1978. Apprentices receive a percentage of the wage paid ex perienced workers, about 40 percent at the beginning of their training and about 80 per cent during the fourth year. In comparison, the average hourly rate for production and nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming, was $5.69. Mechanics who worked on both air-conditioning and heating equipment frequently had higher rates of pay than those who worked on only one type of equipment. Mechanics usually work a 40-hour week. However, during seasonal peaks they often work overtime or irregular hours. Most em ployers try to provide a full workweek the year round, but they may temporarily reduce hours or lay off some mechanics when sea sonal peaks end. Employment in most shops that service both air-conditioning and heat ing equipment is fairly stable throughout the year. Related Occupations Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigera tion mechanics need many skills. For exam ple, they work with sheet metal and piping. They also repair machinery, such as electri cal motors, compressors, and burners. Other workers who have similar skills are boiler makers, electrical appliance servicers, electri cians, pipefitters, plumbers, and sheet metal workers. Sources of Additional Information For more information about employment and training opportunities, contact the local office of the State employment service or firms that employ air-conditioning, refrigera tion, and heating mechanics. For pamphlets on career opportunities and training, write to: Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, 1815 N. Fort Myer Dr., Arlington, Va. 22209. (The Institute prefers not to receive individual re quests for large quantities of pamphlets.) Air-Conditioning Contractors of America, 1228 17th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Appliance Repairers (D.O.T. 637.261-018, 723.381-010, and 827.261-010) Nature of the Work In the past, most household chores such as cooking and cleaning were performed by hand and often involved a great deal of time and physical effort. Today, a variety of laborsaving appliances make many household jobs much simpler to do. Microwave ovens cook meals in minutes. Washers and dryers clean clothes with little physical effort. Indeed, the number of household jobs machines can do is almost limitless. Even simple tasks such as cooking a hamburger or opening a can are done with appliances made specifically for those purposes. Servicing these machines is the job of the appliance repairer. Appliance repairers usually specialize in servicing either portable appliances such as toasters and irons or major appliances such as refrigerators and ranges. In large repair shops, they may specialize in particular items such as clothes washers and dryers or refrig erators and freezers. Portable appliances are worked on in shops. Major appliances usually are repaired in customers’ homes by appliance repairers who carry their tools and a number of com monly used parts with them in a truck. To determine why an appliance is not working properly, repairers operate it to de tect unusual noises, overheating, or excess vibration. They look for common sources of trouble, such as faulty electrical connections, and consult service manuals and trouble shooting guides. They may disassemble the appliance to examine its parts. To check elec tric systems, repairers follow wiring dia grams and use testing devices, such as amme ters, voltmeters, and ohmmeters. After locating the trouble, the repairer makes the necessary repairs or replacements according to the type of appliance and defect involved. To fix a portable appliance such as a toaster, the repairer may replace a defective heating element. To fix a major appliance such as a washer, the repairer may replace worn bearings, transmission belts, or gears. To remove old parts and install new ones, repairers use common handtools, including screwdrivers, soldering irons, files, and pli ers, and special tools designed for particular appliances. Repairers operate the appliance after completing a repair to check their work. Repairers may answer customers’ ques tions and complaints about appliances and frequently advise customers about the care and use of the appliance. For example, they may show the owners how to load automatic to repair them, experienced repairers attend training classes or study service manuals. Persons who want to become appliance re pairers generally must have a high school diploma. Courses in electricity are essential because most repairs involve work with elec trical equipment. Mechanical aptitude is also desirable. Appliance repairers who work in customers’ homes must be able to get along with people. Appliance repairers in large shops or ser vice centers may be promoted to supervisor, assistant service manager, or service man ager. A few may advance to managerial posi tions such as regional service manager or parts manager for appliance manufacturers. Preference is given to those who show ability to get along with coworkers and customers. Experienced repairers who have sufficient funds may open their own appliance stores or repair shops. Employment Outlook An appliance repairer cleaning the burner of a gas range. washing machines or arrange dishes in dish washers. Appliance repairers may estimate and col lect the cost of repairs. They also keep rec ords of parts used and hours worked on each job. Working Conditions Repair, shops generally are quiet, well lighted, and adequately ventilated. Working conditions outside the shop vary. For exam ple, repairers sometimes work in narrow spaces and uncomfortable positions amidst dirt and dust. Those who repair appliances in homes may spend several hours a day driv ing, although the use of 2-way radios has decreased this time. Although the work generally is safe, re pairers could have an accident while han dling electrical parts and lifting and moving large appliances. Inexperience workers are shown how to use tools safely and how to avoid electric shock. Appliance repairers usually work with lit tle or no direct supervision. This feature of the job appeals to many people. Places of Employment About 145,000 people were employed as appliance repairers in 1978, mostly in inde pendent appliance stores and repair shops. Others worked for service centers operated by appliance manufacturers, department stores, wholesalers, and gas and electric util ity companies. Appliance repairers are employed in al most every community, but are concentrated in the more highly populated States and met ropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal training in appliance repair and related subjects is available from some high schools, private vocational schools, and com munity colleges. The programs in these schools provide the background in electrical and mechanical repair that is needed to enter this occupation. However, graduates usually receive additional training from their em ployer. The type of training provided by employ ers varies among companies. In shops that fix portable appliances, new employees work on a single type of appliance, such as vacuum cleaners, until they master its repair. Trainees then move on to work on a different type of appliance; this process continues until they can repair a variety of appliances. In companies that repair major appliances, be ginners may be trained by experienced re pairers during house calls. In other cases, they are taught while working in the shop rebuilding used parts such as washing ma chine transmissions. Up to 3 years of on-thejob training may be needed to become skilled in all aspects of repairing some of the more complex appliances. Some large companies such as appliance manufacturers and department store chains have formal training programs, which in clude home study courses and shop classes, where trainees work with demonstration ap pliances and other training equipment. Many repairers receive supplemental in struction through seminars that are con ducted periodically by appliance manufac turers. These seminars usually last 1 or 2 weeks and deal with the repair of one of the manufacturer’s appliances. To become famil iar with new appliances and the proper ways Employment of appliance repairers is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to the jobs created by growth of this occupation, many openings will arise each year from the need to replace experienced repairers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. The number of appliances in use is ex pected to increase very rapidly as the number of households grows and new and improved appliances are introduced. Maintaining this large number of appliances will increase the need for qualified repairers. People who enter the occupation should have steady work because the appliance re pair business is not very sensitive to changes in economic conditions. Earnings Hourly earnings of appliance repairers ranged from $5 to $10 in 1978, based on the limited data available. The starting rate for inexperienced trainees was about $3.75 an hour. The wide variations in wages reflect differences in repairers’ skill and experience, geographic location, and the type of equip ment serviced. Some appliance repairers belong to the In ternational Brotherhood of Electrical Work ers. Related Occupations Other workers who service electrical and electronic equipment include air-condition ing mechanics, bowling-pin-machine me chanics, business machine repairers, electric sign repairers, electronic organ technicians, television and radio repairers, and vending machine mechanics. Sources of Additional Information For further information about jobs in the appliance service field, contact local appli ance repair shops, appliance dealers and utilMECHANICS AND REPAIRERS/333 ity companies, or the local office of the State employment service. Information about training programs or work opportunities also is available from: Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers, 20 N. Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60606. —— —— —— —— — — — —— — Automobile Body Repairers___________ (D.O.T. 807.281-010, .381-010, and .684-010) Nature of the Work Every day thousands of motor vehicles are damaged in traffic accidents. Although some are wrecked, most can be made to look and drive like new. Automobile body repairers straighten bent frames, remove dents, and re place crumpled parts that are beyond repair. Usually, they can fix all types of vehicles, but most repairers work mainly on cars and small trucks. A few specialize in working on large trucks, buses, or tractor trailers. When a damaged vehicle is brought into the shop, body repairers generally receive in structions from their supervisors, who have determined which parts are to be restored or replaced and how much time the job should take. Automobile body repairers use special machines to restore damaged frames and body sections to their original shape and lo cation. They chain or clamp the frames and sections to alignment machines that usually use hydraulic pressure to align the damaged metal. Body repairers remove badly damaged sec tions of body panels with a pneumatic metal cutting gun or acetylene torch, and weld in new sections to replace them. Sometimes, dented sections can be repaired rather than replaced; repairers push dents out with a hy draulic jack or hand prying bar, or knock them out with a handtool or pneumatic ham mer. Small dents and creases can be smoothed out by holding a small anvil against one side of the damaged area while hammering the opposite side. Very small pits and dimples are removed with pick hammers and punches. Body repairers use plastic or solder to fill small dents which cannot be worked out of the metal. Then they file or grind the hard ened filler to the original shape and sand it before painting. In many shops, automobile painters do the painting. (These workers are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) In smaller shops workers often do both body repairing and painting. Body repair work has variety—each dam aged vehicle presents a different problem. Therefore, in addition to having a broad knowledge of automobile construction and repair techniques, repairers must develop ap propriate methods for each job. Most of these skilled people find their work challenging 334/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Automobile body repairers fill small dents with plastic and then sand the surface smooth. and take pride in being able to restore au tomobiles. vehicle manufacturers employed a small number of these workers. Body repairers usually work by themselves with only general directions from supervi sors. In some shops, they may be assisted by helpers or apprentices. In large shops, body repairers may specialize in one type of repair, such as straightening bent frames or repair ing doors or fenders. Automobile body repairers work in every section of the country, with jobs distributed in about the same way as population. Working Conditions Automobile body repairers work indoors in body shops. Automobile body shops are noisy because of the banging of hammers against metal and the whir of power tools. Most shops are well ventilated, but often they are dusty and have the odor of paint. Body repairers often work in awkward or cramped positions, and much of their work is strenuous and dirty. Hazards include cuts from sharp metal edges, bums from torches and heated metal, and injuries from power tools. Places of Employment About 185,000 persons worked as automo bile body repairers in 1978. Most worked for shops that specialized in body repairs and painting, and for automobile and truck deal ers. Other employers included organizations that maintain their own motor vehicles, such as trucking companies and buslines. Motor Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most automobile body repairers learn the trade on the job. They usually start as helpers and pick up skills from experienced workers. Helpers begin by assisting body repairers in tasks such as removing damaged parts and installing repaired parts. They gradually learn to remove small dents and make other minor repairs, and progress to more difficult tasks such as straightening frames. Generally 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training are needed to become skilled in all aspects of body re pair. Most training authorities recommend a 3- or 4-year formal apprenticeship program as the best way to learn the trade, but rela tively few of these programs are available. Apprenticeship includes both on-the-job and classroom instruction. Apprentices spend most of their time learning on the job, but they also are expected to attend classes in related subjects such as mathematics, job safety procedures, and business management. Persons who want to learn this trade should be in good physical condition and know how to use tools. Courses in automo bile body repair offered by high schools, vo cational schools, and private trade schools provide helpful experience, as do courses in automobile mechanics. Although completion of high school generally is not a requirement, many employers believe graduation indicates that the person has at least some of the quali ties of a good worker, such as the ability to see a task through to its completion. The latter is especially important to employers who spend a good deal of time and money on training. Automobile body repairers must buy their own tools, but employers sometimes furnish power tools. Trainees generally accumulate tools as they gain experience. Many workers invest hundreds of dollars in tools. An experienced automobile body repairer with supervisory ability may advance to shop supervisor. Many workers open their own body repair shops. In fact, about 1 of every 8 automobile body repairers is self-employed. Employment Outlook Employment of automobile body repairers is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Employment is expected to increase as a result of the rising number of motor vehicles damaged in traffic. Accidents are expected to increase as the number of motor vehicles grows, even though improved highways, driver training courses, lower speed limits, and improved bumpers and safety features on new vehicles may slow the rate of increase. In addition to new jobs arising from in creased demand for these workers, many openings are expected each year as ex perienced repairers retire or die. Also open ings will occur as some workers transfer to other occupations. Most persons who enter the occupation may expect steady work since the automobile repair business is not very sensitive to changes in economic conditions. their own vehicles usually receive an hourly wage. Most body repairers work 40 to 48 hours a week. Many automobile body repairers are mem bers of unions, including the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the International Brotherhood of Team sters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Help ers of America (Ind.). Most body repairers who are union members work for large auto mobile dealers, trucking companies, and bus lines. Related Occupations Restoring damaged motor vehicles often involves repainting and repair of both me chanical components and bodies. Automo bile body repairers often work closely with the following related occupations: Automo bile service advisors, mechanics, painters and body customizers, and truck and bus me chanics. Sources of Additional Information More details about work opportunities may be obtained from local employers, such as automobile body repair shops and automo bile dealers; locals of the unions previously mentioned; or the local office of the State employment service. The State employment service also may be a source of information about apprenticeship and other programs that provide training opportunities. For general information about the work of automobile body repair workers and appren ticeship training, write to: Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Automotive Service Councils Inc., 188 Industrial Dr., Suite 112, Elmhurst, 111. 60126. National Automobile Dealers Association, 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, Va. 22102. Earnings Body repairers employed by automobile dealers in 36 large cities had estimated aver age hourly earnings of $9.85 in 1978, about one and three-fourths times the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private indus try, except farming. Skilled body repairers usually earn between two and three times as much as inexperienced helpers and trainees. Many body repairers employed by auto mobile dealers and repair shops are paid a commission, usually about half of the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, earnings depend on the amount of work assigned to the repairer and how fast it is completed. Employers frequently guaran tee their commissioned workers a minimum weekly salary. Helpers and trainees usually receive an hourly rate until they are skilled enough to work on commission. Body repair ers who work for trucking companies, bus lines, and other organizations that maintain Automobile Mechanics_________ (D.O.T. 620.261-010; .281-010, -026, -034, -038, -062 and -066; .381-010 and -022; .684-018; and 865.684-010) Nature of the Work Anyone whose car has broken down knows how important the automobile me chanic’s job is. The ability to make a quick and accurate diagnosis, one of the mechanic’s most valuable skills, requires good reasoning ability and a thorough knowledge of automo biles. In fact, many mechanics consider diag nosing “hard to find” troubles one of their most challenging and satisfying duties. When mechanical or electrical troubles occur, mechanics first get a description of the symptoms from the owner or, if they work in a dealership, the service advisor who wrote the repair order. The mechanic may have to test drive the car or use testing equipment, such as motor analyzers, spark plug testers, or compression gauges, to locate the prob lem. Once the cause of the problem is found, mechanics make adjustments or repairs. If a part cannot be fixed, they replace it. Most automobile mechanics perform a va riety of repairs; others specialize. For exam ple, automatic transmission specialists work on gear trains, couplings, hydraulic pumps, and other parts of automatic transmissions. Because these are complex mechanisms, their repair requires considerable experience and training, including a knowledge of hydraul ics. Tune-up mechanics adjust the ignition timing and valves, and adjust or replace spark plugs, distributor points, and other parts to ensure efficient engine performance. They often use scientific test equipment to locate malfunctions in fuel and ignition sys tems. Automobile air-conditioning specialists in stall air-conditioners and service components such as compressors and condensers. Frontend mechanics align and balance wheels and repair steering mechanisms and suspension systems. They frequently use special align ment equipment and wheel-balancing ma chines. Brake mechanics adjust brakes, re place brake linings, repair hydraulic cylinders, and make other repairs on brake systems. Some mechanics specialize in both brake and front-end work. Automobile-radiator mechanics clean radiators with caustic solutions, locate and solder leaks, and install new radiator cores. They also may repair heaters and air-condi tioners, and solder leaks in gasoline tanks. Automobile-glass mechanics replace broken windshield and window glass and repair win dow operating mechanisms. They install pre formed glass to replace curved windows, and they use window patterns and glass-cutting tools to cut replacement glass from flat sheets. In some cases they may repair minor damage, such as pits, rather than replace the window. To prevent breakdowns, most car owners have their cars checked regularly and parts adjusted, repaired, or replaced before they go bad. This responsibility of the mechanic is vital to safe and trouble-free driving. When doing preventive maintenance, mechanics may follow a checklist to be sure they exam ine all important parts. The list may include distributor points, spark plugs, carburetor, wheel balance, and other potentially trouble some items. Working Conditions Generally, mechanics work indoors. Mod ern automobile repair shops are well ven tilated, lighted, and heated, but older shops may not have these advantages. Mechanics frequently work with dirty and greasy parts, and in awkward positions. Many of the autoOTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRERS/335 mobile parts and tools that they must lift are heavy. Minor cuts and bruises are common, but serious accidents can be avoided by keep ing the shop clean and orderly and observing other safety practices. Places of Employment More than 860,000 persons worked as au tomobile mechanics in 1978. Most worked for automobile dealers, automobile repair shops, gasoline service stations, and depart ment stores that have automobile service facilities. Others were employed by Federal, State, and local governments, taxicab and au tomobile leasing companies, and other organ izations that repair their own automobiles. Some mechanics employed by automobile manufacturers make final adjustments and repairs at the end of the assembly line. Most automobile mechanics work in shops that employ from one to five mechanics, but some of the largest shops employ more than 100. Generally, automobile dealer shops em ploy more mechanics than independent shops. Automobile mechanics work in every sec tion of the country. Geographically, employ ment is distributed about the same as popula tion. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most automobile mechanics learn the trade on the job. Beginners usually start as helpers, lubrication workers, or gasoline sta tion attendants, and gradually acquire skills by working with experienced mechanics. Al though a beginner can make simple repairs after a few months’ experience, it usually takes 3 to 4 years to become familiar with all types of repairs. An additional year or two is necessary to learn a difficult specialty, such as automatic transmission repair. In contrast, radiator mechanics, glass mechanics, and brake specialists, who do not need an all round knowledge of automobile repair, may learn their jobs in about 2 years. Most training authorities recommend a 3or 4-year formal apprenticeship program. Apprenticeship programs are offered through many auto dealers and independent repair shops. These programs include both on-the-job training and classroom instruc tion. On-the-job training includes instruction in basic service procedures, such as engine tune-up, as well as instruction in special procedures such as overhauling transmis sions. Classroom instruction includes courses in related theory such as mathematics and physics and other areas such as shop safety practices and customer relations. For entry jobs, employers look for young persons with mechanical aptitude and a knowledge of automobiles. Generally, a driver’s license is required as mechanics oc casionally have to test drive or deliver cars. Working on cars in the Armed Forces or as a hobby is valuable experience. Completion of high school is an advantage in obtaining an entry job because to most employers gradua tion indicates that a young person has at least some of the traits of a good worker, such as perseverance and the ability to learn, and has potential for advancement. Courses in auto mobile repair offered by many high schools, vocational schools, and private trade schools also are helpful. In particular, courses in physical science and mathematics can help a person better understand how an automobile operates. Mechanics usually buy their handtools and Most automobile mechanics start as helpers and gradually aquire skills by working with experienced mechanics. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 336/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis beginners are expected to accumulate tools as they gain experience. Many experienced me chanics invest hundreds of dollars in tools. Employers furnish power tools, engine analyzers, and other test equipment. Employers sometimes send experienced mechanics to factory training centers to learn to repair new models or to receive special training in automatic transmission or airconditioning repair. Manufacturers also send representatives to local shops to conduct short training sessions. Automobile dealers may select promising beginners to attend fac tory-sponsored mechanic training programs. Experienced mechanics who have leader ship ability may advance to shop supervisor or service manager. Mechanics who like to work with customers may become service ad visors. Many mechanics open their own re pair shops or gasoline service stations and about 1 out of 7 automobile mechanics is self-employed. Employment Outlook Job opportunities for automobile mechan ics will be plentiful in the years ahead. Re placement needs are high in this large occu pation. Thus, in addition to openings created by the growing need for these workers, thou sands of jobs will arise each year as ex perienced mechanics retire, die, or change jobs. Employment of automobile mechanics is expected to increase about as fast as the aver age for all occupations through the 1980’s. The number of mechanics is expected to in crease because expansion of the driving age population and consumer purchasing power will increase the number of automobiles on the road. Employment also is expected to grow because a greater number of automo biles will be equipped with pollution control and safety devices, air-conditioning, and other features that increase maintenance re quirements. Most persons who enter the occupation may expect steady work because the automo bile repair business is not much affected by changes in economic conditions. Earnings Skilled automobile mechanics employed by automobile dealers in 36 cities had es timated average hourly earnings of $9.32 in 1978, about two-thirds more than the aver age for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Many experienced mechanics employed by automobile dealers and independent repair shops receive a commission related to the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, weekly earnings depend on the amount of work completed by the mechanic. Employers frequently guarantee commis sioned mechanics a minimum weekly salary. Skilled mechanics usually earn between two and three times as much as inexperienced helpers and trainees. Most mechanics work between 40 and 48 hours a week, but many work even longer hours during busy periods. Mechanics paid by the hour frequently receive overtime rates for hours over 40 a week. Some mechanics are members of labor un ions. Among the unions organizing these workers are the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the In ternational Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Work ers’ International Association; and the Inter national Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf feurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Related Occupations Automobile mechanics repair and service automobiles. Other related occupations that also repair and service motor vehicles include automobile body repairers, customizers, painters, and service advisors as well as truck and bus mechanics. Sources of Additional Information For more details about work opportuni ties, contact local employers such as automo bile dealers and repair shops; locals of the unions previously mentioned; or the local of fice of the State employment service. The State employment service also may have in formation about apprenticeship and other training programs. For general information about the work of automobile mechanics, and apprenticeship training, write to: Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Automotive Service Councils, Inc., 188 Industrial Dr., Suite 112, Elmhurst, 111. 60126. maintenance jobs normally make up most of the mechanic’s workload. When breakdowns occur, mechanics diag nose the cause and repair or replace faulty parts. A quick and accurate diagnosis—one of the mechanic’s most valuable skills—re quires problem-solving ability as well as a thorough knowledge of the engine’s opera tion. Some jobs require only the replacement of a single item, such as a fuel pump, and may be completed in less than an hour. In con trast, tearing down and reassembling an en gine to replace worn valves, bearings, or pis ton rings may take a day or more. Mechanics may specialize in either out board or inboard engines, although many re pair both. Most small boats have portable gasoline-fueled outboard engines. Larger craft such as cabin cruisers and commercial fishing boats are powered by inboard engines (located inside the boat) and are similar to automobile engines. Some inboards bum die sel fuel. In large boat yards, mechanics usually work only on engines and other running gear. In small marinas, they also may repair and paint hulls, rig masts, and install and repair steering mechanisms, lights, and other boat equipment, such as refrigerators, marine toi lets, two-way radios, and depth finders. In addition, some mechanics may repair motor cycles, minibikes, snowmobiles, lawnmowers, and other machines which have small gasoline engines that are similar to outboard engines. Mechanics use common handtools such as screwdrivers and wrenches; power and ma chine tools, including drills and grinders; and hoists to lift engines and boats. Engine analyzers, compression gauges, and other testing devices help mechanics locate faulty parts. Mechanics refer to service manuals for assistance in assembling and repairing en gines. Working Conditions Boat-engine mechanics usually work in re pair shops, but often work outdoors aboard boats in all weather. Shop working condi tions vary from clean and spacious to dingy and cramped. All shops are noisy when en gines are being tested. The work is not haz ardous, but mechanics sometimes suffer cuts, bruises, and other minor injuries. Mechanics occasionally must work in awkward posi tions to adjust or replace parts. For many however, these disadvantages are outweighed by the variety of assignments and the satis faction that comes from solving problems. Moreover, mechanics may enjoy working near water recreation areas. Boating activity increases sharply as the weather grows warmer. Consequently, many mechanics work more than 40 hours a week in spring, summer, and fall. During the peak season, some mechanics may work 7 days a week. However, in the winter, they may work less than 40 hours a week; a relatively small number are laid off. In northern States, some of the winter slack is taken up by repair work on snowmobiles. Places of Employment Most of the 20,000 full-time boat-engine mechanics employed in 1978 worked in the shops of boat dealers and in boat yards and private marinas. The next largest area of em ployment was in boat manufacturing plants where mechanics install engines and make adjustments at the end of assembly lines. A small number of mechanics worked for boat rental firms. Marinas operated by Federal, National Automobile Dealers Association, 8400 Westpark Dr., McLean, Va. 22102 Boat-Engine Mechanics (D.O.T. 623.281-026, -038, and -042) Nature of the Work Engines in boats and automobile have many things in commmon, including unan nounced breakdowns. A reliable engine is particularly essential in boating. Breakdowns far from shore can leave a boater stranded for hours—a frustrating and potentially danger ous predicament, particularly if the weather turns bad. To minimize the possibility of break downs, engine manufacturers recommend periodic inspections of engines by qualified mechanics to have worn or defective parts replaced. Also, at periodic intervals the me chanic may replace ignition points, adjust valves, and clean the carburetor. Routine When breakdowns occur, boat-engine mechanics diagnose the cause and repair or replace faulty parts. OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRERS/337 State, and local governments also employed mechanics. have the capital may open their own dealer ships or marinas. Dealer and marina shops typically employ 1 to 3 mechanics; a few boat yards employ more than 10. Some small dealers and mari nas do not employ mechanics; owners do the repair work or send it to larger marinas and boat yards. Employment Outlook Boat-engine mechanics work in every State, but employment is concentrated along coastal areas in New England, Florida, Texas, New York, California, Louisiana, Washington, and New Jersey, and near the numerous lakes and rivers in Michigan, Min nesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Ohio, Indiana, and Missouri. Mechanics who specialize in outboard engines work in all areas. Those who specialize in inboard engines generally work near oceans, bays, and large lakes. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Boat-engine mechanics learn the trade on the job. At first, trainees clean boats and en gines and do other odd jobs. Then, under the guidance of experienced mechanics, trainees learn to do other routine mechanical tasks such as replacing ignition points and spark plugs. As trainees gain experience, they prog ress to more difficult tasks such as diagnosing the cause of breakdowns and overhauling en gines. Generally, an inexperienced beginner needs 2 to 3 years on the job to become skilled in repairing both outboard and in board gasoline engines. A capable mechanic can learn to repair diesels in an additional year or two. Employers sometimes send trainees and mechanics to factory-sponsored courses for 1 to 2 weeks. Trainees learn the fundamentals of engine repair. Mechanics upgrade their skills and learn to repair new models. In the past few years, several schools have begun to offer formal training courses in ma rine engine repair and maintenance. When hiring trainees, employers look for persons who have mechanical aptitude, are in good physical condition, and have an interest in boating. High school graduates are pre ferred, but many employers will hire people with less education. High school courses in small engine repair, automobile mechanics, machine shop, and science are helpful. Before graduating, a person may be able to get a summer job as a mechanic trainee. Mechanics usually are required to furnish their own handtools. Beginners are expected to accumulate handtools as they gain experi ence. Marty experienced mechanics invest hundreds of dollars in tools. Employers pro vide power tools and test equipment. Mechanics with leadership ability can ad vance to supervisory positions such as shop supervisor or service manager. Some boatengine mechanics transfer to jobs as automo bile mechanics. Others may become sales workers for boat dealers. Mechanics who 338/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment of boat-engine mechanics is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to new positions, a few hundred openings will arise each year as experienced mechanics retire, die, or transfer to other oc cupations. Employment is expected to increase due to the growth in the number of boats. The num ber of boats is expected to increase at about the same fate as the economy as a whole. As population grows, and people have more time for recreation, boating, like other leisure ac tivities, will probably expand. Employment opportunities will be particu larly favorable for mechanics who have a knowledge of electricity and electronics. Electrical equipment on boats is becoming more common and many new boats have two-way radios and depth finders. Earnings According to a nationwide survey of boat dealers and marinas, estimated hourly earn ings of experienced mechanics ranged from about $4 to $10 in 1978. Trainees earned somewhat less. Most mechanics are paid an hourly rate or weekly salary. Others are paid a percentage —usually 50 percent—of the labor charge for each repair job. If mechanics are paid on a percentage basis, their weekly earnings de pend on the amount of work they are as signed and on the length of time they take to complete it. Related Occupations Boat-engine mechanics repair and service inboard and outboard motors of recreational and commercial boats. Other occupations in volved with the repair and service of engines include aircraft mechanics, automobile me chanics, diesel mechanics, motorcycle me chanics, and ship-engine maintenance me chanics. Sources of Additional Information For details about training or work oppor tunities, contact local boat dealers and mari nas or local State employment offices. Bowling-Pin-Machine Mechanics__________ (D.O.T. 638.261-022) Nature of the Work An important piece of machinery in the modern bowling center is the automatic pinsetter. It returns the ball to the bowler, clears the fallen pins from the lane, and resets pins for the next ball. When this complex machine fails to work properly, the game is held up and the bowling center’s customers are in convenienced. Keeping pinsetters running properly is the job of bowling-pin-machine (or automatic pinsetter) mechanics. Pinsetters are a complex combination of electrical and mechanical parts that require regular service to operate correctly. Pinset ters must be cleaned, gears and other moving parts must be lubricated, and motors must be adjusted. Mechanics perform these jobs ac cording to a schedule suggested by the pinsetter’s manufacturer. They also inspect the ma chines for faulty parts and wiring that may cause breakdowns. When a pinsetter malfunctions, mechanics must find the cause of the trouble and make repairs. To locate the problem, mechanics may refer to troubleshooting manuals and diagrams of electrical circuits. Often they can find the trouble relying only on the knowl edge of the machine that they have gained through experience. To fix the pinsetter, me chanics repair, replace, or adjust broken me chanical or electrical parts, such as gears, bearings, and motors. Mechanics use many different types of tools, such as wrenches, screwdrivers, solder ing irons, portable hoists, and lubricating guns, to repair and service the parts. They occasionally use ohmmeters, voltmeters, and other devices to test electrical circuits, relays, transformers, and motors. Mechanics often supervise one or more assistant mechanics or pinchasers. Mechan ics train these workers to correct minor problems, such as jammed pins and balls, by explaining how the machine operates and by demonstrating how to make re pairs. Assistant mechanics or the pinchas ers maintain the pinsetters when the me chanic is off duty. In some bowling centers, mechanics per form other maintenance, such as condition ing lanes and pins, and repairing seats and tables. Mechanics do some clerical work. They order replacement parts and keep an inventory of parts in stock. They also may keep records of pinsetter malfunctions and estimate maintenance costs. Working Conditions Mechanics work in a long, relatively nar row corridor at the end of bowling lanes where the automatic pinsetters are located. The work area has space for a workbench and usually is well lighted and well ventilated but quite noisy when the lanes are operating. When making repairs and adjustments, me chanics frequently have to climb and balance on the work platform of the pinsetter and to stoop, kneel, crouch, and crawl around the machines. Those who install and service ma chines for manufacturers must travel to the various bowling centers in their area. The job generally is not dangerous but workers are subject to common shop haz ards, such as cuts, falls, and bruises. tion available. Wages vary greatly by area and with the experience of the mechanic. Related Occupations The smooth operation of a bowling center depends on the ability of the mechanic to keep all the electrical and mechanical parts of the pinsetter operating normally. Other me chanics who do all the maintenance and re pair work for a specific machine include bak ery machine mechanics, laundry machine mechanics, refrigeration mechanics, sewingmachine mechanics, and vending-machine mechanics. Sources of Additional Information People who want further information about work opportunities in this occupation should contact bowling centers in their area or the local bowling proprietors’ association. The local office of the State employment ser vice is another source of information about employment and training opportunities. Mechanics repair both electrical and mechanical parts of automatic pinsetters. Places of Employment About 6,200 bowling-pin-machine me chanics were employed in 1978. Almost all worked in bowling centers. A small number were employed by manufacturers of auto matic pinsetters to install the machines and service those in bowling centers that did not employ full-time mechanics. Bowling-pin-machine mechanics are em ployed in every State, but employment is con centrated in heavily populated areas, where there are many bowling centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Generally, there are no education or expe rience requirements for a job as a pinsetter mechanic. Some employers, however, prefer to hire applicants who are high school gradu ates and who have completed courses in elec tricity, machine repair, blueprint reading, and shop math. Employers also prefer appli cants who have experience repairing some type of machinery. Pinsetter mechanics usually begin work as assistant mechanics and are trained on the job. Trainees learn about the pinsetter’s oper ation and maintenance by observing head mechanics and working on the machines under their supervision. Trainees are taught how to lubricate and clean pinsetters and to perform other preventive maintenance. Trainees also learn to diagnose and repair various kinds of machine breakdowns. Usu ally, 1 to 2 years of on-the-job training and experience are needed to acquire mechanics’ skills. Some mechanic trainees are sent to train ing courses conducted by pinsetter manufac turers. To take these training courses, a me chanic must work at a bowling center. The bowling center usually pays the tuition. The courses, which last 2 to 4 weeks, in clude classroom lectures and shopwork with demonstration machines. Trainees study the structure and operation of machines made by the firm operating the school and learn to locate typical sources of trouble. They learn to perform preventive maintenance, to read wiring diagrams, and to use the tools of the trade. After attending these courses, trainees usually need several months of on-the-job ex perience to qualify as mechanics. People who want to become bowling-pin machine mechanics should have mechanical ability and like to work with their hands. They also should have good eyesight (includ ing normal color vision), good eye-hand co ordination, and average physical strength. Advancement opportunities for pinsetter mechanics are limited. Some mechanics be come managers or owners of bowling estab lishments. Those who work for manufactur ers may advance to service manager. Employment Outlook Employment of bowling-pin-machine me chanics is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. The demand for bowling facilities is likely to grow as the population increases. Since the growth in bowling facilities will be slower than in past years, most job openings will arise because of the need to replace ex perienced mechanics who retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. However, because this occupation is very small, only a limited number of openings will become available. Earnings and Working Conditions Hourly earnings in 1978 ranged from $3 for mechanic trainees up to $8.50 for head mechanics, according to the limited informa Business Machine Repairers_______ (D.O.T. 633) Nature of the Work Business machine repairers maintain and repair the machines that are used to speed paperwork in business and government. These machines include typewriters, adding and calculating machines, cash registers, dic tating machines, postage meters, and du plicating and copying equipment. (Computer service technicians, who work on computer equipment, are discussed in a separate state ment elsewhere in the Handbook.) Business machine repairers (often called field engineers or customer engineers) make regular visits for preventive maintenance to the offices and stores of customers in their assigned area. The frequency of these service calls depends upon the type of equipment being serviced. For example, an electric type writer may require preventive maintenance only three or four times a year, while a com plex copier probably would require more fre quent attention. During these calls, the engi neer inspects the machine for unusual wear and replaces any worn or broken parts. Then the machine is cleaned, oiled, and adjusted to ensure peak operating efficiency and to pre vent future breakdowns. The engineer also may advise machine operators how to use the equipment more efficiently and how to spot a problem in its early stages. Despite frequent maintenance, business machines do occasionally malfunction. When a field engineer is notified by the su pervisor of a breakdown, he or she will promptly examine the machine and speak to the customer to determine the cause of the malfuction. Once the problem has been isoOTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRERS/339 lated, repairs can be made. Minor repairs generally can be made on the spot; for more serious repairs, however, the entire machine or a component of the machine will be taken to the repair shop where a specialist will work on it. Business machine repairers generally spe cialize in one type of machine. Those em ployed by manufacturing companies or deal ers usually are familiar only with the brand produced or sold by their employer. Repair ers who work for small independent repair shops must be able to work on equipment from several different manufacturers. Repairers use common handtools, such as screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches, as well as other tools especially designed to fit certain kinds of business machines. In addition, they use meters and other types of test equipment to check for malfunctions in electronic cir cuits. Working Conditions Servicing business machines is cleaner and less strenuous than the work in most other mechanical trades. Repairers generally wear business clothes and do most of their work in the customer’s office. keeping machines, cash registers, and post age and mailing equipment. A small number repaired dictating machines. Almost 8 of 10 repairers worked for busi ness machine manufacturers; for firms that provide maintenance services to businesses; or for repair shops. The remainder worked for organizations large enough to justify em ploying their own staff of full-time repair ers. Business machine repairers work through out the country. Even relatively small com munities usually have at least one or two re pair shops. Most repairers, however, work in large cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The amount of formal education required for entry jobs as business machine repairers varies widely among employers. Some em ployers hire applicants with a high school education, while many others require at least 1 year of technical training in basic electricity or electronics. Employers agree that elec tronics training received in the Armed Forces is valuable. Places of Employment Applicants for entry jobs may have to pass tests that measure mechanical aptitude, knowledge of electricity or electronics, man ual dexterity, and general intelligence. Good eyesight, including color vision, is needed to inspect and work on small, delicate parts. Persons considering this type of work should have good hearing to detect malfunctions re vealed by sound. About 63,000 people worked as business machine repairers in 1978. Most worked on typewriters, calculators, adding machines, copiers, and duplicators. Others serviced proof machines in banks, accounting-book Employers seek applicants who have a pleasant, cooperative manner. Because most machine servicing is done in customers’ of fices, the ability to work without interrupting the office routine is very important. A neat Workers travel a great deal because they usually visit a number of customers each workday. They generally use their own cars and are reimbursed on a mileage basis. Inju ries are uncommon. Repairers must be familiar with a wide range of tools and testing methods. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 340/OCCUPATIONAL U TLO O K HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St.OLouis appearance and ability to communicate effec tively are essential. Some employers require that business ma chine repairers be bonded. Applicants for these jobs must be honest and trustworthy because they sometimes are exposed to large sums of money and other valuables in banks and offices. In addition, these workers must be able to work without direct supervision. They must be able to set up a maintenance schedule for their Customers’ equipment and arrange their own schedule so that they can meet service deadlines and also handle emer gency repairs. Trainees who work in a manufacturer’s branch office or for a franchised dealer usu ally attend a school sponsored by the manu facturer. Training programs at company schools usually last several weeks to several months, depending on the type of machine the repairer will service. Trainees then re ceive from 1 to 3 years of practical experience and on-the-job training before they become fully qualified repairers. These workers gen erally learn to service only the company’s line of equipment. Training offered by independent repair shops usually is less formal. Trainees gener ally complete a self-study course coupled with on-the-job training under the supervi sion of an experienced repairer. Because small repair shops usually do not specialize in the more sophisticated types of equipment, their repairers are expected to be familiar with the more common machines produced by many manufacturers. For example, busi ness machine repairers in small shops should be able to repair several different makes of typewriters, adding machines, and calcula tors. Wherever they work, business machine re pairers frequently attend training seminars sponsored by business equipment manufac turers for special instruction in new business developments. Also, business machine re pairers are encouraged to broaden their tech nical knowledge during nonworking hours. Many companies pay the repairer’s tuition for work-related courses in college and tech nical schools. Because of their familiarity with equip ment, business machine repairers are particu larly well qualified to advance to sales jobs as manufacturers’ sales workers, for example. Repairers who show management abilities also may become service managers or super visors. Experienced repairers sometimes open their own repair shops; those who work in manufacturers’ branch offices sometimes become independent dealers or buy sales franchises from the company. Employment Outlook Employment of business machine repair ers is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to the jobs that result from employment growth, many openings will arise as experienced repairers retire, die, or change occupations. Employment opportunities for qualified beginners are excellent. Business and govern ment will continue to buy more machines to handle the growing volume of paperwork and more people will be needed to maintain and repair these machines. In recent years, many technical changes have occurred in business machines. Electronic calculating machines have replaced mechanical models, for example, and electronic cash registers are replacing mechanical registers. Because of the greater use of such equipment, opportuni ties will be particularly favorable for repair ers who have training in electronics. In fact, training in basic electronics is almost always required for business machine repair jobs. Business machine repairers work year round and have steadier employment than many other skilled workers. Office machines must be maintained even when business slackens, since records must be kept, corre spondence carried on, and statistical reports prepared. Earnings Information from a limited number of em ployers in 1978 indicated that trainees started at over $150 a week. Even during training, salaries often are increased as workers sharpen their skills and advance to more complicated assignments. People who have previous electronics training in the Armed Forces or civilian technical schools generally receive somewhat higher beginning wages than high school gradutates. Experienced repairers and specialists earned from $200 to over $300 a week. Re pairers who can work on more than one type of equipment normally earn substantially more than those who are familiar with only one type of machine. In many areas, earnings for business ma chine repairers are comparable to those of computer service technicians with similar skills, responsibilities, and experience. (See the statement on computer sevice techni cians, a closely related occupation, elsewhere in the Handbook.) Related Occupations Other workers also service complicated electronic and mechanical equipment. These include appliance repairers, automotive elec tricians, computer service technicians, elec tronic organ technicians, instrument repair ers, radio repairers, radar mechanics, and television service technicians. Sources of Additional Information For more details about job opportunities, contact local firms that sell and service busi ness machines and the local office of the State employment service. The State department of education in your State capital can furnish information about approved technical insti tutes, colleges, and other institutions Digitized for junior FRASER offering postsecondary training in basic elec tronics. Additional information about these schools is available from: thoroughly test the new equipment, and cor rect any problems before the customer uses the machine. Division of Vocational Technical Education, U.S. Department of Education, Washington, D.C. Some technicians specialize in maintaining a particular computer model or system, or in doing a certain type of repair. For example, some technicians are experts in correcting problems caused by errors in the computer’s internal programming. 20202. Computer Service Technicians_____ (D.O.T. 828.261-014 and .281-010) Nature of the Work Computer systems play a vital role in our lives. They help us make telephone calls, re ceive paychecks on time, and reserve tickets for travel, hotels, and entertainment. In busi ness and industry, computer systems perform countless tasks—from maintaining business records to controlling manufacturing pro cesses. A computer system is the combination of a central processing unit and additional equipment such as remote terminals and high speed printers. Keeping this intricate set of machines in good working order is the job of the computer service technician. At regular intervals, computer service technicians (often called field engineers or customer engineers) service machines or sys tems to keep them operating efficiently. They routinely adjust, oil, and clean mechanical and electromechanical parts. They also check electronic equipment for loose connections and defective components or circuits. When computer equipment breaks down, technicians must find the cause of the failure and make repairs. Determining where in the system the malfunction has occurred is the most difficult part of the technician’s job, and requires a logical, analytical mind as well as technical knowledge. As computer systems have grown larger and more complex, the potential for malfunctions also has grown. The problem can be in the central process ing unit itself, in one of the peripheral ma chines, such as a reader or a printer, or in the cables connecting these machines. Techni cians use several kinds of tools to test equip ment, including voltmeters, ohmmeters, and oscilloscopes to check for electronic failures. They run special diagnostic programs that help pinpoint certain malfunctions. Al though it may take several hours to locate a problem, fixing the equipment may take just a few minutes. To replace a faulty circuit board, solder a broken connection, or repair a mechanical part, technicians use a variety of handtools, including needle-nosed pliers, wirestrippers, and soldering equipment. The employer supplies tools and test equipment, but technicians are responsible for keeping them in good working order. Computer technicians often help install new equipment. They lay cables, hook up electrical connections between machines, Besides knowing how to use specialized tools and test equipment, computer techni cians must be familiar with technical and re pair manuals for each piece of equipment. They also must keep up with the technical information and revised maintenance proce dures issued periodically by computer manu facturers. Technicians keep a record of preventive maintenance and repairs on each machine they service. In addition, they fill out time and expense reports, keep parts inventories, and order parts. Although technicians spend most of their time working on machines, they work with people also. They listen to customers’ com plaints, answer questions, and sometimes offer technical advice on ways to keep equip ment in good condition. Experienced techni cians often help train new technicians and sometimes have limited supervisory duties. Working Conditions Computer installations generally run around the clock and working time lost be cause of a breakdown can be very expensive. For this reason, technicians must be available to make emergency repairs at any time, day or night. Although the normal workweek is 40 hours, overtime is standard. The method of assigning overtime varies by employer. Some technicians are on call 24 hours a day. Others work rotating shifts—days one week, nights the next. For most technicians, travel is local; they usually are not away from home overnight. Employers pay for travel, including reim bursement for job-related uses of the techni cian’s car, as well as work-related education expenses. Although some bending and lifting is nec essary, the job is not strenuous. Work haz ards are limited mainly to burns and electric shock, but these can be avoided if safety prac tices are followed. Places of Employment In 1978, about 63,000 persons worked as computer service technicians. Most were em ployed by firms that provide maintenance services for a fee and by manufacturers of computer equipment. A small number were employed directly by organizations that have large computer installations. Computer technicians generally work out of regional offices located in large cities, where computer equipment is concentrated. Most are assigned to several clients, depend ing on the technician’s specialty and the type OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRERS/341 perience, they work on more complex equip ment. Because manufacturers continually rede sign equipment and develop new uses for computers, experienced technicians fre quently must attend training sessions to keep up with these changes and to broaden their technical skills. Many technicians take ad vanced training to specialize in a particular computer system or type of repair. Instruc tion also may include programming, systems analysis, and other subjects that improve the technician’s general knowledge of the com puter field. Experienced technicians with advanced training may become specialists or “trouble shooters” who help technicians throughout their territory diagnose difficult problems. They also may work with engineers in design ing equipment and developing maintenance procedures. Technicians with leadership abil ity may become supervisors or service managers. Technicians must examine mechanical as well as electronic components to diagnose computer malfunctions. of equipment the user has. Workers with sev eral accounts must travel from place to place to maintain these systems and to make emer gency repairs. In some cases, more than one technician will share an account and service different parts of a system. In other cases, an experienced technician may be assigned to work full time at a client’s installation in order to maintain all phases of that opera tion. Technicians who work for a nationwide organization must sometimes transfer to an other city or State. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers require applicants for technician trainee jobs to have 1 to 2 years’ post-high school training in basic electronics or electrical engineering. This training may be from a public or private vocational school, a college, or a junior college. Basic electron ics training offered by the Armed Forces is excellent preparation for technician trainees. A high school student interested in becom ing a computer service technician should take courses in mathematics and physics. High school courses in electronics and com puter programming also are helpful. Hobbies that involve electronics, such as operating ham radios or building stereo equipment, also provide valuable experience. Besides technical training, applicants for http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 342/OCCUPATIONAL O U TLO O K HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis trainee jobs must have good close vision and normal color perception to work with small parts and color-coded wiring. Normal hear ing is needed since some breakdowns are diagnosed by sound. Because technicians usually handle jobs alone, they must have the initiative to work without close supervision. Also important are a pleasant personality and neat appearance, since the work involves frequent contact with customers. Patience is an asset, because some malfunctions occur infrequently and are very difficult to pin point. In some companies, applicants must pass a physical examination. In others, a se curity clearance may be required because technicians work on machines located in re stricted buildings. Trainees usually attend company training centers for 3 to 6 months to learn elementary computer theory, computer math, and cir cuitry theory and to further their study of electronics. Classroom work is accompanied by practical training in operating computer equipment, doing basic maintenance, and using test equipment to locate malfunctions. In addition to formal instruction, trainees must complete 6 months to 2 years of on-thejob training. At first, they work closely with experienced technicians, learning to maintain card readers, printers, and other machines that are relatively simple, but that have the basic mechanical and electronic features of a large computer system. As trainees gain ex Most computer equipment operates on the same basic principles, but machines built by different companies may be unique in design and construction. For this reason, techni cians may find it difficult to transfer between companies that maintain different brands of equipments. However, because of the press ing need for experienced technicians, many opportunities exist for well-qualified workers to transfer to other firms that handle the same type of computer hardware. Training and experience in computer maintenance may also help qualify a techni cian for a job in equipment sales, program ming, or management. (See the statements on programmers, manufacturers’ sales workers, and the office machine and computer manu facturing industry elsewhere in the Hand book.) Employment Outlook Employment of computer technicians is expected to grow much faster than the aver age for all occupations through the 1980’s. As the Nation’s economy expands, more computer equipment will be used and many more technicians will be needed to install and maintain it. Business, government, and other organizations will buy, lease, or rent addi tional equipment to manage vast amounts of information, control manufacturing pro cesses, and aid in scientific research. The de velopment of new uses for computers in fields such as education, medicine, and traffic con trol also will spur demand. The very strong demand for computer technicians is related to the growing number of computers in operation and the geographic distribution of these computers. Continued reductions in the size and cost of computer hardware will bring the computer within reach of a rapidly increasing number of small organizations. As more and more of these small systems are installed, the amount of time technicians must spend traveling be tween clients will increase. Most openings will continue to occur in metropolitan areas, however. Employment of computer service techni cians is much less likely to be affected by downturns in business activity than is the case in other fields. Earnings Average weekly earnings of computer ser vice technician trainees were about $220 a week in 1978, according to a private survey of computer manufacturing firms. Fully trained workers earned about $240 a week, while senior technicians with several years’ experience earned between $250 and $350. Highly skilled specialists averaged from $300 to $400 a week. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations repair and maintain the circuits and mechanical parts of electronic equipment. These include appli ance repairers, automotive electricians, busi ness machine repairers, electronic organ technicians, instrument repairers, radio re pairers, radar mechanics, and television ser vice technicians. Sources of Additional Information For general information on careers in com puter maintenance, contact the personnel de partment of computer manufacturers and computer maintenance firms in your area. The State department of eduction in your State capital can furnish information about approved technical institutes, junior colleges, and other institutions offering postsecondary training in basic electronics. Additional in formation about these schools is available from: out bulbs, are easy to fix. However, in some cases, the problem may not be obvious and repairers may need to use electronic test equipment to determine the cause of a break down. Although simple repairs such as re placing bulbs or transformers, are done at the site, major repairs of faulty parts, such as neon tubing are made in sign shops. Repairers also do preventive maintenance and periodic inspection of signs to locate and correct defects before breakdowns occur. They check signs and remove debris such as birds’ nests and accumulated water. Repair ers also tighten or weld parts that have been loosened by winds and repaint beams, col umns, and other framework. They may re paint portions of neon tubing to make the sign more readable. Motors, gears, bearings, and other parts of revolving signs may be checked, adjusted, and lubricated. During periods with few service calls, re pairers who work for sign manufacturing companies may help assemble signs. Some repairers also install signs. Repairers use common handtools and power tools, such as screwdrivers, pliers, saws, and electric drills. They also use amme ters, voltmeters, and other testing devices to locate malfunctioning electric parts. When replacing burned-out parts, such as lamps or flashers in illuminated plastic signs, repairers may refer to wiring diagrams and charts. Repairers usually must fill out reports not ing the date, place, and nature of service calls. They also may estimate the cost of ser vice calls and sell maintenance contracts to sign owners. Working Conditions Because most signs are out-of-doors, re pairers are exposed to all kinds of weather. They sometimes make emergency repairs at night, on weekends, and on holidays. They may spend much time traveling to the site of a service call. In some large cities, repairers patrol areas at night to locate and fix improp erly operating signs. The work can be danger ous; hazards include electric shocks, bums, and falls from high places. Training pro grams emphasizing safety and equipment, such as baskets on boomtrucks, which allow easy access to signs, have reduced the fre quency of accidents. Places of Employment About 15,000 persons worked as electric sign repairers in 1978, primarily in small shops that manufacture, install, and service electric signs. Some worked for independent sign repair shops. Electric sign repairers work throughout the country. However, employment is con centrated in large cities and in populous Division of Vocational Technical Education, U.S. Department of Education, Washington, D.C. 20202. The State employment service office in your area may also be able to provide infor mation about local job opportunities. Electric Sign Repairers (D.O.T. 824.281-018) Nature of the Work A common form of advertising for many businesses and products is the electric sign. Electric sign repairers maintain and repair neon and illuminated plastic signs so that they retain their “eye appeal” and attract maximum attention. When a sign requires service, repairers drive to its location in a truck, carrying tools and a number of replacement parts. Repair ers’ trucks are equipped with ladders and boom cranes so they can work on tall signs or those placed high above the ground. Com mon sources of sign trouble, such as burned Repairers often work on boom cranes to reach tall signs. OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRERS/343 States, where large numbers of electric signs are used. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most electric sign repairers are hired as trainees and learn the trade informally on the job. Initially, they perform the various phases of signmaking in the shop to obtain a general knowledge of such tasks as cutting and as sembling metal and plastic signs, mounting neon tubing, wiring signs, and installing elec tric parts. After they have acquired a thor ough knowledge of sign construction, trainees accompany experienced repairers on service calls to learn repair and maintenance techniques. At least 4 years of on-the-job training and experience are required to be come a fully qualified repairer. Some people learn the trade through sign repairer or electrician apprenticeship pro grams conducted by union locals and sign manufacturing shops. The apprenticeships usually last 4 years, emphasize on-the-job training, and include classroom instruction in subjects such as the theory of electricity and blueprint reading. Apprentices generally must be at least 18 years old with a high school diploma. Attempts are being made by unions and the National Electric Sign Asso ciation to increase the number of apprentice ship programs, so the availability of this type of training should increase in the future. Employers prefer to hire high school or vocational school graduates, although many repairers have less education. Courses in mathematics, science, electronics, and blue print reading are helpful to young people who are interested in learning this trade. Repairers need good color vision because electric wires are frequently identified by color. They also need manual dexterity to handle tools and physical strength to lift transformers and other heavy equipment. Be cause much of their work is done on ladders or from the baskets of boomtrucks, repairers cannot be afraid of heights. All electric sign repairers must be familiar with the National Electric Codes. Many cit ies require repairers to be licensed. Licenses can be obtained by passing an examination in local electric codes, and electric theory and application. Highly skilled repairers may become supervisors. Because of their experience in servicing signs and dealing with customers, repairers sometimes become sign sales repre sentatives. Those with sufficient funds may also open their own sign manufacturing or repair shops. Employment Outlook Employment of electric sign repairers is expected to increase as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. A rapid increase in the number of signs in use will spur demand for these workers. More signs Digitized willfor beFRASER needed as new businesses open and old http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 344/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ones expand and modernize their facilities. Signs already in use also will continue to re quire service because well-maintained signs are good for business and also because many State and local governments require owners to keep their signs attractive. In addition to new jobs created by employment growth, some openings will arise as experienced workers retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Earnings The earnings of electric sign repairers com pare favorably with those of other skilled workers. It is estimated that the hourly wage rate of experienced repairers was about $8.70 in 1978, based on a survey of union wages and fringe benefits throughout the country. Apprentice rates usually range from $3.00 to $7.80 an hour. Most electric sign repairers work an 8hour day, 5 days a week, and receive pre mium pay for overtime. They also may re ceive extra pay for working at heights in excess of 30 feet. Many electric sign repairers belong to one the following unions: The International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, the Sheet Metal Workers International Association, and the International Brotherhood of Paint ers and Allied Trades. Related Occupations Electric sign repairers use their knowledge of electric theory and electric codes and their skills in the use of handtools and electric test ing equipment to service and repair electric signs. Workers in other occupations that re quire these skills include coin-machine ser vicers and repairers, conveyor maintenance mechanics, electrical appliance repairers, household applicance installers, laundry ma chine mechanics, aircraft accessory mechan ics, and automatic pinsetter mechanics. Sources of Additional Information For further information on work oppor tunities, contact local sign manufacturing shops, the local office of the State employ ment service, or locals of the unions previ ously mentioned. General information on job opportunities, wages, and the nature of the work is available from: National Electric Sign Association, 2625 Butter field Rd., Oak Brook, 111. 60521. Farm Equipment Mechanics__________ (D.O.T. 624.281, .361, .381, and .684) Nature of the Work Years ago farmers planted, cultivated, and harvested their crops using only handtools and simple, animal-drawn equipment. Few repairs were required, and if a stray rock or stump broke a plow blade, the metal pieces could be hammered back together by the local blacksmith. Even when tractors began to replace animals as the prime source of power, their simplicity made it possible for most farmers to do their own repair work. But in the last quarter century, farm equip ment has grown enormously in size, com plexity, and variety. Many farms have both diesel and gasoline tractors, some equipped with 300-horsepower engines. Other machin ery, such as harvesting combines, hay balers, com pickers, crop dryers, and elevators, also is common. In today’s world of mechanized agriculture, few if any types of farming can be done economically without specialized machines. As farm machinery grew more complex, it became important for the sellers of farm equipment to be able to service and repair the machines they sold. Almost every dealer em ploys farm equipment mechanics to do this work and to maintain and repair the smaller lawn and garden tractors dealers sell to surburban homeowners. In addition, some mechanics who work for dealers and equipment wholesalers assemble new implements and machinery and some times do body work, repairing dented or tom sheet metal on the tractors or other machin ery. Mechanics spend much of their time re pairing and adjusting malfunctioning dieseland gas-powered tractors that have been brought to the shop. But during planting and harvesting seasons, they may travel to the farm to make emergency repairs so that crops can be harvested before they spoil. Mechanics also perform preventive main tenance. Periodically, they test, adjust, and clean parts and tune engines. In large shops, mechanics may specialize in certain types of work, such as engine overhaul or clutch and transmission repair. Others specialize in re pairing the air-conditioning units often in cluded in the cabs of modem tractors and combines, or in repairing certain types of equipment such as hay balers. Some mechan ics also repair plumbing, electrical, irriga tion, and other equipment on farms. Mechanics use many basic handtools in cluding wrenches, pliers, hammers, and mi crometers. They also may use more complex testing equipment, such as a dynamometer to measure engine performance, or a compres sion tester to find worn piston rings or leak ing cylinder valves. They may use welding equipment or power tools to repair broken parts. Working Conditions Generally, farm equipment mechanics work indoors. Modem farm equipment re pair shops are well ventilated, lighted, and heated, but older shops may not have these advantages. During planting and harvesting seasons, mechanics may have to make emer gency repairs in the field. To do so, mechan ics may have to travel many miles and work in all types of weather. Farm equipment me chanics come in contact with grease, gaso line, rust, and dirt, and there is danger of injury when they repair heavy parts sup ported on jacks or by hoists. Engine burns and cuts from sharp edges of machinery also are possible. Places of Employment Most of the over 60,000 farm equipment mechanics employed in 1978 worked in ser vice departments of farm equipment dealers. Others worked in independent repair shops, in shops on large farms, and in service de partments of farm equipment wholesalers and manufacturers. Most farm equipment re pair shops employ fewer than five mechanics, although a growing number of dealerships employ more than 10. A small proportion of farm equipment mechanics are selfemployed. Because some type of farming is done in nearly every area of the United States, farm equipment mechanics are employed throughout the country. As employment is concentrated in small cities and towns, this may be an attractive career choice for peo ple who do not wish to live the fast-paced life of an urban environment. However, many mechanics work in the rural fringes of metropolitan areas, so farm equipment me chanics who prefer city life need not live in rural areas. programs usually are chosen from shop helpers. Some farm equipment mechanics and trainees receive refresher training in short term programs conducted by farm equip ment manufacturers. These programs usually last several days. A company service repre sentative explains the design and function of equipment and teaches maintenance and re pair on new models of farm equipment. In addition, some dealers may send employees to local vocational schools that teach special weeklong classes in subjects such as air-con ditioning repair or hydraulics. Employers prefer applicants who have an aptitude for mechanical work. A farm back ground is an advantage since growing up on a farm usually provides experience in basic farm equipment repairs. Employers also pre fer high school graduates, but some will hire applicants who have less education. In gen eral, employers stress previous experience or training in diesel and gasoline engines, the maintenance and repair of hydraulics, and welding—subjects that may be learned in many high schools and vocational schools. Some employers also may require mechanics to be skilled at blueprint reading, because mechanics may have to refer to diagrams of machinery when making complex repairs to electrical and other systems. Persons considering careers in this field should have the manual dexterity needed to handle tools and equipment. Occasion ally, strength is required to lift, move, or hold in place heavy parts. Difficult repair jobs may require problem-solving abilities, so experienced mechanics should be able to work independently with minimum super vision. Farm equipment mechanics may advance to shop supervisor or manager of a farm equipment dealership. Some mechanics open their own repair shops. A few farm equip ment mechanics earn 2-year associate de grees in agricultural mechanics and advance to service representatives for farm equipment manufacturers. Employment Outlook Employment of farm equipment mechan ics is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to jobs from employment growth, several hundred job opportunities will arise each year as experienced mechanics retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Opportunities will be best for applicants who have lived or worked on farms and know how to operate farm machinery and make minor repairs. The development of more technically ad- Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most farm equipment mechanics are hired as helpers and learn the trade on the job by assisting qualified mechanics. The length of training varies with the helper’s aptitude and prior experience. At least 2 years of on-thejob training usually are necessary before a mechanic can do most types of repair work, and additional training and experience are required for highly specialized repair and overhaul jobs. Many farm equipment mechanics enter this occupation from a related occupation. For instance, they may gain experience as farmers and farm laborers, or as heavy equip ment mechanics, auto mechanics, or air-con ditioning mechanics. People who enter from related occupations also start as helpers, but they may not require as long a period of onthe-job training. More and more mechanics who enter the trade have had vocational training in rural high schools, in junior and technical colleges, or in the Armed Forces. With the develop ment of more complex farm implements, technical training in electronics has become more important. A few farm equipment mechanics learn the trade by completing an apprenticeship program, which lasts from 3 to 4 years and includes on-the-job as well as classroom training in all phases of farm equipment re pairforand maintenance. Applicants for these Digitized FRASER The trend toward larger and more complex farm machinery has created a need for more farm equipment. OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRERS/345 vanced farm equipment, some of which will require greater maintenance, will increase the demand for mechanics. For instance, many newer tractors have much larger en gines, and feature advanced transmissions of up to 24 speeds. More complex electrical sys tems also are used to operate the great variety of gauges and warning devices now used to alert the operator to problems such as brake wear, low oil pressure in the transmission, or insufficient coolant in the radiator. Advances such as these and air-conditioned cabs, which have improved the comfort of the operator, have made it more difficult for farmers to do their own repairs. Thus farmers will have to rely more on skilled mechanics in the future. In addition to the larger and more complex farm machinery, sales of smaller lawn and garden equipment have increased vastly over the past decade and are expected to continue to do so. Most of the large manufacturers of farm equipment now produce a line of these smaller tractors and sell them through their established dealerships. More mechanics will be needed to service this additional equip ment. Earnings Farm equipment mechanics employed by dealerships had average hourly wages of over $6 in 1978, according to the limited informa tion available. Most farm equipment me chanics also have the opportunity for over time work, for which they are paid time and one-half. Farm equipment mechanics usually work a 44-hour week, which includes 4 hours on Saturday. During planting and harvesting seasons, however, they often work 6 to 7 days a week, 10 to 12 hours daily. In winter months, they may work fewer than 40 hours a week, and some may be laid off. Very few farm equipment mechanics be long to labor unions, but those who do are members of the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers. Related Occupations Two distinguishing characteristics of farm equipment mechanics are: 1) They work on large machinery, and 2) they often can find jobs in small towns and other nonmetropoli tan areas. Other craft workers whose jobs have these same characteristics include auto mobile mechanics, diesel mechanics, truck mechanics, oilfield equipment mechanics, compressed gas equipment service mechanics and tractor mechanics. Sources of Additional Information Details about work opportunities may be obtained from local farm equipment dealers and local offices of the State employment ser vice. For general information about the occu pation, write to: National Farm and Power Equipment Dealers As sociation, 10877 Watson Road, St. Louis, Mo. 63127. 346/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Furniture Upholsterers (D.O.T. 780.381-018) Nature of the Work Whether restoring a treasured antique or simply giving an old living room couch a facelift, upholsterers combine artistic flair and manual skill to recondition sofas, chairs, and other upholstered furniture. These craft workers replace worn and damaged fabrics, springs, and padding. (Workers employed in the manufacture of upholstered furniture are not included in this statement.) All custom upholstery involves two steps: Removing the old cover, padding, and springs; and rebuilding the piece. However, because of differences in the way furniture is built, each job is unique. The following is an explanation of some of the typical tasks in volved in upholstering a piece of furniture. As the first step, upholsterers usually place the furniture on padded wooden benches or some other type of support so that they may work at a convenient level. Using hammers and tack pullers, they remove tacks or staples that hold the old fabric to the wooden frame. After stripping the old fabric, they remove the burlap and padding that cover the arms, back, sides, and seat of the piece. Upholster ers examine the springs and remove broken or bent ones. The springs sit on a mat woven from strips of nylon or cotton cloth called webbing that is attached to the frame. If the webbing is worn, upholsterers remove all the springs and all the webbing. To rebuild the furniture, upholsterers may reglue loose sections of the frame and refinish exposed wooden parts. If the mat that holds the springs was removed, they replace it. They tack webbing to one side of the frame, stretch it tight, and tack it to the opposite side. Other webbing is woven across the first and attached to the frame to form a new mat. After putting springs on the mat so they com press evenly, upholsterers sew or staple each spring to the webbing or frame and tie each spring to the ones next to it. Burlap then is stretched over the springs, cut and smoothed, and tacked to the frame. To form a smooth rounded surface over the springs and other parts of the frame, upholsterers cover each section of the furniture—seat, back, arms— with cotton pads or other filling material. After sewing the padding to the burlap, they cover it with heavy cloth and tack the cloth to the frame. Finally, upholsterers put on the new fabric cover, which has been cut to size for a section, such as an arm or the back, and temporarily stitched together for fitting. After checking that the cover fits tightly and smoothly—or noting where adjustments are necessary—they remove the cover and sew it together and attach it to the frame. To com plete the job, upholsterers sew or tack on fringe, buttons, or other ornaments and make pillow covers. Upholsterers use a variety of common handtools, including hammers, tack and sta ple removers, pliers, and shears, and special tools such as webbing stretchers and uphol stery needles. They also use sewing machines. Working Conditions Working conditions in upholstery shops vary—many shops are spacious, adequately lighted, well-ventilated, and well-heated; oth ers are small and dusty. Upholsterers stand while they work and do a considerable amount of stooping and bending and some heavy lifting. Sometimes upholsterers pick up and de liver furniture. Shop owners and managers order supplies and equipment and keep busi ness records. Upholsterers often work with interior designers. They upholster furniture with fabrics selected by the designer. How ever, some upholsterers help customers select new furniture covers on their own. Places of Employment About 27,000 people worked as furniture upholsterers in 1978. Over three-fourths of all furniture upholsterers own and operate, or work in small upholstery shops. These shops generally have fewer than three work ers. Some upholsterers are employed by fur niture stores. A few work for businesses, such as hotels, that maintain their own furniture. Upholsterers work in all parts of the coun try. However, employment is concentrated in metropolitan areas, where the large popula tion provides the greatest demand for the upholsterer’s service. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The best way to enter this trade is to start as a helper in an upholstery shop and learn on the job. Helpers learn by upholstering fur niture under the direction of experienced workers. Much time and practice are needed to learn complex tasks such as measuring and cutting the new fabric and sewing and attach ing it to the frame with a minimum of waste. Usually about 3 years of on-the-job training are required to become a fully skilled uphol sterer. Inexperienced persons may get basic train ing in upholstery from vocational or high school courses. However, additional training and experience in a shop usually are required before these workers can work as quickly and efficiently as experienced upholsterers. Persons interested in becoming upholster ers should have good manual dexterity, coor dination, and be able to do occasional heavy lifting. An eye for detail and flair for creative use of fabrics are helpful in making uphol stered furniture as attractive as possible. The major form of advancement for uphol sterers is opening their own shop. It is easy to open a shop because only a small invest ment in handtools and a sewing machine is needed. However, the upholstery business is When repairs become necessary, the main tenance mechanic must first locate the spe cific cause of the problem. This challenge re quires knowledge reinforced by experience. For example, after hearing a vibration from a machine, the mechanic must decide whether it is due to worn belts, weak motor bearings, or any number of other possibili ties. Repairers often follow blueprints and engineering specifications in maintaining and fixing equipment. Sewing is one of the manual skills needed by furniture upholsterers. extremely competitive, so operating a shop successfully is difficult. Employment Outlook Little or no change is expected in employ ment of upholsterers through the 1980’s. Most job openings will arise because of the need to replace experienced workers who re tire, die, or transfer to other occupations. More upholstered furniture will be used as population, personal income, and business expenditures grow. However, the demand for upholsterers will be limited because more people are buying less expensive furniture and replacing rather than upholstering it. Inexperienced workers probably will have difficulty getting a job in upholstery shops. Most shop owners will not take time from their work to supervise trainees. Earnings Hourly wages for experienced furniture upholsterers ranged from $6.45 to $10 in 1978. Some highly skilled upholsterers earned over $10 an hour. Wages for inex perienced trainees ranged from $3.25 to $4.50 an hour. Upholsterers usually by their own handtools. Upholsterers generally work 40 hours a week. The peak season in upholstery shops is the last 4 months of the year. However, upholsterers usually do not work overtime and they rarely are laid off during the slack season. Some upholsterers are members of the Upholsterers’ International Union of North America. Related Occupations Other workers who combine manual skills and a knowledge of materials such as fabrics and wood to repair things are automobile upholsterers, fur cutters, furniture finishers, piano technicians, rug repairers, and shoe re pairers. Sources of Additional Information For details about work opportunities for upholsterers in your area, contact local upholstery shops, the local office of the State employment service, or a local of the Uphol sterers’ International Union. Industrial Machinery Repairers__________ (D.O.T. 626 through 630) Nature of the Work When a machine breaks down in a plant or factory, not only is the machine idle, but raw materials and human resources are wasted. It is the industrial machinery repairer’s job to prevent these costly breakdowns and to make repairs as quickly as possible. Industrial machinery repairers—often called maintenance mechanics—spend much time doing preventive maintenance. This in cludes keeping machines well oiled and greased, and periodically cleaning parts. The repairer regularly inspects machinery and checks performance. Tools such as microme ters, calipers, and depth gauges are used to measure and align all parts. For example, treadles on sewing machines in the apparel industry may need adjustment and gears and bearings may have to be aligned. By keeping complete and up-to-date records, mechanics try to anticipate trouble and service machin ery before the factory’s production is inter rupted. After correctly diagnosing the problem, the maintenance mechanic disassembles the equipment, and then repairs or replaces the necessary parts. Hand and power tools usu ally are needed. The repairer may use a screwdriver and a wrench to take the door off an oven, or a crane to lift a printing press off the ground. Electronic testing equipment often is included in the mechanic’s tools. Re pairers use catalogs to order replacements for broken or defective parts. When parts are not readily available, or when a machine must be quickly returned to production, repairers may sketch a part that can be fabricated by the plant’s machine shop. The repairer reassembles and tests each piece of equipment after it has been serviced, for once it is back in operation, the machine is expected to work as if it were new. Many of the industrial machinery re pairer’s duties often are performed by mill wrights. (See statement on millwrights else where in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Industrial machinery repairers are not usually affected by seasonal changes in pro duction. During slack periods, when some plant workers are laid off, repairers often are retained to do major overhaul jobs. In addi tion to their regular work schedule, indus trial machinery repairers may be called to the plant at night or on weekends for emergency repairs. Repairers may work in stooped or cramped positions to reach the underside of a generator, for example. They also may work from the top of ladders when repairing a large machine. These workers are subject to common shop injuries such as cuts and bruises. Goggles, metal-tip shoes, safety hel mets, and other protective devices help pre vent injuries. Places of Employment Industrial machinery repairers work in al most every industry in which a great deal of machinery is used. Many of the 655,000 re pairers employed in 1978 worked in the fol lowing manufacturing industries: Food pro ducts, primary metals, machinery, chem icals, fabricated metal products, transporta tion equipment, paper, and rubber. Because industrial machinery repairers work in a wide variety of plants, they are employed in every section of the country. OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRERS/347 repairers are promoted to machinists or tooland-die makers or become master mechanics. Employment Outlook Employment of industrial machinery re pairers is expected to increase much faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. More repairers will be needed as manufacturers invest in more industrial ma chinery. Also, as machinery becomes more complex, repair work and preventive mainte nance will become more time consuming. In addition, many openings will result from the need to replace repairers who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. According to a survey of metropolitan areas, hourly wages for industrial machinery repairers averaged $7.74 in 1978—about onethird higher than the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, ex cept farming. Average hourly earnings of industrial machinery repairers in 12 areas that represent various regions of the country are shown in the accompanying tabulation. Labor unions to which most industrial ma chinery repairers belong include the United Steelworkers of America; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of Amer ica; the International Association of Machi nists and Aerospace Workers; and the Inter national Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers. Industrial machinery repairers need agility. Employment is concentrated, however, in heavily industrialized areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Graduation from high school is preferred, but not always required, for entry into this occupation. High school courses in mechani cal drawing, mathematics, blueprint reading, and physics are useful for those interested in entering this trade. Most workers who become industrial ma chinery repairers start as helpers and pick up the skills of the trade informally. Some learn the trade through apprenticeship programs. Apprenticeship training usually lasts 4 years and consists of on-the-job training and related classroom instruction in subjects such as shop mathematics, blueprint reading, welding, and safety. Mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity are important qualifications for workers in this trade. Good physical condition and agil ity are also necessary because repairers some times have to lift heavy objects or climb to reach equipment located high above the floor. Examinations may be administered peri odically to determine the repairer’s ability to maintain more advanced machinery. Some Table 1. Average hourly earnings of industrial machine repairers in selected areas, 1978 Area Hourly rate Detroit.................................................................................................................................................... $9.04 Indianapolis.......................................................................................................................................... 8.78 B altim ore............................................................................................................................................. 8.61 H ouston................................................................................................................................................ 7.99 C h ica g o ................................................................................................................................................ 7.75 N ew York............................................................................................................................................. 7.55 New O rlea n s....................................................................................................................................... 7.52 Cincinnati............................................................................................................................................. 7.47 M inneapolis-St. P a u l ...................................................................................................................... 7.36 St. Louis................................................................................................................................................ 7.17 Worcester, Mass.................................................................................................................................. 6.31 Greenville-Spartanburg, S.C............................................................................................................ 5.55 SOURCE: Bureau o f Labor Statistics. 348/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Related Occupations Other occupations which involve repairing machinery include: Aircraft mechanics, au tomobile mechanics, bowling-pin-machine mechanics, machinists, millwrights, tooland-die makers, and vending machine me chanics. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment and ap prenticeship opportunities in this Held may be available from local offices of the State employment service or the following organi zations: International Union, United Automobile, Aero space, and Agricultural Implement Workers of America, 8000 East Jefferson Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48214. International Union of Electrical, Radio and Ma chine Workers, 1126-16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Jewelers (D.O.T. 700.281 and .381) Nature of the Work For thousands of years people have worn and admired jewelry, especially jewelry made from precious metals and stones, such as gold and diamonds. Jewelers use such materials to modelmaking, moldmaking, and other occu pations, some manufacturers sponsor train ing courses in local vocational schools or in academies owned by the manufacturers. The employer usually pays the tuition. Some technical schools offer instruction for 6 months to 3 years in jewelry repair and jewelry making. These schools are a good source of training for someone outside the jewelry industry who wants a job in a jewelry store or repair shop. Graduates of these courses usually need on-the-job training to refine their manual skills and to learn more about repair work. A high school education is desirable for young people entering the trade. Courses in art, mechanical drawing, and chemistry are useful, depending on which aspect of the trade one chooses to follow. A jeweler examines a ring setting before repairing it. make and repair rings, necklaces, earrings, and other jewelry. Jewelers work in jewelry factories, stores, and repair shops. In factories they specialize, while in stores and repair shops they have a variety of duties. Most jewelry is mass produced by assem bly line methods. Jewelers generally have one job in the manufacturing process. For exam ple, some make molds to cast jewelry or dies to stamp it. Others do finishing work, such as setting stones and engraving. In jewelry stores and repair shops jewelers generally offer many services to their custom ers. Much of their time is spent repairing jewelry. Typical repair jobs are enlarging or reducing rings, resetting stones, and replac ing broken clasps and mountings. Jewelers may repair watches and do hand engraving. Some are qualified gemologists and appraise the quality and value of diamonds and other gemstones. Highly skilled jewelers—in stores and in factories—make jewelry by hand. Following their own designs or those created by design ers, they shape the metal with pliers or other handtools or cast it in molds. Individual parts are soldered to form the finished piece. Designs may be carved in metal, and dia monds or other stones mounted. Jewelers use pliers, files, saws, hammers, torches, soldering irons, and a variety of other small handtools. They use chemicals and polishing compounds, such as jeweler’s rouge, for soldering and finishing. Because the work is very detailed, jewelers often wear magnifying glasses. Jewelers who own stores or shops have ad ditional responsibilities. Besides working on jewelry, these small business people hire em ployees, order and sell merchandise, and han dle other managerial duties. Working Conditions Jewelers usually work in comfortable sur roundings and the trade involves few physi cal hazards. However, doing delicate work with small, valuable objects such as gem stones can cause mental stress. Jewelers generally work alone with little supervision. However, in retail stores they may talk with customers about repairs and even do some sales work. Places of Employment About 32,000 people had jobs as jewelers in 1978. About two-fifths of all jewelers are self-employed, operating jewelry stores or re pair shops. Most jewelers employed in precious jew elry production work in or near New York City. The production of costume jewelry is centered in Rhode Island and Massachusetts. Although jewelry stores and repair shops are located throughout the country, most jobs in these establishments are in metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Jewelers’ skills usually are learned through informal on-the-job training and technical schools. In the precious jewelry industry, the Amalgamated Jewelry, Diamond and Watchcase Workers Union and the manufac turers have established apprenticeships for many skilled occupations. Individuals who work in jewelry factories have the best chance to get such apprenticeships. Depend ing on the particular skill, apprenticeship programs involve 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training. To overcome labor shortages in The precise and delicate nature of jewelry work requires finger and hand dexterity, good eye-hand coordination, patience, and concentration. Artistic ability is a major asset, because jewelry is primarily a form of adornment. In manufacturing, jewelers sometimes ad vance to supervisory jobs. Some jewelers open their own jewelry stores or repair shops. Others become salaried managers of jewelry stores. A substantial financial investment is re quired to operate a jewelry store, because an inventory of expensive merchandise must be obtained. The jewelry business also is highly competitive. Jewelers who plan to open their own stores should have experience in selling. Employment Outlook Employment of jewelers is expected to grow as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. The demand for jewelry will increase as population grows, and as ris ing incomes enable people to spend more on luxuries. Many job openings will occur each year as experienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Because of a shortage of skilled jewelers, opportunities for people with training in jewelry construction, design, or repair should exist throughout the industry. Earnings According to the limited information available, earnings of experienced jewelry workers in manufacturing ranged from about $5 to $7 an hour in 1978. Apprentices re ceived $2.90 an hour to start. They get peri odic raises up to the minimum union wage for their job. In jewelry stores jewelers typi cally earn between $10,000 and $14,000 a year. In some precious jewelry factories the workweek is 35 hours. Most jewelers in stores and repair shops work 40 to 48 hours a week. During peaks sales seasons, such as Christ mas, they often work over 50 hours a week. OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRERS/349 Related Occupations Jewelers are important craft workers in the growing jewelry industry. Other skilled workers in this industry include gem cutters, gemologists, hand engravers, model makers, silversmiths, and watch repairers. Sources of Additional Information For information on job opportunities in jewelry stores, contact: Retail Jewelers of America, Time-Life Building, Suite 650, 1271 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10020. Locksmiths (D.O.T. 709.281-010) Nature of the Work Locksmithing is an ancient trade. Lock smiths made key-operated wooden locks for Egyptian royalty as early as 2000 B.C. For many centuries, locksmiths only worked for the relatively few people who could afford the expensive locks that the smiths made by hand. In 1861, an effective lock was invented that could be mass produced, and locks be came nearly as common as doors themselves. Making locks by hand was no longer eco nomical. With so many locks to service, how ever, more locksmiths were needed than ever before. Today’s locksmiths do a variety of work with locks, keys, safes and alarm systems. Several of their jobs are described below. Locksmiths spend much of their time help ing people get into cars, buildings, or safes that have been locked accidentally or that have broken locks. If a key has been left in side a car, for example, they may simply pick the lock. If, on the other hand, the keys are lost, new ones must be made. To do this, locksmiths first will try to obtain identifying key code numbers. The key code numbers show the locksmith where to cut and notch a key blank to make a duplicate key. Keys also can be duplicated by impression. To do this, locksmiths place a key blank in the lock and, by following marks left on the blank, file notches in it until the lock opens. Combination locks, such as those on safes, offer a special challenge. Locksmiths some times open them by touch, that is, by rotating the dial and listening for the contact points when the wheels come into place. If all else fails, a hole may be drilled through the lock to open it. Locksmiths also fix damaged locks. They disassemble the lock and replace or repair worn tumblers, springs, and other parts. Another important part of the locksmith’s work is helping customers maintain security devices. For example, they may rekey the door locks in a warehouse, change the combi nation of an office safe, or install dead-bolt locks in a home. To rekey, locksmiths change 350/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Making duplicate keys is one of the jobs done by locksmiths. the tumblers to fit a new key. Tumblers are the part of the lock that releases the bolt when the key is turned. Rekeying a masterkey system is one of the most complicated and time-consuming jobs handled by a lock smith. I n a masterkey system, some keys must open all doors; others open various combinations (for example, all doors on one floor of a building); still others are individual keys for each door. Some locksmiths install and repair electronic burglar alarms and sur veillance systems that signal police or fire fighters when break-ins or fires occur. Locksmiths use files, screwdrivers, pliers, tweezers, and electric drills in their work, as well as special tools such as lockpicks. They make original and duplicate keys on keycut ting machines. To guide them in their work, they refer to manuals that describe the con struction of various locks. Working Conditions Locksmiths often specialize in one aspect of their trade and working conditions vary with the area of specialization. Locksmiths who handle emergency calls do considerable driving from job to job. They work evenings and weekends and sometimes work outside in bad weather. Some locksmiths have con tracts with businesses to change safe combi nations and rekey locks periodically. These locksmiths also travel frequently but have regular rounds and hours. Other locksmiths only work in shops specializing in repair work, key duplicating, and sales. All lock smiths occasionally work in awkward posi tions for long periods. Locksmithing gener ally is clean and safe, however. Locksmiths who own their own shops have managerial duties, such as keeping records, purchasing supplies, and supervising other workers. Places of Employment An estimated 15,000 people worked as locksmiths in 1978. Most worked for lock smith shops. Many operated their own busi nesses. Some locksmiths worked in hardware and department stores that offered locksmith services to the public. Others worked in es tablishments that had a large number of locks that had to be maintained, such as goverment agencies, schools, and large industrial plants. A small number worked for safe and lock manufacturers. Locksmiths work in virtually every part of the country. Locksmithing in small towns may be a part-time job, combined with other work, such as fixing lawnmowers, guns, and bicycles. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement On-the-job training under the supervision of experienced locksmiths is the recom mended way to learn this trade. Trainees first do simple jobs, such as duplicating keys on keycutting machines and making keys from number codes. As trainees gain experience, they learn to open, repair, and install locks. Generally a trainee needs about 4 years of on-the-job training to acquire the skills of the trade. Additional training is needed to ser vice electronic security systems. A small number of vocational and corre spondence schools offer 1- to 2-year pro grams in locksmithing and business manage ment. At some schools, students may specialize in safe repair or alarm systems. Al though completion of a locksmithing course does not assure a job, employers generally prefer to hire people with some knowledge of the trade. Employers look for people who have me chanical aptitude, good hand-eye coordina tion, and manual dexterity. A neat appear ance and a friendly, tactful manner also are important, since the locksmith has frequent contact with the public. Employers usually will not hire applicants who have been con victed of serious crimes. Although high school graduates are pre ferred, many employers will hire applicants with less education. High school courses in machine shop, mechanical drawing, and mathematics are helpful. Courses in business administration are useful for those who wish to open locksmith shops. Some cities have licensing requirements. Applicants may have to be fingerprinted, pay a fee, or pass a written or practical examina tion. Information on licensing may be ob tained from local governments. To keep up with new developments in their field, locksmiths read monthly technical journals and attend training classes at na tional and regional conventions such as those of the Associated Locksmiths of America. Locksmiths can advance to shop supervi sors. Experienced locksmiths can go into business for themselves with relatively little capital. Many do business from their homes. growth is expected in the future. Opportuni ties also will be favorable for locksmiths who are willing to work at night to handle emer gencies, such as people locked out of their cars or homes. Earnings Experienced locksmiths earned from $200 to $300 a week in 1978, according to the limited information available. Self-employed locksmiths can earn more. Trainees usually started at about $2.90 an hour and received periodic raises during training. Most locksmiths receive an hourly rate or weekly salary, although some work on a commission basis, receiving a percentage of the sales and service work they handle. Their earnings depend on the amount of work available and how quickly they complete it. Employment of locksmiths is expected to increase as a result of population growth and greater concern about security among busi nesses and individuals. Many individuals feel that conventional locks are not adequate and are having better locks installed. Many busi nesses have adopted measures to strengthen security such as periodically changing safe combinations. Opportunities will be particu larly favorable for locksmiths who know how to install and service electronic security sys tems. Use of such systems has expanded greatly in recent years, and still greater Maintenance electricians make repairs by replacing items such as a lamp, fuse, switch, or wire. When replacing a wire, they first make sure the power is off. Workers then pull the old wire from the conduit (a pipe or tube) and pull the new wire through to replace the old. Once the new wire is connected, they test to make sure the circuit is complete and func tioning properly. Most locksmiths work 40 to 48 hours a week; even longer hours are common among the self-employed. The locksmith may be called at night to handle emergencies, though in many shops the responsibility to be “on call” is rotated among the staff. Locksmith shops generally are busy year round. Maintenance electricians sometimes work from blueprints, wiring diagrams, or other specifications. They use meters and other testing devices to locate faulty equipment. To make repairs they use pliers, screwdrivers, wirecutters, drills, and other tools. Related Occupations Working Conditions In their work, locksmiths combine special technical knowledge and manual skills to open, install, and repair locks. A closely related occupation is safe-and-vault service mechanic. Gunsmiths, jewelers, and watch repairers also do a variety of service and re pair jobs. These workers generally need more training than locksmiths. During a single day, an electrician may repair equipment both in a clean, air-condi tioned office and on a factory floor, sur rounded by the noise, oil, and grease of ma chinery. Electricians often climb ladders or work on scaffolds in awkward or cramped positions. Sources of Additional Information Details about training and work oppor tunities may be available from local lock smith shops, locksmith associations, and of fices of the State employment service. For a list of schools offering courses in locksmith ing and general information about the occu pation, contact: Associated Locksmiths of America, Inc., 3003 Live Oak St., Dallas, Tex. 75204. Employment Outlook Employment in this relatively small occu pation is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition, openings will arise each year as experienced locksmiths retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. usually fix all kinds of electrical equipment. Regardless of location, electricians spend much of their time doing preventive mainte nance—periodic inspection of equipment to locate and correct defects before breakdowns occur. When trouble occurs, they must find the cause and make repairs quickly to pre vent costly production losses. In emergen cies, they advise management whether con tinued operation of equipment would be hazardous. Maintenance Electricians________ (D.O.T. 822.261-010, -018; 825.281-014, -018, -022, -026, and -030, .381-014, -030, and -034; 829.281-014, .361-010, and -014; and 962.381-014) Nature of the Work Maintenance electricians keep lighting sys tems, transformers, generators, and other electrical equipment in good working order. They also may install new electrical equip ment. Duties vary greatly, depending on where the electrician is employed. Electricians who work in large factories may repair particular items such as motors and welding machines. Those in office buildings and small plants Because maintenance electricians work near high-voltage industrial equipment, they must be alert and accurate. Errors in wiring installations could endanger both the electri cian and other employees. Safety principles, which are a part of all electrician training programs, have reduced the frequency of ac cidents. Electricians are taught to use protec tive equipment and clothing, to respect the destructive potential of electricity, and to fight small electrical fires. Places of Employment An estimated 300,000 maintenance electri cians were employed in 1978. More than half of them worked in manufacturing industries; large numbers worked in plants that make automobiles, machinery, chemicals, alumi num, and iron and steel. Many maintenance electricians also were employed by public utilities, mines, railroads, and Federal, State, and local governments. Maintenance electricians are employed in every State. Large numbers work in heavily industrialized States such as California, New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most maintenance electricians learn their trade on the job or through formal appren ticeship programs. A relatively small number learn the trade in the Armed Forces. TrainOTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRERS/351 Growth in the number of job openings is expected to be fairly steady in the years ahead since the demand for maintenance electri cians is not very sensitive to ups and downs in the economy. At times when construction activity is depressed, however, beginners may face competition for job openings because some unemployed construction electricians apply for these openings. Earnings Earnings of maintenance electricians com pare favorably with those of other skilled workers. In 1978, based on a survey of metro politan areas, maintenance electricians ave raged about $8.44 an hour or about one and one-half times the earnings of all nonsupervisory workers in private industry except farm ing. Earnings of maintenance electricians varied by location, ranging from a low of $6.17 an hour in Jackson, Miss., to a high of $9.35 an hour in Detroit, Mich. Apprentices start at about 60 percent of the skilled electrician’s hourly pay rate and receive increases every 6 months. Maintenance electricians frequently use instruments to check equipment. ing authorities generally agree that appren ticeship gives trainees more thorough knowl edge of the trade and improved job oppor tunities during their working life. Because the training is comprehensive, people who complete apprenticeship programs may qual ify either as maintenance or construction electricians. Apprenticeship usually lasts 4 years, and consists of on-the-job training and related classroom instruction in subjects such as mathematics, electrical and electronic the ory, and blueprint reading. Training may in clude motor repair, wire splicing, installation and repair of electronic controls and circuits, and welding and brazing. Although apprenticeship is the preferred method of training, many people learn the trade informally on the job by serving as helpers to skilled maintenance electricians. Helpers begin by doing simple jobs such as replacing fuses or resetting switches and, with experience, advance to more compli cated jobs such as splicing and connecting wires. They eventually get enough experience to qualify as electricians. This method of learning the trade, however, may take con siderably longer than 4 years. Persons interested in becoming mainte nance electricians can obtain a good back ground by taking high school or vocational school courses in electricity, electronics, alge bra, mechanical drawing, shop, and science. To qualify for an apprenticeship program, an 352/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK applicant must be at least 18 years old and usually must be a high school or vocational school graduate with 1 year of algebra. Although physical strength is not essen tial, manual dexterity, agility, and good health are important. Good color vision is necessary because electrical wires frequently are identified by color. All maintenance electricians should be familiar with the National Electric Code and local building codes. Many cities and counties require maintenance electricians to be licensed. Electricians can get a li cense by passing an examination that tests their knowledge of electrical theory and its application. Some maintenance electricians become supervisors. Occasionally, they advance to jobs such as plant electrical superintendent or plant maintenance superintendent. Employment Outlook Employment of maintenance electricians is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Growth will stem from increased use of elec trical and electronic equipment by industry. In addition to new jobs arising from the in creased need for these workers, a few thou sand openings will arise each year to replace experienced electricians who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Among unions organizing maintenance electricians are the International Brother hood of Electrical Workers; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the In ternational Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America (Ind.); and the United Steelworkers of America. Related Occupations Maintenance electricians combine manual skill and a knowledge of electricity to clean, repair, and replace electrical devices. Other workers who have similar skills are air-condi tioning installers, construction electricians, electrical appliance repairers, electronics me chanics, elevator constructors, and line and cable installers. Sources of Additional Information Information about apprenticeships or other work opportunities in the trade is avail able from local firms that employ mainte nance electricians, and from local unionmanagement apprenticeship committees. In addition, the local office of the State employ ment service may provide information about training opportunities. Some State employ ment service offices screen applicants and give aptitude tests. For general information about the work of electricians, contact: International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1125 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. National Electrical Constructor Association, 7315 Wisconsin Ave. NW., Washington, D. C. 20014. National Joint Apprenticeship and Training Com mittee for the Electrical Industry, 9700 E. George Palmer Hwy., Lanham, Md. 20801. Motorcycle Mechanics (D.O.T. 620.281-054 and .384-010) Nature of the Work In 1950, just over 500,000 motorcycles were registered in United States compared with over 5 million today. Accompanying this rapid rise in the number of motorcycles has been a rapid increase in the number of motorcycle mechanics. Although many cy cling enthusiasts repair their own vehicles, most rely on skilled mechanics. Motorcycles, like automobiles, need peri odic servicing to operate at peak efficiency. Spark plugs, ignition points, brakes, and many other parts frequently require adjust ment or replacement. This routine servicing represents the major part of the mechanic’s work. The mark of a skilled mechanic is the abil ity to diagnose mechanical and electrical problems and to make repairs in a minimum of time. In diagnosing problems, the me chanic first obtains a description of the symp toms from the owner, and then runs the en gine or test rides the motorcycle. The mechanic may have to use special testing equipment and disassemble some compo nents for further examination. After pin pointing the problem, the mechanic makes needed adjustments or replacements. Some jobs require only the replacement of a single item, such as a carburetor or generator, and may be completed in less than an hour. In contrast, an overhaul may require several hours, because the mechanic must disassem ble and reassemble the engine to replace worn valves, pistons, bearings, and other in ternal parts. Mechanics use common handtools such as wrenches, pliers, and screwdrivers, as well as special tools for getting at parts that are hard to remove such as flywheels and bearings. They also use compression gages, timing lights, and other kinds of testing devices. Hoists are used to lift heavy motorcycles. Most mechanics service only a few of the many makes and models of motorcycles and motor scooters. In large shops, some me chanics specialize in overhauling and re building engines and transmissions, but most are expected to perform all kinds of repairs. Mechanics may occasionally repair mini bikes, go-carts, snowmobiles, outboard mo tors, lawnmowers, and other equipment pow ered by small gasoline engines. Working Conditions Motorcycle repair shops generally are well lighted and well ventilated, but are noisy when engines are being tested. The work is not hazardous, although mechanics are sub ject to cuts, bruises, bums, and other minor injuries. Since most motorcycles are rela tively lightweight and have easily accessible parts, mechanics rarely do heavy lifting or work in awkward positions. Places of Employment About 13,000 persons worked full time as motorcycle mechanics in 1978, and a few thousand more had part-time jobs. Most me chanics work for motorcycle dealers. Others work for city governments to maintain police motorcycles. A small number of mechanics work for firms that specialize in modifying or “customizing” motorcycles. Most shops em ploy fewer than five mechanics. Motorcycle mechanics work in every State and major city. Mechanics who specialize in repairing mo Sometimes mechanics must disassemble an engine to diagnose a problem. torcycles work mainly in metropolitan areas. In smaller cities, motorcycles frequently are repaired by owners, managers of motorcycle dealerships, or mechanics who repair all kinds of equipment powered by small gaso line engines, such as outboard motors and lawnmowers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Motorcycle mechanics usually pick up skills from experienced workers on the job. Beginners usually start by learning to un crate, assemble, and road test new motorcy cles. Next, they do routine maintenance jobs such as adjusting brakes and replacing spark plugs and ignition points. As trainees gain experience, they progress to more difficult tasks such as repairing electrical systems and overhauling engines and transmissions. Gen erally, 2 to 3 years of training on the job are necessary before trainees become skilled in all aspects of motorcycle repair. Trainees usually accumulate handtools as they gain experience. Experienced mechanics often have hundreds of dollars invested in tools. Employers sometimes send mechanics and experienced trainees to special training courses conducted by motorcycle manufac turers and importers. These courses, which can last as long as 2 weeks, are designed to upgrade the worker’s skills and provide in formation on repairing new models. When hiring trainees, employers look par ticularly for cycling enthusiasts who have gained practical experience by repairing their own motorcycles. However, many employers will hire trainees with no riding experience if they have mechanical aptitude and show an interest in learning the work. Trainees must obtain a motorcycle driver’s license to deliver newly assembled motorcycles and test drive those brought in for repairs. Most employers prefer high school gradu ates, but will accept applicants with less edu cation. Courses in small engine repair—of fered by some high schools and vocational schools—generally are helpful, as are courses in automobile mechanics, science, and math ematics. Many motorcycle dealers employ students to help assemble new motorcycles and perform minor repairs. Public schools in some large cities offer postsecondary and adult education in small engine and motorcycle repair. Some techni cal schools have training programs for mo torcycle mechanics. Many junior and com munity colleges and correspondence schools offer courses in motorcycle repair. Because all internal combustion engines are similar, skills learned through repairing motorcycles can be transferred to other fields of mechanical work. For example, motorcy cle mechanics can become automobile, truck, or diesel mechanics with additional training, but such a transfer would not necessarily mean higher earnings. OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRERS/353 Motorcycle mechanics have limited ad vancement possibilities. Those with supervi sory ability may advance to service manager and, eventually, to general manager in large dealerships. Those who have the necessary capital may become dealers. Employment Outlook Employment in this relatively small occu pation is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Openings arising from growth in the demand for mechanics will fluctuate from year to year, however, as motorcycle sales and thus employment of motorcycle mechan ics appear to be sensitive to cyclical changes in the economy. Additional openings will arise as experienced mechanics retire, die, or transfer to other fields. Underlying the anticipated growth in the number of motorcycle mechanics is the con tinued growth in the number of motorcycles. Increases in the young adult population and in personal income as well as a growing inter est in the motorcycle as a means of inexpen sive transportation will create a demand for more motorcycles. Also, growth in the num bers of minibikes and snowmobiles could stimulate the demand for mechanics. Opportunities for employment will be best for persons who have some experience and a full set of tools. Persons with postsecondary school training in motorcycle repair should have a competitive advantage over those without this training. Most job opening will be in larger dealer ships, which are located mainly in suburbs of metropolitan areas. Many motorcycle dealers in small cities do not have enough business to hire full-time trainees, but part-time or sum mer jobs may be available. Earnings Earnings of motorcycle mechanics and trainees vary widely and depend on level of skill, geographic location, season of the year, and employer. Limited information indicates that experienced mechanics employed by motorcycle dealers earned between $5 and $9 an hour in 1978. Trainees earned substan tially less. Some mechanics receive an hourly rate or a weekly salary. Others receive a percentage —usually about 50 percent—of the labor cost charged to the customer. If a mechanic is paid on a percentage basis, income depends on the amount of work assigned and how rapidly the mechanic completes it. Fre quently, trainees are paid on a piecework basis when uncrating and assembling new motorcycles. At other times, they are paid an hourly rate or weekly salary. Motorcycling increases sharply with warmer weather. As a result, most mechanics work more than 40 hours a week during the summer. Many temporary employees work only part time, and are laid off in the fall. However, a large proportion of these are ei ther students or workers with other jobs. 354/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK A small percentage of motorcycle mechan ics are members of the International Associa tion of Machinists and Aerospace Workers. Related Occupations Many other workers need the same skills, abilities, and interests as motorcycle mechan ics. Such occupations include appliance re pairers, automobile-generator-and-starter re pairers, boat-engine mechanics, maintenance electricians, electric-motor repairers, and vacuum cleaner repairers. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding employ ment opportunities and training, contact local motorcycle dealers or the local office of the State employment service. Piano and Organ Tuners and Repairers (D.O.T. 730.281-038, .361-010, -014, and 828.261-010) Nature of the Work Whether they are used to perform the clas sics or contemporary rock, pianos and organs are major sources of entertainment and recre ation. Maintaining the instruments so they perform properly is the job of piano and organ tuners and repairers. There are four different kinds of piano and organ tuners and repairers: Piano tuners, piano techicians, pipe-organ repairers, and electronic-organ technicians. When a piano key is struck, a felt-covered wooden hammer strikes a steel string, caus ing it to vibrate. The number of times the string vibrates in a second is called its pitch. For the piano to sound right, all its strings must be set at their proper pitch. Piano tuners (D.O.T. 730.361-010) adjust piano strings so that they will be in proper pitch. Tuners begin by adjusting the pitch of the “A” string. Striking the key, the tuner com pares the string’s pitch to that of a tuning fork. Using a tuning hammer (also called a tuning lever or wrench), tuners turn a steel pin to tighten or loosen the string until its pitch matches that of the tuning fork. The pitch of all the other strings is set in relation to the “A” string. The standard 88-key piano has about 260 strings and can be tuned in about an hour. Pianos are complex instruments with thou sands of wooden, steel, iron, ivory, and felt parts. Understandably, such instruments oc casionally require repair. Piano technicians (D.O.T. 730.281-038) locate and correct problems that may affect the piano’s sound. Most technicians also tune pianos. To get an idea of what is wrong, techni cians talk to the customer. They also may play the piano or partially dismantle it to inspect the parts. When technicians discover the problem, they make repairs or adjust ments. They may realign hammers that do not strike the strings just right—this is called regulating the piano. They may replace worn felt or broken strings. They may rebuild or replace the wooden sounding board that am plifies the string’s vibrations. Sometimes technicians completely rebuild pianos. To dismantle and repair pianos, technicians use common handtools as well as special ones, such as regulating, repinning, and restringing tools. Although organs and pianos may look somewhat alike, they work differently, and few people work on both instruments. More over, people who service organs specialize in either pipe or electronic organs. Pipe-organ repairers (D.O.T. 730.361-014) tune, repair, and install organs that make music by forcing air through one of two kinds of pipes—flue pipes or reed pipes. The sound of a flue pipe, like that in a whistle, is made by air forced through an opening. The reed pipe makes its sound by vibrating a brass reed in the air current. To tune an organ, repairers first match the pitch of the “A” pipes with that of a tuning fork. The pitch of other pipes is set by com paring it with that of the “A” pipes. To tune a flue pipe, the technician moves a metal slide that increases or decreases the pipe’s “speak ing length.” A reed pipe is tuned by adjusting the length of the reed. A day or more may be needed to finish one of these jobs, because most organs have hundreds of pipes. Like piano technicians, pipe-organ repair ers must locate and correct problems in the organ’s components that affect its sound. This may involve replacing worn parts of the pipes, the console, or other components. Re pairers also do maintenance work, such as cleaning the pipes, on a regular schedule. Occasionally, pipe-organ repairers assem ble organs onsite in churches and auditori ums. They follow the designer’s blueprints and use a variety of hand and power tools to install and connect the air chest, blowers, air ducts, pipes, and other components. Techni cians may work in teams or be assisted by helpers. A job may take several weeks or even months, depending on the size of the organ. In contrast with pipe organs, the sound from electronic organs is made by electronic generators and computer circuits. As a re sult, electronic-organ technicians (D.O.T. 828.261-010) have very different duties from pipe-organ repairers. They use special elec tronic test equipment to tune and to check tone and amplification. Most electronic or gans do not require tuning. Those that do are fairly simple to tune. However, these organs may break down due to faulty transistors, dirty contacts, and other problems. To locate the cause of a breakdown, tech nicians first check for common sources of trouble such as loose connections. When rou tine checks do not work, technicians refer to wiring diagrams and service manuals that show connections within organs, provide ad justment information, and describe causes of trouble. Circuits that might cause the prob lem are checked with electronic meters. For example, technicians check voltages until an unusual or irregular measure shows up the part of the circuitry causing trouble. When the cause of the problem is found, technicians make repairs. Often this is done by replacing faulty parts such as circuit boards. In their work, technicians use soldering irons, wire cutters, and other handtools. Working Conditions The work is relatively safe, although tun ers and repairers may suffer small cuts and bruises when making repairs. Electrical shock is a minor hazard for electronic-organ technicians. Work is performed in shops and homes and public buildings, such as churches and schools, where working conditions usu ally are pleasant. Places of Employment About 8,000 persons worked as piano and organ tuners and repairers in 1978; most worked on pianos. About two-thirds of the total worked in repair shops; many are selfemployed. Another one-fifth were employed by piano and organ dealers. Most of the rest worked for piano and organ manufacturers. Piano and organ tuners and repairers are employed mostly in cities and States that have large populations. In towns too small to offer enough work for a full-time job in this field, piano and pipe-organ work may be done part time by local music teachers and professional musicians. Similarly, electronicorgan work may be done by television and radio repairers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Piano tuners and technicians and pipeorgan repairers generally learn their trade on the job. Music stores and large repair shops hire inexperienced people as trainees. Trainees do general cleanup work, help move and install instruments, and do other routine tasks. Working under the supervision of ex perienced workers, they learn to tune the in struments and make repairs. Usually 4 to 5 years of on-the-job training and practice work are needed to become a competent piano technician or pipe-organ repairer. learn to repair organs on the job working for music stores or in classes run by organ manu facturers. Employers prefer high school graduates for beginning jobs in piano or organ servic ing. Music courses help develop the student’s ear for tonal quality. Courses in woodwork ing also are useful because many of the mov ing parts in pianos and pipe organs are made of wood. People interested in a career in these fields should have good hearing, mechanical apti tude, and manual dexterity. Because work frequently is done in the customer’s home, a neat appearance and a pleasant, cooperative manner also are important. Ability to play the instrument helps but is not essential as a qualification. Piano and organ tuners and repairers keep up with new developments in their fields by studying trade magazines and manufactur ers’ service manuals. The Piano Technicians Guild helps its'members improve their skills through training programs conducted at local chapter meetings and at regional and national seminars. Guild members also can take a series of tests to earn the title, Regis tered Tuner-Technician. The title is an ac knowledgment of the technician’s ability. Most electronic-organ manufacturers con duct brief courses periodically to provide in formation on technical changes in their in struments. Tuners and repairers who work for large dealers or repair shops can advance to super visory positions. Most people in this field move up, however, by going into business for themselves. Opening a repair business is fairly easy because only a small investment in tools is required. Basic piano or pipe-organ tools cost only a few hundred dollars. By contrast, tools and test equipment for elec tronic organs may cost about a thousand dol lars. Self-employed tuners and repairers may operate out of their own homes and use either a car or a small truck for service calls. They also may work another job until their clien tele is large enough to support a repair busi ness. Employment Outlook Employment of piano and organ tuners and repairers is expected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. The number of pianos and organs in use will increase as the popula tion grows and as people get more leisure time. However, the growth in the number of pianos and organs will be limited because of competition from other forms of entertain ment and recreation. Job openings will be come available each year as experienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other occu pations. However, this is a very small occu pation, and the number of job openings will be few. Opportunities for beginners will be best in piano and organ dealerships and large repair shops. Many repair shops are too small to afford a full-time helper, although they may hire one helper part time. Earnings Experienced workers earned from $5 to $10 an hour in 1978, according to the limited information available. Beginning rates for helpers ranged from $3 to $5 an hour. Wages vary with the skill of the worker and the area of the country. Many self-employed tuners and repairers earned more than $12,000 a year, and earn ings in excess of $15,000 a year were not uncommon. Earnings of the self-employed depend on the size of the community, their A small number of technical schools and colleges offer courses in piano technology that last 6 months to 2 years. Home study (correspondence school) courses in piano technology also are available. These courses emphasize practice tuning and repairing of pianos. Graduates of the courses often are encouraged to refine their skills by working for a time with an experienced tuner or tech nician. Formal training or work experience in electronics is needed for jobs as electronicorgan technician trainees. Training in elec tronics is available from private vocational schools, community colleges, some high schools, and the Armed Forces. Trainees Putting a piano in proper pitch requires a good ear and concentration. OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRERS/355 ability to attract and keep customers, their operating expenses, and competition from other tuners and repairers. During fall and winter, people spend more time indoors playing their pianos or organs. Consequently, many tuners and repairers work more than 40 hours a week at that time. Self-employed tuners and repairers fre quently work evenings and weekends to suit their customers. Related Occupations There are almost as many different musi cal-instrument repairers as there are different musical instruments. Other occupations in this trade are accordion repairer, frettedinstrument repairer, harpsichord repairer, vi olin repairer, wind-instrument repairer, ac cordion tuner, percussion-instrument repair er, percussion tuner, and bow repairer. Sources of Additional Information Details about job opportunities may be available from local piano and organ dealers and repair shops. For general information about piano technicians and a list of schools offering courses in piano technology, write to: Piano Technicians Guild, Inc., 113 Dexter Ave. N., Seattle, Wash. 98109. Shoe Repairers (D.O.T. 365.361-014) Nature of the Work People like their shoes to look nice and feel comfortable. Keeping them that way is the job of the shoe repairer. Using their knowl edge of shoe construction and leatherwork ing, shoe repairers give worn shoes a new lease on life. luggage, tents, and other items made of leather, rubber, or canvas. They also replace zippers, dye handbags, and stretch shoes to conform to the foot. In large shops, repair work sometimes is divided into a number of specialized tasks. For example, some repairers only remove and replace heels and soles; others only re stitch tom seams. Shoe repairers use a variety of poweroperated equipment, such as sole-stitchers, heel-nailing machines, and sewing machines. Among the handtools they use are hammers, knives, awls, nippers, •and skivers (a special tool for splitting pieces of leather). Working Conditions Because many shoe repairers own shops, working conditions often are determined by the repairer. Shops are usually comfortable, but some may be crowded and noisy and have poor lighting or ventilation. Strong odors from leather goods, dyes, and stains may be present. The work is not strenuous and there are few hazards. However, it does require stam ina because repairers must stand much of the time. Self-employed shoe repairers have managerial responsibilities in addition to their regular duties. They have to maintain good relations with their customers. They have to decide whether to sell items such as shoe polish and leather goods. Shop owners also keep business records and supervise other repairers, helpers, and cashiers. Places of Employment About 22,000 shoe repairers were em ployed in 1978. About one-half of them owned shoe repair shops, many of which were small, one-person operations. Most of the remaining repairers worked in shoe shops. Some repairers worked in shoe stores, department stores, and drycleaning shops. A small number were employed in shoe manu facturing, to repair shoes damaged in produc tion. These workers generally are less skilled than those who work in repair shops. Shoe repairers are employed throughout the country. Employment, however, is con centrated in large cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some shoe repairers learn their trade on the job as helpers to experienced repairers. Helpers begin by assisting experienced re pairers with simple tasks, such as removing soles and heels and staining, brushing, and shining shoes. As they gain experience, trainees learn to replace heels and soles, to estimate the cost of repairs, and to deal with customers. Helpers usually become fully skilled in 6 months to 2 years. A limited number of vocational schools offer training in shoe repair. Applicants to these schools usually must have a high school diploma. In vocational classes, students study shoe construction and practice differ ent types of shoe repair. In addition to learn ing shoe repairing, vocational school stu dents attend classes in business admini stration. The programs last from 6 months to 2 years. Graduates often are encouraged to gain additional training by working with ex perienced shoe repairers. Shoe repairers must have manual dexter ity and mechanical aptitude to work with various machines and handtools. They must be reliable because they work alone with little supervision. In addition to being skilled craftworkers, repairers who own Replacing soles and heels is the most com mon type of shoe repair. Repairers place the shoe on a last, a block shaped like a foot. They remove the old sole and heel with a knife and pincers. To prepare the shoe for the new sole, repairers rough the bottom by hold ing it against a sanding wheel. Repairers then cement to the shoe a precut piece of leather that will be the new sole. They pound the leather with a hammer or on a machine so it adheres to the shoe, and cement or stitch it in place. To form the new sole, repairers smooth the edge of the leather against a sand ing wheel and cut off the excess using a trim ming machine. To reheel the shoe, repairers select a precut replacement heel or cut one to shape and cement and nail it in place. Fi nally, the new sole and heel are stained and buffed to match the color of the shoe. Shoe repairers also replace insoles, restitch loose seams, and restyle old shoes by chang ing heels or dyeing uppers. Highly skilled repairers may design, make, or repair ortho pedic shoes according to doctors’ prescrip tions. Repairers also may mend handbags, http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 356/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Shoe repairers rely on a variety of power-operated equipment, such as “ roughing” machines. shops must be good business managers. These repairers must have a working knowledge of business administration, mar keting, and accounting. Advancement opportunities for shoe re pairers are limited. Many open their own shops and some who are employed in large shops become supervisors. Employment Outlook Employment of shoe repairers is not ex pected to change significantly through the 1980’s. Nevertheless, numerous job openings are expected each year in this relatively small occupation, because of the need to replace experienced shoe repairers who retire, die, or leave the field for other reasons. Job oppor tunities should be good for people with some training in shoe repair. However, training is difficult to obtain since there are few voca tional training programs and inexperienced workers often have difficulty finding a job as a helper in a repair shop. For many years, employment of shoe re pairers declined because new shoes were rela tively inexpensive and many people bought new shoes instead of having old ones fixed. This reduced the need for shoe repairs and repairers. The popularity of cushion-soled shoes and other casual footwear which usu ally are not practical to repair also limited the demand for these workers. Shoe price in creases, however, should stimulate the de mand for repairs. As a result, shoe repairer employment is expected to remain about the same in the future. Earnings Shoe repairers earned between $3 and $5 an hour in 1978, according to the limited information available. Some managers and owners of shoe repair shops earned more than $300 a week. Television and Radio Service Technicians (D.O.T. 720.281-018) Nature of the Work Television and radio service technicians re pair a large and growing number of home electronic products, of which television sets and radios are the most numerous. Stereo components, tape recorders, and even elec tronic organs also are repaired by these tech nicians. Some service technicians specialize in repairing one kind of equipment—for ex ample, television sets or car radios. Others repair several types—televisions, video tape machines, intercoms, and public address sys tems. Electronic equipment may operate unsatis factorily for many reasons, such as defective parts, faulty circuits, or poor connections. Service technicians must check and evaluate each possible cause of trouble. They begin by checking common causes such as loose con nections. Talking to customers may help technicians identify the problem. When routine checks do not locate the trouble, technicians refer to wiring diagrams and service manuals that show connections and provide information on how to locate problems. Using test equipment, such as voltmeters, oscilloscopes, and signal genera tors, they check circuits. For example, they may measure voltages or wave forms in the circuits of a television set for unusual or ir regular measurements that indicate the faulty parts. To make repairs, technicians re place faulty parts or make adjustments, such as focusing and converging the picture or correcting the color balance of a television set. In their work, technicians use pliers, sol dering irons, wire cutters, and other handtools. Technicians who make customer ser vice calls carry tubes, modules, and other parts that can be easily replaced in the cus tomer’s home. Self-employed service technicians have managerial responsibilities in addition to their regular duties. They have to order equipment and supplies, keep records, and supervise other technicians. Working Conditions Service technicians work in shops or cus tomers’ homes and working conditions gen erally are good. They usually work alone and receive little supervision. Technicians who service television sets in homes may do con siderable driving. Hazards in the trade in clude electrical shock and strains from lifting and carrying. Places of Employment About 131,000 people worked as radio and television service technicians in 1978. About one-quarter of them were self-employed, a much larger proportion than in most skilled trades. Two-thirds of all service technicians, either self-employed or working for others, worked in television repair shops and stores that sell and service television sets, radios, and other electronic products. Television and radio service technicians work in almost every city. Geographically, employment is distributed in much the same way as the Nation’s population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training in electronics generally is re quired to get an entry level job as a television Shoe repairers often work more than 40 hours a week. The workweek is sometimes 10 hours a day, 6 days a week. Although shoe repair shops are busiest during the spring and fall, work is steady with no sea sonal layoffs. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers make and repair items using leather and cloth are alterations tailor, furniture uphol sterer, furrier, harness maker, luggage re pairer, rug repairer, saddlemaker, and cus tom shoemaker. Sources of Additional Information Information about the shoe repair business and training opportunities may be obtained from: Shoe Service Institute of America, 222 W. Adams St., Chicago, 111. 60606. Information about work opportunities is available from State employment service of fices, as well as shoe shops and shoe service wholesalers in the community. A technician checking for problems with electronic test equipment. OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRERS/357 and radio service technician. High schools, private vocational schools, and junior col leges offer training in television and radio repair. Programs in these schools include subjects such as mathematics, physics, sche matic reading, electricity, and hands-on work with television sets, radios, and other equipment. The training lasts from 1 to 2 years. The military services offer training and work experience that are very useful in civil ian electronics work. However, additional training in television electronics may be re quired by employers. New technicians usually begin by working in the shop or in the field under the supervi sion of an experienced worker. Large repair stores may provide inhouse training to famil iarize new workers with particular brands and models of equipment. Technicians must keep abreast of changes in technology. Manufacturers, employers, and trade associations, such as the National Association of Television and Electronic Ser vicers of America, conduct training seminars to teach technicians servicing methods for new models or products. Technicians also keep up with developments by studying manufacturers’ service manuals and techni cal magazines. Television and radio service technicians must be able to manipulate small parts and tools, and must have good eye-hand coor dination, normal hearing, and good eye sight and color vision. An ability to work with people is essential in dealing with cus tomers. Some States require radio and television technicians to be licensed. To obtain a li cense, applicants must pass an examination designed to test their knowledge of electronic circuits and components and their skill in the use of testing equipment. Service technicians who work in large repair shops may be promoted to supervi sor or service manager. Technicians who have sufficient funds may open their own service shops. Some technicians obtain jobs as electronics “trouble shooters” in manu facturing industries or government agen cies. Those planning to go into business for themselves should take some business ad ministration courses, particularly accounting and consumer relations. Those interested in advancing to positions such as electronics technician can improve their opportunities by taking courses in automatic controls, elec tronic engineering, television engineering, and mathematics. Employment Outlook Employment of television and radio ser vice technicians is expected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to openings from em ployment growth, openings will result each year from the need to replace experienced http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 358/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis technicians who retire, die, or change occu pations. Employment of service technicians is ex pected to increase in response to the grow ing number of television sets, radios, phonographs, tape recorders, and other home entertainment products, although im provements in technology will reduce ser vice requirements for these products. Ris ing population and personal incomes will contribute to this growth. Greater use of electronic products for purposes other than entertainment also is expected. For exam ple, closed circuit television is being used increasingly to monitor production pro cesses in manufacturing plants, to protect buildings, and to bring educational pro grams into classrooms. People who enter the occupation should have steady work because the television and radio repair business is not very sensitive to changes in economic conditions. Earnings Earnings of television and radio service technicians ranged from $4.00 to $8.75 an hour in 1978, based on the limited informa tion available. The wide variations in wage rates reflect differences in skill levels, types of employers, and geographic locations. Television and radio service technicians usually work 40 to 48 hours a week. Some service technicians are members of labor unions. Most of these belong to the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers repair electronic equipment include appliance re pairers, business machine repairers, com puter service technicians, communications technicians, and electronic organ techni cians. Sources of Additional Information For more information about jobs in this field, contact local shops and stores that ser vice television sets and radios and other elec tronic equipment. Technical and vocational schools that offer courses in television and radio repair or electronics may provide infor mation about training. In addition, locals of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers and the local office of the State em ployment service may have information about programs that provide training oppor tunities. Information about the work of television and radio service technicians is available from: National Association of Television and Electronic Servicers of America, 5908 S. Troy St., Chicago, 111. 60629. Electronics Industries Association, 2001 Eye St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. Truck Mechanics and Bus Mechanics (D.O.T. 620.261-010; .281-026, -038, -062, -066; and .381-010, -022; and .684-018.) Nature of the Work Commercial vehicles serve an important function in the Nation’s economy. Heavy trucks are used by industries such as mining and construction to carry ore and building materials, and by commercial trucking lines for general freight hauling. Small trucks are used for local hauling. Buses are used for both local and transcontinental transporta tion, as well as for shipping some goods. Truck and bus mechanics keep these vehicles in good operating condition. Truck and bus mechanics work on both diesel and gasoline engines. Diesel engines are found mostly in heavy trucks and buses, although growing numbers of lighter trucks, buses, and even cars are being built with die sels because of their durability and better gas mileage. Mechanics who work for organizations that maintain their own vehicles may spend much time doing preventive maintenance to assure safe operation, prevent wear and dam age to parts, and reduce costly breakdowns. During a maintenance check, they usually follow a regular check list that includes the inspection of brake systems, steering mech anisms, wheel bearings, and other important parts. If a part is not working properly, they usually can repair or adjust it. If it cannot be fixed, it is replaced. In many shops mechanics do all kinds of repair work. For example, they may work on a vehicle’s electrical system, one day and do major engine repair the next. In some large shops, however, mechanics specialize in one or two types of repair work. For example, one mechanic may specialize in major engine repair, another in transmission work, an other in electrical systems, and yet another in suspension or brake systems. Truck and bus mechanics use a variety of tools in their work. They use power tools such as pneumatic wrenches to re move bolts quickly; machine tools such as lathes and grinding machines to rebuild brakes and other parts; welding and flame cutting equipment to remove and repair exhaust systems and other parts; common handtools such as screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches to work on small parts and reach hard-to-get-to places; and jacks and hoists to lift and move large parts. Truck and bus mechanics also use a variety of testing equipment. For example, when working on electrical systems, they may use ohmmeters, ammeters, and voltmeters; to locate engine malfunctions, they often use tachmeters and dynamometers. For heavy work, such as removing engines and transmissions, two mechanics may work as a team, or a mechanic may be assisted by Employers do not want to spend a lot of time and money training mechanics only to see them quit. To drive trucks or buses on public roads, applicants may need a State chauf feur’s license. Persons interested in becoming truck or bus mechanics can gain valuable experience by taking high school or vocational school courses in automobile and diesel repair. Sci ence and mathematics help a mechanic un derstand how trucks and buses operate. Prac tical experience in automobile repair in a gasoline service station or the Armed Forces or from a hobby also is valuable. Most mechanics must buy their own handtools. Experienced mechanics often invest hundreds of dollars in tools. Truck and bus mechanics may spend much time doing preventive maintenance. an apprentice or helper. Mechanics generally get their assignments from shop supervisors or service managers who may check the me chanics’ work or assist in diagnosing prob lems. Working Conditions Truck and bus mechanics usually work in doors, although they may occasionally work or make repairs on the road. They are subject to the usual shop hazards such as cuts and bruises. Mechanics handle greasy and dirty parts and may stand or lie in awkward or cramped positions to repair vehicles. Work areas usually are well lighted, heated, and ventilated, and many employers provide locker rooms and shower facilities. Places of Employment A large proportion of the estimated 140,000 truck mechanics employed in 1978 worked for firms that owned fleets of trucks. Fleet owners include trucking companies and businesses that haul their own products such as dairies and bakeries. Other employers in clude truck dealers, truck manufacturers, truck repair shops, firms that rent or lease trucks, and Federal, State, and local govern ments. Most of the estimated 22,000 bus mechan ics employed in 1978 worked for local transit companies and intercity buslines. Bus manu facturers employed a relatively small number of mechanics. Truck and bus mechanics are employed in every section of the country, but most work in large towns and cities where trucking com panies, buslines, and other fleet owners have large for repair shops. Digitized FRASER Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most truck or bus mechanics learn their skills on the job. Beginners usually do tasks such as cleaning parts, fueling, and lubrica tion. They may also drive vehicles in and out of the shop. As beginners gain experience and as vacancies become available, they usually are promoted to mechanics’ helpers. In some shops, beginners—especially those having prior automobile repair experience—start as mechanics’ helpers. Most helpers can make minor repairs after a few months’ experience and advance to in creasingly difficult jobs as they prove their ability. Generally, at least 3 to 4 years of on-the-job experience are necessary to qual ify as an all-round truck or bus mechanic. Additional training may be necessary for me chanics who wish to specialize in diesel en gines. Most training authorities recommend a formal 4-year apprenticeship as the best way to learn these trades. Typical apprenticeship programs for truck and bus mechanics con sist of approximately 8,000 hours of shop training to obtain practical experience work ing on transmissions, engines, and other components and at least 576 hours of class room instruction to learn blueprint reading, mathematics, engine theory, and safety. Fre quently, these programs include training in both diesel and gasoline engine repair. For entry jobs, employers generally look for applicants who have mechanical aptitude and are at least 18 years of age and in good physical condition. Completion of high school is an advantage in getting an entry mechanic job because employers believe such a person has at least some traits of a good worker, such as reliability and perseverance. Employers sometimes send experienced mechanics to special training classes con ducted by truck, bus, diesel engine, and parts manufacturers. In these classes, mechanics learn to repair the latest equipment or receive special training in subjects such as diagnos ing engine malfunctions. Mechanics also must read service and repair manuals to keep abreast of engineering changes. Experienced mechanics who have leader ship ability may advance to shop supervisors or service managers. Truck mechanics who have sales ability sometimes become truck sales representatives. Some mechanics open their own gasoline service stations or repair shops. Employment Outlook Employment of truck mechanics is ex pected to increase faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as a result of significant increases in the transportation of freight by trucks. More trucks will be needed for both local and intercity hauling due to the increased production of goods and the necessity of transporting them greater distances and to more places as both popula tion and industrial centers spread out. In ad dition to the jobs created by transportation growth, many openings will arise to replace truck mechanics who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Bus mechanic employment is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as the num ber of buses on the Nation’s roads increases. More buses will be needed for local travel due to increased emphasis on mass transit sys tems. Intercity bus travel, on the other hand, is expected to remain about the same. Most job openings will result from the need to re place bus mechanics who retire, die, or trans fer to other occupations. Earnings Truck and bus mechanics employed by trucking companies, buslines, and other firms that maintain their own vehicles had estimated average hourly earnings of $8.36 in 1978, about one and one-half times the aver age earnings of all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRERS/359 Beginning apprentices usually earn onehalf the rate of skilled workers and receive increases about every 6 months until they complete their apprenticeship and reach the rate of skilled mechanics. Most mechanics work between 40 and 48 hours per week. Those employed by truck and bus firms which provide service around the clock may work evenings, nights, and weekends. They usually receive a higher rate of pay for this work. they check to see that the machines give proper quantities of ingredients and that re frigerating and heating units work properly. On gravity-operated machines, mechanics check springs, plungers, and merchandise de livery systems. They also test coin and change-making mechanisms. When install ing machines on location, mechanics make the necessary water and electrical connec tions and recheck the machines for proper operation. Many truck and bus mechanics are mem bers of labor unions, including the Interna tional Association of Machinists and Aero space Workers; the Amalgamated Transit Union; the International Union, United Au tomobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Imple ment Workers of America; the Transport Workers Union of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffers, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). If a machine breaks down, mechanics must determine the cause of the trouble. They first inspect the machine for obvious problems, such as loose electrical wires, malfunctions of the coin mechanism, and leaks. If the prob lem cannot be readily located, they may refer to troubleshooting manuals and wiring dia grams and use testing devices such as electri cal circuit testers to find defective parts. Me chanics may repair faulty parts at the site. However, they often install replacements and take broken parts to the company shop for repair. Related Occupations Preventive maintenance—avoiding trou ble before it starts—is another major part of the job. For example, mechanics periodically clean electrical contact points, lubricate me chanical parts, and adjust machines to per form properly. Truck and bus mechanics repair trucks and buses and keep them in good working order. Related motor vehicle service occupa tions include automobile body repairers, cus tomizers, mechanics, painters, and service advisors. Sources of Additional Informaiton More details about work opportunities for truck or bus mechanics may be obtained from local employers such as trucking com panies, truck dealers, or bus lines; locals of unions previously mentioned; or the local of fice of the State employment service. Local State employment service offices also may have information about apprenticeships and other training programs. For general information about the work of truck mechanics and apprenticeship training, write to: American Trucking Associations, Inc., 1616 P St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Automotive Service Industry Association, 444 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Vending Machine Mechanics______ (D.O.T. 639.281-014) Nature of the Work Vending machines have become a familiar scene in everyday life. In places of recreation, work, and education, vending machines pro vide all types of refreshments, from a piece of candy to a complete meal. Vending machine mechanics keep these machines in good working order. Mechanics check machines before installa tion. When working on complicated ma chines, such as beverage or food dispensers, http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 360/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis In repair and maintenance work, mechan ics use pipe cutters, soldering irons, wren ches, screwdrivers, hammers, and other handtools. In the repair shop, they may use power tools, such as grinding wheels, saws, and drills. Because vending machines dispense food, mechanics must know State public health and sanitation standards as well as those es tablished under local plumbing codes. They also must know and follow safety procedures, especially when lifting heavy objects and working with electricity and gas. Mechanics must do some clerical work, such as filing reports, preparing repair cost estimates, and ordering parts. Those em ployed by small operating companies may service as well as repair machines. These combination “mechanic-routeworkers” stock machines, collect money, fill coin and cur rency changers, and keep daily records of merchandise distributed. (Additional infor mation about vending machine route drivers is included in the statement on route drivers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Some mechanics work in repair shops, oth ers work in the field, but many do both. Those who work in the field drive a service truck between locations. Vending machine repair shops generally are quiet, well lighted, and have adequate work space. However, when servicing ma chines on location, mechanics may work in cramped quarters, such as passageways, where pedestrian traffic is heavy. Repair work is relatively safe, although mechanics are subject to shop hazards such as electrical shocks and cuts from sharp tools and metal objects. Places of Employment In 1978, about 23,000 mechanics main tained and repaired more than 5 million vending machines. Most mechanics work for vending companies that sell food and other items through machines. Some work for soft drink bottling companies that have their own coin-operated machines. Other mechanics, employed as instructors by vending machine manufacturers, explain technical innovations and ways to repair new machines to company mechanics. Al though mechanics are employed through out the country, most are located in areas with large populations where there are many vending machines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Persons often enter this trade as general shop helpers or vending machine route driv ers. Most new workers learn the trade infor mally on the job by observing, working with, and receiving instruction from experienced mechanics. Trainees usually start out by doing simple jobs such as cleaning, painting, or refurbishing machines. From there, they learn to rebuild machines—removing defec tive parts, repairing, adjusting, and testing the machines. Next, they accompany an ex perienced mechanic on service calls, and then go out on their own. They call upon the ex pertise of other mechanics, when necessary. At this point they have completed their onthe-job training. This process takes from 6 months to 3 years, depending on the individ ual’s capabilities, previous education, and the quality of instruction. The National Automatic Merchandising Association has established an apprentice ship program to help employers train new workers. Apprentices are guaranteed periods of training in various skills. The program also calls for 144 hours of related instruction each year in subjects such as basic electricity, blue print reading, customer relations, and safety. Apprenticeships last 3 years. To learn about new machines, employees sometimes attend manufacturer-sponsored training sessions in repair shops, in manufac turers’ service divisions, or in major cities. Employers usually pay wages and expenses during these sessions, which may last from a few days to several weeks. Some employers encourage both trainees and experienced mechanics to take evening courses in subjects related to machine opera tion and repair—for example, basic electric ity and refrigeration. Employers often pay for at least part of the tuition and book expenses for these courses. Many beginners are high school gradu ates, but employers may not require a di ploma. High school or vocational school courses in electricity, refrigeration, and machine repair help beginners to qualify Earnings Wage rates for vending machine mechan ics ranged from $4.25 to $7.25 an hour in 1978, based on information from a small number of union contracts. Apprentices start at 50 percent of the rate paid experienced mechanics and receive increases every 6 months. Most vending machine mechanics work 8 hours a day, 5 days a week, and receive pre mium pay for overtime. Since vending ma chines can be operated around the clock, me chanics sometimes work at night and on weekends and holidays. Some union con tracts stipulate higher pay for nightwork and for emergency repair jobs on weekends and holidays. Many vending machine mechanics em ployed by large companies are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America. Related Occupations Other workers who repair electromechani cal equipment include bowling-pin-machine mechanics, business machine mechanics, electrical-appliance servicers, juke-box ser vicers, and pinball machine servicers. Sources of Additional Information Further information on job opportunities can be obtained from local vending machine firms and local offices of the State employ ment service. For general information on vending machine mechanics, as well as a list of schools offering courses in vending ma chine mechanics, write to: National Automatic Merchandising Association, 7 S. Dearborn St., Chicago, 111. 60603. Watch Repairers (D.O.T. 715.281-010) Preventive maintenance is a major part of the job of vending machine mechanics. for entry jobs. There are 12 high schools and junior colleges in the country offering 1- to 2-year training programs in vending machine mechanics. Employers require applicants to demon strate mechanical ability, either through their work experience or by scoring well on mechanical aptitude tests. Since mechanics are exposed to thousands of dollars in mer chandise and cash, employers prefer appli cants who have a record of honesty and re spect for the law. The ability to deal tactfully with people also is important. A commercial driver’s license and a good driving record are essential for most vending machine repair jobs. Skilled mechanics may be promoted to su pervisory jobs. Some open their own vending companies. Employment Outlook Employment of vending machine me chanics is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. More vending machines will be installed as demand for fast food service grows and as more industrial plants, hospi tals, and stores move to suburban areas where restaurants are not always close by. In addition vending companies will in crease the variety of products sold through the machines. Growth in the number of vending machines will create more jobs for mechanics. Job openings also will arise as experienced mechanics retire, die, or trans fer to other occupations. Persons with training or previous experience in vending machine repair should have good job pros pects. Nature of the Work As the pace of modem living quickens, people become more conscious of time and more dependent on watches and clocks to keep appointments and complete tasks. Cleaning, repairing, and adjusting these de vices is the job of watch repairers or, as they are frequently called, watchmakers. For many years all watches operated me chanically, with the mainspring supplying the power and the wheels and gears regulat ing the hands that show the time. When a mechanical watch is not working properly, repairers use tweezers, screwdrivers, and other tools to remove the watch movement— the mainspring, wheels, and gears—from the case. Repairers clean the movement in an ultrasonic cleaner. If the watch still does not work, they carefully disassemble the move ment to find broken, worn, or improperly adjusted parts. When working wih these OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRERS/361 small parts watch repairers wear magnifying glasses and sometimes microscopes. They may replace the mainspring and other parts of the winding mechanism, adjust improperly fitted wheels and gears, or replace broken hands. Before reassembling the watch move ment, all parts are inspected and checked. When the movement is reassembled, they test its accuracy with a timing machine. Over the past two decades several types of electronic watches have been marketed. Bat teries supply the power in these watches. Tuning forks, or quartz crystals with inte grated circuits regulate the time. While some electronic watches still have gears and wheels, others, such as digitals have no mov ing parts. The work of watch repairers has changed as they have learned to repair elec tronic watches. To repair electronic watches, repairers check circuits with electrical test equipment. The meters show which parts of the watch are malfunctioning and have to be replaced. Repairers also replace batteries in electronic watches. Watch repairers who own jewelry stores may repair jewelry and sell watches, jewelry, silverware, and other items. They also may hire and supervise salesclerks, other watch repairers, and jewelers; arrange window dis plays; purchase goods to be sold; and per form other managerial duties. to use and care for the watch repairer’s tools and machines, make and adjust individual parts, take apart and reassemble various kinds of watch and clock movements, and diagnose and solve repair problems. Some schools offer courses in repairing unusual types of timepieces, such as chronographs and antique watches. Graduates may gain additional training by working with an ex perienced watch repairer. Watch repair also can be learned through on-the-job arrangements with experienced workers. However, few shop or store owners are willing to hire inexperienced workers, be cause of the time required to supervise them. This type of training is less structured than classroom instruction. Trainees learn by ob serving experienced repairers and by per forming simple and then more complex re pairs. On-the-job training lasts longer than technical school. The following States require watch repair ers to obtain a license: Florida, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Minnesota, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oregon, and Wisconsin. To obtain a license, repairers must pass an examination designed to test their skill with tools and their knowledge of watch construction and repair. Watch repairers in all States can demon strate their competence by passing certifica tion examinations given by the American Working Conditions The work of watch repairers involves little physical exertion, and generally is performed in comfortable surroundings. However, the patience and concentration required to work with small parts can cause stress. Watch repairers have more freedom than other workers in determining their work set ting and hours. Some watch repairers, for example, only work part time and operate out of their homes. Places of Employment About 19,000 persons worked as watch re pairers in 1978. About two-fifths were selfemployed. Most watch repairers worked in jewelry stores or repair shops, which are located throughout the country. A small number had jobs in factories that make watches, clocks, or other precision timing in struments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most people learn the trade in watch re pair schools; others learn through on-the-job training. There are no educational requirements for entrance into watch repair schools, although most students are high school graduates. Some schools test a student’s mechanical ap titude and manual dexterity. Most schools charge tuition and require students to furnish their own handtools. Courses last from 1 to 3 years for full-time students. Students learn http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 362/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Watch repair requires a delicate touch. Watchmakers Institute. Tests are given for the title of Certified Watchmaker, Certified Electronic Watchmaker, or Certified Master Watchmaker. Annual voluntary examina tions covering new phases of watchmaking also are offered. A person planning a career as a watch re pairer must be willing to sit for long periods and work with a minimum of supervision. The precise and delicate nature of the work requires patience and concentration. Since a watch is simply a small machine, mechanical aptitude is essential. Good depth perception and eye-hand coordination are necessary in working with the tiny parts. Watch repairers who have sufficient expe rience and funds may open their own watch repair shops. Watch repairers also may open their own jewelry stores where they can in crease their income by selling watches and other merchandise in addition to repairing watches. These stores require a much greater financial investment than do repair shops, because an inventory of expensive merchan dise must be obtained. Employment Outlook Employment of watch repairers is ex pected to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. How ever, due to the need to replace experienced repairers who retire, die, or leave the occupa- tion for other reasons, job opportunities should be very good for trained watch repair ers. Although more watches will be sold as population and incomes rise, many will be inexpensive watches that cost little more to replace than repair. Consequently, employ ment is not expected to keep pace with growth in the number of watches. However, so many watches are in use that the need for watch repairers should remain strong. In re cent years, job openings have exceeded the number of trained workers entering the occu pation. If this gap continues, trained workers should find jobs readily available. Opportuni ties are expected to be particularly good for watch repairers who have had training in repairing electronic watches because these watches are growing rapidly in popu larity. Earnings Watch repairers in entry jobs generally earned from about $150 to $250 a week in 1978, based on the limited information avail able. Experienced watch repairers working in retail stores and repair shops earned from $10,000 to $14,000 a year. Some watch re pairers may be paid a commission based on the number of watches repaired. Others rent space in a jewelry store, set up a repair de partment, and split the profits with the store owner. Watch repairers who are paid a com mission or who own their own businesses can earn considerably more than those working for a salary. Related Occupations Watch repairers do detailed work with small parts. Other workers that need similar manual skill include engravers, gunsmiths, hand carvers, hand painters, jewelers, model makers, and taxidermists. Sources of Additional Information For information about training courses and watch repairing as a career, contact: American Watchmakers Institute, 3700 Harrison Ave., Cincinnati, Ohio 45211. For information about job opportunities in retail stores contact: Retail Jewelers o f America, Inc., Time-Life Build ing, 1271 Avenue of the Americas, Suite 650, New York, N.Y. 10020. Further information about work oppor tunities or training in this trade also is availa ble from local offices of the State employ ment service. OTHER MECHANICS AND REPAIRERS/363 HEALTH OCCUPATIONS When people are sick or injured, health services are very important to them. The availability of these services depends, not only on the number of people employed in health occupations, but also on their geo graphic distribution. During recent years the number of health personnel has grown very rapidly; improving their distribution remains a problem that is being attacked on the national, State, and local level. About 4.4 million people worked in healthrelated occupations in 1978. Besides doctors, dentists, and therapists, these include the be hind-the-scenes technologists, technicians, administrators, and assistants. Registered nurses, physicians, pharma cists, and dentists constitute the largest pro fessional health occupations. In 1978 em ployment in these occupations ranged from 120,(XX) for dentists to 1,050,000 for regis tered nurses. Professional health occupations also include other medical practitioners—os teopathic physicians, chiropractors, optome trists, podiatrists, and veterinarians. Thera pists (physical therapists, occupational therapists, speech pathologists and audiolo gists) and administrators (health services ad ministrators and medical record administra tors) also are professional health workers, as are dietitians. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 364/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Other health service workers include tech nicians of various types, such as medical technologists, medical X-ray technicians, dental hygienists, and dental laboratory tech nicians. A large number— 1.6 million— worked as practical nurses and auxiliary workers, including nursing aides, orderlies, hospital attendants, and psychiatric assist ants. community and junior colleges offer courses to prepare students for various health jobs. In many occupations, on-the-job training tradi tionally has been the means of preparation, but employers now prefer persons who have completed a formal educational program. Hospitals employ about half of all workers in the health field. Others work in clinics, laboratories, pharmacies, nursing homes, public health agencies, mental health centers, private offices, and patients’ homes. Health workers are concentrated in the more heavily populated and prosperous areas of the Na tion. Earnings of health workers range from those of a physician—the highest paid occu pation—to those of a nursing aide, who earns only three-fourths of the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, ex cept farming. Earnings for the other health occupations that can be entered with up to 2 years of formal training are about the same as the average. People in health occupations that require graduation from college earn from one-and-a-quarter times to twice these average earnings. Among the occupations for which average yearly earnings are reported in the Handbook, the top 15 include 8 of the professional health occupations, including all 6 medical practitioners. Training The educational and other requirements for work in the health field are as diverse as the health occupations themselves. For ex ample, professional health workers—physi cians, dentists, pharmacists, and others— must complete a number of years of pre professional and professional college educa tion and pass a State licensing examination. On the other hand, some health service occu pations—nursing aide, for example—can be entered with no specialized training. Many Earnings Outlook Employment in the health field is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s, although the rates of growth will differ among individual health occupations. Factors that are expected to contribute to an increase in the demand for health care are population growth and the public’s increasing health consciousness. Ex pansion of coverage under prepayment pro grams also will contribute to growth in this field, by making it easier for persons to pay for hospitalization and medical care. In creased expenditures by Federal, State, and local governments for health care and ser vices will further raise demand. In addition to jobs created by growth of the health field, many new workers will be needed each year to replace those who retire, die, or leave the field for other reasons. Recent expansion of training programs in most of the occupations will add to the sup ply of trained health service personnel. De pending on the balance between the supply of workers and expected openings, the employ ment outlook in the various occupations ranges from very good to competitive. See the individual statements for the outlook for each occupation. Dental Occupations Proper dental care is an integral part of overall health care. This section focuses on the dental profession and the three dental auxiliary occupations. Dentists examine and treat patients for oral diseases and abnormalities, such as decayed and impacted teeth. Most dentists are general practitioners, but some specialize in certain areas of dentistry, such as ortho dontics or oral surgery. Other dentists are employed in teaching, research, or adminis tration. Dental hygienists are the only dental auxil iary workers required by each State to be licensed. They scale, clean, and polish teeth, expose X-rays, and instruct patients in proper oral hygiene. Dental assistants help dentists while they are working with patients. This assistance in cludes tasks such as handing the dentist the necessary instruments, keeping the patient’s mouth clear, and preparing materials for im pressions of teeth. They also perform nonchairside duties such as keeping records, re ceiving patients, and ordering dental supplies. Dental laboratory technicians make vari ous dental and orthodontal appliances, such as dentures and crowns, according to the models and instructions supplied by dentists. This work requires patience, minute atten tion to detail, and a high degree of manual dexterity. Some technicians make all kinds of dental appliances, while others concentrate in certain areas of dental laboratory work, such as bridges or artificial teeth cial teeth or dentures); endodontics (root canal therapy); public health dentistry; and oral pathology (diseases of the mouth). Dentists (D.O.T. 072) Nature of the Work Dentists examine teeth and other tissues of the mouth to diagnose diseases or abnormali ties. They take X-rays, fill cavities, straighten teeth, and treat gum diseases. Dentists ex tract teeth and substitute artificial dentures designed for the individual patient. They also perform corrective surgery of the gums and supporting bones. In addition, they may clean teeth. Dentists spend most of their time with pa tients, but may devote some time to labora tory work such as making dentures and in lays. Most dentists, however—particularly those in large cities—send their laboratory work to commercial firms. Some dentists also employ dental hygienists to clean patients’ teeth and provide instruction for patient selfcare. (See statement on dental hygienists.) Other assistants perform office work, assist in “chairside” duties, and provide therapeutic services under the supervision of the dentist. Most dentists are general practitioners who provide many types of dental care; about 10 percent are specialists. The largest group of specialists are orthodontists, who straighten teeth. The next largest group, oral surgeons, operate on the mouth and jaws. The remainder specialize in pedodontics (dentistry for children); periodontics (treat ing the gums); prosthodontics (making artifi , -y 1 1 m mm m -- mmmmm ted to be good as demand for dentists’ services grows and use of auxiliary workers expands Average annual openings * • • ■ ■' s, 1978-90 (thousands) 10 15 Dental assistants : Dental laboratory technicians ( p - v Source: Bureau of labor Statistics I Growth €,~~. d e a th s and retirements About 5 percent of all dentists teach in dental schools, do research, or administer dental health programs on a full-time basis. Many dentists in private practice do this work on a part-time basis. Working Conditions Most dental offices are open 5 days a week, and some dentists have evening hours. Den tists usually work between 40 and 45 hours a week, although many spend more than 50 hours a week in the office. Dentists often work fewer hours as they grow older, and a considerable number continue in part-time practice well beyond the usual retirement age. Places of Employment About 120,000 individuals practiced den tistry in the United States in 1978—9 of every 10 were in private practice. About 5,000 served as commissioned officers in the Armed Forces, and about 1,700 worked in other types of Federal Government positions —chiefly in the hospitals and clinics of the Veterans Administration and the Public Health Service. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license to practice dentistry is required in all States and the District of Columbia. To qualify for a license in most States, a candi date must graduate from a dental school ap proved by the American Dental Association and pass written and practical examinations. In 1978, candidates in 48 States and the Dis trict of Columbia could fulfill part of the State licensing requirements by passing a written examination given by the National Board of Dental Examiners. Most State li censes permit dentists to engage in both gen eral and specialized practice. In 14 States, however, a dentist cannot be licensed as a “specialist” without having 2 or 3 years of graduate education and, in some cases, pass ing a special State examination. In the other 36 States, the extra education also is neces sary, but a specialist’s practice is regulated by the dental profession, not the State licensing authority. To practice in a different State, a licensed dentist usually must pass the State’s examination. However, at least 21 States grant licenses without further examination to dentists already licensed in other States on the basis of their credentials. Dentists who want to teach or do research usually spend an additional 2 to 4 years in advanced dental DENTAL OCCUPATIONS/365 training in programs operated by dental schools, hospitals, and other institutions of higher education. Dental colleges require from 2 to 4 years of predental education. However, about fourfifths of the students entering dental school in 1978 had a baccalaureate or master’s degree. Predental education must include courses in the sciences and humanities. Competition is keen for admission to den tal schools. In selecting students, schools give considerable weight to college grades and the amount of college education. In addition, all dental schools participate in a nationwide ad mission testing program, and scores earned on these tests are considered along with in formation gathered about the applicant through recommendations and interviews. Many State-supported dental schools also give preference to residents of their particular States. Dental school training generally lasts 4 ac ademic years although several institutions condense this into 3 calendar years. Studies begin with an emphasis on classroom instruc tion and laboratory work in basic sciences such as anatomy, microbiology, biochemis try, and physiology. Courses in clinical sciences and preclinical technique also are provided at this time. The last 2 years are spent chiefly in a dental clinic, treating pa tients. The degree of Doctor of Dental Surgery (D.D.S.) is awarded by most dental colleges. An equivalent degree, Doctor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D.), is conferred by 19 schools. v Dental education is very costly because of the length of time required to earn the dental degree. However, Federal funds pro vide a limited number of loans for dental students, and a limited number of scholar ships are available for qualifying students who agree to a minimum of 2 years’ Fed eral service. Dentistry requires both manual skills and a high level of diagnostic ability. Dentists should have good visual memory, excellent judgment of space and shape, and a high de gree of manual dexterity, as well as scientific ability. Good business sense, self-discipline, and the ability to instill confidence are help ful for success in private practice. High school students who want to become dentists are advised to take courses in biology, chem istry, health, and mathematics. Most dental graduates open their own of fices or purchase established practices. Some gain experience with established dentists, and save money to equip an office; others may enter residency training programs in ap proved hospitals. Dentists who enter the Armed Forces are commissioned as captains in the Army and Air Force and as lieutenants in the Navy. Graduates of recognized dental schools are eligible for Federal Civil Service positions and for commissions (equivalent to lieutenants in the Navy) in the U.S. Public Health Service. 366/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Filling a tooth requires a lot of manual dexterity. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for dentists are expected to be very good through the 1980’s. Dental school enrollments have grown in re cent years because of federally assisted con struction of additional training facilities. However, the number of new entrants to the field through 1985 is expected to fall short of the number needed to fill openings created by growth of the occupation and by death or retirement from the profession. By 1990, however, the supply of new dentists is ex pected to be adequate to meet the demand for dental services. Employment of dentists is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all oc cupations due to population growth, in creased awareness that regular dental care helps prevent and control dental diseases, and the expansion of prepayment arrange ments, which make it easier for people to afford dental services. Fluoridation of com munity water supplies and improved dental hygiene may prevent some tooth and gum disorders, and preserve teeth that might otherwise be extracted. However, since the preserved teeth will need care in the future, these measures may increase rather than de crease the demand for dental care. Simi larly, while new techniques, equipment, and drugs, as well as the expanded use of dental hygienists, assistants, and laboratory techni cians should enable individual dentists to care for more patients, these developments are not expected to offset the need for more dentists. There will continue to be a need for den tists to administer dental public health pro grams and teach in dental colleges. Also, many dentists will continue to serve in the Armed Forces. Earnings During the first year or two of practice, dentists often earn little more than the minimum needed to cover expenses, but their earnings usually rise rapidly as their practice develops. Specialists generally earn considerably more than general practition ers. The average income of dentists in 1978 was about $50,000 a year, according to the limited information available. In the Fed eral Government, new graduates of dental schools could expect to start at $19,300 a year in 1979. Experienced dentists working for the Federal Government in 1979 earned average annual salaries of $39,500, with some earning as much as $47,500 a year. Location is one of the major factors af fecting the income of dentists who open their own offices. For example, in highincome urban areas, dental services are in great demand; however, a practice can be developed most quickly in small towns, where new dentists easily become known and where they may face less competition from established practitioners. Although the income from practice in small towns may rise rapidly at first, over the long run the level of earnings, like the cost of living, may be lower than it is in larger communi ties. Related Occupations Dentists examine, diagnose, and treat var ious oral diseases and abnormalities. Other professions which provide health services and which entail similar long and extensive training include clinical psychologist, oph thalmologist, physician, and veterinarian. Sources of Additional Information Persons who wish to practice in a given State should obtain the requirements for li censure from the board of dental examiners of that State. Lists of State boards and of accredited dental schools, as well as informa tion on dentistry as a career, are available from: American Dental Association, Council on Dental Education, 211 East Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. American Association of Dental Schools, 1625 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Students should contact the director of student financial aid at the school they attend for information about Federal or other loans and scholarships. Dental Assistants (D.O.T. 079.371-010)______________ :V ; . Nature of the Work Dental assistants work with dentists as they examine and treat patients. The assist ant makes the patients comfortable in the dental chair, prepares them for treatment, and obtains their dental records. The as sistant hands the dentist the proper instru ments and materials and keeps the pa tient’s mouth clear by using suction or other devices. Dental assistants prepare materials for making impressions and res torations, and expose radiographs and pro cess dental X-ray film as directed by the dentist. They also provide oral health in struction and prepare instruments for steri lization. Dental assistants perform a variety of du ties that do not require the dentist’s profes sional knowledge and skill. Some assistants make casts of the teeth and mouth from im pressions taken by the dentist. In some States, assistants apply medications to the teeth and oral tissue, remove from surfaces of the teeth excess cement used in the filling process, and place rubber dams on the teeth to isolate them for individual treatment. Some dental assistants manage the office and arrange and confirm appointments, receive patients, keep treatment records, send bills, receive payments, and order dental supplies and materials. The work of the dental assistant should not be confused with that of the dental hygienist, who must be licensed to scale and polish the teeth. (See the following statement on dental hygienists.) Working Conditions Dental assistants work in a well-lighted, clean environment. They must be careful in handling radiographic and other equipment. Dental assistants can expect to work chairside with dentists. They must be a dentist’s “third hand,” exhibit some manual dexterity, and be able to deal with people who may be under stress. Places of Employment About 150,000 persons worked as dental assistants in 1978; about 1 out of 10 work part time. Most dental assistants work in private dental offices, either for individual dentists or for groups of dentists. Many of the re mainder work in dental schools, hospital dental departments, State and local public health departments, or private clinics. The Federal Government employs dental assist ants, chiefly in hospitals and dental clinics of the Public Health Service, the Veter ans Administration, and the Armed F o rc es. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most dental assistants learn their skills on the job. An increasing number, however, are trained in formal posthigh school programs. About 300 such programs were accredited by the Commission on Accreditation of Dental and Dental Auxiliary Education Programs in 1978. Most posthigh school courses in dental as sisting are given in junior and community colleges or in vocational or technical schools. More than three-fourths of these programs take 1 year to complete and lead to a certifi cate or diploma. Graduates of 2-year pro grams offered in junior and community col leges earn an associate degree upon completion of specialized training and liberal arts courses. The minimum requirement for any of these programs is a high school di ploma or its equivalent. Some schools also require typing or a science course for admis sion. Although some private schools offer 4to 6-month courses in dental assisting, these are not accredited by the dental profession. Those receiving dental assistant training in the Armed Forces usually qualify for civilian jobs as dental assistants. High school students interested in careers as dental assistants should take courses in biology, chemistry, health, typing, and office practices. Approved dental assisting curriculums in clude classroom and laboratory instruction in skills and related theory. Trainees get practical experience in affiliated dental schools, local clinics, or selected dental of fices. A correspondence course accredited by the American Dental Association is available for employed dental assistants who are learning on the job or who otherwise are unable to participate in regular dental assisting pro grams on a full-time basis. The correspon dence program is equivalent to 1 academic year of study but generally requires about 2 years to complete. Graduates of accredited dental assistant programs who successfully complete an ex amination administered by the Certifying Board of the American Dental Assistants As sociation become Certified Dental Assist ants. Certification is acknowledgement of an assistant’s qualifications but is not generally required for employment. After working as dental assistants, some individuals seek to acquire skills and qualifi cations for practicing as dental hygienists. Prospective dental assistants who foresee this possibility should plan carefully since credit earned in a dental assistant program often is not applicable toward requirements for a dental hygiene certificate. Some dental assist ants become sales representatives for firms that manufacture dental products. The field of dental assisting education offers oppor tunities in teaching and program administra tion. DENTAL OCCUPATIONS/367 tions that provide similar services under the supervision of a medical practitioner include chiropractor assistant, optometric -assistant, podiatric assistant, and surgical technician. Sources of Additional Information Information about career opportunities, scholarships, accredited dental assistant pro grams, including the correspondence pro gram, and requirements for certification is available from: American Dental Assistants Association, 666 N. Lake Shore Dr., Suite 1130, Chicago, 111. 60611. Commission on Accreditation of Dental and Aux iliary Educational Programs, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Dental Hygienists (D.O.T. 078.361-010) Nature of the Work Dental assistants work with dentists as they examine and treat patients. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for dental as sistants are expected to be excellent through the 1980’s, especially for graduates of aca demic programs in dental assisting. Part-time opportunities also will be very favorable. Employment of dental assistants is ex pected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations, largely because dental students are being taught to use assistants in their practice. The increase in the demand for dental services which stems from population growth, a growing awareness of the impor tance of regular dental care, and the increas ing ability of people to pay for care also will contribute to the demand for dental assist ants. For example, increased participation in dental prepayment plans and public pro grams such as Medicaid bring dental services within the reach of many who could not af ford them otherwise. In addition to job openings created by growth in the demand for dental assistants, thousands of assistants also will be required each year to replace those who leave the field. In 1978, most dental assistants working for dentists in private practice earned between $7,800 and $8,400 annually, based upon the limited information available. A few earned up to $13,000 or more a year depending upon the size of the office and the responsibilities performed by these key personnel. In the Federal Government, experience and the amount and type of education deter mine entrance salaries. In 1979, a high school graduate who had 6 months of general expe rience started at nearly $8,400 a year; gradu ates of an ADA-approved 1-year training program who had an additional year of gen eral experience could expect to start at nearly $9,400 a year. In general, experienced dental assistants working for the Federal Govern ment in 1979 earned average annual salaries of about $10,500. Although the 40-hour workweek prevails for dental assistants, the schedule is likely to include work on Saturday. A 2- or 3-week paid vacation is common. Some dentists pro vide sick leave and other benefits. Dental as sistants who work for the Federal Govern ment receive the same employee benefits as other Federal workers. Earnings Salary depends largely on the assistant’s education and experience, the duties and re sponsibilities attached to the particular job, and geographic location. 368/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Related Occupations Dental assistants perform a variety of du ties that do not require the dentist’s profes sional knowledge and skill. Other occupa Dental hygienists are oral health clinicians and educators who help the public develop and maintain good oral health. As members of the dental health team, dental hygienists may perform preventive and therapeutic ser vices under the supervision of the dentist. Specific responsibilities of the hygienist vary, depending on the law of the State where the hygienist is employed, but may include removing deposits and stains from patients’ teeth; providing instructions for patient selfcare and nutritional counseling; and applying topical fluoride to prevent tooth decay. They take medical and dental histories, expose and develop dental X-ray films, make impres sions of teeth for study models, and prepare other diagnostic aids for use by the dentist. Pain control and restorative procedures also may be performed by dental hygienists in some States. Dental hygienists who work in school sys tems serve in several capacities. Clinical functions include examining children’s teeth, assisting the dentist in determining the dental treatment needed, and reporting the findings to parents. They also scale and polish teeth and give oral hygiene instructions. In addi tion, they develop and deliver classroom and assembly programs on oral health. A few dental hygienists assist in research projects. Those having advanced training may teach in schools of dental hygiene. Working Conditions Dental hygienists usually work in clean, well-lighted offices. Important health safe guards for persons in this occupation are reg ular medical checkups and strict adherence to established procedures for using X-ray equipment. Dental hygienists must have manual dexterity because they use various dental instruments with little room for error within a patients’ mouth. They also must em pathize with patients who often are under stress. Places of Employment About 35,000 persons worked as dental hygienists in 1978. Many are employed part time. Most work in private dental offices; some may contract their services to several dentists or dental offices. Public health agen cies, school systems, industrial plants, clinics, hospitals, dental hygiene schools, and the Federal Government are other sources of em ployment for dental hygienists. Some gradu ates of bachelor’s degree programs are com missioned officers in the Armed Forces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Dental hygienists must be licensed. To ob tain a license, a candidate must graduate from an accredited dental hygiene school and pass both a written and a clinical examina tion. For the clinical examination, the appli cant is required to perform dental hygiene procedures, such as removing deposits and stains from a patient’s teeth. In 1978, candi dates in 48 States and the District of Co lumbia could complete part of the State lic ensing requirements by passing a written examination given by the National Board of Dental Examiners. Few States permit dental hygienists licensed in other States to practice in their jurisdictions without further exami nation. In 1978, 197 schools of dental hygiene in the United States were accredited by the Commission on Accreditation of Dental and Dental Auxiliary Educational Programs. Most programs grant an associate degree; others lead to a bachelor’s degree. A few in stitutions offer both types of programs. Six schools offer master’s degree programs in dental hygiene. Completion of an associate degree pro gram usually is sufficient for the dental hy gienist who wants to practice in a private dental office. To do research, teach, and work in public or school health programs, at least a bachelor’s degree usually is required. Dental hygienists with a master’s degree work as teachers or administrators in dental hygiene and dental assisting training pro grams, public health agencies, and in as sociated research. Competition is keen for admission to den tal hygiene schools. The minimum require ment for admission to a school of dental hy giene is graduation from high school. Several schools that offer the bachelor’s degree admit students to the dental hygiene program only after they have completed 2 years of college. Many schools also require that applicants take an aptitude test given by the American Dental Hygienists’ Association. Dental hy giene training given in the Armed Forces usually does not fully prepare one to pass the licensing exam, but credit for that training may be granted to those who seek admission to accredited dental hygiene programs. The curriculum in a dental hygiene pro gram consists of courses in the basic sciences, dental sciences, clinical sciences, and liberal arts. These schools offer laboratory, clinical, and classroom instruction in subjects such as anatomy, physiology, chemistry, phar macology, nutrition, histology (the study of tissue structure), periodontology (the study of gum diseases), dental materials, and clini cal dental hygiene. People who want to become dental hygie nists should enjoy working with others. The ability to put patients at ease is helpful. Per sonal neatness and cleanliness, manual dex terity, and good health also are important qualities. Among the courses recommended for high school students interested in careers in this occupation are biology, health, chem istry, speech, and mathematics. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for dental hy gienists are expected to be very good through the 1980’s. Despite an anticipated rise in the number of graduates from schools of dental hygiene, the demand is expected to be greater than the supply if recent trends in enroll ments continue. There also should be very good opportunities for those desiring parttime employment and for those willing to work in rural areas. Employment of dental hygienists is ex pected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations because of an expanding population and the growing awareness of the importance of regular dental care. Increased participation in dental prepayment plans and more group practice among dentists should result in new jobs for dental hygienists. Den tal care programs for children also may lead to more employment opportunities in this field. Earnings Earnings of dental hygienists are affected by the type of employer, education and expe rience of the individual hygienist, and the geographic location. Dental hygienists who work in private dental offices usually are sal aried employees, although some are paid a commission for work performed, or a combi nation of salary and commission. Dental hygienists working full time in pri vate offices earned between $ 12,000 and $13,500 a year in 1978, according to the limited data available. In 1979, the Federal Govern ment paid dental hygienists with no experi ence starting salaries of about $9,400 a year. Experienced dental hygienists working for the Federal Government earned average an nual salaries of about $12,100. Dental hygienists employed full time in private offices usually work between 35 and 40 hours a week. They may work on Satur days or during evening hours. Some hygie nists work for two dentists or more. Dental hygienists who work for school sys tems, health agencies, the Federal Govern ment, or State agencies have the same hours, vacation, sick leave, retirement, and health insurance benefits as other workers in these organizations. Related Occupations Dental hygienists who work in school systems examine, scale, and polish children’s teeth and instruct them in proper mouth care. Dental hygienists relieve dentists from many routine tasks. Other occupations per forming similar duties for dentists and physi cians include dental assistant, dental labora tory technician, emergency medical technician, general duty nurse, nurse anes thetist, and radiologic technologist. DENTAL OCCUPATIONS/369 Sources of Additional Information For information about accredited pro grams and the educational requirements to enter this occupation, contact: Division of Professional Development, American Dental Hygienists’ Association, Suite 3400,444 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. The State Board of Dental Examiners in each State, or the National Board of Dental Examiners, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611, can supply information on licens ing requirements. Dental Laboratory Technicians______ (D.O.T. 712.381-018) Nature of the Work Dental laboratory technicians make den tures (artificial teeth), fabricate metal or por celain crowns and inlays to restore teeth, construct bridges of metal and porcelain to replace missing teeth, and also make dental orthodontic appliances. All work is done fol lowing written instructions submitted by the dentist, using impressions made by the den tist of a patient’s teeth or mouth, from which models are made from dental stone or plaster pourings. Sometimes these model pourings are made by the dentist, but most often by the technician. Trainees in beginning jobs usually mix and pour plaster into casts and molds and per form other simple tasks. As they gain experi ence, they do more difficult laboratory work. Some dental technicians perform the full range of laboratory work. Others are special ists who make crowns and bridges, arrange artificial teeth on dental appliances, make plastic molds for dentures, work with dental ceramics (porcelain), or make castings of gold or metal alloys. Technicians use small hand instruments such as wax spatulas and wax carvers, as well as special electric lathes and drills, high-heat furnaces, metal-melting torches, and other specialized laboratory equipment. Working Conditions Whether they are employed in indepen dent commercial laboratories or in dental of fices, dental technicians work in typical labo ratory surroundings. Work areas are generally clean, well lighted, and well ven tilated. Technicians usually have their own workbenches which are equipped with bunsen burners, grinding and polishing ma chines, and various handtools. Although there is constant pressure to meet dentists’ deadlines, schedules are flexible enough to allow for any problems or special require ments that may be involved in completing a difficult job. 370/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Dental laboratory technicians use a wide variety of tools and instruments. Places of Employment About 47,000 persons worked as dental laboratory technicians in 1978. Most work in commercial laboratories, either as employees or as owners of the business. Commercial laboratories, which handle orders from den tists, usually employ fewer than 10 techni cians. However, a few large laboratories em ploy over 200 technicians. About 8,500 dental laboratory technicians work in dentists’ offices. Others work for hospitals that provide dental services and for the Federal Government, chiefly in Veterans Administration hospitals and clinics and in the Armed Forces. Establishments that man ufacture dental materials and equipment also employ technicians as technical or sales rep resentatives. Dental laboratories are located mainly in large cities and populous States. Many laboratories receive work through the mail from dentists who work a considerable dis tance away. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although no minimum formal education is needed to enter this occupation, a high school diploma is an asset. Many dental labo ratory technicians learn their craft on the job, although more and more are taking formal training programs before starting work. Onthe-job training usually lasts 3 or 4 years, depending on the trainee’s previous experi ence, ability to master the techniques, and the number of specialized areas to be learned. A few public vocational high schools offer courses in dental laboratory work that may be taken together with on-the-job training. In 1978, 2-year education programs ac credited by the Commission on Accredita tion of Dental and Dental Auxiliary Educa tional Programs were offered in 55 schools. High school graduation or equivalent educa tion is required to enter these programs. The training includes formal classroom instruc tion in dental law and ethics, chemistry, ceramics, metallurgy, and other related sub jects. In addition, the student gets supervised practical experience in the school or dental laboratory. After completion of the 2-year training program, the trainee needs about 3 more years of practical experience to develop the skills needed to be recognized as a wellqualified dental laboratory technician. Those receiving dental laboratory training in the Armed Forces usually qualify for civilian jobs as dental laboratory technicians. Dental laboratory technicians may become Certified Dental Technicians by passing writ ten and practical examinations given by the National Board for Certification, a trust es tablished by the National Association of Dental Laboratories. Certification is becom ing increasingly important as evidence of a technician’s competence. Well-qualified technicians advance by becoming supervisors or managers in dental laboratories, teachers in dental lab training programs, or salesper sons for dental products companies. Some technicians become owners of dental laboratories. Among the personal qualifications that employers look for in selecting trainees are a high degree of manual dexterity, good color perception, patience, and an inclination for detailed work. High school students inter ested in careers in this occupation are advised to take courses in art, crafts, metal shop, metallurgy, and sciences. Employment Outlook Job opportunities for well-qualified dental laboratory technicians are expected to be ex cellent through the 1980’s. Some experienced technicians should be able to establish laboratories of their own. A technician whose work has become known to several dentists in a community will have the best prospects of building a successful business. Employment of dental laboratory techni cians is expected to grow faster than the aver age for all occupations due to expansion of dental prepayment plans and the increasing number of older people who require den tures. To keep pace with the demand for their services, dentists will spend more time treat ing patients and will hire more technicians or send more of their laboratory work to commerical firms. In addition to job opportunities created by growth, many openings for dental laboratory technicians will occur each year because of the need to replace technicians who die or retire. Earnings Dental laboratory technicians who worked full time in commercial laboratories received average annual salaries within the following ranges in early 1979: Trainees with no experi ence, $6,200 to $7,100; graduates of 2-year dental technology courses with no experi ence, $7,800 to $8,000; technicians with no formal training and 2 years of on-the-job ex perience, $8,600 to $9,000; technicians with 2 to 5 years of experience, regardless of train ing, $11,000 to $12,000; and technicians with more than 5 years of experience, regardless of training, from $15,000 to $20,000. Techni cians who specialized in ceramics received the highest salaries (up to $30,000). Large dental laboratories employ supervisors or managers who usually earn more than tech nicians. In general, earnings of self-employed technicians are higher than those of salaried workers. In the Federal Government, graduates of ADA-approved programs with no experi ence were paid starting salaries of about $9,400 a year in 1979. Experienced dental labo ratory technicians employed in the Federal Government generally earned between $13,000 and $18,700 annually, with the average earning about $16,100 per year. Salaried technicians usually work 40 hours a week but self-employed technicians fre quently work longer hours. Many techni cians in commercial laboratories receive paid holidays and vacations and some also receive paid sick leave, bonuses, and other fringe benefits. Technicians employed by the Fed eral Government have the same benefits as other Federal employees. Related Occupations Dental laboratory technicians make artifical teeth, crowns and inlays, and orthodontic appliances following the specifications and instructions provided by the dentist. Other occupations which provide services or make devices for physicians include arch-support technician, orthotics technician (braces/surgical supports), prosthetics technician (artifi cial limbs/appliances) and optician (optical mechanic). Sources of Additional Information For information about training and a list of approved schools contact: American Dental Association, Council on Dental Education, 211 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Information on scholarships is available from dental technology schools or from the American Fund for Dental Health, 211 East Chicago Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. For information on career opportunities in commercial laboratories and requirements for certification, contact: National Association o f Dental Laboratories, 3801 Mt. Vernon Ave., Alexandria, Va. 22305. DENTAL OCCUPATIONS/371 Medical Practitioners Medical practitioners work to prevent, cure, and alleviate disease. This group in cludes about five times as many physicians as all other practitioners combined. Physicians, osteopathic physicians, and chiropractors all treat injuries and diseases that affect the entire body. These practition ers use different modes of treatment, how ever. Physicians prescribe medications, exer cise, proper diet, and surgery for their patients. Osteopathic physicians use these treatments and also use manipulation of mus cles and bones, especially the spine. These manipulations are the primary form of treat ment given by chiropractors. Optometrists specialize in eye care and podiatrists treat foot diseases and deformities. Veterinarians treat animals and inspect meat, poultry, and other food as part of public health programs. All of these occupations are closely regu lated. States require that medical practition ers be licensed and pass a State board exami nation. Only physicians, osteopaths, podia trists, and veterinarians can use drugs and surgery in their treatment. Among the six medical practitioner occu pations, requirements for a license vary from 6 to 9 years of postsecondary education. After graduation from college, osteopaths must complete a 4-year program and physi cians generally a 3- or 4-year program. Most States require a 1-year residency for both physicians and osteopaths. Physicians who specialize must spend more years in resi dency and pass a specialty board examina tion. Two years of college are required for entry to one of the 4-year chiropractic schools. Optometrists, podiatrists, and veterinarians all must complete a minimum of 2 years of college before beginning the 4year program. Although training to become a medical practitioner is more rigorous than that for most other professional occupations, medical practice also offers unusual rewards—finan cial and otherwise. Incomes of medical prac titioners greatly exceeded the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry in 1978, and their earnings were higher than those of any other professional workers with similar years of graduate education. Medical practitioners also enjoy great prestige within the community, and most derive considera ble personal satisfaction from knowing their work contributes directly to the well-being of other people or, in the case of veterinarians, to that of the animal population. All medical practitioners must have the ability and perseverance to complete the years of study required. Medical practition ers should be emotionally stable, able to Digitized for decisions FRASER in emergencies, and have a make http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 372/OCCUPATIONAL HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. OUTLOOK Louis strong desire to help the sick and injured. Sincerity and an ability to gain the confi dence of patients also are important qualities. Chiropractors (D.O.T. 079.101-010) Nature of the Work Chiropractic is a system of treatment based on the principle that a person’s health is determined largely by the nervous system, and that interference with this system im pairs normal functions and lowers resistance to disease. Chiropractors treat patients pri marily by manual manipulation (adjust ments) of parts of the body, especially the spinal column. Because of the emphasis on the spine and its position, most chiropractors use X-rays to aid in locating the source of patients’ difficul ties. In addition to manipulation, most chiro practors use supplementary measures such as water, light, ultrasound, electric, and heat therapy. They also prescribe diet, supports, exercise, and rest. Most State laws specify the types of supplementary treatment permitted in chiropractic. Chiropractors do not use pre scription drugs or surgery. Working Conditions Chiropractors generally work in private offices. Their workweek typically is 4 1/2 to 5 days. Places of Employment About 18,000 persons practiced chiroprac tic in 1978. Most chiropractors were in pri vate practice. Some were salaried assistants of established practitioners or worked for chiropractic clinics. Others taught or con ducted research at chiropractic colleges. Chiropractors often locate in small com munities—about half of work in cities of 50,000 inhabitants or less. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All 50 States and the District of Columbia regulate the practice of chiropractic and grant licenses to chiropractors who meet cer tain educational requirements and pass a State board examination. Many States have reciprocity agreements that permit chiro practors licensed in one State to obtain a li cense in others without taking an examina tion. Chiropractic requires Keen powers of observa tion in order to detect physical abnormalities. Although the type of practice permitted and the educational requirements for a li cense vary considerably from one State to another, most States require successful com pletion of a 4-year chiropractic course fol lowing 2 years of preprofessional college work. Some States require that specific sub jects such as English, chemistry, biology, or physics be a part of this preprofessional work. In addition, several States require that chiropractors pass a basic science examina tion. In 1978,6 of the 15 chiropractic colleges in the United States were fully accredited by the Council on Chiropractic Education; 3 others were recognized candidates working toward accreditation. All required applicants to have a minimum of 2 years of college before en trance, and most required that courses in En glish, the social sciences, chemistry, biology, and mathematics be taken during those 2 years. Chiropractic colleges emphasize courses in manipulation and spinal adjust ments. Most offer a broader curriculum how ever, including subjects such as physioth erapy and nutrition. In most chiropractic colleges, the first 2 years of the curriculum chiefly include classroom and laboratory work in subjects such as anatomy, physiol ogy, and biochemistry. During the last 2 years, students obtain practical experience in college clinics. The degree of Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C.) is awarded to students completing 4 years of chiropractic training. Chiropractic requires a keen sense of ob servation to detect physical abnormalities and considerable hand dexterity but not unusual strength or endurance. Persons desiring to become chiropractors should be able to work independently and handle re sponsibility. The ability to work with detail is important. Sympathy and understanding are desirable qualities for dealing effectively with patients. Most newly licensed chiropractors either set up a new practice or purchase an estab lished one. A moderate financial investment is usually necessary to open and equip an office. Some start as salaried chiropractors to acquire experience and funds needed. Employment Outlook Requirements for chiropractors are ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. En rollments in chiropractic colleges, however, have grown dramatically, partly in re sponse to apparent broader public accept ance of the profession. As more students graduate, new chiropractors may find it in creasingly difficult to establish a practice in those areas where other practitioners al ready are located. The best opportunities for new chiropractors may be in small towns and in areas with comparatively few established practitioners. Earnings In chiropractic, as in other types of inde pendent practice, earnings are relatively low in the beginning. New graduates who worked as associates to established practitioners earned about $12,000 a year in 1978. Ex perienced chiropractors averaged about $25,000, according to limited data available, al though many earned more. contact school. the admissions office of that Optometrists (D.O.T. 079.101-018) Nature of the Work About 1 out of every 2 persons in the United States wears corrective lenses. Op tometrists provide most of this care. They examine people’s eyes for vision problems, disease, and other abnormal conditions and test for proper depth and color perception and the ability to focus and coordinate the eyes. When necessary, they prescribe lenses and treatment. Where evidence of disease is present, the optometrist refers the patient to the appropriate medical practitioner. Most optometrists supply the prescribed eyeglasses and fit and adjust contact lenses. Optome trists also prescribe vision therapy or other treatment not requiring surgery. Although most optometrists are in general practice, some specialize in work with the aged or with children. Others work only with persons having partial sight who can be helped with microscopic or telescopic lenses. Still others are concerned with the visual safety of industrial workers. Some optome trists teach or do research. Optometrists should not be confused with either ophthalmologists, sometimes referred to as oculists, or dispensing opticians. Oph thalmologists are physicians who specialize in medical eye care, eye diseases, and injuries; perform eye surgery; and prescribe drugs or other eye treatment, as well as lenses. Dis pensing opticians fit and adjust eyeglasses ac cording to prescriptions written by ophthal mologists or optometrists; they do not examine eyes or prescribe treatment. (See statements on physicians and dispensing op ticians.) Working Conditions Optometrists work in places—usually their own offices—that are clean, well lighted, and comfortable. The work requires a lot of attention to detail. Because the work is not physically strenuous, optometrists often can continue to practice after the nor mal retirement age. Places of Employment In 1978, there were about 21,000 practic ing optometrists. The majority of optome trists are in solo practice. Others are in part nership or group practice with other optometrists or doctors as part of a profes sional health care team. Some optometrists work in specialized hospitals and eye clinics or teach in schools Related Occupations Chiropractors diagnose, treat and work to prevent diseases, disorders, and injuries. They emphasize the importance of the ner vous system for good health. Other occupa tions that require similar skills include audi ologists, dentists, optometrists, osteopaths, podiatrists, speech pathologists, and veteri narians. Sources of Additional Information The State board of licensing in the capital of each State can supply information on State licensing requirements for chiropractors. General information on chiropractic as a career is available from: American Chiropractic Association, 2200 Grand Ave., Des Moines, Iowa 50312. International Chiropractors Association, 1901 L St. NW., Suite 800, Washington, D.C. 20036. For a list of chiropractic colleges, as well as general information on chiropractic as a career, contact: Council on Chiropractic Education, 3209 Ingersoll Street, Suite 206, Des Moines, Iowa 50312. For information on requirements for ad mission to a specific chiropractic college, About 1 out of every 2 persons in the United States wears corrective lenses. MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS/373 of optometry. Others work for the Veterans Administration, public and private health agencies, and industrial health insurance companies. About 500 optometrists serve as commissioned officers in the Armed Forces. Optometrists also act as consultants to engi neers specializing in safety or lighting, con sultants to educators in remedial reading, or participants on health advisory committees to Federal, State, and local governments. About 2 optometrists out of 5 practice in towns of under 25,000 inhabitants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require that optometrists be licensed. Appli cants for a license must have a Doctor of Optometry degree from an accredited optometric school or college and pass a State board examination. In some States, appli cants are permitted to substitute the exami nation of the National Board of Examiners in Optometry, given in the second, third and fourth years of optometric school, for part or all of the written State examination. Some States allow applicants to be licensed without lengthy examination if they have a license in another State. In 44 States, optometrists are required to continue their education in op tometry to retain their licenses. The Doctor of Optometry degree requires a minimum of 6 or 7 years of college consist ing of a 4-year professional degree program preceded by at least 2 or 3 years of preoptometric study at an accredited university, col lege, or junior college. In 1979, there were 13 U.S. schools and colleges of optometry ac credited by the Council on Optometric Edu cation of the American Optometric Associa tion. Requirements for admission to these schools usually include courses in English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biol ogy or zoology. Some schools also require courses in psychology, social studies, litera ture, philosophy, and foreign languages. Ad mission to optometry schools is competitive. Each year, qualified applicants exceed availa ble places, so serious applicants need superior grades in their preoptometric college courses to enhance their chances for acceptance. Because most optometrists are selfemployed, business ability, self-discipline, and the ability to deal with patients tactfully are necessary for success. Many beginning optometrists enter into associate practice with an optometrist or other health professional. Others purchase an established practice or set up a new practice. Some take salaried positions to obtain experi ence and the necessary funds to enter their own practice. Optometrists wishing to advance in a spe cialized field may study for a master’s or Ph. D. degree in physiological optics, neuro physiology, public health administration, health information and communication, or health education. Optometrists who enter the Armed Forces as career officers have the op 374/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK portunity to work toward advanced degrees and to do vision research. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for optome trists are expected to be favorable through the 1980’s. The number of new graduates from schools of optometry is expected to be adequate to fill the positions made available by employment growth and the need to re place optometrists who die or retire. Employment of optometrists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions. An increase in the total population, especially in the group most likely to need glasses—older people—is a major factor con tributing to the expected growth in the occu pation. Greater recognition of the impor tance of good vision and the likelihood that more persons will have health insurance to cover optometric services also should in crease the demand for optometric services. Earnings In 1978, net earnings of new optometry graduates in their first full year of practice averaged about $16,900. Experienced op tometrists averaged about $40,000 annually. Optometrists working for the Federal Gov ernment earned an average of $22,700 a year in 1978. Incomes vary greatly, depending upon location, specialization, and other fac tors. Optometrists who start out by working in commercial settings tend to earn more money initially than optometrists who set up their own solo practice. However, in the long run, those with their own private practice have the potential to earn more than those employed in commercial settings. Independent practitioners can set their own work schedule. Some work over 40 hours a week, including Saturday. Related Occupations Other occupations in which the main ac tivity consists of applying logical thinking and scientific knowledge to diagnose and treat disease, disorders, or injuries in humans or animals are chiropractors, dentists, physi cians, osteopathic physicians, podiatrists, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information Information on optometry as a career and a list of scholarships and loan funds offered by various State associations, societies, and institutions are available from: American Optometric Association, 243 North Lindbergh Blvd., St. Louis, Mo. 63141. Career guidance information for persons considering becoming optometrists can be obtained by writing to: Association o f Schools and Colleges of Optometry, Suite 210, 1730 M St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Federal Health Professions Loans are available for optometric students who meet certain criteria of financial need. For infor mation on this financial aid, on the availabil ity of Federal scholarships, and on required preoptometry courses, contact individual op tometry schools. The Board of Optometry in the capital of each State can supply a list of optometry schools approved by that State, as well as licensing requirements. Osteopathic Physicians (D.O.T. 071.101-010) Nature of the Work Osteopathic physicians (D.O.s) diagnose and treat diseases or maladies of the human body. They place special emphasis on the musculo-skeletal system of the body—bones, muscles, ligaments, and nerves. One of the basic treatments or therapies used by os teopathic physicians centers on manipulating this system with the hands. Osteopathic physicians also use surgery, drugs, and all other accepted methods of medical care. Most osteopathic physicians are “family doctors” who engage in general practice. These physicians usually see patients in their offices, make house calls, and treat patients in osteopathic and other private and public hospitals. Some doctors of osteopathy teach, do research, or write and edit scientific books and journals. In recent years, specialization has in creased. In 1978, about 25 percent of all os teopathic physicians were practicing in spe cialties, including internal medicine, neurology and psychiatry, ophthalmology, pediatrics, anesthesiology, physical medicine and rehabilitation, dermatology, obstetrics and gynecology, pathology, proctology, radi ology, and surgery. Working Conditions Many osteopathic physicians work more than 50 or 60 hours a week. Those in general practice usually work longer and more ir regular hours than specialists. As osteopathic physicians grow older, they may accept fewer new patients and tend to work shorter hours. However, many continue to practice well be yond 70 years of age. Places of Employment About 17,000 osteopathic physicians prac ticed in the United States in 1978. Almost 85 percent of the active osteopathic physicians were in private practice. A small number were full time staff or faculty members of osteopathic hospitals and colleges, private in dustry, or government agencies. Osteopathic physicians are located chiefly in those States that have osteopathic hospital facilities. In 1978, three-fifths of all os teopathic physicians were in Florida, Michi gan, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Ohio, Texas, and Missouri. Twenty-one States and the physicians must have a strong desire to pur sue this career above all others. They must be willing to study a great deal throughout their career in order to keep up with the latest advances in osteopathic medicine. They should exhibit leadership, emotional stabiliy, and self-confidence. A pleasant personality, friendliness, patience, and the ability to deal with people also are important. Employment Outlook Osteopathic physicians are particularly concerned about problems involving the muscles and bones. District of Columbia each had fewer than 50 osteopathic physicians. More than half of all general practitioners are located in towns and cities having fewer than 50,000 people; spe cialists, however, practice mainly in large cit ies. Training and Other Qualifications All 50 States and the District of Columbia require a license to practice osteopathic med icine. To obtain a license, a candidate must be a graduate of an approved school of os teopathic medicine and pass a State board examination. In four States, candidates must pass an examination in the basic sciences be fore they are eligible to take the professional examination; 38 States and the District of Columbia also require a period of internship in an approved hospital after graduation from an osteopathic school. The National Board of Osteopathic Examiners also gives an examination which is accepted by most States as a substitute for State examination. Most States grant licenses without further examination to osteopathic physicians al ready licensed by another State. The minimum educational requirement for entry to one of the schools of osteopathic medicine is 3 years of college work, but in practice almost all osteopathic students have a bachelor’s degree. Preosteopathic educa tion must include courses in chemistry, phys ics, biology, and English. Osteopathic col leges require successful completion of 3 to 4 years of professional study for the degree of Doctor of Osteopathy (D.O.). During the first half of professional training, emphasis is placed on basic sciences, such as anatomy, physiology, and pathology, and on the princi ples of osteopathy; the remainder of the time is devoted largely to experience with patients in hospitals and clinics. After graduation, nearly all doctors of os teopathic medicine serve a 12-month intern ship at 1 of the 90 osteopathic hospitals ap proved by the American Osteopathic Association for intern or residency training. Those who wish to specialize must have 2 to 5 years of additional training. The osteopathic physician’s lengthy train ing is very costly. Federal and private loans are available to help students meet these costs. In addition, scholarships are available to qualified applicants who agree to a mini mum of 2 years’ Federal service after gradua tion. In 1979, there were 14 schools of os teopathic medicine. Schools admit students on the basis of their college grades, scores on the required New Medical College Admis sions Test, and recommendations from premedical college counselors. The appli cant’s desire to serve as an osteopathic physi cian rather than as a doctor trained in other fields of medicine is a very important qualifi cation. Colleges also give considerable weight to a favorable recommendation by an os teopathic physician familiar with the appli cant’s background. Newly qualified doctors of osteopathic medicine usually establish their own practice, although a growing number enter group practice. Some work as assistants to ex perienced physicians or join the staff of os teopathic or allopathic (M.D.) hospitals. In view of the variation in State laws, persons who wish to become osteopathic physicians carefully should study the professional and legal requirements of the State in which they plan to practice. The availability of os teopathic hospitals and clinical facilities also should be considered. Persons who wish to become osteopathic Opportunities for osteopathic physicians are expected to be favorable through 1980’s. Many localities are without medical practi tioners of any kind; many more have few or no osteopathic physicians. In addition, many new osteopaths will be needed to replace those who retire or die. The greatest demand probably will continue to be in States where osteopathic medicine is a widely known and accepted method of treatment, such as Penn sylvania, Florida, and several Midwestern States. Generally, prospects for beginning a successful practice are likely to be best in rural areas, small towns, and city suburbs, where young doctors of osteopathy may es tablish their professional reputations more easily than in the large cities. The osteopathic profession is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s because of general population growth and the rising proportion of elderly persons, the establishment of addi tional osteopathic hospital facilities, and the extension of prepayment programs for hospi talization and medical care including Medi care and Medicaid. Earnings In osteopathic medicine, as in many of the other health professions, incomes usually rise markedly after the first few years of practice. Earnings of individual practitioners are de termined mainly by ability, experience, geo graphic location, and the income level of the community served. Graduates who had completed an approved 3-year residency but had no other experience received a starting salary at a Veterans Administration hospital of about $32,500 a year in 1979. In addition, those who worked full time received up to $7,000 in other cash benefits or “special” payments. In general, the income earned by D.O.s compares favorably with other profes sions. Specialists usually earn higher incomes than general practitioners. Related Occupations Osteopathic physicians work to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and injuries. Other occupations that require the exercise of similar critical judgments include: Audiologist, chiropractor, dentist, optome trist, physician, podiatrist, speech patholo gist, and veterinarian. Sources of Additional Information People who wish to practice in a given State should find out about the requirements MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS/375 cal schools. Others hold full-time research or teaching positions or perform administrative work in hospitals, professional associations, and other organizations. A few are primarily engaged in writing and editing medical books and magazines. for licensure directly from the board of exam iners of that State. Information on Federal scholarships and loans is available from the director of student financial aid at the indi vidual schools of osteopathy. For a list of State boards, as well as general information on osteopathy as a career, contact: Working Conditions American Osteopathic Association, Department of Public Relations, 212 East Ohio St., Chicago, 111. 60611. American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine, 4720 Montgomery Lane, Washington, D.C. 20014. Many physicians have long working days and irregular hours. Most specialists work fewer hours each week than general practi tioners. As doctors grow older, they may ac cept fewer new patients and tend to work shorter hours. However, many continue in practice well beyond 70 years of age. Physicians Place of Employment (D.O.T. 070.061-010 through .107-014) About 385,000 physicians were profession ally active in the^United States in 1978— almost 9 out of 10 providing patient care ser vices. About 220,000 of these had office prac tices; more than 105,000 others worked as residents or full-time staff member in hospi tals. The remaining physicians—more than 32,000—taught or performed administrative or research duties. Nature of the Work Physicians perform medical examinations, diagnose diseases, and treat people who are suffering from injury or disease. They also advise patients on how to prevent disease and keep fit through proper diet and exercise. Physicians generally work in their own of fices and in hospitals, but they also may visit patients in their homes or in nursing homes. A decreasing percentage of the physicians who provide patient care are general practi tioners (about 15 percent in 1978); most spe cialize in 1 of about 40 fields for which there is postgraduate training. The largest special ties are internal medicine, general surgery, obstetrics and gynecology, psychiatry, pedia trics, radiology, anesthesiology, ophthal mology, pathology, and orthopedic surgery. The most rapidly growing specialties are in the primary care area—family practice, in ternal medicine, obstetrics-gynecology, and pediatrics. Some physicians combine the practice of medicine with research or teaching in medi wm Hi 1 '.i. In 1978, 10,000 graduates of foreign medi cal schools served as hospital residents in this country. To be appointed to approved resi dencies in U.S. hospitals, alien graduates of foreign medical schools must pass the Visa Qualifying Examination offered by the Edu cational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates. The Northeastern States have the highest ratio of physicians to population and the Southern States the lowest. Because physi cians have tended to locate in urban areas, close to hospital and educational centers, many rural areas have been underserved by medical personnel. Currently, more medical students are being exposed to practice in rural communities with the direct support of educational centers and hospitals in more ...H..i Specialists outnumber general practitioners by 5 to 1 Percent of physicians by specialty group, 1978 ^General practice Other specialty Psychiatry Anesthesiology, etc Medical specialty Surgical Obstetri Orthopedic Source: American Medical 376/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK internal medicine Pediatrics, etc. populous areas. In addition, some rural areas offer physicians guaranteed minimum in comes to offset the relatively low earnings typical in rural medical practice. Training and Other Qualifications All States, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico require a license to practice medicine. Requirements for licensure include graduation from an accredited medical school, successful completion of a licensing examination, and, in most States, a period of 1 or 2 years in an accredited graduate medi cal education program (residency). The lic ensing examination taken by most graduates of U.S. medical schools is the National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME) test that is accepted by all States except Texas. Gradu ates of foreign medical schools as well as graduates of U.S. medical schools who have not taken the NBME test must take the Fed eration Licensure Examination (FLEX) that is accepted by all jurisdictions. Although physicians licensed in one State usually can get a license to practice in another without further examination, some States limit this reciprocity. In 1978, there were 124 accredited schools in the United States in which students could begin the study of medicine. Of these, 123 awarded the degree of Doctor of Medicine (M.D.); 1 school offered a 2-year program in the basic medical sciences to students who could then transfer to another medical school for the last semesters of study. The minimum educational requirement for entry to a medical school is 3 years of college; some schools require 4 years. A few medical schools allow selected students who have ex ceptional qualifications to begin their profes sional study after 2 years of college. Most students who enter medical schools have a bachelor’s degree. Required premedical study incudes un dergraduate work in English, physics, biol ogy, and inorganic and organic chemistry. Students also should take courses in the humanities, mathematics, and the social sciences to acquire a broad general educa tion. Medicine is a popular field of study, and competition for entry to medical school is intense. In 1978, there were about 40,500 ap plicants for only 16,000 positions. Almost all of those accepted had premedical college grades averaging “B” or better. Other factors considered by medical schools in admitting students include their scores on the New Medical College Admission Test, which is taken by almost all applicants. Consideration also is given to the applicant’s character, per sonality, and leadership qualities, as shown by personal interviews, letters of recommen dation, and extracurricular activities in col lege. Many State-supported medical schools give preference to residents of their particular State and, sometimes, those of nearby States. Most medical students take 4 years to complete the curriculum for the M.D. de- In a reversal of earlier patterns, more new medical iraduates now enter residencies in primary care than in the highly specialized areas of medicine Percent of first-year residencies 100 gree. Some schools, however, allow students who have demonstrated outstanding ability to follow a shortened curriculum, generally lasting 3 years. A few schools offer the M.D. degree within 6 years of high school gradua tion. The first semesters of medical school are u \ Primary care inctudes family practice, internal medicine, obstetrics, and pediatrics n spent primarily in laboratories and class rooms, learning basic medical sciences such as anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, phar macology, microbiology, and pathology. Ad ditionally, students gain some clinical experi ence with patients during the first 2 years of study, earning to take case histories, perform examinations, and recognize diseases. Dur ing the last semesters, students spend the ma jority of their time in hospitals and clinics under the supervision of clinical faculty, where they become experienced in the diag nosis and treatment of illness. After graduating from medical school, al most all M.D.’s serve a 1- or 2-year resi dency. Those planning to work in general practice often spend an additional year in a hospital residency. Those seeking certifica tion in a specialty spend from 2 to 4 years— depending on the specialty—in advanced res idency training, followed by 2 years of prac tice or more in the specialty. Then they must pass the specialty board examinations. Some physicians who want to teach or do research take graduate work leading to a master’s or Ph. D. degree in a field such as biochemistry or microbiology. Medical training is very costly because of the long time required to earn the medical degree. However, financial assistance in the form of loans and scholarships is available primarily from the Federal Government, and to a lesser extent from State and local govern ment and private sources. Some of this aid requires the student to commit a minimum of 2 years’ time to Federal service upon gradua tion and/or to establish financial need. Persons who wish to become physicians must have a strong desire to serve the sick and injured. They must be willing to study a great deal in order to keep up with the latest advances in medical science. Sincerity and a pleasant personality are assets that help physicians gain the confidence of patients. Physicians also should be emotionally stable and able to make decisions in emergencies. The majority of newly qualified physicians open their own offices or join associate or group practices. Those who have completed 1 year of graduate medical education (a 1year residency) and enter active military duty initially serve as captains in the Army or Air Force or as lieutenants in the Navy. Gradu ates of medical schools are eligible for com missions as senior assistant surgeons in the U.S. Public Health Service, with a salary equivalent to that of an Army captain. Grad uates also qualify for Federal Civil Service professional medical positions. Employment Outlook The employment outlook for physicians is expected to be favorable through the 1980’s. However, medical school enrollments in creased dramatically during the 1970’s, and these graduates, combined with foreign med ical graduates seeking to practice here, will greatly improve the supply of physicians. Moreover, a greater percentage of new medi cal graduates are entering the primary care specialties, and this may help alleviate a criti cal shortage in many localities. With more physicians in primary care there may be an increasing movement of physicians into rural and other areas that have experienced short ages in the past. One of the fastest growing medical specialties is family practice. Growth in population will create much of MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS/377 the need for more physicians, and a larger percentage of the population will be in the age group over 65, which uses more physi cians’ services. Also, the effective demand for physicians’ care will increase because of greater ability to pay, resulting from exten sion of prepayment programs for hospitaliza tion and medical care, including Medicare and Medicaid, and continued Federal Gov ernment provision of medical care for mem bers of the Armed Forces, their families, and veterans. In addition, more physicians will be needed for medical research and for the growing fields of public health, rehabilita tion, industrial medicine, and mental health. To some extent, the rise in the demand for physicians’ services will be offset by develop ments that will enable physicians to care for more patients. For example, increasing num bers of medical technicians are assisting physicians; new drugs and new medical tech niques are shortening illnesses; and growing numbers of physicians are using their time more effectively by engaging in group prac tice. The use of physicians’ assistants and nurse practitioners also may increase the pro ductivity of physicians. Although the expected increase in the number of phyisians and in the productivity is likely to result in greater availability of medical care, new physicians should have lit tle difficulty establishing a practice. Earnings Stipends of medical school graduates serv ing as residents in hospitals vary according to the type of residency, geographic area, and size of the hospital, but allowances of $ 13,000 to $14,000 a year are common. Many hospi tals also provide full or partial room, board, and other maintenance allowances to their residents. Graduates who had completed approved 3-year residencies but had no other medical experience, received a starting salary at Vet erans’ Administration hospitals of about $32,500 a year in 1979. In addition, those working full time received up to $7,000 in other cash benefits or “special” payments. Newly qualified physicians who establish their own practice must make a sizable finan cial investment to equip a modem office. During the first year or two of independent practice, physicians probably earn little more than the minimum needed to pay expenses. As a rule, however, their earnings rise rapidly as their practices develop. Physicians have the highest average an nual earnings of any occupational group. A survey of private, office-based M.D.’s, con ducted by Medical Economics magazine, re ported a median net income of $65,400 in 1977. Historically, most specialists, such as radiologists and surgeons, have earned much more than family or general practitioners. However, earnings of family practitioners in recent years have risen sharply. The average of family practitioners’ incomes was 90 per cent of that for general surgeons in 1977. 378/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Earnings of physicians depend on factors such as the region of the country in which they practice; the patients’ income levels; and the physicians’ skills, personality, and profes sional reputation, as well as the length of experience. Self-employed physicians usually earn more than those in salaried positions. Related Occupations Physicians work to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases, disorders, and injuries. Other occupations that require similar kinds of skill and critical judgment include audiologists, chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, os teopathic phsyicians, podiatrists, speech pa thologists, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information Persons who wish to practice in a State should find out about the requirements for licensure directly from the board of medical examiners of that State. Information on Fed eral scholarships and loans is available from the directors of student financial aid at medi cal schools. For a list of approved medical schools, as well as general information on premedical education, financial aid, and medicine as a career, contact: Council on Medical Education, American Medical Association, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago 111. 60610. Association of American Medical Colleges, Suite 200, One Dupont Circle, NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Podiatrists (D.O.T. 079.101-022) Nature of the Work Podiatrists diagnose and treat diseases and deformities of the foot. They perform sur gery, fit corrective devices, and prescribe drugs, physical therapy, and proper shoes. To help in diagnoses, they take X-rays and perform or prescribe blood and other patho logical tests. Podiatrists treat a variety of foot conditions, including corns, bunions, cal luses, ingrown toenails, skin and nail dis eases, deformed toes, and arch disabilities. Whenever podiatrists find symptoms of a medical disorder affecting other parts of the body—arthritis, diabetes, or heart disease, for example—they refer the patient to a phy sician while continuing to treat the foot prob lem. Some podiatrists specialize in foot surgery, orthopedics (bone, muscle, and joint disord ers), podopediatrics (children’s foot ail ments), or podogeriatrics (foot problems of the elderly). However, more than four of every five are generalists, who provide all types of foot care. Working Conditions Podiatrists usually work independently in their own offices. Their workweek is gener ally 40 hours, and they may set their hours to suit their practice. Places of Employment Of the 8,100 podiatrists active in 1978, the majority were located in large cities. Those who had full-time salaried positions worked mainly in hospitals, podiatric med ical colleges, or for other podiatrists. The Veterans’ Administration and public health departments employ podiatrists on either a full- or part-time basis. Others serve as commissioned officers in the Armed Forces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require a license for the practice of po diatry. To qualify for a license, an appli cant must graduate from an accredited col lege of podiatric medicine and pass a written and oral State board proficiency examination. Four States—Georgia, Michi gan, New Jersey, and Rhode Island—also require applicants to serve a 1-year resi dency in a hospital or clinic after gradua tion. Three-fourths of the States grant li censes without further examination to podiatrists licensed by another State. The five colleges of podiatric medicine are located in California, Illinois, New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. Minimum entrance requirements at these schools include 3 years of college work with courses in English, chemistry, biology or zoology, physics, and mathematics. Competition for entry to these schools is strong, however, and most entrants surpass the minimum requirements. About 90 percent of the class entering in 1978 held at least a bachelor’s degree, and the average enrollee had an overall grade point average of ‘B‘ or better. All colleges of podiatric medi cine require applicants to take the New Med ical College Admissions Test. Of the 4 years in podiatry school, the first 2 are spent in classroom instruction and laboratory work in anatomy, bacteriology, chemistry, pathol ogy, physiology, pharmacology, and other basic sciences. During the final 2 years, stu dents obtain clinical experience while con tinuing their academic studies. The degree of Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (D.P.M.) is awarded upon graduation. Additional educa tion and experience generally are necessary to practice in a specialty. Federal, State, and private loans are available for needy students to pursue full-time study leading to a degree in podiatric medicine. Persons planning a career in podiatry should have scientific aptitude and manual dexterity, and like detailed work. A good business sense and congeniality also are as sets in the profession. Most newly licensed podiatrists set up their own practices. Some purchase estab lished practices, or obtain salaried positions to gain the experience and money they need to begin their own. search team to learn about prevention and treatment of human disease. Working Conditions Veterinarians sometimes may be exposed to danger of injury, disease, and infection. Those in private practice often have long and irregular working hours. Veterinarians in rural areas may have to work outdoors in all kinds of weather. Because they are selfemployed, veterinarians in private practice usually can continue working well beyond normal retirement age. Places of Employment Podiatrists diagnose and treat foot problems. Employment Outlook Opportunities for graduates to establish new practices, as well as to enter salaried positions, should be favorable through the 1980’s. Employment of podiatrists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions as podiatry gains recognition as a heal ing art and as an expanding population de mands more health services. The growing number of older people who need foot care and who are entitled to certain podiatrists’ services under Medicare also is expected to spur demand. Information on colleges of podiatric medicine, entrance requirements, curriculums, and student financial aid is avail able from: American Association of Colleges of Podiatric Medicine, 20 Chevy Chase Circle, NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20015. For additional information on podiatry as a career, contact: American Podiatry Association, 20 Chevy Chase Circle, NW., Washington, D.C. 20015. Veterinarians Earnings Newly licensed podiatrists build their practices over a number of years. Income during the first several years is low but gener ally rises significantly as the practice grows. A net income of over $40,000 a year is com mon for established podiatrists. Newly li censed podiatrists hired by Veterans’ Ad ministration hospitals earned starting salaries between $19,263 and $25,041 in 1978. Nature of the Work Podiatrists work to prevent, diagnose, and treat human foot diseases, disorders, and in juries. Other occupations that require similar skills include audiologists, chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, osteopathic physi cians, physicians, speech pathologists, and veterinarians. Sources of Additional Information Information on license requirements in a particular State is available from that State’s board of examiners in the State capital. Veterinarians are located in all parts of the country, and the type of practice gen erally varies according to geographic set ting. Veterinarians in rural areas mainly treat farm animals; those in small towns usually engage in general practice; those in cities and suburban areas often limit their practice to pets. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement (D.O.T. 073. except .361-010) Related Occupations There were about 33,500 veterinarians ac tive in 1978—most in private practice. The Federal Government employed about 2,450 veterinarians, chiefly in the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Public Health Service. About 675 more were commissioned officers in the veterinary services of the Army and Air Force. Other employers of veterinarians are State and local government agencies, international health agencies, col leges of veterinary medicine, medical schools, research and development laboratories, large livestock farms, animal food companies, and pharmaceutical companies that manufacture drugs. Veterinarians (doctors of veterinary medi cine) diagnose, treat, and control diseases and injuries among animals. They help pre vent the outbreak and spread of animal dis eases, many of which can be transmitted to human beings. Veterinarians treat animals in hospitals and clinics or on farms and ranches. They perform surgery on sick and injured animals and prescribe and administer drugs, medi cines, and vaccines. Veterinary medicine offers a variety of practice specialties. Over one-third of all veterinarians treat small animals or pets ex clusively. About one-third treat both large and small animals. A large number specialize in the health and breeding of cattle, poultry, sheep, swine, or horses. Many veterinarians inspect meat, poultry, and other foods as part of Federal and State public health programs. Still others teach in veterinary colleges, do research related to animal diseases, foods, and drugs, or work as part of a medical re All States and the District of Columbia require veterinarians to have a license. To obtain a license, applicants must have a Doc tor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M. or V.M.D.) degree from an accredited college of veterinary medicine and pass written and— in 29 States—oral State board proficiency ex aminations. Some States issue licenses with out further examination to veterinarians al ready licensed by another State. For positions in research and teaching, an additional master’s or Ph. D. degree usually is required in a field such as pathology, physi ology, or bacteriology. The D.V.M. or V.M.D. degree requires a minimum of 6 years of college consisting of a 4-year professional degree program, preceded by at least 2 years of preveterinary study that emphasizes the physical and bio logical sciences. Several veterinary medical colleges require 3 years of preveterinary work, however, and most applicants have completed 3 to 4 years of college before en tering the professional programs. In addi tion to rigorous academic instruction, pro fessional training includes considerable practical experience in diagnosing and treat ing animal diseases, performing surgery, MEDICAL PRACTITIONERS/379 livestock and poultry and growth in public health and disease control programs also will contribute to the demand for veterinarians. Between 1970 and 1990, however, the num ber of graduates from schools of veterinary medicine is expected to double. As a result, new veterinarians may face competition in establishing practices in some areas. Earnings Newly graduated veterinarians employed by the Federal Government started at $18,000 a year in 1979. The average annual salary of veterinarians in the Federal Government was $27,300 in 1978. The incomes of veterinarians in private practice vary consid erably, depending on factors such as location, type of practice, and years of experience, but usually are higher than those of other veterinarians. According to the limited data available, the average income of private prac titioners was almost $33,000 in 1978. Related Occupations Over one-third of all veterinarians treat small animals or pets. and performing laboratory work in anat omy, biochemistry, and other scientific and medical subjects. In 1978, there were 22 colleges of veteri nary medicine accredited by the Council on Education of the American Veterinary Medical Association. Admission to these schools is highly competitive. Each year there are many more qualified applicants than the schools can accept. Serious appli cants usually need grades of “B” or better, especially in science courses. Experience in part-time or summer jobs working with animals is advantageous. Colleges usually give preference to residents of the State in which the college is located, because these schools are largely State supported. In the South and West, regional educational plans permit cooperating States without veteri nary schools to send students to designated regional schools. In other areas, colleges that accept a certain number of students from other States usually give priority to applicants from nearby States that do not have veterinary schools. Federal funds provide a limited number of loans for students who want to pursue full 380/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK time study leading to the degree of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine. Most veterinarians begin as employees or partners in established practices. A few start their own practices with a modest financial investment in drugs, instruments, and an automobile. With a more substantial investment, one may open an animal hospital or purchase an established prac tice. Newly qualified veterinarians may enter the Army or Air Force as commissioned of ficers, or qualify for Federal positions as meat and poultry inspectors, disease-control workers, epidemiologists, research assistants, or commissioned officers in the U.S. Public Health Service. A license is not required for Federal employment. Employment Outlook Veterinary employment is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s, primarily because of growth in the companion animal (horses, dogs, and other pets) population. Emphasis on scientific methods of raising and breeding Veterinarians work to prevent, diagnose, and treat animal diseases, disorders, and inju ries. Other occupations that require similar skills include audiologists, chiropractors, dentists, optometrists, osteopathic physi cians, physicians, podiatrists, and speech pa thologists. Sources of Additional Information A pamphlet entitled Today's Veterinarian presents additional information on veteri nary medicine as a career, as well as a list of colleges of veterinary medicine. A free copy may be obtained by submitting a request, to gether with a self-addressed stamped busi ness size envelope, to: American Veterinary Medical Association, 930 N. Meacham Rd., Schaumburg, 111. 60196. Information on opportunities for veterinarians in the U.S. Department of Ag riculture is available from: Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Per sonnel Division, 123 E. Grant St., Minneapolis, Minn. 55403 Food Safety and Quality Service, Personnel Direc tor, 123 E. Grant St., Minneapolis, Minn. 55403. Students seeking loan or scholarship assist ance should send inquiries to the schools in which they are interested. Medical Technologist, Technician, and Assistant Occupations Many of the occupations discussed in this section were developed to relieve highly trained professionals of their less compli cated and routine duties: Optometric assist ants, for example, give preliminary eye ex aminations and help patients do prescribed eye exercises in order to free optometrists and ophthalmologists for more demanding pro fessional duties. Other medical technician jobs have emerged to meet a previously unfilled need for medical care in situations where physi cians and registered nurses are unavailable. Emergency medical technicians, for example, provide medical attention at the site of a fire, automobile accident, or other emergency. The development of sophisticated diagnos tic tools and techniques for treatment, brought about by advances in medical sci ence and technology, also has created the need for workers such as electrocardiograph technicians, who operate equipment that monitors a patient’s heart action, and electroencephalographic technicians, who operate equipment that monitors the electrical activ ity of a patient’s brain. Medical record technicians and clerks pro cess the large volume of medical records gen erated daily in hospitals and nursing homes. This section deals in detail with nine health occupations that are technical or clerical in nature. in the EKG department of a hospital, or at the patient’s bedside, since the equipment is mobile. The technician straps electrodes to specified parts of the patient’s body, manipu lates switches of the electrocardiograph, and repositions electrodes across the patient’s chest. The technician must know the anat omy of the chest and heart to properly select the exact locations for the chest electrodes, since the wrong selection may yield an inac curate diagnosis. The test may be given while the patient is at rest, or in association with mild exercise. The electrocardiograph records a “pic ture” of the patient’s heart action on a con tinuous roll of paper. The technician then prepares the electrocardiogram for analysis by a physician, usually a heart specialist. Technicians must be able to recognize and correct any technical errors, such as crossed wires or electrical interference, that prevent an accurate reading. They also must call the doctor’s attention to any significant devia tions from the norm. EKG technicians sometimes conduct other tests such as vectorcardiograms, which are multi-dimensional traces; stress testing (exercise tests); pulse recordings; and Holter monitoring and scanning, which is a 12- to 24-hour recording of the EKG on magnetic tape. In addition, some technicians schedule appointments, type doctors’ diagnoses, main tain patients’ EKG files, and care for equip ment. (D.O.T. 078.362-018) Nature of the Work Electrocardiograms (EKG’s) are graphic heartbeat tracings produced by an instru ment called an electrocardiograph. These tracings record the electrical changes that occur during a heartbeat. Physicians use elec trocardiograms to diagnose irregularities in heart action and to analyze changes in the condition of a patient’s heart over a period of time. Some physicians order electrocardio grams as a routine diagnostic procedure for persons who have reached a specified age. Electrocardiograms are required as part of preemployment physical examinations for people in many fields. In some cases, the tests also are used if surgery is to be performed. At the request of a physician, electrocardi ograms can be recorded in a doctor’s office, Persons who want to become EKG techni cians should have mechanical aptitude, the ability to follow detailed instructions, pres ence of mind in emergencies, reliability, and patience. Because EKG technician is the entry level position in the field of cardiovascular tech nology, there are good opportunities for ad vancement. With the proper training and ex perience, EKG technicians can advance to monitor technicians, cardiovascular techni cians, cardiopulmonary technicians, and car diology technologists. Promotion to supervi sory positions also is possible. Employment Outlook Places of Employment Employment of EKG technicians is ex pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as a result of general population growth, greater health consciousness, and expansion of prepayment programs that make it easier for people to pay for health and medical care. Demand for technicians also should increase due to the rising proportion of older persons, the seg ment of the population requiring the most heart tests. Nearly 20,000 persons worked as elec trocardiograph technicians in 1978. Most EKG technicians worked in cardiology de partments of large hospitals. Others worked part time in small general hospitals where workloads are usually not great enough to demand full-time technicians. Some worked full or part time in clinics and cardiologists’ offices. In addition to job openings resulting from growth, new EKG technicians will be needed to replace workers who die, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Because the occu pation is quite small, however, there will be relatively few openings. Technicians with formal training should find favorable pros pects. Persons without this training, how ever, may face competition. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Earnings Working Conditions Electrocardiograph Technicians______ up to 1 month for the basic EKG tests and up to 1 year for the more complex ones. For mal training programs varying in length from 1 to 2 years are offered in vocational schools and junior and community colleges. The American Cardiology Technologists Associ ation recognizes six of these programs. Train ing also is available in the Armed Forces. Generally, the minimum educational re quirement for the job is high school gradua tion. Among high school courses that are recommended for students interested in this field are health, biology, and typing. Famil iarity with medical terminology also is help ful and can be acquired in classes on human anatomy and physiology and by studying a medical dictionary. Unless they are involved in an emergency case, EKG technicians usually work in a relaxed atmosphere. A lot of their time is spent on their feet. They work directly with patients and therefore must be able to relate well to many kinds of people. Generally, EKG technicians are trained on the job. Training—usually conducted by an EKG supervisor or a cardiologist—lasts EKG technicians employed in hospitals, medical schools, and medical centers earned starting salaries of about $7,800 a year in 1978, according to a survey conducted by the MEDICAL TECHNOLOGIST, TECHNICIAN, AND ASSISTANT OCCUPATIONS/381 tional information about the work of EKG technicians, contact: American Hospital Association, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111. 60611. Electroencephalographic Technologists and Technicians_____ (D.O.T. 078.362-022) Nature of the Work The field of electroencephalography (EEG) is concerned with recording and studying the electrical activity of the brain. A special instrument, the electroencephalo graph, records this activity, producing a writ ten tracing of the brain’s electrical impulses. This record of brain waves is called an elec troencephalogram. Various kinds of brain diseases can be diagnosed by neurologists and other qualified medical practitioners with the use of EEG. Electroencephalograms are taken for patients suspected of having brain tumors, strokes, or epilepsy. The consequences of infectious dis eases on the brain can be measured with EEG. Electroencephalograms may be taken of children with serious adjustment problems or learning difficulties to discover any or ganic basis for these problems. EEG also may be used prior to vital organ transplant opera tions, to help determine whether the poten tial donor is dead or alive. T o take an electrocardiogram, the EK G technician attaches electrodes to the patient’s body. University of Texas Medical Branch. Ex perienced EKG technicians, in some cases, earned as much as $15,100 a year. Inexperienced EKG technicians with the Federal Government earned $8,366 a year in early 1979; a few experienced technicians earned as much as $15,222 a year. Usually, EKG technicians earn about as much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. In general, those EKG technicians with previous formal training earn higher starting salaries than those who learn on the job. Also, EKG technicians who perform more sophisticated tests are paid more than those who perform only basic ones. EKG technicians in hospitals receive the same fringe benefits as other hospital person nel, including hospitalization, vacation, and 38 2/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK sick leave benefits. Some institutions provide tuition assistance or free education courses, pension programs, and uniforms. Techni cians generally work a 40-hour week, which may include Saturdays and Sundays. Those working in hospitals also may be required to work evening hours. Related Occupations Some other occupations requiring opera tion of technical equipment to test a patient’s medical condition include electroencephalographic (EEG) technologists and techni cians, radiologic (X-ray) technologists, and medical laboratory workers. Sources of Additional Information Local hospitals can supply information about employment opportunities. For addi The people who operate EEG equipment are known as EEG technicians and technolo gists. The main job of an EEG technician is to produce electroencephalograms, under the supervision of an EEG technologist or an electroencephalographer (a physician spe cializing in electroencephalography). Before doing this job, the technician takes a simpli fied medical history of the patient and helps the patient relax for the test. The technician then applies the electrodes of the electroen cephalograph to designated spots on the pa tient’s head and makes sure that the machine is working well. The technician chooses the most appropriate combinations of instru ment controls and electrodes to produce the kind of record needed. EEG technicians must be able to recognize and correct any artifacts that appear (an artifact is an electrical or mechanical event that comes from some where other than the brain). If there are any mechanical problems with the electroenceph alograph, the technician must advise his or her supervisor, so that the machine can be repaired promptly. EEG technicians also need a basic understanding of the kinds of medical emergencies that can occur in laboratories to be able to react properly if an emergency arises. For example, if a patient suffers an epileptic seizure, the EEG techni cian must take the proper action. EEG technologists usually perform all the duties of EEG technicians but have a more thorough understanding of all aspects of EEG work. Thus they can apply spe cific EEG techniques to the particular re quirements of a patient. Technologists also may use EEG equipment in conjunction with other electrophysiologic monitoring devices, such as a tape recorder. They also can repair the equipment if it is not work ing properly. After producing an EEG re cording, the technologist writes a descrip tive report to accompany it for use by electroencephalographers. Part of an EEG technologist’s job is to supervise EEG technicians. Besides direct supervision during EEG recordings, this in cludes such things as arranging work schedules and teaching EEG techniques. Technologists often have administrative re sponsibilities, such as managing the labora tory, keeping records, scheduling appoint ments, and ordering supplies. Working Conditions EEG technologists and technicians usually work in clean, well-lighted surroundings. About half of their time on duty is spent on their feet and a lot of bending over is neces sary. The main hazards result from possible electrical shocks from faulty equipment and physical harassment from unruly patients. Places of Employment junior colleges, medical schools, hospitals, and vocational or technical schools. About 7,000 persons worked as electroencephalographic technologists and technicians in 1978. Although EEG personnel work pri marily in the neurology departments of hos pitals, many work in private offices of neurologists and neurosurgeons. EEG personnel who have 1 year of train ing and 1 year of laboratory experience, and who successfully complete a written and oral examination administered by the American Board of Registration of Electroencephalo graph Technologists (ABRET), are desig nated “Registered EEG Technologist” (R.EEG T.). Although not a requirement for employment, registration by ABRET is ac knowledgment of a technologist’s qualifica tions and makes better paying jobs easier to obtain. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most EEG technicians working in 1978 were trained on the job by experienced EEG personnel. However, with advances in medi cal technology, electroencephalograph equipment has become increasingly more so phisticated, requiring technicians with more training. In 1978, there were 27 formal training programs for EEG technologists and tech nicians, 12 of which were approved by the American Medical Association’s Commit tee on Allied Health Education and Ac creditation. These formal programs usually last from 1 to 2 years and include labora tory experience as well as classroom in struction in neurology, anatomy, neuroanatomy, physiology, neurophysi ology, clinical and internal medicine, psy chiatry, and electronics and instrumenta tion. They are carried on in colleges, Persons who want to enter this field should have manual dexterity, good vision, an apti tude for working with electronic equipment, and the ability to work with patients as well as with other members of the hospital team. High school students considering a career in this occupation should take courses in health and biology. Some EEG technicians in large hospitals can advance to chief EEG technologist and take on increased responsibilities in labora tory management and in teaching basic tech niques to new personnel. Chief EEG tech nologists are supervised by an electroencephalographer, or a neurologist or neuro surgeon. Employment Outlook Employment of EEG technologists and technicians is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations due to the increased use of EEG’s in surgery, in diagnosing and monitoring patients with brain disease, and in research on the human brain. Contributing to the overall increase in health services and the need for EEG tech nologists and technicians are greater health consciousness and more prepaid health pro grams. In addition to openings from growth, many openings will arise when workers retire or leave the field for other reasons. Earnings Starting salaries of EEG technicians em ployed by hospitals, medical schools, and medical centers averaged $8,800 a year in 1978, according to a survey by the Univer sity of Texas Medical Branch. Starting sal aries for registered EEG technologists were $1,000 to $2,000 higher. Top salaries of ex perienced EEG technicians ranged as high as $22,600 a year. Highly qualified tech nologists may earn more as teachers in special training situations or as supervisors of EEG laboratories. Because of the serious nature of their work, electroencephalographs technologists and technicians must stay alert on the job. Inexperienced EEG trainees employed by the Federal Government received $8,366 a year in 1979, but they could advance to as much as $16,920 a year. Usually, EEG tech nicians earn about as much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private indus try, except farming. EEG technologists and technicians in hos MEDICAL TECHNOLOGIST, TECHNICIAN, AND ASSISTANT OCCUPATIONS/383 pitals receive the same benefits as other hos pital personnel, including hospitalization, va cation, and sick leave benefits. Some institu tions may provide tuition assistance or free courses, pension programs, uniforms, and parking. EEG technologists and technicians gener ally work a 40-hour week with little over time, although some hospitals require a standby emergency service after hours and on weekends and holidays. Related Occupations Other occupations whose main work con sists of performing medical activities under supervision are dental assistants, electrocar diograph technicians, licensed practical nurses, nursing aides, occupational therapy assistants, operating room technicians, or derlies, and physical therapy aides. Sources of Additional Information Local hospitals can supply information about employment opportunities. Additional information is available from: American Hospital Association, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111. 60611. For general information about a career in the field of electroencephalography as well as information on registration with ABRET, contact: Executive Office, American Society of EEG Tech nologists, 32500 Grand River Ave., # 103, Farm ington, Mich.48024. For a free copy of Education fo r Allied Health Careers, which contains information concerning formal training programs, write to: American Medical Association, Department of Al lied Health Evaluation, 535 North Dearborn St., Chicago, 111. 60610. Emergency Medical Technicians_______ (D.O.T. 079.374-010) Nature of the Work An automobile accident, a heart attack, a near drowning, an unscheduled childbirth, a poisoning, a gunshot wound—all of these situations demand urgent medical attention. Seeing medical emergencies like these han dled on television has made millions of Americans aware of the crucial role played by emergency medical technicians (EMT’s), sometimes called ambulance attendants. A call from a dispatcher sends EMT’s— who usually work in teams of two—to the scene of the emergency. Although speed is essential, the EMT’s obey the traffic laws for the operation of emergency vehicles. They also must know the best route to take in the face of traffic, road construction, and weather conditions. 384/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Upon arriving at the scene of the emer gency, the driver parks the ambulance in a safe place to avoid accidents. If no police are present, bystanders may be enlisted to lend a hand. For instance, in the case of an automo bile accident, bystanders can help control traffic by placing road flares, removing de bris, and redirecting traffic. run, EMT’s replace the used linen, blankets, and other supplies, send the used items to be sterilized, and carefully check all equipment so that the ambulance is ready for the next trip. If they have carried patients who have contagious infection or have been exposed to radiation, they decontaminate the interior of the ambulance and report such calls to the proper authorities. EMT’s make sure that the EMT’s first determine the nature and ex- . ambulance is in good operating condition by tent of the victims’ illnesses or injuries and checking the gasoline, oil, tire pressure, establish priorities for emergency medical lights, siren, heater, and communications care. Patients receive appropriate medical equipment before their shift begins. care, such as opening and maintaining an air In addition to the basic EMT, whose work way, restoring breathing, controlling bleed ing, treating for shock, immobilizing frac has been described, there are two other types tures, bandaging, assisting in childbirth, of EMT’s: EMT-Paramedics and EMT-Dismanaging mentally disturbed patients, and patchers. Working with radio communica giving initial care to poison and bum victims. tion under the direction of a physician, EMTParamedics may administer drugs, both EMT training stresses efficiency and confi orally and intravenously, and use more com dence to reassure both patients and bystand plex equipment, such as a defibrillator, than ers. EMT’s try to handle patients correctly— basic EMT’s. not wasting any time nor working too hastily. Although not dealing directly with emer When the situation requires, as in the case of possible epilepsy or diabetes, EMT’s look for gency patients, EMT-Dispatchers neverthe medical identification emblems that are clues less play an important role. They receive and process calls for emergency medical assist to providing correct treatment. ance. Dispatchers send the appropriate per When persons are trapped, such as in an sons and resources to the emergency site and automobile accident, EMT’s face a double coordinate the movement of emergency med problem. First they must assess the victims’ ical vehicles. By telephone and radio, they injuries and supply all possible emergency serve as a communications link between the medical care and protection to the trapped appropriate medical facility and those who persons. Then they must use the correct are sent to attend the emergency patients. equipment and techniques to remove the vic EMT-Dispatchers also handle communica tims safely. EMT’s may request additional tions for public safety agencies, such as police help or special rescue or utility services by and fire departments so that services like traf radio or telephone from a dispatcher. fic and fire control can be performed. In case of death, EMT’s notify the proper authorities and arrange for the protection of Working Conditions the deceased’s property. Because EMT’s must accompany the pa Often patients must be transported to a hospital. In such instances, EMT’s place the patients on stretchers, lift them into the am bulance, and secure both the patients and the stretchers for the ride. EMT’s choose the nearest hospital they consider best equipped and staffed to treat their patients. To assure prompt treatment upon arrival, EMT’s re port by radio directly to the hospital emer gency department or the emergency dis patcher about the nature and extent of injuries or illness, the number of persons being transported, and the destination. They may ask for additional advice from the hospi tal’s medical staff. On the way to the emergency department, EMT’s constantly watch patients to give ad ditional care as needed or as directed by a physician with whom they have radio con tact. Upon arrival at the hospital, they help transfer the patients from the ambulance to the emergency department. They report their observations and care of the patients to the emergency department staff for diagnostic purposes and as a matter of record. EMT’s may help the emergency department staff. One of the duties of EMT’s is to maintain a clean, well-equipped ambulance. After each tients indoors and outdoors, they are exposed to all kinds of weather. A lot of their time is spent standing, kneeling, bending, and lift ing. Although their work can be very strenu ous and can produce great pressure, they must be careful to avoid accidents. Places of Employment In 1978, an estimated 115,000 persons worked as paid EMT’s. In addition, an es timated 175,000 others worked as volunteers on rescue squads—mostly associated with fire departments. Many paid EMT’s work for police and fire departments and private ambulance compa nies. Funeral homes providing ambulance service employ some EMT’s, although in re cent years many funeral homes have left this field. A few EMT’s work on hospital-based ambulance squads. A small but growing number of EMT’s work in hospital emer gency departments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Few EMT’s received formal training until recent years. Now instruction in emergency medical care techniques is mandatory. A standard training course is the 81-hour pro- Employment Outlook Employment of EMT’s is expected to grow faster than the average for all occu pations, due to the increasing public awareness of the need for better emergency medical services. For example, since pas sage of the Highway Safety Act of 1966 and the Emergency Medical Services Sys tem Act of 1973, the Federal Government has encouraged the expansion and im provement of ambulance services. Additional positions for full-time EMT’s will become available as more and more com munities change from volunteer to paid am bulance services. A trend is underway estab lishing ambulance service as the third essential community service, after police and fire protection. EM T’s must handle patients with care. gram designed by the U.S. Department of Transportation. This program, or its equiva lent, is available in all 50 States and the Dis trict of Columbia. It is offered by police, fire, and health departments, in hospitals, and as a special course in medical schools, colleges, and universities. National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians earn the title of Registered EMT- Ambulance. To maintain their profi ciency, EMT’s must register again every 2 years. To reregister, an EMT must be work ing as an EMT, meet a continuing education requirement, and pay a fee. This course provides instruction and prac tice in dealing with emergencies such as bleeding, fractures, airway obstruction, car diac arrest, and emergency childbirth. Stu dents learn to use and care for common emer gency equipment, such as backboards, suction machines, splints, oxygen delivery systems, and stretchers. Physicians, nurses and senior EMT’s usually give the lectures and demonstrations. In 1978 the National Registry began to register EMT-Paramedics. This registration requires current registration as an EMTAmbulance, successful completion of an EMT-Paramedic training program, 6 months of field experience as an EMTParamedic, and passing a written and prac tical examination. Reregistration is required every 2 years. After completing the basic 81-hour pro gram, students may take a 2-day course deal ing with the removal of trapped victims. Fur ther training courses presently are being prepared by the Department of Transporta tion for the categories of EMT-Paramedic and EMT-Dispatcher. A special course on driving also is in preparation. Thus, a career ladder for the EMT field is being established. Although admission requirements vary from State to State and often, from course to course, admittance to an EMT training course generally requires that the applicant be at least 18 years old, have a high school diploma or the equivalent, and have a valid driver’s license. Among high school subjects recommended for persons interested in the field are driver education and health and sci ence courses. Training in the Armed Forces as a “medic” also is considered good prepara tion for prospective EMT’s. Graduates of approved EMT training pro grams who meet certain experience require ments and successfully pass a written and practical examination administered by the Although not a general requirement for employment, registration with the National Registry is acknowledgement of an EMT’s qualifications and makes higher paying jobs easier to obtain. By mid-1978, over 96,000 basic EMT’s were registered. In addition, some States require certifica tion that does not necessarily coincide with certification with the National Registry. There certification as a basic EMT or an EMT-Paramedic may require passing a State-prescribed written and practical exami nation. EMT’s should have good dexterity and physical coordination. They must be able to lift and carry up to 100 pounds. EMT’s need good eyesight (eyeglasses may be used) with accurate color vision. Because EMT’s often work under trying conditions, they must exercise good judg ment under stress and have leadership abil ity. Emotional stability and the ability to adapt to many different situations help them handle difficulties. They should have a neat and clean appearance and a pleasant person ality. Increasing cooperation between ambu lance personnel and the physicians and nurses of emergency departments is expected to further contribute to the growth of the emergency medical technician occupation. As the field of emergency medical care devel ops and personnel become more qualified, more people are expected to use ambulance services, which will increase the demand for EMT’s. Despite expected increases in the de mand for EMT’s, those persons seeking full time, paid EMT positions are expected to face keen competition, because many persons find the occupation attractive. In addition to job opportunities created by growth, many openings for EMT’s will occur each year because of the need to replace EMT’s who retire, die, or leave the labor force for other reasons. Earnings Earnings of EMT’s depend on the type of employer, the training and experience of the individual, and the geographic location. In general, graduates of approved 81-hour training programs received starting salaries of between $7,000 and $9,000 annually in 1978, depending on the community. With ex perience, they can earn up to $12,000 a year. Beginning EMT-Paramedics usually earn an nual salaries of at least $10,000, while ex perienced EMT-Paramedics earn as much as $19,000 a year. EMT’s working for police and fire departments usually are paid the same salaries as police officers and firefight ers. (See statement on police officers and fire fighters elsewhere in the Handbook.) EMT’s employed by fire departments often have a 56-hour workweek. Those em ployed by hospitals, private firms, and police departments usually work 40 hours a week. Volunteer EMT’s have varied work schedules, but many put in from 8 to 12 hours a week. Because many ambulance ser vices function 24 hours a day, EMT’s often work nights and weekends. The employee benefits offered by private companies, such as vacation, sick leave, and health insurance, vary widely. EMT’s em ployed by hospitals and police and fire de MEDICAL TECHNOLOGIST, TECHNICIAN, AND ASSISTANT OCCUPATIONS/385 partments receive the same benefits as the other employees. tion. They also may type and cross match blood samples. Related Occupations Technologists in small laboratories often perform many types of tests. Those in large laboratories usually specialize in one area such as microbiology (the study of blood cells). Other occupations in which workers often are placed in life-or-death situations that re quire quick and level-headed reactions are police officers and firefighters. Sources of Additional Information Information concerning training courses can be obtained by writing to the Emergency Medical Services Division of the Health De partment of your State. For information about job opportunities for prospective EMT’s in your State, contact the Governor’s Office for Highway Safety. Information about the registration of EMT’s is available from your State Emer gency Medical Services Office, as well as from: National Registry of Emergency Medical Techni cians, 1395 East Dublin-Granville Rd., P.O. Box 29233, Columbus, Ohio 43229. General information about EMT’s is avail able from: National Association of Emergency Medical Tech nicians, P.O. Box 334, Newton Highlands, Mass. 02161. Medical Laboratory Workers___________ (D.O.T. 078.121, .161, .261, .281, and .361 except -010 -018, -022, and -026, .381, and .687) Nature of the Work Laboratory tests play an important part in the detection, diagnosis, and treatment of many diseases. Medical laboratory workers, often called clinical laboratory workers, in clude three levels: Medical technologists, technicians, and assistants. They perform tests under the general direction of patholo gists (physicians who diagnose the causes and nature of disease) and other physicians, or scientists who specialize in clinical chemis try, microbiology, or the other biological sciences. Medical laboratory workers analyze blood, tissues, and fluids in the human body by using precision instruments such as mi croscopes and automatic analyzers. Medical technologists, who usually have 4 years of postsecondary school training, perform complicated chemical, biological, microscopic, and bacteriological tests. These may include chemical tests to deter mine, for example, the blood cholesterol level, or microscopic examination of the blood to detect the presence of diseases such as leukemia. Technologists micro scopically examine other body fluids; make cultures of body fluid or tissue samples to determine the presence of bacteria, para sites, or other microorganisms; and analyze the samples for chemical content or reac 386/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Most medical technologists conduct tests related to the examination and treatment of patients. Others do research, develop labora tory techniques, teach, or perform adminis trative duties. Medical laboratory technicians, who gen erally require 2 years of postsecondary school trining, perform a wide range of tests and laboratory procedures that require a high level of skill but not the in-depth knowledge of highly trained technologists. Like tech nologists, they may work in several areas or specialize in one field. Medical laboratory assistants, who gener ally have a year of formal training, assist medical technologists and technicians in rou tine tests and related work that can be learned in a relatively short time. In large laboratories, they may specialize in one area of work. For example, they may identify ab normal blood cells on slides. In addition to performing routine tests, assistants may store and label plasma; clean and sterilize labora tory equipment, glassware, and instruments; prepare solutions following standard labora tory formulas and procedures; keep records of tests; and identify specimens. Working Conditions Medical laboratory personnel generally work a 40-hour week. Those working in a hospital can expect some evening and week end duty. Laboratory workers may spend a great deal of time on their feet. Laboratories generally are well lighted and clean. Although unpleasant odors and speci mens of diseased tissue often are present, few hazards exist if proper methods of steriliza tion and handling of specimens, materials, and equipment are used. Places of Employment About 210,000 persons worked as medical laboratory workers in 1978. Most medical laboratory personnel work in hospitals. Oth ers work in independent laboratories, physi cians’ offices, clinics, public health agencies, pharmaceutical firms, and research institu tions. Laboratory facilities generally are con centrated in metropolitan areas. In 1978, Veterans Administration hospi tals and laboratories employed about 2,800 medical technologists and about 2,000 medi cal laboratory technicians. Others worked for the Armed Forces and the U.S. Public Health Service. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum educational requirement for a beginning job as a medical technologist is 4 years of college training including comple tion of a specialized training program in medical technology. Undergraduate work includes courses in chemistry, biological sciences, and mathe matics. These studies give the technologist a broad understanding of the scientific princi ples underlying laboratory work. Specialized training usually requires 12 months of study and includes extensive laboratory work. In 1978, about 670 hospitals and schools offered programs accredited by the Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation (CAHEA) of the American Medical Associa tion. These programs were affiliated with col- Medical laboratory workers conduct a wide range of tests and analyses. leges and universities; a bachelor’s degree is awarded upon completion. A few programs require a bachelor’s degree for entry. Many universities also offer advanced de grees in medical technology and related sub jects for technologists who plan to specialize in a certain area of laboratory work or in teaching, administration, or research. Medical laboratory technicians acquire their training in a variety of educational set tings. Many attend junior or 4-year colleges and universities for 2 years. Some are trained in the Armed Forces. Other technicians re ceive training in private or nonprofit voca tional and technical schools. In 1978, the CAHEA accredited 72 of these programs, and the Accrediting Bureau of Health Edu cation Schools accredited 31. Most medical laboratory assistants are trained on the job. In recent years, however, an increasing number have studied in 1-year training programs conducted by hospitals, junior colleges in cooperation with hospi tals, or vocational schools. In 1978, the CAHEA accredited 109 training programs for medical laboratory assistants. Appli cants to these programs should be high school graduates or have an equivalency di ploma with courses in science and mathe matics. The programs include classroom in struction and practical training in the laboratory. They often begin with a general orientation to the clinical laboratory fol lowed by courses in bacteriology, serology, parasitology, hematology, clinical chemis try, blood banking, and urinalysis. After they pass the appropriate examina tions, medical technologists may be certified as Medical Technologists, MT (ASCP), by the Board of Registry of the American Soci ety of Clinical Pathologists; Medical Tech nologists, MT, by the American Medical Technologists; or Registered Medical Technologoists, RMT, by the International Soci ety of Clinical Laboratory Technology. These organizations also certify technicians. Certified Laboratory Technicians, CLT, are certified by the National Certification Agency for Medical Laboratory Personnel. Laboratory assistants are certified by the Board of Registry of the American Society of Clinical Pathologists. Medical technologists must be licensed in California, Florida, Hawaii, Nevada, Tennessee, and New York City. Require ments for licensure include a written exami nation in some States. Accuracy, dependability, and the ability to work under pressure are important personal characteristics for a medical laboratory worker. Manual dexterity and normal color vision are highly desirable. Persons interested in a medical laboratory career should use considerable care in select ing a training program. They should get in formation about the kinds of jobs obtained by graduates, educational costs, the accredita tion of the school, the length of time the training program has been in operation, in structional facilities, and faculty qualifica tions. Technologists may advance to supervisory positions in certain areas of laboratory work, or, after several years’ experience, to ad ministrative medical technologist in a large hospital. Graduate education in one of the biological sciences, chemistry, management, or education usually speeds advancement. Technicians can advance to technologists by getting additional education and experience. Similarly, assistants can become technicians by acquiring more education and experience. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for medical laboratory workers are expected to be favor able through the 1980’s. Employment of these workers is expected to expand faster than the average for all occupations as physi cians make wider use of laboratory tests in routine physical checkups and in the diagno sis and treatment of disease. Indirectly in fluencing growth of the field are population growth, greater health consciousness, and ex pansion of prepayment programs for medical care that make it easier for people to pay for services. The use of automated laboratory test equipment is expected to lead to an increase in the number of medical laboratory techni cians and assistants relative to technologists. Through technological advances, technicians and assistants can operate equipment to per form tests that previously required the skill of a technologist. Technologists will be needed to fill super visory positions in all laboratories. In addi tion to openings resulting from increased de mand for these workers many jobs will become available each year because of the need to replace medical workers who die, re tire, or leave the field for other reasons. uate study entered at about $13,000. The Federal Government paid medical labora tory assistants and technicians starting sala ries ranging from about $6,600 to $10,500 a year in 1979, depending on the amount and type of education and experience. Medical technologists in the Federal Government averaged about $15,300 a year, and medical technicians, about $12,700 a year in 1978. Medical laboratory workers normally re ceive vacation and sick leave benefits; some have retirement plans. Related Occupations Medical laboratory workers perform a wide variety of tests to help physicians diag nose and treat disease. Their principal activ ity is the analysis and identification of sub stances. Workers in other occupations who perform laboratory tests include biological aides, chemistry technologists, criminalists, and food testers. Sources of Additional Information Information about education and training for medical technologists, technicians, and laboratory assistants meeting standards recognized by the American Medical Associ ation, the U.S. Office of Education, or both, as well as career information on these fields is available from: American Society of Clinical Pathologists, Board of Registry, P.O. Box 11270, Chicago, 111. 60612. American Society for Medical Technology, 5555 W. Loop South, Bellaire, Tex. 77401. American Medical Technologists, 710 Higgins Rd., Park Ridge, 111. 60068. Accrediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, Oak Manor Office, 29089 U.S. 20 West, Elkhart, Ind. 46514. For information about other technician training programs, contact: Earnings International Society for Clinical Laboratory Technology, 818 Olive St., St. Louis, Mo. 63101. Salaries of medical laboratory workers vary depending on the employer and geo graphic location. In general, medical labora tory workers employed in large cities re ceived the highest salaries. For a list of training programs for medical technologists, technicians, and assistants that are approved by the American Medical Asso ciation, write: Department of Allied Health Evaluation, Ameri can Medical Association, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago, 111. 60610. Starting salaries for medical technologists in hospitals averaged about $12,400 a year in 1978, according to a survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Begin ning salaries for medical laboratory techni cians averaged about $10,600 a year in 1978; for certified laboratory assistants, about $9,100. According to the same survey, ex perienced medical technologists employed in hospitals averaged about $15,700 a year in 1978. Similarly, medical laboratory techni cians with experience averaged about $13,500 a year, and certified laboratory assistants about $11,400 annually. Information about employment oppor tunities in Veterans Administration hospitals is available from the Office of Personnel (054E), Veterans Administration, Washing ton, D.C. 20420. The Federal Government paid newly grad uated medical technologists with a bachelor’s degree a starting salary of about $10,500 a year in 1979. Those having experience, supe rior academic achievement, or a year of grad Information about clinical and research employment opportunities with the National Institutes of Health is available from the Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20205. For a list of training programs for medical laboratory technicians accredited by the Ac crediting Bureau of Health Education Schools, write: Secretary-ABHES, 29089 U.S. 20 West, Elkhart, Ind. 46514. MEDICAL TECHNOLOGIST, TECHNICIAN, AND ASSISTANT OCCUPATIONS/387 Medical Record Technicians and Clerks________ (D.O.T. 079.367-014 and 245.362) Nature of the Work A medical record is a permanent report on a patient’s condition and course of treatment in a hospital, clinic, or other health care insti tution. Physicians, allied health personnel, hospital administrators, public health au thorities, and insurance companies rely on these records, which are kept by health care staff known as medical record technicians and clerks. Medical record technicians and clerks per form the functions essential to maintaining the medical information system, including transcription of medical data, analysis and coding of information, filing, maintenance of registries, compiling of statistics, and ab stracting records. The system used in hospitals to gather, preserve, and maintain the information for medical records requires the teamwork of many medical record technicians and clerks. In large hospitals, recordkeeping activities are supervised and coordinated by a medical record administrator, but in smaller hospi tals, experienced medical record technicians often manage the department. In most nurs ing homes, a medical record clerk, working under the supervision of a medical record consultant who is a Registered Record Ad ministrator (RRA) or an Accredited Record Technician (ART), is responsible for the medical records. Medical record clerks perform routine clerical tasks. They assemble the information for the records in sequence; check to see that all necessary forms, signatures, and dates are present; and locate any previous medical rec ords that may be on file for the patient. They translate selected information such as sex, age, and referral source into a code and enter it on the records. Medical record clerks an swer routine staff requests for information about patients and gather statistics for re ports to various groups such as State health departments. Some medical record clerks transcribe reports of operations, X-ray and laboratory examinations, and special treat ments given to patients. Beginning medical record technicians per form duties that may be similar to those of clerks but that require more technical knowl edge. The technician codes the diseases, oper ations, and special therapies according to recognized classification systems and enters the codes on the medical record. This coding makes it easier to refer to the record when there is a need to review the patient’s case or to collect data for other purposes. Analyzing records and cross-indexing medical informa tion make up a large part of the technician’s work. review records for com Digitized for Technicians FRASER http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 388/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis pleteness, accuracy, and compliance with re quirements, referring incomplete records to the person who compiled them. They review records for internal consistency and look for apparent errors. Technicians obtain information from rec ords in answer to legal, governmental, and insurance company inquiries, and gather sta tistics and prepare periodic reports for health care facilities on types of diseases treated, types of surgery performed, and utilization of hospital beds. They also supervise medical record clerks, assist the medical staff by pre paring special studies and tabulating data from records for research, and take records to court. Working Conditions Medical record personnel generally work a standard 40-hour week in a comfortable of fice environment within a hospital, nursing home, or other health care facility. Because incorrect or misplaced medical records could affect the health and well-being of a patient, close attention to detail is required. Some as pects of the job are highly repetitive. Places of Employment In 1978, there were about 15,000 medical record technicians and 35,000 clerks. Al though most work in hospitals, a growing number are finding jobs in clinics, nursing homes, community health centers, govern mental agencies, consulting firms, and health maintenance organizations. Some medical re cord technicians are consultants to small health facilities. Some insurance companies employ experienced medical record techni cians to collect information from patients’ records to determine liability for payment. Public health departments hire medical re cord technicians to supervise data collection from health care institutions and to assist in research to improve health care. Manufac turers of medical record systems, services, and equipment also employ medical record personnel to help develop and market their products. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer to fill technician positions with graduates from one of the colleges that have been accredited by the American Medical Association (AMA) and the American Medical Record Association (AMRA). These colleges have 2-year associ ate degree programs. In 1978, there were 70 associate degree programs. Required courses include biological sciences, medical terminology, medical record science, busi ness management, and secretarial skills. Persons with this training can take the Ac credited Record Technician (ART) exami nation. Those who pass enter the medical record field as technicians, and can often look forward to promotion to supervisory positions. In 1978, there were about 10,500 ART’S. High school graduates who have basic sec retarial skills can enter the medical record field as beginning clerks. About 1 month of on-the-job training will prepare them for rou tine tasks that do not require much special ized skill. Although not required, high school courses in science, health, typing, mathemat ics, and office practice are helpful. The AMRA offers a correspondence course in medical transcription that can be taken either as a home study program or as in-service training. The certificate given upon the successful completion of the course is helpful in applying for a job as a medical record clerk. Knowledge of medical terms Medical record technicians deal with the records of thousands of patients. and references provides a good foundation for advancement. Medical record clerks with several years’ experience can advance to the technician level upon completion of 30 credit hours in medical record technology from an accred ited college. After completing this course work, the technician is eligible to take the ART examination for accreditation. Employment Outlook Employment of medical record techni cians and clerks is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. This employment growth will stem from a continued increase in the use of health insurance and Medicare and Medi caid, which will result in a need for more complete medical records. New jobs also will be created as nursing homes, clinics, and new types of health care facilities, such as health maintenance organizations, increasingly em ploy medical record personnel. The outlook for technicians with a 2-year associate degree or its equivalent will be ex cellent through the 1980’s. It is expected that medical record technicians will be required to have this specialized training in the future as more attention is given to documenting medical care in order to improve medical care delivery. As a result, technicians who have not received formal training may expe rience strong competition for positions from medical record technicians who have an asso ciate degree. Opportunities for part-time work will continue. cord personnel receive paid holidays and va cations, health and insurance benefits, and can participate in retirement plans. Related Occupations Medical record technicians and clerks work primarily in hospitals maintaining pa tients’ medical records. These workers gener ally perform a wide variety of technical and clerical duties including verification, tran scription, and filing of medical records. Workers in other occupations who may per form similar technical/clerical duties include information clerks, insurance clerks, library technical assistants, medical secretaries, and transcribing-machine operators. Sources of Additional Information A list of approved schools for medical re cord technicians, facts about the correspon dence courses for medical transcription and medical record personnel, and additional de tails on the work performed by medical re cord technicians are available from: American Medical Record Association, John Han cock Center, Suite 1850, 875 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Operating Room Technicians (D.O.T. 079.374-022) Nature of the Work Earnings Earnings of medical record clerks and technicians vary greatly according to local ity. Beginning medical record clerks earned an average of about $8,600 annually in pri vate hospitals in 1978. Earnings ranged from $6,600 in small hospitals in the South to $13,200 in New York City, according to limited data. In general, salaries are highest in big cities and in larger hospitals. Salaries of medical record technicians fol low a similar geographic pattern. Limited data indicate that, in 1978, the median an nual salary for ART’s was about $13,200. Experienced technicians who were directors of hospital medical record departments ave raged about $13,900. Some earned over $15,800 a year. In Federal hospitals, medical record clerks earned a beginning annual salary of about $8,400 in 1979. Annual salaries of ex perienced medical record technicians ranged from about $9,400 to $16,900. In 1978, about 1,500 medical record technicians worked for the Federal Government, with average sala ries of about $11,200 a year. Some outstand ing medical record technicians may work up to higher supervisory positions with corre sponding pay increases, although most of these positions are filled by Registered Re cord Administrators. Like most hospital employees, medical re Operating room technicians, occasionally called surgical technologists, assist surgeons and anesthesiologists before, during, and after surgery. They work under the supervi sion of registered nurses or surgical technolo gist supervisors. They help set up the operating room with the instruments, equipment, sterile linens, and fluids such as glucose that will be needed during an operation. Operating room techni cians also may prepare patients for surgery by washing, shaving, and disinfecting body areas where the surgeon will operate. They may transport patients to the operating room and help drape and position them on the op erating table. During surgery, they pass instruments and other sterile supplies to the surgeons and the surgeons’ assistants. They hold retractors, cut sutures, and help count the sponges, nee dles, and instruments used during the opera tion. Operating room technicians help pre pare, care for, and dispose of specimens taken for testing during the operation and help apply dressings. They may operate sterilizers, lights, suction machines, and diagnostic equipment. After the operation, operating room tech nicians help transfer patients to the recovery room and assist nurses in cleaning and stock ing the operating room for the next opera tion. Working Conditions Operating room technicians work in clean, well-lighted environments. They need stam ina to be on their feet the whole time they are on duty and to pay close attention to opera tions. Places of Employment About 35,000 persons worked as operating room technicians in 1978. They worked in hospitals or other institutions that have oper ating room, delivery room, and emergency room facilities. In addition, many were mem bers of the Armed Forces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most operating room technicians are trained in vocational and technical schools, hospitals, and community and junior col leges. Most training programs last from 9 months to 1 year; some junior college pro grams, however, last 2 years and lead to an associate degree. Students receive classroom training as well as supervised clinical experi ence. Required courses include anatomy, physiology, and microbiology. Courses teaching practical applications include the care and safety of patients during surgery, use of anesthesia and its hazards, and nursing procedures. They also learn how to sterilize instruments, prevent and control infection, and handle special drugs, solutions, supplies, and equipment. In 1978, there were 68 train ing programs accredited by the Committee on Allied Health Education and Accredita tion. Some operating room technicians are trained on the job. A high school education or the equivalent is required for training and employment. On-the-job training programs in many hospitals include classroom instruc tion in the same type of courses taught in junior colleges and vocational schools. These programs vary from 6 weeks to 1 year, de pending on the trainee’s qualifications and the objectives of the training given. Some hospitals prefer applicants who have worked as nursing aides or practical nurses. Some operating room technicians receive training in the Armed Forces. The Association of Surgical Technologists awards a certificate to operating room tech nicians who pass their comprehensive exami nation. A Certified Surgical Technologist (CST) is recognized as competent in the field and may be paid a higher salary. Manual dexterity is a necessity for operat ing room technicians because they must han dle various instruments quickly. They must be orderly and emotionally stable. High school students interested in careers in this occupation are advised to take courses in health and biology. Some operating room technicians advance to assistant operating room administrator and assistant operating room supervisor. Assistant operating room administrators MEDICAL TECHNOLOGIST, TECHNICIAN, AND ASSISTANT OCCUPATIONS/389 Optometric Assistants (D.O.T. 079.364-014) Nature of the Work Optometric assistants perform a wide vari ety of tasks, enabling optometrists to devote more time to their professional duties. They keep patients’ records, schedule appoint ments, and handle bookkeeping, correspon dence, and filing. They prepare patients for eye examinations, take initial case histories, and record the results of optometrists’ exami nations. Optometric assistants measure pa tients for correct and comfortable fit of glasses. They suggest size and shape of eye glass frames to complement the patient’s fa cial features, and adjust finished eyeglasses by heating, shaping, and bending the plastic or metal frames. They also assist the optome trist in giving instructions on the wear and care of contact lenses. Operating room technicians must pay close attention to the surgery being performed. deal with the administrative aspects of run ning an operating room, such as ordering supplies and arranging work schedules, while assistant operating room supervisors actually direct other technicians in the oper ating room. Employment Outlook Employment in this field is expected to grow faster than the average for all occu pations as operating room technicians in creasingly assume more routine tasks in the operating room. The same factors that contribute to the demand for health work ers in general apply to operating room technicians—namely, population growth and the increased ability of people to pay for medical care due to expansion in cover age under prepayment insurance programs. In addition to job openings resulting from growth of the occupation, new operating room technicians will be needed to replace workers who die, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Despite the rapid employment growth that is expected, the small size of this occupation will result in relatively few job openings. Graduates of formal training programs will have the best opportunities for these jobs, while persons without job skills may face competition. Earnings The average starting salary for operating room technicians was about $8,600 a year in 1978, according to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston. Experienced technicians earned average salaries of ap proximately $10,700 annually. In 1979, the Federal Government paid operating room technicians starting salaries of $9,391 a http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 390/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis year. An experienced operating room tech nician employed by the Federal Govern ment could earn as much as $15,222 a year. Graduates of training programs in hospi tals and community and junior colleges often earn higher salaries than workers without formal training. Salaries, reflecting variations in the cost of living, also vary widely by geo graphic location, with those on the East and West Coasts generally higher. Usually, oper ating room technicians earn about as much as the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Operating room technicians usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. However, they may be required to work “on call” shifts (staying available to work on short notice). Related Occupations Other occupations who perform medical activities under supervision are dental assist ants, electrocardiograph technicians, electroencephalographic technologists, licensed practical nurses, nursing aides, occupational therapy assistants, orderlies, and physical therapy aides. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a career as an operating room technician and on training programs for the occupation is available from: Association of Surgical Technologists, Caller No. E, Littleton, Colo. 80120. Information on education for the operat ing room technician occupation also is avail able from: American Medical Association, Department of Al lied Health Evaluation, 535 North Dearborn St., Chicago, 111. 60610. Optometric assistants help patients with exercises for eye coordination to overcome focusing defects. In the laboratory, they ad just conventional glasses to assure proper fit, insert lenses in frames, repair frames, keep an inventory of optometric materials, and clean and care for the instruments. In a large establishment such as a clinic, assistants may specialize in visual training, chairside assistance, or office administration. In a smaller practice, they may perform all these duties. Optometric assistants work in clean, welllighted, and pleasant surroundings. Al though their work is not physically hard, they must be on their feet part of the time. Attention to detail is necessary. Places of Employment About 15,000 persons worked as opto metric assistants in 1978. Most worked for optometrists in private practice. Others worked for health clinics. Some served as assistants to optometrists in the Armed Forces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most optometric assistants are trained on the job. Training also can be acquired in 1year academic courses; 11 schools offered this type of training in 1978. More detailed training in the technical aspects of optometry was available in 21 schools that offered 2year courses leading to an associate degree. In addition, the U.S. Air Force trained opto metric specialists in an accelerated, 16-week training program. High school graduation or its equivalent, including courses in mathematics and of fice procedures, is preferred for formal or on-the-job training. All formal programs offer specialized courses such as the anat- Radiologic (X-ray) Technologists (D.O.T. 078.162, .361-018, and .362-026) Nature of the Work Bone fractures, ulcers, blood clots, and brain tumors are just a few of the medical problems that involve the use of X-rays in their treatment, either for diagnosis or ther apy. X-rays of the chest also are taken during routine medical checkups to detect the pres ence of lung diseases in the early stages. The people who operate radiologic equipment and take X-ray pictures (known as radio graphs) are called radiologic technologists or radiographers. They usually work under the supervision of radiologists—physicians who specialize in the use of radiographs. A delicate touch is needed by optometric assistants when teaching patients to wear contact lenses. omy and physiology of the human eye, vi sion training (the use of exercises to cor rect defective vision), and contact lens the ory and practice. Programs also include secretarial and office procedures. Lectures and laboratory work are supplemented by actual experience in optometric clinics and practices. Although most newly hired optometric as sistants currently are trained on the job, op tometrists prefer to hire assistants who are graduates of 1- or 2-year formal training pro grams. This training will become more im portant in gaining initial employment and advancement as more programs become available. Manual dexterity and accuracy are re quirements for persons planning to become optometric assistants. Because of the personto-person relationship between optometric assistants and patients, a neat appearance, courtesy, and tact are important. Employment Outlook Employment of optometric assistants is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s, due to the rising demand for eye care services and the changing requirements of optome trists. Demand for eye care is expected to increase due to population growth and to the rising proportion of older persons, that segment of the population requiring the most eye care. Employment should rise be cause of expected increases in the number of support personnel employed by optome trists. In addition to job openings resulting from growth, new optometric assistants also will be needed to replace workers who die, for retire, or leave the field for other rea Digitized FRASER sons. Because the occupation is small, however, openings will be relatively few. Employment opportunities for graduates of formal training programs should be excel lent. Persons without this training, how ever, may face competition. Jobseekers will continue to find many opportunities for part-time work. Earnings Earnings of optometric assistants vary by geographical region, academic and tech nical qualifications, and the size and type of practice of the optometrists employing them. In 1978, beginning salaries ranged from $100 a week for optometric assistants having no training or experience to $250 a week for experienced and highly trained assistants, according to limited information available. Most optometric assistants work between 30 and 40 hours a week. In many practices, the assistant may work a few hours on Satur day, with a day off during the week. Related Occupations Other occupations assisting medical professionals are dental assistants, office nurses, occupational therapy assistants, physical therapist assistants and aides, podiatric assistants, and psychiatric aides. Sources of Additional Information Further information on a career as an op tometric assistant and a list of training pro grams are available from: American Optometric Association, Paraoptometric Guidance Department, 243 North Lindbergh Blvd., St. Louis, Mo. 63141. Radiologic technologists may work in any of the three specialties within the field of radiologic technology. The most widely known specialty is X-ray technology or radi ography, taking radiographs of parts of the human body for study by a radiologist in diagnosing a patient’s problem. The other two are radiation therapy, the use of radia tion-producing machines to give therapeutic treatments recommended by radiologists; and nuclear medicine technology, the appli cation of radioactive material to help radiolo gists diagnose or treat illnesses or injuries. Before a radiologic technologist can per form any work on a patient, a physician must issue a requisition ordering the work done. Similar to prescriptions for drugs, these requisitions assure that radiologic technolo gists treat only people certified as needing such treatment by physicians. Radiologic technologists prepare patients for radiologic examinations, assuring that they remove any articles of clothing, such as belt buckles or jewelry, through which X-rays cannot pass. They then position the patients, either lying on a table or stand ing, so that the correct parts of the body can be radiographed, always taking care not to aggravate injuries or make the pa tients uncomfortable. To prevent unneces sary radiograph exposure to unaffected parts, the technologist surrounds the ex posed area with radiation protection de vices, such as lead shields. After the necessary preparations, the technologist positions the radiologic ma chine at the correct angle and height over the appropriate area of a patient’s body. Using instruments like a measuring tape, the technologist measures the thickness of the section to be radiographed. He or she sets the proper controls on the machine, such as those regulating exposure time, to produce radiographs of the right density, detail, and contrast. The technologist then places a properly identified X-ray film of the correct size under the part of the pa tient’s body to be examined, and makes the exposure. Afterward, the technologist MEDICAL TECHNOLOGIST, TECHNICIAN, AND ASSISTANT OCCUPATIONS/391 removes the film and develops it for inter pretation by a radiologist. Throughout the procedure, the technologist is careful to use only as much radiation as is necessary to obtain a good diagnostic examination. When examining a patient using fluoros copy (watching a patient’s internal body movements on a monitor or screen), the radi ologic technologist prepares a solution of bar ium sulphate for the patient to drink. As this solution passes through the patient’s diges tive tract, a physician looks for diseases, inju ries, or defects in the patient’s digestive sys tem. When fluoroscopic examinations are performed, whether on the digestive tract or on other parts of the body such as chest, heart, or bones, the technologist assists the physician by preparing and positioning the patient, adjusting the machine, and applying the correct exposure. In radiation therapy, which is mainly used for treating cancer, the radiologic technolo gist works under the close supervision of a radiologist. Directed by a radiologist, the technologist applies the correct amount of radiation for the proper period of time to the affected part of the patient’s body. The tech nologist also must keep adequate records of the treatment and is responsible for the com fort and safety of the patient during the treat ment. In nuclear medicine, the radiologic tech nologist also works under the direct supervi sion of a radiologist. The technologist pre pares solutions containing radioactive material that, when swallowed by the patient or injected, is absorbed by the patient’s inter nal organs. Because diseased tissues generally react differently from healthy ones when sub jected to radioactive substances, it is possible to trace the development of disease. The tech nologist uses special cameras or scanners that pick up the radioactivity, and operates in struments that measure the intensity of the radioactivity. In addition to the duties involved in oper ating radiologic equipment, radiologic tech nologists may have certain administrative tasks. Technologists prepare and maintain patients’ records—keeping track of the devel oped film, the date it was taken, and the radi ologist’s diagnosis. They also may maintain files, schedule appointments, and prepare work schedules for assistants. Some radiologic technologists are full-time instructors in radiography techniques, teach ing in programs of radiologic technology. Working Conditions Radiologic technologists generally work a 40-hour week that may include evening or weekend hours. Technologists are on their Radiologic (X-ray) technologists must be careful to use only as much radiation as is necessary to obtain a good picture. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 392/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis feet a lot and may be-required to lift or turn disabled patients. There are potential radiation hazards in this field; however, these hazards have been greatly reduced by the use of safety devices such as instruments that measure radiation exposure, lead aprons, gloves, and other shielding. Places of Employment About 100,000 persons worked as radi ologic technologists in 1978. Hospitals em ploy about three-fourths of all radiologic technologists; most of the remainder work in medical laboratories, physicians’ and den tists’ offices or clinics, Federal and State health agencies, and public school systems. Training, Other Qualifications, and Adyancement The requirement for entry into this field is the completion of a formal education pro gram in radiography. In 1978, about 1,100 programs in radiography offered by hospi tals, medical schools affiliated with hospitals, colleges, and universities were accredited by the Committee on Allied Health Education and Accreditation of the American Medical Association (AMA). Education also may be obtained in the military service or through courses in radiog raphy offered by vocational or technical schools. Programs vary in length from 2 to 4 years. Some colleges award a bachelor’s de gree in radiologic technology. While employ ers generally pay graduates of bachelor’s de gree programs the same starting salaries as those of 2- and 3-year programs, there is more potential for promotion for those hold ing the bachelor’s degree. It is advantageous for those planning to be educators or ad ministrators in this field to pursue the bache lor’s and master’s degrees as preparation. All programs accept only high school graduates or the equivalent. Courses in math ematics, physics, chemistry, and biology are helpful. Radiography programs include courses in anatomy, physiology, patient care proce dures, physics, radiation protection, film processing, principles of radiographic expo sure, medical terminology, radiographic po sitioning, medical ethics, and radiobiology. Registration with the American Registry of Radiologic Technologists is an asset in ob taining highly skilled and specialized posi tions. Registration requirements include graduation from an accredited program of medical X-ray technology and the satisfac tory completion of a written examination. After registration, the title “Registered Tech nologist (ARRT)” may be used. Once regis tered, technologists may be certified in radia tion therapy or nuclear medicine by completing an additional year of combined classroom study and clinical education. Good health, emotional stability, and a sincere desire to work with the sick and dis abled are important qualifications for this profession. As openings occur, some technologists in large radiography departments may qualify as instructors in radiography techniques or advance to supervisory radiologic technolo gists. Sources of Additional Information For additional information about pro grams and careers in radiologic technology, write: The American Society of Radiologic Technolo gists, SS E. Jackson Blvd., Chicago, 111. 60604. Employment Outlook Employment in the field of radiologic tech nology is expected to expand faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as radiologic equipment is increas ingly used to diagnose and treat diseases. The demand for radiologic technologists also will increase as prepaid medical programs extend medical care to wider segments of the popu lation. Part-time workers will find the best opportunities in physicians’ offices and clin ics where full-time radiologic services usually are not required. Although the demand for radiologic tech nologists should continue to be strong, the number of graduates of AMA-accredited programs in this field also is expected to grow rapidly during the period. If present enroll ment patterns continue, the number seeking to enter the occupation is likely to exceed the number of openings from growth and re placement needs. As a result, graduates may face competition for positions of their choice. Earnings Starting salaries of radiologic technologists employed in hospitals averaged about $10,700 a year in 1978, according to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Experienced radiologic technologists averaged about $13,300 a year. Workers with more specialized skills gen erally earn more. For example, radiation therapy technologists started at about $11,200 in 1978, according to the University of Texas survey, and experienced personnel ave raged $14,000 a year. Nuclear medicine tech nologists have the highest earnings among radiologic technologists, averaging $12,000 to start and $14,700 after several years of experience. Respiratory Therapy Workers___________ (D.O.T. 079.361) Nature of the Work Respiratory therapy workers, sometimes called inhalation therapy workers, treat pa tients with cardiorespiratory problems. This treatment may range from giving temporary relief to patients with chronic asthma or em physema to giving emergency care in cases of heart failure, stroke, drowning, and shock. Respiratory therapy workers also are among the first medical specialists called for emer gency treatment of acute respiratory condi tions arising from head injury or drug poi soning. The therapy worker’s role is a highly responsible one because if a patient stops breathing for longer than 3 to 5 minutes, there is little chance of recovery without seri ous brain damage, and if oxygen is cut off for more than 9 minutes, death results. Following doctors’ orders, respiratory therapy workers use special equipment, such as respirators and positive-pressure breathing machines, to treat patients who need tempo rary or emergency respiratory assistance. For example, they use aerosol inhalants to ad minister medication so that it is confined to the lungs. They also show patients and their families how to use equipment at home. Other duties include keeping records of the cost of materials and charges to patients, and maintaining and making minor repairs to equipment. Sick leave, vacations, insurance, and other benefits are comparable to those covering other workers in the same organization. There are three levels of workers within the field of respiratory therapy: Therapists, technicians, and assistants. Therapists and technicians perform essentially the same du ties. However, the therapist is expected to have a higher level of expertise and may be expected to assume some teaching and super visory duties. Respiratory assistants have lit tle contact with patients and spend most of their time taking care of the equipment, in cluding cleaning, sterilizing, and storing it. Many are new to the job and are training to advance to the technician or therapist level. Related Occupations Working Conditions Radiologic technologists operate sophis ticated technical equipment to help physi cians, dentists, and other medical practition ers diagnose and treat patients. Workers in related occupations include dental hygie nists, electrocardiograph technicians, electroencephalographic technologists, and med ical technologists. Respiratory therapy workers generally work a 40-hour week. Because many hospi tals operate around the clock, they may be required to work evenings or weekends. Res piratory therapy workers spend long periods standing and, when involved in an emer gency, may work under a great deal of stress. The inhalants they work, with are highly The Federal Government paid new gradu ates of AMA-accredited programs of radi ologic technology a starting salary of about $9,400 a year in 1979. Radiologic technolo gists in the Federal Government had average earnings of $13,000 a year in 1978. flammable; however, adherence to safety precautions and regular testing of equipment minimize the danger of fire. Places of Employment About 50,000 persons worked as respira tory therapists, technicians, or assistants in 1978. Most work in hospitals, in respiratory therapy, anesthesiology, or pulmonary medi cine departments. Others work for oxygen equipment rental companies, ambulance ser vices, nursing homes, and universities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Respiratory apparatus has become increas ingly complex in recent years and, although many respiratory therapy workers are trained on the job, formal training now is stressed for entry to the field. In 1978, nearly 300 institutions offered programs in respiratory therapy that were approved by the Council on Medical Educa tion and Accreditation of the American Medical Association. High school gradua tion is required for entry to these programs. Courses range in length from 18 months to 4 years and include both theory and clinical work. A bachelor’s degree is awarded for completion of a 4-year program and an asso ciate degree for shorter courses. Areas of study include human anatomy and physiol ogy, chemistry, physics, microbiology, and mathematics. Technical courses deal with procedures, equipment, and clinical tests. Respiratory therapists who have a certifi cate of completion from an AMA-approved therapist training program, 62 semester hours of college credit, and 1 year of experi ence following completion of the program are eligible to apply for registration by the Na tional Board for Respiratory Therapy (NBRT). The registry examination consists of written and clinical simulation tests. Ap plicants must pass both to be awarded the Registered Respiratory Therapist (RRT) cre dential. In 1978, about 6,500 therapists had been registered. Individuals who complete an AMAapproved technician training program and have 1 year of experience in respiratory ther apy may apply to the NBRT for examination for the Certified Respiratory Therapy Tech nician (CRTT) credential. The CRTT exami nation is less comprehensive than the registry examination and consists of a single written test. Approximately 22,000 respiratory tech nicians had been certified in 1978. In contrast to therapists and technicians, there are no general requirements for the po sition of respiratory assistant. The only re quirements are those set by the head of the hospital department that is hiring workers. For example, some may require only a high school diploma. People who want to enter the respiratory therapy field should enjoy working with pa tients and should understand their physical MEDICAL TECHNOLOGIST, TECHNICIAN, AND ASSISTANT OCCUPATIONS/393 $11,400 a year in 1978, according to a survey conducted by the University of Texas Medi cal Branch. Experienced respiratory thera pists in hospitals earned average salaries of $13,900 a year in 1978. Salaries of respiratory technicians and assistants are lower than those of respiratory therapists. The Federal Government paid respiratory therapists starting salaries of about $8,400 a year in 1979, if they had 1 year of AMAaccredited postsecondary school training, and about $9,400 for those with 2 years of AMA-accredited training. Respiratory therapy workers in hospitals receive the same benefits as other hospital personnel, including hospitalization, paid va cations, and sick leave. Some institutions pro vide tuition assistance or free courses, pen sion programs, uniforms, and parking. Related Occupations Respiratory therapy personnel provide a vital need. and psychological needs. Respiratory ther apy workers must be able to pay attention to detail, follow instructions, and work as part of a team. Operating the complicated respira tory therapy equipment also requires me chanical ability and manual dexterity. High school students interested in a career in this field are encouraged to take courses in health, biology, mathematics, physics, and bookkeeping. Respiratory therapists can advance to as sistant chief, chief therapist, or, with gradu ate education, to instructor of respiratory therapy at the college level. Respiratory tech nicians and assistants can advance to the therapist level by taking the appropriate training courses. average for all occupations through the 1980’s as a result of general population growth, greater health consciousness, and ex pansion of prepayment programs that make it easier for people to pay for health care. Demand for these workers also should in crease due to the rising proportion of older persons, the segment of the population with the greatest frequency of heart and lung problems. Additional openings will arise from the need to replace those who retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Prospects should be excellent for gradu ates of formal training programs. If the num ber of these graduates continues to rise, those without this training may face some competi tion. Respiratory therapy workers administer respiratory therapy care and life support to patients with heart and lung difficulties under the supervision of a physician. Work ers in other occupations who use therapy methods, equipment, and techniques to help restore a patient’s normal functions, gener ally under the supervision or order of a phy sician, include dialysis technicians, emer gency medical technicians, nurse anesthetists, occupational therapists, and physical therapists. Sources of Additional Information Information concerning education pro grams is available from: American Association for Respiratory Therapy, 1720 Regal Row, Dallas, Tex. 75235. Information on the certification of respira tory therapists and respiratory technicians can be obtained from: Employment Outlook Earnings The National Board for Respiratory Therapy, Inc., 1900 West 47th Place, Shawnee Mission, Kan. 66205. Employment of respiratory therapy work ers is expected to grow much faster than the The starting salary of respiratory thera pists employed in hospitals averaged about On-the-job training information can be ob taining at local hospitals. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 394/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Nursing Occupations The nursing field—consisting of registered nurses; licensed practical nurses; and nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants—accounts for over one-half of total employment among health service workers. Nursing personnel perform a variety of duties to care for and comfort the sick, the injured, and other re quiring medical services. This section deals in detail with the three basic nursing occupa tions. aides, orderlies, and attendants should like to work with people because they must work closely with other members of the health team and care for patients who are uncom fortable and cometimes irritable. Nursing workers also must be reliable and level headed in emergencies. Registered nurses (R N ’s) follow the medi cal regimen prescribed by physicians but often must draw on their professional train ing to make independent judgments in pro viding nursing services. Some registered nurses, after advanced training, become nurse practitioners and perform services, such as physical examinations, that tradition ally physicians have handled. Some become head nurses with responsibility for all nurs ing services of a specified area, such as a pediatrics ward, in an institution. Registered Nurses Licensed practical nurses (LPN's) povide skilled nursing care to sick, injured, and con valescent patients. They work under the gen eral supervision of physicians and registered nurses, and may sometimes supervise nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants. Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants make up the largest group of nursing person nel. They serve meals, feed patients, and do other routine tasks that free registered and practical nurses for work requiring profes sional and technical training. Persons who wish to become registered nurses, licensed practical nurses, or nursing (D.O.T. 075.117 through .374) Nature of the Work Nursing plays a major role in health care. As important members of the health care team, registered nurses perform a wide vari ety of functions. They observe, assess, and record symptoms, reactions, and progress of patients; administer medications; assist in the rehabilitation of patients; instruct patients and family members in proper health mainte nance care; and help maintain a physical and emotional environment that promotes recov ery. Some registered nurses provide nursing services in institutions such as hospitals and nursing homes. Others perform research ac tivities or instruct students. The setting usu ally determines the scope of the nurse’s re sponsibilities. Hospital nurses constitute the largest group of nurses. Most are staff nurses who provide skilled bedside nursing care and carry out the medical regimen prescribed by physicians. They may also supervise practical nurses, aides, and orderlies. Hospital nurses usually work with groups of patients that re quire similar nursing care. For instance, some nurses work with patients who have had surgery; others care for children, the el derly, or the mentally ill. Some are adminis trators of nursing services. Registered nurses working in nursing homes provide bedside nursing care to pa tients convalescing from surgery or an illness, to those suffering from chronic illnesses and disabilities, and to the elderly. They also su pervise licensed practical nurses and nursing aides. Private duty nurses give individual care to patients who need constant attention. The private duty nurse is self-employed and may work in a home, a hospital, or a convalescent institution. Community health nurses care for patients in clinics, homes, schools, and other commu nity settings. They instruct patients and fami lies in health care and give periodic care as prescribed by a physician. They also may in struct community groups in proper diet and arrange for immunizations. These nurses work with community leaders, teachers, par ents, and physicians in community health ed ucation. Some community health nurses work in schools. Office nurses assist physicians, dental sur geons, and occasionally dentists in private practice or clinics. Sometimes they perform routine laboratory and office work in addi tion to their nursing duties. Occupational health or industrial nurses provide nursing care to employees in indus try and government and, along with physi cians, promote employee health. As pre scribed by a doctor, they treat minor injuries and illnesses occurring at the place of em ployment, provide for the needed nursing care, arrange for further medical care if nec essary, and offer health counseling. They also may assist with health examinations and inoculations. Nurse educators teach students the princi ples and skills of nursing, both in the class room and in direct patient care. They also conduct continuing education courses for registered nurses, practical nurses, and nurs ing assistants. (Licensed practical nurses who also per form nursing services are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions Nurses generally work indoors in welllighted, comfortable buildings. Community NURSING OCCUPATIONS/395 State board competency examination. Nurses may be licensed in more than one State, ei ther by examination or endorsement of a li cense issued by another State. Three types of educational programs—di ploma, bachelor’s degree and associate de gree—prepare candidates for licensure. Graduation from high school is required for admission to all schools of nursing. Diploma programs are conducted by hos pitals and independent schools and usually require 3 years of training. Bachelor’s degree programs usually require 4 years of study in a college or university, although a few require 5 years. Associate degree programs in junior and community colleges require approxi mately 2 years of nursing education. In addi tion, several programs provide licensed prac tical nurses with the training necessary to upgrade themselves to registered nurses while they continue to work part time. These programs generally offer an associate of arts degree. In 1978, about 1,375 programs, (di ploma, bachelor’s degree, and associate de gree) were offered in the United States. In addition, there were about 115 master’s de gree and several doctoral degree programs providing advanced education in nursing. Students should select an educational pro gram only after reflecting on their probable field of practice. Those interested in public health, for example, should enroll in a bache lor’s degree program. Public health agencies require at least that level of education, and advancement may be limited for nurses with out a bachelor’s or master’s degree in com munity health nursing. In addition, those planning to work in research, consultation, teaching, clinical specialization, or adminis tration—fields that require education at the master’s level, should start their nursing edu cation in a bachelor’s program. Premature babies require round-the-clock care. health nurses may be required to travel to patients in all types of weather. Although most of the tasks in nursing are not strenu ous, nurses need physical stamina because of the amount of time spent walking and stand ing. In addition, emotional stability is re quired in order to cope with human suffering and frequent emergency situations. Because patients in hospitals and nursing homes re quire nursing care at all times, staff nurses in these institutions may be required to work nights and weekends. nurses in government agencies, schools, visit ing nurse associations, and clinics numbered about 120,000; nurse educators in nursing schools accounted for about 40,000; and oc cupational health nurses in industry, about 25,000. About 100,000 more worked in the offices of physicians or other health practi tioners, or were private duty nurses hired di rectly by patients. Most of the others were staff members of professional nurse and other organizations or worked for State boards of nursing or research organizations. Places of Employment Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement About 1,050,000 persons worked as regis tered nurses in 1978. About one-third worked part time. About 70 percent of all registered nurses worked in hospitals, nursing homes, and related institutions. Community health http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 396/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis A license is required to practice profes sional nursing in all States and in the District of Columbia. To qualify, a nurse must be a graduate of a school of nursing approved by the State board of nursing and pass a written Programs of nursing include classroom in struction and supervised nursing practice in hospitals and health facilities. Students take courses in anatomy, physiology, microbi ology, nutrition, psychology, and nursing. They also get supervised clinical experience in the care of patients who have different types of health problems. Students in bache lor’s degree programs as well as in some of the other programs are assigned to commu nity agencies to learn how to care for patients in clinics and in the patients’ homes. Varying amounts of general education are combined with nursing education in all three types of programs. Students who need financial aid may qual ify for federally sponsored nursing scholar ships or low-interest loans. Those who want to pursue a nursing career should have a sin cere desire to serve humanity and be sympa thetic to the needs of others. Nurses must be able to accept responsibility and direct or su pervise the activity of others; they must have initiative, and in appropriate situations be able to follow orders precisely or determine if additional consultation is required; and they must use good judgment in emergencies. From staff positions in hospitals, ex perienced nurses may advance to head nurse, assistant director, and director of nursing services. A growing movement in nursing, generally referred to as the “nurse practi tioner program,” is opening new career pos sibilities. Several post-bachelor’s degree pro grams prepare nurses for highly independent roles in the clinical care and teaching of pa tients. These nurses practice in primary roles that include pediatrics, geriatrics, commu nity health, mental health, and medical-sur gical nursing. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for registered nurses are expected to be favorable through the 1980’s. Some competition for more desir able, higher paying jobs is expected in areas where training programs abound. Nurses with a bachelor’s degree should have the best prospects in these areas. In addition, some employers—public health departments, for example—now specify the bachelor’s degree as the minimum preparation for employ ment. Opportunities for full- or part-time work in present shortage areas, such as some southern States and many inner-city loca tions, are expected to be very good through the 1980’s. For nurses who have had gradu ate education, the outlook is excellent for ob taining positions as administrators, teachers, clinical specialists, and community health nurses. Growth in employment of registered nurses is expected to be faster than the aver age for all occupations because of extension of prepayment programs for hospitalization and medical care, expansion of medical ser vices as a result of new medical techniques and drugs, and increased interest in preven tive medicine and rehabilitation of the handi capped. In addition to the need to fill new positions, large numbers of nurses will be re quired to replace those who leave the field each year. Earnings Registered nurses who worked in hospitals in 1978 received average starting salaries of about $11,800 a year, according to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. This was above the average for nonsupervisory workers in private indus try, except farming. Registered nurses in nursing homes earned slightly less than those in hospitals. Salaries of industrial nurses ave raged $275 a week in mid-1978, according to a survey conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. In 1979, the Veterans Administration paid inexperienced nurses who had a diploma or an associate degree starting salaries of $11,712 a year; those with a bachelor’s degree, $13,700. Nurses employed in all Federal Government agencies earned an average of $16,800 in 1978. Most hospital and nursing home nurses re ceive extra pay for work on evening or night shifts. Nearly all receive from 5 to 13 paid holidays a year, at least 2 weeks of paid vaca tion after 1 year of employment, and also some type of health and retirement benefits. meals, see that patients are comfortable, and help keep up their morale. They may teach family members how to perform sim ple nursing tasks. Related Occupations Other occupations with responsibilities and duties similar to registered nurses in clude: Occupational therapists, physical ther apists, physicians assistants, and respiratory therapists. In doctors’ offices and in clinics, LPN’s prepare patients for examination and treat ment, administer medications, apply dress ings, and teach patients prescribed health care regimens. They also may make ap pointments and record information about patients. Sources of Additional Information Working Conditions For information on approved schools of nursing, nursing careers, loans, scholarships, working conditions, and employment oppor tunities, contact: Practical nurses in hospitals generally work 40 hours a week, but often this includes some work at night and on weekends and holidays. Although they work is not strenu ous, they often must stand for long periods and help patients move in bed, stand, or walk. Career Information Services, National League for Nursing, 10 Columbus Circle, New York, N.Y. 10009. Information about employment oppor tunities in the Veterans Administration is available from: Department of Medicine and Surgery, Veterans Administration, Washington, D.C. 20420. In private homes, LPN’s usually work 8 to 12 hours a day and go home at night. Private duty nursing affords a great deal of indepen dence in setting work hours and the length and frequency of vacations. Places of Employment Licensed Practical Nurses__________ (D.O.T. 079.374-014) Nature of the Work Licensed practical nurses (LPN’s) help care for the physically or mentally ill and infirm. Under the direction of physicians and registered nurses, they provide nursing care that requires technical knowledge but not the professional education and training of a reg istered nurse. (See statement on registered nurses.) In California and Texas, licensed practical nurses are called licensed vocational nurses. In hospitals, LPN’s provide much of the bedside care.They take and record tempera tures and blood pressures, change dressings, administer certain prescribed medicines, and help patients with bathing and other personal hygiene. They assist physicians and regis tered nurses in examining patients and in car rying out nursing procedures. They also as sist in the delivery, care,. and feeding of infants. Some practical nurses work in spe cialized units such as intensive care, recovery rooms, or bum units. There they perform special nursing procedures and operate so phisticated equipment to provide care for seriously ill or injured patients. In some in stances, experienced LPN’s supervise hospi tal attendants and nursing aides. (See state ment on nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants.) LPN’s who work in private homes pro vide day-to-day patient care that seldom involves highly technical procedures or complicated equipment. In addition to pro viding nursing care, they may prepare In 1978, about 518,000 persons worked as LPN’s—about three-fifths of them in hospi tals. Most of the others worked in nursing homes, clinics, doctors’ offices, sanitariums, and other long-term care facilities. Many worked for public health agencies and wel fare and religious organizations. Some selfemployed nurses worked in hospitals or in the homes of their patients. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia regulate the preparation and licensing of practical nurses. To qualify for a license, ap plicants must complete a practical nursing course approved by the State board of nurs ing and pass a written examination. Educa tional requirements for enrollment in Stateapproved programs range from completion of eighth or ninth grade to high school graduation. Many schools do not require completion of high school but they give preference to graduates. In addition, physi cal examinations and aptitude tests usually are required. In 1978, about 1,340 State-approved pro grams provided practical nursing training. Trade, technical, or vocational schools of fered more than half of these programs. Other programs were available at junior col leges, local hospitals, health agencies, and private educational institutions. Several pro grams operated by the Army for military per sonnel also were State-approved for practical nurse training. Graduates from these pro grams are eligible for licensure. Practical nurse training programs gener ally last 1 year and include both classroom study and clinical practice. Classroom in struction covers nursing concepts and princiNURSING OCCUPATIONS/397 Earnings The average starting salary of LPN’s in hospitals was about $9,000 a year in 1978, according to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Federal hospitals offered beginning LPN’s an annual salary of $8,366 in 1979. Many hospitals give pay increases after specific periods of satisfactory service. Paid holidays and vacation, health insurance, and pension plans are typical benefits provided by hospitals. Related Occupations Other workers with duties and skills simi lar to those of LPN’s are dental hygienists, emergency medical technicians, occupational therapists, physical therapists, radiologic technologists, and respiratory therapists. Sources of Additional Information A list of State-approved training programs and information about practical nursing is available from: National League for Nursing, 10 Columbus Circle, New York, N.Y. 10019. National Association for Practical Nurse Educa tion and Service, Inc., 122 East 42nd St., Suite 800, New York, N.Y. 10017. For information about a career in practical nursing, contact: National Federation of Licensed Practical Nurses, Inc., 250 West 57th„ New York, N.Y. 10019. Information about employment oppor tunities in Veterans Administration hospitals is available from a local Veterans Adminis tration hospital and also from: Department of Medicine and Surgery, Veterans Administration, Washington, D.C. 20420. LPN’s provide much of the bedside care needed by hospital patients. Some assist in the delivery, care, and feeding of infants. pies and related subjects including anatomy, physiology, medical-surgical nursing, pedia trics, obstetrics, psychiatric nursing, ad ministration of drugs, nutrition, first aid, and community health. In addition, students re ceive supervised clinical experience—usually in a hospital. ized areas, such as post-surgery recovery rooms or intensive care units. In some cases, LPN’s may prepare to become regis tered nurses while they continue to work part time. LPN’s should be emotionally stable and have a deep regard for human welfare, be cause work with the sick and injured can be upsetting. The employment outlook for LPN’s is ex pected to be very good through the 1980’s. Employment should continue to rise much faster than the average for all occupations in response to the needs of a growing popula tion, including a large proportion of older people, and expanded public and private health insurance plans. Also, newly licensed practical nurses will be needed each year in large numbers to replace those who die, re tire, or leave the occupation for other rea sons. As part of a health care team, they must be able to follow orders and work under close supervision. Advancement opportunities are limited without additional training or formal edu cation. In-service educational programs prepare some LPN’s for work in special 398/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook Nursing Aides, Orderlies, and Attendants________ (D.O.T. 355.374, .377-014, .667, .674-014 and -018, .677-014, and .687) Nature of the Work Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants perform a variety of duties to care for sick and injured people. They also are called hos pital attendants, nursing assistants, auxiliary nursing workers, geriatric aides, and (in men tal institutions) psychiatric aides. Nursing aides and orderlies answer pa tients’ bell calls and deliver messages, serve meals, feed patients who are unable to feed themselves, make beds, and bathe and dress patients. They also may give mas sages, take temperatures, and assist pa tients in getting out of bed and walking. Orderlies escort patients to operating and examining rooms and transport and set up heavy equipment. Some attendants may without further training. Some acquire spe cialized training to prepare for better paying positions such as hospital operating room technician. To become licensed practical nurses, nurs ing aides must complete the year of special ized training required for licensing. Some inservice programs allow nursing aides to get this training while they continue to work part time. Employment Outlook Employment of nursing aides is expected to increase faster than the average for all oc cupations through the 1980’s. In addition to those needed because of employment growth, many thousands will be needed each year as workers die, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. store and move supplies in hospital phar macies or supply rooms. The duties of nursing aides depend on the policies of the institutions where they work, the type of patient being cared for, and— equally important—the capacities and re sourcefulness of the nursing aide or orderly. In some hospitals, they may clean patients’ rooms and do similar housekeeping tasks. In others, they may help registered nurses and licensed practical nurses care for patients. The work depends on whether the patient is confined to bed after major surgery, is recov ering after a disabling accident or illness, or needs assistance with daily activities because of advanced age. Another occupation similar to nursing aide is homemaker-home health aide. Work ing in the homes of patients, they perform duties similar to those of nursing aides, as well as cooking and other light housework. (See statement on homemaker-home health aides elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working Conditions With few exceptions, the scheduled work week of attendants in hospitals is 40 hours or less. Because patients need care 24 hours a day, scheduled work hours include nights, weekends, and holidays. Workers spend many hours standing and may have to move patients in bed or help them stand or walk. Nursing aides often empty bed pans, change soiled bed linens, and care for disori ented and irritable patients. Many gain per sonal satisfaction, however, from assisting those in need. Places of Employment About 1,040,000 persons worked as nurs ing aides, orderlies, and attendants in 1978. Most work in hospitals, although a rapidly growing number work in nursing homes and other institutions that provide facilities for long-term care and recuperation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some employers prefer high school gradu ates, but many, such as Veterans’ Adminis tration hospitals, do not require a high school diploma. Employers often accept applicants who are 17 or 18 years of age. Others—par ticularly nursing homes and mental hospitals —prefer to hire more mature persons who are at least in their mid-twenties. Nursing aides generally are trained after they are hired. Some institutions combine onthe-job training, under registered nurses or licensed practical nurses, with classroom in struction. Trainees learn to take and record temperatures, bathe patients, change linens on beds occupied by patients, and move and lift patients. Training may last several days or a few months, depending on the policies of the hospital or other institution, the complex ity of the duties, and the aide’s aptitude for the work. Courses in home nursing and first aid, of fered by many public school systems and other community agencies, provide a useful background of knowledge for the work. Vol unteer work and temporary summer jobs in hospitals and similar institutions also are helpful. Applicants should be healthy, tact ful, patient, understanding, emotionally sta ble, and dependable. Nursing aides, as other health workers, should have a genuine desire to help people, be able to work as part of a team, and be willing to perform repetitive, routine tasks. Opportunities for promotion are limited Although most jobs for nursing aides and orderlies currently are in hospitals, most new openings will be in nursing homes, convales cent homes, and other long-term care facili ties. Major reasons for the expected growth of the occupation are the increasing need for medical care of a growing population, includ ing a larger proportion of elderly people, and the increasing ability of people to pay for health care, largely as a result of the growth in public and private insurance. Earnings Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants earned salaries that were below the average for all nonsupervisory workers in private in dustry, except farming. Nursing aides em ployed full time by nursing homes and related facilities earned less than those in hos pitals. Depending on the experience of the applicant, starting salaries of nursing aides in Veterans’ Administration hospitals ranged from $140 to $180 a week in 1979; most started at $160 weekly. The average salary of nursing aides employed by the Federal Gov ernment was $205 a week in 1978. Attendants in hospitals and similar institu tions generally receive at least 1 week’s paid vacation after 1 year of service. Paid holidays and sick leave, hospital and medical benefits, extra pay for late-shift work and pension plans also are available to many hospital em ployees. Related Occupations Nursing aides, orderlies, and attendants follow the orders of nurses or other supervi sors and assist with the care and treatment of sick or infirm patients. They may move and assemble heavy equipment and perform housekeeping chores. Other workers with similar duties include school child care at tendants, companions, occupational therapy aides, physical therapy aides, caretakers, cen tral supply workers, and cook’s helpers. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment may be obtained from local hospitals and nursing homes. NURSING OCCUPATIONS/399 Therapy and Rehabilitation Occupations The care given by therapy and rehabilita tion workers plays an important part in help ing injured, disabled, or emotionally dis turbed persons recover to the fullest extent possible. Physical therapists and physical therapist assistants and aides use exercise and other treatments to increase the strength, mobility, and coordination of partially or fully disabled patients. Occupational thera pists and occupational therapy assistants and aides teach skills and crafts to help coordi nate and give self-confidence to the disabled and emotionally disturbed. Speech patholo gists and audiologists specialize in helping those with speech and hearing problems. Anyone considering work in one of these fields should have a genuine concern for the physical and emotional well-being of others. Emotional stability and the ability to main tain a pleasant disposition and a positive out look also are important, because these work ers often deal with patients affected by severe disabilities. Other occupations also provide the oppor tunity to work with the disabled and handi capped. Rehabilitation counselors give per sonal and vocational guidance to the physically, mentally, or socially handi capped. Employment counselors work with the disabled as well as the able-bodied in ca reer planning and job adjustment. Both occu pations are described elsewhere in the Hand book. to determine the extent of abilities and limitations; to regain physical, mental, or emotional stability; to relearn daily rou tines such as eating, dressing, writing, and using a telephone; and, eventually, to pre pare for employment. Occupational therapists teach manual and creative skills, such as weaving and leather working, and business and industrial skills, such as typing and the use of power tools. These skills are taught to restore the patient’s mobility, coordination,and confidence. Ther apists also plan and direct games and other activities, especially for children. They may design and make special equipment or de vices to help disabled patients. Besides working with patients, occupa tional therapists supervise student therapists, occupational therapy assistants, volunteers, and auxiliary nursing workers. The chief oc cupational therapist in a hospital may teach medical and nursing students the principles of occupational therapy. Many therapists su pervise occupational therapy departments, coordinate patient activities, or are consult ants to local and State health departments and mental health agencies. Some teach in colleges and universities. Working Conditions Although occupational therapists gener ally work a standard 40 hour week, they may occasionally have to work evenings or weekends. Their work environment varies according to the setting and available facilities. In a large rehabilitation center, for example, the therapist may work in a spacious room equipped with machines, handtools, and other devices that can gen erate noise. In a nursing home, the thera pist might work in a kitchen, using food preparation as therapy. In a hospital, the only tools may be building blocks or paints used on small tables placed around the room. Wherever they work and whatever tools they use,they generally have adequate lighting and ventilation. The job can be physically tiring because therapists are on their feet much of the time. Places of Employment About 15,000 occupational therapists were employed in 1978. About 3 out of 10 occupational therapists work in hospitals. Rehabilitation centers, nursing homes, schools, outpatient clinics, community mental health centers, and research centers employ most of the others. Some work in special sanitariums or camps for handi capped children, others in State health de partments. Still others work in home-care programs for patients unable to attend clinics or workshops. Some are members of the Armed Forces. Many occupational therapists work part time. Occupational Therapists (D.O.T. 076.121-010) Nature of the Work Occupational therapists plan and direct educational, vocational, and recreational ac tivities designed to help mentally, physically, or emotionally disabled patients become selfsufficient. They evaluate the capacities and skills of patients, set goals, and plan a therapy program together with the client and mem bers of a medical team that may include physicians, physical therapists, vocational counselors, nurses, social workers, and other specialists. About 2 therapists out of 5 work with mentally or emotionally handicapped pa tients, and the rest work with physically disabled persons. These clients represent all age groups and degrees of disability. Pa tients participate in occupational therapy http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 400/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Occupational therapist helps patient regain his hand-eye coordination. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A degree and certification in occupational therapy is required to enter the profession. In 1978, 53 colleges and universities offered pro grams in occupational therapy that were ac credited by the Council on Allied Health and Education Accreditation of the American Medical Association and the American Oc cupational Therapy Association. All of these schools offer a bachelor’s degree program. Some have a 2-year program and accept stu dents who have completed 2 years of college. Some also offer shorter programs, leading to a certificate or a master’s degree in occupa tional therapy for students who have a bache lor’s degree in another field. A graduate de gree often is required for teaching, research, or administrative work. Course work in occupational therapy pro grams includes physical, biological, and be havioral sciences and the application of occu pational therapy theory and skills. These programs also require students to work for 6 to 9 months in hospitals or health agencies to gain experience in clinical practice. Gradu ates of accredited educational programs are eligible to take the American Occupational Therapy Association certification examina tion to become a registered occupational therapist (OTR). Occupational therapy as sistants who are certified by the association (COTA’s) and have 4 years of approved work experience also are eligible to take the exami nation to become registered occupational therapists. Those COTA’s considering this path of entry to the occupation should con tact the Director of Certification of the American Occupational Therapy Associa tion to identify the types of experience re quired to qualify for the examination and to determine the availability of suitable work settings. Entry to educational programs is keenly competitive and applicants are screened care fully to select those most likely to complete their studies successfully. Persons consider ing this profession, therefore, should have above average academic performance and consistent grades of “B” or better in science courses, including biology and chemistry. In addition to biology and chemistry, high school students interested in careers as occu pational therapists are advised to take courses in health, crafts, and the social sciences. College students who consider transferring from another academic disci pline to an occupational therapy program in their sophomore or junior year need superior grades because competition for entrance to programs is more intense after the freshman year. Personal qualifications needed in the pro fession include a sympathetic but objective approach to illness and disability, maturity, patience, imagination, manual skills, and the ability to teach. Newly graduated occupational therapists generally begin as staff therapists. Advance ment is chiefly to supervisory or administra tive positions; some therapists pursue ad vanced education and teach or conduct medical research. Occupational Therapy Assistants and Aides________ Employment Outlook (D.O.T. 076.364 and 355.377-010) Employment opportunities for occupa tional therapists are expected to be favorable through the 1980’s. The increasing number of graduates is expected to be roughly in bal ance with openings expected from future need for these workers and replacement of workers who die, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Nature of the Work Employment in this occupation is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations due to public interest in the rehabilitation of disabled persons and the success of established occupational therapy programs. Many therapists will be needed to staff hospital rehabilitation departments, community health centers, extended care facilities, psychiatric centers, schools for chil dren with developmental and learning disabilities, and community home health pro grams. Earnings Beginning salaries for new graduates of oc cupational therapy programs working in hos pitals averaged about $13,000 a year in 1978, according to a national survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Some experienced therapists earned as much as $22,000, and some administrators as much as $25,000 to $30,000. In 1979, beginning therapists employed by the Veterans Administration (VA) earned starting salaries of about $11,700 a year. The average salary paid occupational therapists working for the VA was about $17,100 in 1978. Related Occupations Occcupational therapists use specialized knowledge to help patients prepare to return to work and generally aid them to adjust to their disability. Other workers performing similar duties include orthotists, physical therapists, prosthetists, and speech patholo gists and audiologists. Occupational therapy assistants work under the supervision of professional occupa tional therapists to help rehabilitate patients who are physically and mentally disabled. They help plan and implement programs of educational, vocational, and recreational ac tivities that strengthen patients’ muscle power, increase motion and coordination, and develop self-sufficiency in overcoming disabilities. Occupational therapy assistants teach cli ents self-care skills such as dressing, eating, and shaving; work-related skills such as the use of power tools; and recreational and so cial activities such as games, dramatics, and gardening. They also may teach creative skills such as woodworking, ceramics, and graphic arts. Assistants must be able to teach a broad range of skills because of the wide variety of patients. They may work either with groups or with individual patients. When treating patients with diseases, assistants usually work under the supervision of professional occupational therapists. In other situations, such as organizing crafts projects for handi capped persons living in institutions, they may function independently, with only peri odic consultation with professionals. Occupational therapy aides order supplies, prepare work materials, and help maintain tools and equipment. They also may keep records on patients, prepare clinical notes, and perform other clerical duties. Some small occupational therapy depart ments may consist only of a therapist and one other worker. In these cases, the assistant or aide may assume most of the duties of an occupational therapist, within the limits of his or her training. Working Conditions For more information on occupational therapy as a career, write to: Although occupational therapy assistants and aides generally work a standard 40 hour week, they may occasionally have to work evenings and weekends. The areas where they work generally are well lighted and ven tilated, although noise levels often are high in areas where power tools are being used. As sistants are on their feet much of the time and may get dirty while cleaning equipment. American Occupational Therapy Association, 6000 Executive Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20852. Places of Employment Those COTA’s interested in qualifying for the examination to become a registered occupational therapist (OTR) through ac quired work experience should contact the Director of Certification at the above ad dress. About 10,000 people worked as occupa tional therapy assistants and aides in 1978. Many occupational therapy assistants work in hospitals. Others work in nursing homes, schools for handicapped children and the mentally retarded, rehabilitation and day Sources of Additional Information THERAPY AND REHABILITATION OCCUPATIONS/401 faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s, primarily because of in creased public interest in the rehabilitation of disabled people. All types of health care insti tutions, especially nursing homes and com munity health centers, will need more occu pational therapy assistants. Employment opportunities for occupa tional therapy assistants who are graduates of approved programs are expected to be good through the 1980’s. Many openings will be created each year by expansion in this field, and by the need to replace work ers who die, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. The number of enrollees in educational programs for occupational therapy assistants is expected to increase, with the result that assistants in some geographical areas may face competition for jobs. On a national basis, however, the supply of graduates is likely to fall short of requirements. Occupational therapy assistant helps patient regain strength in injured limb. care centers, special workshops, and outpa tient clinics. A small number are members of the Armed Forces. Occupational therapy aides work in the same locations as assistants, but they gener ally are employed in hospitals. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Two types of educational programs pre pare occupational therapy assistants: Jun ior or community college programs that award an associate degree upon completion and vocational or technical programs. In 1978, 43 schools offered educational pro grams approved by the American Occupa tional Therapy Association. Most of these are 2-year college programs. About onethird are 1-year vocational and technical school programs. In addition, the Armed Forces operate a school to train occupa tional therapy assistants. Graduates of these programs who success fully complete the written national profi ciency examination are certified by the American Occupational Therapy Associa tion and receive the title Certified Occupa tional Therapy Assistant (COTA). In 1978, about 3,500 employed occupational therapy assistants were COTA’s. Approved programs combine classroom instruction with at least 2 months of super vised practical experience. Courses include the history and philosophy of occupational therapy, occupational therapy theory and skills, anatomy and physiology of the human body, the effect of illness and injury on pa tients, and human development. Students also practice skills and crafts they later will teach to patients. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 402/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HANDBOOK Applicants for training programs must be high school graduates or the equivalent. Among the subjects recommended for high school students interested in the occupa tional therapy field are health, biology, typ ing, and the social sciences. Preference sometimes is given to applicants who have taken courses in science and crafts and have previous work experience in a health care setting. Occupational therapy aides train on the job in hospitals and other health care facili ties. The length and content of their training depend on the level of difficulty of the duties they are expected to perform. Occupational therapy assistants and aides should like people, have good physical and mental health, and be able to establish and maintain effective interpersonal relation ships. They also should have manual skills because they must teach clients how to use tools and materials. Occupational therapy assistants and aides who work in large health facilities begin with routine tasks and may advance to more re sponsible ones as they gain experience. A COTA with 4 years of approved work experi ence may take the examination to become a registered occupational therapist (OTR) without completing the remaining 2 years of study for a bachelor’s degree in occupational therapy. Those COTA’s considering this path of entry to the occupational therapy profession should contact the Director of Certification of the American Occupational Therapy Association to identify the types of experience required to qualify for the exami nation. Employment Outlook The employment of occupational therapy assistants and aides is expected to grow much Earnings In 1978, starting salaries for occupational therapy assistants generally ranged from about $9,000 to $ 11,000 a year. Experienced assistants earned between $10,000 and $14,500 a year, according to the limited informa tion available. Occupational therapy assist ants working for the Veterans Admini stration earned starting salaries of about $8,400 annually in 1978, and the average salary paid occupational therapy assistants with the Federal Government was about $12,400 a year. Occupational therapy aides earned begin ning salaries of about $7,500 a year in 1978, according to the limited information availa ble. Related Occupations Occupational therapy assistants and aides help administer occupational therapy pro grams under the supervision of a professional occupational therapist. Other workers with similar auxiliary duties include orthotic as sistants, physical therapist assistants, and prosthetics assistants. Sources of Additional Information For information about work opportunities and programs offering training for occupa tional therapy assistants, contact: American Occupational Therapy Association, 6000 Executive Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20852. Those COTA’s interested in qualifying for the examination to become a registered occupational therapist (OTR) through ac quired work experience should contact the Director of Certification, American Occu pational Therapy Association, at the above address. Physical Therapists (D.O.T. 076.121-014) Nature of the Work Physical therapists help persons with mus cle, nerve, joint, and bone diseases or injuries to overcome their disabilities. Their patients include accident victims, handicapped chil dren, and disabled older persons. Physical therapists perform and interpret tests and measurements for muscle strength, motor de velopment, functional capacity, and respira tory and circulatory efficiency to develop programs for treatment in cooperation with the patient’s physician. They evaluate the ef fectiveness of the treatment and discuss pa tient’s progress with physicians, psycholo gists, occupational therapists, and other specialists. When advisable, physical thera pists revise the therapeutic procedures and treatments. They help disabled persons ac cept their physical handicaps and adjust to them. They also teach patients and their families how to continue treatments at home. Therapeutic procedures include exercises for increasing strength, endurance, coordina tion, and range of motion; electrical stimula tion to activate paralyzed muscles; instruc tion in carrying out everyday activities and in the use of helping devices; and the applica tion of massage, heat, cold, light, water, or electricity to relieve pain or improve the con dition of muscles and skin. Most physical therapists provide direct care to patients as staff members, supervi sors, or self-employed practitioners. Physical therapists usually perform their own evalua tions of patients; in large hospitals and nurs ing homes, however, the director or assistant director of the physical therapy department may handle this work, which requires exten sive training and experience. Therapists may treat patients with a wide variety of prob lems, or they may specialize in pediatrics, geriatrics, orthopaedics, sports medicine, neurology, or cardiopulmonary diseases. Others teach or are consultants. Working Conditions Physical therapists generally work in pleasant surroundings. Evening and weekend hours may be required, especially for those in private practice who must be available at times convenient for their patients. The job can be physically exhausting. In addition to standing for long periods, therapists must move equipment and help patients turn, stand, or walk. Places of Employment About 30,000 persons worked as licensed physical therapists in 1978. The largest num ber work in hospitals. Nursing homes employ a growing number of physical therapists and also contract for the services of self-employed therapists. Other therapists work in rehabili Digitized FRASER tationforcenters or schools for handicapped A physical therapist’s work can often be very rewarding. children. Some who work for public health agencies treat chronically sick patients in their own homes. Still others work in physi cians’ offices or clinics, teach in physical therapy educational programs, or work for research organizations. A few serve as con sultants in government and voluntary agen cies or are members of the Armed Forces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States, the District of Columbia, and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico require a license to practice physical therapy. Appli cants for a license must have a degree or certificate from an accredited physical ther apy educational program and, to qualify, must pass a State licensure examination. Ap plicants may prepare for State licensure ex aminations in physical therapy through one of three types of programs, depending upon previous academic study. High school gradu ates can earn a 4-year bachelor’s degree in physical therapy at a college or university. Students who already hold a bachelor’s de gree in another field, such as biology or phys ical education, can earn a second bachelor’s degree, or a certificate, or an entry level mas ter’s degree in physical therapy. In 1979, 13 certificate programs, 74 bache lor’s degree programs and 9 master’s degree programs were accredited by the American Physical Therapy Association and the American Medical Association to provide entry level training. There were also 19 other master’s degree programs and 4 doctoral de gree programs that provided advanced train ing to those already in the field. One of the master’s degree programs is sponsored jointly by the U.S. Army and Baylor Univer THERAPV AND REHABILITATION OCCUPATIONS/403 sity; graduates are commissioned as officers in the Army. The physical therapy curriculum includes science courses such as anatomy, physiology, neuroanatomy, and neurophysiology; it also includes specialized courses such as biome chanics of motion, human growth and devel opment, and manifestations of disease and trauma. Besides receiving classroom instruc tion, students get supervised clinical experi ence administering physical therapy to pa tients in hospitals and other treatment centers. Competition for entry to all physical ther apy programs is keen. Institutions offering a physical therapy program each year receive many more applications than the number of existing places. Consequently, students seri ously interested in attending a physical ther apy program must attain superior grades in their earlier studies, especially in science courses. High school courses that are useful include health, biology, chemistry, social sci ence, mathematics, and physics. Personal traits that physical therapists need include patience, tact, resourcefulness, and emotional stability to help patients and their families understand the treatments and adjust to their handicaps. Physical therapists also should have manual dexterity and physi cal stamina. Many persons who want to de termine whether they have the personal qualities needed for this occupation volun teer for summer or part-time work in the physical therapy department of a hospital or clinic. A graduate degree combined with clinical experience increases opportunities for ad vancement, especially to teaching, research, and administrative positions. Employment Outlook Employment of physical therapists is ex pected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s be cause of increased public recognition of the importance of rehabilitation. As programs to aid handicapped children and other rehabili tation activities expand, and as growth takes place in nursing homes and other facilities for the elderly, many new positions for physical therapists are likely to be created. Persons seeking physical therapy postions may face some competition, however. If re cent trends continue, the number of new graduates is expected to exceed the number of openings that will result each year from expansion in this field and from replacement of those who die or retire. Opportunities should be best in suburban and rural areas. Many part-time positions should continue to be available. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries for new physical therapy graduates averaged about $13,000 a year in 1978, according to a national survey con ducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Earnings of experienced physical http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 404/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HANDBOOK therapists averaged about $16,000, with some earning as much as $27,000 a year. Beginning therapists employed by the Vet erans Administration (VA) earned starting salaries of $11,700 a year in 1979. The aver age salary paid therapists employed by the VA in 1978 was about $17,200 annually; su pervisory therapists may earn over $23,000. Related Occupations Physical therapists are concerned with the treatment and rehabilitation of persons with physical or mental disabilities or disorders. They may use exercise, massage, heat, water, electricity, and various therapeutic devices to help their patients gain independence. Other workers who perform similar duties include occupational therapists, speech pathologists and audiologists, orthotists, prosthetists, and respiratory therapists. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on a career as a physical therapist and a list of accredited educational programs in physical therapy are available from: American Physical Therapy Association, 1156 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Physical Therapist Assistants and Aides (D.O.T. 076.224 and 355.354) Nature of the Work Physical therapist assistants and aides work under the supervision of professional physical therapists to help rehabilitate dis abled persons so that they may again lead useful and productive lives. They help to re store physical functions and prevent dis ability from injury or illness. Assistants help physical therapists test pa tients to determine the extent of their capabilities and the best treatment for them. Using special therapy equipment, they apply heat, cold, light, ultra sound, and massage, and report to their supervisors on how well the patient is responding to treatment. As sistants help patients perform therapeutic ex ercises to build strength and increase motion as well as everyday activities such as walking and climbing stairs. They also help physical therapists instruct patients on the use of ar tificial limbs, braces, and splints. Physical therapist aides help patients pre pare for treatment, and may remove and re place devices such as braces, splints, and slings, and transport patients to and from treatment areas. They may help assistants or therapists by supporting patients during treatment. Aides care for and assemble treat ment equipment, make appointments, act as receptionists, and perform other clerical du ties. Some small health care institutions, such as small hospitals or nursing homes, employ only one person besides the therapist in the physical therapy department. In this case, the assistant or aide may assume more duties within the limits of his or her training. Working Conditions Physical therapist assistants and aides may be required to work some evenings and weekends. Although they work in clean and pleasant surroundings, the work can be physically exhausting. They are on their feet for hours at a time and may have to move heavy equipment. In addi tion, they lift patients into and out of wheelchairs, position them on treatment tables, and help them stand or walk. Places of Employment About 12,500 persons worked as physical therapist assistants and aides in 1978. Most work in physical therapy departments of gen eral and specialized hospitals. Others work in physicians’ or physical therapists’ offices and clinics, rehabilitation centers, or nursing homes for the chronically ill and elderly. Some community and government health agencies, schools for handicapped children, and facilities for the mentally retarded also employ physical therapist assistants and aides. A small number are members of the Armed Forces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for physical thera pist assistants are not uniform throughout the country. Physical therapist assistants are licensed in 24 States where they must be graduates of an accredited 2-year associate degree program and may have to pass a writ ten licensure examination. In States not re quiring a license, some physical therapy aides can advance to assistants by acquiring the necessary knowledge and skills on the job, although most employers prefer graduates of accredited programs. There were 51 accredited programs to train physical therapist assistants in 1978. Most were in junior or community colleges, and all led to an associate degree. Courses include history and philosophy of rehabilita tion, human growth and development, anat omy, physiology, and psychology. Studies also cover physical therapist assistant proce dures including massage, therapeutic exer cise, and heat and cold therapy. Supervised clinical experience also is a requirement of physical therapist assistant programs. The Armed Forces operate schools to train physi cal therapist assistants, but this training does not satisfy academic requirements for State licensure and no degree is awarded to gradu ates. Physical therapist aides train on the job in hospitals and other health care facilities. The length and content of these training pro grams vary widely, depending on the level of difficulty of duties that aides are expected to Related Occupations Physical therapist assistants and aides ad minister routine therapeutic exercises and treatment under the direction of a physical therapist. Other workers who assist health professionals include occupational therapy assistants and aides, orthotic assistants, pros thetics assistants, nurses aides, and orderlies. Sources of Additional Information Information on a career as a physical ther apist assistant or aide and on programs offer ing training for physical therapist assistant is available from: The American Physical Therapy Association, 1156 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. Speech Pathologists and Audiologists (D.O.T. 076.101 and .107) Physical therapy assistant adjusts whirlpool treatment device. Nature of the Work perform, the particular services required by patients in the program, and the amount of time professional therapists spend in teach ing trainees. Applicants admitted to physical therapist aide training programs generally must be high school graduates or the equiva lent. Employers usually prefer that aides have previous hospital experience as nursing aides. About 1 out of 10 Americans is unable to speak or hear clearly. Children who have trouble speaking or hearing cannot partici pate fully with other children in play or in normal classroom activities. Adults with speech or hearing impairments often have ad justment problems in jobs. Speech patholo gists and audiologists provide direct services to these people by evaluating their speech or hearing disorders and providing treatment. High school courses that are helpful to physical therapist assistants and aides are health, biology, social science, physical edu cation, mathematics, and typing. Physical therapist assistants and aides should be in good physical condition. They also need manual dexterity to adjust equip ment, body coordination to assist patients, and an interest in assisting the physically handicapped. Emotional stability is impor tant because assistants and aides must maintain a positive, bright outlook while helping patients with very difficult hand icaps. Patience and the ability to recognize and appreciate slight improvements also are helpful. As physical therapist assistants and aides gain experience, they may advance to more responsible duties with corresponding pay increases. Physical therapist assistants with an associate degree from an accredited pro gram sometimes advance to physical thera pists by earning the bachelor’s degree in physical therapy. A student thinking about this option should arrange his or her asso ciate degree curriculum carefully to corre spond to the undergraduate requirements of the bachelor’s degree program under consideration. Some aides advance to physical therapist assistant or physical therapists by resuming their education and completing the academic and clinical education requirements. Employment Outlook The number of physical therapist assist ants and aides is expected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations as the demand for professional physical thera pists grows. The rise in demand in this field will stem from increased public awareness of the importance of rehabilitation and the growing number of nursing homes which provide therapeutic services. Expanded phys ical therapy services planned by hospitals, nursing homes, schools for handicapped chil dren, facilities for mentally retarded, and other health and rehabilitation centers are expected to increase the need for physical therapist assistants and aides. Additional workers will be needed to replace those who die or retire. Due to recent increases in graduates from accredited programs, jobseekers may face competition for the job of their choice. For the Nation as a whole, graduates of physical therapist assistant programs are expected to exceed the number of openings. Competition will be most keen in communities where there are large training programs. Assistants should have brighter employment prospects than aides. Earnings In 1978, annual salaries averaged about $6,500 for beginning physical therapist aides and about $9,000 for those with experience, according to the limited information availa ble. Physical therapist assistants received higher salaries than aides, with the average ranging between $9,500 and $11,000 a year in 1978. Physical therapist assistants working for the Veterans Administration (VA) earned starting salaries of about $8,400 a year in 1978, and the average salary paid physical therapist assistants with the VA was about $12,500 annually. The speech pathologist works with chil dren and adults who have speech, language, and voice disorders resulting from causes such as total or partial hearing loss, brain injury, cleft palate, mental retardation, emo tional problems, or foreign dialect. The audi ologist primarily assesses and treats hearing problems. Speech and hearing, however, are so interrelated that, to be competent in one of these fields, one must be familiar with both. The duties of speech pathologists and audi ologists vary with education, experience, and place of employment. In clinics, such as in schools, they use diagnostic procedures to identify and evaluate speech and hearing dis orders. Then, in cooperation with physicians, psychologists, physical therapists, and counselors, they develop and implement an organized program of therapy. Some speech pathologists and audiologists conduct re search such as investigating the causes of communicative disorders and improving methods for clinical services. Others super vise clinical activities. Speech pathologists and audiologists in colleges and universities teach courses in the principles of communication, communica tion disorders, and clinical techniques; par ticipate in educational programs for physi cians, nurses, and teachers; and work in university clinics and research centers. Al though most speech pathologists and audi ologists do some administrative work, direc- THERAPY AND REHABILITATION OCCUPATIONS/405 advance professionally. To earn the CCC, a person must have a master’s degree or its equivalent, complete a 1-year internship ap proved by the Association, and pass a na tional written examination. Speech pathologists and audiologists should be able to approach problems objec tively and have a concern for the needs of others. They also should have considerable patience, because a client’s progress often is slow. A person who desires a career in speech pathology and audiology should be able to accept responsibility, work independently, and direct others. The ability to work with detail also is important. Employment Outlook Considerable patience is required to help people overcome speech and hearing disabilities. tors of speech and hearing clinics and coor dinators of speech and hearing in schools, health departments, or government agencies may be totally involved in administration. Working Conditions Many speech pathologists and audiologists work more than 40 hours a week. They gen erally work in clean, comfortable surround ings and spend most of their time at a desk or table. Although the job is not physically demanding, the close attention to detail and intense concentration can be mentally ex hausting. These workers receive immense satisfaction from seeing their clients’ speech and hearing improve, but a lack of progress can be very frustrating. Places of Employment About 32,000 persons worked as speech pathologists and audiologists in 1978. Nearly one-half worked in public schools. Colleges and universities employed many in class rooms, clinics, and research centers. The rest worked in hospitals, speech and hearing cen ters, government agencies, industry, and pri vate practice. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement An increasing number of States and many Federal programs (such as Medicare and Medicaid) require a master’s degree or its equivalent for speech pathologists and audi ologists. Some States require a teaching cer tificate in order to work in the public schools. In 30 States, those offering speech pathology and audiology services outside of schools must be licensed. Licensure requirements vary among the States. Undergraduate courses in speech pathol- http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 406/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HANDBOOK ogy and audiology programs include anat omy, biology, physiology, physics, sociology, linguistics, semantics, and phonetics. Courses in speech and hearing as well as in child psychology and psychology of the ex ceptional child also are helpful. This training usually is available at colleges that offer a broad liberal arts program. In 1978, about 230 colleges and universi ties offered graduate education in speech pa thology and audiology. Courses at the gradu ate level include advanced anatomy and physiology of the areas involved in hearing and speech; acoustics; psychological aspects of communication; and analysis of speech production, language abilities, and auditory processes. Graduate students also take courses in the evaluation and remediation of speech, language, and hearing disorders. All students at the graduate level receive super vised clinical training in communicative dis orders. A limited number of scholarships, fellow ships, assistantships, and traineeships are available in this field. Teaching and training grants to colleges and universities that have programs in speech and hearing are given by a number of agencies of the U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare—the Rehabilitation Services Administration, the Maternal and Child Health Service, the Of fice of Education, and the National Institutes of Health. In addition, some Federal agencies distribute money to colleges to aid graduate students in speech and hearing programs. A large number of private organizations and foundations also provide financial assistance for education in this field. Meeting the American Speech-LanguageHearing Association’s (AS-L-HA) require ments for a Certificate of Clinical Compe tence (CCC) usually is necessary in order to Employment of speech pathologists and audiologists is expected to increase much faster than the average for all other occupa tions through the 1980’s. Although some jobs will be available for those having only a bach elor’s degree, the increasing emphasis placed on the master’s degree by State governments, school systems, and Federal agencies will limit opportunities at the bachelor’s degree level. While employment opportunities for those with a master’s degree generally should be favorable, the large number of graduates en tering this field may cause some competition. Many openings will occur outside of the large metropolitan areas, and graduates should take this into consideration when seeking em ployment. Competition for teaching posi tions in colleges and universities will be very strong throughout the period. Population growth, which will increase the number of persons having speech and hear ing problems, will contribute to the expected expansion in employment of speech patholo gists and audiologists through the 1980’s. In addition, there is a trend toward earlier rec ognition and treatment of hearing and lan guage problems in children. Many school-age children, thought to have learning disabili ties, actually have language or hearing dis orders that speech pathologists and audiolo gists can treat. Other factors expected to increase demand for speech pathologists and audiologists are expansion in expenditures for medical re search and the growing public interest in speech and hearing disorders. State and Fed eral laws now require school systems to pro vide equal educational services for handi capped children, and Medicare and Medicaid programs have expanded their coverage of speech and hearing services. Earnings Audiologists working in hospitals gener ally earn slightly more than speech patholo gists. According to a national survey con ducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch, audiologists averaged starting sala ries of about $14,300 a year in 1978, com pared to about $14,000 for speech patholo gists. Experienced audiologists averaged $18,500 a year, compared to $17,500 for speech pathologists. In 1979, the annual starting salary in the Federal Government for speech pathologists and audiologists with a master’s degree was about $15,900. Those having a doctoral de gree were eligible to start at about $19,300. The average salary of all speech pathologists and audiologists working for the Federal Government in 1978 was $24,300. Many speech pathologists and audiolo gists, particularly those in colleges and uni versities, supplement their income by acting as consultants, engaging in research projects, and writing books and articles. Almost all receive benefits such as paid vacations, sick leave, and retirement programs. Related Occupations Speech pathologists and audiologists spe cialize in the diagnosis and treatment of speech, language, and hearing problems. Workers in other professions who also per form rehabilitative functions include occupa tional therapists, optometrists, and physical therapists. Sources of Additional Information State departments of education can sup ply information on certification require ments for those who wish to work in pub lic schools. A list of college and university programs and a booklet on student financial aid as well as general career information are available from: American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 10801 Rockville Pike, Md. 20852. THERAPY AND REHABILITATION OCCUPATIONS/407 Other Health Occupations Dietitians (D.O.T. 077.061 through .167) Nature of the Work Dietitians plan nutritious and appetizing meals to help people maintain or recover good health. They also supervise the food service personnel who prepare and serve the meals, manage dietetic purchasing and ac counting, and give advice on good eating habits. Clinical dietitians form the largest group in this occupation; the others are ad ministrative, teaching, and research dieti tians. Nutritionists also are included in this field. Administrative dietitians apply the princi ples of nutrition and sound management to large-scale meal planning and preparation, such as that done in hospitals, universities, schools, and other institutions. They super vise the planning, preparation, and service of meals; select, train, and direct food service supervisors and workers; budget for and pur chase food, equipment, and supplies; enforce sanitary and safety regulations; and prepare records and reports. Dietitians who are direc tors of dietetic departments also decide on departmental policy; coordinate dietetic ser vices with the activities of other departments; and are responsible for the dietetic depart ment budget, which in large organizations may amount to millions of dollars annually. ; ! Clinical dietitians, sometimes called thera peutic dietitians, plan diets and supervise the service of meals to meet the nutritional needs of patients in hospitals, nursing homes, or clinics. Clinical dietitians confer with doctors and other members of the health care team about patients’ nutritional care, instruct pa tients and their families on the requirements and importance of their diets, and suggest ways to maintain these diets after leaving the hospital or clinic. In a small institution, a dietitian may perform both administrative and clinical duties. bers of the health care team in medical and educational institutions. they do spend time in kitchens and serving areas that often are hot and steamy. Nutritionists may counsel individuals and groups on sound nutrition practices to main tain and improve health, or they may engage in teaching and research'. This work covers such areas as special diets, meal planning and preparation, and food budgeting and pur chasing. Nutritionists in community health programs may be responsible for the nutri tion components of preventive health and medical care services. This includes plan ning, developing, coordinating, and adminis tering a nutrition program or a nutrition component within the community health program. Nutritionists work in such diverse areas as food industries, educational and health facilities, and agricultural and welfare agencies, both public and private. Places of Employment About 35,000 persons worked as dietitians in 1978. More than one-half work in hospi tals, nursing homes, and clinics, including about 1,100 in the Veterans Administration and the U.S. Public Health Service. Colleges, universities, and school systems employ a large number of dietitians to teach or to work in their food service systems. Most of the rest work for health-related agencies, restaurants or cafeterias, and large companies that pro vide food service for their employees. Some dietitians are employed in the Armed Forces. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement An increasing number of dietitians work as consultants to hospitals and to health-related facilities. Others act as consultants to com mercial enterprises, including food proces sors and equipment manufacturers. A bachelor’s degree, with a major in foods and nutrition or institution management, is the basic educational requirement for dietitians. This degree can be earned in about 240 colleges and universities, usually in depart ments of home economics. The college courses that usually are required include food and nutrition, institution management, chemistry, bacteriology, and physiology. Other courses that also are important are mathematics, data processing, psychology, sociology, and economics. Working Conditions Although most dietitians work 40 hours a week, dietitians in hospitals may sometimes work on weekends, and those in commercial food services have somewhat irregular hours. Dietitians spend much of their time in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated areas, such as research laboratories, classrooms, or of fices near food preparation areas. However, To qualify for professional recognition, the American Dietetic Association (ADA) recommends that graduates complete an apr Research dietitians seek ways to improve the nutrition of both healthy and sick peo ple. They may study nutrition science and education, food management, food service systems and equipment, or how the body uses food. Other research projects may in vestigate the nutritional needs of the aging, persons who have chronic diseases, or space travelers. Research dietitians usually are employed in medical centers or educa tional facilities, but they also may work in community health programs. (See the statement on food technologists elsewhere in the Handbook.) Dietetic educators teach dietetics to memhttp://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 408/OCCUPATIONAL HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St.OUTLOOK Louis Dietitian verifies dietary needs of each patient before food tray leaves the kitchen. proved dietetic internship or individual traineeship program. The internship lasts 6 to 12 months and the traineeship program 1 to 2 years. Both programs combine clinical experience under a qualified dietitian with some classroom work. In 1978, 68 internship ' programs were approved by the ADA. A f growing number of coordinated undergradu ate programs have been developed that en able students to complete their clinical expe rience requirement while obtaining their bachelor’s degree. In 1978, there were about 70 of these programs offered by medical schools and allied health and home econom ics departments of colleges and universities. These programs also are approved by the ADA. Persons meeting the qualifications es tablished by the ADA’s Commission on Die tetic Registration can become Registered Dietitians (R.D.’s). Experienced dietitians may advance to as sistant or associate director or director of a dietetic department. Advancement to higher level positions in teaching and research usu ally requires graduate education; public health nutritionists must earn a graduate de gree. Graduate study in institutional or busi ness administration is valuable to those inter ested in administrative dietetics. American Dietetic Association. The median salary paid by colleges and universities to dietitians with a bachelor’s degree was $16,600 a year in 1978. The median salary for those with a bachelor’s degree working in commercial or industrial establishments was $15,500 a year; for those in public and volun tary health agencies, $15,800. For selfemployed dietitians with a bachelor’s degree, the median salary was over $20,000 a year in 1978. The entrance salary in the Federal Gov ernment for those completing an approved internship was about $13,000 in 1979. Begin ning dietitians with a master’s degree who had completed an internship earned about $15,900. In 1978, the Federal Government paid experienced dietitians average salaries of about $19,600 a year. Dietitians usually receive benefits such as paid vacations, holidays, health insurance, and retirement benefits. In addition, some hospitals provide free laundry service. Related Occupations Dietitians apply the principles of nutrition in a variety of situations. Other workers with similar duties include food technologists, home economists, executive chefs, and food service managers. Persons who plan to become a dietitian should have organizational and administra tive ability, as well as high scientific aptitude, and should be able to work well with a vari ety of people. Among the courses recom mended for high school students interested in careers as dietitians are home economics, business administration, biology, health, mathematics, and chemistry. For information on approved dietetic in ternship programs, scholarships, employ ment opportunities, registration, and a list of colleges providing training for a professional career in dietetics, contact: Employment Outlook The American Dietetic Association, 430 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Employment of dietitians is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s to meet the nutrition and food management needs of hospitals and extended care facilities, industrial plants, and restaurants. Dietitians also will be needed to staff community health programs and to con duct research in food and nutrition. In addi tion to new jobs, many others will open each year to replace those who die, retire, or leave the profession for other reasons. Opportuni ties should remain favorable for dietitians who wish to work part time. In recent years, employers have used die tetic assistants trained in vocational and tech nical schools and dietetic technicians edu cated in junior colleges to help meet the demand for dietetic services. Because this sit uation is likely to persist, employment oppor tunities also should continue to be favorable for graduates of these programs. Earnings Entry-level salaries of hospital dietitians averaged $ 12,600 a year in 1978, according to a national survey conducted by the Univer sity of Texas Medical Branch. Experienced dietitians received annual salaries ranging from for $15,000 to $30,000 according to the Digitized FRASER Sources of Additional Information The U.S. Office of Personnel Management, Washington, D.C. 20415, will send informa tion on the requirements for dietetic interns and dietitians in Federal Government hospi tals and for public health nutritionists and dietitians in the Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Wel fare; and the District of Columbia govern ment programs. Dispensing Opticians (D.O.T. 299.474-010 and 713.361-014) Nature of Work Over 110 million people in the United States use some form of corrective lenses to improve their vision. Dispensing opticians (also called ophthalmic dispensers) receive lens prescriptions from eye doctors (ophthal mologists) or optometrists, determine the size and style of eyeglasses desired by the customer, write work orders for ophthalmic laboratory technicians, and adjust finished glasses to fit the customer. In many States they fit contact lenses. Dispensing opticians determine where lenses should be placed in relation to the cus tomer’s eyes by measuring the distance be tween the centers of the pupils. They also help the customer select the proper eyeglass frame by recommending various styles and colors of frames that complement the cus tomer’s facial features. Dispensing opticians analyze and interpret prescriptions and prepare work orders that give ophthalmic laboratory technicians the information they need to properly grind the lenses, and insert them in a frame. The work orders include lens prescriptions and infor mation on lens size, color, and style. After glasses are made, dispensing opticians use a special instrument to check the power and surface qualify of the lenses. Opticians then adjust the frame to the contours of the cus tomer’s face and head so that it fits properly and comfortably. Adjustments are made with handtools, such as optical pliers, files, and screwdrivers. A special instrument is used to check the power and surface quality of the lenses. In fitting contact lenses, dispensing opti cians follow ophthalmologists’ or optome trists’ prescriptions, measure the corneas of customers’ eyes and then prepare specifica tions to be followed by the contact lens manufacturer. Contact lens fitting requires considerably more skill, care, and patience than conventional eyeglass fitting. Dispens ing opticians tell customers how to insert, remove, and care for contact lenses during the initial adjustment period, which may last several weeks. The dispensing optician exam ines the patient’s eyes, corneas, lids, and con tact lenses with special instruments and mi croscopes at each visit. Ophthalmologists or optometrists recheck the fit, as needed. Opti cians may make minor adjustments; lenses are returned to the manufacturer for major changes. The majority of dispensing opticians are in the general practice of designing and fitting eyeglasses. Some specialize in the fitting of cosmetic shells to cover blemished eyes. Still others specialize in the fitting of prostheses (artificial eyes). In some shops, they may do lens grinding and finishing and sell other op tical goods such as binoculars, magnifying glasses, and nonprescription eyeglasses. Working Conditions Dispensing opticians work indoors in pleasant, quiet surroundings that are well lighted and well ventilated. Because they sell and service eye lenses, they deal with custom ers most of the time. Places of Employment About 17,500 persons worked as dispens ing opticians in 1978. Most dispensing opti cians work for retail optical shops or depart ment stores and other retail stores that sell prescription lenses. Many also work for oph thalmologists or optometrists who sell glasses directly to patients. A few work in hospitals and eye clinics and teach in schools OTHER HEALTH OCCUPATIONS/409 health insurance plans, and Medicare also will stimulate demand. Moreover, the growing variety of frame styles and colors may encourage individuals to buy more than one pair of glasses. Employment opportunities should be ex cellent for dispensing opticians who have an associate degree in opticianry; however, job seekers without formal training may face competition for jobs of their choice. Oppor tunities will be best in metropolitan areas be cause owners operate many of the retail shops in small communities and do not need dispensing opticians. Earnings Hourly wage rates for dispensing opticians ranged from $5.75 to $9.25 in 1978, based on information from a small number of union contracts. Dispensing opticians who own and operate their own shops can expect to earn considerably more, generally from $20,000 to $30,000 a year. Analyzing the customer’s facial features is a basic part of proper eyeglass fitting. of ophthalmic dispensing. Many dispensing opticians own retail optical shops. Dispensing opticians can be found in every State. However, employment is concentrated in large cities and in populous States. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most dispensing opticians learn their skills on the job. On-the-job training in dispensing work may last several years and usually in cludes instruction in optical mathematics, optical physics, and the use of precision mea suring instruments. Em ployers prefer persons w ho have com p leted formal training programs. In 1978, 21 schools offered 2-year full-time courses in op tical fabricating and dispensing work leading to an associate degree. In addition, medical schools, large manufacturers of contact lenses, and professional societies offer short, nondegree courses in contact-lens fitting. A small number of opticians learn their trade in the Armed Forces. High school graduates also can prepare for optical dispensing work through 2- to 4-year formal apprenticeship programs. Appren tices with exceptional ability may complete their training in a shorter period. Apprentices receive training in optical mathematics and optical physics and in the use of laboratory equipment. In addition to technical training, apprentices may work directly with patients in fitting eyeglasses and contact lenses. Trainees also are taught the basics of office management and sales. Employers prefer applicants for entry jobs as dispensing opticians to be high school graduates who have had courses in the basic sciences. A knowledge of physics, algebra, http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 410/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HANDBOOK geometry, and mechanical drawing is partic ularly valuable. Interest in and ability to do precision work are essential. Because dis pensing opticians deal directly with the pub lic, they should be tactful and have pleasant personalities. In 1978, 20 States had licensing require ments governing dispensing opticians: Alaska, Arizona, California, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Kentucky, Massa chusetts, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Vermont, and Wash ington. To obtain a license, the applicant gen erally must meet certain minimum standards o f education and training, and also must pass either a written or practical examination, or both. For specific requirements, the licensing boards of individual States should be con sulted. Many dispensing opticians go into busi ness for themselves. Others may advance by becoming managers of retail optical stores or becoming sales representatives for wholesalers or manufacturers of eyeglasses or lenses. Employment Outlook Employment of dispensing opticians is expected to increase faster than the aver age for all occupations through the 1980’s. In addition to job openings from employ ment growth, some openings will arise from the need to replace experienced work ers who retire, die, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Demand for corrective lenses is expected to rise as the general population grows and as the elderly, the group that requires the most eye care, con tinues to grow as a proportion of the gen eral population. State programs to provide eye care for low-income families, union Apprentices start at about 60 percent of the skilled worker’s rate and are increased periodically so that upon completion of the apprenticeship program, they receive the be ginning rate for experienced workers. Dispensing opticians generally work a 40hour week. Some, especially those employed in retail shops in large shopping centers, work in the evenings and on Saturdays. Some dispensing opticians are members of unions. The principal union in this field is the Inter national Union of Electrical, Radio and Ma chine Workers (AFL-CIO). Related Occupations Other occupations in which workers with technical knowledge use machines and tools to do precise, delicate work include calibra tors, dental laboratory technicians, glass blowers, instrument repairers, locksmiths, ophthalmic laboratory technicians, ortho dontic technicians, prosthetics technicians, and watch repairers. Sources of Additional Information A list of schools offering courses for people who wish to become dispensing opticians is available from: National Academy of Opticianry, 514 Chestnut St., Big Rapids, Mich. 49307. National Federation of Opticianry Schools, Ferris State College, Big Rapids, Mich. 49307 For general information about the occupa tion, contact: International Union of Electrical, Radio and Ma chine Workers, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. National Federation of Opticianry Schools, Ferris State College, Big Rapids, Mich. 49307. Opticians Association of America, 1250 Connecti cut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Chairman of Optical Council, IUE-AFL-CIOCLC, 200 Park Ave. South, New York, N.Y. 10003. Health Services Administrators (D.O.T. 169.167-010; 187.117-010, -018, -050; 187.167-034, -090; 188.117-082) Nature of the Work Medical and health care is provided by or ganizations that vary from large teaching hospitals to small walk-in clinics. To function properly, each of these requires effective management which health administrators provide under the general supervision of a board of directors or other governing body. Administrators direct the various func tions and activities that make a health organi zation work. They may do this personally, where the organization is small, or direct a staff of assistant administrators in larger or ganizations. Health administrators make many kinds of management decisions. For example, they may review budget proposals, make personnel decisions, and negotiate for the expansion of facilities. Some health services administrators, in cluding those who manage hospitals or nurs ing homes, oversee nursing, food services, and in-service training programs. Assistant administrators usually direct the daily opera tions of these departments; however, the chief executive keeps informed through for mal and informal meetings with the assist ants, the medical staff, and others. In addi tion to these management activities, many health administrators help carry out fun draising drives and promote public participa tion in health programs. This phase of the administrator’s job often includes speaking before civic groups, arranging publicity, and coordinating the activities of the organiza tion with those of government or community agencies. Administration and Armed Forces hospitals and clinics. Others work for voluntary health agencies that support research, provide care and treatment for victims of particular dis eases or impairments and conduct profes sional and public education and communitee service programs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Educational requirements for health ser vices administrators vary according to the position’s level of responsibility and the size of the organization. Generally, larger organi zations with a more complicated administra tive structure require higher credentials than smaller ones. ants to program representatives in public health departments. Some associate degree holders find assistant administrator jobs in small nursing homes. The Ph. D. degree usually is required for positions in teaching or research, and is an asset for those seeking administrative jobs in larger, more prestigious health organiza tions. Although some public health depart ments still require chief administrators to be physicians, the trend is away from this. Administrators in Armed Forces hospitals usually are career military personnel. In 1978, about 60 bachelor degree pro grams in health services administration were offered. In addition, there were over 75 mas ter’s degree, programs in hospital or health services administration that led to the mas ter’s degree, and 22 master’s degree programs in schools of public health. Applicants with master’s degrees in health or hospital administration may be hired as associate or assistant administrators in hospi tals, while those with master’s degrees in public health often find work as program analysts or program representatives in public health departments. Very few master’s de gree recipients take entry positions in nursing or personal care homes, although many nurs ing home administrators pursue graduate ed ucation while employed. New master’s de gree graduates from programs in related disciplines such as public administration or management are sometimes hired for ad ministrative jobs. Master of business ad ministration (MBA) graduates, for example, are sometimes hired by public health depart ments as program analysts. To enter graduate programs, applicants must have a bachelor’s degree, with courses in natural sciences, psychology, sociology, statistics, accounting, and economics. Com petition for entry to these programs is keen, and applicants need above- average grades to gain admission. The programs generally last about 2 years and may include some super vised administrative experience in hospitals, clinics, or health agencies. Programs may in clude courses such as hospital organization and management, accounting and budget control, personnel administration, public health administration, and the economics of health care. Bachelor’s degree recipients usually begin their careers as administrative assistants or department heads in hospitals, or as assistant administrators in nursing homes. Graduates of 2-year, associate degree programs gener ally are hired as unit directors or assistant department heads in hospitals, or as assist All States and the District of Columbia require that the administrator of a nursing or personal care home be licensed. Require ments are not uniform, but they generally specify a level of education, such as a bache lor’s degree, plus some amount of experience in the field. Working Conditions Health administrators often work long hours. Health facilities such as nursing homes and hospitals operate around the clock, and administrators may be called at all hours to settle emergency problems. Also, some may travel to meetings or, for these who oversee several facilities, to make inspect tions. ( Places of Employment About 180,000 persons worked in some phase of health administrationin 1978. Most administrators work in health facilities, in cluding hospitals (which employed about half of all administrators), nursing and per sonal care homes, and health management firms that provide administrative services for a fee. Some health administrators work for gov ernment agencies, including State and local health departments and the U.S. Public Health Service. In addition, the Federal Gov ernment hires administrators in Veterans Some health services administrators work in nursing homes. OTHER HEALTH OCCUPATIONS/411 Personal qualifications needed for success as a health administrator include initiative and an interest in helping the sick, injured and handicapped. Administrators should be able to work with and motivate people, and to organize and direct large-scale activities. They also should enjoy public speaking. Health administrators advance in the pro fession by taking increasingly more responsi ble positions. Most frequently, the first job is in a large institution in a position that is somewhat narrow in scope—for example, as department head in charge of purchasing. Advancement is then to successively more responsible jobs such as assistant or associate administrator and finally the chief adminis trator. Less commonly, hospital administra tors begin their careers in small hospitals in positions with broad responsiblities, such as assistant administrator. Regardless of the path of advancement chosen, the ultimate oc cupational goal in hospitals and nursing homes is chief executive or chief administra tive officer. Employment Outlook The number of graduate programs in health administration has increased rapidly in recent years; in addition, administative specialists with graduate degrees in other fields have entered the profession. Conse quently, it may become more difficult for those with less than a graduate education to enter health administration in top manage ment positions. In addition, some adminis trative jobs will continue to be filled by regis tered nurses, physicians, and members of religious communities. Employment of health services administra tors is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as the quantity of patient services in creases and health services management becomes more complex. The demand for ad ministrators will be stimulated by the forma tion- of more group medical practices and health maintenance organizations (facilities that offer subscribers a broad range of medi cal services for a set fee). Administrators also will be needed in nursing and convalescent homes to handle the increasing amount of administrative work expected as these facili ties expand in size. Administrators of nursing and personal care homes usually earn lower salaries than those paid hospital administrators in facili ties having similar numbers of beds. Average annual earnings of nursing home administra tors in 1978 were about $21,500. Most ad ministrators employed by voluntary health agencies earned between $20,000 and $30,000 a year in 1978. Related Occupations Health services administrators plan pro grams, set policies, and make decisions for a health service agency or institution. Other administrators with similar responsibilities include social welfare administrators, busi ness enterprise officers, community organiza tion directors, curators, college or university department heads, medical-record adminis trators, recreation superintendents. Sources of Additional Information Information about health administration and the academic programs in this field of fered by universities, colleges, and commu nity colleges is available from: American College of Hospital Administration, 840 North Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, 111. 60611. Association of University Programs in Health Ad ministration, One Dupont Circle, NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. National Health Council, Health Careers Pro gram, 1740 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10019. American College of Nursing Home Administra tors, 4650 East-West Hwy., Washington, D.C. 20014. Medical Record Administrators______ (D.O.T. 079.167-014) Earnings Salaries of hospital administrators depend on factors such as the level of job responsibil ity; the size, type, and location of the hospi tal; and the size of its administrative staff and budget. Chief administrators in hospitals with 100 to ISO beds earned an average of $36,000 a year in 1978. Some, in larger hospitals, earned over $55,000. Recent recipients of master’s degrees in health administration starting work in Veterans’ Administration (VA) hospitals earned $15,920 a year in 1979. The average salary paid administrators of Federal hospitals was $32,100. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 412/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Commissioned officers in the Armed Forces who work as hospital administrators hold ranks ranging from second lieutenant to colonel or from ensign to captain. Comman ding officers of large Armed Forces hospitals are generally physicians, who may hold higher ranks. Hospital administrators in the U.S. Public Health Service are commissioned officers holding ranks equivalent to those of lieutenant (junior grade) through captain in the Navy. HANDBOOK Nature of the Work All health care institutions keep records that contain medical information on each pa tient, including case histories of illnesses or injuries, reports on physical examinations, Xrays and laboratory tests, doctors’ orders and notes, and nurses’ notes. These records are necessary for correct and prompt diagnosis and treatment of illnesses and injuries. They also are used for research, insurance claims, legal actions, evaluation of treatment and medications prescribed, and in the training of medical personnel. Medical information in hospitals also is used to evaluate patient care provided in the hospital and as a basis for health care planning for the community. Medical record administrators direct the activities of the medical record department and develop systems for documenting, stor ing, and retrieving medical information. They supervise the medical record staff, which processes and analyzes records and re ports on patients’ illnesses and treatment. They train members of the medical record staff for specialized jobs, compile medical statistics required by State or national health agencies, and assist the medical staff in evaluations of patient care or research stud ies. Medical record administrators serving as department heads are a part of the hospital management staff and participate fully in management activities. As the administrators responsible for the medical information sys tem, they may be required to testify in court about records and record procedures. The size and type of institution affect the duties and amount of responsibility assigned to medical record administrators. In large hospitals, chief medical record administra tors supervise other medical record adminis trators, technicians, and clerks. Smaller hos pitals may employ only two or three persons in the medical record department; in nursing homes usually one person keeps the medical records. In these cases, a consulting medical record administrator usually advises techni cal and clerical personnel performing medi cal record functions. Working Conditions Medical record adminstrators generally work a standard 40-hour week in clean, welllighted surroundings. Because the record de partment seldom is involved in emergency situations, the work environment may be a relaxed one. However, accuracy and atten tion to detail are essential, and this can be very tiring. Places of Employment Most of the 12,500 medical record ad ministrators employed in 1978 worked in hospitals. The remainder worked in clinics, nursing homes, State and local public health departments, and medical research centers. Some health insurance companies also employ medical record administrators to help determine liability for payment of their clients’ medical fees. Other medical record administrators work for firms that manufacture equipment for recording and processing medical data and develop and print health insurance and medical forms. In addition, many small health care facili ties hire medical record administrators as consultants. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Preparation for a career as a medical re cord administrator is offered in specialized programs in colleges and universities. Most programs last 4 years and lead to a bachelor’s search, and consulting work for health care facilities. Earnings The salaries of medical record administra tors are influenced by the location, size, and type of the employing institution, as well as by the duties and responsibilities of the posi tion. The average starting salary for medical record administrators in hospitals was about $14,500 a year in 1978, according to a na tional survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical Branch. Salaries for ex perienced record administrators in hosptials averaged about $18,000 a year, with some earning well over $30,000. Newly graduated medical record adminis trators employed by the Federal Government generally started at about $10,500 a year in 1979; those having good academic records were eligible to begin at about $13,000. In 1978, the Federal Government paid ex perienced medical record administrators av erage salaries of about $16,000 a year. Medical record administrators often work closely with physicians. degree in medical record administration. However, concentration in medical record administration begins in the third or fourth year of study, making transfer from a junior college possible. One-year certificate pro grams also are available for those who al ready have a bachelor’s degree and required courses in the liberal arts and biological sciences. In 1978, there were 44 programs in medical record administration approved by the Council on Medical Education and Ac creditation of the American Medical Associ ation and the American Medical Record As sociation (AMRA). High school courses that provide a good background include health, business administration, mathematics, and biology. Training for medical record administra tors includes both classroom instruction and practical experience. Anatomy, physiology, fundamentals of medical science, medical ter minology, and medical record science are among the required scientific courses. In ad dition, management courses such as hospital organization and administration, health law, statistics, data processing, and computer sci ence are part of the curriculum. Experience in the medical record departments of hospi tals provides students with a practical back ground in applying standardized medical re cord practices, compiling statistical reports, analyzing data, and organizing medical re cord systems. Graduates of approved schools in medical record administration are eligible for the na tional registration examination given by AMRA. Passing this examination gives pro fessional recognition as a Registered Record Administrator (RRA). According to the AMRA, there were about 6,500 employed RRA’s in 1978. Medical record administrators must be ac curate and interested in detail, and must be able to speak and write clearly. Because med ical records are confidential, medical record administrators must be discreet in processing and releasing information. Supervisors must be able to organize, analyze, and direct work procedures and be able to work effectively with other hospital personnel. Medical record administrators with some experience in smaller health facilities may ad vance to positions as department heads in large hospitals or to higher level positions in hospital administration. Some coordinate the medical record departments of several small hospitals. Others move on to medical record positions in health agencies. Many teach in the expanding programs for medical record personnel in 2- and 4-year colleges and uni versities. Related Occupations Medical record administrators work al most exclusively in hospitals and, as a mem ber of the health care team, assume responsi bility for a large volume of medical records. They train and supervise workers who verify, transcribe, code, and maintain files on pa tients’ medical history. Workers in other oc cupations who provide similar administrative services in related fields include: Emergency medical service coordinators, hospital-insur ance representatives, library directors, and public health educators. Sources of Additional Information Information about approved schools and employment opportunites is available from: American Medical Record Association, John Han cock Center, Suite 1850, 875 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60611. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for graduates of approved medical record administrator programs are expected to be good through the 1980’s. Employment is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupa tions, with the increasing use of health facili ties as more and more people are covered by health insurance. The detailed information required by third-party payers, such as insur ance companies and government agencies, also will cause growth in the occupation. More consultants will be needed to standard ize health records in outpatient clinics, com munity health centers, nursing homes, and home care programs. The importance of medical records in research and the growing use of computers to store and retrieve medi cal information also should increase the de mand for qualified medical record adminis trators to develop new medical information systems. Part-time employment opportuni ties also should be available in teaching, re Pharmacists (D.O.T. 074.161) Nature of the Work Pharmacists dispense drugs and medicines prescribed by medical and dental practition ers and supply and advise people on the use of many medicines that can be obtained with and without prescriptions. Pharmacists must understand the use, composition, and effect of drugs and often test them for purity and strength. They may maintain patient medica tion profiles and advise physicians on the proper selection and use of medicines. Com pounding—the actual mixing of ingredients to form powders, tablets, capsules, oint ments, and solutions—is now only a small part of pharmacists’ practice, since most medicines are produced by manufacturers in the form used by the patient. OTHER HEALTH OCCUPATIONS/413 Many pharmacists employed in commu nity pharmacies also have other duties. Be sides dispensing medicines, some pharma cists buy and sell nonpharmaceutical merchandise, hire and supervise personnel, and oversee the general operation of the pharmacy. Other pharmacists, however, op erate prescription pharmacies that dispense only medicines, medical supplies, and health accessories. Pharmacists in hospitals and clinics dis pense prescriptions and advise the medical staff on the selection and effects of drugs; they also make sterile solutions, buy medical supplies, teach in schools of nursing and al lied health professions, and perform adminis trative duties. In addition, pharmacists work as consultants to the medical team in matters related to daily patient care in hospitals, nursing homes, and other health care facili ties. Their role is crucial to safe, efficient, and proper therapeutic care. Some pharmacists, employed as sales or medical service representatives by drug manufacturers and wholesalers, sell medi cines to retail pharmacies and to hospitals, and inform health personnel about new drugs. Others teach in colleges of pharmacy, supervise the manufacture of pharmaceuti cals, or are involved in research and the de velopment of new medicines. Some pharma cists edit or write technical articles for pharmaceutical journals, or do administra tive work. Some combine pharmaceutical and legal training in jobs as patent lawyers or consultants on pharmaceutical and drug laws. Working Conditions Pharmacists usually work in a clean, welllighted, and well-ventilated area that resem bles a small laboratory. Shelves are lined with hundreds of different medicines and drugs. In addition, some items are refrigerated and all controlled substances are kept under lock and key. According to a recent survey, pharmacists average 44 hours a week in their primary work setting. Many pharmacists work in a secondary setting where they average 15 hours a week, often as a consultant to a nurs ing home or other facility. Pharmacies often are open in the evenings and on weekends, and all States require a registered pharmacist to be in attendance during pharmacy hours. Self-employed pharmacists often work more hours than those in salaried positions. Places of Employment About 135,000 persons worked as licensed pharmacists in 1978. About 100,000 pharma cists worked in community pharmacies. Of these, about one-third owned their own phar macies; the others were salaried employees. Most of the remaining pharmacists worked for hospitals, pharmaceutical manufacturers, wholesalers, and government and educa tional institutions. Quite a few community and hospital pharmacists do consulting work 414/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Pharmacist fills prescription. for nursing homes and other health facilities in addition to their primary jobs. As a rule, pharmacy services in nursing homes are pro vided by consultants rather than by salaried employees. Some pharmacists are civilian employees of the Federal Government who work chiefly in hospitals and clinics of the Veterans Ad ministration and the U.S. Public Health Ser vice. Additional Federal agencies employing pharmacists include the Department of De fense, the Food and Drug Administration and other branches of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, and the Drug Enforcement Administration. Other pharmacists serve in the Armed Forces or teach in colleges of pharmacy. State and local health agencies and pharmaceutical and other professional associations also employ pharmacists. Most towns have at least one pharmacy with one pharmacist or more in attendance. Most pharmacists, however, practice in or near cities and in those States that have the largest populations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license to practice pharmacy is required in all States and the District of Columbia. To obtain a license, one must graduate from an accredited pharmacy degree program, pass a State board examination and—in all States— have a specified amount of practical experi ence or internship under the supervision of a licensed pharmacist. Internships generally are served in a community or hospital phar macy. In 1978, all States except California, Florida, and Hawaii granted a license with out reexamination to qualified pharmacists already licensed by another State. Many pharmacists are licensed to practice in more than one State. At least 5 years of study beyond high school are required to graduate from one of the degree programs accredited by the American Council on Pharmaceutical Edu cation in the 72 colleges of pharmacy. Most graduates receive a Bachelor of Science (B.S.) or a Bachelor of Pharmacy (B. Pharm.) de gree. About one-third of the colleges of phar macy also offer advanced professional degree programs leading to a Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm: D.) degree; three of the schools offer only the Pharm. D. degree. The Pharm. D. degree as well as the B.S. and B. Pharm. degrees may serve as the entry degree for licensure as a pharmacist. Admission requirements vary. A few col leges admit students directly from high school. Most colleges of pharmacy, however, require entrants to have completed 1 or 2 years of prepharmacy education in an accred ited junior college, college, or university. A prepharmacy curriculum usually emphasizes mathematics and basic j sciences, such as chemistry, biology, and physics, but also in cludes courses in the humanities and social sciences. Because entry requirements vary among colleges of pharmacy, prepharmacy students should inquire about and follow the curriculum required by colleges they plan to attend. The bachelor’s degree in pharmacy is the minimum educational qualification for most positions in the profession. An increasing number of students are enrolled in advanced professional programs leading to the Pharm. D. degree. A master’s or Ph. D. degree in pharmacy or a related field usually is re quired for research work and a Pharm. D., master’s, or Ph. D. usually is necessary for administrative work or college teaching. Al though a number of pharmacy graduates in terested in further training pursue an ad vanced degree in pharmacy, there are other options. Some enter medical, dental, or law school, and others pursue graduate degrees in science or engineering. Areas of special study include phar maceutics and pharmaceutical chemistry (physical and chemical properties of drugs and dosage forms), pharmacology (effects of drugs on the body), pharmacognosy (drugs derived from plant or animal sources), hospi tal pharmacy, clinical pharmacy, and phar macy administration. Clinical pharmacy is the synthesis of the basic science education and the application of this knowledge to drug management problems in the care of patients. Courses in pharmacy administration are par ticularly helpful to pharmacists who become executives or managers. All colleges of pharmacy offer courses in pharmacy practice, designed to educate stu dents in the skilled processes required for compounding and dispensing prescriptions, and to give students an appreciation for the profession and an understanding of the re sponsibilities pharmacists have in their rela tionships with physicians and patients. Many college programs of pharmacy increasingly are emphasizing direct patient care as well as consultative services to other health profes sionals. A limited number of Federal scholarships and loans are available for students studying full time toward a degree in pharmacy. In addition, scholarships are awarded annually by drug manufacturers, chain drugstores, corporations, State and national pharmacy associations, colleges of pharmacy, and other organizations. community pharmacies. After they gain ex perience and obtain the necessary funds, they may become owners or part owners of phar macies. A pharmacist who gains experience in a chain drugstore may advance to a managerial position, and later to a higher executive position within the company. Hos pital pharmacists who have the necessary training and experience may advance to di rector of pharmacy service or to other ad ministrative positions. Pharmacists in indus try often have opportunities for advancement in management, sales, research, quality con trol, advertising, production, packaging, and other areas. Employment Outlook The employment outlook for pharmacists is expected to be favorable through the 1980’s. However, if the number of pharmacy graduates continues to rise as rapidly as it has in recent years, graduates may experience competition for jobs. Employment growth is expected to be faster than the average for all occupations. Additional openings will result from deaths, retirements, and other separa tions from the labor force. Employment will grow as new pharmacies are established in large residential areas, small towns, and rural locations. Many com munity pharmacies are expected to hire addi tional pharmacists because of a trend to wards shorter working hours. Demand for pharmacists also will be generated by such factors as population growth; increased life expectancy; greater demand for drugs, par ticularly among the elderly; availability of a wider range of drug products for preventive and therapeutic uses; the rising standard of health care; and the growth of public and private health insurance programs that pro vide payment for prescription drugs. According to a survey conducted by the American Association of Colleges of Phar macy, average annual salaries of full-time personnel in colleges of pharmacy during 1978 were as follows: deans, about $42,000; assistant and associate deans, about $32,000; full professors, around $33,000; associate professors, around $26,000; and assistant professors, about $22,000. Related Occupations Pharmacists fill the prescriptions of physi cians, dentists, and other health practitioners and are responsible for selecting, compound ing, dispensing, and preserving drugs and medicines. Workers in other professions re quiring similar educational training and who work with pharmaceutical compounds or perform related duties include pharmaceuti cal bacteriologists, pharmaceutical chemists, pharmaceutical-compounding supervisors, and pharmacologists. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on pharmacy as a career, preprofessional and professional re quirements, programs offered by colleges of pharmacy, and student financial aid is availa ble from: American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, Office of Student Affairs, 4630 Montgomery Ave., Suite 201, Bethesda, Md. 20014. Employment of pharmacists in hospitals and other health facilities is expected to rise faster than in other work settings. Pharma cists increasingly provide direct patient care and consultative services to physicians and other professionals in health facilities. Phar macists with advanced training will be needed for college teaching and top adminis trative posts. National Association of Chain Drug Stores, 1911 Jefferson Davis Highway, Arlington, Va. 22202. Earnings General information on retail pharmacies is available from: Since many pharmacists are selfemployed, prospective pharmacists inter ested in this type of practice should have some business capability, interest in medical science, and the ability to gain the confidence of clients. Honesty, integrity, and orderliness are important attributes for the profession. In addition, accuracy is needed to compound and dispense medicines as well as keep rec ords required by law. Salaries of pharmacists are generally in fluenced by the location, size, and type of employer, as well as the duties and respon sibilities of the position. The average starting salary for pharmacists working in hospitals was about $17,000 a year in 1978, according to a national survey conducted by the Uni versity of Texas Medical Branch; ex perienced hospital pharmacists averaged about $21,000 a year. Pharmacists who do consulting work in addition to their primary job may have total earnings considerably higher than this. Experienced pharmacists, particularly owners or managers of pharma cies, often earn considerably more. Pharmacists often begin as employees in The minimum entrance salary in the Fed eral Government for a new graduate with a bachelor’s degree from an approved phar macy degree program was about $13,000 a year in 1979. However, most graduates quali fied for a beginning salary of about $15,900 a year; those with 2 years of graduate work, about $19,300 a year. Pharmacists with addi tional years of experience may start at a higher salary. The average salary for all fed erally employed pharmacists was about $20,800 in 1978. General information on pharmacy is avail able from: American Pharmaceutical Association, 2215 Con stitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20037. Information about chain drugstores is available from: National Association of Retail Druggists, 1750 K St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. For a list of accredited colleges of phar macy, contact: American Council on Pharmaceutical Education, One East Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60601. Information on requirements for licensure in a particular State is available from the Board of Pharmacy of that State or from: National Association of Boards of Pharmacy, One East Wacker Dr., Suite 2210, Chicago, 111. 60601. Information on college entrance require ments, curriculums, and financial aid is avail able from the dean of any college of phar macy. OTHER HEALTH OCCUPATIONS/415 SOCIAL SCIENTISTS Social scientists study people and social institutions. They investigate all aspects of human society—from the fossilized remains of prehistoric life to the latest television shows. Social science research provides in sights that help us understand the many dif ferent ways in which individuals and groups make decisions, exercise power, or respond to change, for example. Through their studies and analyses, social scientists assist educa tors, government officials, business leaders, and others who need an understanding of the dynamics of individual and group behavior. Research is a basic activity for many social scientists. They use established methods to assemble a body of fact and theory that con tributes to human knowledge. Applied re search usually is designed to produce infor mation that will enable people to make better decisions or manage their affairs more effec tively. Surveys are widely used in the social sciences to collect facts, opinions, or other information. Data collection takes many other forms, however, including excavations at an archeological “dig;” the analysis of his torical records and documents; aerial pho tography of the earth’s surface; experiments with human subjects or lower animals in a psychological laboratory; and the adminis tration of standardized tests and question naires. The importance of surveys as a method of collecting social science data has resulted in statistics becoming an essential part of the training for most social science careers. Mathematics is also very important in most disciplines. Indeed, the widespread introduc tion of mathematical and other quantitative research methods in economics, political sci ence, experimental psychology, and other fields is among the most important changes in the social sciences in recent times. The ability to use computers for research pur poses is a “must” in many disciplines. Regardless of their field of specialization, social scientists are concerned with some as pect of society, culture, or personality. An thropologists study the relics and ruins of an cient civilizations, analyze human physical characteristics, and compare the customs, values, and social patterns of different cul tures. Economists study the way we use our resources to produce goods and services. They compile and analyze data that explain the costs and benefits of allocating resources in different ways. Geographers study such features of the earth’s surface as vegetation and climate and interpret the relationship be tween geographic factors and human activ ity. Because geographers are concerned with patterns of human settlement—why and how people live where they do—their research http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 416/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HANDBOOK touches upon economics, politics, health, and culture. Historians describe and interpret the people, ideas, institutions, and events of the past and present. Political scientists investi gate the ways in which political power is amassed and used. Studying such topics as public opinion, political decisionmaking, and ideology, they analyze the structure and op eration of governments and examine infor mal political entities as well. Psychologists study human behavior and use their expertise to counsel or advise individuals or groups. Their research also assists advertisers, politi cians, and others interested in influencing or motivating people. Sociologists analyze the behavior of groups or social systems such as families, neighborhoods, or clubs. Besides the occupations described in this section, a number of related fields are cov ered elsewhere in the Handbook. See the statements on lawyers, urban planners, city managers, statisticians, mathematicians, pro grammers, systems analysts, marketing re search workers, newspaper reporters, social workers, college and university teachers, col lege student personnel workers, and counsel ing occupations. The Ph. D. is a minimum requirement for most positions in colleges and universities and is important for advancement to many top-level nonacademic posts. Graduates with master’s degrees have more limited profes sional opportunities, although the situation varies a great deal by field. Bachelor’s degree holders have even more limited opportunities and in most social science occupations do not qualify for “professional” positions. The bachelor’s degree does, however, provide a suitable background for many different kinds of “junior professional” jobs, such as re search assistant, administrative aide, or trainee. The seven social science occupations pro vided employment for about 335,000 persons in 1978. The interdisciplinary nature of the various fields makes it difficult to determine the exact size of each profession. Economics and psychology are the largest fields; anthro pology is the smallest. Many social scientists work in colleges and universities, where they characteristically combine teaching with research and consult ing. The importance of the academic world as a source of employment varies by discipline, however. Economists and psychologists are much more heavily involved in nonacademic, “applied” pursuits than are other social scientists. The predominance of academic employment in such disciplines as anthropol ogy and sociology may cause problems in the future since little if any employment growth is anticipated in the academic sector through the 1980’s, a reflection of declining college enrollments. Compared to the past, few aca demic positions will be available, and efforts are underway to acquaint new graduates with “alternative” or “nontraditional” career op portunities in such applied areas as program administration and evaluation research. Such positions are available in Federal, State, and local government agencies; research organi zations and consulting firms; hospitals and Economists and psychologists comprise the two largest social science occupations Employment, 1978 (thousands) 0 20 40 Psychologists Historians Sociologists Political scientists Anthropologists Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics 100 120 140 other health facilities; labor unions, trade as sociations, nonprofit organizations, and busi ness firms. The number of advanced degrees awarded in the social sciences through the 1980’s is expected to exceed job openings, producing a highly competitive outlook for professional positions traditionally requiring a doctorate. Job prospects are better in some disciplines than in others. As in the past, top graduates of leading universities will have a decided advantage in competing for jobs, especially for the limited number of academic jobs. Other considerations that affect employment opportunities in the social sciences include degree level; field of specialization; specific skills and/or experience; desired work set ting; salary requirements; and geographic mobility. More detailed information about the employment outlook in individual social science occupations appears in the following statements. Anthropologists (D.O.T. 055.067 and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Anthropologists study people—their evo lution and physical characteristics, and the cultures they create. The domain is broad; anthropologists study people’s traditions, be liefs, customs, languages, material posses sions, social relationships, and value systems. They generally concentrate in one of four subfields: Cultural anthropology, ar cheology, linguistics, or physical anthropol ogy. Most anthropologists specialize in cultural anthropology, sometimes called ethnology. Ethnologists study the customs, culture, and social life of groups, and may spend months or years living with a group to learn about its way of life. These anthropologists may learn another language or adopt new customs while observing and studying a group. Eth nographic research may focus on a particular institution or aspect of group life such as kin ship, personality, art, law, religion, econom ics, or ecological adaptation. The field lends itself to comparative studies, such as those on different societies’ attitudes towards old age. In recent years, ethnologists have ventured beyond their traditional concern with nonindustrialized societies. More and more, their research deals with groups found in modem urban societies: Ghetto inhabitants, drug ad dicts, politicians, and business leaders, for ex ample. Archeologists study cultures from artifacts and other remains in the ground. Using scientific techniques for dating and analyzing everything they find, archeologists gather and examine the remains of homes, tools, clothing, ornaments, and other evidences of human life and activity to reconstruct the inhabitants’ history and customs. Archeolog ical fieldwork takes place wherever people These archeologists are discussing discoveries made during a recent trip to Africa. once lived. Sites are found in all parts of the world, and they span many centuries—from ancient times up to the present. In a desert in New Mexico, for example, archeologists have uncovered an ancient kiva—an Indian reli gious chamber. In a cave by the Dead Sea, they have found pieces of ancient scrolls sev eral thousand years old. Extensive excava tions at the huge Cahokia site just across the Mississippi River from St. Louis have permit ted reconstruction of the Indian town as it appeared in the 12th century and provided clues as to the social and economic life of the inhabitants. In recent years, support has grown for archeological study of relatively modem communities—American colonial settlements and 19th century industrial towns, for example. Linguistic anthropologists study the role of language in various cultures. They examine the sounds and structure of a society’s lan guage and relate these to people’s behavior and thought patterns. Their research tells us, for example, that the way people use lan guage may influence the way they think about things. Physical anthropologists are concerned with humans as biological organisms. They study the evolution of the human body and look for the earliest evidence of human life. They also do research on racial groups and may explore, for example, the effect of hered ity and environment on different races. Their work requires extensive training in anatomy, biology, chemistry, genetics, and the study of primates (the order of mammals that in cludes humans, apes, and monkeys). A physi cal anthropologist might study children’s growth and development or teach a chimpan zee to communicate with sign language. A knowledge of body structure enables these anthropologists to work as consultants on projects as diverse as the design of military equipment and the sizing of clothing. Anthropometrists specialize in the measurement of the body or skeleton. Anthropologists, like other social scien tists, are research-oriented. Most, however, combine fieldwork or other forms of an thropological research with other activities: Teaching, writing, consulting, or administer ing programs. Moreover, a growing number of anthropologists specialize in applied an thropology, they concern themselves first and foremost with practical applications for re search findings. Medical anthropologists, for example, may study cultural attitudes to wards medicine and health care to help for mulate a health program for a particular group. Some medical schools hire medical anthropologists as instructors. Urban an thropologists study complex, industrialized societies and examine the influence of city life upon people and their institutions. Some an thropologists work with architects, design SOCIAL SCIENTISTS/417 ers, and land use experts in planning commu nity development projects. Others advise so cial service agencies; their cross-cultural in sights enable them to help improve the delivery of health, counseling, nutritional, and other services to particular population groups. Still other anthropologists use their knowledge of ethnic customs and values to help educators improve the effectiveness of classroom teaching and increase parental in volvement. The advice of anthropologists has been sought in the planning of bilingual edu cation programs, for example. Preparing cultural environmental impact statements is an increasingly important activ ity for anthropologists, as it is for other social scientists. In many communities, environ mental protection and historic preservation laws require local authorities to identify his toric areas which may be affected by develop ment or renovation plans. Typically, those proposing to build something new or demol ish something old are required to suggest ways of avoiding or lessening any adverse impacts. Generally, the research and writing involved in preparing an impact statement are done on a consultant basis by anthropolo gists associated with museums, colleges and universities, research institutes, or private consulting firms. In some cases, anthropolo gists are hired by highway commissions or planning departments to prepare impact statements. Working Conditions Dividing their time among teaching, re search, and administrative responsibilities, anthropologists employed by colleges and universities have flexible work schedules. On the other hand, anthropologists working in government agencies and private firms have much more structured work schedules. An thropologists often work alone behind a desk, reading, analyzing data, and writing up the results of their research. Many experience the pressures of deadlines, tight schedules, and heavy workloads, and sometimes must work overtime. Their routine may be interrupted by numerous telephone calls, letters, special requests for information, meetings, or confer ences. Only when anthropologists participate in field research do their working conditions differ. Under these circumstances, they are an integral part of a research team. Field work may require traveling to remote areas, working under adverse weather conditions, living in primitive housing, and adjusting to different cultural environments. Physical stamina is important because anthropologists doing fieldwork may have to lift equipment, walk considerable distances, and spend long hours digging. In other words, fieldwork can be arduous physical labor—relieved, how ever, by the hope that some new insight into human society may result. Places of Employment About 7,000 persons worked as an thropologists in 1978. About 4 out of 5 an 418/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK thropologists work in colleges and universi ties, where they teach and do research and consulting work. (More detailed information may be found in the Handbook statement on college and university faculty.) The Federal Government employs several hundred anthropologists, chiefly in the De partments of Interior, State, Agriculture, and the Army, and in the Smithsonian Institu tion. Anthropologists who work for State and local governments are primarily involved in community development planning, health planning, archeological research, and his toric preservation. A number of them have administrative jobs in museums. Some anthropologists work for consulting firms or operate their own consulting ser vices. They conduct research and prepare proposals for government agencies, commu nity organizations, citizens’ groups, and busi ness firms. Some consultants specialize in overseas development projects. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Students who want to become anthropolo gists should obtain the Ph. D. degree. College graduates with bachelor’s degrees often get temporary positions and assistantships in graduate departments where they are work ing for advanced degrees. A master’s degree, plus field experience, is sufficient for many beginning professional positions, but promo tion to top positions generally is reserved for individuals who have a Ph. D. degree. Col leges and universities require a Ph. D. for permanent teaching appointments. Persons with a master’s or bachelor’s degree in an thropology may qualify for research and ad ministrative positions in government and pri vate firms. A student interested in anthropology should acquire a broad background in the social and physical sciences and in languages. Mathematics, statistics, and computer sci ence are increasingly important research tools. Undergraduates may begin their field training in archeology by arranging, through their university departments, to accompany expeditions as laborers or to attend field schools established for training. They may later become supervisors in charge of the dig ging or collection of material and finally may direct a portion of the work of the expedition. Ethnologists and linguists usually do their fieldwork independently. Most anthropolo gists base their doctoral dissertations on data collected through field research; they are therefore experienced fieldworkers by the time they earn the Ph. D. degree. The Federal Government generally re quires a college degree with 24 semester hours in anthropology for entry level posi tions as anthropologists and 20 semester hours in anthropology, including one course in American archeology, for archeologists. However, because competition for Federal jobs is keen, additional education or experi ence may be required. Over 300 colleges and universities have bachelor’s degree programs in anthropology; some 160 offer master’s degree programs and about 90, doctoral programs. The choice of a graduate school is very important. Students interested in museum work should select a school associated with a museum that has anthropological collections. Similarly, those interested in archeology either should choose a university that offers opportunities for sum mer experience in archeological fieldwork or attend an archeological field school else where during summer vacations. Interdisciplinary studies are an important part of an anthropologist’s professional train ing, for anthropology embraces all aspects of life and overlaps many other disciplines, each with its own tradition and body of knowl edge. To bring anthropological insights to bear on projects centered in another disci pline—bilingual education is a good example —the anthropologist may have to learn the ory and techniques from another field. For this reason, some departments of anthropol ogy are combined with other departments such as sociology or geography. Some anthropology students seek to broaden their employment possibilities by pursuing courses or degrees in other areas including law, medicine, public administra tion, and education. Anthropologists should have a special in terest in natural history and social studies and enjoy reading, research, and writing. Creativity and intellectual curiosity are es sential to success in this field. In addition, anthropologists must be objective and sys tematic in their work. Perseverance is essen tial, particularly for archeologists who may spend years accumulating and piecing to gether artifacts from ancient civilizations. The ability to analyze data and think logi cally also is important. Anthropologists must be able to speak and write well to communi cate the results of their work effectively. Employment Outlook Employment of anthropologists is ex pected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. How ever, nearly all of the anticipated employ ment growth will occur in nonacademic jobs —notably in consulting firms, research insti tutes, corporations, and Federal, State and local government agencies. Among the fac tors contributing to growth in the occupation is environmental, historic, and cultural re source preservation legislation. This is ex pected to create opportunities for various kinds of anthropologists to work full time or on a temporary contract basis for consulting firms, government agencies, academic insti tutions, and museums. Growing interest in ethnic studies may spur demand for an thropological research in that area. College and university teaching, which will remain the largest area of employment for anthropologists, is likely to experience lit tle growth due to the projected slowdown in college enrollments. The number of qualified anthropologists seeking to enter the field is expected to ex ceed available positions. As a result, doctor ate holders may face keen competition through the 1980’s, particularly for jobs in colleges and universities. Some are expected to accept temporary appointments with little or no hope of gaining tenure. Graduates with master’s degrees are expected to face very keen competition, although some may find jobs in junior colleges and government and private agencies. The few bachelor’s degree holders who do find jobs as anthropologists may have very limited advancement oppor tunities within the profession. Some teaching positions may be available in high schools for those who meet State certification require ments. For information about careers (including opportunities for contract work in ar cheology and historic preservation and State employment opportunities for archeologists); job openings; grants and fellowships; and schools that offer training in anthropology, contact: Overall, specialties offering the best em ployment prospects include archeology and physical, medical, and urban anthropology. The American Anthropological Association and the Society for American Archeology, 1703 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. Earnings According to the 1977-78 College Place ment Council Salary Survey, bachelor’s de gree candidates in the social sciences received offers averaging around $10,700 a year; mas ter’s degree candidates in the social sciences, around $13,200. Based on limited information, starting sal aries in private industry and government for anthropologists with a Ph. D. degree were generally about $18,000 a year in 1978. Mas ter’s degree holders generally started at $15,000 to $18,000 a year. The results of a 1978 American Anthropo logical Association survey of departments of anthropology included data on faculty sala ries. The average beginning salary for new faculty members without full-time teaching experience was in the range of $14,000 to $15,000 for persons with a Ph. D. and $11,500 to $13,500 for persons without a Ph. D. Faculty salaries varied widely but generally were lower in departments granting only bachelor’s degrees than in departments granting graduate degrees. Most professors earned from $18,000 to over $30,000 a year; associate professors, $15,000 to $27,000; as sistant professors, $12,000 to $24,000; and instructors, $12,000 to $18,000. The Federal Government recognizes edu cation and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. Anthropologists having a bachelor’s degree could begin at $10,507 or $13,014 a year in 1979, depending upon the applicant’s academic record and ex perience. The starting salary for those having a master’s degree generally was $15,920 a year; for those having a Ph. D., $19,263. An thropologists in the Federal Government averaged around $31,200 in 1978; archeolo gists, around $17,900. Many anthropologists in colleges and uni versities supplement their regular salaries with earnings from other sources such as summer teaching, research grants, and con sulting fees. Related Occupations Like anthropologists, people in several other occupations are concerned with under standing how social institutions operate. Among them are economists, geographers, historians, political scientists, psychologists, sociologists, urban planners, marketing re search workers, and newspaper reporters. Sources of Additional Information For information on careers and fieldwork opportunities in archeology, contact: The Archeological Institute of America, 53 Park Place, New York, N.Y. 10007. Economists (D.O.T. 050 and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Economists study the way a society uses scarce resources such as land, labor, raw materials, and machinery to provide goods and services. They plan and conduct re search, then compile and analyze the results, in order to determine the costs and benefits of making, distributing, and using resources in a particular way. Their research might focus on such topics as energy costs, infla tion, business cycles, unemployment, tax pol icy, or farm prices. Some economists are primarily theoreti cians. They may develop theories to explain the causes of inflation, for example, through the use of mathematical models. Most econo mists, however, are concerned with practical applications of economic policy in a particu lar area, such as finance, labor, agriculture, transportation, energy, or health. They use their understanding of economic relation ships to advise business firms, insurance companies, banks, securities firms, industry associations, labor unions, and others. Depending on the topic they’re studying, economists may have to devise methods and procedures for obtaining the data they need. Sampling techniques may be used in conduct ing a survey, for example, and econometric modeling techniques may be used to develop projections. Preparing reports usually is an important part of the economist’s job. He or she may be called upon to review and analyze all the relevant data, prepare tables and charts, and write up the results in clear, con cise language. Being able to present economic and statis tical concepts in a meaningful way is particu larly important for economists whose re search is policy directed. Economists who work for business firms may be asked to pro vide management with information to make decisions on marketing and pricing of com pany products; to look at the advisability of adding new lines of merchandise, opening new branches, or diversifying the company’s operations; to analyze the effect of changes in the tax laws; or to prepare economic and business forecasts. Business economists working for firms that carry on operations abroad may be asked to prepare forecasts of foreign economic conditions. Economists who work for government agencies assess economic conditions in the United States and abroad and predict the ec onomic impact of specific changes in legisla tion or public policy. They study such ques tions as the effect on youth unemployment of changes in minimum wage legislation, for ex ample. Most government economists are in the fields of agriculture, business, finance, labor, transportation, or international trade. For example, economists in the U.S. Depart ment of Commerce study domestic produc tion, distribution, and consumption of com modities or services; those in the Federal Trade Commission prepare industry analyses to assist in enforcing Federal statutes de signed to eliminate unfair, deceptive, or monopolistic practices in interstate com merce; and those in the Bureau of Labor Sta tistics plan surveys and analyze data on prices, wages, employment, and productivity. Economists in colleges and universities teach the theories, principles, and methods of economics. In addition, economics faculty members conduct research, write, and en gage in other nonteaching activities. They frequently are asked to serve as consultants to business firms, government agencies, and individuals. (For more information on jobs in colleges and universities, see the Handbook statement on college and university faculty.) Working Conditions Economists employed by colleges and uni versities have flexible work schedules, divid ing their time among teaching, research, and administrative responsibilities. Economists working for government agencies and private firms, on the other hand, have much more structured work schedules. They often work alone with only books, statistical charts, computers, and calculators for company. Or they may be an integral part of a research team on some assigned projects. Most econo mists work under pressure of deadlines, tight schedules, and heavy workloads, and some times must work overtime. Their routine may be interrupted by telephone calls, letters, special requests for data, meetings, or confer ences. Travel may be necessary to collect data or attend conferences. Places of Employment Economics is the largest social science field. About 130,000 persons worked as SOCIAL SCIENTISTS/419 nomic development of selected areas; money and banking; international economics; public finance; industrial organization; labor eco nomics; comparative economic systems; eco nomics of national planning; urban economic problems and policies; marketing principles and organization; consumer analysis; organi zational behavior; and business law. A bachelor’s degree with a major in eco nomics is sufficient for many beginning re search, administrative, management trainee, and business sales jobs. However, graduate training increasingly is required for advance ment to more responsible positions as econo mists. Areas of specialization at the graduate level include advanced economic theory, comparative economic systems and planning, econometrics, economic development, eco nomic history, environmental and natural re source economics, history of economic thought, industrial oganization, institutional economics, international economics, labor economics, monetary economics, public fi nance, regional and urban economics, and social policy. Students should select graduate schools strong in specialties in which they are interested. Some schools help graduate stu dents find internships or part-time employ ment in government agencies or economic research firms. The work experience and contacts can be useful in testing career pref erences and learning how the job market for economists really works. In the Federal Government, candidates for entrance positions generally need a college degree with a minimum of 21 semester hours of economics and 3 hours of statistics, ac counting, or calculus. However, because competition for Federal jobs is keen, addi tional education or experience may be re quired. Economists examining a chart on business activity in the United States during 1972. economists in 1978. About 3 out of 4 of these jobs are in private industry, including manu facturing firms, banks, insurance companies, securities and investment companies, eco nomic research firms, and management con sulting firms. Colleges and universities and government agencies at all levels employ most other economists. Some, however, run their own consulting businesses. A number of economists combine a full-time job in govern ment, business, or an academic institution with part-time or consulting work in another setting. Economists work in all large cities and uni versity towns. The largest number are in the New York City and the Washington, D.C., metropolitan areas. Some work abroad for companies with major international opera tions; for the Departments of State, Com merce, Agriculture, and other U.S. Govern 420/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ment agencies; and for international organ izations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Economists must have a thorough under standing of economic theory and of mathe matical methods of economic analysis. Since many beginning jobs for economists in gov ernment and business involve the collection and compilation of data, a thorough knowl edge of basic statistical procedures is re quired. In addition to courses in macroeco nomics, microeconomics, econometrics, and business and economic statistics, training in computer science is highly recommended. At the undergraduate level, courses in the following subjects also are valuable: Business cycles; economic and business history; eco A master’s degree generally is the mini mum requirement for a job as a college in structor in m any junior colleges and small 4-year schools. In some colleges and universi ties, however, a Ph. D. degree is necessary for appointment as a teaching assistant or in structor. The Ph. D. degree is required for a professorship and is necessary to gain tenure, which is becoming increasingly difficult to obtain. In government, industry, research organi zations, and consulting firms, economists who have a graduate degree usually can qual ify for more responsible research and ad ministrative positions. A Ph. D. may be nec essary for top positions in some organi zations. Experienced business economists may advance to managerial or executive posi tions in banks, industrial concerns, trade as sociations, and other organizations where they formulate practical business and ad ministrative policy. About 1,500 colleges and universities offer bachelor’s degree programs in economics; about 260, master’s; and about 120, doctoral programs. Persons who consider careers as econo mists should be able to work accurately with detail since much time is spent on data analy sis. Patience and persistence are necessary because economists may spend long hours on independent study and problem solving. So ciability enables economists to work easily with others. Economists must be objective and systematic in their work and must be able to express themselves effectively both orally and in writing. Creativity and intellec tual curiosity are essential to success in this field, just as they are in other areas of scien tific endeavor. dustry and government. Those with a strong background in marketing and finance may have the best prospects in business. Ph. D.’s are likely to face competition for academic positions, although those graduating from high-ranking universities may have an ad vantage. Generalists with a strong back ground in mathematics and statistics who can teach an applied area are in greatest de mand. Ph. D.’s should have favorable oppor tunities in government, industry, research or ganizations, and consulting firms. Employment Outlook Generally, a strong background in eco nomic theory and econometrics provides the tools for acquiring any specialty within the field. Those skilled in quantitative techniques and their application to economic modeling and forecasting are likely to have the best job opportunities. Employment of economists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s. However, about as many openings will result from deaths, retire ments, and other separations from the labor force as from employment growth. Business and industry, research organiza tions, and consulting firms will continue to provide the largest number of employment opportunities for economists, reflecting the complexity of the domestic and international economies and increased reliance on quan titative methods of analyzing business trends, forecasting sales, and planning purchases and production operations. Employers will ac cordingly seek economists well trained in econometrics and statistics. The continued need for economic analyses on the part of lawyers, accountants, engi neers, health administrators, urban planners, and others will also contribute to an increase in the number of jobs for economists. Em ployment of economists in State and local government agencies is expected to increase in response to the heavy responsibilities of local authorities in such areas as housing, transportation, environment and natural re sources, health, and employment develop ment and training. Employment of econo mists in the Federal Government is expected to rise slowly—in line with the rate of growth projected for the Federal work force as a whole. Little or no employment growth is expected in colleges and universities, the tra ditional employer of many highly qualified economists. As a result, many such econo mists are expected to enter nonacademic po sitions. Persons who graduate with a bachelor’s degree in economics through the 1980’s are likely to face keen competition for jobs as economists. However, many of these degree holders will find employment in government, industry, and business as management or sales trainees, or as research or administra tive assistants. Those with strong back grounds in mathematics, statistics, and com puter science may be hired by private firms for marketing research work. Candidates who hold master’s degrees in economics face very strong competition for teaching posi tions in colleges and universities, although some may gain positions in junior and com munity colleges. However, they should find good opportunities for administrative, re search, and planning positions in private in a Ph. D. could begin at $19,263. Economists in the Federal Government averaged around $27,700 in 1978. Economists work in many government agencies, primarily in the De partments of State; Treasury; Army; Inte rior; Agriculture; Commerce; Labor; Health, Education, and Welfare; Housing and Urban Development; and Transportation. Based on a 1978 State government salary survey, average salaries for economists (posi tions requiring a bachelor’s degree) ranged from about $12,200 to $16,200; for principal economists (positions requiring a master’s degree and experience), from $17,000 to $22,700; and for chiefs of economic research (po sitions requiring a master’s degree and exten sive administrative or supervisory experi ence), from $21,600 to $28,200. Related Occupations Earnings According to the 1977-78 College Place ment Council Salary Survey, bachelor’s de gree candidates in economics received offers averaging around $12,200 a year; master’s degree candidates in the social sciences, around $13,200; bachelor’s degree candidates offered positions in the field of finance and economics, around $12,100. According to an American Economic As sociation survey, average salaries of econo mists employed in college and university de partments that offered the Ph. D. degree for the academic year 1977-78 were as follows: For professors, about $29,500; for associate professors, about $21,500; for assistant professors, about $17,100; and for instruc tors, about $13,300. Average salaries were lower in departments that offered only the master’s or bachelor’s degree. The median base salary of business econo mists in 1978 was $33,000, according to a National Association of Business Economists survey. About one-half of the respondents reported additional compensation from their primary employment while about one-third reported income from secondary employ ment. Economists in general administration and economic advisors commanded the high est salaries while statisticians, econometri cians, and teachers had the lowest base sala ries. By industry, the highest paid business economists were in the securities and invest ment, mining, or consulting fields. Those with a Ph. D. reported the highest salaries while there was relatively little salary difference between master’s and bachelor’s degree holders. A substantial number of economists supplement their salaries by con sulting, teaching, and research activities. The Federal Government recognizes edu cation and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the en trance salary for economists having a bache lor’s degree was was $10,507 a year in 1979; however, those with superior academic rec ords could begin at $13,014. Those having a master’s degree could qualify for positions at an annual salary of $15,920, while those with Economists are concerned with under standing and interpreting financial matters. Others with jobs in this area include financial analysts, bank officers, accountants, under writers, actuaries, securities sales workers, appraisers, credit analysts, loan officers, and budget officers. Sources of Additional Information For information on job openings for economists with graduate degrees and on schools offering graduate training in econom ics, contact: American Economic Association, 1313 21st Ave nue South, Nashville, Tenn. 37212. For additional information on careers in business economics, contact: National Association of Business Economists, 28349 Chagrin Blvd., Suite 201, Cleveland, Ohio 44122. Geographers______ (D.O.T. 018.131-010, .261, .262-010, and .281-010; 029.067 and .167-010; and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Geographers do research on a wide range of social, economic, and environmental is sues. They study the spatial distribution and location of various characteristics of the earth’s surface. Such studies help to explain changing patterns of human settlement— where people live, why they are located there, and how they earn a living. Geographers are involved in a variety of activities. Most are college or university teachers and, like other faculty members, do research and consulting in addition to teach ing. (For more information, see the Hand book statement on college and university fac ulty.) Other geographers are primarily researchers or analysts. They prepare reports and recommendations and may work for consulting firms, research organizations, business and industrial firms, or government agencies. Some geographers use their special SOCIAL SCIENTISTS/421 ized knowledge and research skills in plan ning or administrative jobs in such fields as economic development or environmental re source management. Depending on their training and field of interest—or on a client’s needs—a geogra pher might examine the distribution of landforms; study variations in climate, soils, or vegetation; or analyze such resources as water and minerals. Like other social scien tists, geographers are concerned with human resources, and frequently their research over laps that of other disciplines. Thus, a geogra pher might study political organizations, transportation systems, marketing systems, patterns of industrial development, housing, or public health. Research techniques depend on the topic under study. However, field study, including interviews and the use of surveying and meteorological instruments, is a standard technique. In addition, geographers analyze maps, aerial photographs, and data transmit ted by remote sensing equipment on satel lites. Some geographers construct maps, graphs, and diagrams in the course of their research. Geographers typically make use of advanced statistical techniques and mathe matical models—and, frequently, a computer —when they analyze or map the data they have obtained. Geographers specialize, as a rule. Eco nomic geographers deal with the geographic distribution of an area’s economic activities —manufacturing, mining, forestry, agricul ture, trade, and communications. Their re search might be used for feasibility studies, to determine the costs and benefits of putting resources to use in a particular way. Political geographers are concerned with the relation ship of geography to politics. They might be asked to help define and describe political boundaries, including those of cities, coun- ties, and administrative subdivisions, as well as offshore areas. Urban geographers study cities. They provide background information and make recommendations in such areas as community development, population policy, housing, transportation, and industrial devel opment. The physical characteristics of the earth are the focus of physical geographers. They are concerned with the impact of the con figuration of the earth’s surface on human activities and study the earth’s relief, drain age, vegetation patterns, wildlife distribu tion, and climates. They also study the ef fect of physical characteristics on navigation and other activities. Typically, they special ize in a particular branch of physical geog raphy such as geomorphology—the study of landforms—or hydrology—the study of water. Geographers specializing in climatology use atmospheric data to de scribe overall climatic conditions and to do research into the causes of climatic change. They may determine the significance of cli matic conditons for defense, conservation, agriculture, health, transportation, market ing, and other activities. Regional geographers study the physical, climatic, economic, political, and cultural characteristics of a particular region or area, which may range in size from a river basin to a State, a country, or even a continent. In addition to an understanding of the geogra phy of a region, some knowledge of its his tory, customs, and languages may be neces sary. Cartographers compile and interpret data and design and construct maps and charts. They also conduct research in surveying and mapping techniques and procedures. Medical geographers study the effect of the environment on health and take into account such factors as climate, vegetation, mineral traces in water, and atmospheric pollution. They work with public health officials, bio statisticians, and others to determine how our health is influenced by our physical sur roundings—including access to health-care facilities. Geographers may specialize even further in other subfields, including agricultural ge ography, biogeography, conservation, cul tural geography, geographical methods and techniques, historical geography, location theory, population geography, remote sens ing, rural geography, social geography, and transportation. These geographers are making use of mapping and statistical techniques in their study of forms. 422/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Formal training in geography provides the background for a wide range ofjobs requiring expertise in environmental resources, re gional planning, and social science research. Examples of such jobs are aerial photo inter preter, climatologist, community develop ment specialist, ecologist, intelligence ana lyst, map analyst, land economist, marketing analyst, regional planner, research analyst, site researcher, and transportation planner. Jobs such as these generally require knowl edge not only of geography, but of other dis ciplines as well. Particularly useful are com binations of geography with economics, political science, sociology, anthropology, ge ology, or urban planning. Working Conditions Geographers employed by colleges and universities have flexible work schedules, di viding their time among teaching, research, and administrative responsibilities. Geogra phers working for government agencies and private firms, on the other hand, have much more structured work schedules. They often work alone behind a desk or a drafting table, reading and writing reports on their research or constructing maps and charts. Many expe rience the pressures of deadlines and tight schedules and sometimes must work over time. Their routine may be interrupted by telephone calls, letters, special requests for information, meetings, or conferences. Increasingly, geographers conduct re search and surveying operations in the field. Under these circumstances, they are an inte gral part of a research team. Fieldwork may require traveling to remote areas, working under severe weather conditions, living in primitive housing, and adjusting to different cultural environments. Physical stamina also is important because fieldwork requires long working hours, occasionally under adverse conditions. Places of Employment About 10,000 persons worked as geogra phers in 1978. Colleges and universities em ploy over half of all geographers. The Federal Government also is an important employer of geographers, and many work in the Wash ington, D.C. area. For these geographers, employed mostly by mapping and intelli gence agencies, skills in cartography, photogrammetry, and remote sensing data inter pretation are important. The principal Federal employers are the Departments of Defense, Interior, Com merce, and Agriculture. Other agencies in clude the Departments of State; Transporta tion; Education, and Health and Human Services; and Energy; the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA); National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA); and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Geographers employed by State and local governments work mostly in the fields of urban and regional planning, economic de velopment, and community development. Private industry employs some geogra phers as researchers and planners; often, they specialize in location analysis. Geographers work for textbook and map publishers, travel agencies, manufacturing firms, real estate de velopment corporations, insurance compa nies, communications and transportation firms, and chainstores. Some work for scien tific foundations and research organizations or run their own research or consulting busi ness. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum educational requirement for beginning positions in geography in govern ment, industry, or secondary schools usually is a bachelor’s degree with a major in the field. However, a master’s degree increas ingly is required for many entry level posi tions. Applicants to entry level jobs would find it helpful to have training in a specialty such as cartography, photogrammetry, re mote sensing data interpretation, statistical analysis including computer science, or envi ronmental analysis. A master’s degree is the minimum require ment for the position of college instructor in junior colleges and some 4-year schools, and is important for advancement in business and government. However, a Ph. D. or advance ment into doctoral candidacy is required for a first appointment at some institutions of higher education. A Ph. D. degree and a re cord of significant published research is re quired for a professorship and is necessary to gain tenure. The Ph. D. degree also is neces sary for many senior level planning, research, and administrative positions in government, industry, research organizations, and con sulting firms. In the Federal Government, geographers generally must have a college degree with a minimum of 24 semester hours in geography or related fields. Cartographers need a col lege degree including at least 18 hours in one or a combination of the following: Cartogra phy, photogrammetry, geodesy, or plane sur veying. However, because competition for Federal jobs is keen, additional education or experience may be required. About 340 colleges and universities offered programs in geography in 1978. Some de partments of geography are combined with other disciplines such as urban planning or geology. To further illustrate the interdisci plinary nature of the field, courses in remote sensing and photogrammetry often are of fered in departments of geography as well as geology, forestry, or engineering. Under graduate study provides a general introduc tion to the field of geography and often in cludes field study. Research methods and writing skills also are taught. Typical courses offered are physical geography, cultural ge ography, climatology and meteorology, eco nomic geography, political geography, urban geography, and quantitative methods in ge ography. Courses in cartography, photo grammetry, remote sensing, historical geog raphy, ecology, natural resource planning, social geography, geography of transporta tion, geographic aspects of pollution, and ge ography of various regions also are offered. Geography majors should take appropriate electives in other departments. For example, courses in economics, architecture, urban planning, and urban and rural sociology are important for planners; courses in drawing, design, computer science, and mathematics are important for cartographers; and courses in physics, botany, and geology are impor tant for physical geographers. In 1978, about 140 institutions offered master’s degree programs; 56 offered Ph. D. programs. Applicants for advanced degrees are required to have a bachelor’s degree in one of the social or physical sciences with a substantial background in geography. The program of graduate study includes field and laboratory work as well as course work in geography and a thesis. Graduate schools also require course work in advanced mathe matics, statistics, and computer science be cause of the increasing importance of quan titative research methods. A language may be required for those students who plan to spe cialize in foreign regional geography. In rec ognition of the increasing importance of ap plied research, academic programs are putting more emphasis on preparing in dividuals to apply their knowledge to the so lution of practical problems. Students should select graduate schools that offer appropriate areas of specialization and good research opportunities in nearby libraries, archives, laboratories, and field sta tions. Internships or part-time employment for graduate students often may be available in government agencies or research, scien tific, or industrial firms. Persons who want to become geographers should enjoy reading, studying, and research ing because they must keep abreast of devel opments in the field. Creativity and intellec tual curiosity are important because geographers work with abstract ideas and theories as well as doing practical studies. Patience and persistence help, because geog raphers spend long hours on independent study and problem solving. They also must be objective and systematic in their work. The ability to communicate ideas effectively, both orally and in writing, is important in this field, as it is in any research-oriented job. The ability to work well with others is often important. Geographers who handle preci sion drafting tools need manual dexterity. Employment Outlook Employment of geographers is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occu pations through the 1980’s. Most openings are likely to result from deaths, retirements, and other separations from the labor force. Little or no employment growth is an ticipated in colleges and universities, the tra ditional employer of many highly qualified geographers; as a result, many such geogra phers are expected to seek nonacademic posi tions. Many opportunities are becoming available in urban and environmental man agement and planning, including such areas as location analysis, land and water resources planning, and health planning. Those with strong backgrounds in urban, economic, and physical geography and in quantitative tech niques should be in particular demand. Sig nificant demand also is expected for gradu ates with knowledge of remote sensing, photogrammetry, and cartography. The Fed eral Government will need additional person nel to work in programs such as health plan ning, regional development, environmental quality, and intelligence. Employment of geographers in State and local government is expected to expand, particularly in health planning; conservation; environmental qual ity; highway planning; and city, community, and regional planning and development. Pri vate industry is expected to hire increasing numbers of geographers for market research and location analysis. The employment outlook for geographers with the Ph. D. is expected to be favorable through the 1980’s for research and adminis trative positions in government, industry, re search organizations, and environmental and other consulting firms. Ph. D.’s may face competition for academic positions, although those graduating from high-ranking universi ties may have an advantage. Some are likely to accept temporary assignments with little or no hope of acquiring tenure. Those with the master’s degree are likely to face competi tion for academic positions, although some may continue to find jobs in junior and com munity colleges. Graduates with a master’s degree who have training in applied areas should have good opportunities for planning and marketing positions in government and industry; others may face competition. Graduates with a bachelor’s degree are ex pected to face strong competition for jobs as geographers. Those with quantitative skills and training in cartography, remote sensing, or planning should have the best prospects. Many of these degree holders may find em ployment in government and industry as management or sales trainees, research as sistants, or administrative assistants. Others may obtain employment as research or teach ing assistants in educational institutions while studying for advanced degrees. Some bachelor’s degree holders teach at the high school level, although in some States the master’s degree is becoming essential for high school teaching positions. Others earn library science degrees and become map librarians. Earnings According to the 1977-78 College Place ment Council Salary Survey, bachelor’s de gree candidates in the social sciences received offers averaging around $10,700 a year; mas ter’s degree candidates in the social sciences, around $13,200. According to an Association of American Geographers survey, starting salaries for Ph. D.’s with no teaching experience averaged around $14,000 for the academic year 197778, while the average salary of geographers employed in colleges and universities was about $21,000. Salaries of geographers in planning positions in business and industry are comparable to those in the Federal Gov ernment. Geographers in educational institutions usually have an opportunity to earn income SOCIAL SCIENTISTS/423 from other sources, such as consulting work, special research, and publication of books and articles. The Federal Government recognizes edu cation and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, geogra phers in the Federal Government with the bachelor’s degree and no experience started at $10,507 or $13,014 a year in 1979, depend ing on their college achievement. Those with a master’s degree started at $15,920 a year, and those with the Ph. D. at $19,263. Geog raphers in the Federal Government averaged around $23,200 a year in 1978; cartogra phers, around $22,800. Related Occupations Knowledge of physical and environmental science is important to geographers. Others whose work requires training in these fields include engineers, geologists, geophysicists, meteorologists, oceanographers, astronom ers, chemists, physicists, surveyors, and drafters. Sources of Additional Information For additional information on careers and job openings for geographers, and on schools offering various programs in geography, con tact: Association of American Geographers, 1710 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. For additional information on careers in cartography, surveying, and geodesy, con tact: American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, 210 Little Falls St., Falls Church, Va. 22046. For more information on careers and a list of schools that offer courses in photogrammetry and remote sensing, contact: American Society of Photogrammetry, 105 North Virginia Ave., Falls Church, Va. 22046. Historians_______ (D.O.T. 052; 090.227-010; 101; 102.017-010; and 102.117-010) Nature of the Work History is the record of past events, institu tions, ideas, and people. Historians describe and analyze the past through writing, teach ing, and research. They use standard tech niques to locate and evaluate historical evi dence. Historians do not accept documents, records, or spoken accounts at face value; they study each piece of evidence carefully to determine whether it is reliable or genuine. Once they have established the validity of historical evidence, historians try to deter mine the significance of their findings. Some times they develop theories to explain the importance of facts and their interrelation ships. They may, for example, relate their knowledge of the past to current events in an effort to explain the present. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 424/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HANDBOOK Historians almost always specialize. Some concentrate on the history of a country or a region; others study a particular period of time—the 20th century, for example. In this country, while many historians specialize in the social or political history of the United States or modem Europe, a growing number concern themselves with African, Latin American, Asian, or Middle Eastern history. Some specialize in the history of a field, such as economics, medicine, philosophy, religion, science, technology, music, art, military af fairs, women, or the labor movement. Other fields of specialization are genealogy, biogra phy, rare books and documents, and historic preservation. Most historians are teachers in colleges or universities. Like other faculty members, they may also lecture, write, and do consult ing work. Some historians employed by col leges and universities engage only in re search; often, they are leading authorities in their fields. (For more information on these jobs, see the Handbook statement on college and university faculty.) A growing number of historians do many things besides teach, however. Archivists and curators work for museums, special libraries, or historical societies, where they typically identify, classify, and preserve historical documents, treasures, and other material. They may also administer historical activities —helping scholars use manuscripts and ar tifacts and educating the public through ex hibits and publications. Many do an exten sive amount of scholarly research and writing. Biographers write about the lives of in dividuals, using diaries, news accounts, per sonal correspondence, interviews with rela tives and business associates of their subjects, and other sources of information. Genealo gists trace family history, using birth, death, and marriage certificates, court records, wills, records of real estate transactions, and other evidence. A growing number of historians are con cerned with the protection and preservation of historic buildings and sites. Their goal is to identify and interpret our historical heritage, which includes houses, public buildings, fac tories, churches, forts, public markets, farms, and battlefields. Some historians are em ployed to manage, interpret, and write about restored communities and other places of his toric interest. Historic preservationists also work to save city neighborhoods and old business districts and maintain their unique historic and architectural qualities. This usu ally means a joint effort with architects, law yers, urban planners, business and commu nity leaders, and city officials. Some historians serve as consultants to editors, publishers, and producers of materi als for radio, television, and motion pictures. Others are employed as researchers by gov ernment agencies, social science research firms, and other organizations. They might be asked, for example, to assist in the prepa ration of an environmental impact statement or to provide information for a community development plan. Working Conditions Historians employed in colleges and uni versities have flexible work schedules, divid ing their time among teaching, research, and administrative responsibilities. Historians working in government agencies and private firms, on the other hand, have much more structured schedules. They often work alone behind a desk, reading and writing reports on their research. Many experience the pres sures of deadlines and tight schedules, and sometimes must work overtime. Their rou tine may be interrupted by telephone calls, letters, special requests for information, meetings, or conferences. Travel may be nec essary to collect information or attend meet ings. Places of Employment An estimated 23,000 persons worked as professional historians in 1978. Colleges and universities employed most of them. Histori ans also work in archives, libraries, mu seums, research and educational organiza tions, historical societies, publishing firms, large corporations, and government agencies. Historians, archivists, and museum curators employed in the Federal Government work principally in the National Archives, Smith sonian Institution, General Services Ad ministration, or in the Departments of De fense, Interior, and State. Other Federal employers include the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Central Intelli gence Agency, National Security Agency, and the Departments of Agriculture, Com merce, Education, Energy, and Transporta tion. A number work for State and local gov ernments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Graduate education usually is necessary for a job in this field. A master’s degree in history is the minimum requirement for the position of college instructor. However, a Ph. D. degree is required for a first appointment at some institutions of higher education and for many other entry level positions. A Ph. D. is required for a professorship or a top administrative position, and is necessary to gain tenure. However, tenure is becoming in creasingly difficult to acquire. While historians in the Federal Govern ment generally must have a college degree with 24 semester hours in history, require ments may vary for certain specialists. For example, archivists need a college degree with 18 semester hours in American history or government and 12 additional hours of history, American civilization, economics, political science, or related fields; museum curators need a college degree in museum studies or in an appropriate subject field such as art history or the history of technology. However, because competition for Federal and persistence are necessary, because his torians spend long hours in independent study. As in other fields of scientific en deavor, the qualities of intellectual curiosity and creativity are essential. Presenting the results of their research is an important part of a historian’s job, so the ability to communicate effectively—both orally and in writing—is a “must.” The abil ity to work with others on joint research pro jects can be important. Employment Outlook jobs is keen, additional education or experi ence may be required. Most historians in the Federal Government and in nonprofit organ izations have Ph. D. degrees or their equiva lent in training and experience. Although a bachelor’s degree with a major in history is sufficient training for some be ginning jobs in government—either Federal, State, or local—advancement opportunities may be limited for persons without at least a master’s and preferably a Ph. D. degree in history. Since beginning jobs are likely to be concerned with the collection and preserva tion of historical data, a knowledge of ar chival work is helpful. research, writing papers and reports, and giv ing lectures and presentations. They must possess strong analytical skills in order to evaluate historical evidence and work effec tively with abstractions and theories. They must be systematic and objective in their work, since they must consider all relevant facts before reaching a conclusion. Patience Overall, little if any growth is expected in the employment of historians through the 1980’s. Replacement needs accordingly will constitute the principal source of jobs. Open ings in colleges and universities, museums, research firms, government agencies, and other organizations will occur as workers die, retire, or leave the occupation for other rea sons. Persons with computer backgrounds and training in quantitative methods in his torical research are expected to have the most favorable job opportunities in business, in dustry, government, and research firms. His torians with strong backgrounds in historic preservation or other applied disciplines such as public administration or business adminis tration also may be in a relatively favorable position. Of those seeking college faculty jobs, applicants who are qualified to teach several areas of history, such as American Training for historians is available in many colleges and universities. Over 800 schools offer programs for the bachelor’s degree; about 320, the master’s; and about 150, the doctorate. History curriculums in the Nation’s col leges and universities are varied; however, each basically provides training in research methods, writing, and speaking. These are the basic skills essential for historians in all positions. Quantitative methods of analysis, including statistical and computer tech niques, are increasingly important for histori ans; most graduate history departments in clude them. Most doctoral candidates must exhibit competence in at least one foreign language. A greater emphasis on preparing history students for nonacademic careers is appar ent. History departments are offering more courses and programs designed to prepare graduates for museum jobs, archival manage ment, historic editing, historic preservation, and applied research. Courses in other ap plied fields such as public administration or business administration also greatly enhance one’s opportunities for nonacademic employ ment. Historians spend a great deal of time doing Historians must be thorough in their research before reaching any conclusions. SOCIAL SCIENTISTS/425 history combined with African or Latin American history, should have the best op portunities. The oversupply of history graduates is ex pected to continue; throughout the 1980’s, the number of persons seeking to enter the occupation will greatly exceed available posi tions. As a result, historians with a Ph. D. are expected to face very keen competition for positions. Those graduating from prestigious universities may have some advantage in this highly competitive situation. Since academic institutions are the traditional employers of many highly qualified historians and compe tition for these jobs is expected to be particu larly keen, some Ph. D.’s are expected to accept part-time, temporary assignments as instructors with little or no hope of gaining tenure. An increasing number of Ph. D.’s will take research or administrative positions in government, industry, research firms, and other nonacademic institutions. Persons with the master’s degree in history will encounter even more severe competition for jobs as historians. Some may find teach ing positions in junior and community col leges, while others may find jobs in govern ment and industry. Those who meet State certification requirements may become sec ondary school teachers. People with a bachelor’s degree in history are likely to find very limited opportunities for employment as professional historians. However, an undergraduate major in history provides an excellent background for jobs in a number of fields including international re lations and journalism, and for continuing education in law, business administration, and related disciplines. Many graduates will find jobs in secondary schools or in govern ment, business, and industry as management or sales trainees, or as research or adminis trative assistants. Earnings According to the 1977-78 College Place ment Council Survey, bachelor’s degree can didates in the social sciences received offers averaging around $10,700 a year; master’s degree candidates in the social sciences, around $13,200. According to information from the Ameri can Historical Association, colleges and uni versities offered new Ph. D.’s starting salaries ranging from about $12,000 to $14,000 for the academic year 1977-78. Full professors and top administrators earn substantially more. ary of full-time employed Ph. D.’s in history was $21,400; in educational institutions, $21,500. The median annual salary of Ph. D.’s in art history was $19,900; in educa tional institutions, $19,900; in museums or historical societies, $18,800. The Federal Government recognizes ed ucation and experience in certifying appli cants for entry level positions. In general, historians having a bachelor’s degree could start at $10,507 or $13,014 a year in 1979, depending upon the applicant’s academic record. The starting salary for those hav ing a master’s degree was $15,920 a year, and for those having a Ph. D., $19,263. Historians in the Federal Government ave raged around $25,800 a year in 1978; mu seum curators, around $24,800; and archi vists, around $22,900. Many historians, particularly those in col lege teaching, supplement their income by teaching summer classes, writing books or articles, or giving lectures. Related Occupations Historians study past events, institutions, and ideas. Their concern with understanding how societies operate is shared by other workers, including writers, journalists, politi cal scientists, economists, sociologists, an thropologists, geographers, planners, and marketing research workers. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on careers and job openings for historians, and on schools offer ing various programs in history, is available from: American Historical Association, 400 A St. SE., Washington, D.C. 20003. For information on careers and schools of fering degree programs and courses in his toric preservation, contact: National Trust for Historic Preservation, 1789 Massachusetts Ave.NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. General information on careers for histori ans is available from: Organization of American Historians, Indiana University, 112 North Bryan St., Bloomington, Ind. 47401. For additional information on careers for historians, send a self-addressed, stamped en velope to: American Association for State and Local History, 1400 Eighth Avenue South, Nashville, Tenn. 37203. The American Association for State and Local History conducted a survey of salaries in historical agencies, including museums and other organizations. In 1978, agency heads averaged $20,256; assistant agency heads, $15,912; division heads, $15,864; ad vanced professionals, $14,496; and beginning professionals, $11,412. Office of Museum Programs, Arts and Industries Building, Room 2235, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560. According to a survey by the National Re search Council, the 1977 median annual sal American Association of Museums, 1055 Thomas Jefferson St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20007. 426/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK For information on museum careers and museum studies programs, contact: For information on training for museum careers, contact: Political Scientists (D.O.T. 051, 059.267-010, and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Political scientists study political behavior and institutions. Although some specialize in political theory or philosophy, most political scientists, particularly those specializing in public administration, concern themselves with the organization and operation of gov ernment at all levels in the United States and abroad. They explore such phenomena as public opinion, political parties, elections, and special interest groups. They also focus on the workings of the bureaucracy, the Pres idency, Congress, and the judicial system. Processes and techniques of public adminis tration and public policymaking also are con cerns of political scientists. Political scientists examine political and administrative behavior in order to aid gov ernment leaders and others trying to develop policies and plan programs that meet a soci ety’s needs. Like other social scientists, politi cal scientists are research-oriented and base their theories on a systematic analysis of the data they collect. Depending on the topic under study, a political scientist might con duct a public opinion survey, analyze election results, or compare the principal features of various tax proposals. Some areas of political science research are highly quantitative, and involve the use of sophisticated simulation and modeling techniques. Most political scientists work in colleges and universities. They may combine research or administrative duties with teaching, and often they do consulting work as well. (For more information, see the Handbook state ment on college and university faculty.) Some political scientists are primarily re searchers o r consultants in nonacadem ic o r ganizations. They might survey public opin ion on a current issue, explore the political and administrative ramifications of a govern ment reorganization, or suggest ways of mobilizing support for a particular candi date, policy, or administrative change. The results of political science research are used by public officials, political parties, govern ment administrators, legislative staffs and committees, citizens’ groups, legislative ref erence bureaus, taxpayers’ associations, and business firms. Because of their understanding of political institutions and political and administrative processes, political scientists are well quali fied for jobs in and out of government. Many are employed in government management and staff positions; others are employed by legislatures and courts; still others are in volved in government relations. Here they may work as lobbyists or consultants for gov ernment liaison by business firms, trade as sociations, public interest groups, and other organizations. Some political scientists work as journalists. A few work primarily as advi sors to candidates for political office. Working Conditions Political scientists employed in colleges and universities have flexible work schedules, dividing their time among teaching, research, and administrative responsibilities. Those employed by government agencies and pri vate Arms, on the other hand, have much more structured schedules. They study and interpret data, prepare reports, confer with coworkers, and meet with government offi cials, business executives, and others. Many experience the pressures of deadlines, tight schedules, and heavy workloads, and some times must work overtime. They may travel to interview people, conduct surveys, attend meetings and conferences, and present re ports. Political scientists on foreign assignment must adjust to unfamiliar cultures and cli mates. Those in the diplomatic service work long and irregular hours, both in the office and in many social activities considered part of the job. Places of Employment About 14,000 persons worked as political scientists in 1978. About four-fifths worked in colleges and universities. Most of the re mainder worked for government agencies, consulting firms, political organizations, re search institutes, public interest groups, or business firms. This employment estimate does not include all those trained as political scientists who work in government and the private sector in administrative positions or as journalists and other related positions. Political scientists can be found in nearly every college or university town since courses in government and political science are taught in almost all institutions of higher ed ucation. Since the national headquarters of many associations, unions, and other organi zations are located in Washington, D.C., this area attracts a sizable number of political scientists in research or policy jobs. Government employs political scientists both domestically and abroad. They deal with legislative or administrative matters in areas such as foreign affairs, international re lations, intelligence, housing, economic de velopment, transportation, environmental protection, social welfare, or health. Political scientists also apply their analytical expertise in such fields as marketing, advertising, pub lic relations, personnel, finance, and con sumer affairs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Graduate training generally is required for employment as a political scientist. Comple tion of all the requirements for the Ph. D. degree is the prerequisite for appointment to academic positions in some colleges and uni versities and is required for a professorship and tenure. However, tenure is becoming in creasingly difficult to attain. Graduates with a master’s degree can qual A strong background in political science has been invaluable to these senatorial staff members. ify for teaching positions in junior and com munity colleges and for administrative and research positions in government, industry, and research or civic organizations. A mas ter’s degree in international relations, foreign service, or foreign area study provides a suit able background for Federal Government positions concerned with foreign affairs. Competence in one or more foreign lan guages may be important for those who wish to enter the Foreign Service. Minimum re quirements for intelligence, foreign affairs, and international relations specialists in the Federal Government generally include a col lege degree with 24 semester hours in politi cal science, history, economics, or related fields. However, because competition for Federal jobs is keen, additional education or experience may be. required. A growing num ber of applicants for the Foreign Service, for example, have a Ph. D., law degree, or other advanced degree. People with a bachelor’s degree in political science may qualify as trainees in such areas as management, research, administration, sales, and law enforcement. Many students with bachelor’s degrees in political science go on to study law, journalism, or some special ized or related branch of political science, such as public administration or interna tional relations. In 1978, about 1,400 colleges and universi ties offered a bachelor’s degree in political science; around 165, master’s programs; about 120, doctoral programs. Approxi mately 250 schools offered specialties in pub lic administration. Some schools combine po litical science with another discipline such as history in one department, while others have separate departments of political science, public administration, international studies, or other fields. Some universities have sepa rate schools of public affairs and administra tion. Colleges and universities strongly rec ommend field training and internships in government, politics, public service, and sim ilar fields. Internships give students an op portunity to gain experience and make con tacts that may be helpful in getting a job later on. However, the number of internships is limited and prospective interns face keen competition. Undergraduate programs in political sci ence include courses in the principles of gov ernment and politics, State and local govern ment, comparative studies, political theory, foreign area studies, foreign policy, public administration and policy, political behavior, constitutional, administrative, and interna tional law, and many other offerings. Other courses might deal with the problems of de tente, politics of growth and technology, poli tics of health, legal status of women, interna tional economics, and political warfare in the age of nuclear destruction. A growing num ber of programs at both the undergraduate and graduate levels offer courses in quantita tive and statistical methods, including the use of computers. Graduate students may specialize in U.S. politics, comparative politics, international politics, foreign area studies, political behav ior, political theory, public administration, urban affairs, public policy, and other areas. Doctoral candidates often must exhibit com petence in one or more foreign languages and quantitative research techniques. Persons planning to be political scientists should have qualities that are important in any research or management career. Most important of all are intellectual curiosity—a questioning, probing mind and a keen inter est in solving intellectual puzzles—and a commitment to public service. Political SOCIAL SCIENTISTS/427 scientists also need to be able to think objec tively and independently; to handle data carefully and systematically; and to analyze information and ideas. Patience and persist ence are important in conducting indepen dent research, and creativity helps in for mulating ideas. Because the results of political science research are almost always presented orally or in writing, communica tion skills are important, too. The ability to write clearly and well is essential. For some political scientists, an intense in terest in political systems and the way they operate is an asset. Active participation in student government, local political cam paigns, community newspapers, service clubs, and community activities is recom mended for the practical experience and p e r spective it can provide. Such experience is particularly usefUl for political scientists who specialize in politics or community organiza tion. Employment Outlook Employment of political scientists is ex pected to increase more slowly than the aver age for all occupations through the 1980’s. Most job openings will result from deaths, retirements, and other separations from the labor force. Colleges and universities, the tra ditional employers of highly qualified politi cal scientists, are not expected to hire addi tional faculty members; indeed, as college enrollments decline, some vacancies may re main unfilled. The number of persons who graduate with advanced degrees in political science will greatly exceed available job openings through the 1980’s. Ph. D.’s face stiff competition, particularly for academic jobs. The prestige of the university from which a Ph. D. gradu ates may be increasingly important in this highly competitive situation. Many Ph. D.’s seeking college teaching jobs are expected to accept part-time, temporary assignments as instructors with little or no hope of gaining tenure. Graduates seeking to enter the For eign Service also face very stiff competition. Graduates trained in applied fields such as public administration and public policy should have the best prospects for both aca demic and nonacademic positions. Persons trained in quantitative research methods and U.S. Government also are in a relatively ad vantageous position. Those in comparative politics, international relations, and political theory face the most difficult job market. A strong background in economics, marketing, computer science, statistics, and other ap plied fields increases one’s chances for a job in business, industry, or consulting firms. Master’s degree holders face very keen competition for academic positions, but some may find jobs in community and junior col leges. As is the case with Ph. D.’s, graduates trained in public policy, or public administra tion have the best opportunities for jobs in Federal, State, and local government, re search bureaus, political organizations, and business firms. 428/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK New graduates with a bachelor’s degree are expected to find few opportunities for jobs as professional political scientists. Many of these graduates are expected to accept po sitions as trainees in government, business, and industry. For those planning to continue their studies in law, foreign affairs, journal ism, and related fields, political science pro vides an excellent background. Some new graduates who meet State certification re quirements will be able to enter high school teaching. Earnings According to the 1977-78 College Place ment Council Salary Survey, bachelor’s de gree candidates in the social sciences received offers averaging around $10,700 a year; mas ter’s degree candidates in the social sciences, around $13,200; bachelor’s degree candi dates offered positions in the field of public administration, around $10,300. According to an American Political Sci ence Association Survey, the median begin ning salaries for new faculty members during academic year 1977-78 were $13,500 for Ph. D.’s and $12,500 for those without a Ph. D. The median salaries of political scientists em ployed in educational institutions in 1977-78 were around $26,000 for full professors, $18,000 for associate professors, $15,000 for as sistant professors, and $13,000 for lecturers and instructors. According to a survey by the National Re search Council, the 1977 median annual sala ries of full-time employed Ph. D.’s in social science (includes area studies, political sci ence, public administration, and interna tional relations) were $23,300; in educational institutions, $22,700; in the Federal Govern ment, $32,300; in State and local govern ment, $24,500. The Federal Government recognizes edu cation and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the en trance salary for those with a bachelor’s de gree was $10,507 or $13,014 a year in 1979, depending upon the applicant’s academic re cord. The starting salary for those with a master’s degree was $15,920 a year, and for those with a Ph. D., $19,263. Intelligence specialists in the Federal Government ave raged around $25,800 in 1978; international relations specialists, $32,900; and foreign af fairs specialists, $30,300. Some political scientists, particularly those in college teaching, supplement their income by teaching summer courses or consulting. Related Occupations A political scientist’s training enables him or her to understand the ways in which politi cal power is amassed and used. Others whose jobs require substantial knowledge of the po litical process include journalists, lawyers, city managers, Foreign Service Officers, cam paign managers, political consultants, poll sters, lobbyists, legislative liaison officers, po litical aides, and politicians. Sources of Additional Information The American Political Science Associa tion, 1527 New Hampshire Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036 offers two career pamphlets, one for undergraduates and one for faculty and graduate students, at $1 each. A Guide to Graduate Study in Political Sci ence is available for $5. In addition, a monthly newsletter listing job openings, pri marily academic, is available to members of the association. Programs in Public Affairs and Adminis tration, a directory that contains data on the academic content of programs, the student body, the format of instruction, and other information, may be purchased for $10 from: National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration, 1225 Connecticut Ave. NW., Suite 306, Washington, D.C. 20036. For additional information on careers in the Foreign Service, contact: Board of Examiners, Foreign Service, Box 9317, Rosslyn Station, Arlington, Ya. 22209. For additional information on internships, contact: National Society for Internships and Experiential Education, 17351 St. NW., Suite 601, Washington, D.C. 20006. Psychologists______ (D.O.T. 045.061, .067, .107-022, -026, -030, and -034; and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Psychologists study human behavior and mental processes to understand and explain people’s actions. Some research psycholo gists investigate the physical, emotional, or social aspects of human behavior. Others in colleges and universities combine teaching, research, and administration. (For more in formation, see the Handbook statement on college and university faculty.) Still other psychologists in applied fields counsel and conduct training programs; do market re search; or administer rehabilitation pro grams in hospitals or clinics. Like other social scientists, psychologists collect and test the validity of data and for mulate hypotheses. Research methods de pend on the topic under study. Psychologists gather information from controlled labora tory experiments; performance, aptitude, and intelligence tests; observation, interviews, and questionnaires; and surveys. Psychologists usually specialize. Experi m ental psychologists study behavior pro cesses and work with human beings and lower animals such as rats, monkeys, and pigeons; prominent areas of experimental re search include motivation, learning and re tention, sensory and perceptual processes, and genetic and neurological factors in be havior. Developmental psychologists study the patterns and causes of behavioral change as people progress through life; some concern themselves with behavior during childhood, while others study changes that take place during maturity and old age. Personality psy chologists study human nature, individual differences, and the ways in which those dif ferences develop. Social psychologists exam ine people’s interactions with others and with the social environment; prominent areas of study include group behavior, leadership, at titudes, and interpersonal perception. Psy chologists in evaluation research study health and social programs and try to determine how successful they are. Environmental psy chologists study the influence of their sur roundings on people. Population psychologists study demography’s relation to personal and social behavior. Comparative psychologists compare the behavior of different animals, including man. Physiological psychologists study the relationship of behavior to the bio logical functions of the body. Psychologists in the field of psychometrics develop and apply procedures for measuring psychologi cal variables such as intelligence and person ality. Clinical psychology is the largest specialty among doctoral psychologists (see chart). Clinical psychologists generally work in hos pitals or clinics, or maintain their own prac tices. They may help the mentally or emo tionally disturbed adjust to life. They interview patients; give diagnostic tests; pro vide individual, family, and group psycho therapy; and design and carry through be havior modification programs. Clinical psychologists may collaborate with psychia trists and other specialists in developing treatment programs. Counseling psychologists use several techniques, including interview ing and testing, to help people with problems of everyday living—personal, social, educa tional, or vocational. Educational psycholo gists study psychological processes as related to applied problems in education to foster intellectual, social, and emotional develop ment of individuals. School psychologists evaluate students’ needs and problems, facili tate school adjustment, and help solve learn ing and social problems in schools. Industrial and organizational psychologists apply psy chological techniques to personnel adminis tration, management, and marketing prob lems. They are involved in policy, planning, training and development, psychological test research, counseling, and organizational de velopment and analysis, among other activi ties. Engineering psychologists develop and improve human-machine systems, military equipment, and industrial products. Commu nity psychologists apply psychological knowl edge to problems of urban and rural life. Con sumer psychologists study the psychological factors that determine an individual’s behav ior as a consumer of goods and services. Other areas of specialization include psychol ogy and the arts, history of psychology, psy chopharmacology, psychology of women, and military, rehabilitation, and philosophi cal and health psychology. Working Conditions A psychologist’s specialty and place of em ployment determine his or her working con ditions. For example, clinical and counseling psychologists in private practice have pleas ant, comfortable offices and set their own hours. However, they often must work in the evenings. Some employed in hospitals, nurs ing homes, and other health facilities also work irregular hours, while others in schools and clinics work regular hours. Engineering psychologists may study work flow and work arrangements in factories or large plants. Ex perimental psychologists spend much time conducting research on animals in laborato ries. Psychologists employed by academic in stitutions divide their time among teaching, research, and administrative responsibilities. Some maintain part-time clinical practices as it doctoral ists psychologists are cli Percent of doctoral psychologists employed, by specialty, 1977 Comparative ' ^' sw Places of Employment About 130,000 people worked as psycholo gists in 1978. The largest group worked in educational institutions—primarily colleges and universities. Some were counselors; oth ers were researchers, administrators, or teachers. The second largest group of psychologists work in hospitals, clinics, rehabilitation cen ters, nursing homes, and other health facili ties. Many others work for government agen cies at the Federal, State, and local levels. The Veterans Administration, the Depart ment of Defense, and the Public Health Ser vice employ more psychologists than other Federal agencies. Psychologists also are em ployed by research organizations, manage ment counsulting firms, market research firms, and businesses. Some are in practice for themselves or have their own research or consulting firms. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A doctoral degree, the minimum required for employment as a psychologist, is increas ingly important for advancement and tenure, particularly in the academic world. People with doctorates in psychology (Ph. D. or Psy. D.—Doctor of Psychology) qualify for a wide range of responsible research, clinical, and counseling positions in universities and the government. People with a master’s degree in psychol ogy can administer and interpret tests as psy chological assistants. Under the supervision of psychologists, they can conduct research in laboratories or perform administrative du ties. They may teach in 2-year colleges, or work as school psychologists or counselors. (See the Handbook statements on school counselors and rehabilitation counselors.) People with a bachelor’s degree in psychol ogy are qualified to assist psychologists and other professionals in community mental health centers, vocational rehabilitation of fices, and correctional programs; to work as research or administrative assistants; to take jobs as trainees in government or business; or —provided they meet State certification re quirements—to teach high school. However, without additional academic training, their advancement opportunities are limited. General Physiological Educational School Psychometrics Personality Source: National Research Council — Mi well. In contrast to the many psychologists who have flexible work schedules, some in government and private industry have more structured schedules. Reading and writing research reports, they often work alone be hind a desk. Many experience the pressures of deadlines, tight schedules, and heavy workloads, and sometimes must work over time. Their routine may be interrupted fre quently. Travel may be required to attend conferences or conduct research. PSIr v " 'M V )' In the Federal Government, candidates having at least 24 semester hours in psychol ogy and one course in statistics qualify for entry level positions though competition is SOCIAL SCIENTISTS/429 or provide by activity, 1977 30 40 able to deal effectively with people. Sensi tivity, compassion, patience, and the ability to lead and inspire others are particularly important for clinical work and counseling. Research psychologists should be able to do detailed work independently and as part of a team. Verbal and writing skills are necessary to communicate research find ings. Patience and perseverance are vital qualities because results from psychological treatment of patients or research often are long in coming. Employment Outlook Administration of research and development Other administration Other Employment of psychologists is expected to grow faster than the average for all occu pations through the 1980’s. In addition to employment growth, some openings will re sult from deaths, retirements, and other sepa rations from the labor force. :e: National Research Council keen. Clinical psychologists generally must have completed the Ph. D. or Psy. D. re quirements and have served an internship; counseling psychologists usually need 2 years of graduate study in counseling and 1 year of counseling experience. At least 1 year of full-time graduate study is needed to earn a master’s degree in psy chology. Requirements usually include prac tical experience in an applied setting or a master’s thesis based on a research project. Three to five years of graduate work usually are required for a doctoral degree. The Ph. D. degree culminates in a dissertation based on original research. The Psy. D., based on practical work and examinations rather than a dissertation, prepares students for clinical and other applied positions. In clinical or counseling psychology, the requirements for the Ph. D. degree generally include an addi tional year or more of internship or super vised experience. Competition for admission into graduate programs is keen. Some universities require an undergraduate major in psychology. Oth ers prefer only basic psychology with courses in the biological, physical, and social sciences, statistics, and mathematics. Over 1,500 colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree program in psychology; about 325, a master’s; about 165, a Ph. D.; and about 10, a Psy. D. In addition, a grow ing number of professional schools of psy chology not affiliated with colleges or univer sities offer the Psy. D. The American Psychological Association (APA) presently accredits Ph. D. training programs in clini cal, counseling, and school psychology as well as Psy. D. programs. In 1978, over 100 colleges and universities offered fully ap proved programs in clinical psychology; over 20, in counseling psychology; fewer than 10, in school psychology; and 2 Psy.D. pro grams. APA also has approved about 140 430/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK internship facilities for doctoral training in clinical and counseling psychology. Because graduates face increasing compe tition, particularly for academic jobs, many take courses in law, medicine, business, mar keting, public affairs, and other fields to en hance their qualifications for nonacademic careers. Although financial aid is becoming in creasingly difficult to obtain, some graduate students are awarded fellowships or scholar ships, or arrange part-time employment. The Veterans Administration offers predoctoral traineeships to interns in VA hospitals, clin ics, and related training agencies. The Na tional Science Foundation, the Department of Health, and Human Services, the Armed Forces, and many other organizations also provide fellowships and loans. However, the present trend at the Federal level is to pro vide low-interest loans rather than fellow ships and grants. Psychologists who want to enter inde pendent practice must meet certification or licensing requirements. In 1978, all States and the District of Columbia had such re quirements. Licensing laws vary by State, but generally require a doctorate in psy chology, 2 years of professional experience, and an examination. Some States certify those with master’s level training as psy chological assistants or associates. Some States require continuing education for relicensure. The American Board of Professional Psy chology awards diplomas in clinical, counsel ing, industrial and organizational, and school psychology. Candidates generally need a doctorate in psychology, 5 years’ experience, professional endorsements, and must pass an examination. People pursuing a career in psychology must be emotionally stable, mature, and Several factors should help maintain a strong demand for psychologists: (1) Public concern for the development of human re sources which may result in more services for minorities, the elderly, and the poor; (2) heightened awareness of the need for testing and counseling children; (3) Federal legisla tion emphasizing good health rather than treatment of illness; and (4) psychological services in a national health insurance pro gram. Some openings are likely to occur as psy chologists move into the field of technology assessment—the study of the effects of tech nological advances in areas such as agricul ture, energy, the environment, and the con servation and use of natural resources. Psychologists increasingly are involved in program evaluation in such fields as health, education, military service, law enforcement, and consumer protection. A doctorate is necessary for those wishing to enter the field, but the degree does not guarantee a job. Through the 1980’s, the number of doctoral degrees awarded each year will increase and heighten competition for jobs, particularly teaching and research. Nonacademic settings may offer the best prospects, but budgetary restraints in both the public and private sectors could limit ex pansion of psychological services and thus alter the job outlook. Persons holding doctorates from leading universities in applied areas such as clinical, counseling, and industrial or organizational psychology will have more favorable pros pects for nonacademic jobs than those trained in experimental, physiological, and comparative psychology. Some may accept jobs below their levels of aspiration. Gradu ates willing to work in smaller and newer academic institutions may have better em ployment prospects. Earnings According to the 1977-78 College Place ment Council Salary Survey, bachelor’s de gree candidates in the social sciences received Sociologists (D.O.T. 054 and 090.227-010) Nature of the Work Sociologists study human society and so cial behavior by examining the groups that people form. These groups include families, tribes, communities, and governments, as well as a great variety of social, religious, political, business, and other organizations. Sociologists study the behavior and interac tion of groups; trace their origin and growth; and analyze the influence of group activities on individual members. Some sociologists concern themselves primarily with the char acteristics of social groups and institutions. Others are more interested in the ways in dividuals are affected by the groups to which they belong. Fields of specialization for sociologists in clude social organization, social psychology, rural and urban sociology, racial and ethnic relations, criminology and penology, and in dustrial sociology. Other important special ties include medical sociology—the study of social factors that affect mental and public health; demography—the study of the size, characteristics, and movement of popula tions; and social ecology—the study of the effect of the physical environment and tech nology on the distribution of people and their activities. Sensitivity, compassion, patience, and the ability to inspire others are vital for counseling psychologists. offers averaging around $10,700 a year; mas ter’s degree candidates in the social sciences, $13,200. According to a 1977 survey by the Na tional Research Council, the median an nual salary of doctoral psychologists was about $23,800. In educational institutions, the median was about $22,300; in the Fed eral Government, about $30,300; in State and local government, about $23,000; in hospitals and clinics, about $23,000; in other nonprofit organizations, about $24,500; and in business and industry, about $33,800. Ph. D. or Psy. D. psychologists in private practice and in applied specialties generally have higher earnings than other psychologists. The Federal Government recognizes edu cation and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the en trance salary for psychologists having a bach elor’s degree was $10,507 or $13,014 a year in 1979; counseling psychologists with a mas ter’s degree and 1 year of counseling experi ence could start at $15,920; clinical psycholo gists having a Ph. D. or Psy.D. degree and 1 year of internship could start at $19,263. The average salary for psychologists in the Fed eral Government was about $28,200 a year in 1978. According to a 1978 State Salary Survey, average annual salaries of clinical psycholo gists (positions usually requiring a doctor’s degree in clinical psychology plus completion of an approved internship or period of super vised experience) in State government range from about $17,300 to $22,900. Related Occupations Psychologists are trained to evaluate, counsel, and advise individuals and groups. Others who do this kind of work are psychia trists, social workers, clergy, special educa tion teachers, and counselors. Sources of Additional Information Sociological research, like other kinds of social science research, involves collecting in formation, testing its validity, and analyzing the results. Sociologists usually conduct sur veys or do case studies in order to gather the data they need. For example, after providing for controlled conditions, a sociologist might test the effects of different styles of leadership on individuals in a small group. Sociological researchers also conduct large-scale experi ments to test the efficacy of different kinds of social programs. They might test and evalu ate particular programs of income assistance, jo b training, o r rem edial education, for exam ple. Increasingly, sociologists apply statisti cal and computer techniques in their re search. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, and others interested in social problems and social policy. Sociologists work closely with members of other professions including psy chologists, physicians, economists, political scientists, anthropologists, and social work ers. American Psychological Association, Educational Affairs Office, 1200 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Most sociologists are college and univer sity teachers. Like other college faculty, they may conduct research, do consulting work, or handle administrative duties in addition to teaching. (For more information, see the Handbook statement on college and univer sity faculty.) Information on traineeships and fellow ships also is available from colleges and uni versities that have graduate departments of psychology. Some sociologists are primarily adminis trators. They apply their professional knowl edge in areas of practice as diverse as inter group relations, family counseling, public For information on careers, educational requirements, financial assistance, and job openings, contact: SOCIAL SCIENTISTS/431 opinion analysis, law enforcement, educa tion, personnel administration, public rela tions, regional and community planning, and health services planning. They may, for ex ample, administer social service programs in family and child welfare agencies or develop social policies and programs for government, community, youth, or religious organiza tions. A number of sociologists are employed as consultants. Using their expertise and their social science research skills, they advise on such diverse problems as halfway houses and foster care for the mentally ill, ways of coun seling ex-offenders, and market research for advertisers and manufacturers. Increasingly, sociologists are involved in the evaluation of social and welfare programs. Some do techni cal writing and editing. Working Conditions Most sociologists do a lot of desk work, reading and writing reports on their research. Those employed by colleges and universities have flexible work schedules, dividing their time among teaching, research, consulting, and administrative responsibilities. Those working in government agencies and private firms, on the other hand, have more struc tured work schedules. Like other profession als in such settings, many experience the pressures of deadlines, tight schedules, and heavy workloads, and sometimes must work overtime. Their routine may be interrupted by numerous telephone calls, letters, requests for information, and meetings. Travel may be required to collect data for research projects or attend professional conferences. Places of Employment About 19,000 persons were employed as sociologists in 1978. Colleges and universities em ploy about four-fifths o f all sociologists. A number work for government agencies at all levels and deal with such subjects as poverty, public assistance, population policy, social rehabilitation, community development, and environmental impact studies. Sociologists in the Federal Government work primarily for the Departments of Defense, Health and Human Services, Education, Interior, and Agriculture. Others are employed by the De partments of Transportation and Energy, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Veterans Administration. Some persons with training in sociology work as social science analysts, statisticians, and in other positions for Federal agencies. Some sociologists hold managerial, re search, and planning positions in corpora tions, research firms, professional and trade associations, consulting firms, and welfare or other nonprofit organizations. Others run their own research or consulting busi nesses. Since sociology is taught in most institu tions of higher learning, sociologists may be found in nearly all college communities. Theyforare most heavily concentrated, how Digitized FRASER http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 432/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HANDBOOK ever, in large colleges and universities that offer graduate training in sociology and op portunities for research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A master’s degree in sociology usually is the minimum requirement for employment as a sociologist. Sociologists with master’s degrees can qualify for administrative and research positions in public agencies and pri vate businesses, provided they have sufficient training in research, statistical, and computer methods. However, advancement opportuni ties generally are more limited for master’s degree holders than for Ph.D’s. Sociologists with master’s degrees may qualify for teach ing positions in junior colleges and for some college instructorships. Many colleges, how ever, appoint as instructors only people who have training beyond the master’s degree level—frequently the completion of all re quirements for the Ph. D. degree except the doctoral dissertation. Although financial aid is increasingly difficult to obtain, some out standing graduate students may get teaching or research assistantships that provide both financial aid and valuable experience. The Ph.D. degree is required for appoint ment to permanent teaching and research po sitions in colleges and universities. The doc torate also is essential for senior level positions in nonacademic research institutes, consulting firms, corporations, and govern ment agencies. Bachelor’s degree holders in sociology may get jobs as interviewers or as administra tive or research assistants. Many work as so cial workers, counselors, or recreation work ers in public and private welfare agencies. Sociology majors who have sufficient train ing in statistical and survey methods may qualify for positions as ju n io r analysts o r sta tisticians in business or research firms or gov ernment agencies. Over 140 colleges and universities offer doctoral degree programs in sociology; most of these also offer a master’s degree. In 150 schools, the master’s is the highest degree offered, and about 900 schools have bache lor’s degree programs. Sociology depart ments offer a wide variety of courses includ ing sociological theory, statistics and quantitative methods, dynamics of social in teraction, sex roles, population, social stratification, social control, small group analysis, rural-urban relations, formal and complex organizations, sociology of religion, law, the arts, war, politics, education, occu pations and professions, and mental health, in addition to many others. Some departments of sociology have highly structured programs while others are relatively unstructured and leave course se lection largely up to the individual student. Departments have different requirements re garding foreign language skills; courses in statistics; and completion of a thesis for the master’s degree. In the Federal Government, candidates generally need a college degree including 24 semester hours in sociology, with course work in theory and methods of social re search. However, since competition for the limited number of positions is so keen, ad vanced study in the field is highly recom mended. The choice of a graduate school is impor tant for people who want to become sociolo gists. Students should select schools that have adequate research facilities and offer ap propriate areas of specialization such as the ory, demography, or quantitative methods. Opportunities to gain practical experience also may be available, and sociology depart ments frequently help place students in busi ness firms and government agencies. The ability to handle independent research is important for sociologists. Intellectual cu riosity is an essential trait; researchers must have inquiring minds and a desire to find explanations for the phenomena they ob serve. Like other social scientists, sociologists must be objective in gathering information about social institutions and behavior; they need analytical skills in order to organize data effectively and reach valid conclusions; and they must be careful and systematic in their work. Because communicating their findings to other people is such an important part of the job, sociologists must be able to formulate the results of their work in a way that others will understand. The ability to speak well, and to write clearly and concisely, is a “must” in this field. Employment Outlook Employment of sociologists is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Most open ings will result from deaths, retirements, and other separations from the labor force. Some academic openings may result from the growing trend to add sociology courses to the curriculums of other academic disciplines, such as medicine, law, business administra tion, and education. Demand in the non teaching area will center around the increas ing involvement of sociologists in the evaluation and administration of programs designed to cope with social and welfare problems. The number of persons who graduate with advanced degrees in sociology through the 1980’s is likely to exceed greatly the available job openings. Graduates with a Ph. D. face increasing competition, particularly for aca demic positions, although those with degrees from the most outstanding institutions may have an advantage in securing teaching jobs. Academic institutions increasingly seek per sons qualified to perform a dual role: Teach and also conduct applied research in a uni versity-affiliated organization such as a cen ter for environmental studies. Job search time for new graduates seeking academic jobs will be longer than in the past, and some Ph. D.’s may accept temporary, part-time posi tions as instructors. Other Ph. D.’s may find research and ad ministrative positions in government, corpo rations, research organizations, and consult ing firms. Those well trained in quantitative research methods, including survey tech niques, advanced statistics, and computer science will have the widest choice of jobs. For example, private firms that contract with the government to evaluate social programs and conduct other research increasingly seek sociologists with strong quantitative skills. Demand is expected to be strong for those with training in applied sociological areas in cluding criminology, deviant behavior, medi cal sociology, and family and sex roles, among others. Sociologists with training in other applied disciplines, such as public pol icy, public administration, and business ad ministration, will be attractive to employers seeking managerial and administrative per sonnel. positions as trainees and assistants in govern ment, business, and industry. Training in quantitative research methods provides these graduates with the most marketable skills. For those planning to continue their studies in law, journalism, social work, recreation, counseling, and other related disciplines, so ciology provides an excellent background. Some who meet State certification require ments may enter high school teaching. Earnings According to the 1977-78 College Place ment Council Salary Survey, bachelor’s de gree candidates in the social sciences received offers averaging around $10,700 a year; mas ter’s degree candidates in the social sciences, around $13,200. Persons with a master’s degree will con tinue to face very keen competition for aca demic positions, although some may find jobs in junior and community colleges. They also will face strong competition for the limited number of positions as sociologists open to them in nonacademic settings. Some may find research and administrative jobs in gov ernment, research firms, and corporations. The Federal Government recognizes edu cation and experience in certifying applicants for entry level positions. In general, the en trance salary for sociologists with a bache lor’s degree was $10,507 or $13,014 a year in 1979, depending upon the applicant’s aca demic record. The starting salary for those with a master’s degree was $15,920 a year, and for those with a Ph. D., $19,263. Sociolo gists in the Federal Government averaged around $25,000 a year in 1978. Bachelor’s degree holders will find few op portunities for jobs as professional sociolo gists. As in the past, many graduates will take According to a 1977 survey by the Na tional Research Council, the median annual salary of all doctoral social scientists (includ ing sociologists) was $23,800. For those in educational institutions, it was $22,800; in the Federal Government, $32,900; in State and local government, $21,300; in other non profit organizations, $27,700; and in business and industry, $30,100. In general, sociologists with the Ph. D. degree earn substantially higher salaries than those without the doctoral degree. Many sociologists, particularly those employed by colleges and universities for the academic year, supplement their regular salaries with earnings from other sources, such as summer teaching and consulting work. Related Occupations Sociologists are not the only people whose jobs require an understanding of social pro cesses and institutions. Others whose work demands such expertise include anthropolo gists, economists, geographers, historians, political scientists, psychologists, urban plan ners, marketing research workers, newspaper reporters, and social workers. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on careers, job openings, and graduate departments of soci ology is available from: The American Sociological Association, Career and Research Division, 1722 N St. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. SOCIAL SCIENTISTS/433 SOCIAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS For workers in the social service occupa tions, helping others is a fundamental part of the job. To do their jobs well, social workers, counselors, and others in the “helping profes sions” must be people-oriented. In this field, people with different backgrounds and skills often work together as members of a team. Some have years of professional training; others are aides and volunteers. Their joint efforts can help people who are troubled or unhappy. Each of the helping professions has its own approach and techniques. Social work is dedicated to helping people cope with crises that threaten to disrupt their lives. Social workers help their clients understand what is happening to them and why, so that they can find their own solutions. They may assist families that are being torn apart by poverty, alcoholism, drug abuse, behavior problems, or illness. Sometimes, the problems that families and individuals face are so compli cated that it takes people with several kinds of training to suggest a solution. For this rea son, social workers have teamed up with members of other professions, including medicine, nursing, therapy, psychology, edu cation, law, and religion. Growing attention is being given within the social work profes sion to directing and influencing social change. Social workers may join forces with health, housing, transportation, or urban planners to suggest ways of making a com munity a more wholesome place to live. They also use direct action to help people deal with some of the forces that shape their lives. So cial workers may, for example, do research to identify community needs; publicize their findings; draft legislation; or comment on public proposals in such areas as housing, health, and welfare services. Counselors help people understand them selves. They help them come to terms with their lives and give them the support and encouragement they need to make the most of their opportunities. Counselors usually specialize. School counselors help students develop educational plans that fit the stu dents’ abilities, interests, and career poten tial. Employment counselors guide people of all ages in planning careers and finding jobs. Their advice helps clients select appropriate fields of endeavor, and then prepare for them. Rehabilitation counselors advise people with physical, mental, or social disabilities. These counselors help handicapped persons under stand what adjustments are needed in their personal lives and vocational plans in order http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 434/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HANDBOOK to achieve a satisfactory lifestyle. College ca reer planning and placement counselors help college students choose careers and advise them on the kinds of training or experience that will best help them find a job. Members of the clergy counsel people of their faith and provide spiritual leadership within their communities. They enable peo ple to worship according to the dictates of their consciences. As spiritual leaders, mem bers of the clergy are widely regarded as models for moral and ethical conduct. They frequently counsel people who have prob lems in their jobs, homes, schools, or social relationships; often, these are emotional problems. In fact, they deal in such delicate personal and emotional areas that the law provides that they need not disclose the na ture of their communications with their con gregants. Members of the clergy help people in their communities in many other ways. They may set up programs that feed the poor, care for the sick, provide companionship for the lonely, and involve children and adults in educational and recreational activities. Other occupations involve helping people, too. Cooperative extension service workers work with people who live in rural areas; they do educational work in such areas as agricul ture and home economics, and encourage youth activities and community develop ment. Home economists provide training and technical assistance in areas that make every day life more comfortable and livable—con sumer economics, housing, home manage ment, home furnishings and equipment, food and nutrition, clothing and textiles, and fam ily development and relations. People in social service occupations be come closely involved with their clients’ lives, and the services they provide can have far-reaching effects. Advice on schools, jobs, careers, rehabilitation, or emotional and fam ily problems may lead an individual to make fundamental decisions about the future. Suggestions made by a counselor or social worker may shape a client’s entire future. Members of the clergy in particular may be come involved in the most intimate details of their congregants’ lives. A genuine concern for other people is therefore essential for any one considering a career in this field. Caring about people and wanting to assist is not enough, though. People in social ser vice occupations must be good at dealing with other people and relating to them; they must have a manner that inspires trust and confidence. Nearly all of them undergo train ing in how to work with others. Tact and sensitivity are necessary traits. Anyone who comes in contact with people’s deepest feel ings and beliefs—as members of the clergy and counselors often do—needs empathy, the ability to sense others’ feelings. Patience is important as well, for clients often are con fused, hesitant, fearful, or angry. They often are not clear themselves as to what the prob lem is or may have difficulty describing it. Speaking and writing skills are important. In some of these jobs, workers have to keep notes and records. They must be able to pre sent all the important points about a client’s situation clearly and quickly. Verbal skills are also necessary. Counselors and social workers must be able to communicate on a one-to-one basis, and to work easily with groups. There also are occasions when they must speak before large audiences. Members of the clergy, of course, do this regularly. Finally, workers in the social service occu pations should know themselves—their own strengths, weaknesses, and goals. Emotional stability is important because people in this field are so often in touch with situations that are worrisome or depressing. There are occu pational hazards in this work. There is dan ger of being overwhelmed by others’ misery, the danger of expecting too much of yourself, the danger of “burning out” and losing the sensitivity that brought you to the field in the first place. Training for a social service career ranges from just a few weeks for an aide to many years for a professional. Homemaker-home health aides generally take a 1- or 2-week course right after they begin work. Many other social service aides—those doing valu able work in reaching out to their neighbors and others in need—have little formal train ing. They do not even have to be high school graduates, for that matter. What counts in getting their jobs is their knowl edge of the community and their ability to deal with people. For professional occupa tions, such as social worker and counselor, however, a college degree and graduate edu cation are necessary. Often, professional ed ucation includes an internship, or period of work experience, that enables the student to learn how to apply classroom knowledge to real-life situations. The following section describes in greater detail the work of people in 12 social service occupations. Counseling Occupations At some point in their lives, most people seek advice or assistance for personal, educa tional, or vocational problems. These prob lems may be relatively minor, such as a con flict in a student’s class schedule, or may involve serious emotional or physical disabilities. Regardless of the problem, counselors often are the ones to whom people turn for help. Counselors may specialize in a specific area and work setting. Some deal primarily with school children, while others work only with adults. Some counselors are trained to assist in educational or vocational planning; others help people deal with their day to day problems. Whatever the area of specializa tion, counselors help people understand themselves—their capabilities and potential —so that they can make and carry out deci sions and plans for a satisfying and produc tive life. This chapter covers four counseling spe cialties: School counseling, rehabilitation counseling, employment counseling, and col lege career planning and placement. School counselors are the largest counsel ing group. They are primarily concerned with the personal, social, and educational de velopment of students. Rehabilitation counselors help persons with physical, mental, or social handicaps to become more productive individuals. Employment counselors advise people— the unemployed or unskilled, for example— who cannot find a job or have problems in career choice and planning. College career planning and placement counselors help college students examine their own interests, abilities, and goals; ex plore career alternatives; and make and fol low through with a career choice. Persons who want to enter the counseling field must be interested in helping people and have an ability to understand their behavior. A pleasant but strong personality that instills confidence in clients is desirable. Counselors also must be patient, sensitive to the needs of others, and able to communicate orally as well as in writing. In addition, many psychologists, social workers, and college student personnel work ers also do counseling. These and other fields which entail some counseling, such as teach ing, health, law, religion, and personnel, are described elsewhere in the Handbook. School Counselors (D.O.T. 045.107-010) Nature of the Work Uncertainty about a career choice, dif ficulty with a particular class, or an unhappy home life are examples of problems that many students face. Usually these problems cannot be solved by the student alone; profes sional assistance often is needed. Most schools hire counselors to give individual at tention to students’ educational, career, and social development. The counselor’s role is to help students understand themselves better—their abili ties, talents, personality characteristics, and career options, for example. To accomplish this, counselors may use tests and individual or group counseling; sometimes they develop specialized methods or seek the assistance of community resource persons. When helping students in career choices, counselors often administer and evaluate tests. Some counselors also have responsibil ity for a career information center and the school’s career education program. The counselor may, for example, suggest ways in which a math teacher can incorporate into a lesson information on occupations that re quire mathematics. Or the counselor may ar range field trips to factories and business firms or show films which provide a view of real work settings. The desired result is a student who is more aware of careers that match his or her talents, likes, and abilities and who can, with the assistance of the coun selor, develop an educational and career plan. School counselors must keep up-to-date on opportunities for educational and vocational training beyond high school to counsel stu dents who want this information. They must keep informed about training programs in 2and 4-year colleges; in trade, technical, and business schools; apprenticeship programs; and available federally supported programs. Counselors also advise students about educa tional requirements for entry level jobs, job changes caused by technological advances, college entrance requirements, and places of employment. Counselors in junior high and high schools often help students find part-time jobs, either to enable them to stay in school or to help them prepare for their vocation. They may help both graduates and dropouts to find jobs or may direct them to community employment services. They also may conduct surveys to learn more about hiring experiences of recent graduates and dropouts, local job oppor tunities, or the effectiveness of the educa tional and guidance programs. School counselors help students gain a better understanding of their interests, abilities, and personality characteristics. Counselors work with problems affecting the school as a whole as well as those affect ing only one or two individuals. If drug abuse is a problem, counselors may, for example, initiate group counseling sessions to discuss the dangers of taking drugs. Or they may COUNSELING OCCUPATIONS/435 speak individually with students and their parents. Counselors work closely with other staff members of the school, members of the com munity, and parents. Often, teachers and counselors confer about problems affecting a student or group of students. A teacher may refer a student who appears to have problems dealing with classmates to a counselor who will attempt to find the cause. Counselors may arrange meetings with parents or com munity agencies, such as mental health or ganizations, if a student’s problems are seri ous. Elementary school counselors help chil dren to make the best use of their abilities by identifying these and other basic aspects of the child’s makeup at an early age, and by evaluating any learning problems. Methods used in counseling grade school children dif fer in many ways from those used with older students. Observations of classroom and play activity furnish clues about children in the lower grades. To better understand children, elementary school counselors spend much time consulting with teachers and parents. They also work closely with other staff mem bers of the school, including psychologists and social workers. Some school counselors, particularly in secondary schools, teach classes in occupa tional information, social studies, or other subjects. They also may supervise school clubs or other extracurricular activities, often after regular school hours. Working Conditions Most school counselors work the tradi tional 10-month school year with a 2-month vacation. They work closely with school ad ministrators, teachers, and parents as well as students. Helping students solve specific problems can be emotionally exhausting. Places of Employment About 45,000 people worked full time as public school counselors during 1978. Most counselors work in large schools. An increas ing number of school districts, however, pro vide guidance services to their small schools by assigning more than one school to a coun selor. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most States require school counselors to have counseling and teaching certificates. However, a growing number of States no longer require teacher certification. Depend ing on the State, a master’s degree in counsel ing and from 1 to 5 years of teaching experi ence usually are required for a counseling certificate. People who plan to become counselors should learn the requirements of the State in which they plan to work since requirements vary among States and change rapidly. College students interested in becoming http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 436/OCCUPATIONAL HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St.OUTLOOK Louis school counselors usually take the regular program of teacher education, with addi tional courses in psychology and sociology. In States where teaching experience is not a requirement, it is possible to major in a lib eral arts program. A few States substitute a counseling internship for teaching experi ence. In some States, teachers who have completed part of the courses required for the master’s degree in counseling are eligible for provisional certification and may work as counselors under supervision while they take additional courses. Counselor education programs at the grad uate level are available in more than 450 col leges and universities, usually in the depart ments of education or psychology. One to two years of graduate study are necessary for a master’s degree. Most programs provide supervised field experience. Subject areas of required graduate level courses usually include appraisal of the in dividual student, individual counseling procedures, group guidance, information service for career development, professional relations and ethics, and statistics and re search. The ability to help young people accept responsibility for their own lives is important for school counselors. They must be able to coordinate the activity of others and work as part of the team which forms the educational system. School counselors may advance by moving to a larger school; becoming director or su pervisor of counseling or guidance; or, with further graduate education, becoming a col lege counselor, educational psychologist, school psychologist, or school administrator. Usually college counselors and educational psychologists must have the Ph. D. degree. Employment Outlook Employment of school counselors is likely to grow more slowly than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as declining school enrollments coupled with financial constraints limit demand. Future growth in counselor employment will depend largely on the amount of funds that the Federal Gov ernment provides to the States, particularly funding for career education. Earnings According to a recent survey, the average salary of school counselors in 1978 was around $17,700. However, salaries varied by size, grade level, and locality of the school. Average salaries of school counselors ranged from around $9,200 to about $30,500. School counselors generally earn more than teachers at the same school. (See statements on kin dergarten and elementary school teachers and secondary school teachers.) In most school systems, counselors receive regular salary increments as they obtain ad ditional education and experience. Some counselors supplement their income by parttime consulting or other work with private or public counseling centers, government agen cies, or private industry. Related Occupations School counselors help students gain a bet ter understanding of their interests, abilities, and personality characteristics, and also help them deal with personal, social, academic, and vocational problems. Other occupations involved in helping people in similar ways include caseworkers, clinical psychologists, elementary school teachers, parole officers, probation officers, social workers, secondary school teachers, and vocational rehabilitation counselors. Sources of Additional Information State departments of education can supply information on colleges and universities that offer training in guidance and counseling as well as on the State certification require ments. Additional information on this field of work is available from: American School Counselor Association, 22 Sky line Place, Suite 400, 5203 Leesburg Pike, Falls Church, Va. 22041. Employment Counselors (D.O.T. 045.107-010 and -018) Nature of the Work All too often, people look for jobs before they develop realistic career goals, acquire the proper training, or learn enough about the job market. They run the risk of becom ing dissatisfied with their work or failing to find a job at all. Employment counselors (sometimes called vocational counselors) provide people with career information and other kinds of help in getting a job. Most employment counselors work in State employment service offices or in com munity agencies. Community agencies, which may be either public or private, in clude career planning and placement pro grams for special groups such as women and minorities; social service agencies that coun sel school dropouts, drug abusers, or ex offenders; and neighborhood organizations that help direct young people towards mean ingful roles in society. Counselors interview jobseekers to learn about their interests, training, work experi ence, work attitudes, physical capacities, and personal traits. If necessary, they may ar range for aptitude and achievement tests. To learn more about the jobseeker’s aptitudes, skills, and interests, they may contact a for mer employer or school principal. The coun selor then describes a number of suitable oc cupations and discusses the client’s employment prospects in each field. Often, employment counselors refer clients larger cities. Some worked in institutions such as prisons, training schools for delin quent youths, and mental hospitals. Some counselors teach in graduate training pro grams or conduct research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States require counselors in public em ployment offices to meet State civil service or merit system requirements. However, these minimum educational and experience stan dards vary by State. Some require a master’s degree in counseling or a related field; others require only a high school diploma. Experi ence in counseling, interviewing, and job placement also may be required, particularly for those without advanced degrees. Applicants with graduate degrees and ad ditional experience may enter at higher levels on the counselor career ladder. In many States, individuals with extensive experience in the employment service may enter the counselor career ladder, take the prescribed university course, and gain the necessary ex perience to move upward. Counselors often administer aptitude and achievement tests. to other agencies for additional help. For ex ample, if a person stutters, the employment counselor might suggest speech therapy at a local health facility. A counselor might refer a client with outdated job skills to a training program, arrange an equivalency exam for someone who has not finished high school, or suggest child care that would fit a working parent’s schedule. Proper referral requires that employment counselors be thoroughly familiar with community resources and that they keep in touch with other social service and health professionals. Counselors may suggest specific employers and appropriate ways of applying for work. In some cases, counselors may contact em ployers about jobs for applicants, although placement specialists often handle this work in State employment service agencies. After job placement or entrance into training, counselors may follow up to determine if the applicant needs additional assistance. The unemployed and graduates looking for their first job are typical clients that an employment counselor might see during an ordinary workday. Some clients have skills to start work immediately; others who have not completed school or lack marketable skills need assistance such as remedial education, job training, or advice about interviewing and filling out application forms. People with job market disadvantages often need exten They may need help to re sive counseling. solve emotional, family, or other fundamen tal problems that prevent their securing and holding a job. In recent years, the employment problems of many special groups have come into sharper focus. Veterans, school dropouts, handicapped people, older workers, women, and minorities sometimes need special help to turn talents and abilities into marketable skills. E m ploym ent counselors w ho w ork with these clients increasingly use group counseling, and follow-up counseling for cli ents who have begun working. Working Conditions Counselors usually work about 40 hours a week, but some in community agencies may have evening appointments to counsel clients already employed. Working space is often limited, but offices are designed to be free from noise and dis tractions to allow for confidential discussions with clients. Places of Employment In 1978 about 3,100 persons worked in em ployment counseling or related technical and supervisory positions in State employment service offices in every large city and many smaller towns. In addition, about 3,000 em ployment counselors worked for various pri vate or community agencies, primarily in Although minimum entrance require ments are not standardized among private and community agencies, most prefer, and some require, a master’s degree in vocational counseling or in a related field such as psy chology, personnel administration, counsel ing, guidance education, or public adminis tration. Many private agencies prefer to have at least one staff member who has a doctorate in counseling psychology or a related field. For those lacking an advanced degree, em ployers usually emphasize experience in closely related work such as rehabilitation counseling, employment interviewing, school or college counseling, teaching, social work, or psychology. In each State, the public employment ser vice offices provide in-service training pro grams for their new counselors or trainees. In addition, both their new and experienced counselors often enroll for training at col leges and universities during the regular aca demic year or at institutes or summer ses sions. Private and community agencies also often provide in-service training opportuni ties. College students who wish to become em ployment counselors should study psychol ogy and basic sociology. Graduate level courses include techniques of counseling, psychological principles and psychology of careers, assessment and appraisal, cultures and environment, and occupational informa tion. Counselor education programs at the graduate level are available in more than 450 colleges and universities, mainly in depart ments of education or psychology. To obtain a master’s degree, students must complete 1 to 2 years of graduate study including actual supervised experience in counseling. Persons aspiring to be employment counselors should have a strong interest in helping others make and carry out vocational COUNSELING OCCUPATIONS/437 decisions. They should be able to work inde pendently and to keep detailed records. Well-qualified counselors with experience may advance to supervisory or administra tive positions as directors of agencies, area supervisors of guidance programs, consult ants, or counseling professors. local telephone directory. A list of all public employment service offices may be obtained by writing to: U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration, U.S. Employment Ser vice, 601 D St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20213. Employment Outlook Qualified applicants are expected to face competition for jobs as employment counse lors through the 1980’s. Employment in this small occupation depends largely on Federal funding for the State, local, and community agencies that provide job counseling. In re cent years, the number of counselors in State offices has changed very little, but some new jobs have opened up in community agencies funded under the Comprehensive Employ ment and Training Act (CETA). In addition to new jobs, some openings for employment counselors will result from the need to replace those who die, retire, or trans fer to other fields. Earnings Salaries of employment counselors in State employment services vary considerably from State to State. In 1978, salaries ranged from about $7,(XX) for entry level positions to $21,000 for experienced counselors. The average starting salary for beginning workers was $10,506, while experienced counselors ave raged $13,814. According to the limited data available, the average starting salary for counselors in private, nonprofit organizations in 1978 was $12,500. The average for experienced work ers was $18,000. In general, salaries of em ployment counselors are about one and onehalf times as high as average earnings for all nonsupervisory w orkers in private industry, except farming. Counselors generally receive benefits such as vacations, sick leave, pension plans, and insurance coverage. Related Occupations Other professionals interview people, dis cuss their problems, and suggest useful solu tions. Among them are school psychologists, guidance counselors, parole officers, proba tion officers, and social workers. Sources of Additional Information For general information on employment or vocational counseling, contact: American Personnel and Guidance Association, 2 Skyline Place, Suite 400, 5203 Leesburg Pike, Falls Church, Va. 22041. The administrative office for each State’s employment security agency can supply spe cific information about local job opportuni ties, salaries, and entrance requirements for positions in public employment service of fices. For information, contact the nearest local office of your public employment ser Digitized forunder FRASER vice State Government listings in your http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ OUTLOOK Federal438/OCCUPATIONAL Reserve Bank of St. Louis HANDBOOK Rehabilitation Counselors (D.O.T. 045.107-042) Nature of the Work Each year more mentally, physically, and emotionally disabled persons become selfsufficient and productive citizens. They find employment in a wide variety of occupations previously thought too complex or physically demanding for them to handle. A growing number are studying in colleges and techni cal schools throughout the United States. One member of the team of professionals who help disabled individuals leave a shel tered environment to lead as normal a life as possible is the rehabilitation counselor. Rehabilitation counselors begin their work by learning about their client. They may read school reports, confer with medical person nel, and talk with family members to deter mine the exact nature of the disability. They also discuss with physicians, psychologists, and occupational therapists the types of skills the client can learn. At that point, the coun selor begins a series of discussions with the client to explore training and career options. The counselor then uses this information to develop a rehabilitation plan. A rehabilitation program generally in cludes specific job training, as well as other specialized training the disabled person may need. When working with a blind individual, for example, the counselor may arrange for training with seeing-eye dogs. The disabled person then may spend a few months learn ing to cross streets and ride public transpor tation systems. Throughout this period, the counselor and disabled client meet regularly to discuss progress in the rehabilitation pro gram and any problems that may arise. Counselors also must find jobs for disabled persons and often make followup checks to insure that placement has been successful. If the new employee has a specific problem on the job, the counselor may suggest adapta tions to the employer. Because job placement is such an impor tant aspect of a counselor’s work, he or she must keep in touch with members of the busi ness community to learn the type of jobs available and training required. They also try to alleviate any fears on the part of employers about the suitability of hiring handicapped individuals. As a result, counselors may spend time publicizing the rehabilitation pro gram to business and community associa tions. An increasing number of counselors spe cialize in a particular area of rehabilitation; some may work almost exclusively with blind people, deaf people, alcoholics, drug addicts, the mentally ill, or retarded persons. Others may work almost entirely with persons living in poverty areas. The amount of time spent counseling each client varies with the severity of the disabled person’s problems as well as with the size of the counselor’s caseload. Some rehabilitation counselors are responsible for many persons in various stages of rehabilitation; on the other hand, less experienced counselors, or those working with the severely disabled, may work with relatively few cases at a time. Working Conditions Rehabilitation counselors generally work a 40-hour week or less, with some overtime work required to attend community and civic meetings in the evening. They may spend only part of their time in their offices coun seling and performing necessary paperwork. The remainder of their time is spent away from the office, working with prospective employers, training agencies, and the dis abled person’s family. The ability to drive a car often is necessary for this work. Rehabilitation counselors must maintain close contact with handicapped clients and their families over many months or even years. The counselor often has the satisfac tion of watching day-by-day progress in the disabled person’s fight for independence. At other times, however, the counselor may ex perience the disappointment of a client’s fail ures. Places of Employment About 19,000 persons worked as rehabili tatio n counselors in 1978. A bout 70 percent worked in State and local rehabilitation agen cies financed cooperatively with Federal and State funds. Some vocational rehabilitation specialists and counseling psychologists worked in the Veterans Administration’s vo cational rehabilitation program. Rehabilita tion centers, sheltered workshops, hospitals, mental health centers, labor unions, insur ance companies, special schools, centers for independent living, and other public and pri vate agencies with rehabilitation programs and job placement services for the disabled employ the rest. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree with courses in counseling, psychology, and related fields is the minimum educational requirement for rehabilitation counselors. However, em ployers are placing increasing emphasis on the master’s degree in rehabilitation coun seling or vocational counseling, or in related subjects such as psychology, educa tion, and social work. Work experience in fields such as vocational counseling and placement, psychology, education, and so- The Veteran’s Administration paid coun seling psychologists with a 2-year master’s degree and 1 year of subsequent experience— and those with a Ph. D.—starting salaries of $19,263 in early 1979. Those with a Ph. D. and a year of experience, and those with a 2-year master’s degree and much experience, started at $23,087. In addition, the Veteran’s Administration employed a number of voca tional rehabilitation specialists—generally with master’s degrees—at starting salaries of $13,014 to $19,263. The average salary of vocational rehabilitation counselors in the Federal Government was $20,100 in 1978. Related Occupations Rehabilitation counselors help mentally, physically, and emotionally disabled in dividuals become self-sufficient and produc tive citizens. Related occupations include: Industrial-organizational psychologists, school counselors, employment counselors, parole officers, probation officers, social workers, and occupational therapists. Rehabilitation counselors begin their work by learning about their client. cial work is an asset for securing employ ment as a rehabilitation counselor. Most agencies have work-study programs whereby employed counselors can earn graduate degrees in the field. In 1978, 84 colleges and universities ac credited by the Council on Rehabilitation Education offered graduate programs in rehabilitation counseling. Usually, 1 1/2 to 2 years of study are required for the master’s degree. Included is a period of actual work experience as a rehabilitation counselor under the close supervision of an instructor. Besides a basic foundation in psychology, courses generally included in master’s degree programs are counseling theory and tech niques, occupational and educational infor mation, and community resources. Other re quirements may include courses in placement and followup, tests and measurements, psy chosocial effects of disability, and medical and legislative aspects of rehabilitation. To earn the doctorate in rehabilitation counseling or in counseling psychology may take a total of 4 to 6 years of graduate study. Intensive training in psychology and other social sciences, as well as in research meth ods, is required. Many States require that rehabilitation counselors be hired in accordance with State civil service and merit system rules. In most cases, these regulations require applicants to pass a competitive written test, sometimes supplemented by an interview and evaluation by a board of examiners. In addition, some private organizations require rehabilitation counselors to be certified. To become certi fied, counselors must pass exams adminis tered by the Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor Certification. Because rehabilitation counselors deal with for theFRASER welfare of individuals, the ability to Digitized accept responsibility is important. It also is essential that they be able to work indepen dently and be able to motivate and guide the activity of others. Counselors who work with the severely disabled need unusual emotional stability. They must be very patient in deal ing with clients who often are disqouraged, angry, or otherwise difficult to handle. Counselors who have limited experience usually are assigned the less difficult cases. As they gain experience, their caseloads are increased and they are assigned clients with more complex rehabilitation problems. After obtaining considerable experience and more graduate education, rehabilitation counselors may advance to supervisory positions or top administrative jobs. Employment Outlook Because most State and private rehabilita tion agencies are funded primarily by the Federal Government, the extent of employ ment will depend largely on the level of gov ernment spending. Additional positions, however, are expected to become available in private companies, such as manufacturing and service firms, for rehabilitation counse lors to help in equal employment opportunity efforts. Colleges and universities that employ coordinators of services to handicapped stu dents are another source of increasing em ployment opportunities for rehabilitation counselors. In addition to growth needs, many counselors will be required annually to replace those who die, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Earnings The average minimum salary of rehabilita tion counselors in State agencies was about $11,500 in 1978; the average maximum sal ary was $15,200. Sources of Additional Information For information about rehabilitation coun seling as a career, contact: American Psychological Association, Inc., 1200 17th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. American Rehabilitation Counseling Association, 2 Skyline Place, 5203 Leesburg Pike, Suite 400, Falls Church, Va. 22041. National Rehabilitation Counseling Association, 1522 K St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. A list of educational institutions offering training in rehabilitation counseling can be obtained from: Division of Manpower Development, Rehabilitaton Services Administration, Department of Edu cation, Room 3321, Mary E. Switzer Building, 330 C St. SW., Washington, D.C. 20201. Information on certification requirements and procedures is available from: Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor Certifi cation, 8 South Michigan Ave., Suite 3301, Chi cago, 111. 60603. College Career Planning and Placement Counselors __ (D.O.T. 166.167-014 and .267-010) Nature of the Work Choosing a career is a decision all college students face. Identifying a field of work that matches one’s likes, dislikes, personal quali ties, and talents can be difficult and time con suming. Once a career choice has been made, the job search begins in earnest—writing resumes, searching out prospective employ ers, and requesting interviews. Looking for a COUNSELING OCCUPATIONS/439 job can be an anxiety-producing and dis couraging experience. Career planning and placement counselors help bridge the gap between education and work by assisting students in all phases of career decisionmaking and planning. These counselors, sometimes called college place ment officers, provide a variety of services to college students and alumni. They encourage students to examine their interests, abilities, and goals, and then help them explore career alternatives. They may help students test ca reer interests by arranging internships, field placements, or part-time or summer employ ment. Counselors discuss the kinds of jobs open to college graduates with a particular major and help students evaluate the pros and cons of further training. Because a liberal arts curriculum is not specifically career oriented, these students in particular can benefit from the knowledge and experience of college career planning and placement counselors. Even in areas like ac counting or engineering, where the correla tion between college major and career is quite direct, students benefit from counseling as sistance in deciding where and how to look for a job. of contact with others—in counseling ses sions, meetings, public appearances, and tele phone calls. This work can be deeply gratify ing because counselors share in the growth and development of students. In addition, they are constantly exposed to new ideas and developments in the working world. Many persons pursue careers as college counselors because of the intellectual stimulation and other intangible benefits of an academic envi ronment. Places of Employment Nearly all 4-.year colleges and universities and many community and junior colleges provide career planning and placement ser vices to their students and alumni. Large col leges and junior colleges may employ several counselors working under a director of career planning and placement activities. In many institutions, however, a combination of placement functions is performed by one di rector aided by a clerical staff. In small col leges and junior colleges, the functions of ca reer counselors may be performed on a part-time basis by members of the faculty or administrative staff. Universities frequently have placement officers for each major branch or campus. About 5,000 persons worked as career planning and placement counselors in 2- and 4-year colleges and universities in 1978. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although no specific educational program exists to prepare persons for career planning and placement work, colleges and universi ties increasingly seek applicants with a mas- Career planning and placement counselors also arrange for job recruiters to visit the campus to discuss their firms’ personnel needs and to interview applicants. They pro vide employers with information about stu dents and inform students about business op erations and personnel needs in industry. A counselor may, for example, explain to stu dents that workers in certain industries are subject to layoffs. In order to counsel stu dents adequately, counselors must keep abreast of labor market information, includ ing wages, hours, training, and employment prospects. This means reading career and counseling literature and maintaining con tact with industry and government recruit ers. Some career planning and placement counselors, especially those in community and junior colleges, advise school administra tors on curriculum and course content. They may consult employers and then suggest courses that would prepare students more adequately for local jobs. In addition, some placement directors and counselors, espe cially those working in small schools, also teach. All counselors maintain a library of career guidance and recruitment informa tion. Placement counselors may specialize in areas such as law, education, or part-time and summer work. However, the extent of specialization usually depends upon the size and type of college as well as the size of the placement staff. Working Conditions Working as they do with students, alumni, faculty, and employers, college career plan ning and placement counselors have peopleoriented jobs. Their work entails a great deal http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 440/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HANDBOOK Helping students select courses is an interesting and challenging part of the job. ter’s degree in counseling, college student personnel work, or a behavioral science. One or two years of work experience in business or industry are invaluable preparation for this occupation. In 1978, over 100 colleges and universities offered graduate programs in college student personnel work. Graduate courses that are helpful for career planning and placement counseling include counseling theory and techniques, vocational testing, theory of group dynamics, personnel management, or ganizational behavior, and industrial rela tions. Some people enter the career planning and placement field after gaining a broad back ground of experience in business, industry, government, or educational organizations. An internship in a career planning and place ment office also is helpful. Like other counselors, college career plan ning and placement counselors need certain personal traits. A respect and concern for the individual, based on a belief in the student’s self-worth and capacity for growth, is impor tant in this field. Counselors must be able to communicate with and gain the confidence of students, faculty, and employers in order to work effectively with them. Intellectual curi osity and openmindedness are important, for counselors need to develop and maintain an understanding of the personal, economic, and environmental forces that affect career decisions. People in this field should be ener getic and able to work under pressure be cause they must organize and administer a wide variety of activities. Advancement for career planning and placement professionals usually is through promotion to an assistant or associate posi tion, director of career planning and place ment, director of student personnel services, or some other higher level administrative po sition. A doctoral degree may be helpful for such advancement. However, the extent of such opportunity usually depends upon the type of college or university and the size of the staff. Employment Outlook Employment of college career planning and placement counselors is not expected to increase significantly through the 1980’s. Budgetary constraints in many institutions of higher education will limit expansion of counseling and placement services. Slight in creases may occur in community and junior colleges where there are no career planning and placement programs at present. While colleges and universities increasingly empha size career planning and placement services for students at all levels including special groups—adults seeking a midcareer change as well as minority, low-income, and handi capped students—schools will tend to utilize existing staff rather than hire additional per sonnel. As with other academic jobs, applicants for college career planning and placement positions will face keen competition. Those with a master’s degree in counseling or a related field and experience in business or industry may have the best job pros pects. Earnings According to a survey of colleges and uni versities, the median salary of student place ment directors was around $18,100 a year in 1978. Salaries generally were higher in public than in private institutions, and higher in major universities and 4-year institutions than in 2-year schools. Career planning and placement counselors frequently work more than a 40-hour week; irregular hours and overtime often are neces sary, particularly during the “recruiting sea son.” Most counselors are employed on a 12month basis. They are paid for holidays and vacations and usually receive the same bene fits as other professional personnel employed by colleges and universities. Related Occupations College career planning and placement counselors help students attain career goals. Others who help people attain goals and solve personal problems include school counselors, employment counselors, rehabili tation counselors, personnel and labor rela tions workers, social workers, psychologists, members of the clergy, teachers, and college student personnel workers. Sources of Additional Information A pamphlet on college career planning and placement is available from: The College Placement Council, Inc., P.O. Box 2263, Bethlehem, Pa. 18001. COUNSELING OCCUPATIONS/441 Clergy Deciding on a career in the clergy involves considerations different from those involved m other career choices. When persons choose to enter the ministry, priesthood, or rabbin ate, they do so primarily because they possess a strong religious faith and a desire to help others. Nevertheless, it is important to know as much as possible about the profession and how to prepare for it, the kind of life it offers, and its needs for personnel. The number of clergy needed depends largely on the number of people who partici pate in organized religious groups. This af fects the number of churches and synagogues established and pulpits to be filled. In addi tion to the clergy who serve congregations, many others teach or act as administrators in seminaries and in other educational institu tions; still others serve as chaplains in the Armed Forces, industry, correctional institu tions, hospitals, or on college campuses; or render service as missionaries or in social welfare agencies. Persons considering a career in the clergy should seek the counsel of a religious leader Minister conducting worship services. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 442/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis of their faith to aid in evaluating their qualifi cations. The most important of these are a deep religious belief and a desire to serve the spiritual needs of others. The priest, minister, or rabbi also is expected to be a model of moral and ethical conduct. A person consid ering one of these fields must realize that the civic, social, and recreational activities of a member of the clergy often are influenced and restricted by the customs and attitudes of the community. The clergy should be sensitive to the needs of others and able to help them deal with these needs. The job demands an ability to speak and write effectively, to organize, and to supervise others. The person entering this field also must enjoy studying because the ministry is an occupation which requires continuous learning. In addition, the minis try demands considerable initiative and selfdiscipline. More detailed information on the clergy in the three largest faiths in the United States— Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Jewish—is given in the following statements, prepared in cooperation with leaders of these faiths. Information on the clergy in other faiths may be obtained directly from leaders of the re spective groups. Protestant Ministers (D.O.T. 120.007-010) Nature of the Work Protestant ministers lead their congrega tions in worship services and administer the various rites in their churches, such as bap tism, confirmation, and Holy Communion. They prepare and deliver sermons and give religious instruction. They also perform mar riages; conduct funerals; counsel individuals who seek guidance; visit the sick, aged, and handicapped at home and in the hospital; comfort the bereaved; and serve church members in other ways. Many Protestant ministers write articles for publication, give speeches, and engage in interfaith, commu nity, civic, educational, and recreational ac tivities sponsored by or related to the inter ests of the church. Some ministers teach in seminaries, colleges, and universities. The services that ministers conduct differ among Protestant denominations and also among congregations within a denomination. In many denominations, ministers follow a traditional order of worship; in others, they adapt the services to the needs of youth and other groups within the congregation. Most services include Bible reading, hymn singing, prayers, and a sermon. In some denomina tions, Bible reading by a member of the con gregation and individual testimonials may constitute a large part of the service. Ministers serving small congregations gen erally work on a personal basis with their parishioners. Those serving large congrega tions have greater administrative respon sibilities and spend considerable time work ing with committees, church officers, and staff, besides performing their other duties. They may have one or more associates or assistants who share specific aspects of the ministry, such as a minister of education who assists in educational programs for different age groups, or a minister of music. Working Conditions Ministers are “on call” for any serious troubles or emergencies that involve or affect members of their churches. They also may work long and irregular hours in administra tive, educational, and community service ac tivities. Many of the ministers’ duties are sedentary in nature, such as reading or researching in a study or a library .while preparing sermons or writing articles. In denominations such as the Methodist Church, ministers are subject to reassign ment by a central body to a new pastorate every few years. Places of Employment In 1978, most of the 190,000 Protestant ministers served individual congregations. Some also worked in closely related fields such as chaplains in hospitals and the Armed Forces. The greatest number of clergy are affiliated with the five largest groups of churches—Baptist, United Methodist, Luth eran, Presbyterian, and Episcopal. All cities and most towns in the United States have at least one Protestant church with a full-time minister. Some churches em ploy part-time ministers; many part-time clergy are seminary students, ministers retired from full-time pastoral responsibili ties, or those who also have secular jobs. Al though most ministers are located in urban areas, many live in less densely populated areas where they may serve two or more con gregations. a faculty member or experienced minister. Some institutions offer doctor of ministry de grees to students who have completed 1 year or more of additional study after serving at least a year as minister. Scholarships and loans are available for students of theological institutions. In general, each large denomination has its own school or schools of theology that reflect its particular doctrine, interests, and needs. However, many of these schools are open to students from other denominations. Several interdenominational schools associated with universities give both undergraduate and graduate training covering a wide range of theological points of view. Persons who have denominational qualifi cations for the ministry usually are ordained after graduation from a seminary. In denomi nations that do not require seminary train ing, clergy are ordained at various appointed times. For example, the Evangelical minister may be ordained with only a high school edu cation. Men and women entering the clergy often begin their careers as pastors of small congre gations or as assistant pastors in large churches. Training and Other Qualifications Employment Outlook Educational requirements for entry into the Protestant ministry vary greatly. Some denominations have no formal educational requirements, and others ordain persons hav ing varying amounts and types of training in Bible colleges, Bible institutes, or liberal arts colleges. The anticipated slow growth in church membership combined with pressures of ris ing costs and inadequate financial support are expected to result in only limited growth in requirements for ministers. However, the number of persons being ordained has been increasing and is likely to continue to do so. As a result, new graduates of theological schools are expected to face increasing com petition in finding positions and more ex perienced ministers will face competition in their efforts to move to large congregations with greater responsibility and more remu neration. The supply-demand situation will vary among denominations, with more favor able prospects for ministers in Evangelical churches. Most of the openings for clergy that are expected through the 1980’s will therefore result from the need to replace those in existing positions who retire, die, or leave the ministry. In 1978, there were 146 American theolog ical institutes accredited by the Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada. These admit only students who have received a bachelor’s degree or its equiv alent with a liberal arts major from an ac credited college. Many denominations re quire a 3-year course of professional study in one of these accredited schools or seminaries after college graduation. The degree of mas ter of divinity is awarded upon completion. Recommended preseminary or under graduate college courses include English, his tory, philosophy, the natural sciences, socialsciences, the fine arts, music, religion, and foreign languages. These courses provide a knowledge of modem social, cultural, and scientific institutions and problems. How ever, students considering theological study should contact, at the earliest possible date, the schools to which they intend to apply, to learn how to prepare for the program they expect to enter. The standard curriculum for accredited theological schools consists of four major cat egories: Biblical, historical, theological, and practical. Courses of a practical nature such as psychology, religious education, and ad ministration are emphasized. Many accred ited schools require that students gain experi encefor in FRASER church work under the supervision of Digitized Newly ordained Protestant ministers who do not have a parish have these alternatives: Working in youth counseling, family rela tions, and welfare organizations; teaching in religious educational institutions; and serv ing as chaplains in the Armed Forces, hospi tals, universities, and correctional institu tions. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of Protestant clergy vary substan tially, depending on age, experience, denomi nation, size and wealth of congregation, and geographic location. The estimated median annual income of Protestant ministers, in cluding housing allowance, was about $13,000 in 1978. Sources of Additional Information Persons who are interested in entering the Protestant ministry should seek the counsel of a minister or church guidance worker. Each theological school can supply informa tion on admission requirements. Prospective ministers also should contact the ordination supervision body of their particular denomi nation for information on special require ments for ordination. Rabbis (D.O.T. 120.007-010) Nature of the Work Rabbis are the spiritual leaders of their congregations and teachers and interpreters of Jewish law and tradition. They conduct religious services and deliver sermons on the Sabbath and on Jewish holidays. Like other clergy, rabbis conduct weddings and funeral services, visit the sick, help the poor, comfort the bereaved, supervise reli gious education programs, engage in interfaith activities, and involve themselves in community affairs. Rabbis serving large congregations may spend considerable time in administrative duties, working with their staffs and commit tees. Large congregations frequently have an associate or assistant rabbi. Many assistant rabbis serve as educational directors. Nearly all rabbis serve Orthodox, Conserv ative, or Reform congregations. Regardless of their particular point of view, all Jewish congregations preserve the substance of Jew ish religious worship. Congregations differ in the extent to which they follow the tradi tional form of worship—for example, in the wearing of head coverings, the use of Hebrew as the language of prayer, or the use of music or a choir. The format of the worship service and, therefore, the ritual that the rabbis use may vary even among congregations belong ing to the same branch of Judaism. Rabbis also may write for religious and lay publications, and teach in theological semi naries, colleges, and universities. Working Conditions Rabbis work long hours and are “on call” to visit the sick, comfort the bereaved, and provide counseling to those who need it. Community and educational activities may also require long or irregular hours. Some of their duties are intellectual and sedentary, such as study of religious texts and researching and writing sermons and articles for publication. Rabbis have a good deal of independent authority, since there is no formal hierarchy among them. They are responsible only to the Board of Trustees of the congregations they serve. CLERGY/443 Newly ordained rabbis usually begin as lead ers of small congregations, assistants to ex perienced rabbis, directors of Hillel Founda tions on college campuses, teachers in seminaries and other educational institu tions, or chaplains in the Armed Forces. As a rule, the pulpits of large and well-estab lished Jewish congregations are filled by ex perienced rabbis. Employment Outlook The employment outlook for rabbis varies among the three major branches of Judaism. Reform rabbis may face competition for available positions. As a result, the Hebrew Union College—Jewish Institute of Religion, the only seminary that trains rabbis for the Reform branch of Judaism, has begun to limit enrollments by raising admission stan dards. Rabbi telling Bible stories to nursery school children in his congregation. Places of Employment may be ordained with approval of three authorized rabbis. About 4,000 persons were employed as rabbis in 1978; approximately 1,550 were Or thodox rabbis, 1,350 were Conservative, and 1,200 Reform. Some work as chaplains in the military services, in hospitals and other insti tutions, or in one of the many Jewish commu nity service agencies. Others are employed in colleges and universities as teachers in Jewish Studies programs. The Hebrew Union College—Jewish Insti tute of Religion is the official seminary that trains rabbis for the Reform branch of Juda ism. It is the only major branch that has approved the training and ordination of women as rabbis. In 1978, about 20 percent of the 200 Reform seminarians were women. Although rabbis serve Jewish communities throughout the Nation, they are concen trated in those States that have large Jewish populations, particularly New York, Califor nia, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Florida, Illi nois, Massachusetts, Maryland including the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area, and Ohio. Training and Other Qualifications To become eligible for ordination as a rabbi, a student must complete a course of study in a seminary. Entrance requirements and the curriculum depend upon the branch of Judaism with which the seminary is as sociated. About 30 seminaries train Orthodox rab bis. The Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary and the Hebrew Teachers Col lege of Skokie are the two seminaries in the United States that have formal 3-year ordination programs and require a bache lor’s degree for entry. Most Orthodox rab bis, however, are ordained informally in seminaries with programs of varying length, depending on the individual stu dent. There are no formal requirements for admission to these seminaries, nor are any degrees granted. When students have be come sufficiently learned in the Talmud, the Bible, and other religious studies, they http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 444/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HANDBOOK The Jewish Theological Seminary of America is the official seminary that trains rabbis for the Conservative branch of Juda ism. Both seminaries require the completion of a 4-year college course, as well as earlier preparation in Jewish studies, for admission to the rabbinic program leading to ordina tion. Normally 5 years of study are required to complete the rabbinic course at the Re form seminary, including 1 year of prepara tory study in Jerusalem. Exceptionally wellprepared students can shorten this 5-year period to a minimum of 3 years. A student having a strong background in Jewish studies can complete the course at the Conservative seminary in 4 years; for other enrollees, the course may take as long as 6 years. In general, the curriculums of Jewish theo logical seminaries provide students with a comprehensive knowledge of the Bible, Tal mud, Rabbinic literature, Jewish history, the ology, and courses in education, pastoral psy chology, and public speaking. Students of the Reform seminary get extensive practical training in dealing with the social and politi cal problems in the community. Training for alternatives to the pulpit, such as leadership in community services and religious educa tion, increasingly is stressed. Some seminaries grant advanced academic degrees in fields such as Biblical and Tal mudic research. All Jewish theological semi naries make scholarships and loans available. Orthodox clergy already encounter keen competition, attributable in large part to the informal ordination process. More Orthodox rabbis have been involved in teaching in reli gious schools at various levels than in pulpit work, and this is expected to continue. Many will also have to seek employment in secular fields. Rabbis in the Conservative branch of Ju daism, on the other hand, will have very good employment opportunities, if present trends continue. Earnings Incomes vary depending on the size and financial status of the congregation, as well as its denominational branch and geographic lo cation. Rabbis usually earn additional in come from gifts or fees for officiating at cere monies such as weddings. In 1978, the annual earnings of rabbis gen erally ranged from $15,000 to $35,000, in cluding housing allowance. Earnings of Or thodox rabbis tend to be at the lower end of the scale; earnings of Conservative and Re form rabbis tend to be at the upper end of the scale. Some senior rabbis in large congrega tions earn upward of $50,000 a year. Sources of Additional Information Persons who are interested in becoming rabbis should discuss their plans for a voca tion with a practicing rabbi. Information on the work of rabbis and allied occupations can be obtained from: The Jewish Theological Seminary of America, (Conservative), 3080 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10027. The Rabbi Issac Elchanan Theological Seminary, an affiliate of Yeshiva University, (Orthodox), 2540 Amsterdam Ave., New York, N.Y. 10033. Hebrew Union College—Jewish Institute of Reli gion, (Reform), whose three campuses are located at 1 W. 4th St., New York, N.Y. 10012; at 3101 Clifton Ave., Cincinnati, Ohio 45220; and at 3077 University Mall, Los Angeles, Calif. 90007; Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, 2308 N. Broad St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19132. Roman Catholic Priests________ (D.O.T. 120.007-010) Nature of the Work Roman Catholic priests attend to the spiritual, pastoral, moral, and educational needs of the members of their church. Their duties involve delivering sermons; adminis tering the sacraments of marriage and of pen ance, and presiding at liturgical functions, such as funeral services. They also comfort the sick, console and counsel those in need of guidance, and assist the poor. Their day usually begins with morning meditation and Mass, and may end with the hearing of confessions or an evening visit to a hospital or a home. Many priests direct and serve on church committees, work in civic and charitable organizations, and assist in community projects. There are two main classifications of priests—diocesan (secular) and religious. Both types have the same powers acquired through ordination by a bishop. The differ ences lie in their way of life, the type of work to which they are assigned, and the church authority to whom they are im mediately subject. Diocesan priests gener ally work as individuals in parishes as signed to them by the bishop of their diocese. Religious priests generally work as part of a religious order, such as the Je suits, Dominicans, or Franciscans. They may engage in specialized activities, such as teaching or missionary work, assigned to them by superiors of their order. Both religious and diocesan priests hold teaching and administrative posts in Catholic seminaries, colleges and universities, and high schools. Priests attached to religious or ders staff a large proportion of the church’s institutions of higher education and many high schools, whereas diocesan priests are usually concerned with the parochial schools attached to parish churches and with dioce san high schools. The members of religious orders do most of the missionary work con ducted by the Catholic Church in this coun try and abroad. Roman Catholic Priests attend to spiritual needs of members of their church. Working Conditions emergency situations. They also have many intellectual duties including study of the scriptures and keeping up with current reli gious and secular events in order to prepare sermons. Diocesan priests are responsible to the bishop in the diocese. Priests spend long and irregular hours working for the church and the community. Places of Employment Religious priests are assigned duties by their superiors in their particular orders. Some religious priests serve as missionaries in foreign countries where they may live under difficult and primitive conditions. Some reli gious priests live a communal life in monaste ries where they devote themselves to prayer, study, and assigned work. Diocesan priests ordinarily serve church members in parishes and they are “on call" at allforhours to serve their parishioners in Digitized FRASER There were approximately 58,000 priests in 1978. There are priests in nearly every city and town and in many rural communities. The majority are in metropolitan areas, where most Catholics reside. Catholics are concentrated in the Northeast and Great Lakes regions, with smaller concentrations in California, Texas, and Louisiana. Large numbers of priests are located in communi ties near Catholic educational and other in stitutions. Training and Other Qualifications Preparation for the priesthood generally requires 8 years of study beyond high school. There are over 450 seminaries where students receive training for the priesthood. Preparatory study may begin in the first year of high school, at the college level, or in theological seminaries after col lege graduation. High school seminaries provide a college preparatory program that emphasizes En glish grammar, speech, literature, and social studies. Some study of Latin is required and the study of modem language is encouraged. The seminary college offers a liberal arts pro gram, stressing philosophy and religion; the study of man through the behavioral sciences and history; and the natural sciences and mathematics. In many college seminaries, a CLERGY/445 student may concentrate in any of these fields. The remaining 4 years of preparation in clude sacred scripture; dogmatic, moral, and pastoral theology; homiletics (art of preach ing); church history; liturgy (Mass); and canon law. Fieldwork experience usually is also required; in recent years, this aspect of a priest’s training has been emphasized. Di ocesan and religious priests attend different major seminaries, where slight variations in the training reflect the differences in the type of work expected of them as priests. Priests commit themselves not to marry. Postgraduate work in theology is offered at a number of American Catholic universities or at ecclesiastical universities around the world, particularly in Rome. Also, many priests do graduate work in fields unrelated to theology. Priests are encouraged by the Catholic Church to continue their studies, at least informally, after ordination. In recent years, continuing education for ordained priests has stressed social sciences, such as sociology and psychology. Young men never are denied entry into seminaries because of lack of funds. In semi naries for secular priests, scholarships or loans are available. Those in religious semi naries are financed by contributions of bene factors. The first assignment of a newly ordained secular priest is usually that of assistant 446/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK pastor or curate. Newly ordained priests of religious orders are assigned to the special ized duties for which they are trained. De pending on the talents, interests, and expe rience of the individual, many oppor tunities for greater responsibility exist within the church. Earnings Employment Outlook Religious priests take a vow of poverty and are supported by their religious order. More priests will be needed in the years ahead to provide for the spiritual, educa tional, and social needs of the increasing number of Catholics. During the past decade, the number of ordained priests has been in sufficient to fill the needs of newly estab lished parishes and other Catholic institu tions, and to replace priests who retire or die. This situation is likely to persist and perhaps worsen, if the sharp drop in seminary enroll ment continues. In response to the shortage of priests, cer tain functions within the church, tradition ally performed by priests are now being per formed by lay deacons, and this trend is expected to increase in the future. Priests will continue to offer Mass, administer the sacra ments, and hear confession, but probably will be less involved in teaching, administrative, and community work. An increasing number of lay deacons are being ordained to preach and perform liturgical functions such as dis tributing holy communion and reading the gospel at the Mass. Diocesan priests’ salaries vary from dio cese to diocese and range from $2,000 to $6,000 a year. The diocesan priest also may re ceive a car allowance of $25 to $50 a month, free room and board in the parish rectory, and fringe benefits such as group insurance and retirement benefits in the diocese. Priests who do special work related to the church, such as teaching, usually receive a partial salary which is less than a lay person in the same position would receive. The dif ference between the usual salary for these jobs and the salary that the priest receives is called “contributed service.” In some of these situations, housing and related expenses may be provided; in other cases, the priest must make his own arrangements. Some priests do ing special work may receive the same compen sation that a lay person would receive. Sources of Additional Information Young men interested in entering the priesthood should seek the guidance and counsel of their parish priests. For informa tion regarding the different religious orders and the secular priesthood, as well as a list of the seminaries which prepare students for the priesthood, contact the diocesan Directors of Vocations through the office of the local pas tor or bishop. Other Social Service Occupations Cooperative Extension Service Workers________ (D.O.T. 096.121, .127, .161, and .167) Nature of the Work An important part of each extension worker’s job is to provide information that is important to people in the community. Many extension agents write articles dealing with their areas of specialization for local newspa pers. Often these are regular feature columns that appear once a week. Other agents appear on local radio and television shows to give marketing reports for agricultural products important to the area, or present Saturday morning programs for young people. A few extension service workers produce documen tary films on topics in which they have spe cial training for broadcast on local television stations. Also, extension workers at some land-grant universities produce and broad cast programs on university-owned UHF and cable television stations. Cooperative Extension Service workers, or extension agents as they are often called, con duct educational programs for rural residents in areas such as agriculture, home econom ics, youth activities, and community resource development. Extension agents generally spe cialize in one of these areas and have titles that match their specialties, such as extension agent for youth activities or extension agent for agriculture science and horticulture. They are employed jointly by State landgrant universities and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Extension agents usually work with groups of people. For example, the extension agent for youth activities leads meetings of local 4-H clubs, and during the summer, may plan and organize day camps to provide recrea tional activities for young people. Agents who work in home economics set up commu nity meetings and programs on subjects of interest to homemakers. For example, they may discuss the benefits of good nutrition and offer advice on how to plan meals and buy and prepare food. Agriculture science extension agents conduct meetings on topics of special interest to area farmers. In a county which has much dairy farming, extension agents arrange seminars on subjects such as dairy herd health or the raising of forage crops. During these seminars, agents teach farmers how to selectthe proper feeds to meet cows’ nutritional needs and raise their output of milk, and how to recognize and combat health hazards,including perhaps establish ing a herd-inspection program. They also, may help local farmers market their pro ducts. Extension agents for community resource development meet with community leaders to plan and provide for economic develop ment of the community. They also assist community leaders in developing recrea tional programs and facilities and in planning other public projects, such as water supply and sewage systems, libraries, and schools. Extension work is not a 9 to 5 job, how ever. Farmers, for example, often are not able to attend meetings during the busy daylight hours, so extension agents often must con duct informational meetings during the even ings. During these meetings, they may dis cuss new farming methods or how new laws will affect farmers. In addition to group work, agents also do fieldwork with individuals. If a farmer is hav ing a problem with crops, an extension agent will visit the farm, examine the problem, and suggest remedies. Likewise, home economics extension agents occasionally visit homemak ers to give personal help in solving problems. The job offers numerous opportunities for personal satisfaction. Helping a farmer be come more productive or helping a family develop better nutritional habits, can be re warding. Many extension agents also enjoy being asked their opinions on a variety of subjects. In addition to the extension service work ers at the county level, State extension spe cialists at land-grant universities coordinate the efforts of county agents. State extension agents keep abreast of the latest research in their fields of study and develop ways of using the research in extension work at the county level. Some State extension^ workers may be on a split assignment and teach at the university. Also, about 200 agricultural ex tension specialists are employed by the Ex tension Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture in Washington, D.C. Working Conditions Cooperative Extension Service workers generally have very favorable working en vironments. The job has variety. Agents do much of their paperwork and planning in offices, but they also spend considerable time in the field. Agricultural extension agents, for example, m ay not go into the office at all on some days. Instead, they may visit farmers and help them develop more productive farming methods. They also may go to local radio stations to tape their weekly radio shows, or they may go to the State university to attend seminars on recent developments. Most extension service offices are located in small towns. As a result, extension work may be an ideal career for persons who wish to live outside the city. Places of Employment More than four-fifths of the approximately 16,000 Cooperative Extension Service agents in 1978 were employed by counties through out the United States. Almost all of the more than 3,000 counties have county staffs. De pending on the population of the county, staffs range in size from one agent, who serves a wide variety of interests, to a dozen or more agents, each serving a highly special ized need. Most of the remaining extension agents are employed by State extension ser vices located on the campuses of land-grant universities. A few work for regional staffs serving multicounty areas, and a small num ber are employed by the Extension Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. In addi tion, a few work in urban areas, mostly or ganizing 4-H activities for youth. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Cooperative Extension Service agents are required to be proficient in disciplines related to the needs of their clientele. They must have a bachelor’s degree in their subject-mat ter field. In addition, training in educational techniques and in a communications field, such as journalism, is extremely helpful. Often, they receive specific instruction in extension work in a pre-induction training program, and can improve their skills through regular in-service training programs that cover both educational techniques and the subject matter for which they are respon sible. Besides being proficient in their subject matter, extension workers must like to work with people and to help them. In most States, specialists and agents as signed to multicounty and State staff jobs are required to have at least one advanced de gree, and, in many, they must have a Ph. D. Employment Outlook The employment of Cooperative Exten sion Service workers is expected to increase more slowly than the average for all occupa tions through the 1980’s. Nevertheless, as ag ricultural technology becomes more compli cated, more extension workers trained in education and communications will be needed to disseminate information concern ing advances in agricultural research and technology to the farm population. Also, modern farmers often are college educated and, thus, more likely to use innovative farm- OTHER SOCIAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS/447 for 1 or 2 weeks, whjle a person who has chronic medical problems may need help for 1 or 2 half-days a week for an indefinite pe riod of time. At times, homemaker-home health aides work with families when the mother is convalescing from an illness and there are small children who need care. Most clients, however, are elderly persons who ei ther live alone or with a spouse who also has medical problems. Usually the clients have no family or friends who can provide the care that is needed. The homemaker-home health aide can provide many services. Basic duties include cleaning a client’s room, kitchen, and bath room, doing the laundry, and changing bed linens. Aides also plan meals (including special diets), shop for food, and prepare meals. Among the personal care services that they perform are assisting with bathing or giving a bed bath, shampooing hair, and helping the client move from bed to a chair or another room. Homemaker-home health / aides also check pulse and respiration, help with simple prescribed exercises, and assist with medica tions. Occasionally, they change dressings, use special equipment such as a hydraulic lift, or assist with braces or artificial limbs. ing practices. This may increase the demand for extension agents since extension agents relay advances in farming practices from re searchers to farmers. of the Cooperative Extension Service located at each land-grant university, or the Exten sion Service, U.S. Department of Agricul ture, Hyattsville, Md. 20782. Earnings According to the limited data available, county extension agents had average annual earnings of just over $17,000 in 1978. Earn ings vary, however, by State, amount of edu cation, and experience. Earnings also vary somewhat by area of specialization. Agricul tural extension agents and community re source development specialists, for example, had the highest average annual earnings, al most $19,000, while home economics agents and 4-H club agents each had average annual earnings of under $16,000 in 1978. Related Occupations Extension workers spend most of their time working directly with others, passing on new ideas and helping farmers implement them. Other occupations that involve helping people to help themselves include counselors, dieticians, home economists, homemakers, teachers, social workers, and agricultural chemical salesworkers. Sources of Additional Information Additional information is available from County Extension offices, the State Director http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 448/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Homemaker-Home Health Aides_____ (D.O.T. 309.354-010 and 354.377-014) Nature of the Work Many people, especially the elderly, are confined to a hospital or nursing home for a period of convalescence following a serious illness or surgery. Often, these patients only need occasional nursing care, but they are institutionalized because they cannot care for themselves completely. The services of homemaker-home health aides often are all that is needed to allow patients to return to the fa miliar surroundings of their homes. Em ployed and supervised by social and health agencies, homemaker-home health aides pro vide homemaking services, personal care ser vices, instruction, and emotional support for their clients, and they keep records of their clients’ progress and activities. Their schedules vary according to their clients’ needs. For example, a person who is recupe rating from an operation may need daily help In addition to these practical duties, home maker-home health aides offer instruction and psychological support. They often teach clients how to adapt their lives to cope with a new disability or how to prevent further illness. For example, an aide may teach a low-income client how to plan nutritious, low-cost meals. Another client may need in struction on the proper diet for a diabetic. Still another client, newly confined to a wheelchair, may need help in learning how to perform daily tasks. An aide may help a cli ent establish a daily schedule that permits the accomplishment of necessary household du ties and provides the exercise necessary for rehabilitation. Providing emotional support and understanding when a client is depressed and lonely is another aspect of the work. This often is more important than the practical jobs since, at times, a sick person’s inability to gain strength and independence is more the result of a mental attitude than a physical problem. Lastly, the aide regularly reports changes in the client’s condition and helps a professional team decide when the services being given to the client should be changed. A homemaker home-health aide is as signed specific duties by a supervisor, usually a registered nurse or social worker who works as part of a professional team. The supervisor usually consults the client’s physi cian, especially if the client recently has been discharged from the hospital. Many public or nonprofit agencies require physician certifi cation of need for the service. The supervisor visits the client to decide what services are needed and to discuss the aide’s schedule of duties with the client. Often the homemakerhome health aide gives the supervisor a daily report, signed by the client, listing the exact services performed and the hours worked. The supervisor occasionally visits the client to determine if the service is satisfactory. If the supervisor determines that extensive services will be required over a long period of time, attempts are made to coordinate the assignment of the aide with other in-home services such as Meals-on-Wheels, friendly visitors, and telephone reassurance. If satis factory provision for the required care cannot be made, the supervisor will suggest an alter native arrangement such as transfer to a nursing home or a home for the aged. How ever, unless a client requires 24-hour care, it usually is possible to maintain care in the home through the services provided by homemaker-home health aides—coordinat ed, where needed, with other community services. Working Conditions Homemaker-home health aides work in patients’ homes, so the work surroundings change from case to case. In accomplishing the housekeeping chores that are part of their work, aides must be able to stoop, lift, and perform other activities associated with cleaning and cooking. They must also be able to cope with clients suffering from any num ber of physical or emotional problems. There are many reasons for homemakerhome health aides to enjoy their work. The occupation has status in comparison with many other jobs that do not require a high school education; aides are important mem bers of a health care team since their regular reporting of changes in a client’s condition is the basic information used to reassess the ser vices provided. Another attractive aspect of the occupation is the availability of part-time work. Often persons who have full-time, strictly scheduled jobs as nursing aides in hospitals or nursing homes leave these jobs to work as homemaker-home health aides be cause they need a part-time or flexible work schedule. A third attractive element of the work is the independence and self-direction homemaker-home health aides have in carry ing out day-to-day duties. This element in creases as aides gain experience and need less detailed supervision. home health aide services while others pro vide several health or welfare services. In the latter case, the aide is part of a team of profes sional and paraprofessional workers. For ex ample, in a home health agency, a homemak er-home health aide may be part of a team of nurses, therapists, and other aides who have the same supervisor and who serve all clients in a particular area. The personal satisfaction that comes from helping people is just as important as status, independence, and a flexible schedule. Homemaker-home health aides provide es sential services for persons who cannot live alone without help. The work they do keeps households functioning as normally as possi ble, and enables sick persons to remain at home instead of moving to a nursing home. Often homemaker-home health aides see de pressed elderly people “come to life” because someone cared enough to brighten their homes and their lives. Persons who do not mind hard work and want to help people with basic human needs may find homemak er-home health aide a very satisfying occupa tion. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Places of employment Approximately 110,000 persons were em ployed as homemaker-home health aides in 1978. Although they work in clients’ homes, aides are employed and supervised by social and health agencies. These agencies include public health and welfare departments, pri vate health care agencies, and nonprofit com munity health or welfare organizations such as visiting nurse associations. A few hospitals and nursing homes have extended their ser vices into the community and employ home maker-home health aides. Some agencies provide only homemaker- Generally, the only educational require ment for employment as a homemaker-home health aide is the ability to read and write; completion of high school usually is not nec essary. However, courses in home economics such as meal planning and family living are helpful, especially for younger persons with less personal experience in homemaking. A few agencies require previous training as a nursing aide; some of these agencies also re quire a year’s experience working as a nurs ing aide in a hospital or nursing home. Shortly after they are hired, homemakerhome health aides undergo orientation and training. The length and quality of this train ing vary greatly. Agencies that require expe rience as a nursing aide generally provide only a few hours of orientation. Most agen cies, however, provide a 1- or 2-week training program. Topics covered include basic nutri tion and meal planning and preparation; per sonal care of the sick, such as bathing, turn ing, and lifting bed patients; emotional problems accompanying illness; and the aging process and behavior of the elderly. In addition to continuing training given on the job by supervisors for specific case assign ments, many agencies offer seminars from time to time on topics such as diets for diabet ics, exercises for clients with a heart condi tion, or coping with depression. Successful homemaker-home health aides are mature persons who like to help people and don’t mind hard work. They have a sense of responsibility, compassion, emotional sta bility, and a cheerful disposition. They are able to overcome an atmosphere of depres sion and bring brightness into the day of a sick, elderly person. Aides also must be tact ful and able to get along with all kinds of people. In addition to these personal qualities, homemaker-home health aides must have good health since some of their duties, such as lifting, moving, and supporting patients, require above-average physical strength. A physical examination usually is required of applicants. In addition to help with homemaking chores, personal care, and medications, offer psychological support. homemaker home-health aides Homemaker-home health aides usually are middle-aged women. However, younger women, elderly women, and men of all ages also are employed as aides. Although only a small number of men currently are employed in the occupation, additional men are needed, especially to care for those elderly men who prefer a male aide. The minimum age for a homemaker-home health aide is usually 17; OTHER SOCIAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS/449 however, most agencies prefer people in their 20’s at least. Many agencies employ persons who are elderly themselves. Most of these older aides desire part-time employment to supplement their Social Security income. Some agencies employ nursing students who want income from part-time work. College students in appropriate major fields such as home economics or social work occasionally can find summer work as aides, replacing regular employees who are on vacation. As aides take on a variety of cases, they develop expertise in caring for persons with many types of illness. Some aides discover a special talent for caring for a specific type of client, such as a person who needs help with prescribed exercises, or a client with failing eyesight. In some larger agencies, ex perienced homemaker-home health aides can specialize in caring for clients with a specific type of problem. After gaining experience in different types of cases, aides can assume more responsibility and become more self directing, within the scope of their assigned duties. In some agencies, experienced aides can be promoted to special assistant to the supervisor, relieving the supervisor of some of the more routine aspects of supervision and management. Employment Outlook Employment of homemaker-home health aides is expected to grow much faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Over the next 10 years, employment will grow because of heightened awareness on the part of the public and the medical profession of the availability of home care services. Since home care is a relatively new approach to long-term care, many elderly persons and their doctors are not yet aware that it is possible to receive personal care without moving into a nursing home or a home for the aged. However, there is increas ing interest in alternatives to institutional care. Another important factor in determining how the occupation will grow is how much money is available to pay for the service. Fed eral legislation authorizing greater use of public funds for homemaker-home health services could be enacted in the future. Such legislation might take the form of changes in the Social Security Act to expand Medicare coverage for home health care; adoption of a national health insurance program providing for long-term care; or other measures. Public funds for home care already are available under Title XX of the Social Security Act. Since 1975, when this title took effect, nearly all States have given high priority to homemaker-home health services in allocating so cial service funds. The trend toward public financing of home care services is expected to continue. Such trends indicate that the number of jobs for homemaker-home health aides is likely to grow very rapidly through the 1980’s. A large number of jobs also will be come available because of the need to replace 450/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK persons who leave the occupation to take other jobs, devote more time to family re sponsibilities, or retire. Some job openings will arise from the need to replace aides who die. Although there is an abundant supply of persons for work of this type, with its mini mal education and experience requirements, the personal qualifications required for the job greatly limit the number of applicants who are hired. Persons who are interested in this work and well suited for it should have no trouble finding and keeping jobs. Earnings Earnings for homemaker-home health aides vary considerably. In 1978, beginning wages ranged from $2.65 to $4.15 an hour or about $0.10 to $1.50 an hour higher than the minimum wage. Agencies in large cities that have a high cost of living generally pay higher wages. Agencies that have union con tracts usually pay higher wages and offer more benefits. While some agencies pay the same rate to all aides, most agencies give pay increases as aides gain experience and are given more responsibility. A few agencies have career ladders, with the increasing re sponsibilities and wages of each step stated in detail. Benefits vary even more than wages. Some agencies offer no benefits at all, while others offer a full package of holidays, vacation, sick leave, health and life insurance, and retire ment plans. While some agencies hire only “on call” hourly workers, with no benefits, many agencies also employ aides on a full time or part-time basis with many benefits and a minimum number of hours guaranteed. A typical full-time aide is guaranteed 36 hours of work a week; has 1 to 3 weeks of paid vacation each year, based on number of years of employment; earns 1 day of sick leave a month; is paid for major holidays; and can participate in health insurance and pen sion plans. A typical part-time employee works a regular schedule and is guaranteed 20 hours of work a week, receives the same hourly wage as full-time employees, and has similar benefits, allocated according to the number of hours worked. A few agencies also allocate vacation and sick leave to those em ployees who do not have a guaranteed mini mum number of hours or a regular schedule. Related Occupations Homemaker-home health aide is a service occupation that combines duties of health workers and social service workers. Related occupations that involve personal contact to help or instruct others include: Attendants in children’s institutions; child care attendants in schools; child monitors; companions; home attendants; nurses aides; nursery school attendants; occupational therapy aides; orderlies; physical therapy aides; play room attendants; and psychiatric aides. Sources of Additional Information For information, contact: National Council for Homemaker-Home Health Aide Services, 67 Irving Place, 6th Floor, New York, N.Y. 10003. Social Service Aides (D.O.T. 195.367-010 and 205.367-046) Nature of the Work Social service or human service aides en able social service agencies to help greater numbers of people by supplementing the work of professional social workers and rehabilitation counselors. Social service aides, working under the close guidance and supervision of profes sional staff, serve as a link between these pro fessional social workers or rehabilitation counselors and people who seek help. Aides explain the services and facilities of the agency, help new applicants fill out any re quired forms, and perform much of the rou tine paperwork required in welfare programs. They may update clients’ records, maintain a filing system of reports or a control system for periodic case reviews, and fill out school enrollment, employment, medical, and com pensation forms. While such duties are an essential part of the job, the most important aspect of the work is being available when needed to offer encouragement and assistance to people in the community who need help. Social service aides work in many different settings, perform a wide range of duties, and have a number of different job titles. Income maintenance workers interview applicants to determine whether they or their families are eligible for help. The aide’s responsibilites may include visiting the applicant’s home, interviewing friends and relatives, and check ing documents such as marriage licenses or birth certificates to determine whether the applicant meets the requirements for finan cial assistance or other services. Casework aides or casework assistants work directly with clients. They may help clients obtain adequate housing, food stamps, medical care, unemployment or social secu rity benefits, or job training. Those in rehabilitation agencies also may assist clients in obtaining artificial limbs, for example. Some aides may counsel parents whose chil dren are in trouble with the police. Casework aides serve as advocates for clients by accom panying them to clinics for necessary medical care, by making appointments for them at legal aid offices, or by helping them through the red tape that surrounds many welfare programs and employment security agencies. Many social service aides spend most of their workday in the office interviewing cli ents and helping them fill out forms, tele phoning other agencies for information and appointments, and keeping records up to date. Some aides, however, spend most of their time out of the office assisting clients in their neighborhoods or homes. Neighborhood may immediately assume more professional responsibilities, sometimes including duties normally given social workers. Most social service aide jobs do not require graduation from high school. Many persons enter this field without significant prior work experience. In fact, personal qualities matter most. These include a genuine desire to help people and the ability to communicate with community agencies and clients. Typing skills are useful and, in some communities, knowledge of an appropriate foreign lan guage also may be helpful. To be hired as a social service aide an indi vidual’s need for work, potential for upgrad ing his or her skills, and ability to make a useful contribution to the agency often are chief considerations. As a result, agencies often hire former welfare recipients as social service aides. Some aides are hired as part of government programs to provide subsidized job opportunities for low-income people. For employment in some agencies, an examina tion or registration on a civil service list may be required. Social service aides are a link between professional social workers and people who seek help. or outreach workers contact the residents of an area to explain and discuss agency ser vices. They learn the needs of individuals and families and refer routine cases to a counselor or to the appropriate agency. They report more difficult problems to their supervisor. Neighborhood workers may inform residents about job openings, available housing, job training opportunities, and public services. On a broader scale, they assist in the organi zation of block and other neighborhood groups to conduct programs that benefit the neighborhood, foster a sense of community responsibility among residents, and encour age participation in the antipoverty programs of social service agencies. They also may as sist in routine neighborhood surveys and counts, keep records, and prepare reports of their activities for their supervisor. Employment aides also work with clients in their neighborhoods. These aides actively seek out the disadvantaged and help prepare them for employment by giving them assist ance in getting special training and counsel ing. While working in neighborhood centers or mobile units, they locate candidates foravailable jobs and training programs by con tacting unemployed residents in poolrooms, laundromats, on street comers, or through employment or welfare agency referrals. They give the unemployed information about the local State employment service of fice,available job and training opportunities, and help them fill out application forms. After clients are employed, aides maintain contact to help workers adjust to the new work environment and to iron out minor dif ficulties. Homemaker-home health aides work in households where illness, old age, or an emergency makes it difficult for the client to manage everyday tasks. Aides help with such household activities as grocery shopping, cooking, cleaning, mending, child care, and personal care if the client is sick or bedrid den. The occupation of homemaker-home health aide is described more fully in a sepa rate statement elsewhere in the Handbook. Working Conditions Social welfare aides often must work even ings or weekends when clients can be reached and are usually granted compensatory time off in exchange. Although dealing with people who have severe personal and financial problems can be upsetting, social service aides often gain personal satisfaction from assisting those in need of help. Places of Employment About 134,000 persons worked as social service aides in 1978, mostly in the inner cit ies of large metropolitan areas. The overwhelming majority of social ser vice aides work for welfare agencies run by local governments or by voluntary or reli gious organizations. These include public welfare departments, community and neigh borhood centers, family service agencies, halfway houses, and rehabilitation agencies. Most of the remaining aides work in hospi tals, clinics, community health programs, or in schools and public housing projects. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Social service aides have a wide range of educational backgrounds, and the level of re sponsibility given to them often depends on their formal educational attainment. For ex ample, persons with a grade school education may enter the field in clerical positions. On the other hand, those with a college degree Most employers provide opportunities for advancement through a combination of onthe-job training, work experience, and educa tion. For example, an entry level position as an employment aide can lead to a job as an employment interviewer, and, after special training, to employment counselor. Aides usually are trained on the job by social work ers, rehabilitation counselors, nurses and other professionals. They learn about the de tails of many social programs including so cial security, food stamps, and Medicare. Those without a high school diploma often receive classroom instruction to help them pass a high school equivalency examination. Employing agencies frequently pay part of the cost of further education. About 140 community and junior colleges offer 2-year programs for social service aides under such diverse titles as “human service aide,” “mental health aide,” or “social ser vice aide.” Typically, these programs include courses in sociology and psychology; devel oping skills such as interviewing, observing and recording behavior; learning techniques of individual counseling, group dynamics, ac tivity therapy, and behavior modification; and field experience at local helping agencies. Some college graduates with a degree in a field other than social service work as social service aides. * Employment Outlook Employment of social service aides is ex pected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Many opportunities are expected for part-time work. A large number of openings will arise from the need to replace aides who die, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Employment in this field will stem from population growth, coupled with this coun try’s continuing commitment to aid those who are disadvantaged, disabled, or unable OTHER SOCIAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS/451 to care for themselves. The need to provide many kinds of social services for our growing elderly population is likely to spur an expan sion of social welfare programs and create many new jobs for social service aides. Shifts in job duties within welfare agencies also may contribute to the anticipated increase in em ployment in this occupation. As social wel fare services and programs expand, social service aides increasingly will be used for much of the routine work now done by pro fessional personnel. Earnings Full-time social service aides with no prior experience or formal education in the field earned starting salaries in State government that averaged about $7,300 a year in 1978, according to a survey by the U.S. Office of Personnel Management. Those with experi ence or additional education usually earned more. Beginning social service aides in the Federal Government started at $9,391 in 1979; experienced aides started at $13,014. Many aides in both public and private agen cies work part time. Average earnings for social service aides are about the same as those for nonsupervisory workers in private industry, except farming. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations that require skills similar to those of social service aides include case aides, home attendants, lay clergy, occupational therapy assistants and aides, physical therapy assistants and aides, and psychiatric aides. Sources of Additional Information Information on requirements for social service aide jobs is available from city, county, or State departments of welfare or social services, community or neighborhood development agencies, and local offices of the State employment service. Social Workers (D.O.T. 195.107, .117, .137, .164, and .167-010) Nature of the Work The ability of people to live effectively in society often is hampered by lack of resources and problems that range from personal to those arising from social unrest. The growing complexity of society has greatly increased the need for social workers to help individu als, families, groups and communities to solve their problems. The nature of the problem and the time and resources available determine which of three traditional approaches— casework, group work, and community organization— social workers will use or combine to deal with these problems. However, recent curriculums and training have developed new approaches to social work. For example, so http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 452/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HANDBOOK cial workers may now specialize in social in stitutions, a field which encompasses health and education, or in social problems such as poverty. In casework, social workers interview in dividuals and families to understand their problems and secure the appropriate re sources, services, education, or job training. In group work, social workers help people understand themselves and others to achieve a common goal. They plan and conduct ac tivities for children, teenagers, adults, older persons, and other groups in community cen ters, hospitals, nursing homfes, and correc tional institutions. In community organiza tion, social workers coordinate the efforts of political, civic, religious, business, and union organizations to combat social problems through community programs. For a neigh borhood or larger area, they may help plan and develop health, housing, welfare, and recreation services. Social workers often co ordinate existing services, organize fundrais ing for community social welfare activities, and aid in developing new community ser vices. Most social workers deal directly with in dividuals, families, or groups. However, a substantial number are directors, administra tors, or supervisors. Like other administra tors, directors of social service agencies hire and train personnel, make budgetary deci sions, develop and evaluate agency problems, solicit new funds, supervise staff, and serve as spokespersons for the agencies’ clients. Some social workers are college teachers, research workers, or consultants. Others work for community agencies and planning bodies of government, voluntary agencies, and other private organizations. Social workers apply their training and ex perience in a variety of settings. Although many work for agencies or institutions, grow ing numbers are in private practice and pro vide counseling for a fee. Social workers for family and child ser vices in public and in voluntary agencies such as those run by religious charities, counsel individuals, work to strengthen personal and family relationships, and help clients to cope with problems. They provide information and referral services in many areas—family budgeting and money management, locating housing, homemaker assistance for the el derly, job training, and day care for parents trying to support a family. Social workers in child welfare work to improve the physical and emotional well being of deprived and troubled children and youth. They may advise parents on child care and child rearing, counsel children and youth with social adjustment difficulties, and ar range homemaker services during a parent’s illness. Social workers may institute legal ac tion to protect neglected or mistreated chil dren, help unmarried parents, and counsel couples about adoption. After proper evalua tion and home visits, they may place and oversee children in foster homes or institu tions. When children have unsatisfactory school progress related to social problems, these workers consult with parents, teachers, counselors, and other school and community personnel to identify and solve the underly ing problems. Medical and psychiatric hospitals, clinics, mental health agencies, rehabilitation cen ters, and public welfare agencies employ so cial workers to help patients and their fami lies with social problems that may accompany illness, recovery, and rehabilita tion. Renal social workers (who deal with patients and families of patients and the fami lies of patients suffering from kidney disease) and social workers specializing in drug addic tion help patients readadjust to their homes, jobs, and communities. (The related occupa tion of rehabilitation counselor is discussed in a separate statement.) A growing number of social workers spe cialize in the field of aging. They plan and evaluate services for the elderly, and help them deal with finanical and other changes brought about by retirement. In nursing homes, they help patients and their families adjust to illness and the need for institution alization and health care service. Social workers in correctional institutions and correctional programs help offenders and persons on probation readjust to society. They counsel on social problems in returning to family and community life, and also may help secure necessary education, training, employment, or community services. Working Conditions Most social workers have a 5-day, 35- to 40-hour week. However, many, particularly in private agencies, work part time. Many work evenings and weekends to meet with clients, attend community meetings, and handle emergency situations. Compensatory time generally is granted for overtime. Be cause social workers spend a lot of time away from their office, the ability to drive a car often is necessary. Places of Employment About 385,000 social workers were em ployed in 1978. Among these, two-thirds pro vide direct social services for public and vol untary agencies, including State departments of public assistance and community welfare and religious organizations. Most of the re mainder are involved in social policy and planning, community organization, and ad ministration in government agencies, primar ily on the state and local level; still others work for schools, hospitals, clinics, and other health facilities. A small but growing number of social workers are employed in business and industry. Although employment is concentrated in urban areas, many work with rural families. A small number of social workers—em ployed by the Federal Government and the United Nations or one of its affiliated agen cies—serve in other parts of the world as consultants, teachers, or technicians and es- Many administrators have a background in social work, business or public administra tion, education, or health administration. For teaching positions, an MSW is required and a doctorate usually is preferred. With the exception of some high-level positions, most applicants for government employment must pass a written exam. In 1978, 22 States had licensing or registra tion laws regarding social work practice and the use of professional titles. Usually work experience, an examination, or both, are nec essary for licensing or registration, with peri odic renewal required. The National Associ ation of Social Workers allows the use of the title ACSW (Academy of Certified Social Workers) for members having a master’s de gree and at least 2 years of job experience who have passed the ACSW examination. In view of the emerging trend towards special ization at advanced levels of social work practice, efforts are being made to devise spe cialized examinations in addition to the gen eral ACSW examination currently given. Social workers should be emotionally ma ture, objective, and sensitive, and should pos sess a basic concern for people and their problems. They must be able to handle re sponsibility, work independently, and main tain good working relationships with clients and coworkers. Social workers interview people to learn about their problems. tablish agencies, schools, or assistance pro grams. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement * Only in recent years has the bachelor’s de gree in social work (BSW), rather than the master’s degree (MSW), been fully accepted as the minimum education of the professional social worker. The BSW programs generally provide content in the areas of social work practice, social welfare policies and service, human behavior and the social environment, social research, and supervised field experi ence. Generally, BSW programs prepare peo ple for direct service positions such as case worker or group worker. Quite a few workers in this field have degrees in the liberal arts or humanities, sociology and psychology being the most prevalent majors. However, oppor tunities for advancement to high-level super visory and administrative positions tend to be limited for those without graduate training in social work, and are particularly limited for persons with no formal training in this field. For many positions, an MSW is preferred or required. Two years of specialized study and supervised field instruction generally are required to earn an MSW. Field placement affords one the opportunity to test his or her suitability for social work practice. At the same for time the student may develop expertise Digitized FRASER in a specialized area and make personal con tacts that later are helpful in securing a per manent job. Previous training in social work is not required for entry into a graduate pro gram, but related courses such as psychol ogy, sociology, economics, political science, history, social anthropology, and urban stud ies, as well as social work, are recommended. Some graduate schools offer accelerated MSW programs for a limited number of highly qualified BSW recipients.However, applicants to graduate programs in social work may face keen competition. In 1978, about 250 colleges and universi ties offered accredited undergraduate pro grams and over 80 offered accredited gradu ate programs in social work. More than 20 have included courses in gerontology (study of aging). Graduate students may specialize in clinical social work, community organiza tion, administration, teaching, research, so cial policy planning, and a variety of other areas. A limited number of scholarships and fel lowships are available for graduate educa tion. A few social welfare agencies grant workers “educational leave” to obtain gradu ate education. A graduate degree and experience gener ally are required for supervisory, administra tive, or research work; the last also requires training in social science research methods. During high school and college, students should do volunteer, part-time, or summer work to determine whether they have the in terest and capacity for professional social work. Some voluntary and public social wel fare agencies occasionally hire students as as sistants to social workers. Employment Outlook Employment of social workers is expected to increase about as a fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s as a result of the expansion of social services. These ser vices will include, in public education, pro grams for teenage mothers and delinquents; health services in hospitals, nursing homes, community mental health centers, and home health agencies; services for the aging; and counseling in the areas of consumerism, rape, and drug and alcohol abuse. Relatively high levels of unemployment coupled with prob lems caused by social change are expected to sustain a strong demand for persons in the social service field. The increasing need for social workers to assist other professionals in health planning, transportation, law, and public administration also should stimulate employment growth. In addition to jobs re sulting from employment growth, thousands of openings will result annually from deaths and retirements. If the number of students graduating from social work programs continues to increase at the same rate as in the 1970’s, persons having a bachelor’s degree in social work will face increasing job competition. Graduates of master’s and doctor’s degree programs in so cial work are qualified for a wider range of OTHER SOCIAL SERVICE OCCUPATIONS/453 jobs including administrative, research, plan ning, and teaching positions, and are ex pected to have good opportunities through the 1980’s. Because many cities are experiencing bud get cuts in human services programs, appli cants in these departments may face keen competition. Inasmuch as graduates often prefer to work in major metropolitan areas, job opportunities may be more favorable in rural areas and small towns. Earnings Salaries for social workers at all levels vary greatly by type of agency (private or public, Federal, State, or local) and geographic re gion, but generally are highest in large cities and in States with sizable urban populations. Private practitioners, administrators, teach ers, and researchers often earn considerably more than social workers in other settings. Average earnings are higher for social work ers than for non supervisory workers in pri vate industry, except farming. http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 454/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HANDBOOK Starting salaries for social case workers (positions requiring a BSW) in State and local governments averaged about $10,300 in 1978, according to a survey conducted by the U.S. Office of Personnel Management; for social service supervisors, the average start ing salary was $13,700. The average annual starting salary for so cial workers (positions requiring an MSW and 1 year of related experience) in hospitals and medical centers was about $13,300 in 1978, according to a survey conducted by the University of Texas Medical School. Top sal aries for experienced social workers in these settings averaged $17,000. In the Federal Government, social work ers with an MSW and no other experience started at $15,920 in 1979. Graduates with a Ph. D. or job experience may start at a higher salary. Most social workers in the Federal Government are employed by the Veterans’ Administration and the Departments of Health and Human Services, Justice, and In terior. Most social work agencies provide benefits such as paid vacation, sick leave, and retire ment plans. Related Occupations Through direct counseling or referral to other services, social workers help people solve a range of personal problems. Workers in occupations with similar duties include: Case aides, clergy members, counselors, pa role officess, probation officers, counseling psychologists, and vocational rehabilitation counselors. Sources of Additional Information For information about career opportuni ties in the various fields of social work, con tact: National Association of Social Workers, 1425 H St. NW., Suite 600, Southern Building, Washing ton, D.C. 20005. Information on accredited graduate and undergraduate college programs in social work is available from: Council on Social Work Education, 345 East 46th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. PERFORMING ARTS, DESIGN, AND COMMUNICATIONS OCCUPATIONS Creativity, imagination, and talent are prerequisites for a career in the performing arts, design, or communications. People in these fields are involved in expressing ideas and emotions and often do so in a highly personal manner. Indeed, for people with the ability and the drive, careers in this cluster offer unparalleled opportunities for selfexpression. design objects that serve a practical purpose as well as make our surroundings more pleas ant to look at. The design field includes peo ple as diverse as painters, sculptors, graphic artists, commercial artists, photographers, floral designers, architects, interior design ers, exhibit designers, lighting designers, set designers, clothing designers, and furniture designers. Performing artists express themselves through music, drama, or dance. They may use their talent to say something serious or profound about the human condition—or they may simply provide entertainment. Be cause communicating with an audience is such an integral part of the performer’s art, stage presence and rapport with an audience are qualities an artist must develop and re fine. Actors and actresses, singers, dancers, comedians, magicians, mimes, trapeze art ists, gymnasts, and figure skaters are just a few of the many different occupations in the performing arts. People in communications occupations deal with mental images created by words. For these workers, language is a “tool of the trade.” They use the written or spoken word to inform, persuade, or entertain others and they need to be able to express themselves clearly, accurately, and in an interesting manner. Poets, novelists, playwrights, essay ists, and short story writers are among the creative writers who use language primarily to express ideas and emotions. The writers who use language to inform or persuade in clude journalists, technical writers, educa tion writers, medical writers, business writ ers, speechwriters, joke writers, script writers, and copywriters. Some people in communications occupations do relatively little writing. Among them are editors, who revise and coordinate the work of others; proofreaders, who read and correct copy; and literary agents, who appraise and try to get manuscripts published. Radio and television People in design occupations use visual means such as light, space, color, and texture to convey feelings or create a particular ef fect. They need esthetic sensitivity, color sense, and talent. A fine artist might create a painting primarily to express an emotion or feeling. Applied artists, however, create or announcers and interpreters rely on the spoken word to do their jobs. In many occupations in this cluster, what counts most in getting a job or establishing a reputation is ability or talent, not educational preparation. Practical experience—in local theatrical productions or on a community newspaper, for example—can help a great deal in getting started. Perseverance and selfdiscipline often are essential, too. Even very talented people must be willing to spend years of their lives mastering a skill and then wait for a “break”—an opportunity to per form, to exhibit their work, or to have a man uscript published. The performing arts in particular are highly competitive, and peren nially attract many more jobseekers than there are paying jobs. People who aspire to a performing arts, design, or communications career need to be realistic about their talent. Depending on their career goal, they may need to be flexible enough to cope with job insecurity and will ing to live on an irregular income. The following section of the Handbook provides information on job prospects, earn ings, personal qualifications, and the kinds of training required for a variety of performing arts, design, and communications occupa tions. /455 Performing Artists The excitement of opening night, the thrill of an audience’s applause, the joy of public recognition and admiration—these are some of the attractions that induce people to enter the performing arts. In addition, the opportu nity for creative self-expression and the de velopment of one’s artistic talents are other reasons why many people become perform ing artists. The performing arts include the areas of instrumental music, singing, acting, and the dance. Varied as they are, the performing arts have in common the goal of com municating with and affecting the emotions of the audience. Through the media of music, speech, and movement, performing artists at tempt to present a moving interpretation of human experience. Within the performing arts, the number of talented persons seeking employment gener ally exceeds the number of full-time positions available. As a result, many performers sup plement their incomes by teaching, and oth ers work much of the time in different types of occupations. The difficulty of earning a living as a per former is one fact young persons should re member when they consider such a career. They should consider, therefore, the possible advantages of making their art a hobby rather than a profession. Aspiring young art ists usually must spend many years in inten sive training and practice before they are ready for public performances. They not only need great natural talent but also determina tion, a willingness to work long and hard, an http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 456/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis overwhelming interest in their chosen field, and some luck. The statements that follow give detailed information on musicians, singers, actors, and dancers. Actors and Actresses (D.O.T. 150.047) Nature of the Work Making a character come to life before an audience is a job that has great glamour and fascination. It is demanding and often uncer tain work, however, which requires persist ence, practice, and hard work as well as spe cial acting talent. Only a few actors and actresses achieve recognition as stars on the stage, in motion pictures, or on television or radio. A some what larger number are well-known, ex perienced performers, who frequently are cast in supporting roles. However, most ac tors and actresses struggle for a toehold in the profession and are glad to pick up parts wherever they can. New stage actors generally start in “bit” parts where they speak only a few lines. If successful, they may progress to larger, sup porting roles. They also may serve as under studies for the principals. Film and television actors, in contrast, may begin in large roles or move into programs from working in com mercials. In addition to the actors and actresses with speaking parts, “extras,” who have no lines to deliver, are used in various ways in almost all motion pictures and many television shows and theatre productions. In “spectacu lar” productions, a large number of extras take part in crowd scenes. Some actors find alternative jobs as coaches of drama or directors of stage, televi sion, radio, or motion picture productions. A few teach in drama departments of colleges and universities, where they usually special ize in a particular aspect of drama, such as stage movement, stage speech and voice, or acting. Some professional actors employed by theater companies also teach acting in courses offered to the public. Working Conditions Acting demands patience and total com mitment, since aspiring actors and ac tresses must wait for parts or filming schedules, work long hours, and often do much traveling. Evening work is a regular part of a stage actor’s life. Rehearsals may be held late at night and on weekends and holidays. When plays are on the road, weekend traveling often is necessary. Flaw less performances require the tedious memorizing of lines, which sometimes in volves long rehearsal schedules. Other per formances, such as television programs, often allow little time for rehearsal, so that the actor must deliver a good performance with very little preparation. The actor needs stamina to withstand the heat of stage or studio lights, or the adverse weather conditions that may exist “on lo cation.” Places of Employment About 13,400 actors and actresses worked in stage plays, motion pictures, industrial shows, and commercials in 1978. Many thou sands more were available for work in these areas. In the winter, most employment op portunities on the stage are in New York and other large cities. In the summer, stock com panies in suburban and resort areas provide employment. In addition, many cities have “little theaters,” repertory companies, and dinner theaters, which provide opportunities for local talent as well as for professional actors and actresses. Normally, casts are se lected in New York City for shows that go “on the road.” Employment in motion pictures and film television is centered in Hollywood and New York City, although a few studios are located in Miami and other parts of the country. In addition, many films are shot on location and HANDBOOK production may use a very large number of actors during filming, films are widely dis tributed and may be used for years. Also, some American-produced films are shot in foreign countries, resulting in reduced em ployment opportunities for American actors and actresses. Television employs a large number of actors and actresses. However, employment in this medium has been re duced by the Federal Communications Com mission ruling that decreased major TV net work prime time programming. Local stations often use reruns or low-cost game shows that employ few actors. Also, the trend toward 1- to 2-hour programs and more reruns shortens the period of employ ment and reduces the number of persons needed. Acting requires talent, versatility, and stage presence as well as hard work and practice. employ local professionals and nonprofes sionals as “day players” and “extras.” A number of American-produced films are shot in foreign countries. In television, most op portunities for actors are at the headquarters of the major networks—in New York, Los Angeles, and, to a lesser extent, Chicago. A few local television stations occasionally em ploy actors. Training and Other Qualifications Young persons who aspire to acting ca reers should take part in high school and college plays, or work with little theaters and other acting groups for experience. Formal training in acting, which is increas ingly necessary, can be obtained at schools of dramatic arts, located chiefly in New York, and in hundreds of colleges and universities throughout the country. About 740 colleges and universities confer bachelor’s or higher degrees on students who major in dramatic and theater arts. College drama curriculums usually include courses in liberal arts, stage speech and movement, directing, playwrit ing, play production, and history of the drama, as well as practical courses in acting. From these, the student develops an appreci ation of the great plays and a greater under standing of the roles he or she may be called on to play. Graduate degrees in fine arts or drama are needed for college teaching posi tions. In all media, the best way to start is to use local opportunities and to build on the basis of such experience. Many actors who are suc cessful in local productions eventually try to appear on the New York stage. Modeling experience may also be helpful in obtaining employment in television or motion pictures. Above all, persons who plan to pursue an actingforcareer must have talent and the crea Digitized FRASER tive ability to portray different characters. They must have poise, stage presence, and aggressiveness to project themselves to the audience. At the same time, the ability to follow directions is important. To become a movie extra, one must usually be listed by Central Casting, a no-fee agency that works with the Screen Extras Guild and supplies all extras to the major movie studios in Hollywood. Applicants are accepted only when the number of persons of a particular type on the list—for example, athletic young men, old ladies, or small children—is below the foreseeable need. In recent years, only a very small proportion of the total number of applicants have succeeded in being listed. An actor employed as an extra in a film has very little opportunity to advance to a speaking role in that film. The length of an actor’s or actress’ work ing life depends largely on skill and versatil ity? Great actors and actresses can work al most indefinitely. Generally, however, employment becomes increasingly limited by middle age, especially for those who become typed in romantic, youthful roles. Due to the factors discussed, persons who intend to pur sue an acting career may find that employ ment and earnings are irregular. Employment Outlook Overcrowding has existed in the acting field for many years, and this condition is expected to persist. In the legitimate theater, motion pictures, radio, and television, job ap plicants greatly exceed the jobs available. As a result, many actors and actresses are em ployed in their profession for only a part of the year. Motion pictures and TV have greatly re duced employment opportunities for actors in the theater. Although a motion picture One possibility for future growth in the legitimate theater lies in the establishment of year-round professional acting companies in cities. The number of such acting groups is growing. The recent growth of summer and winter stock companies, outdoor and re gional theaters, repertory companies, and dinner theaters also has increased employ ment opportunities. In addition, some in creases may be likely in the employment of actors on television in response to expansion of the Public Broadcasting System, UHF sta tions, and cable TV. The development and wider use of video cassettes also may result in some employment opportunities. These media will have a positive influence on em ployment only if original material and pro grams result, not reruns or old movies. Though the field of acting as a whole is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s, the num ber of persons seeking to enter the profession is expected to exceed by far the available openings. Even the highly talented are likely to face stiff competition and economic dif ficulties. Earnings Actors and actresses in the legitimate thea ter belong to the Actors’ Equity Association; in motion pictures, including television films, to the Screen Actors Guild, Inc., or to the Screen Extras Guild, Inc.; in television or radio, to the American Federation of Televi sion and Radio Artists (AFTRA). These un ions and the producers of the shows sign basic collective bargaining agreements which set minimum salaries, hours of work, and other conditions of employment. Each actor also signs a separate contract, which may provide for a higher salary than that specified in the basic agreement. The minimum weekly salary for actors in Broadway productions was about $355 in 1978. Those in small “off-Broadway” thea ters received minimums ranging from $140 to $270 a week, depending on the seating capacity of the theater. For shows on the road, the minimum rate was $27.50 extra per day. (All minimum salaries are adjusted up ward automatically, by union contract, com mensurate with increases in the cost of living PERFORMING ARTISTS/457 as reflected in the Bureau of Labor Statistics Consumer Price Index.) In 1978, motion picture and television ac tors and actresses earned a minimum daily rate of $225, or $785 for a 5-day week. The minimum rate for a 3-day week for actors employed on a 1 or 1/2-hour television show was $572. For extras, the minimum rate was $60 a day. Television actors also receive addi tional compensation for reruns. However, annual earnings of actors and actresses are adversely affected by the fre quent periods of unemployment ex perienced by many. According to data ob tained by the Actors’ Equity Association (which represents actors who work on the stage) and the Screen Actors Guild, be tween two thirds and three quarters of their members earned $2,500 or less a year from acting jobs in 1978, and less than 5 percent earned over $25,000 from such work. Because of the frequent periods of unemployment characteristic of this profes sion, many actors must supplement their incomes by maintaining other, nonacting jobs. Many well-known actors and actresses have salary rates above the minimums, and salaries of the few top stars are many times the figures cited. Eight performances amount to a week’s work on the legitimate stage, and any addi tional performances are paid for as overtime. After the show opens, the basic workweek is 36 hours, including 12 hours for rehearsals. Before it opens, however, the workweek usu ally is longer to allow time for rehearsals. Most actors are covered by a union health, welfare, and pension fund, including hospi talization insurance, to which employers contribute. Under some employment condi tions, Equity and AFTRA members have paid vacations and sick leave. Most stage ac tors get little if any unemployment compen sation solely from acting since they seldom have enough employment in any State to meet the eligibility requirements. Conse quently, when they are between acting jobs, they often have to take any casual work they can And. Dancers (D O T . 151.047-010) Nature of the Work Dancing is an ancient and worldwide art that has many different forms. Dance move ments may be used to interpret an idea or a story, or they may be purely physical expres sions of rhythm and sound. Professional dancers may perform in classical ballet or modem dance, in dance adaptations for mu sical shows, in folk, ethnic and jazz dances, and in other popular kinds of dancing. In addition to being an important art form for its own sake, dance also is used to comple ment other types of entertainment, such as opera, musical comedy, and television. In dance productions, performers most often work as a group, although a few top artists do solo work. Many dancers combine stage work with teaching, where their duties may include instruction in dance history, the ory, and the practice of dance notation, as well as explaining and demonstrating dance techniques and choreographing and directing stage performances. Some dancers become choreographers, who create original dances, teach them to performers, and sometimes di rect and stage the presentations of their work. Others become dance directors who train dancers in new productions. A few dancers with college backgrounds go on to receive graduate level training in dance ther apy. Dance therapists focus on the healing properties of movement, posture, breathing, and interaction in their work with the elderly and the mentally and physically handi capped. Working Conditions Dancing is strenuous, and for this reason young dancers have an advantage over older dancers in competing for jobs. Rehearsals re quire very long hours, often on weekends and holidays. For shows on the road, weekend travel often is required. Most stage perfor mances take place in the evening. Many dancers retire in their thirties or transfer to related fields such as teaching dance. How ever, some skillful dancers continue perform ing beyond the age of 50. Those who become choreographers or dance directors can con tinue to work as long as persons in other occupations. Agility, coordination, grace, a sense of rhythm, and a feeling for music are important qualities for aspiring dancers. taught dance in secondary schools, in junior colleges as well as four-year colleges and uni versities, in dance schools, and in private stu dios. Some dancers, trained in dance therapy, worked in mental hospitals, community men tal health centers, correctional facilities, or special schools. New York City is the hub for perform ing dancers. Other large cities that have promising employment opportunities, in cluding major dance companies, include Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, Salt Lake City, Cincinnati, Miami, San Francisco, Hartford, Pittsburgh, Minneapolis, Seattle, Boston, and Philadelphia. Dance teachers are located chiefly in large cities, but many smaller cities and towns have dance schools as well. Training and Other Qualifications Sources of Additional Information Places of Employment Serious training for a career in dancing traditionally begins by age 12 or earlier. Bal let training is particularly disciplined, and persons who wish to become ballet dancers should begin taking lessons at the age of 7 or 8. Early and intense training also is impor tant for the modern dancer. Most dancers have their professional auditions by age 17 or 18, but training and practice never end. For example, professional ballet dancers take from 10 to 12 lessons a week for 11 or 12 months of the year, and must spend many additional hours practicing and rehearsing. The early training a dancer receives is crucial to the later skill of the dancer, and therefore the selection of a professional dance school is very important. Information on colleges and universities and conservatories that offer a major in drama is available from: About 8,000 dancers performed on the stage, screen, and television in 1978. Many others were available for such work. The shortage of performance jobs caused some dancers to take jobs in other fields. Many Because of the strenuous training required, a dancer’s general education may be mini mal. However, the importance of a broad general education is becoming increasingly recognized by experts in the field. In particu Related Occupations Actors and actresses entertain people through their interpretations of dramatic roles. They rely on facial and verbal expres sions as well as body motions for their crea tive expression. Related occupations for peo ple with these skills include: clowns, comedians, directors, disc jockeys, drama teachers or coaches, impersonators, mimes, narrators, and radio and television announc ers. American Theater Association, 1000 Vermont Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. 458/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Unemployment rates for dancers are higher than the average for all occupations. Many qualified people cannot obtain yearround work as dancers, and are forced to supplement their incomes by other types of work. lar, a dancer should study music, literature, and history along with the arts to help in the interpretation of dramatic episodes, ideas, and feelings. In addition, dancers should have an understanding of the structure of the human body and how it moves, of dance no tation, and of historical dance styles. Over 130 colleges and universities confer bachelor’s or higher degrees in dance. Col lege or university dance degrees are generally offered through the departments of physical education, music, theater, or fine arts. A college education is not essential to ob taining employment as a professional dancer. In fact, ballet dancers who postpone their first audition until graduation may compete at a disadvantage with younger dancers. On the other hand, a college degree can be help ful for the dancer who retires at an early age, as often happens, and wishes to enter another field of work. Many modern dancers are col lege graduates. Although a college education is an advan tage in obtaining employment as a dance teacher in a college or university, it is not necessary for one who teaches professional dance or choreography in a studio situation. Professional schools usually require teachers to have experience as performers; colleges and conservatories generally require gradu ate degrees, but performance experience often may be substituted. Maturity and a broad educational background also are im portant. The dancer’s life is one of rigorous practice and self- discipline; therefore patience, perseverence, and a devotion to dance are essen tial. Good health and physical stamina are necessary, both to keep in good condition and to follow the rugged travel schedule which is often required. Seldom does a dancer perform unaccom panied. Therefore, young persons who con sider dancing as a career should be able to function as part of a team. They also should be prepared to face the anxiety of unstable working conditions brought on by show clos ings and audition failures. Body height and build should not vary much from the average. Good feet and nor mal arches also are required. Above all, one must have agility, coordination, grace, a sense of rhythm, and a feeling for music, as well as a creative ability to express oneself through dance. Employment Outlook Employment of dancers is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupa tions. However, the number of dancers seek ing professional careers will continue to ex ceed the number of available positions, and competition will be keen. Most employment opportunities will result from replacement needs. Employment opportunities in stage pro ductions are limited, and competition for such positions is great. Television is partly responsible for the reduction in stage produc tions, yet at the same time this medium offers new outlets for dance. New professional dance companies formed by civic and com munity groups offer additional employment opportunities. Dance groups affiliated with colleges and universities are another source of employment. The increased general popu larity of dance in recent years has resulted in increased employment opportunities in teaching dance. Earnings Professional dancers who perform may be members of one of the unions affiliated with the Associated Actors and Artistes of Amer ica (AFL-CIO). Dancers in opera ballet, clas sical ballet, and the modern dance belong to the American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc.; those on live or videotaped television belong to the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists; those who perform in films and TV. belong to the Screen Actors Guild or the Screen Extras Guild; and those in musical comedies join Actors’ Equity As sociation. Other dancers may be members of other unions, depending upon the fields in which they perform. The unions and produc ers sign basic agreements specifying mini mum salary rates, hours of work, and other conditions of employment. However, the sep arate contract signed by each dancer with the producer of the show may be more favorable than the basic agreement regarding salary, hours of work, and working' conditions. Many dancers employed by professional bal let or modern dance companies do not belong to unions, however. In 1978, the minimum salary for dancers in opera and other stage productions was about $300 a week. The single performance rate for ballet dancers was $110. Dancers on tour received an allowance of $35 a day in 1978 for room and board, with the employer paying the cost of transportation. Minimum performance rates for dancers on television ranged from $340.50 to $360.25 for a 1-hour show, depending on the number of dancers in the group. The performance rate covers 18 hours of rehearsal over a 3-day period, in addition to the performance. Salaries of dance teachers vary with the location and the prestige of the school in which they teach. Dance instructors in col leges and universities are paid on the same basis as other faculty members. (For more information, see the Handbook statement on College and University teachers.) The normal workweek is 30 hours (6 hours per day maximum) spent in rehearsals and matinee and evening performances. Extra compensation is paid for additional hours worked. Dancers are entitled to some paid sick leave and various health and welfare benefits provided by their unions, to which the em ployers contribute. Dance instructors in schools receive benefits comparable to those of other teachers. Related Occupations Dancers express ideas and emotions through their body movements. They need grace, rhythm, body control, and the creative ability to express themselves through dance. Some related occupations include acrobats, choreographers, dance critics, dance instruc tors, dance notators, dance therapists, and recreation workers. Sources Of Additional Information A list of colleges and universities that teach dance, including details on the types of courses offered, is available from: National Dance Association, a Division of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Educa tion, Recreation, and Dance, 1201 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. For information on all aspects of dance, including job listings, contact: American Dance Guild, 152 W. 42nd St. Room 828, New York, N.Y. 10036. Enclose a stamped, self-addressed envelope. Information about the field of dance ther apy, along wih a list of schools that offer degrees in the field, is available from: American Dance Therapy Association, Suite 230, 2000 Century Plaza, Columbia, Md. 21044. Musicians (D.O.T. 152.041-010) Nature of the Work The important role that music plays in most people’s lives makes it difficult to imag ine a world without musicians. Professional musicians are those whose livelihoods de pend upon performing for the enjoyment of others. These professionals—whether they play in a symphony orchestra, dance band, rock group, or jazz combo—generally have behind them many years of formal or infor mal study and practice. As a rule, musicians specialize in either popular or classical music; only a few play both types profession ally. Musicians who specialize in popular music usually play the trumpet, trombone, clarinet, saxophone, organ, or one of the “rhythm” instruments—the piano, string bass, drums, or guitar. Dance bands play in nightclubs, restaurants, and at special parties. The best known bands, jazz groups, rock groups, and solo performers sometimes perform on televi sion. Classical musicians play in symphonies, opera, ballet, and theater orchestras, and for other groups that require orchestral accom paniments. These musicians play string, brass, woodwind, or percussion instruments. Some form small groups—usually a string quartet or a trio—to give concerts of cham ber music. Many pianists accompany vocal or instrumental soloists, choral groups, or provide background music in restaurants or PERFORMING ARTISTS/459 other places. Most organists play in churches; often they direct the choir. A few exceptional musicians give their own concerts and appear as soloists with symphony orchestras. Both classical and popular musicians make individual and group recordings. In addition to performing, many musicians teach instrumental and vocal music in schools and colleges, or give private lessons in their own studios or in pupils’ homes. Oth ers combine careers as performers with work as composers. Some work as arrangers, adapting musical compositions to different types of instruments or to styles for which they were not originally intended. A few musicians specialize in library sci ence for work in music libraries. Some re ceive training in music therapy to enable them to use music in treating persons with physical and mental disabilities. Others work as orchestra conductors or band directors, whose duties include selecting the music to be performed, auditioning and selecting members of the performing group, and di recting the group at rehearsals and perfor mances to achieve the desired musical effects. Working Conditions Musicians generally work at night and on weekends, and they must spend considerable time in practice and rehearsal. These long and irregular hours can be very exhausting. Performances often require travel. Many people cannot obtain year-round work as musicians, and are forced to supplement their incomes by other types of work. Places of Employment About 127,000 persons worked as perform ing musicians in 1978. Many thousands more taught in elementary and secondary schools and in colleges and universities. (See the statements on teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Almost every town and city has at least one private music teacher. Some musicians with training in music therapy work in psychiatric hospitals, centers for the mentally retarded, hospitals and schools, community mental health centers, day care centers, nursing homes, and special service agencies. Most performing musicians work in cities where entertainment and recording activities are concentrated, such as New York City, Chicago, Los Angeles, Nashville, Miami Beach, and New Orleans. Many perform with one of the 31 major symphony groups, the 76 metropolitan orchestras, or the hun dreds of community orchestras. Many com munities have orchestras and dance bands which offer at least part-time work. The vari ous branches of the Armed Forces also offer career opportunities in a number of different musical organizations. Training and Other Qualifications Most people who become professional musicians begin studying an instrument at an early age. To acquire great technical skill, a thorough knowledge of music, and the ability to interpret music, young people need inten sive training. This training may be obtained through private study with an accomplished musician, in a college or university which has a strong music program, or in a conservatory of music. For advanced study in one of these institutions, an audition frequently is neces sary. Many teachers in these schools are ac complished artists who will train only prom ising young musicians. About 540 colleges, universities, and music conservatories offer bachelor’s and/or higher degrees in musical performance, com position, and theory. In addition, about 750 conservatories and colleges and universities offer a bachelor’s degree in music education to qualify graduates for the State certificate for elementary and secondary school teach ing positions. College teaching positions usu ally require advanced degrees, but exceptions may be made for well-qualified artists. Musicians who play popular music must have an understanding of and feeling for that style of music, but classical training may ex pand their employment opportunities. As a rule, they take lessons with private teachers when young, and seize every opportunity to play in amateur or professional perform ances. Establishing a reputation with other musicians is very important in getting started in a career in popular music. Some young people form small dance bands or rock groups. As they gain experience and become known, they may audition for other local bands, and still later, for the better known bands and orchestras. Young persons who consider careers in music should have musical talent, versatility, creative ability, and poise and stage presence to face large audiences. Since quality per formance requires constant study and prac tice, self-discipline is vital. Moreover, musi cians who do concert and nightclub engagements must have physical stamina be cause of frequent traveling and schedules that often include night performances. Employment Outlook Employment of musicians is expected to grow faster than the average through the 1980’s, but competition for jobs will be keen. Opportunities for concerts and recitals are not numerous enough to provide adequate employment for all the pianists, violinists, and other instrumentalists qualified as con cert artists. Competition usually is keen for positions that offer stable employment, such as jobs with major orchestras, with the Armed Forces, and in teaching positions. Be cause of the ease with which a musician can enter private music teaching, the number of music teachers has been more than sufficient and probably will continue to be. Although many opportunities are expected for single and short-term engagements to play popular music in nightclubs and theaters, the supply of qualified musicians who seek such jobs is likely to exceed demand. On the other hand, first-class, experienced accompanists and outstanding players of stringed instruments are likely to remain relatively scarce. Earnings The thrill of performing goes hand in hand with long and irregular hours and much traveling, which can be Digitized for exhausting. FRASER http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 460/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HANDBOOK The amount received for a performance by either classical or popular musicians de pends on their geographic location as well as on their professional reputation. Mini mum salaries for musicians in the 31 major symphony orchestras in the United States in 1978 ranged from $232 to $490 a week, ac cording to the American Symphony Orches tra League. Minimum salaries for musicians in the 28 regional symphony orchestras ranged from $90 to $270 a week. Minimum wages for musicians in metropolitan sym phony orchestras were generally between $20 and $40 per concert. Some musicians earned substantially more than the minimums, however. The major symphony orchestras have sea sons ranging from 45 to 52 weeks. None of the metropolitan or community orchestras have seasons of 50 to 52 weeks, however. Musicians in large metropolitan areas who had steady engagement contracts to play at dances, clubs, variety shows, ballets, musical comedies, concerts, and industrial shows generally earned minimums ranging from $6.50 to $10.50 per hour, depending on the length and type of engagement. Wages for the same types of engagements tended to be less in smaller cities and towns. Musicians employed in motion picture recording earned a minimum of about $108 for a 3-hour ses sion; those employed in television commer cials earned a minimum of $54 each for 2 to 5 musicians and $50 each for more than 5 musicians for a 1-hour session. Musicians employed by recording companies were paid a minimum of about $127 for a 3-hour ses sion. Music teachers in public schools earn sala ries comparable to those of other teachers. (See statements on elementary and secondary school teachers elsewhere in the Handbook.) Many teachers give private music lessons to supplement their earnings. However, earn ings often are uncertain and vary according to the musician’s reputation, the number of teachers and students in the locality, and the economic status of the community. Many musicians, primarily those em ployed by symphony orchestras, work under master wage agreements, which guarantee a season’s work up to 52 weeks. Musicians in other areas, however, may face relatively long periods of unemployment between jobs. Thus, their earnings generally are lower than those in many other occupations. Moreover, since they may not work steadily for one em ployer, some performers cannot qualify for unemployment compensation, and few have either sick leave or vacations with pay. For these reasons, many musicians take other types of jobs to supplement their earnings as musicians. Most professional musicians belong to the American Federation of Musicians (AFLCIO). Concert soloists also belong to the American Guild of Musical Artists, Inc. (AFL-CIO). Related Occupations Performing musicians express ideas and emotions through the music they play. Other occupations in the music field include ar rangers, composers, copyists, music critics, music directors, music librarians, music teachers, music therapists, orchestra conduc tors, orchestrators, instrument repairers, music or instrument sales people, and radio music producers. Sources of Additional Information For information about wages, hours of work, and working conditions for profes sional musicians, contact: where in the Handbook.) Others give voice training or direct choral groups in churches, synagogues, music conservatories, or colleges and universities. Working Conditions For programs in music teacher education, contact: Singers generally work at night and on weekends, and must spend much time in practice and rehearsals. Work in the enter tainment field is seasonal and few performers have steady jobs. Except for a few wellknown concert soloists, opera stars, and top recording artists of popular music, most pro fessional singers experience difficulty in ob taining regular employment and have to sup plement their incomes with other kinds of jobs. Moreover, a singing career sometimes is relatively short, since it depends on a good voice, physical stamina, and public accept ance of the artist, all of which may be affected by age. Music Educators National Conference, 1902 Asso ciation Dr., Reston, Va. 22091. Places of Employment American Federation of Musicians (AFL-CIO), 1500 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10036. The requirements for certification of or ganists and choir masters are available from: American Guild of Organists, 630 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10020. For information about a career in music therapy, contact: National Association for Music Therapy, Inc., P.O. Box 610, Lawrence, Kans. 66044. Information about certification of private music teachers is available from: Music Teachers National Association, 2113 Carew Tower, Cincinnati, Ohio 45202. A list of accredited schools of music is also available for $3.25 from: National Association of Schools of Music, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Reston, Va. 22090. A brochure entitled Careers in Music is available from any of the last three organiza tions listed above. Singers (D.O.T. 152.047-022) Nature of the Work Singing is an age-old form of entertain ment which, in one form or another, can be understood and appreciated by almost every one. Professional singing often requires not only a fine voice but also a highly developed technique and a broad knowledge of music. A small number of singing stars make record ings or go on concert tours in the United States and abroad. Somewhat larger numbers of singers obtain leading or supporting roles in operas and popular music shows, or secure engagements as concert soloists in oratorios and other types of performances. Some sing ers also become members of opera and musi cal comedy choruses or other professional choral groups. Popular music singers per form in musical shows of all kinds—in the movies, on the stage, on radio and television, in concerts, and in nightclubs and other places of entertainment. The best known popular music singers make and sell many recordings. Some singers combine their work as per formers with related jobs. Many give private voice lessons. A number of singers teach and direct choruses in elementary and secondary schools. (See the statements on teachers else About 22,000 persons worked as profes sional singers in 1978. Many others were employed as music teachers in elementary and secondary schools, colleges, universi ties, and conservatories throughout the country. Opportunities for singing engage ments are concentrated mainly in New York City, Los Angeles, Las Vegas, San Francisco, Dallas, and Chicago—the Na tion’s chief entertainment centers. Nash ville, Tenn., a major center for country and western music, is one of the most im portant places for employment of singers for “live” performances and recordings. Many singers work part time as singers and choirmasters for churches and syna gogues. The various branches of the Armed Forces also offer career opportuni ties for vocalists. Training and Other Qualifications Persons who want to sing professionally should acquire a broad background in music, including its theory and history. The ability to dance may be helpful, since singers some times are required to dance. In addition, those interested in a singing career should start piano lessons at an early age to become familiar with music theory and composition. As a rule, voice training should not begin until after the individual has matured physi cally, although young boys who sing in church choirs receive some training before their voices change. An audition often is re quired for advanced voice training. Since voice training often continues for years after the singer’s professional career has started, a prospective singer must have great determi nation. To prepare for careers as singers of classi cal music, young people can take private voice lessons or enroll in a music conserva tory or a school or department of music in a college or university. These schools provide voice training and training in understanding and interpreting music, including musicrelated training in foreign languages and, PERFORMING ARTISTS/461 or $45 to $50 per performance. Members of an opera chorus earned a minimum daily rate of $40, or $45 per performance. A featured soloist received a minimum of $200 for each performance. A few opera soloists and popu lar singers, however, earned thousands of dollars per performance. Minimum wage rates for group singers on network or syn dicated television ranged between $165 and $175 per singer for a 1-hour show. Solo or duo singers received per performance minimums of $350 each. Singers generally work at night and on weekends, and must spend much time in practice and rehearsals. sometimes, dramatic training. After complet ing 4 years of study, the graduate may receive the degree of bachelor of music, bachelor of science or arts (in music), or bachelor of fine arts. Singers who plan to teach in public schools need at least a bachelor’s degree in music and must meet the State certification require ments for teachers. About 750 conservatories and colleges and universities offer a degree program in music education. In addition, about 540 colleges and universities offer training in musical performance, composi tion, and theory, leading to a bachelor’s de gree. Most college teachers must have a mas ter’s or a doctor’s degree, but exceptions may be made for well-qualified artists. Although voice training is an asset for singers of popular music, many with un trained voices have had successful careers. The typical popular song does not demand that the voice be developed to cover as wide a range on the musical scale as does classical music, and the lack of voice projection may be overcome by use of a microphone. Young singers of popular songs may be come known by participating in local ama 462/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK teur and paid shows. These engagements may lead to employment with local dance bands or rock groups and possibly later with better known ones. In addition to musical ability, a singing career requires an attractive appearance, poise and stage presence, and perseverance. Singers also must have physical stamina to adapt to frequent traveling and rigorous time schedules, which often include night perfor mances. Employment Outlook Employment of singers is expected to grow faster than the average through the 1980’s, but competition for jobs will be keen. Many short-term jobs are expected in the opera and concert stage, movies, theater, nightclubs, and other areas. The demand is growing for popular singers who can do radio and televi sion commercials. However, these short-term jobs are not enough to provide steady em ployment for all qualified singers. Earnings Concert singers who were part of a chorus earned a minimum daily rate of $35 in 1978, Professional singers usually belong to a branch of the AFL-CIO union, the As sociated Actors and Artistes of America. Singers on the concert stage or in opera be long to the American Guild of Musical Art ists, Inc.; those who sing on radio or televi sion or make phonograph recordings are members of the American Federation of Tel evision and Radio Artists; singers in the vari ety and nightclub field belong to the Ameri can Guild of Variety Artists; those who sing in musical comedy and operettas belong to the Actors’ Equity Association; and those who sing in television or theatrical motion pictures belong to the Screen Actors Guild, Inc. Related Occupations Singers express themselves and entertain others through song. Some related occupa tions include arrangers, choral directors, copyists, music therapists, orchestrators, songwriters, and voice teachers. Sources of Additional Information A directory of accredited schools and de partments of music is available for $3.25 from: National Association of Schools of Music, 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Reston, Va. 22090. For information regarding programs in music teacher education, contact: Music Educators National Conference, 1902 Asso ciation Dr., Reston, Va. 22091. Information about certification of private music teachers is available from: Music Teachers National Association, 2113 Carew Tower, Cincinnati, Ohio 45202. A brochure entitled Careers in Music is available from any of the three organizations listed above. Design Occupations People in design occupations are con cerned with the usefulness and appearance of the things we use and the places in which we live and work. Good design means creating objects that are not only “functional,” serv ing the purpose for which they are intended, but pleasing to the eye as well. The aesthetic element is important because pleasant sur roundings can boost our spirits and make us more satisfied with the time we spend in a particular place. Products and packaging that are designed for “eye appeal” are likely to attract more buyers than those that are not. The design field includes people in a vari ety of specialties. Among them are architects, who design the buildings around us; land scape architects, who plan golf courses and public parks as well as the lawns around houses; artists and layout workers, who pre pare advertisements of all kinds; photogra phers, who take pictures to convey an idea or tell a story; set designers, lighting designers, and costume designers, who work with theat rical productions; interior designers, decora tors, and display workers, who arrange fur nishings and spaces in homes, stores, and offices; and textile and clothing designers, who design the fabrics we use and the cloth ing we wear. Different design careers require varying levels of training. While floral designers often learn their duties on the job and do not even need a high school diploma, architects must complete 4 or more years of college and work for several years before they can apply for a license. Regardless of the amount of formal training required, people in the design field must be creative and able to communicate ideas visually. Artistic talent is crucial in all the design occupations. People in this field need strong color sense, an eye for detail, a sense of bal ance and proportion, and sensitivity to beauty. Also necessary is an inherent sense of what is good and what is not from an aes thetic point of view. job to come up with a solution to a client’s design problem that is both aesthetic and practical. Since they often work on tight deadlines, these workers need the self-disci pline to start projects on their own, to budget their time, and to complete everything as scheduled. Business acumen can be impor tant, for many people in this field are free lancers or run their own businesses. This section describes the work of people in seven design occupations: Architects, dis play workers, floral designers, industrial de signers, interior designers, landscape ar chitects, and photographers. Several other jobs that require design skills are descibed elsewhere in the Handbook. See the state ments on urban planners and engineers. Architects (D.O.T. 001.061-010) Nature of the Work Attractive buildings and their surround ings enhance a community’s appearance. But buildings must be safe as well as attractive and suit the needs of the people who use them. Architects take all these things into consideration and design buildings that are esthetically appealing, safe, and functional. Architects provide a wide variety of pro fessional services to individuals, organiza tions, corporations, or government agencies planning a building project. Architects are involved in all phases of development of a building or project, from the initial discus sion of general ideas through construction. Their duties require a variety of skills—de sign, engineering, managerial, and supervi sory. The architect and client first discuss the purposes, requirements, and cost of a project. The architect then prepares schematic draw ings that show the scale and the structural and mechanical relationships of the building. Because styles and tastes in art and fashion change with almost breathtaking speed, peo ple in this field need to be versatile and open to new ideas and influences. Creative work can be frustrating, even discouraging, during periods when new ideas don’t come—or when the designer’s ideas clash with those of a client. Sometimes a concept or layout has to be changed to accommodate a client, which requires flexibility. Dealing with cli ents also calls for tact and sound professional judgment. If the schematic drawings are accepted, the architect develops a final design showing the floor plans and the structural details of the project. For example, in designing a school, the architect determines the width of corri dors and stairways so that students may move easily from one class to another; the type and arrangement of storage space, and the location and size of classrooms, laborato ries, lunchroom or cafeteria, gymnasium, and administrative offices. Problem-solving skills and the ability to work independently are important traits for people in the design field. It is the designer’s Next the architect prepares working draw ings showing the exact dimensions of every part of the structure and the location of plumbing, heating units, electrical outlets, and air-conditioning. Architects also specify the building materi als and, in some cases, the interior furnish ings. In all cases, the architect must ensure that the structure’s design and specifications conform to local and State building codes, zoning laws, fire regulations, and other ordi nances. Throughout this time, the architect may make changes to satisfy the client. A client may, for example, decide that an original de sign is too expensive and ask the architect to make modifications. Or the client may change the project requirements. Redesign ing plans to suit the client requires flexibility, and sometimes considerable patience, on the part of the architect. After all drawings are completed, the ar chitect assists the client in selecting a con tractor and negotiating the construction con tract. As construction proceeds, the architect visits the building site from time to time to ensure that the contractor is following the design and using the specified materials. The architect also checks to be sure that work meets the specified standards. The job is not complete until construction is finished, all required tests are made, construction costs are paid, and guarantees are received from the contractor. Architects design a wide variety of struc tures, such as houses, churches, hospitals, of fice buildings, and airports. They also design multibuilding complexes for urban renewal projects, college campuses, industrial parks, and new towns. Besides designing structures, architects also may help in selecting building sites, preparing cost and land-use studies, and long-range planning for site develop ment. When working on large projects or for large architectural firms, architects often specialize in one phase of the work, such as designing or administering construction con tracts. This often requires working with engi neers, urban planners, landscape architects, and others. Working Conditions Most architects spend a great deal of their time at the drawing board in well-equipped offices. It is at the drawing board that ar chitects do most of their more creative and imaginative work, so much of the time can be very satisfying and rewarding. This work often is varied by interviewing clients and contractors and discussing the design, con struction procedures, or building materials of a project with other architects, landscape ar chitects, or engineers. Contract administra- DESIGN OCCUPATIONS/463 though they are not licensed. However, a reg istered architect is required to take legal re sponsibility for all work. Architects spend many hours at the drawing board. tors frequently work outdoors during inspec tions at construction sites. Places of Employment About 54,000 architects were employed in 1978. This included architecture school grad uates who have not become registered (li censed), although they work in the field. They must work under the supervision of li censed architects. Most architects work for architectural firms or for builders, real estate firms, or other businesses that have large construction programs. Some work for government agen cies responsible for housing, planning, or community development. About 1,600 ar chitects work for the Federal Government, mainly for the Departments of Defense, Inte rior, Housing and Urban Development, and the General Services Administration. Although found in many areas, a large proportion of architects are employed in seven cities: Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Washington. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All States and the District of Columbia require individuals to be licensed before they may call themselves architects or contract for providing architectural services. To qualify for the licensing exam, a person must have either a Bachelor of Architecture degree fol lowed by 3 years of acceptable practical expe rience in an architect’s office or a Master of Architecture degree followed by 2 years of experience. As a substitute for formal train ing, most States accept additional experience (usually 12 years) and successful completion of a qualifying test for admission to the lic ensing examination. Many architecture school graduates work in the field even http://fraser.stlouisfed.org/ 464/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis HANDBOOK In 1978, the National Architectural Ac crediting Board had accredited 87 programs of the 101 schools offering professional de grees in architecture. Most of these schools offer either a 5-year curriculum leading to a Bachelor of Architecture degree or a 6-year curriculum leading to a Master of Architec ture degree. Students also may transfer to professional degree programs after complet ing a 2-year junior or community college pro gram in architecture. Many architecture schools also offer graduate education for those who already have their first profes sional degree. Although such graduate edu cation is not essential for practicing ar chitects, it often is desirable for those in research and teaching. A typical college ar chitecture program includes courses in ar chitectural theory, design, graphics, engi neering, and urban planning, as well as in English, mathematics, physics, economics, and the humanities. Persons planning careers in architecture should be able to work independently, have a capacity for solving technical problems, and be artistically inclined. They also must be prepared to work in the competitive envi ronment of business where leadership and ability to work with others are important. Working for architects or building contrac tors during summer vacations is useful for gaining practical knowledge. New graduates usually begin as drafters in architectural firms, where they prepare ar chitectural drawings and make models of structures under the direction of a registered architect. After several years of experience, they may advance to chief or senior drafter responsible for all major details of a set of working drawings and for supervising other drafters. Others may work as designers, con struction contract administrators, or specifi cation writers who prepare documents that specify the building materials, their method of installation, the quality of finishes, re quired tests, and many other related details. Employees who become associates in their firms may receive, in addition to a salary, a share of the profits. Usually, however, the architect’s goal is to own his or her own busi ness. Employment Outlook Architects are expected to face competi tion for jobs through the 1980’s. Although employment of architects is expected to rise faster than the average for all workers during this period, the number of degrees granted in architecture is expected to continue growing as well. If so, supply in this small field could exceed the number of job openings arising from employment growth, deaths, and retire ments. Demand for architects is highly dependent upon the level of new construction, and the anticipated rapid growth of nonresidential construction is expected to be a major deter minant of job opportunities through the 1980’s. Any significant upswing or downturn in building could temporarily alter demand, however. Indeed, the cyclical nature of con struction activity leads some architects to move in and out of the field from time to time. Their design skills and familiarity with building materials and techniques enable them to move into related areas such as graphic design, advertising, visual arts, prod uct design, construction contracting and supervision, and real estate. Although most job openings will be in ar chitectural firms, some will occur in con struction firms, colleges and universities, and government agencies. Construction firms employ architects to oversee various aspects of project design and actual construction. In colleges and universities, the anticipated in crease in enrollments in architecture and en vironmental design programs may create a demand for additional faculty. Public con cern about the quality of the environment is expected to heighten the demand for commu nity and environmental planning projects. This should create opportunities in consult ing firms and planning agencies of various kinds. (See the statement on urban planners elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings The average salary for architects in 1978 was well over $25,000, according to the lim ited information available. Architects with well-established private practices generally earn much more than even highly paid sala ried employees of architectural firms. Al though the range in their incomes is very wide, some architects with many years of ex perience and good reputations earn well over $40,000 a year. Architects starting their own practices may go through a period when their expenses are greater than their income. An nual income may fluctuate due to changing business conditions. In 1979, the average salary for architects working in the Federal Government was about $25,000. Related Occupations Architects are concerned with the design and construction of buildings and related structures. Others who engage in related work are building contractors, civil engi neers, urban planners, interior designers, in dustrial designers, landscape architects, drafters, and surveyors. Sources of Additional Information General information about careers in ar chitecture, including a catalog of publica tions, can be obtained from: The American Institute of Architects, 1735 New York Ave. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. Information about careers and schools in architecture is available from: The Association of Collegiate Schools of Architec ture, Inc., 1735 New York Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Information about the licensing examina tions can be obtained from: The National Council of Architectural Registra tion Boards, 1735 New York Ave. NW., Suite 700, Washington, D.C. 20006. Display Workers (D.O.T. 298) Nature of the Work It happens every day: A shopper browsing through a clothing store notices a mannequin wearing an attractive outfit and decides to buy one just like it. A fishing enthusiast sees a display of angling equipment in a store win dow, goes in, and buys a new reel. Displays in stores and store windows attract custom ers and encourage them to buy. Knowing how effective this form of advertising can be, some stores allot a large share of their public ity budget to displays. Merchandise displayers (D.O.T. 298.081010) design and install exhibits of clothing, accessories, and furniture in store windows and showcases and on the sales floor. Their aim is to develop attractive, eye-catching ways of showing merchandise to the best ad vantage. Display workers known as model dressers specialize in dressing mannequins for use in displays. Others are designated ac cording to the area they decorate as showcase trimmers or window dressers. To create a setting that enhances the mer chandise, display workers need imagination as well as knowledge of color harmony, com position, and other fundamentals of art. They may, for example, choose a theme—a beach setting to advertise bathing suits or surfing equipment—and design a colorful display around this theme. After the design has been approved by the store’s management, display workers obtain the props and other necessary accessories. Their craft skills come into play at this time. Display workers often construct many of the props themselves using hammers, saws, spray guns, and other tools. They may be assisted in these tasks by a helper or by store maintenance workers. Sometimes display workers use merchandise from other depart ments of the store as props. Display workers also may use props out of storage, designed for previous displays, or order props from firms that specialize in them. The display workers install the props, background set tings, and lighting equipment. They also dress mannequins and add finishing touches. Periodically, they dismantle and replace old displays with new ones. In large stores that employ many display workers, each may specialize in a particular activity such as carpentry, painting, making signs, or setting up interior or window dis plays. Overall planning and administration in large stores are usually the responsibilities of a display director who supervises and coordi Display workers often design and construct the props used in an exhibit. nates the activities of each department. The director confers with other store executives, such as advertising and sales managers, to select merchandise for promotion and to plan displays. Commerical decorators (D.O.T. 298.381010) are employed by the promoters of trade exhibitions to prepare and install decorations and displays for trade and industrial shows, exhibitions, festivals, and other special events. • Working Conditions Display personnel enjoy the satisfaction of doing creative work. Transforming an origi nal design into reality can be a highly reward ing experience. Display workers usually work 35 to 40 hours a week. During busy seasons, such as Christmas and Easter, they may work over time, nights, and weekends to prepare special displays. Constructing and installing props fre quently require prolonged standing, bending, stooping, and working in awkward positions. Display workers risk injury from falls off lad ders, from contact with sharp or rough materials, and from the use of power tools, but serious injuries are uncommon. Places of Employment About 44,000 persons were employed as display workers in 1978. Most worked in re tail stores such as department, clothing, and home furnishing stores. Display workers were employed in many other kinds of retail stores, however, including variety, drug, and shoe stores and in book and gift shops. Sev eral thousand more worked on a freelance basis or for design firms that handle profes sional window dressing for small stores. Geographically, employment is distributed much like the Nation’s population, with most jobs in large towns and cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most display workers learn their trade through informal on-the-job training. Begin ners are hired as helpers to dismantle dis plays, carry props, and do other routine tasks. Gradually, they are given the opportu nity to do more difficult work, such as build ing props, and, if they show artistic talent, planning simple designs. A beginner usually can become skilled in 1 to 2 years. Training time varies, however, depending on the be ginner’s ability and the variety and complex ity of displays that the employer requires. A high school diploma is the minimum requirement for most beginning jobs. Courses that provide helpful training for display work include art, woodworking, mechanical draw ing, and merchandising. Some employers seek applicants who have completed college courses in art, interior decorating, fashion design, advertising, or related subjects. Display work is included in the curriculum of many of the distributive education and marketing programs taught in high schools and community and junior colleges. Local chapters of Distributive Education Clubs of America (DECA) also offer students an op portunity to develop visual merchandising skills. Creative ability, manual dexterity, and me chanical aptitude are among the most impor tant personal qualifications needed in this field. Good physical condition and agility are needed to carry equipment, climb ladders, and work in close quarters without upsetting props. DESIGN OCCUPATIONS/465 Advancement may take several forms. A display worker with supervisory ability might become display director in a large store. A display director might in turn prog ress to sales promotion director or be placed in charge of store planning. Freelance work is another avenue of ad vancement. Relatively little financial invest ment is needed to start a freelance business in the design field. However, this is a highly competitive area and business is likely to be slow until the firm’s reputation is established. For this reason, some workers moonlight until they have enough clients for full-time work on their own. The display worker’s skills could lead to jobs in other art-related occupations such as interior decoration or photography. These occupations, however, require additional training. Sources of Additional Information Details on career opportunities can be ob tained from local retailers, such as depart ment stores, and from local offices of the State employment service. General information about the occupation is available from: National Retail Merchants Association, 100 West 31st St., New York, N.Y. 10001. Floral Designers (D.O.T. 142.081-010) Nature of the Work Employment Outlook Employment of display workers is ex pected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Employ ment growth will reflect the expansion of re tail trade as well as the growing popularity of the concept of visual merchandising, which involves extensive use of merchandise to dec orate the store and frequent changes of dis plays. In addition to the jobs resulting from employment growth, openings will arise each year to replace experienced workers who re tire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Employment opportunities will continue to be concentrated in large stores, most of which are located in metropolitan areas. Earnings Among large employers, wages for begin ners ranged from $2.90 to $3.50 an hour in 1978. Beginners who have completed college courses in art, interior decorating, or related subjects generally received the higher start ing salaries. Experienced display workers’ salaries ranged from $140 to $280 a week, depending largely on experience and ability. Most display managers earned between $15,000 and $25,000 a year. Experienced manag ers in large metropolitan department stores, particularly executives, may earn considera bly more. The earnings of freelancers depend on their talent and prestige, on the number and kinds of stores they service, and on the amount of time they work. Many highly skilled freelancers earn more than $25,000 a year. Related Occupations Display workers draw, paint, design, and construct displays that promote the sales of merchandise. An ability to recognize differ ent shades and colors and to form a mental image of how shapes and forms can be com bined and arranged in artistic ways are some of the skills needed to succeed in this kind of work. Others whose work requires these 466/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK skills include exhibit designers, floral design ers, graphic designers, interior designers, and set designers. HANDBOOK Floral designers assemble flowers and foli age into a design to express the thoughts and sentiments of the sender. In performing their work, floral designers combine their knowl edge of flower and plant forms and floral design techniques with their own creativity to produce floral and plant gifts, decorations, and tributes. Designers must know the names and last ing qualities of flowers and growing informa tion about flowering plants. They must also know the seasonal availability of flower and plant materials and the management’s pric ing structure for these materials. In any given day, designers may receive a variety of orders, including decorative flow ering plants, bouquets, corsages, funeral work, and dried-flower arrangements. Spe cial orders, such as for weddings and parties, also incorporate the creative design and decorating talents of the floral designer. Designers usually work from a written order indicating customer preference for color and type of flower, as well as the oc casion, price, date, time, and place the ar rangement or plant is to be delivered. Cus tomers sometimes leave the choice of flowers, color, and design to the discretion of the designer. mond shape. When carnations are used, they are placed among the gladiolas to provide contrasting form, color harmony, and depth. A bow may be placed at the focal point of the spray, and additional foliage added to con ceal construction. On the back of the sympa thy card are the description of the spray and the donor’s name and address for easy ac knowledgement. The spray is ready for deliv ery. This type of order usually is completed in about 15 minutes. Floral designers often have other duties. They may help customers select flowers, plants, gifts, and floral accessories available in the shop. During slack periods, design ers sometimes decorate flowering plants, arrange planters and terrariums, prepare accessories and containers for future use, or take inventory. The variety of duties performed by a floral designer depends on the size of the shop and the number of de signers employed. Working Conditions Floral designers must be able to stand for long periods. Work areas are often cool and humid to preserve the flowers, and designers are exposed to sudden temperature changes when entering or leaving storage refrigera tors. In general, however, florist shops are clean and well ventilated and provide a pleas ant atmosphere. Places of Employment About 56,000 floral designers were em ployed in 1978. Nearly all designers work in the retail flower shops common to large cit ies, suburban shopping centers, and small towns. Most shops are small and employ only one or two floral designers; many designers manage their own stores. Geographically, employment is distributed much the same as population. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A funeral order may read “easel spray of red and white flowers.” For the foundation, the designer may attach a base (styrofoam, needle pack, etc.) near the top of a threelegged wire stand. Appropriate flowers are selected from the floral refrigerator. White gladiolas and red carnations are a possible combination. The price of the order and the cost of the flowers determine the number of flowers used. The flowers are cut to the needed length and wired for security. Stems may be strengthened with wooden sticks for easy insertion into the base. An increasing number of people take courses in floral design to prepare for a career in this field. Courses in flower arranging and floral design are offered in many adult educa tion programs, junior colleges, and commer cial floral design schools. Longer programs provide training in flower marketing and shop management for floral designers who plan to operate their own shops. Formal training in floral design usually gives a pro spective designer an advantage in obtaining a job over applicants who have no training. However, since speed and creative ability are the most important elements in successful floral designing, training acquired on the job through actual work experience also is valu able. To provide a background for the flowers, the designer may insert leafy branches, such as chamadorea or fern, into the base. If gladi olas are used, they are spaced so that the tips of the flowers approximate an oval or dia Many people who want to become design ers are trained on the job by the manager or an experienced floral designer. Initially, they may copy simple arrangements that use one type of flower. If they work quickly with Industrial Designers (D.O.T. 142.061-026) Nature of the Work When people buy a product, whether it’s a home appliance, a new car, or a ballpoint pen, they want it to be as attractive, safe, and easy to use as possible. Industrial designers combine artistic talent with knowledge of marketing, materials, and methods of pro duction to improve the appearance and func tional design of products so that they com pete favorably with similar goods on the market. Many floral designers acquire their skills on the job. their hands and recognize the shape, color, and position of flowers that make attractive arrangements, instruction in more complex arrangements may be given. As experience is gained, original designs required for special orders can be attempted. Usually a person can become a fully qualified floral designer after 2 years of on-the-job training. Good color vision, manual dexterity, and the ability to arrange various shapes and col ors in attractive patterns are the primary qualifications for this occupation. A high school diploma usually is desired, although not essential. Applicants must be able to write legibly and do simple arithmetic in order to write up bills for customers. High school courses in business arithmetic, book keeping, selling techniques, and other busi ness subjects are helpful. Experience gained by working part time in a flower shop while still in school is very helpful. Floral designers with supervisory ability may advance to manager or design supervi sors in large flower shops. Those who have the necessary capital may open their own shops. Employment Outlook Employment of floral designers is expected to increase faster than the average for all oc cupations through the 1980’s. In addition to job openings created by employment growth, many openings will arise each year as work ers retire, die, or change occupations. Floral designer employment is related to sales of retail florist shops, which vary with ups and downs in the economy. Over the long run, however, it is expected that population growth and rising income will cause sales of flowers and floral arrangements to increase significantly. As a result, more floral design ers will be needed. Earnings Experienced designers usually earned be tween $3.50 and $7 an hour in 1978, accord ing to the limited information available. Inexperienced floral designers generally earned the minimum wage. In small shops, floral designers often work 8 hours a day, Monday through Saturday. In many large shops, designers who work Satur day may get a day off during the week. De signers generally work long hours around certain holidays, such as Easter, Mother’s Day, Valentine’s Day, and Christmas when the demand for flowers and plants is great. Most designers receive holiday and vaca tion pay. Because most shops are small, other fringe benefits are limited. Some employers pay part of the cost of group life and health insurance but few contribute to retirement plans other than social security. Floral de signers in a few cities are members of the United Food and Commercial Workers In ternational Union. Related Occupations Floral designers need to have an eye for detail and a sense of balance, proportion, and esthetic appeal. They must have good sense of color. Creating floral arrangements re quires the imagination found in many other visual arts. Others whose jobs require similar skills include display workers, graphic de signers, interior designers, set designers, and art teachers. Sources of Additional Information For additional information about careers in floral design and addresses of schools of fering courses in this field, write to: Society of American Florists, 901 N. Washington St., Alexandria, Va. 22314. As the first step in their work, industrial designers gather information on how the product compares with competing products, the needs of the user of the product, fashion trends, and effects of the product on its envi ronment. After the initial research, industrial designers sketch different designs and con sult with managers, engineers, production specialists, and sales and market research personnel about the feasibility of each idea. This development team considers such fac tors as visual appeal, convenience, utility, safety, maintenance, and cost to the manu facturer, distributor, and consumer. After company officials select the most suitable design, the industrial designer or a professional modeler makes a model, often of clay so that it can be easily modified. After any necessary revisions, a final or working model is made, usually of the material to be used in the finished product. The approved model then is put into production. Although most industrial designers are product designers, many others are involved in different facets of design. To create favor able public images for companies and for government services, some designers develop trademarks or symbols that appear on the firm’s product, advertising, brochures, and stationery. Some design containers and pack ages that both protect and promote their con tents. Others prepare small display exhibits or the entire layout for industrial fairs. Some design the interior layout of special purpose commercial buildings such as restaurants and supermarkets. Corporate designers usually work only on products made by their employer. This may involve filling day-to-day design needs of the company or long-range planning of new pro ducts. Independent consultants who serve more than one industrial firm often plan and design a great variety of products. Working Conditions Industrial designers generally work in clean, well-lighted, and well-ventilated rooms. They normally work 5 days, 35-40 hours a week, but occasionally, they work overtime to meet deadlines. Designers may be frustrated at times when their designs are rejected. Independent con sultants, who are paid by the assignment, are DESIGN OCCUPATIONS/467 Applicants for jobs should assemble a “portfolio” of drawings and sketches to dem onstrate their creativity and ability to com municate ideas. Beginning industrial designers frequently do simple assignments. As they gain experi ence, they work on their own, and may be come supervisors with major responsibility for the design of a product or a group of products. Those who have an established rep utation and the necessary funds may start their own consulting firms. Employment Outlook Employment in this relatively small occu pation is expected to grow about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Although the trend in recent years has been away from frequent redesign of household products, automobiles, and indus trial equipment, continued emphasis on is sues such as ecology and product safety should increase demand for industrial de signers. sometimes under pressure to find new clients if their workload diminishes. Places of Employment About 13,000 persons were employed as industrial designers in 1978. Most worked for large manufacturing companies designing ei ther consumer or industrial products or for design consulting firms. Others did freelance work, or were on the staffs of architectural and interior design firms. A few taught in dustrial design in colleges, universities, and art schools. Industrial design consultants work mainly in large cities such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. Designers with industrial firms usually work in or near the manufacturing plants of their companies, often in small and medium-sized cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Completing a course of study in industrial design in an art school, in a university, or in a techncial college is the usual requirement for entering this field of work. Persons major ing in engineering, architecture, and fine arts may qualify as industrial designers if they have appropriate experience and artistic tal ent. Most large manufacturing firms hire only industrial deisgners who have a bache lor’s degree in the field. In 1978, 33 colleges and art schools offered programs in industrial design that were ei ther accredited by the National Association of Schools of Art or recognized by the Indus trial Designers Society of America. Most of these schools award a bachelor’s degree in industrial design or art. A few also offer a master’s degree in industrial design. Indus trial design programs vary among schools, 468/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK but most bachelor degree programs take 4 or 5 years. Many schools do not allow formal entry into the program until a student has successfully finished a year of basic art and design courses. Applicants may be required to submit sketches and other examples of their artistic ability. Most college and university programs maintain a balance between science, humani ties, and art; art schools generally stress a strong foundation in art. In most programs, students spend much time in the lab design ing objects in three dimensions. In studio courses, students make models with clay, wood, plaster, and other easily worked materials. In schools that have the necessary machinery, students make models of their de signs while learning to use metalworking and woodworking machinery. Students also take courses in drawing, drafting, and other visual communications skills. Many industrial design programs, particu larly in a liberal arts college or university, also include courses in basic engineering, in the physical and natural sciences, in the be havioral sciences, and in marketing and busi ness administration. Industrial designers must have creative tal ent, drawing skills, and the ability to trans late abstract ideas into tangible designs. They must understand and meet the needs and tastes of the public, rather than design only to suit their own artistic sensitivity. Design ers should not be discouraged when their ideas are rejected—often designs must be resubmitted many times before one is ac cepted. Since industrial designers must coop erate with engineers and other staff members, the ability to work and communicate with others is essential. A sound understanding of marketing, sales work, and other business practices also is important. Demand for industrial designers may fluc tuate over short-run periods. During eco nomic downturns when the market for new products is dampened, the need for these workers also tends to decline. Employment opportunities are expected to be best for college graduates with degrees in industrial design. In addition to openings re sulting from increased demand for industrial designers, some employment opportunities will arise each year as designers die, retire, or transfer to other fields. Earnings Salaries for inexperienced industrial de signers with a bachelor’s degree generally ranged from $10,000 to $14,000 a year in 1978, according to limited data. After several years’ experience, it is possible to earn $15,000 to $20,000 a year. Salaries of those with many years of experience averaged more than $30,000 a year in 1978, but varied ac cording to individual talent and the size and type of firm. Earnings of industrial designers who own their consulting firms fluctuate greatly, but in general tend to be higher than the average earnings of corporate industrial designers. Related Occupations Workers in other occupations who design or arrange objects and materials to optimize their appearance, function, and value include architects, clothes designers, commercial art ists, display designers, floral designers, inte rior designers, and set designers. Sources of Additional Information A brochure about careers and a list of schools offering courses and degrees in indus trial design are available for 50 cents from: Industrial Designers Society of America, 1717 N St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. Interior Designers (D.O.T. 142.051-014) Nature of the Work The creative work of interior designers helps make our living, working, and playing areas more attractive and useful. Interior de signers plan and supervise the design and ar rangement of building interiors and furnish ings. They may work on either private homes or commercial buildings. When planning any space, designers first consider the purpose of the area, the needs of the occupants, and the client’s budget and taste. For instance, a very expensive couch that is easily soiled would not suit a family’s needs for their recreation room, nor would it be appropriate for the reception area of a doctor’s office. The next step of the designer’s job involves preparing sketches and detailed plans. These will show all the furniture and accessories the designer is considering as well as any changes in the structure itself. Changes may vary from planning a new wall to separate the dining and living rooms to creating a work cubicle in an office. Sometimes the clients do not approve the plans, in which case the de signer will revise them. Once the client approves both the plans and the cost, the designer may order the fur nishings, supervise the work of painters, floor finishers, carpet layers, and other craft work ers, if they are needed, and make sure the furnishings are installed and arranged ac cording to the approved plan. Designers who work in large department and furniture stores that have separate design departments advise customers on decorating and design plans. Although their principal function is to help sell the store’s merchan dise, they may suggest furnishings from other sources when essential to the customer’s plans. Department store designers also fre quently advise the store’s buyers and execu tives about style and color trends in interior furnishings. Interior designers who specialize in nonresidential structures often work for clients on large design projects such as the interiors of entire office buildings, hospitals, and li braries. Generally, they plan the complete layout of rooms without changes to the struc ture of the building. They also may redesign or renovate the interiors of old buildings. In these cases, an architect checks the plans to make sure that they comply with building requirements. Some interior designers also design the furniture and accessories to be used in various structures, and then arrange for their manufacture. A few design the in teriors of ships and aircraft or stage sets used for motion pictures or television. Regardless of where they are working, de signers must deal with paperwork; they must place orders, figure estimates, and maintain records of where to purchase hundreds of Interior designers coordinating wall and floor coverings. different types of furnishings. Handling busi ness matters such as these requires close at tention to detail and accuracy. Working Conditions Designers’ work hours are sometimes long and irregular. They usually adjust their workday to suit the needs of their clients, meeting with them during the evening or on weekends when necessary. They may trans act business in clients’ homes or offices, in their own offices, or in a variety of other locations. Each assignment offers a challenge to solve the client’s problems with creativity and imagination. Designers generally work at their own pace in a quiet atmosphere, but sometimes the work is hectic. Most design jobs require coordinating the activities of building trades workers and suppliers, which is not an easy task when deadlines are tight and delivery problems crop up. The ability to handle details, even under pressure, is very important. Places of Employment About 79,000 persons worked as interior designers in 1978, primarily in large cities. Most designers work for design firms. They work independently with the firm’s cli ents or serve as assistants to senior designers. Others work as members of design teams. Some interior designers advise customers in large department or furniture stores. Oth ers work for hotel and restaurant chains, builders, government agencies, and other or ganizations that do a great deal of building or renovation. Some work for architects, furni ture suppliers, antique dealers, furniture and textile manufacturers, or other manufactur ers in the interior furnishings field. Interior designers also work for magazines that fea ture articles on home furnishings. Some experienced interior designers run their own firms, either alone or in partner ship with other designers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Formal training in interior design is in creasingly important for entry into this field. Most architectural firms, well-established de sign firms, department and furniture stores, and other major employers accept only pro fessionally trained people for beginning jobs. The types of training available include 3-year programs in a professional school of interior design, 4-year college or university programs that grant a bachelor’s degree, or postgradu ate programs leading to a graduate degree. The curriculum usually includes principles of design, history of art, freehand and mechani cal drawing or architectural drafting, paint ing, study of the essentials of architecture as they relate to interiors, design of furniture and exhibitions, and study of various materi als, such as woods, plastics, metals, and fab rics. A knowledge of furnishings, art pieces, and antiques is important. In addition, courses in sales and business techniques and management are valuable. Membership in the American Society of Interior Design or in the Institute of Business Designers is a recognized mark of achieve ment in this profession. Membership usually requires the completion of 3 or 4 years of post high school education in design and several years of practical experience in the field, in cluding supervisory work. In addition, satis factory completion of a factual and designproblem examination is necessary for professional membership. DESIGN OCCUPATIONS/469 Persons starting in interior design usually serve a training period with a design firm, department store, or furniture store. They may act as receptionists, as shoppers with the task of matching materials or finding acces sories, or as stockroom assistants, salesper sons, assistant decorators, or junior design ers. In most instances, from 1 to 5 years of on-the-job training are required before a trainee becomes eligible for advancement to designer. Beginners who do not get trainee jobs often sell fabric, lamps, or other interior furnishings in department or furniture stores to gain experience in dealing with customers and to become familiar with the merchan dise. There is no guarantee, however, that this experience will result in a job in design, although it could lead to a career in merchan dising. After considerable experience, designers may advance to design department head or to other supervisory positions in department stores or in large design firms. If they have the necessary funds and aptitude for busi ness, they may open their own firms. Artistic talent is crucial for interior design ers. People in this field also need a strong color sense, an eye for detail, and a sense of balance and proportion. An esthetic sense, or sensitivity to beauty, is absolutely essential. Because styles and tastes in art and fashion change quickly, people in this field need to be versatile and alert to new ideas and trends. A successful designer must also be well organized and good at handling details. The ability to work well with people is very im portant, for a designer must be able to deal effectively with clients, suppliers, and work ers. Employment Outlook Persons seeking beginning jobs in interior design are expected to face competition through the 1980’s. Interior design is a com petitive field that requires talent, training, and business ability, and many applicants vie for the better jobs. Talented college graduates who major in interior design and graduates of professional schools of interior design will find the best opportunities for employment. Those with less talent or without formal training will find it increasingly difficult to enter this field. Employment of interior designers is ex pected to increase about as fast as the average for all occupations through the 1980’s. Growth in population, personal incomes, ex penditures for home and office furnishings, and the increasing use of design services in both homes and commercial establishments should contribute to a greater demand for these workers. In addition to new jobs, some openings will be created by the need to re place designers who die, retire, or leave the field. Department and furniture stores are ex pected to employ an increasing number of designers as their share in the growing vol ume of design work for commercial establish 470/OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ments and public buildings increases. Inte rior design firms also are expected to continue to expand. Employment of interior designers, how ever, is sensitive to changes in general eco nomic conditions because people often forego design services when the economy slows down. Earnings / Beginners usually are paid a straight salary plus a small commission. Starting salaries can range from the minimum wage plus a small commission to a fixed salary of $150 a week or higher. Firms in large metropolitan areas usually pay the highest salaries. Some experienced interior designers are paid straight salaries, some receive salaries plus commissions based on the value of their sales, while others work entirely on commis sions. Incomes of experienced designers vary greatly. Many persons earn from $12,000 to $50,000 a year, and highly successful design ers can earn much more. A small number of nationally recognized professionals earn well over $50,000 annually. The earnings of self-employed designers vary widely, depending on the volume of business, their professional reputation, the economic level of their clients, and their own business competence. Related Occupations Interior designers must have artistic talent, be creative, and have good color sense and good taste. Other occupations that require similar skills include exhibit designers, fabric designers, display workers, and floral design ers. Sources of Additional Information For information about careers in interior design and a list of schools offering programs in this field, contact: American Society of Interior Design, 730 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10019. Career information is also available from: Institute of Business Designers, National Head quarters, 1155 Merchandise Mart, Chicago, 111. 60654. Landscape Architects (D.O.T. 001.061-018) Nature of the Work Everyone enjoys attractively designed resi dential areas, public parks, and commercial zones. Landscape architects design outdoor areas that are functional as well as esthetically pleasing. Resource conservation is an other important concern, one that requires a knowledge of scientific as well as artistic principles. Landscape architects are hired by many types of organizations—from real estate firms starting new developments to municipalities constructing airports or parks. They usually plan the arrangement of vegeta tion, walkways, and other natural features of open spaces. They may also design areas where constructed materials predominate— as on streets that have been modified to im prove pedestrian access and limit automobile traffic. They sometimes supervise the con struction stages of outdoor projects. Landscape architects first consider the na ture and purpose of the project, the funds available, and the proposed elements in plan ning a site. Next, they study the site and map features such as the slope of the land and the position of existing buildings, roads, walk ways, and trees. They also observe the sunny parts of the site at different times of the day, soil texture, existing utilities, and many other landscape features. Then, working some times as the leader of a design team or some times in consultation with the project archi tect or engineer, they draw up plans to develop the site. If the plans are approved, landscape architects prepare working draw ings showing all existing and proposed fea
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