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OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY the electric power industry may be obtained from local electric utility companies, industry trade associa tions, or from the local offices of unions which have electric utility workers among their membership. Additional information may be ob tained from: Edison Electric Institute, 750 3rd Avenue, New York, New York 10017. International Brotherhood of Elec trical Workers, 1200 15th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20005. Utility Workers’ Union of America, 1875 Conn. Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20006. POWERPLANT OCCUPATIONS Nature of the Work Operators are key workers in a powerplant. They observe, control, and keep records of the operation of various kinds of powerplant equipment. They make sure the equipment functions efficiently and 733 detect any trouble that arises. There gages, meters, and other instru are four basic classes of operators ments mounted on panel boards. —boiler, turbine, auxiliary equip One man may operate one or more ment, and switch-board operators. boilers. Boiler operators, are em In many new steam plants, the du ployed only where steam is used to ties of these operators are com generate electricity. Turbine operators (D.O.T. bined, and operators and their as sistants are known as steam opera 952.138) control the operation of tors, powerplant operators, or steam- or water-powered turbines central control room operators. Of which drive the generators. (In increasing importance in this highly small plants, they also may operate mechanized industry are the mainte auxiliary equipment or a switch nance men and repairmen, including board.) Modern steam turbines and electrical, instrument, and mechani generators operate at extremely cal repairmen. Other powerplant high speeds, pressures, and temper workers include helpers and clean atures; therefore, close attention ers, and the custodial staff, includ must be given the pressure gages, ing janitors and watchmen. Coal thermometers, and other instru handlers are employed in steam ments which show the operations of generating plants that use coal for the turbogenerator unit. Turbine fuel. Hydroelectric plants employ operators record the information gate tenders who open and close the shown by these instruments and headgates that control the flow of check the oil pressure at bearings, water to the turbines. Supervision of the speed of the turbines, and the powerplant operations is handled by circulation and amount of cooling a chief engineer and by his assist water in the condensers which change the steam back into water. ants, the watch engineers. Boiler operators (D.O.T. They also are responsible for start 950.782) regulate the fuel, air, and ing and shutting down the turbines water supply in the boilders and and generators, as directed by the maintain proper steam pressure switchboard operator in the control needed to turn the turbines, on the room. Other workers, such as help basis of information shown by ers and junior operators, assist the turbine operators. Auxiliary equipment operators (D.O.T. 952.782) check and re cord the readings of instruments that indicate the operating condition of pumps, fans, blowers, con densers, evaporators, water condi tioners, compressors, and coal pulverizers. Since auxiliary equip ment may break down occasionally, these operators must be able to de tect trouble quickly, make accurate judgments, and sometimes make re pairs. Some small plants do not em ploy auxiliary equipment operators; these duties are performed by tur bine operators. Switchboard operators (D.O.T. 734 952.782) control the flow of elec tric power in the generating station from generators to outgoing power lines. They usually work in a con trol room equipped with switch boards and instrument panels. Switches control the movement of electricity through the generating station circuits and onto the trans mission lines. Instruments mounted on panelboards show the power demands on the station at any instant, the powerload on each line leaving the station, the amount of current being produced by each generator, and the voltage. The operators use switches to distribute the power de mands among the generators in the station, to combine the current from two or more generators, and to reg ulate the flow of the electricity onto various powerlines to meet the de mands of the users served by each line. When power requirements on the station change, they order gen erators started or stopped and, at the proper time, connect them to the power circuits in the station or disconnect them. In doing this work, they follow telephone orders from the load dispatcher who di rects the flow of current throughout the system. Switchboard operators and their assistants also check their instru ments frequently to see that elec tricity is moving through and out of the powerplant properly, and that correct voltage is being maintained. Among their other duties, they keep records of all switching operations and of load conditions on genera tors, lines, and transformers. They obtain this information by making regular meter readings. In most powerplants constructed in recent years, the operation of boilers, turbines, auxiliary equip ment, and the switching required for efficient balancing of generator out OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK put has been centralized in a single control room. Here, central control room operators or power plant op erators, by monitoring instrument panels and manipulating switches, regulate all the power generating equipment, which in older plants re quires specialists such as boiler and turbine operators. Control room operators have several assistants who patrol the plant and check the equipment. The central control room operators report to the plant superintendent or watch engineers when equipment is not operating properly. Watch engineers (D.O.T. 950.131) the principal supervisors in a powerplant oversee the em ployees who operate and maintain boilers, turbines, generators, auxil iary equipment, switchboards, trans formers, and other machinery and equipment. Watch engineers are su pervised by a chief engineer or a plant superintendent who is in charge of the entire plant. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement New powerplant workers gener ally begin at the bottom of the lad der—usually on cleanup jobs. Such work gives beginners an opportunity to become familiar with the equip ment and the operations of a powerplant. They advance to the more re sponsible job of helper, as job open ings occur. Formal apprenticeships in these jobs are rare. Applicants generally are required to have a high school education or its equiva lent. Advancement on the job de- OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY pends primarily on one’s ability to master the skills required. It takes from 1 to 3 years to be come an auxiliary equipment opera tor and from 4 to 8 years to become a boiler operator, turbine operator, or switchboard operator. A person leaning to be an auxiliary equip ment operator progresses from helper to junior operator to opera tor. A boiler operator generally spends from 2 to 6 months as a laborer before being promoted to the job of helper. Depending on openings and the worker’s aptitude, the helper may advance to junior boiler operator and eventually to boiler operator, or transfer to the maintenance department and work his way up to boiler repairman. In most large cities, boiler operators, who operate high-pressure boilers, are required to be licensed. Powerplant workers employed in atomic-powered electric plants must have special training to work with fissionable, radioactive fuel, in addi tion to the knowledge and skills re quired for conventional steam gen erated electric power. Turbine operators are selected from among auxiliary equipment operators in many plants. The line of advancement in other plants is from laborer to turbine helper. The helper then may advance either to junior turbine operator and eventu ally to turbine operator, or he may transfer to turbine repairman, de pending on job openings and his ap titude. Turbine operators in most large cities are required to be li censed. Where a system has a number of generating plants of different size, operators first get experience in the smaller stations and then are pro moted to jobs in the larger stations as vacancies occur. New workers in the switchboard operators section begin as helpers, advance to junior operators, and then to switchboard operators. They also may advance from jobs in small stations to those in larger stations where operating conditions are much more complex. Some utility companies promote substation operators to switchboard operating jobs. The duties of both classes of operators have much in common. Switchboard operators can advance to work in the load dis patcher’s office. Watch engineers are selected from among experienced powerplant operators. At least 5 to 10 years of experience as a first-class operator usually are required to qualify for a watch engineer’s job. Employment Outlook The total number of jobs for powerplant operators is expected to show little change through the 1970’s, although the production of electrical energy will increase at a rapid rate. However, several hundred job openings will occur each year because of the need to re place operators who retire, die, or leave the industry for other work. The use of increasingly larger and more efficient equipment is ex pected to make possible great in creases in capacity and production with little increase in the number of powerplant operators. For example, one operator can control a large modern turbogenerator as readily as he can control a much smaller one. Also, the growing use of more auto matic equipment reduces the num ber of operators needed, and makes it possible to direct all operating processes from a central control room. However, because of the ex pected increased demand for elec tric power, it will be necessary to build and operate many new gener ating stations. 735 Generally, operating a nuclearpowered plant required about the same number of employees as run ning a steam-generating plant using fossil fuels. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of powerplant workers depend on the type of job, the section of the country in which they work, and many other factors. The following tabulation shows esti mated average hourly earnings for selected powerplant occupations in privately operated utilities in 1970: A vera g e h o u r ly e a r n in g s Auxiliary equipment operator...... $4.14 Boiler operator ............................. 4.80 Control room operator................ 5.28 Switchboard operator: Switchboard operator, Class A ............................. 4.92 Switchboard operator, Class B ..........:................. 4.35 Turbine operator ......................... 4.71 Watch engineer............................. 5.54 A powerplant is typically well lighted and ventilated, clean, and orderly, but there is some noise from the whirring turbines. Switchboard operators in the con trol room often sit at the panel boards, but boiler and turbine oper ators are almost constantly on their feet. The work of powerplant oper ators generally is not physically strenuous, particularly in the newer powerplants. Since generating sta tions operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, powerplant employees sometimes must work nights and weekends. 736 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OCCUPATIONS Nature of the Work One-fifth of the workers em ployed by electric light and power systems are in transmission and dis tribution jobs maintaining the flow of electric power to the users. The principal workers in transmission and distribution jobs are those who control the flow of electricity—load dispatchers and substation oper ators—and the men who construct and maintain powerlines—linemen, cable splicers, troublemen, groundmen, and helpers. Linemen make up the largest single occupation in the industry. Load dispatchers (D.O.T. 950.168) (sometimes called system operators or power dispatchers) are the key operating workers of the transmission and distribution de partments. They control the flow of electricity throughout the area served by the utility. The load dis patcher’s room is the nerve center of the entire utility system. From this location, he controls the plant equipment used to generate electric ity and directs its flow throughout the system. He telephones his in structions to the switchboard opera tors at the generating plants and the substations. He tells the operators when additional boilers and genera tors are to be started or stopped in line with the total power needs of the system. The load dispatcher must antici pate demands for electric power so that the system will be prepared to meet them. Power demands on util ity systems may change from hour to hour. A sudden afternoon rain storm can cause a million lights to be switched on in a matter of min utes. He also directs the handling of any emergency situation, such as a transformer or transmission line failure, and routes current around the affected area. Load dispatchers also may be in charge of inter connections with other systems, and they direct the transfer of current between systems as the need arises. The load dispatcher’s source of information for the entire transmis sion system centers in the pilot board. This pilot board, which dom inates the load dispatcher’s room, is a complete map of the utility’s transmission system. It enables the dispatcher to determine, at a glance, the conditions that exist at any point in the system. Lights may show the positions of switches which control generating equipment and transmis sion circuits, as well as high voltage connections with substations and large industrial customers. The board also may have several record ing instruments which make a graphic record of operations for fu ture analysis and study. Substation operators (D.O.T. 952.782) generally are responsible for the operation of the substation. Under orders from the load dis patcher, they direct the flow of cur rent out of the station by means of a OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY switchboard. Ammeters, voltmeters, and other types of instruments on the switchboard register the amount of electric power flowing through each line. The flow of electricity from the incoming to the outgoing lines is controlled by circuit break ers. The substation operators con nect or break the flow of current by manipulating levers on the switch board which control the circuit breakers. In some substations, where alternating current is changed to direct current to meet the needs of special users, the operator con trols converters which perform the change. In addition to switching duties, the substation operators check the operating condition of all equipment to make sure that it is in good work ing condition. They supervise the activities of the other substation em ployees on the same shift, assign them tasks, and direct their work. In smaller substations, the substa tion operator may be the only em ployee. Linemen (D.O.T. 821.381) con struct and maintain the network of powerlines which carry electricity from generating plants to consum ers. Their work consists of installa tions, equipment replacements, re pairs, and routine maintenance work. Although in many companies the installation of new lines and equipment is important, in other companies this work is performed by outside contractors. When wires, cables, or poles break, it means an emergency call for a line crew. Linemen splice or replace broken wires and cables and replace broken insulators or other damaged equip ment. Most linemen now work from “bucket” trucks with pneumatic lifts that take them to the top of the pole or adjacent to the overhead conduc tor at the touch of a lever. In some power companies, line men specialize in particular types of work. Those in one crew may work only on new construction, and oth ers may do only repair work. In some instances, linemen specialize on high voltage lines using special “hot line” tools to avoid interrup tions in the flow of current. Troublemen (D.O.T. 821.281) are experienced linemen who are assigned to special crews that han dle emergency calls for service. They move from one special job to another, as ordered by a central service office which receives reports of line trouble. Often troublemen re ceive their orders by direct radio communication with the central service office. These workers must have a thor ough knowledge of the company’s transmission and distribution net work. They first locate and report the source of trouble and then at tempt to restore service by making the necessary repairs. Depending on the nature and extent of the trouble, a troubleman may restore service in the case of minor failure, or he may simply disconnect and remove dam aged equipment. He must be famil iar with all the circuits and switch ing points so that he can safely dis connect live circuits in case of line breakdowns. Groundmen (D.O.T. 821.887) dig poleholes and assist the linemen and apprentices to erect the wooden poles which carry the distribution lines. The linemen bolt crossarms to the poles or towers and bolt or clamp insulators in place on the crossarms. With the assistance of the groundmen, they raise the wires and cables and install them on the poles or towers by attaching them to the insulators. In addition, with as sistance from groundmen, linemen attach a wide variety of equipment to the poles and towers, such as 737 lightning arrestors, transformers, and switches. Cable splicers (D.O.T. 829.381) install and repair single- and multi ple-conductor insulated cables on utility poles and towers, as well as those buried underground or in stalled in underground conduits. When cables are installed, the cable splicers pull the cable through the conduit and then join the cables at connecting points in the transmis sion and distribution systems. At each connection in the cable, they wrap insulation around the wiring. They splice the conductors leading away from each junction of the main cable, insulate the splices, and connect the cable sheathing. Many cables have a lead sheath which re quires making a lead joint. Most of the physical work in placing new ca bles or replacing old cables is done by helpers. Cable splicers spend most of their time repairing and maintaining the cables and changing the layout of the cable systems. They must know the arrangement of the wiring sys tems, where the circuits are con nected, and where they lead to and come from. They make sure that the conductors do not become mixed up between the substation and the customer’s premises. The splicers connect the ends of the con ductor to numbered terminals, mak ing certain that they have the same identifying number at the remote panel box in an underground vault as they have in the control office. Cable splicers also make sure the insulation on the cables is in good condition. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Load dispatchers are selected from among the experienced switch 738 board operators and from operators of the larger substations. Usually, 7 to 10 years of experience as a senior switchboard or substation operator are required for pro motion to load dispatcher. To qualify for this job, an applicant must demonstrate his knowledge of the entire utility system. Substation operators generally begin as assistant or junior opera tors. Advancement to the job of op erator in a large substation requires from 3 to 7 years of on-the-job training. Skilled linemen (journeymen) usually qualify for these jobs after about 4 years of on-the-job training. In some companies, this training consists of a formal apprenticeship program. Under formal apprentice ship, there is a written agreement, usually worked out with a labor union, which covers the content of the training and the length of time the apprentice works in each stage of the training. The apprenticeship program combines on-the-job train ing and classroom instructions in blue-print reading, elementary electrical theory, electrical codes, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK and methods of transmitting electri cal currents. The apprentice usually begins his training by helping the groundman to set poles in place and by passing tools and equipment up to the line man. After a training period of ap proximately 6 months, the appren tice begins to do simple linework on lines having low voltage. While performing this work, he is under the immediate supervision of a jour neyman lineman or the line fore man. After about a year, he is as signed more difficult work but is still under close supervision. During the last 6 months of his apprenticeship, the trainee does about the same kind of work as the journeyman lineman but with more supervision. When he begins to work independ ently, he is first assigned simple, routine tasks. After he acquires sev eral years of experience and demon strates a thorough knowledge of the company’s transmission and distri bution systems, he may advance from lineman to troubleman. The training of linemen who learn their skills on the job gener ally is similar to the apprenticeship program; it usually takes about the same length of time but does not in volve classroom instruction. The worker begins as a groundman and progresses through increasingly dif ficult stages of linework before be coming a skilled lineman. Candidates for linework should be strong, in good physical condi tion, and without fear of height. Climbing poles and lifting lines and equipment is strenuous work. They also must have steady nerves and good balance to work at the tops of the poles and to avoid the hazards of live wires and falls. Most cable splicers get their training on the job, usually taking about 4 years to become fully quali fied. Workers begin as helpers and then are promoted to assistant or junior splicers. In these jobs, they are assigned more difficult tasks as their knowledge of the work in creases. Employment Outlook Several thousand job opportuni ties are expected to be available in transmission and distribution occu pations through the 1970’s. Most of these opportunities will occur be cause of the need to replace ex perienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Some increase in the employment of transmission and distribution workers is expected, although em ployment trends will differ among the various occupations in this cate gory. In spite of the need to con struct and maintain a rapidly grow ing number of transmission and distribution lines, the number of linemen and troublemen is expected to increase only slightly because of the use of more mechanized equip ment. Some increase in the number of cable splicers is expected because of the growing use of underground lines in suburban areas. The need for substation operators will be re duced substantially, since the intro duction of improved and more auto matic equipment makes it possible to operate most substations by re mote control. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of transmission and distribution workers depend on the type of job they have, and the sec tion of the country in which they work. The following tabulation shows the average hourly earnings for major transmission and distribu 739 OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY tion occupations in privately oper ated utilities in 1970: A vera g e h o u r ly e a r n in g s Groundman ................................... $3.50 Lineman .......................................... 5.05 Load dispatcher ............................. 5.74 Substation operator ....................... 4.63 Troubleman ..................................... 5.27 Load dispatchers and substation operators generally work indoors in pleasant surroundings. Linemen, troublemen, and groundmen work outdoors and, in emergencies, in all kinds of weather. Cable splicers do most of their work in manholes be neath city streets—often in cramped quarters. Safety standards devel oped over the years by utility com panies, with the cooperation of labor unions, have reduced greatly the accident hazards of these jobs. CUSTOMER SERVICE OCCUPATIONS types of meters, including the more complicated ones used in industrial plants and other places where large quantities of electric power are used. Others specialize in repairing the simpler kinds, like those in homes. Often, some of the large systems have meter specialists, such as meter installers (D.O.T. 821.381) and meter testers (D.O.T. 729.281). Meter installers put in and take out meters. Meter testers specialize in testing the small meters on homeowners’ property and some of the more complicated ones used by commercial and in dustrial customers. Meter readers (D.O.T. 239.588) go to customers’ premises—homes, stores, and factories—to read me ters which register the amount of electric current used. They record the amount of current used in a spe cific period so that each customer can be charged for the amount he used. Meter readers also watch for, and report, any tampering with me ters. District representatives usually serve as company agents in outlying districts which are too small to jus- Nature of the Work Workers in customer service jobs include those who install, test, and repair meters, and those who read the meters. Also in this group are company agents in rural areas and appliance servicemen working in company-operated shops which re pair electrical equipment owned by customers. Metermen (D.O.T. 729.281) (or meter repairmen) are the most skilled workers in this group. They install, test, maintain, and repair meters on customers’ premises, par ticularly those of large industrial and commercial establishments. Some metermen can handle all tify the use of more specialized workers. They collect overdue bills, make minor repairs, and read, con nect, and disconnect meters. They receive and send service complaints and reports of line trouble to a cen tral office. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Metermen begin their jobs as helpers in the meter testing and meter repair departments. Young men entering this field should have a basic knowledge of electricity. About 4 years of on-the-job training are required to become a fully qual ified meterman. Some companies have formal apprenticeship pro grams for this occupation in which the trainee progresses according to a specific plan. Utility companies usually employ inexperienced men to work as meter readers. They generally accompany the experienced meter reader on his rounds until they have learned the job well enough to go on the rounds alone. This job can be learned in a few weeks. The duties of district representa tives are learned on the job. An im portant qualification for men in these jobs is the ability to deal tact fully with the public in handling service complaints and collecting overdue bills. Employment Outlook Meter reader checks the amount of electric current used. Little change in employment in customer service occupations is ex pected through the 1970’s. The need for meter readers will be lim ited because of the trend toward less frequent reading of meters. Moreover, automatic meter reading may become more common, and 740 new meters will require less mainte nance. However, some job openings for metermen and meter readers will occur each year to replace those workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of customer service workers vary according to the type OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK of job they have, and the section of the country in which they work. The following tabulation shows the average hourly earnings for major customer service jobs in privately operated utilities in 1970: A vera g e h o u r ly e a r n in g s District representative ................ $5.18 Meterman A ................................. 4.97 Meterman B ................................. 4.44 Appliance serviceman ................ Meter reader ................................. 3.83 4.61 The job of the meter reader is not physically strenuous but in volves considerable walking and some stair climbing. Metermen and appliance servicemen work indoors under typical repair shop conditions except when repairing or installing meters or appliances on customers’ premises. M E R C H A N T M A R IN E O C C U P A T IO N S The American merchant marine is a vital link in the Nation’s trans portation system. It is our life-line in both peace and war and links us to every corner of the world. It transports America’s exports and, in return, brings imports from the rest of the world. In time of conflict, it carries troops, arms, and supplies to combat areas. Seafaring employ ment offers a wide variety of inter esting and rewarding careers as well as travel and adventure. Atlantic Coast ports. The more than 500 freighters, on the other hand, are employed almost exclusively in foreign trade. More than half of the freighters are employed in liner service to carry relatively high valued packaged cargoes on fixed schedules. Freighters are of various types, including general cargo ships, and special purpose vessels such as bulk carriers and roll-on-roll-off container ships. Places of Employment Nature and Location of the Industry crews depend on the size and type of vessel. Cargo ships and tankers have crews varying from 36 to 65 men; passenger ships may have a crew of 300 or more. The work aboard ship is divided among the deck, engine, and stew ard departments. The deck depart ment is responsible for navigation, maintenance of the hull and deck equipment, and the supervision of loading, discharging, and storing of cargo. Personnel in the engine de partment operate and maintain the machinery that propels the vessel. The steward’s department feeds the crew and maintains living and recre ation areas. About one-fourth of the jobs in the merchant marine are filled by officers. The remaining jobs are filled by skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled seamen. The U.S. Flag Merchant Fleet employed about 42,000 officers and The U.S. Flag Merchant Fleet seamen in mid-1970, more than 90 consists of ocean-going vessels of percent of whom were on freighters Training, Other Qualifications, 1,000 gross tons or over which and tankers. Many additional men and Advancement carry U.S. foreign and domestic wa were employed during the year be ter-borne commerce. In late 1970, cause many seamen leave their No educational requirements are about 7 out of every 8 of the ap ships at the termination of a voyage; established for jobs in the merchant proximately 770 ships in the active some take vacations which may av marine industry, but a good educa fleet were privately owned. Govern erage 100 days or more each year; tion is a definite advantage. Formal ment-owned ships are operated by others take temporary shoreside training for officers is conducted at the Navy’s Military Sealift Com jobs or are unavailable for sea duty the U.S. Merchant Marine Acad mand (MSC) which has civilian because of illness or injury. emy, at five State merchant marine seafaring personnel. Although the United States has academies, and through programs Three broad categories of ships about 70 ports, more than half of operated by trade unions. Unions constitute the merchant fleet: com the Nation’s shipping is carried on also conduct training programs to bination passenger-cargo vessels, in 17 deep-sea ports along the At upgrade the ratings of seamen and, tankers, and freighters. Ships in our lantic, Gulf, and Pacific Coasts. The to a limited degree, to train “liner fleet” operate on regular Nation’s largest port is New York. prospective seamen for entry rat schedules to specific ports. “Tramp” Other major Atlantic ports are Phil ings. ships, on the other hand, sail for adelphia, Baltimore, Norfolk, Bos To obtain an officer’s license, a any port promising cargoes. ton, Charleston, Savannah, Tampa, candidate must be a U.S. citizen, This country’s 10 combination and Jacksonville. Gulf ports han physically fit, and pass a compre passenger-cargo ships carry passen dling substantial volumes of cargo hensive written examination admin gers, mail, and highly valued cargo include New Orleans, Houston, istered by the U.S. Coast Guard. on a regularly scheduled basis. Its Galveston, Port Arthur, and Lake Seamen must also obtain a license approximately 255 tankers carry Charles. Shipping on the West (merchant mariner’s document) liquid bulk products, primarily pe Coast is concentrated in the areas of from the Coast Guard. An applicant troleum and petroleum products, al San Francisco Bay, Los Angeles, must present proof that he has a job most exclusively in the domestic Seattle, and Portland. offer aboard a U.S. merchant vessel trade between Gulf Coast ports and The size and composition of and pass a physical examination. 741 742 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK The prospective mariner should give serious thought to the depart ment (deck, engine, steward) in which he would like to work. Once a man starts up the ladder in one department he cannot switch with out beginning near the bottom again. Advancement to a higher rat ing depends not only upon specified sea experience, leadership ability, and an opening, but also upon pass ing a Coast Guard examination. A young man who is considering the merchant marine as a career must be able to live and work with others as a team. Although peace time service is relaxed, he must ad just to some military-like discipline, which is essential because of the na ture of shipboard life. More detailed information on training, other qualifications, and advancement appears in the state ments on Licensed Merchant Ma rine Officers and Unlicensed Mer chant Seamen. Employment Outlook Except during periods of war and national emergency, there has been a long-term decline in the number of men and vessels in our merchant marine, and more of the same is ex pected through the 1970’s. Nev ertheless, some job openings will arise each year from the need to re place experienced men who retire, die, or quit the sea for other rea sons. Competition for these open ings, however, will be severe be cause the number of men seeking merchant marine jobs is expected to greatly exceed the number of open ings. Because of substantially higher shipbuilding and labor costs, our merchant fleet finds that competing in the worldwide shipping market is difficult. To insure that our country has a merchant fleet operating in regular or essential trade routes, the Government subsidizes nearly twofifths of the active fleet or about 300 vessels. In 1970, the Government en acted legislation to subsidize the construction of 30 new ships an nually over a 10-year period and to improve tax incentives for firms to purchase new ships. The number of new ships constructed, however, is not expected to be as great as the number of older ones retired from service each year. Thus, a continued decrease in the size of the fleet is anticipated, unless new innovations that cut shipping costs, such as barge-carrying ships, improve our competitive position in the world market. Future ships will be larger and faster and will operate with fewer men. For example, a central console in the engineroom of the newest ships controls engines, boilers, and most auxiliary equipment. Data log gers automatically print perform ance information such as tempera tures and pressures of automated boiler systems. The size of the deck crew is being reduced primarily by technological improvements such as hydraulically operated hatch covers, and auto matic tension mooring winches that assist in docking and undocking. Eventually a “lookout” device is foreseen that not only will warn of a collision but also will automatically adjust the course to avoid a crash. Improved efficiency on our newest ship already has cut 11 to 14 men from conventional manning require ments of about 55; still further re ductions are likely. Widespread unemployment will not necessarily accompany reduc tions in manpower needs. For one thing, the dozen or so seagoing un ions are likely to resist substantial cuts in the size of crews. Further, many men began their careers when our fleet was built during World War II. This older work force, in conjunction with liberalized pension provisions and normally high depar ture rates for shore jobs, is expected to result in a large outflow of men from the industry during the years ahead. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings aboard American flag deep-sea ships are the highest of any Nation in the world. In few other industries can an ambitious man who has a high school educa tion or less do so well financially. A seaman who has advanced a rung or two in rating can receive base and overtime earnings of nearly $800 a month, in addition to free food and lodging. Most officers earn over $1,100 a month. Wages vary not only according to the job but also by the size and type of vessel. They are highest on large vessels. An outstanding characteris tic of the maritime industry is that base wages represent only part of the take-home pay. On the average, additional payments for assuming extra work or responsibility add about 50 percent to base wages. Liberal employer-financed fringe benefits are provided. Officers and seamen may retire on full pension after 20 years of service, regardless of age. Paid vacations range from 60 to 110 days a year. All men and their dependents are covered by comprehensive medical and welfare benefits. (See statements on Li censed Merchant Marine Officers and Unlicensed Merchant Seamen for more information on earnings.) The workweek for persons em ployed aboard ships is considerably different from the workweek of per- 743 MERCHANT MARINE OCCUPATIONS @ Typical crew aboard a dry-cargo ship L masterJ 1 1 Radio -| Operator wages and living conditions, and liberal fringe benefits more than compensate for the disadvantages. DECK DEPARTMENT 1 Chief Mate | ENGINE DEPARTMENT ■■■■-■...... 1 . ~~| | Chief Engineer 1 | STEWARD’S DEPARTMENT | 1 | | Chief Steward Second Mate [[ 1st Assistant j| Chief Cook 2 Third Mates || 2nd Assistant | | 2nd Cook and Baker Boatswain II 3 3rd Assistants ----------i .................................. ............ ... Electrician 2 Deck Utility Men Engine Utility Man 6 Able-Bodied Seamen 3 Oilers 3 Firemen-Water Tenders 3 Ordinary Seamen 2 Wipers | 4 Messmen 2 Utility Men r Nature of the Work 1 j Officers [Unlicensed crewmen SOURCE: BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS sons employed on the shore. At sea, most officers and seamen are re quired to stand watch. Watchstanders work 7 days a week. Generally, they stand two 4-hour watches (shifts) during every 24-hour pe riod and have 8 hours off between each watch. Some officers and sea men are day workers. They work 8 hours a day, Monday through Fri day. Both watchstanders and day workers are paid overtime for work over 40 hours a week. When the ship is in port, the basic workweek is 40 hours. Working and living conditions aboard ship have improved over the years. Mechanization has reduced physical demands and newer vessels contain private rooms, aircondition ing, television, and expanded recre ational facilities. However, life aboard ship is confining. Although a man may visit many parts of the world, his shore time may be lim ited by the increasingly rapid “turn-around” time of modern ves sels. While at sea, crew members must be able to derive satisfaction from simple pleasures, such as reading or LICENSED MERCHANT MARINE OFFICERS a chair-side hobby. Since voyages last several weeks or months, men are away from home and families for substantial periods of time. Some men tire of the lengthy separations and choose shoreside employment. Others become frustrated by pe riods of unemployment. Although union rules recognize seniority in hiring, a man who has long years of sea experience does not have the same degree of job security often associated with seniority in shore jobs. Available jobs are usually first offered to workers in the highest seniority “level,” but employment within these levels is typically on a first-come, first-served basis. When jobs are scarce, the list of candidates may be long. The duties aboard ship are hazardous relative to other indus tries. At sea, there is always a possi bility of injuries from falls or the danger of fire, collision, or sinking. In the past, sudden illness at sea could be extremely hazardous, but emergency air service available to day reduces the danger. Despite these drawbacks, for many men, the spirit and adventure of the sea, good The Coast Guard licenses ship’s professional and supervisory per sonnel consisting of deck, engine, and radio officers. In command of every ocean-going vessel is the cap tain (D.O.T. 197.168) or master who is the shipowner’s sole repre sentative. He has complete author ity and responsibility for the opera tion of the ship, including discipline and order, and the safety of the crew, passengers, cargo, and vessel. While in port, the captain may function as the agent for the ship owners by conferring with custom officials. In some cases, he may act as paymaster for the ship. Although not technically a member of a spe cific department, he generally is as sociated with the deck department, from whose ranks he was promoted. Deck Department. Acting under supervision of the captain, deck of ficers or “mates” as they are tradi tionally called, direct the navigation and piloting of the ship and the maintenance of the deck and hull. American vessels are equipped with modern navigational devices, such as radar, sonar, and radio direc tional finders. Deck officers must be familiar with these and other instru ments to operate ships safely and efficiently. While on duty, the deck officer maintains the authorized speed and course; plots the vessel’s position at 744 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Chief mate directs speed and course of cargo ship. frequent intervals; posts lookouts when required; records his watch in the ship’s “log” of the voyage; and immediately notifies the captain of any unusual occurrences. Besides acting as watch officer, each deck officer performs other duties. The chief mate (D.O.T. 197.133), or first mate or chief officer, as he is also known, is the captain’s key assistant in assigning duties to the deck crew and main taining order and discipline. He also plans and carries out the loading, unloading, and stowing of cargo, and assists the captain in taking the ship in and out of port. On some ships he also may be in charge of first aid treatment. By tradition, the second mate (D.O.T. 197.133) is the naviga ting officer. He sees that the ship is provided with the necessary naviga tion charts and that navigating equipment is maintained properly. The third mate (D.O.T. 197.133), the most junior-rated deck officer, is responsible for the care and the maintenance of the navigating bridge and the chartroom. He acts as the signal officer and is in charge of all signaling equipment and assists in the super vision of cargo loading and unload ing operations. Third mates fre quently inspect life boats and other lifesaving equipment to be sure they are ready for use in fire, shipwreck, or other emergencies. Engine Department. Marine engi neers operate and maintain all en gines and machinery aboard the ship. The chief engineer (D.O.T. 197.130) supervises the engine de partment, and is responsible for the operating efficiency of engines and other mechanical equipment. He oversees the operation of the main power plant and auxiliary equip ment while the vessel is underway and is responsible for the log of equipment performance and fuel consumption. The first assistant engineer (D.O.T. 197.130) supervises en gine room personnel and directs op erations such as starting, stopping, and controlling the speed of the main engines. He oversees and in spects the lubrication of engines, pumps, electric motors, generators, and other machinery, and with the aid of the chief engineer, directs all types of repairs. As with the deck department, the engineroom is operated on a 24hour basis. Second and third as sistant engineers are assigned watch periods during which they are re sponsible for the operation of the ship’s propulsion plant and auxiliary machinery and the supervision of engine department personnel. Ma rine engineers on watch must notify the chief engineer of any unusual occurrence and keep a record of equipment performance. Each member of the engineering staff performs specific duties. The second assistant engineer (D.O.T. 197.130) has charge of the boiler and associated equipment such as the water-feed system and pumps. He is responsible for the mainte nance of proper steam pressure and MERCHANT MARINE OCCUPATIONS 745 Staff Officers Association has es tablished a program to train pursers to act also as pharmacist mates. This instruction is designed to im prove the medical care aboard freighters and tankers and facilitate Public Health clearance when a ship arrives in port. All passenger ships must carry licensed doctors and nurses. Places of Employment Nearly 11,000 officers were em ployed aboard U.S. Flag oceangoing vessels during mid-1970. Deck officers and engineering officers ac counted for more than four-fifths of total employment, and radio officers made up most of the re mainder. About 70 percent of the officers were aboard dry cargo vessels and 27 percent were aboard tankers. The remaining 3 percent manned passenger vessels. Marine engineer controls running speed of main engine. oil and water temperatures. He su pervises the cleaning of the boilers and is usually responsible for their operation and the operation of the steam generator. The third assistant engineer (D.O.T. 197.130) supervises the operation and maintenance of the lubrication system and engineroom auxiliaries. At least one third assist ant engineer is employed as a day man (nonwatchstander) and is re sponsible for the electrical and re frigeration systems aboard ship. Other officers. A ship maintains contact with shore and other vessels through its radio officer (D.O.T. 193.282), who also maintains radio equipment. A passenger ship car ries three to six radio officers; the average cargo vessel employs one. The officer sends and receives mes sages by voice or Morse code. He periodically receives and records time signals, weather reports, posi tion reports, and other navigation and technical data. The radio officer may also maintain depth recording equipment and electronic navigation equipment. Some cargo and tanker vessels and all passenger vessels carry purs ers (D.O.T. 197.168). The purser or staff officer performs the exten sive paperwork required to enter and clear a ship in each port, pre pare payrolls, and assist passengers as required. In recent years, the Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Persons applying for the first time for an officer’s license in the deck and engineering departments of oceangoing vessels must meet cer tain legal requirements. Captains, chief and second mates, and chief and first assistant engineers must be at least 21 years of age. The mini mum age for third mates, third as sistant engineers, and radio opera tors is 19. In addition, applicants must present documentary proof of U.S. citizenship and obtain a U.S. Public Health Service certificate at testing to their vision, color percep tion, and general physical condition. In addition to legal and medical requirements, candidates for deck officer rating must pass Coast Guard examinations that require ex 746 tensive knowledge of seamanship, navigation, cargo handling, and the operations of the deck department. Marine engineering officer candi dates must demonstrate in-depth knowledge of propulsion systems, electricity, plumbing and steam fit ting, metal shaping and assembly, and ship structure. To advance to higher ratings, officers must pass progressively more difficult exami nations. For a Coast Guard license as a radio officer, applicants must have a first or second-class radiotelegraph operator’s license issued by the Federal Communications Commis sion. For a license to serve as the sole radio operator aboard a cargo vessel, the Coast Guard also re quires 6 months of radio experience at sea. Unlike most professions, no edu cation requirements have been es tablished for officers. A seaman who has served for 3 years in the deck or engine department may apply for either a third mate’s li cense or for a third assistant engi neer’s license. However, because of the complex machinery, naviga tional, and electronic equipment on modern ships, formal training usu ally is needed to pass the Coast Guard’s examination for these licen ses. The fastest and surest way to be come a well-trained officer is through an established training pro gram. Such programs are available at the U.S. Merchant Marine Acad emy at Kings Point, N.Y. and at five State merchant marine academies: California Maritime Academy, Val lejo, Calif.; Maine Maritime Acad emy, Castine, Maine; Massachusetts Maritime Academy, Hyannis, Mass.; Texas Maritime Academy, Galveston, Tex.; and New York Maritime College, Fort Schuyler, New York, N.Y. Approximately OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 600 students graduate each year example, the National Marine Engi Beneficial Association from the six schools; about one-half neers’ are trained as deck officers and (MEBA) operates the Calhoon one-half as marine engineers. En MEBA Engineering School in Balti trance requirements for each of the more, Md., which offers high school academies are very high. Admission graduates a 3-year apprenticeship to the Federal academy is through training program in preparation for nomination by a member of Con a third assistant engineer’s license. gress, whereas entrance to the other The program consists of both class academies is made through written room instruction and sea experience application directly to the school. and provides free room, board, Each of the academies offers 3- medical care, and text books in ad or 4-year courses in nautical science dition to a monthly grant. Trainees or marine engineering, as well as must agree to serve at least 3 years practical experience at sea. Subjects in the U.S. Merchant Marine after include navigation, mathematics, the 3-year training period. Advancement for deck and en electronics, seamanship, propulsion gine officers is along well-defined systems, electrical engineering, lan guages, history, and shipping man lines and depends primarily upon agement. Each student receives a specified sea experience, passing a subsistence allowance and a bache Coast Guard examination, and lor of science degree upon gradua leadership ability. Deck officers tion. After Coast Guard examina start as third mates. After 1 year’s tions are passed, licenses are issued service they are eligible to take a for either third mate or third assist second mate examination. A second ant engineer. In addition, graduates mate may apply for a chief mate’s may receive commissions as ensigns license after 1 year of service, and a chief mate may apply for a captain’s in the U.S. Naval Reserve. Because of their thorough license after 1 year of service. An grounding in theory and its practical officer in the engine department application, academy graduates are starts as third assistant engineer. in the best position to move up to After 1 year of service, he may master and chief engineer ratings. apply for a second assistant’s li Their well-rounded education also cense. After further experience, he helps qualify them -for shoreside may apply for first assistant’s license jobs such as marine superintendent, and finally a chief engineer’s li operating manager, or shipping ex cense. Whether an officer’s best pros ecutive. pects lie in the deck or the engi A number of trade unions in the maritime industry provide officer neering department is a question considerable debate training. These unions include the generating International Organization of Mas among the unions representing these ters, Mates and Pilots; the Seafar workers. It seems clear, however, ers’ International Union; the that the present sharp craft line Brotherhood of Marine Officers; drawn between deck and engineer and the National Marine Engineers’ ing jobs will become blurred. The Beneficial Association. Most union emphasis will be on job function; programs are designed to upgrade the newest automated equipment experienced seamen to officer rat will cut across departmental lines, ings, although some programs ac union jurisdictions, and present cept inexperienced young men. For work specialties. Some jobs will be 747 MERCHANT MARINE OCCUPATIONS entirely new, and both officers and seamen will require a new inventory of skills to hold them. For example, experience gained by standing watch in an engineroom of a con ventional vessel may be secondary compared with basic courses in electronics. In anticipation of this trend, the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy now selects 10 percent of the ap proximately 300 men who enter the academy each year to be trained as “omnicompetent” officers. They are taught both navigational and techni cal skills so they can work in either department. Employment Outlook Employment of ship officers is expected to decline moderately dur ing the 1970’s. However, some jobs will arise each year from the need to replace experienced officers who retire, die, or take shoreside em ployment. The primary factors responsible for the expected employment de cline are the continued decrease in the size of the fleet and the smaller crews on new vessels which result from mechanization. Future em ployment requirements in the final analysis will depend upon govern ment policy with respect to the level of U.S. flag participation in water borne foreign commerce. (See in troductory statement on Merchant Marine Occupations for additional information on employment out look.) Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of officers depend upon rank and the size and type of ship. Wages are highest on large ships. The accompanying tabulation shows monthly base wages for officers aboard an average freighter. Addi tional payments for overtime, sup plemental pay and “penalty pay” generally average about 50 percent of base pay. A monthly sum in lieu of overtime is paid to captains, chief mates, chief engineers and first and third assistant engineers who do not stand watch. The officer’s rank and the type of ship determine the monthly sum, which ranged from $218 to $700 in 1970. B ase p a y 1 Captain .......................................... $2,305 First m a te............................. 1,271 Second m ate......................... 901 Third mate ........................... 809 Radio officer......................... 996 Purser ................................... 2 743 Chief engineer ..................... 2,126 First assistant engineer........ 1,271 Second assistant engineer.... 901 Third assistant engineer...... 809 1 East Coast wages in August 1970 aboard a 12,000-17,000 power ton single screw ship. 2 Purser/pharmacist mate, $806. Officers and their dependents enjoy substantial benefits from non contributory pension and welfare plans. For example, deck officers are eligible for a monthly pension of $325 after 20 years of service, and up to one-half their monthly rate after 25 years of service. Men forced to retire prematurely due to a permanent disability receive par tial pensions. Comprehensive medi cal care and hospitalization are pro vided for officers and their families through union programs. Aboard ship, each officer has a private room with hot and cold run ning water, and his room is cleaned daily by a steward. Officers eat in a dining salon separate from the messhall in which seamen eat. A number of labor organizations represent merchant marine officers. The two largest are the Interna tional Organization of Masters, Mates and Pilots representing deck officers and the National Marine Engineers’ Beneficial Association representing engineering officers. Unions for Officers may require initiation fees as high as $1,000. The Brotherhood of Marine Officers represents deck and engine officers on about 30 vessels. The Staff Officers Association represents pursers on all Atlantic and Gulf Coast passenger vessels and certain freighters. Radio officers are repre sented by the American Radio As sociation and the Radio Officers Union. In addition, a number of in dependent unions represent officers on tankers. (See introductory statement on Merchant Marine Occupations for more information on earnings and working conditions.) Sources of Additional Information General information about jobs in the merchant marine may be ob tained from: Office of Maritime Manpower, Mari time Administration, U.S. De partment of Commerce, Washing ton, D.C. 20235. Information about job openings, qualifications for employment, wage scales and other particulars can be obtained from local maritime un ions. If no seafaring union is listed in a local telephone directory, infor mation may be obtained from the following: International Organization of Mas ters, Mates and Pilots, 39 Broad way, New York, N.Y. 10006. National Marine Engineers’ Benefi cial Association, 17 Battery Place, New York, N.Y. 10004. 748 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK men. Dry cargo and tanker vessels usually have six able seamen, two of whom are assigned to each watch. These skilled workers must have a thorough knowledge of all parts of Nature of the Work the ship and be able to handle all Unlicensed seamen make up gear and deck equipment. They act most of a ship’s crew and do most as helmsmen or quartermasters to of the manual labor. Employment is steer the ship. Usually, they each along craft lines with varying skill take 2-hour turns at the wheel, and levels and includes the following de as lookouts report sightings to the partments: Deck, engine, and stew watch officer. Able seamen on pas senger ships perform many of the ard’s department. same functions as those on freight DECK DEPARTMENT. Ordi nary Seamen (D.O.T. 911.887), ers and tankers. Able seamen are also responsible the entry rating in the deck depart ment, scrub decks, coil and splice for rigging, overhauling, and stow ropes, chip rust, paint, clean per ing cargo-handling and other gear. sonnel quarters of the deck depart They must be able to tie common ment, and do other general mainte knots and handle mooring lines nance work. Ordinary seamen also when the ship is docking or depart may relieve the helmsman and look ing. In addition to their more out. All freighters and tankers cus skilled tasks, they perform general tomarily employ three ordinary sea deck maintenance work similar to men; each man is assigned a watch that performed by ordinary seamen. Because of the ever-present dan at sea. Able Seamen (D.O.T. 911.884) ger of fire at sea, able seamen must constitute about one-fifth of the sea be familiar with approved methods of five prevention and control. They participate in periodic boat drills and are trained in all operations connected with launching lifeboats and life rafts, and handling of the boats and commanding boat crews. The boatswain (D.O.T. 911.131), or bosun, is a day worker (nonwatchstander) and the highest rank ing able seaman. As foreman in charge of the deck crew he relays the deck officers’ orders and sees that such orders are carried out. The boatswain assists the chief mate in assigning work for crew members not on watch duty and directs gen eral maintenance operations such as cleaning decks and polishing metal work. When the ship docks or an chors, he supervises the deck crew in handling the lines used for moor ing. Most cargo vessels carry one to UNLICENSED MERCHANT SEAMEN three deck utilitymen (D.O.T. 911.884), day workers who main tain the deck department under the direct supervision of the boatswain. Deck utilitymen must qualify as able seamen so that in emergencies they may stand watch. They deter mine the condition of bilges (compartments in the bottom of the hull), overhaul blocks, and do general maintenance work. Some vessels carry a ship’s car penter (D.O.T. 860.281) who se cures cargo hatches and ports, and braces (shores) cargo. He may op erate winches that hoist and drop the anchor and seal the hawsepipes (steel pipes through which anchor chains pass) when anchor and chains are not in use. Because of mechanization, newer ships are sail ing with fewer carpenters and deck utilitymen. ENGINE DEPARTMENT. The engineering staff consists of a variety of occupational specialties requiring varying degrees of skill from the entry rating of wiper to specialized skilled jobs such as reefer engineer. Wipers (D.O.T. 699.887) are day workers who keep the engine room and machinery clean. Most cargo vessels carry two or three wipers. Oilers (D.O.T. 911.884) lubricate moving parts or wearing surfaces of mechanical equipment. They make regular rounds of ship machinery to check oil pressures and flow. They inspect the machin ery for overheating, fuel supply, and apply proper grades of grease or oil to all machinery. Oilers may help overhaul and repair main and auxil iary engines. Firemen/watertenders (D.O.T. 951. 885) check and regu late the amount of water in the boil ers; inspect gauges; regulate fuel oil gauges to keep steam pressure con stant; and change and clean burner nozzles. They also check the operation of evaporators and con- 749 MERCHANT MARINE OCCUPATIONS partment. These beginning jobs re quire little skill. Generally, utilitymen carry food supplies from the storeroom and iceboxes; prepare vegetables; wash cooking utensils and scour galley equipment. Messmen set tables, serve meals, clean tables, wash dishes, and care for liv ing quarters. Places of Employment densers and test water for salt con trol; clean oil burning equipment; remove, clean, and replace burners; and clean strainers used to filter dirt from oil. The ship’s electrician (D.O.T. 825.281) takes orders from the chief engineer. He repairs and maintains electrical equipment, such as generators and motors. He tests wiring for short circuits and re moves and replaces fuses and defec tive lights. Many vessels carry a sec ond electrician to help maintain and repair electricial equipment and ma chinery. All automated vessels carry deck-engine mechanics of whom one usually is classified as a day worker and three as watchstanders. Mechanics replace the oilers and firemen-watertenders on conven tional vessels. Certain types of ships require men who have special skills, such as refrigeration engineers (D.O.T. 950.782) who operate re frigerator compartments for perish able cargoes such as meat and vege tables. STEWARD’S DEPARTMENT. The chief steward (D.O.T. 350.138) supervises the operation and maintenance of the living quar ters of officers, crew, and passen gers. He directs and supervises all the department’s personnel, orders and purchases food supplies, in spects and stores supplies, and su pervises the preparation and serving of meals and the care and upkeep of living quarters. The chief cook (D.O.T. 315.131) and assistant cooks prepare meals. The chief cook helps the steward plan meals and draw pantry supplies from the storeroom. He also supervises the other galley (ship’s kitchen) workers and is responsible for keep ing the galley clean and orderly. The chief cook may be assisted by a cook baker (D.O.T. 315.381). Utilitymen (D.O.T. 318.887) and messmen (D.O.T. 350.878) com plete the crew in the steward’s de Seamen employed aboard U.S. oceangoing vessels numbered about 31,000 in mid-1970. Skilled deck and engine seamen made up about one-half of the work force and skilled personnel in the steward’s department, one-sixth. The stew ard’s department employs the great est concentration of unskilled workers, about one-fifth of total seamen. About 65 percent of the seamen were aboard dry cargo ships, and about 28 percent were aboard tank ers. The remaining 7 percent manned passenger ships. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although not required, previous sea experience in the Coast Guard or Navy provides a good back ground for entering the merchant marine. Applicants must possess health certificates. In addition, every person going to sea for the first time must obtain seaman’s pa pers from the U.S. Coast Guard. Seaman’s papers, however, do not guarantee a job. They merely qual ify a person to be considered for a job when the supply of regular workers has been exhausted. To get a job, a man must be present at the hiring hall when the opening be comes available. In good shipping times an opening may come within 750 a few days or weeks; in less pros perous times an opening may never appear. An inexperienced man usually gets a job by applying for work at a central hiring hall in one of the chief ports of the country. These hiring halls are operated by unions for commercial vessels and by the Navy’s Military Sealift Command (MSC) for government operated ships. In most ports along the At lantic and Gulf Coasts and Great Lakes, the National Maritime Union or Seafarers’ International Union operate hiring halls. The Sailors Union of the Pacific operates hiring halls in many ports of the West Coast. MSTS employment offices are located at Brooklyn, N.Y.; New Orleans, La.; and Oak land, Calif. The jobseeker is given a shipping card when he registers at the hiring hall. The shipping companies send job orders to the hiring hall and the applicant unemployed the longest is entitled to the first preference on a job for which he is qualified. The applicant must be present at the hall when the job is announced and he may lose his place if he is not pres ent, or has turned down three job offers. A seaman advances in the deck and engine departments by serving a designated period in a rating and by successfully completing a Coast Guard examination which tests the seaman’s ability to use and maintain the equipment in his department. For example, after serving a mini mum of 1 year, the ordinary seaman may apply to the Coast Guard for limited endorsement as an able sea man. For full endorsement, the ap plicant must be 19 years of age and pass an examination to test his knowledge of seamanship and abil ity to carry out all the duties re quired of an able seaman. Seamen OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK who have the ability to supervise may advance to boatswain after years of service. Advancement to higher positions in the steward’s department is by recommendation of the chief stew ard to the captain. A messman or utilityman can advance to third cook, to cook/baker, to chief cook, and finally to chief steward. Most training programs in the in dustry are designed to help experi enced men upgrade their ratings. However, the Seafarers’ Interna tional Union of North America op erates the Harry Lundeberg School for seamanship at Piney Point, Md. that accepts and trains in general seamanship skills a limited number of young men who have no previous sea experience. Upgrading courses for seamen are offered by the Sea farers’ Union; the National Mari time Union of America, and a num ber of other organizations. Employment Outlook Workers seeking employment as seamen will face keen competition during the 1970’s as the total num ber of ships declines and crews are reduced. The total number of sea men is expected to decline moder ately. Demand for men in entry rat ings will be especially limited. How ever, some jobs will arise each year from the need to replace experi enced seamen who retire, die, or quit the sea for other reasons. Many of the merchant vessels now operating in the U.S. fleet are of World War II vintage and are ap proaching obsolescence. New ships and refitted ships are equipped with mechanized features which limit manpower requirements, particular ly in the unskilled ranks. (See introductory statement on Merchant Marine Occupations for additional information on employment out look. ) Earnings and Working Conditions Crew members of American mer chant ships enjoy excellent pay and fringe benefits. Most jobs provide 60 days’ paid vacation each year, some even longer. Earnings depend on job assignments and type of ves sel. Basic monthly pay for a cross section of ratings on a typical freighter is illustrated in the accom panying tabulation: B ase p a y 1 Able seaman ............................... $499 Ordinary seaman ......................... 389 Deck utilityman ........................... 557 Carpenter ...................................... 603 Electrician ................................... 771 Oiler .............................................. 499 Fireman/watertender ................ 499 Wiper ............................................ 463 Chief steward ............................... 655 Cook/baker ................................. 567 Messman/utilityman .................. 306 1 East Coast wages in August 1970 aboard a 12,000-17,000 power ton single screw ship. Monthly earnings are supple mented by premium pay for over time and other factors. On the aver age, premium earnings are equal to about 50 percent of base wages. For example, an oiler with a monthly base pay of $499 may regularly earn about $750 each month. A person working in the engine room must be able to withstand high temperatures. A deckworker must adapt to both the bitter cold and hot sun. Accommodations for seamen aboard U.S. merchant vessels are generally good, but not luxurious. Meals are served in a mess hall, which often doubles as a recreation room where the crew can read, write letters, play cards, and social ize. Crewmen generally share quar- 751 MERCHANT MARINE OCCUPATIONS ters aboard older ships and have lit tle privacy, but most new ships have single rooms. Seamen are represented by a number of labor organizations; the two largest are the National Mari time Union of America and the Sea farers’ International Union of North America. (See introductory statement on Merchant Marine Occupations for more information on earnings and working conditions.) Sources of Additional Information General information about jobs in the merchant marine may be ob tained from: Office of Maritime Manpower, Mari time Administration, U.S. Depart ment of Commerce, Washington, D.C. 20235. Information about job openings, qualifications for employment, wage scales and other particulars can be obtained from local maritime un ions. If no seafaring union is listed in a local telephone directory, infor mation may be obtained from: National Maritime Union of Ameri ca, 36 Seventh Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10011. Seafarers’ International Union of North America, 675 Fourth Ave nue, Brooklyn, N.Y. 11232. R A D IO A N D T E L E V IS IO N B R O A D C A S T IN G O C C U P A T IO N S The glamor and excitement asso ciated with radio and television make careers in broadcasting attrac tive to many young people. The electronic technology involved in transmitting programs and the busi ness aspects of operating a broad casting station or network also are attractions. In 1970, 112,000 full time and 26,000 part-time staff were employed in broadcasting; al together, approximately 60 percent were employed in radio. Staff em ployees work for a broadcasting sta tion or network on a regularly scheduled and continuous basis. In addition to staff employees, several thousand freelance performers, such as actors, musicians, dancers, come dians and top-level announcers work on specific assignments from stations, networks, and other pro gram producers. (Several thousand other employees work for independ ent program producers in activities closely related to broadcasting, such as the preparation of filmed and taped programs and commercials for broadcasting.) Women make up almost a fourth of broadcasting staff employment. They frequently work as production assistants, producers, newswriters, continuity writers, casting direc tors, and costume or set designers. They also work in the many office occupations often filled by women. A job as secretary is frequently a good entry job for women interested in the programing and administra tive areas of broadcasting. Broadcasting stations offer a vari ety of interesting jobs in all parts of the country. Opportunities for entry jobs are best at stations in small communities. Generally, the most 752 specialized and best paying jobs are in large cities, especially those with national network stations. Neverthe less, the talented individual will have many opportunities to advance to good paying jobs in stations lo cated in smaller communities. Nature and Location of the Industry In 1970 about 6,400 commercial radio stations were in operation in the United States. Of these, approxi mately 4,300 were AM stations; and approximately 2,100 were FM stations. During this same period, about 690 commercial television stations were in operation. Most commercial radio broad casting stations are small, independ ent businesses. In 1969, the aver age commercial radio station had about 11 full-time employees and 3 part-time workers. Television sta tions were generally larger, and on the average, they employed about 60 full-time and 7 part-time em ployees. Commercial radio stations are served by seven nationwide net works and a large number of re gional networks. Stations can affiliate with networks by agreeing to broadcast their programs on a regular basis. National radio net works have affiliated stations in al most every large metropolitan area, although only a minority of all radio stations are affiliated with national networks. Regional radio networks have fewer affiliated stations, and their activities usually consist of ar ranging for the sale of advertising time, and interconnecting member stations for special events such as baseball and football games. Re gional networks have few full-time employees because their program ing is conducted by staff employees of the affiliated stations. The seven national radio networks, together, employed approximately 1,150 workers in 1969. Most television stations depend on one of the three national televi sion networks for programs that would be too expensive for individ ual stations to originate—for exam ple, sports events such as world se ries baseball games, or newscasts of national and international signifi cance. These networks, in turn, can offer national coverage to sponsors. Since some small cities have only one or two television stations, these stations often carry the programs of two or three networks to offer their viewers a wider variety of pro grams. A typical network television show may be carried by up to 200 stations across the country. In 1969 the three national television net works employed about 13,000 workers, or 3 of every 10 staff em ployees in television. Practically all large broadcasting stations are lo cated in metropolitan areas. About one out of four broadcasting jobs are in New York and California be cause New York City and Los An geles are the two major centers for origination of network programs. In addition, one out of three broad casting jobs are in Texas, Pennsyl vania, Illinois, Ohio, Florida, Michi gan, North Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, and Indiana. The balance of broadcasting jobs are distributed throughout the other States. In addition to commercial broad casting stations, there were over 400 noncommercial radio stations (mainly FM), and approximately 190 noncommercial television sta tions, both VHF and UHF, in 1970. These stations are operated by non-profit organizations, principally educational agencies such as State RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING OCCUPATIONS commissions; local boards of educa also the owner, may act as business tion; colleges and universities; and and sales manager, or perhaps as special community educational tele program director, announcer, and vision organizations. According to a copywriter. Announcers in small private survey for fiscal ’69, these stations may do their own writing, stations employed approximately often operate the studio control 5,500 full-time and 2,600 part-time board, and may even act as sales workers accounting for about one men. The engineering staff may consist of only one full-time broad out of 20 in broadcasting. cast technician assisted by workers from the other departments. Small low-powered stations, which do not Broadcasting Occupations use a directional antenna, may em Employees of broadcasting sta ploy a chief engineer part-time and tions generally specialize in one of share his services with similar sta the following four major areas: pre tions in the community. In large paring and producing programs; op radio and television stations, jobs erating and maintaining electronic are more specialized and usually are equipment (for transmitting sounds confined to one of the four depart and pictures to home receivers); ments. The kinds of jobs found in selling broadcast time and develop each of these departments are de ing publicity and promotional mate scribed below. rial; and handling general business matters (including accounting, pay Programing Department. Staff em roll, public relations, personnel ad ployees produce the daily and ministration, and the clerical work). weekly shows, assign personnel to Nearly half of all staff employees cover special events, and provide in broadcasting hold professional and technical jobs such as staff an nouncer, newsman, continuity writ er, or broadcast technician. About one-fourth hold managerial jobs such as producer, manager, or director. Clerical workers accounted for about one of every seven workers, and sales workers for only slightly more than one of every 20 jobs in broadcasting. Of the remain ing workers in broadcasting, skilled mechanics, such as radio and televi sion repairmen, and skilled mainte nance personnel, such as carpenters and electricians, were the largest groups of workers employed. Job duties vary greatly between small and large stations. In small radio stations, a large proportion of broadcast time consists of recorded music and weather and news an nouncements. In small stations, the station manager, who frequently is 753 general program services such as sound effects and lighting. In addi tion to these staff employees, free lance actors, comedians, singers, dancers, some well-known announc ers, and other entertainers are hired for specific broadcasts or a se ries of broadcasts or for special as signments. These performers work on a contract basis for the station, network, advertising agency, spon sor, or an independent company and specialize in producing pro grams. The size of a station’s programing department depends on the extent to which its broadcasts are live, re corded, or received from a network. In small stations, the program func tions are handled by a few people who make commercial announce ments, read news and sports sum maries, select and play recordings, and introduce network programs. A large television station, on the other hand, may have a program staff consisting of a large number of peo- 754 pie in a wide variety of specialized jobs. Responsibility for the overall program schedule of a large station rests with a program director. He arranges for a combination of pro grams that he believes will be most effective in meeting the needs of ad vertisers who buy the station’s serv ices and will at the same time be most attractive and interesting to members of the community served by the station. Daily schedules of programs are prepared by a traffic manager, who also keeps a record of broadcasting time available for advertising. A continuity director is responsible for the writing and editing of all scripts. He may be assisted by a continuity writer, who prepares Announcers’ Books (“copy”). These books con tain the script and commercials for each program along with their se quence and length. Individual programs or series of programs are planned and super vised by a director. In large sta tions, he may work under the super vision of a producer, who assumes responsibility for selection of scripts, financial control, and other overall problems of production. Many times these functions are combined in the job of producerdirector. The director’s major func tions include selecting appropriate artists and studio personnel, sched uling and conducting rehearsals, coordinating the efforts of all the people involved in the show to produce effective entertainment, and directing the on-the-air show. He may be assisted by an associate director, who takes over such tasks as working out detailed schedules and plans, arranging for distribution of scripts and changes in scripts to the cast, and assisting in directing the on-the-air show. Some stations employ program assistants to aid in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK carrying out the orders of the direc tor and his assistants. The assistants help assemble and coordinate the various parts of the show. They ar range for obtaining props, makeup service, art work, and film slides. They assist in timing the on-the-air show, preparing cue cards from the scripts, and using them to cue the performers. Education and public affairs directors act as a link be tween the station and schools, churches, and civic and charitable institutions. They supervise and edit most noncommercial programs. Announcers are the largest and best known group of program workers. In radio and television sta tions of all sizes, the announcer in troduces programs, guests, and mu sical selections, and delivers most of the live commercial messages. (Fur ther information on broadcast an nouncers is given later in this chapter.) Music is an important part of radio programing. Both small and large stations use recordings and transcriptions to provide musical programs and background music for other shows. Large stations, which have extensive music libraries, some times employ a music librarian, who maintains the music files and an swers requests for any particular se lection or type of music. In addition to recorded music, a few of the larg est stations have specialized person nel who plan and arrange for musi cal services. The musical director selects, arranges, and directs suit able music for programs on general instructions from the program direc tor. He selects musicians for live broadcasts and directs them during rehearsals and broadcasts. Musi cians are generally hired for par ticular assignments on a freelance basis, although a few stations em ploy staff musicians full-time. News gathering and reporting is an increasingly important aspect of radio and television programing. In addition to daily coverage of the news, sports, weather, and, in rural areas, farm reports, the news de partment also presents special pro grams covering such events as con ventions and disasters. The news director plans and supervises the overall news and special events cov erage of a station. A newscaster broadcasts daily news programs and reports special news events on the scene. A newswriter selects and writes news copy to be read on the air by the newscasters. In small sta tions the jobs of newscaster and newswriter frequently are com bined. Stations that originate live televi sion shows must have staff members capable of handling staging jobs. The studio supervisor plans and su pervises the setting up of scenery and props. The floor or stage man ager plans and directs the actors’ positions and movements on the set in accordance with the director’s in structions. The jobs of studio super visor and floor manager often are combined. Floormen set up props, hold cue cards, and do the unskilled chores around the studio. (This job is frequently held by a beginner in the production department.) Makeup artists prepare personnel for broadcasts by applying proper makeup. Scenic designers plan and design settings and backgrounds for programs. They select furniture, draperies, pictures, and other prop erties to help convey the desired visual impressions. Sound effects technicians operate special equip ment to simulate sounds, such as gunfire or falling water. About half of all television pro graming is on film, about 15 percent is live, and the remainder is re corded on magnetic video tape. Video tape recording is done by RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING OCCUPATIONS News writers revise information for clearance and editing. broadcast technicians on electronic equipment that permits instanta neous playback of a television per formance. It can be used either to record a live show being broadcast or to prerecord a program for fu ture broadcast. For filmed pro grams, the role of the station’s pro graming staff is limited to editing the film and timing and scheduling the show. Many stations employ specialized staff members to take care of filmed program material. The film editor edits and prepares all film for on-the-air presentation. This includes screening all films re ceived as well as cutting and splic ing feature films to insert commer cials. He also edits all locally produced film. The film librarian catalogs and maintains the station’s files of motion picture film. Engineering Department. The main tasks of the engineering staff are positioning microphones, adjust ing levels of sound, keeping trans mitters operating properly, moving and adjusting television cameras to produce clear, well-composed pic tures, and lighting television scenes and performers. The staff also in stalls, maintains, and repairs the many types of electrical and elec tronic equipment required for these operations. Broadcast technicians in the engi neering department perform a vari ety of jobs in the radio or television station. For example, they control the operation of the transmitter to 755 keep the output level and frequency of the outgoing broadcast within legal requirements. They also set up, operate, and maintain equip ment in the studio and in locations from which remote broadcasts are to be made. (Further information on broadcast technicians is given later in this chapter.) Most stations employ a chief en gineer, who has responsibility for all engineering matters, including su pervision of other technicians. In small stations, he also may work a regular shift at the control board. Large stations have engineers who specialize in fields such as sound re cording, maintenance, and lighting. Networks employ a few develop ment engineers to design and de velop new electronic apparatus to meet special problems. Sales Department. Time sales men, the largest group of workers in this department, sell time on the air to sponsors, advertising agencies, and other buyers. They must have a thorough knowledge of the station’s operations and the characteristics of the area it serves that are of most interest to advertisers. The latter in clude population, number of radio and television sets in use, income levels, and consumption patterns. Time salesmen in large stations often maintain close relationships with particular sponsors and adver tising agencies by selling time and acting as general consultants and advisers in matters pertaining to ad vertising through the station. In very small stations, the time sales man also may handle other func tions. Many stations sell a substan tial part of their time, particularly to national advertisers, through inde pendent sales agencies known as station representatives, which act as intermediaries for time buyers and stations or groups of stations. Large stations generally have 756 several workers who do only sales work. The sales manager supervises his staff of time salesmen. He also may handle a few of the largest ac counts personally. Some large sta tions employ statistical clerks and research personnel to assist the sales staff by analyzing and report ing market data relating to the com munity served. Business Management. In a very small station, the owner and his sec retary may handle all the record keeping, accounting, purchasing, hiring, and other more routine office work. Where the size of the station warrants the employment of full time specialists, the business staff may include accountants, publicity specialists, personnel workers, and other professional workers. They are assisted by office workers such as stenographers, typists, bookkeep ers, clerks, and messengers. Build ing maintenance men are employed to keep the facilities in good condi tion. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school diploma is the min imum educational requirement for entry jobs in broadcasting, although for many jobs some college training is increasingly preferred. A liberal arts education is a good qualifica tion for the beginner because broad casting needs broadly educated peo ple with knowledge and interests in many areas. Work in television pro graming for networks and large in dependent stations generally re quires a college degree and some experience in the broadcasting field. Training in specialized areas such as writing, public speaking, dramat ics, designing, makeup, or electron ics may be required of beginners in these specialties, even though work experience usually is not necessary. Some young people without special ized training or experience get their start in broadcasting in such jobs as clerk, typist, floorman, or assistant to an experienced worker. As these new workers gain knowledge and experience, they have the chance to advance to more responsible jobs. Young people are sometimes hired on the basis of their potentialities rather than for any specific training or experience, but the more skills, education, and varied background these beginners have, the better will be their chances for advancement. A few young people get started in broadcasting with temporary jobs in the summer when regular workers go on vacations, and broadcast schedules of daylight hours stations are increased. Technical training in electronics is required for entry jobs in engi neering departments. In addition, anyone who operates or adjusts a broadcast transmitter must have a Federal Communications Commis sion (FCC) Radiotelephone First Class Operator License. To obtain this license, an applicant must pass a series of technical examinations given by the FCC. Small radio sta tions with only a few employees sometimes prefer to have as many personnel as possible legally quali fied to operate their transmitters. Because of this, nontechnicians, especially announcers, will have a better chance of getting a job in radio if they have a first class li cense. A course in electronics at a recognized technical institute is probably the best way to prepare for the FCC test. Specific training or experience usually is not required for entry jobs as announcers in small stations, but an applicant must have a good voice, a broad cultural background, and other characteristics that make him a dramatic or attractive person ality. Qualifications for adminstrative and sales jobs in broadcasting are similar to those required by other employers; a business course of study in high school or college is good preparation for such jobs. RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING OCCUPATIONS Most beginners start out in small stations. Although these stations cannot pay high salaries, they offer new workers opportunities to learn many different phases of broadcast ing work because they generally use their personnel in “combination” jobs. For example, in addition to his regular duties, an announcer may perform some of the duties of a broadcast technician. People in the engineering depart ment tend to remain in this area of work, where thorough training in electronics is essential. Program employees usually remain in pro graming work, although sometimes transfers from and to the sales and business services departments are made. Transfers are easier between sales and administrative depart ments because of their close work ing relationship; in fact, in the small stations, they are often merged into one department. Although transfers of experienced workers between de partments are limited to the extent noted, these distinctions are less im portant in the beginning jobs and also in the top-level jobs. At the higher levels, a station executive may be drawn from top-level per sonnel of any department. Many top-level administrative jobs are filled by people with sales experi ence. Employment Outlook Employment in the broadcasting industry is expected to grow at a moderate pace for the balance of the 1970’s. More job opportunities will result from replacement, as thousands of job openings become available as workers transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone will provide an estimated 3,800 job openings annually. New radio stations will be estab lished over the period, primarily in small communities, and will offer opportunities for some additional workers. Also, cable television (CATV) has emerged as a power ful new force in communications and some additional job opportuni ties for professional, technical, and maintenance personnel will be created as CATV systems increas ingly originate and transmit pro grams. By using coaxial cables in stead of airwaves, CATV can bring to subscribers a large selection of over-the-air signals plus many addi tional programs originated for cable television. The number of educational broadcasting stations is expected to increase as private and governmen tal groups continue to expand this medium as an educational tool. The growth of educational television sta tions, particularly, should increase the number of job opportunities, especially in programing, engineer ing, and station management. In existing radio stations, em ployment probably will remain about the same. Continued intro duction of equipment that permits the control of transmitters from the studio will eliminate the need for a technical crew at the transmitter site. Automatic programing equip ment permits radio stations to pro vide virtually unattended program ing service. As the smaller television stations acquire the capability to originate local color telecasts, there may be a small expansion in the number of technical workers to han dle and operate the more complex equipment. Competition will be very keen for entry jobs in broadcasting in the years ahead, especially in the large cities, because of the attraction this field has for young people, and the 757 relatively few beginning jobs that will be available. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, earnings of nonsupervisory broadcasting workers averaged $147.45 a week or $3.86 an hour for an average 38.2-hour week. There is a wide range of salaries among various occupations in the industry and among locations. Em ployees in large cities generally earn much more than those in the same kinds of jobs in small towns. Wages also tend to be higher in large sta tions than in small ones and higher in television than in radio. Working conditions in broadcast ing stations are usually pleasant. The work is done in clean, attrac tive surroundings. It is performed indoors, except where remote pick ups are involved. Jobs in program ing are particularly attractive to young people interested in the per forming arts, both because of the glamour attached to this field of work, and the opportunities it af fords for high earnings and artistic expression. Most full-time broadcasting em ployees have a scheduled 40-hour workweek. However, employees in many small stations have a longer workweek. Sales and business serv ices employees generally work in the daytime hours common to most office jobs. However, program and engineering employees must work shifts which may include evenings, nights, weekends, and holidays. To meet a broadcast deadline, program and technical employees in the net works may have to work contin uously for many hours under great pressure. Many unions operate in the broadcasting field. They are most active in the network centers and 758 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK large stations in metropolitan areas. The National Association of Broad cast Employees and Technicians and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers both organize all kinds of broadcasting workers, although most of their members are technicians. The International Alli ance of Theatrical Stage Employees and Moving Picture Machine Oper ators organizes various crafts, such as stagehands, sound and lighting technicians, wardrobe attendants, makeup men, and cameramen. Many announcers and entertainers are members of the American Fed eration of Television and Radio Artists. The Directors Guild of America, Ind. (Inc.) organizes pro gram directors, associate directors, and stage managers. The Screen Actors Guild Inc., represents the majority of talent personnel who appear on films made for television. RADIO AND TELEVISION ANNOUNCERS (D.O.T. 159.148) Nature of the Work Radio and television staff an nouncers present news and live commercial messages, introduce programs, describe sporting events, act as masters of ceremonies, con duct interviews, and identify sta tions. In small stations, they may perform additional duties such as operating the control board, selling time, and writing commercial and news copy. In large stations, their duties are confined to the program ing department. Many announcers act as disc jockeys, introducing selections of recorded music and commenting on the music and other matters of in terest to the audience. Disc jockeys “ad-lib” much of the commentary, working without a detailed script. About 17,000 staff announcers were employed on a regularly scheduled, full-time basis in radio and television broadcasting stations in 1970. More than 80 percent of them were employed in radio. The average radio station employed 2 announcers; larger stations em ployed 4 or more. Most television stations employed 2 staff announc ers, although larger stations some times employed 3 or more. In addi tion to staff announcers, several thousand freelance announcers sell their services for individual assign ments to networks and stations, or to advertising agencies and other in dependent producers, for both pro grams (news, sports, disc jockey, etc.) and commercials. Some an nouncers become well-known and highly paid personalities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To succeed as an announcer, one must have a pleasant and well-con trolled voice, a good sense of tim ing, and excellent pronunciation. In addition, a thorough knowledge of correct English usage and a knowl edge of dramatics, sports, music, and current events improve chances for success. In television, rather high standards of personal appear ance also must be met. When on the air, an announcer must be able to react quickly and imaginatively in unusual situations. He also must be a convincing salesman when pre senting commercials. In addition to all the above qualifications, the most successful announcers have a combination of personality and showmanship that makes them at tractive to audiences. Therefore, anyone considering a career as an announcer should judge his chances of success realistically. Most an nouncers are men, but there are a few opportunities for women. High school courses in English, public speaking, dramatics, and for eign languages, plus sports and music hobbies, are valuable back ground for prospective announcers. A number of vocational schools offer training in announcing, and some universities offer courses of study in the broadcasting field. A college liberal arts education also provides an excellent background for an announcer. Most announcers get their first broadcasting jobs in small stations. Because announcers in small sta tions sometimes operate transmit ters, prospective announcers often obtain an FCC Radiotelephone First Class Operator License which en ables them legally to operate a transmitter and, therefore, makes them much more useful to these stations. Announcers more fre quently operate control boards, for which only a Third Class license is required. (For information on how to obtain such licenses, see p. 756.) Announcers usually work in sev eral different stations in the course of their careers. After acquiring ex perience at a station in a small com munity, an ambitious and talented 759 RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING OCCUPATIONS announcer may move to a better paying job in a larger community. He also may advance by getting a regular program as a disc jockey, sportscaster, or other specialist. In the national networks, competition for announcing jobs is intense, and an announcer usually must be a col lege graduate and have several years of successful announcing ex perience before he will be given an audition. Employment Outlook The employment of announcers is expected to increase moderately in the 1970’s, as new radio and tele vision stations are licensed. The gains in employment resulting from these openings during this period, however, will be reduced slightly by the increased use of automatic pro graming. Some job openings in this relatively small occupation will also result from transfers to other fields of work and from retirements and deaths. It will be easier to get an entry job in radio than in television be cause of the greater number of radio stations, especially small sta tions which hire beginners. How ever, the great attraction this field has for young people and its rela tively small size will result in keen competition for entry jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of staff announcers vary and depend upon whether the an nouncer works in radio or televi sion, in a large or small station, or in a large or small community. As a general rule, wages increase with the size of the community and the station. Earnings of an announcer in television tend to be somewhat higher than those in radio. The earnings of many better paid announcers include fees in addition to the salaries received from sta tions. Such fees are larger and more common in television than in radio. In small radio stations, announcers generally are paid a fixed weekly or monthly salary. Announcers who work in regular shows, such as disc jockeys or announcers who become identified with popular network radio or television programs, earn considerably more than other staff announcers. Most announcers in large stations work a 40-hour week and receive overtime for work beyond 40 hours. In small stations, many announcers work 2 to 8 hours of overtime each week. Evening, night, and weekend work occurs frequently since many stations are on the air 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Announcers’ working hours consist of both time on the air and time spent in prepar ing for broadcasts. Working condi tions are usually pleasant because of the variety of work and the many personal contacts which are part of the job. Announcers also receive some satisfaction from becoming well known in the area their station serves. BROADCAST TECHNICIANS (D.O.T. 194.281, .282, and .782; 957.282; and 963.168 through .887) Nature of the Work Broadcast technicians set up, op erate, and maintain the electronic equipment used to record or trans mit radio and television programs. They work with microphones, sound recorders, lighting and sound effects devices, television cameras, magnetic video tape recorders, and motion picture projection equip ment. In the control room, broad cast technicians operate equipment that regulates the quality of sounds and pictures being recorded or 760 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ***** Broadcast technician controls quality of transmission. broadcast. They also operate con trols that switch broadcasts from one camera or studio to another, from film to live programing, or from network to local programs. By means of hand signals and, in televi sion, by use of telephone head sets, they give technical directions to personnel in the studio. When working on disc jockey programs, they sometimes operate phonograph record turntables. Other control room duties may include operating movie projectors, making record ings of live shows, and keeping an operation log of all broadcasts. As a rule, broadcast technicians in small stations perform a wide va riety of duties. In large stations and in networks, technicians are more specialized, although specific job as signments may change from day to day. Broadcast technicians who spe cialize may be given titles such as transmitter technician (monitors and logs outgoing signals and is re sponsible for proper operation of the transmitter), maintenance tech nician (sets up, maintains, and re pairs electronic broadcasting equip ment), audio control technician (operates controls that regulate sound pickup, transmission, and switching), video control technician (operates controls that regulate the quality, brightness, and contrast of television pictures), lighting techni cian (directs lighting of television programs), field technician (sets up and operates broadcasting equip ment for programs originating out side the studio), recording techni cian (operates and maintains sound recording equipment), and video tape recording technician (operates and maintains magnetic video tape recording equipment). Sometimes the term “engineer” is substituted for technician in the above titles. Installing and maintaining com plex electronic equipment is the most technically difficult work of broadcast technicians. Most techni cians do at least occasional mainte nance, but large stations usually have one or two experienced men who repair and maintain electronic equipment under supervision of the chief engineer. In small radio sta tions, the chief engineer frequently does all maintenance and repair work himself. When events taking place outside the studios are to be broadcast, technicians go to the site of the pickup and set up, test, and operate the necessary equipment. They also make emergency repairs. After the broadcast, they dismantle the equip ment and return to the station. In 1970, over 22,000 nonsupervisory broadcast technicians were employed in radio and television stations. Most radio stations employ fewer than four technicians, al though a few large radio stations may employ more than 10. Nearly all television stations employ at least five broadcast technicians. Sta tions located in large metropolitan areas average about 30 technicians. Many broadcast technicians work in communities of more than 250,000 RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING OCCUPATIONS population. The highest paying and most specialized jobs are concen trated in New York, Los Angeles, and Washington, D.C.—the origi nating centers for most of the net work programs. In addition to the nonsupervisory technicians, several thousand super visory personnel with job titles such as chief engineer, assistant chief en gineer, director of engineering, technical director, and supervisory technician work in engineering de partments. These workers supervise personnel who operate, maintain, and repair all electronic equipment in the studio, at the transmitter, and on remote broadcasting sites. They may also do maintenance and repair work, design and build new equip ment, purchase equipment for the station, and help lay out plans for building new studios, transmitters, relay equipment, and towers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A young man interested in be coming a broadcast technician should plan to get a Radiotelephone First Class Operator License from the FCC. Federal law requires that anyone who operates or adjusts broadcast transmitters in television and radio stations must hold such a license. Some stations require all their broadcast technicians, includ ing those who do not operate transmitters, to have this license. Applicants for the license must pass a series of written examinations covering the construction and op eration of transmission and receiv ing equipment, the characteristics of electromagnetic waves, and Fed eral Government and international regulations and practices governing broadcasting. Information about these examinations and guides to study for them may be obtained from the FCC, Washington, D.C. 20036. High school courses in algebra and trigonometry, and in physics and other sciences, provide valuable background for young men antici pating careers in this occupation. Building and operating an amateur radio station is also good training. A good way to acquire the knowledge necessary for becoming a broadcast technician is to take an electronics course in a technical school. Many schools give courses especially de signed to prepare the student for the FCC first-class license test. Training at the technical school or college level is a distinct advantage for those who hope to advance to su pervisory positions or to the more specialized jobs in large stations and in the networks. Young men with FCC first-class licenses who get entry jobs are in structed and advised by the chief engineer or other experienced tech nicians concerning the work proce dures of the station. In small sta tions, they may start by operating the transmitter and handling other technical duties after a brief instruc tion period. As they acquire more experience and skill, they are as signed to more responsible jobs. Men who demonstrate above-aver age ability may move into the toplevel technical positions, such as supervisory technician and chief engineer. A college degree in engi neering is becoming increasingly important for advancement to su pervisory positions. Employment Outlook The number of broadcast techni cians is expected to increase only slightly during the 1970’s. Retire ments, deaths, and transfers to 761 other jobs will result in some addi tional job openings. Some job opportunities for tech nicians will be provided by the new radio and television stations ex pected to go on the air during this period. In addition, color television broadcasting may slightly increase the need for technicians. Color tele vision pickup and transmitting equipment is much more compli cated than black and white equip ment and requires more mainte nance and technical know-how. However, other technical advances, such as automatic switching and programing, automatic operation logging, and remote control of transmitters will limit the increase in job opportunities in the new sta tions and replacement needs in ex isting stations. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of broadcast technicians vary greatly depending on such fac tors as the size and location of the community a station serves, the size of the station, whether he works in a radio or television station, and the experience of the individual. As a rule, technicians’ wages are highest in large cities and in large stations. Technicians employed by television stations usually are paid more than those working for radio stations be cause television equipment is gener ally more complex. Most technicians in large stations work a 40-hour week with overtime pay for work beyond 40 hours. Many broadcast technicians in the larger cities work a 37-hour week. In small stations, many technicians work 2 to 8 hours of overtime each week. Evening, night, and weekend work is frequently necessary since many stations are on the air as many as 24 hours a day, 7 days a 762 week. Network technicians may oc casionally have to work contin uously for many hours and under great pressure in order to meet broadcast deadlines. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Broadcast technicians generally work indoors in pleasant surround ings. The work is interesting, and the duties are varied. When remote pickups are made, however, techni cians may work out of doors at some distance from the studios, under less favorable conditions. R A IL R O A D Philadelphia, Cleveland, and St. Louis. O C C U P A T IO N S Railroad Occupations The railroads, with their network of more than 200,000 miles of rail line reaching into all parts of the country, are one of the Nation's largest employers. Over 500,000 railroad workers were employed in 1970, operating trains, maintaining and repairing facilities and equip ment, and performing hundreds of other activities. These involve jobs requiring different kinds of skills and levels of education. In most railroad occupations, a worker starts at the bottom and works his way up by learning his job, proving his ability, and acquiring seniority. Nature and Location of the Industry The railroad industry is made up of “line-haul” railroad companies which transport freight and passen gers between cities and towns, and switching and terminal companies which operate facilities at stations, at freight yards, and at other termi nal points. The Class I line-haul railroads, which include all the large, wellknown companies, handle about 95 percent of the railroad industry’s business and employ about 92 per cent of all railroad workers. Equipped with nearly 27,000 loco motive units, about 12,800 passen ger cars, and about 1.4 million freight cars, they transported more than 1.4 billion tons of freight and nearly 300 million passengers in 1970. Employment and Earnings data used in this chapter are for jobs on Class I line-haul railroad industry. Of the various transportation services provided by the railroads, shipment of freight, in terms of commodities—like coal, ore, grain, lumber, and manufactured products —account for most railroad revenue and employment. Passenger service, though important, has declined sub stantially during the past 25 years. As a result, most job openings in the near future are likely to be related to railroad freight, rather than pas senger, service. Railroad workers are employed in every State except Hawaii and in both large and small communities, but the greatest number work at ter minal points where the railroads maintain their central offices, freight yards, and maintenance and repair shops. The metropolitan area of Chicago, where the great eastern and western railroad systems meet, is the hub of the Nation’s railroad network and has more railroad workers than any other area. Other places where particularly large numbers of railroad workers are employed are areas around New York City, Los Angeles, Pittsburgh, The work force of the railroad in dustry can be divided into five main groups—employees who (1) oper ate trains, (2) handle communica tions, station, and office work, (3) build and maintain locomotives, cars, and other rolling stock, (4) build and maintain tracks, struc tures, and other railroad property, and (5) handle luggage, prepare and serve food, and provide other personal services to passengers. In 1970, 94 percent of the workers in railroad jobs were men. Most women employed by the railroads work in offices. Chart 34 shows the number of employees in some of the principal railroad occupations. Other occupa tions range from unskilled laundry and cleaning jobs to professional positions such as accountant, engi neer, and statistician. (Information about some of these jobs is given elsewhere in the Handbook.) The workers directly engaged in running the trains, known as “oper- Employment in selected railroad occupations i/ Workers, 1970 (in thousands) 0 20 Clerks 40 80 60 100 X Shop trades ZD Brakemen Track workers Conductors 3 Locomotive engineers Locomotive firemen Telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen Signal department workers I Bridge and building workers ....'"1 Station agents y ESTIMATED SOURCE: BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 763 764 ating employees,” represent more than one-fourth of all railroad workers. Class I line-haul railroads employed approximately 165,000 operating employees in 1970. In cluded are locomotive engineers, firemen, conductors, brakemen, and, on some passenger trains, bag gagemen. These men work together as train crews, operating trains ei ther out on the “run” or at the ter minals and railroad yards. Here, in the yards, freight is loaded and un loaded, freight cars received and switched, and trains are broken up and put together. Others who work in the yards include switchtenders, who assist conductors (or foremen) and brakemen (or switchmen) by throwing the track switches. Hos tlers fuel locomotives, check their operating condition, and deliver them to the engine crews. Another one-fourth of all rail road workers consists of “commu nications, station, and office” employees who regulate train movements and handle the railroads’ business affairs. In 1970, Class I line-haul railroads employed about 14,000 persons in these jobs. Communications are handled by dispatchers who coordinate the movement of trains and issue train orders. Then telegraphers, teleph ones, and towermen either pass on these train orders—and other in structions—to the train crews or else execute them by setting signals and track switches. Agents are in charge of the railroad stations’ busi ness affairs. Railroad clerks work either in these stations or in com pany offices, doing secretarial and other kinds of office work, assisting station agents, dealing with custom ers, selling tickets, tending baggage rooms, keeping records, and per forming related tasks. Also included in this “office, communication, and station” group of railroad workers OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK are claims investigators, account ants, lawyers, motor vehicle opera tors, patrolmen, and watchmen. More than one-fifth of all rail road workers are employed in rail road yards, carshops, and engine houses, houses maintaining and re pairing locomotives, cars, and other railroad rolling stock. Class I linehaul roads employed about 124,000 workers in this group in 1970. Car men perform a variety of repair and maintenance tasks necessary to keep railroad freight and passenger cars in good operating condition. Elec trical workers, machinists, boiler makers, blacksmiths, and sheet metal workers, also are employed in carshops. A considerably smaller group of railroad workers—about one-sixth of the total—maintains and con structs tracks, bridges, stations, sig nals, and other railroad property. The Class I line-haul railroads em ployed about 87,000 in work of this kind in 1970. Trackmen and other maintenance-of-way workers main tain, construct, and repair tracks and roadbeds. Bridge and building mechanics construct and maintain bridges, tunnels, and many other kinds of structures along the com pany’s right-of-way. Signal workers install the railroad’s vast network of train and crossing signals and main tain it in working order. Another small group of railroad workers provides personal services to passengers at stations and aboard trains. With 5,600 employees in 1970, it is the smallest of the five major railroad occupational groups. Included in this group are porters and attendants who perform many kinds of personal service for passen gers, as well as cooks and waiters who prepare and serve food. (Ad ditional information about cooks and waiters is given elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For most jobs, particularly those on the trains, in the yards, and around the stations, training is given on the job. The new employee usu ally learns by working and by re ceiving instructions from experi enced men. For some office and maintenance jobs, training may be obtained in high schools and voca tional schools. In addition, universi ties and technical schools offer courses in engineering, transporta tion, traffic management, and other subjects valuable to professional and technical workers. New employees in some occupa tions—principally those connected with train or engine service—start as “extra board” men. That is, their names are placed on an “extra list” for individual occupations. From these lists, the workers are called to fill vacancies that arise from vaca tions, days off, or illnesses of men on regular jobs. They may be called for extra work because of an in crease in railroad traffic, as well. When regular job assignments be come available, extra board workers who have gained experience and seniority are assigned to regular positions. The time spent on extra board work varies with type of job and number of available openings. In some cases, workers may not re ceive regular assignments for a number of years, if regular openings do not develop as a result of de creased traffic, increased mechani zation, and the like. Apprenticeship programs are lim ited chiefly to trainees in the rail road shop crafts. Many of these programs are planned and operated RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS jointly by the companies and the a limited area or “seniority district” railroad workers’ unions. Of the of the railroad system for which he men who were taking this kind of works. In some cases, seniority training in 1970, the majority were rights may apply only to one shop, “regular” apprentices (usually high locality, or office. Among train and school graduates with no previous engine personnel, seniority rights work experience, who were working may be limited either to road serv and receiving instruction in their ice or yard service. In such cases, chosen trades for a 4-year period). workers may bid only for positions Others were “helper” apprentices, in the particular type of service in with some previous experience as which they have been employed. railroad workers, who were receiv In addition to determining his ing the same kind of training, usu right to advance, the worker’s sen ally for a 3-year period. iority also determines how much Applicants who have a high choice he has about working condi school education or its equivalent tions. A beginning telegrapher, for are preferred by railroad companies instance, may have to work several for most kinds of nonprofessional years on a night shift in an out-ofpositions. Good physical condition the-way location until he accumu is required for most jobs, and al lates enough seniority to get an as most all large railroads require ap signment without these disadvan plicants to pass physical examina tages. tions before they are hired; in some (Later sections of this chapter jobs, physical examinations are re contain more complete information quired periodically. Excellent hear about the training and other qualifi ing and eyesight are essential for cations for selected occupations in train and engine service jobs, and the railroad industry.) color blindness is an absolute bar to employment in work involving the interpretation of railroad signals. Employment Outlook Promotions of qualified workers The longrun decline in railroad to jobs covered by union-manage ment agreements are made on the employment is expected to con basis of seniority. Most job va tinue, but at a decreasing rate in the cancies are listed on a bulletin immediate years ahead. Technologi board, and all workers interested cal innovation and changing pat may “bid” for them. The job goes terns of transportation and produc to the qualified applicant whose tion have resulted in a substantial length of service places him highest decline in railroad employment in on the seniority list. Often, before recent years. Developments such as workers can qualify for promotion, the use of larger, more powerful they must pass written and perform diesel locomotives and extensive use ance tests. For occupations in train of machines for roadway upkeep and engine service, there are well- have had a considerable impact on established avenues of promotion. railroad employment. The railroad Engineers usually are chosen from work force has declined also as rail the ranks of the firemen, and con road passenger travel has dropped ductors from the list of brakemen. steeply and freight traffic has shown A railroad worker’s seniority usu relatively little growth because of ally entitles him to promotion only gains in competititve modes of automo for job openings which occur within transportation—notably 765 biles, tracks, buses, airplanes, and pipelines. Most of the factors which have led to reduced employment in the past are expected to continue to in fluence railroad employment during the decade ahead. In addition, mergers of connecting or parallel railroads could reduce railroad em ployment further by eliminating fa cilities such as those at terminals, and by combining accounting and other functions. Some mergers have occurred in recent years and, on the basis of present developments, oth ers are likely. Despite prospects of declining employment, job opportunities will be available annually for thousands of new railroad workers, as the rail roads have one of the largest work forces in American industry. Since a high proportion are older workers, many jobs will become vacant be cause of retirements, deaths, pro motions, and transfers to other fields of work. Since these jobs are filled within the ranks through sen iority, they will leave some open ings at entrance levels as incum bents are promoted. Future job opportunities for ap plicants probably will be most nu merous in construction and mainte nance work along rights-of-way, in operating jobs for brakemen, and in office work. However, because of the seasonality of railroad construc tion and maintenance work, and a seniority system under which new workers are laid off first and re called last, many new workers can expect to have less than full-time employment during the first few years on the job. The number and type of job openings for applicants hired by an individual railroad will be influ enced by the rapidity of the rail road’s adoption of new equipment and new methods of operation, and 766 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK its geographical location in relation to changing marketing conditions. An increased need may be felt for professional and technical personnel to handle new mechanical and electrical equipment, to find better means of utilizing equipment and personnel, to apply data processing to a wide range of accounting and statistical activities, and to explore new ways of meeting competition through industrial development and marketing. Railroad freight traffic is ex pected to rise through the 1970’s because of the high rate of growth anticipated in the economy. The shipment of highway trailers and large containers on railroad flat cars, and the use of larger, special-pur pose freight cars should increase freight traffic significantly by im proving rail carriers’ ability to com pete. New interest also has been shown in the use of rapid rail transit for in tercity and intra-urban passenger movement. Studies of the best methods for moving passengers within and between urban areas are progressing, and may result in a sig nificant resurgence of rail passenger transportation. Recently the Department of Transportation established Amtrak (National Railroad Passenger Corportation), a program to save and revive passenger service. Through Amtrak the government will give the industry the money and author ity to reorganize the entire railroad system. It will take years to de termine the effectiveness of this program, but it should result in re taining a national railroad passenger network. Earnings and Working Conditions Average earnings of railroad workers are higher than those of workers in most manufacturing in dustries. Employees of Class I linehaul railroads, exclusive of execu tive and administrative personnel, averaged $3.89 an hour or $171.94 a week in 1970, whereas production workers in all manufacturing indus tries averaged $3.60 an hour or $133.73 a week. The earnings of individual rail road workers vary greatly because of the great variety of occupations and skill requirements. Geographic differences in wage levels are con siderably less than in most other in dustries, since wage scales specified in many railroad labor-management contracts are identical throughout the country. (Earnings in some of the principal occupations are dis cussed in later sections of this chap ter.) Most railroad workers are trade union members, and many of the conditions under which they work are regulated by collective bargain ing agreements, dealing with wage rates, hours, vacation pay, seniority, and other matters. (The principal unions representing each occupa tional group are listed in the sec tions of this chapter which deal with individual occupations.) The work schedules of railroad employees and the conditions under which they are paid for overtime work depend upon the type of oper ation in which they are employed. The great majority of railroad em ployees work at terminals—in yards, stations, and railroad offices, where, in 1970, the “basic” work week of most workers was a 5-day week of 40 hours. Premium pay, amounting to time and one-half the regular wage rate, usually was paid for any time worked over 8 hours a day. In freight and passenger road service, the basic workday for train and engine crews is established dif ferently. Generally, when a member of the train or engine crew has cov ered a specified number of miles, or has worked a certain number of hours—whichever occurs first—he receives a day’s pay at his regular wage rate. He receives extra pay for any additional miles covered or hours worked on that day. The basic hours of employees who serve the needs of passengers aboard trains— dining car cooks and waiters, Pullman porters, and train attendants—are set on a monthly basis. Some of these workers re ceive time and one-half pay for hours worked over 184 a month, and those employed on regular as signments are guaranteed at least 174 hours of work a month. Because freight shippers and the traveling public must be served 24 hours a day, train and engine crews, hostlers, telegraphers and telephon e s , and station agents must often work nights, weekends, and on holi days. Irregular work schedules are particularly common for extra board workers without regular as signments who may be called any time of the day or night. Other rail road workers, like bridge and build ing mechanics and certain track and road maintenance workers, are re quired to work away from home for days at a time. Practically all railroad employees receive 1 week’s paid vacation after 1 year on the payroll, 2 weeks after 3 years, 3 weeks after 10 years, and 4 weeks after 20 years. On most roads, employees receive pay for 8 holidays a year. Under the federally administered Railroad Retirement Act of 1935, all employees having more than 10 years of service in the railroad in dustry receive pensions upon retire ment. They receive full pensions when they reach age 65 and re 767 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS duced pensions at age 62. Those who have worked for the railroads at least 30 years may retire on a re duced pension at age 60. Employees with 10 years service or more who become disabled and are unable to work, as well as dependent wives and husbands of railroad workers who have died, also receive pen sions. In early 1970, the average pension paid to railroad workers who retired because of age and dis ability was about $192 a month. Another Federal law, the Rail road Unemployment Insurance Act, provides benefits for railroad workers who become unemployed. Unemployment benefits are paid for a period up to 26 weeks, but workers having 10 years service or more can receive benefits for a longer period. Under the Railroad Unemploy ment Insurance Act, railroad workers also receive compensation for workdays lost because of sick ness or injury. Other insurance programs are operated under agreements with trade unions and provide group life insurance to employees and com prehensive hospital and medical in surance to these employees and their dependents. Sources of Additional Information Additional information about oc cupations in the railroad industry can be obtained from railroad offices in your locality. General in formation about the railroad indus try can be obtained from: Association of American Railroads, American Railroads Building, 1920 L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement (D.O.T. 910.383) Nature of the Work The engineer is responsible for running the locomotive safely and efficiently. He operates the throttle, air brakes, and other controls, and he supervises the work of the fire man (helper) who may work in the cab with him. Engineers work either in railroad yards or else on the road; in the latter case, in passenger or freight service. The engineer in yard service op erates the locomotive or switch-en gine, used to move freight and pas senger cars when trains are being put together before a run or broken up after one, or when cars are being switched for loading or unloading. The engineer in passenger or freight service operates the locomotive which moves trains over the road according to either train orders for each run or else any instructions re ceived enroute. Before and after each run, the engineer checks on the condition of the locomotive. He then either has minor adjustments made on the spot or else reports to the engine fore man mechanical defects needing at tention. While operating his locomo tive, he must observe track signals and comply with speed restrictions at all hours and in all weather con ditions. To do this he must be thor oughly familiar with the characteris tics of the road over which he is op erating. He must also be constantly alert, especially for obstructions on the track or other emergencies. In 1970, about 35,000 engineers were employed by Class I line-haul railroads, and a few thousand more by short-line railways and switching and terminal companies. Vacancies in engineer positions generally have been filled by fire men (helpers) who have qualified for promotion. Selection is on a sen iority basis. To qualify, the appli cant must pass comprehensive ex aminations on the train’s mechani cal and electrical equipment, and on fuel economy, safety, timetables, train orders, and other operating rules and regulations. He also must be able to operate any kind of loco motive in service on his road. Engineers are required to take physical examinations at regular in tervals. They must have good eye sight and hearing. If they fail at any time to meet all the physical stand ards, they may be restricted to working as engineers only in certain types of service, or they may be transferred to other kinds of work where physical standards are less exacting. Diesel engineer checks track conditions by radio. Young people planning careers as locomotive engineers should have mechanical ability and good eyehand coordination. They should be able to concentrate on detail in 768 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK order to operate the complicated control system of a locomotive. The aspiring engineer must be capable of working in a confined area since the cab of the locomotive is small. Engineers should be willing to com ply with irregular working hours. The seniority system often re quires the railroad employee to wait many years before he can move into the job he prefers. He must typically work some years as brakeman and fireman, in turn, first. Therefore, the person who wants to be engineer should be willing to work at other jobs until seniority entitles him to his chosen position. A newly promoted engineer starts out as an extra board man without any regular assignment. It may be several years before he receives such an assignment. During this pe riod, he works on temporary assign ments whenever an engineer is needed. An experienced engineer may advance to a supervisory posi tion, such as foreman of engines for his road. Employment Outlook Employment of locomotive engi neers is expected to decline slowly during the 1970’s. However, open ings will arise from the need to fill positions left vacant by engineers who retire, die, or otherwise leave the occupation. The number of engineers em ployed by the railroads has been de clining for some years because of the decrease in railroad passenger business and because of multipleunit operation of diesel locomotives. Introduction of technological inno vations has also lowered employ ment levels. (These include the use of remote- and automatically-controlled devices for freight car classi fication and for signal control, as well as other changes in equipment and operating methods.) The decline in the number of engineers may be somewhat slower in the 1970’s if rapid transit rail systems are developed on a large scale. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of engineers depend on the class of locomotive operated and the kind of service in which the engineer is employed. In 1970, en gineers in yard service for Class I line-haul railroads (including extra board men) earned, on the average, about $1,070 a month; in road freight service, $960 a month; in passenger service, $1,226 a month. In 1968, the standard workweek at straight-time rates for yard engi neers varied from 5 days on some railroads and railroad divisions to 7 days on others. All yard engineers worked basic 8-hour days with time and one-half paid for work over 8 hours. Under certain circumstances, they may be paid on an hourly basis or on a miles-hour basis. On many roads, the amount a road engineer may earn in a single month is governed by mileage limi tations agreed upon by the unions and the railroad companies. When ever an engineer on one of these roads reaches this maximum num ber of miles, his assignment for the rest of the month is taken over by another engineer—usually an extra board man. The engineer in road service, even on regular assignments, often is scheduled to work nights, week ends, and holidays at straight-time rates. Like other workers in road service, he must often “lay over” at the end of a run before he makes the return trip back to his home ter minal. The assignments of engineers on the extra board may be very irregu lar; these men may be called to work at any time of the day or night. Also, the amount of traffic varies from one season to another on many roads. Extra board engi neers are likely to have less work and lower earnings than those men having regular assignments. On all major railroads, wages and the conditions under which engi neers work are agreed upon by em ployers and unions. The great ma jority of engineers are respresented by the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers (Ind.). Some are repre sented by the United Transportation Union. LOCOMOTIVE FIREMEN (HELPERS) (D.O.T. 910.383) Nature of the Work The locomotive fireman (helper) works with the engineer either in the railroad yards or in road serv ice. At the beginning of his run, the fireman (helper) checks to make sure that the locomotive is supplied with the fuel, sand, and water needed, that the engine is in proper working order, and that the flagging equipment, classification markers, and tools needed by the engine crew are on hand and ready to use. During the run, he makes mechanical and electrical adjust ments as needed. On passenger trains, he also is responsible for op erating the equipment which sup plies heat to the cars. From his position at the left side 769 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS of the cab, the fireman (helper) as sists the engineer by acting as look out for obstructions on tracks and at road crossings, and by checking wayside signals which indicate the speed at which the train is to pro ceed. In addition, he inspects the train as it rounds curves because this view of the train enables him to spot smoke, sparks, fire, and other signs of defective equipment. Class I line-haul railroads em ployed about 17,000 firemen in 1970. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For the relatively few firemen (helper) positions being filled at present, most railroads prefer that applicants be 21 to 35 years of age. A high school education or its equivalent is desired. Good health is important, and firemen must be able to pass periodic physical examina tions. Standards for eyesight and hearing are particularly high. A beginning fireman first makes a series of trial trips in the railroad yard or on the road, working under the direction of an experienced en gineer or fireman who instructs him about future duties and railroad rules and regulations. This training period lasts a few days on some roads and as long as 3 weeks on others. After the newly hired fire man has satisfactorily demonstrated his ability on the trial trips, and passed examinations on railroad rules and regulations, his name is placed on the firemen’s extra board. He then becomes subject to call for temporary work assignments. He may remain on extra board work up to several years before he obtains his first regular assignment. On some roads, beginning assignments are in yard service, and the fireman advances first to road freight service and then to road passenger service. On other railroads, firemen usually remain either in yard service or in road service throughout their rail road careers. Young people who want to be lo comotive firemen should be able to follow instructions and they should be capable of being thorough and paying attention to detail. Major re quirements of the job include good eye-hand coordination, manual dex terity, mechanical aptitude, aboveaverage eyesight and color vision, quick reflexes, and general good health. Firemen who have sufficient ex perience and seniority—usually at least 3 or 4 years—can become eli gible for promotion to engineer by passing qualifying examinations covering the mechanical and electri cal equipment on trains, air brake systems, fuel economy, timetables, train orders, and other operating rules and regulations. As engineers are needed, qualified firemen who have the longest seniority are placed on the engineers’ extra board. Pro motion to engineer, however, de pends on availability of openings, as well as time spent on the extra board waiting for a regular assign ment. Employment Outlook Job openings for work as loco motive firemen (helpers) have been extremely limited since May 1964, the effective date of a compulsory arbitration award designed to elimi nate, eventually, all but a relatively few firemen (helper) positions in road freight and yard locomotive service. Fireman (helper) positions on locomotives in passenger service (which has been declining) were not affected by this award, nor were any positions of firemen (helpers) for any class of locomotive service operating where State law requires the employment of firemen on loco motives. The national arbitration award expired in April 1966, and since no general agreement had been reached between the parties in the dispute by early 1971, the outlook for job opportunities in this occupa tion cannot be anticipated with any degree of certainty, although it ap pears that employment opportuni ties for new applicants will continue to be minimal. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of firemen depend on the class of locomotive on which they work and the type of service for which the locomotive is oper ated. Firemen in yard service for Class I line-haul railroads (includ ing extra board men) averaged $793 a month in 1970. Freight serv ice firemen averaged $960 monthly on freight trains. Road passenger firemen averaged $1,030 monthly. In 1970, firemen in yard service worked a basic 8-hour day and 40hour week, and 1Vi times the basic hourly rate was paid for work be yond these hours. On many roads, the amount that firemen in road service could earn in a single month was governed by mileage limitations agreed upon by the unions and the railroad companies. Whenever a fireman on one of these roads reached this limit, his assignment for the rest of the month was taken over by another fireman—usually a man on the extra board. Firemen often must work at night and on weekends and holidays be cause train schedules require 24hour-a-day service. Road service often requires that they be away 770 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK from their home stations for varying periods of time. Irregular working hours are particularly common among men on the extra board and in road freight service. Extra board men tend to have less work and therefore lower incomes than fire men with regular assignments. On many roads, the amount of work varies from one season of the year to another. Workers in this occupation on all major roads are covered by union contracts. The great majority of fire men are represented by the United Transportation Union. Some are members of the Brotherhood of Lo comotive Engineers (Ind.). CONDUCTORS proper time for departure. As the superior officer on the train, the conductor takes charge in any emer gency that may occur during the run and all members of the train crew are subject to his instructions. On freight trains, the conductor keeps a record of contents and des tination of each car and sees that freight cars are picked up and set out along the route. On passenger trains, the conductor collects tickets and cash fares. Yard conductors, often called “yard foremen,” direct the work of the switching crews who put trains together and break them up. In mechanized yards, yard conductors operate consoles that electrically control the alinement of track switches. Class I line-haul railroads employed about 37,800 conductors in 1970. (D.O.T. 198.168) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Nature of the Work Conductors are responsible for seeing that railroad trains are moved according to train orders or other instructions. They are re sponsible for the safety of their pas sengers and cargoes, and they su pervise the work of the train and engine crews. Before a freight or passenger train leaves the terminal, the con ductor receives the train orders from the dispatcher and confers with other crew members to make sure they understand the orders. During the run, he sees that the train cars are inspected periodically and, if problems are reported, ar ranges either for repair of mechani cal breakdowns while the train is on its run, or for defective cars to be removed on the nearest siding. At stops, he signals to the engineer the Openings for conductors are filled on a seniority basis by promo tion of qualified brakemen. To qual ify for promotion, a man usually must have several years’ experience as a brakeman and pass examina tions covering signals, air brakes, timetables, operating rules, and re lated subjects. On some roads, those who have qualified for promotion are first given temporary assign ments as conductors while still working as brakemen; on other roads, they are put on the extra board as conductors and given tem porary assignments as men are needed. In either case, as regular conductor assignments become available, these are assigned to men having the greatest seniority. On most roads, conductors in yard service and in road service have separate seniority lists, and they usually remain in one of these two types of service throughout their careers. A few roads, however, start conductors on yard assign ments and then move them to freight service and finally to passen ger service. Young men planning a career as a railroad conductor must have a background of honesty and be able to accept responsibility. Physical stamina is needed because of the long hours spent standing and walk ing. The aspiring conductor should have the patience and ability to work in other positions while aquiring the necessary seniority for a conductor’s position. Promotion to conductor is limited by the availa bility of such positions. The conductor is the member of the train crew who has the most di rect contact with the public, and it is important that he be able to act effectively as the railroad’s repre sentative. Conductors who show special ability of this kind may ad vance to managerial positions such as trainmaster, if available. 771 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS Employment Outlook There will be a moderate number of opportunities for brakemen to be promoted to jobs as conductors dur ing the 1970’s. Since conductors compose one of the oldest age groups in the Nation’s work force, job openings will develop to replace those who retire, die, or leave rail roading for some other reason. The number of conductors has been declining for a number of years because of the decline of pas senger traffic, the trend toward longer freight trains, and the mech anization of yard operations. Al though more yard work will be speeded up by the use of the new devices (such as electric and elec tronic car classification systems and communications equipment) little change is expected in the number of conductors needed during the 1970’s as expected growth in rail road freight traffic compensates for increased mechanization. Earnings and Working Conditions The type of service in which they are employed and the number of cars in their trains determine the basic earnings of conductors. In 1970, yard conductors employed by Class I line-haul railroads earned an average of $904 a month. In road freight service, conductors averaged $1,132 monthly. The average for passenger conductors was $1,095 and for assistant passenger conduc tors and ticket collectors $985 a month. In 1970, conductors in yard serv ice worked a basic 8-hour day and 5-day week. For work beyond these hours, they were paid IV2 times their basic wage rates. Since the pay received by passenger and freight conductors is based on a combination of miles traveled and hours worked, these conductors may receive more than their basic day’s pay for a trip. Like all other road crew mem bers, conductors in freight or pas senger service often are scheduled to work nights, weekends, and on holidays. Conductors on extra board work often have irregular hours. They also may work less time than conductors with regular assignments and, therefore, earn less. Conductors on every major rail road are covered by union contracts negoitiated by the United Transpor tation Union. BRAKEMEN (D.O.T. 910.364 and .884) Nature of the Work Brakemen work with conductors as members of the train crews on freight and passenger trains; they work also in railroad yards. One brakeman (or “flagman” ) generally is stationed in the rear of each freight and passenger train. His du ties include seeing that proper flags, warning lights, and other signals are displayed at the rear of the train to protect it while it is in motion and at stops. Most freight and passenger trains carry at least one other brakeman stationed in the front end of the train; his duties include set ting out signals to protect the front of the train at unexpected stops. Class I line-haul railroads employed about 74,000 brakemen in 1970. Before their train leaves the sta tion, these brakemen in road service check the air brake equipment on the cars for proper functioning and see that tools and other equipment are in their proper places. During a run, they make frequent visual inspections of their train from their positions at both the head and rear end of the train, looking for smoke, sparks or other indications of stick ing brakes, overheated car bearings, or other equipment malfunctions. At stops during the run, they make “walking inspections” of cars in the train; when necessary, they couple and uncouple cars and air hoses and help the conductor in setting out and switching cars at industrial sid ings. They are responsible for regu lating air-conditioning, lighting, and heating equipment in passenger cars. In passenger service, brakemen (also known as “trainmen” ) sometimes assist the conductor by collecting tickets and generally looking after the needs of the pas sengers. Yard brakemen (fre quently called “switchmen” or “helpers” ) assist in putting together and breaking up trains by throwing switches, coupling and uncoupling freight and passenger cars, and applying or releasing handbrakes on cars to control their movement. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A brakeman starting out as a new worker first makes several trial trips with an experienced brakeman or conductor, during which he famil iarizes himself with the road and receives instructions about his du ties. After he has demonstrated his ability on trial trips, the new brakeman is put on “extra board” work and given temporary assignments as men are needed. Brakemen gener ally must work at least a year on the extra board before they learn the job thoroughly, and several more years before a vacancy occurs and 772 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK for new workers to obtain jobs as brakemen will develop through the 1970’s, almost entirely as a result of retirements and deaths and because some brakemen will be promoted to jobs as conductors or transfer to other work. they acquire enough seniority to move on to regular assignments. Employers prefer as applicants high school graduates or the equiva lent, 18 years of age (21 on some roads) to 35. Applicants must be able to pass physical examinations with particularly strict requirements as to eyesight and hearing. Young persons who wish to be come brakemen should also have mechanical ability and be able to concentrate on detail and follow a certain amount of routine. Physical stamina is required of brakemen who do much standing, climbing and walking and are exposed to all kinds of weather conditions. Yard brakemen may advance to yard conductors; usually they stay in yard service throughout their rail road careers. On some roads, brakemen in road service may move from freight service to passenger work, usually considered more de sirable because it is less strenuous than freight service and sometimes involves shorter working hours. With sufficient seniority, brakemen in road service may advance to conductors. Less frequently, they take positions as baggagemen. Con ductor positions are almost always filled by promoting brakemen who have passed written and oral exami nations on signals, timetables, brake systems, and operating rules. Pro motions take place according to sen iority rules, 10 years or more may be required for a brakeman to get his first assignment as a conductor. Advancement is of course limited by number of jobs available as con ductors, and the number of jobs as conductor has been declining for a number of years. The number of brakemen em ployed has declined for a number of years. During the early 1970’s, work in railroad yards is expected to become increasingly mechanized, using automatic car retarders, auto matic switching, and other devices. These developments are expected to result in a further decline in the em ployment of brakemen during this period. Employment Outlook Earnings and Working Conditions Brakeman signals freight train through the yards. and the type of service in which he is employed determine the earnings of a freight brakeman. The average monthly earnings of yard brakemen employed by Class I line-haul rail roads were $746 in 1970. Brakemen on freight trains averaged $931 a month. The monthly average for passenger train brakemen was $844 in 1970. In 1970, brakemen in yard serv ice had a 5-day, 40-hour basic workweek; for work beyond this, they were paid 1Vi times their regu lar hourly rates. In addition, brakemen in road, passenger, or freight service earned extra pay under cer tain conditions; for example, when they traveled more than 100 miles on a freight run or 150 miles on a passenger run. Like other members of train and engine crews, brakemen often are scheduled to work nights, week ends, and holidays. Brakemen on the extra board and employed by the railroad for only a short time have less steady work and lower earnings than they would have on regular assignments; they also may work more irregular hours. Yard and freight brakemen face greater accident risks than most other rail road workers. Brakemen are represented by the United Transportation Union. TELEGRAPHERS, TELEPHONERS, AND TOWERMEN (D.O.T. 236.588 and 910.782) Nature of the Work Several thousand opportunities The number of cars in the train Telegraphers, telephones, and towermen control movement of 773 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS trains according to instructions is sued by train dispatchers. Telegra phers and telephoners receive train orders from the dispatchers and pass them on to the train crews. Towermen operate controls which throw track switches; they also set signals to route traffic according to either train schedules or special orders. To some extent, the three jobs are interchangeable. For ex ample, many towermen also act as telegraphers and telephoners in transmitting orders, or spend part of their time operating signals. Teleg raphers, telephoners, and tower men work in towers located in yards, terminals, and other impor tant junction points. Often, at the larger facilities and signal towers, a chief telegrapher, a chief telephoner, or wire chief, or a chief towerman (train director) is in charge of the work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most receive their training on the job, working under the supervision of experienced telegraphers, station agents, or towermen to learn their future responsibilities, including op erating rules, train orders, and sta tion operations. On most roads, trainees must pass examinations on train operating rules, as well as practical tests on other duties relat ing to their future assignments be fore they can qualify. Most roads place newly qualified workers on the extra board, where they serve on temporary assign ments as men are needed. After ac quiring sufficient seniority, they bid for regular assignments as telegra phers, towermen, clerk-telegra phers, and station agent telegra phers. Most railroads prefer applicants to be high school graduates between 21 and 30 years of age. Applicants must pass physical examinations which have strict eyesight and hear ing requirements. They may not be colorblind. Manual dexterity and good eye-hand coordination are necessary for operation of the many switches and keys. Applicants for these positions should be able to accept responsibil ity. They should be mentally alert and capable of working efficiently in emergency or pressure situations. The ability to organize one’s thoughts and actions is important. Also, the capacity to work in con fined areas may be required. A man with the necessary qualifi cations may advance to station agent or train dispatcher. clerk-telephoners on Class I linehaul railroads in 1970 were $3.53; telegraphers, telephoners, and tow ermen averaged $3.58. Chief teleg raphers and telephoners and train directors averaged, respectively, $4.00 and $5.07 an hour. Telegraphers worked a basic 40hour week of five 8-hour days in 1970, with time and one-half paid for overtime. Under Federal law, telegraphers, whose duties involve the movement of trains, are prohib ited from working more than 9 hours in any one day, except in emergencies. Telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen are members of the Brotherhood of Railway, Airline and Steamship Clerks. Employment Outlook There will be some opportunities for new workers to become student operators each year through the 1970’s. The openings that occur will result primarily from the need to re place experienced workers who re tire or die. Employment of Class I line-haul railroads telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen has declined for many years and in 1970 was about 12,000. The mechanization of yard operations, the use of dispatcherto-train radio hookups and other new communications devices, and the extension of centralized traffic control and other automatic signal ing systems are reducing the num ber of workers needed to help con trol the movement of trains. Earnings and Working Conditions The average straight-time hourly earnings of clerk-telegraphers and STATION AGENTS (D.O.T. 211.468 and 910.138) Nature of the Work Station agents are the railroads’ official representatives in dealing with the public at railroad stations. Most agents work at small stations where they perform a variety of tasks. These include selling tickets, checking baggage, calculating freight and express charges, and loading and unloading freight and express packages. They may serve also as telegraphers and telephon ers, receiving and delivering train orders and other messages. At sta tions where supervisory agents are employed, some of this work may be done by clerks, telegraphers, and others working under the agent’s su pervision. In major freight and pas senger stations the duties of the sta 774 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tion agent are primarily administra tive and supervisory. About 9,600 station agents were employed by Class I line-haul rail roads in 1970. Many of them acted as telegraphers and telephoners in addition to their other duties. The short-line railways employed several hundred other agents, chiefly at small stations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Agents in small stations or assist ant agents in larger ones have usu ally been advanced from telegra phers jobs. In addition to the neces sary seniority, an agent should have a knowledge of train schedules and routes, rates, bookkeeping methods, and details of other railroad busi ness transacted at wayside stations. Station agents may advance from small to larger stations or from as sistant agents to agents. They may be promoted to supervisory posi tions such as station-master or inspector. Employment Outlook A limited number of opportuni ties will arise each year through the 1970’s, principally because of the need to replace experienced agents who retire or die. For several years the number of station agents em ployed by Class I line-haul railroads has been declining, principally be cause some local passenger and freight services have been consoli dated or discontinued. Further cuts or consolidation may affect passen ger and freight services over the next decade, resulting in employ ment of fewer station agents. How ever, if rapid transit rail systems are developed on a large scale, this trend may be slowed. transactions. These include collect ing bills, adjusting claims, and trac The earnings of station agents ing shipments. Today, however, vary. In 1970, agents who also clerks do much of this work with served as telegraphers and teleph computers and other electronic oners on Class I line-haul roads business machines. In small offices averaged $3.60 an hour; other and stations, one man may perform agents at small stations who did not duties related to several of these act as telegraphers averaged $3.94 jobs; but in large offices, a specific an hour. Agents at major stations job. earned a straight-time average of A second group, totaling 16,000 $4.77 an hour. in 1970, consists of secretaries, ste Agents are paid either by the nographers, typists, and operators hour or by the month; those in non- of calculating, bookkeeping, and supervisory positions have a basic other kinds of office machines. They 40-hour workweek and time and perform duties like those of workers one-half is paid for overtime work. in the same kinds of jobs in other Station agents, except for some industries. (Information about the supervisory agents, are members of nature of the duties of employees in the Brotherhood of Railway and these clerical jobs may be found Steamship Clerks. elsewhere in the Handbook.) About 8,800 other railroad clerks were in higher grade “senior” jobs involving more responsible or tech nical work. Some prepare statistics on employment, traffic, and other CLERKS matters relating to railroad opera (D.O.T. 219.388 and .488; 222.368 through .687; 229.368; 231.682; 249.- tions. Others, called “cashiers,” 368; 910.368; 910.688; 913.168; and deal with customers on matters such 919.138) as uncollected freight bills. Still oth ers account for their companies’ use of terminals and other facilities owned jointly by several roads. Nature of the Work A fourth group are the supervi Railroad clerks handle the huge sory and chief clerks, who num volume of paper work necessary to bered about 11,200 supervising the account for each piece of the com work of other railroad clerks and pany’s rolling stock, and to transact assuming responsibility for clerical business with freight shippers and activities of entire departments. the traveling public. They work in railroad stations, freight houses, yards, terminals, and company Training, Other Qualifications, offices, making up the largest single and Advancement group of railroad employees. Class I Beginning railroad clerk positions line-haul railroads employed about 90,000 of these workers in 1970 often are filled by hiring newcomers and short-line railways, thousands or by promoting existing workers. A high school education is usually re more. The majority of railroad clerks quired, and clerical aptitude tests —54,000 on Class I line-haul rail sometimes given. Railroads prefer roads in 1970—handle business workers who have had training or Earnings and Working Conditions 775 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS some experience in working with fig ures. In some clerical positions— yard clerk for instance—beginning workers may be assigned to extra board work, until regular assign ments become available. In many offices, a railroad clerk may advance to assistant chief clerk or to a higher administrative posi tion; in others, to work requiring special knowledge of such subjects as accounting or statistics. Eventu ally he may become an auditor or statistician or be promoted to traffic agent, buyer, storekeeper, or ticket or station agent. with time-and-one-half paid for overtime. The Brotherhood of Railway, Airlines, and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express and Sta tion Employees represents the rail road clerks on all major roads. SHOP TRADES Nature of the Work only in specialties such as upholster ing, car painting, and patternmak ing. Many carmen work in railroad yards and stations as car inspectors examining cars for defects that might lead to accidents or delays. Machinists are the second largest group of skilled shop workers. About 17,000 were employed in 1970, maintaining and overhauling locomotives and machinery used by the railroads. Electrical workers, who numbered about 11,500 in 1970, install and maintain wiring and electrical equipment in locomo tives, passenger cars, and cabooses, as well as in railroad buildings. An other group of electrical workers employed mainly away from the shop, lay power and communica tions lines for equipment used by the railroads. Sheet-metal workers, numbering about 5,200 in 1970, in stall and maintain light sheet-metal parts and do pipefitting on locomo tives and other equipment. Boiler makers, of whom there were about 1,550 in 1970, maintain and repair stationary boilers, tanks, and other parts made of sheet iron or heavy sheet steel. Other craftsmen em ployed in the shops include black smiths, molders, stationary firemen, oilers, and stationary engineers (steam). (More information about the nature of the work of most of the above shop trades may be found elsewhere in the Handbook. ) The skilled workers employed by the railroads to build, maintain, and repair rolling stock and other equip Several thousand job opportuni ment may be classified in six main ties for new railroad clerks will be “shop crafts” : Carmen (D.O.T. available each year through the 622.381), machinists, electrical 1970’s to replace workers who re workers, sheet-metal workers, boil tire, die, or transfer to other fields ermakers, and blacksmiths. They work on rolling stock and other of work. Employment in this occupational equipment in railway shops, enginegroup has been declining for a num houses, yards and terminals. In 1970, about 82,500 journey ber of years. A continued decrease is expected during the 1970’s, as men mechanics in these six crafts electronic business machines do were employed by Class I line-haul more work formerly done by rail railways. Working with them were 6,300 gang foremen and leaders, road clerks. 7,100 helpers, and 3,500 appren tices. Several thousand more workers in the same occupations Earnings and Working Conditions were employed by short-line rail Employees of Class I line-haul ways. railroads who had clerical jobs in Carmen, who numbered about volving work such as billing opera 45,000 on Class I line-haul rail tions, filing, and inventory control, roads in 1970, are by far the largest Training, Other Qualifications, received average straight-time pay group. They do many different and Advancement of $3.60 an hour in 1970. Secre kinds of work, building, maintain Apprenticeship training is a com taries, stenographers, typists, and ing, and repairing both freight and office machine operators averaged passenger cars. They also work on mon way of entering the shop $3.71 an hour; senior clerks and both locomotives and small vehicles trades; others are upgraded from specialists averaged $4.20 an hour; —motor-driven cars that transport the ranks of helpers and laborers, or and supervisory and chief clerks, workers along the tracks. Some car enter the industry as shop crafts $4.45 an hour. Railroad clerks in men are skilled in carpentry and can men. Apprentices are trained in all nonsupervisory positions work a use power equipment as well as basic 8-hour day and 40-hour week, handtools. A few others are skilled branches of their respective trades; Employment Outlook 776 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Shop worker checks for flaws in locomotive axles. standards, in many cases, are in cluded in agreements between trade unions and railroad companies. Be ginners with no previous experience in their chosen trades train as regu lar apprentices to be certified as qualified journeymen. Men with at least 2 years of previous work expe rience train as helper apprentices for a 3-year period. To become an apprentice, the ap plicant must be between 16 and 21 years of age; helpers, entering the 3-year apprentice training, usually are no older than 35. On some roads, applicants for apprentice training must pass mathematical and mechanical aptitude tests. Workers in the shop trades may advance to supervisory positions as foremen in shops, enginehouses and powerplants. Employment Outlook Nationwide there will be only a few hundred opportunities for new workers to obtain jobs as helpers or as apprentices in the shop crafts each year during the next decade. Openings in the skilled shop crafts will result primarily from the need to replace experienced crafts men who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work, rather than from employment growth. The number of journeymen me chanics employed in these crafts has declined for a number of years, and some further decline appears likely through the 1970’s, although more rolling stock may be needed to han dle the anticipated increase in freight traffic. Railroads now handle a given amount of work in shops with a smaller work force than for merly because of: the use of assem bly-line techniques in repair work; greater specialization of labor; and use of better designed and con structed rolling stock. Also, fewer equipment maintenance employees are needed because some railroads send diesel locomotives, requiring major overhaul, to the manufacturer for rebuilding or replacement by more highly powered new or rebuilt units. Employment trends for individual shop crafts are not affected equally by changes in equipment and oper ating methods. Some increase in employment of electrical workers may occur through the 1970’s because of in stallation of more complex electrical and electronic equipment in loco motives, railroad cars, and com munication systems. During this same period, declines in employ ment of carmen, machinists, and boilermakers are expected. Earnings and Working Conditions Straight-time average hourly 111 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS earnings of journeymen employed by Class I line-haul railroads in the shop trades in 1970 were: Carmen, $4.14; machinists, $4.22; electrical workers, $4.22; sheet-metal workers, $4.22; boilermakers, $4.22; and blacksmiths, $4.17. Straight-time earnings of helpers in all shop crafts averaged $3.48 an hour. Regular apprentices, who spend part of their time in class room instruction and the rest on the job, averaged $3.16 an hour; and helper-apprentices, who also worked on the same basis, averaged $3.58 an hour. Gang foremen and gang leaders averaged $4.79 an hour. Most shop workers have a basic 40-hour workweek of five 8hour days and are paid time and one-half for overtime. Major repairs on locomotives and cars are generally made indoors in the enginehouse or the car repair shop. Minor adjustments, inspec tion, and emergency repairs may be performed out-of-doors. Most shop workers are members of unions. Among the unions in this field are: Brotherhood Railway Carmen of America; International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; International Brother hood of Boilermakers, Iron Ship builders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers; and the International Brotherhood of Firemen and Oilers. In collective bargaining, these un ions usually negotiate their labor contracts through the Railroad Em ployees’ Department of the AFLCIO. SIGNAL DEPARTMENT WORKERS (D.O.T. 822.281 and .884) Nature of the Work Workers in railroad signal de partments work with the signaling systems which control movement of trains and assure safety of railroad travel. Tasks involve constructing, installing, maintaining, and repair ing these systems. One group of skilled workers, known as signal maintainers, keep wires, lights, switches, and other controlling devices in good operat ing condition. The work requires a thorough practical knowledge of electricity and considerable me chanical skill, and, for work on the newer signaling systems, a knowl edge of electronics. A second skilled group, known as signalmen, generally has the same skills and knowledge but constructs and installs new signals and signal systems. Signalmen work as mem bers of crews (which also include semiskilled workers) that travel from one part of the road to an other, wherever construction work is underway. In constructing a sig nal system, crews often build forms for concrete, mix and pour cement, weld metal, and do many other types of work in addition to electri cal work. In 1970, Class I line-haul rail roads employed about 12,000 men Microwave installations are part of the up-to-date communications systems. 778 in this kind of work; included were about 8,000 signalmen and signal maintainers, about 1,150 semi skilled assistants, and 7,000 helpers. Several hundred workers in these groups also were employed by the short-line railways and by switching and terminal companies. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ment workers has declined for a number of years. These occupations are expected to continue to decline slowly in the 1970’s, as improved signaling and communications sys tems require less maintenance and repair. Earnings and Working Conditions Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The average straight-time hourly earnings of signalmen and signal Railroads prefer that applicants maintainers employed by Class I be between 18 and 35 years of age line-haul railroads in 1970 were and have a high school education or $3.92. Assistant signalmen and sig its equivalent. Knowledge of elec nal maintainers averaged $3.34 and tricity and mechanical skill are as helpers, $3.25 an hour. Signal sets. workers have a basic 8-hour day New employees start as helpers and 5-day week, and are paid time under the direction of experienced and one-half for work beyond 8 men, or with previous experience as hours a day. assistants. Helpers, after about 1 Since the amount of work re year of training, usually advance to quired for maintaining railroad sig assistant. Openings for signalmen nal systems is not affected greatly and signal maintainers are filled by by variations in traffic or by the promoting qualified assistants, ac seasons, signalmen and other crew cording to seniority rules. At least 4 members may have less-than-fullyears are usually required. time work during especially bad Both signalmen and signal main weather. For both groups, the work tainers may be promoted to more is done mostly outdoors and main responsible positions such as inspec tainers must make repairs regard tors or testmen, gang foremen, lead less of time of day or weather con ing signalmen, or leading signal ditions. Both maintainers and sig maintainers. A few may advance nalmen must often climb poles and eventually to assistant supervisors work near high-tension wires and or signal engineers. unguarded tracks. In working on construction and installation, signalmen and other Employment Outlook crew members frequently work away from their homes; many rail There will be some opportunities roads provide camp cars for living for new workers to obtain entry jobs quarters while the men pay for their as helpers or assistants during the own food. Signal maintainers gener 1970’s, mostly from the need to re ally are able to live at home, main place existing workers who retire, taining signals over only a limited die, or transfer to other fields of stretch of track. work. Job openings will be limited, Most signal workers are members because men laid off in recent years of the Brotherhood of Railroad Sig will be recalled before new men are nalmen. hired. Employment of signal depart TRACK WORKERS (D.O.T. 182.168; 859.883; 869.887; 910.782; and 919.887) Nature of the Work Trackmen and portable equip ment operators construct, maintain, and repair railroad tracks and road ways. Many work in section crews which patrol and maintain a limited section of the railroad’s right-ofway. Other trackworkers are em ployed with highly mechanized crews to cover longer stretches of the right-of-way. Still others are em ployed in “extra” crews, performing seasonal maintenance and repair work, such as replacing rails. After some track workers make regular inspections of the right-ofway, (looking for cracked rails, weak ties, washed out ballast, and other track and roadway defects), trackmen and portable equipment operators make necessary repairs. Roadway maintenance machines— such as multiple tie tampers, power wrenches, and ballast cleaners— have been displacing gradually the use of such handtools as picks, shovels, and spike hammers. More and more railroads are using road way machines, which require skilled operators in place of trackmen using hand or pneumatically-pow ered tools. In 1970, an average of 56,000 track workers were employed by Class I line-haul railroads. They in cluded 35,600 trackmen working in crews, 9,800 portable equipment operators and helpers, and 10,500 gang foremen. Additional thousands were employed by the short-line rail roads. The size of this work force varies considerably during the year because many construction and re pair jobs are done in summer. RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS 779 nized equipment has created a lim ited number of maintenance-of-way jobs as operators of roadway ma chines. These trends are expected to continue. Earnings and Working Conditions Modern machines make track maintenance a production-line operation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most track workers are trained on the job. To acquire the necessary skills requires up to 2 years. Ma chine operating jobs are assigned to qualified trackmen on the basis of seniority. Most roads prefer workers be tween the ages of 21 and 45, who must be able to read and write and to do heavy work. Applicants often are required to take physical ex aminations. A high school educa tion is desirable to advance to porta ble equipment operator and gang foreman. Trackmen and portable equip ment operators who have the neces sary seniority and qualifications may advance to gang or assistant fore man, then to a supervisory maintenance-of-way position such as track supervisor. Employment Outlook Several thousand new workers will be hired each year in track maintenance occupations during the 1970’s, mostly for the seasonal rush during the summer months. Com paratively few openings will offer steady year-round employment. For some years, the use of mech anized equipment and new kinds of materials in roadway construction has been reducing substantially the number of men employed. At the same time, however, use of mecha Track workers are among the lowest paid groups in the railroad industry. Men employed in section and other kinds of crews on Class I line-haul railroads had straight-time average earnings of $3.59 an hour in 1970. Portable equipment opera tors and helpers averaged $3.53 and crew foremen averaged $3.67 an hour in 1970. A basic 5-day, 40hour week was in force for most classes of track workers. Time worked over 8 hours a day was paid for at time and one-half rates. Since most section men inspect and maintain only a few miles of track, they usually live at home. However, the section crew is giving way rapidly to the mechanized “floating” crew, who with their port able equipment usually travel from place to place, generally living in camp cars or trailers provided by the railroads and paying for their own food. Most maintenance-of-way work ers are members of the Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employes. BRIDGE AND BUILDING WORKERS Nature of the Work These workers construct, main tain, and repair the tunnels, bridges, stations, railway shops, and other structures owned by the railroads. 780 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK In 1970, Class I line-haul railroads employed about 8,300 skilled craftsmen, 2,440 helpers, and 2,140 foremen in this kind of work. Among the skilled craftsmen were 4,680 carpenters working as all round mechanics in a variety of construction trades in addition to carpentry; about 2,700 masons, bricklayers, plasterers, and plumb ers; and about 500 painters and 365 ironworkers. The short-line railways employed several hundred more workers in the same occupa tions. (Information about the na ture of the work done by these craftsmen can be found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement New employees usually receive their training as helpers. As open ings occur in skilled mechanics’ Employment by Class I line-haul jobs, they are filled by helpers who railroads of skilled craftsmen, help have qualified for promotion and ers, and foremen on bridge and have the necessary seniority. building work has decreased for a Skilled workers who have the number of years. This trend is ex necessary experience may advance pected to continue because of the to positions as foremen, inspectors, increased use of power tools and or bridge and building supervisors. other laborsaving equipment, and of new materials which require less maintenance and repair. Another Employment Outlook cause has been lack of new building in the industry. A small number of job openings in the bridge and building work force will arise each year during the 1970’s. Retirements, deaths, and Earnings and Working Conditions transfers of existing workers to The average straight-time hourly other fields of work will provide earnings of carpenters employed by some job opportunities for new workers. Most jobs available will be Class I line-haul railroads in bridge as beginners or helpers, where turn and building work in 1970 were $3.51. Masons, bricklayers, plaster over rates are relatively high. ers, and plumbers averaged $3.78; iron-workers, $3.80; painters, $3.55; helpers, $3.19; and foremen, $3.75 an hour in 1970. Bridge and build ing workers work a 5-day, 40-hour week and are paid time-and-onehalf for work beyond 8 hours a day; they may receive double time for work over 16 continuous hours. If bridge and building men are away from home during their work week, they usually live in camp cars supplied by the railroads, but pay for their own food. The Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employes represents the bridge and building workers on most roads. T E L E P H O N E IN D U S T R Y O C C U P A T IO N S As our population and economy grow and technology advances, the need for communication increases. More than 460 million local and long-distance telephone calls are made daily in the United States, and overseas. In early 1970, approxi mately 935,000 employees were re quired to provide this service. The telephone industry offers men and women steady, year-round work in many different jobs. Some jobs, such as telephone operator and file clerk, can be learned in a few weeks; other jobs, such as in staller and repairman, require many months. More than half of all telephone workers are women employed mostly as clerks or telephone opera tors. Men usually are employed to install, repair, and maintain tele phone equipment. Nature and Location of the Industry Providing telephone service for the many millions of residential, commercial, and industrial custom ers is the main work of the Nation’s telephone companies. More than 120 million telephones were in use in the United States in 1970. Telephone jobs are found in al most every community in the United States. Most telephone workers, however, are employed in large cities where concentrations of industrial and business establish ments are located. Nearly threefifths of them work in the 10 States which have the largest number of telephones: California, New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, Texas, Michigan, New Jersey, Florida, and Massachusetts. The nerve center of the local telephone system is the central office, containing the switch ing equipment through which a tele phone may be connected with any other telephone. Every telephone call made, whether by dialing di rect or signaling the operator, trav els from the caller through wires or micro-wave radio and cables to the cable vault in the central office. Thousands of pairs of wires fan out from the cable vault to a distribut ing frame where each set of wires is attached to switching equipment. Electromechanical, switching equip ment and to a lesser-but-growing extent electronic switching equip ment make connections automati cally. In a few remaining switch boards and in unusual situations an operator makes the connection man ually. Long-distance calls are dialed by the customer or an operator and connected with the telephone called through switching equipment. Dur ing 1970, over 90 percent of all telephone users could dial long-dis tance calls directly. Information needed to bill the customer may be recorded automatically or, on oper ator handled calls, is entered on a ticket by the operator. Some customers make and re ceive more calls than can be han dled on a single telephone line. For these calls, a system somewhat simi lar to a miniature central office may be installed on the subscriber’s premises. This system is the private branch exchange (PBX), usually found in places such as apartment and office buildings, hotels, depart ment stores, and other business firms. A new type of service is called CENTREX, in which incoming calls can be dialed direct to any ex tension without an operator’s assist ance, and outgoing and intercom calls can be dialed direct by the ex tension users. The equipment for this service can be located either on telephone company premises or on the customer’s premises. Other communications services provided by telephone companies include conference equipment in stalled at a PBX to permit conver sations among several telephone users simultaneously; mobile radio telephones in automobiles, boats, airplanes, and trains; and tele phones equipped to answer calls au tomatically and to give and take messages by recordings. Telephone companies also build and maintain the vast network of cables and radio-relay systems for communication services, including those joining the thousands of broadcasting stations all over the Nation. These services are leased to networks and their affiliated stations. Telephone companies also operate teletype and private-wire services which they lease to business and government offices. About 5 out of 6 of the Nation’s domestic telephones are owned by the Bell System. The independents serve the remainder. There are ap proximately 1,900 independent tele phone companies in the United States. General Telephone and Electronics Corporation in New York City, United Utilities, Inc. in Kansas City, and Continental Tele phone Corporation in St. Louis ac count for about 3 out of every 5 telephones serviced by independent telephone companies. Telephone Occupations Although the telephone industry requires workers in many different 781 782 (34) OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Telephone craftsmen and operators make up more than one-half of all workers employed in the telephone industry Telephone craftsmen -All other workers Telephone operators SOURCE: BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS occupations, telephone craftsmen and operators make up more than one-half of all workers (see chart 34). Telephone craftsmen install, re pair, and maintain telephones, ca bles, switching equipment, and mes sage accounting systems. These workers can be grouped by the type of work they perform: (1) con struction people place, splice, and maintain telephone wires and ca bles; (2) installers and repairmen place, maintain, and repair tele phones and private branch ex changes (PBX) in homes and offices and other places of business; and (3) central office craftsmen test, maintain, and repair equipment in central offices. Operators make telephone con nections; assist customers in special ized services, such as reverse-charge calls; and give telephone informa tion. Telephone craftsmen are dis cussed in detail later in this chapter. A detailed discussion of telephone operators and operators of private branch exchanges (PBX opera tors) is presented in a separate statement elsewhere itt the Hand book. Central office equipment pur chased by a telephone company, usually is installed by employees of the equipment manufacturers. A few central office equipment install ers work for telephone companies or private firms specializing in in stallation work. Although most of these skilled workers are not em ployed in telephone operating com panies, they are discussed in this chapter because their work is so closely connected with the Nation’s telephone system. Many other occupations in the telephone industry, such as clerical and administrative, are found in other industries as well. They are described in detail elsewhere in the Handbook in the sections covering individual occupations. More than one-fifth (21 percent) of all telephone industry employees are clerical workers. These include stenographers, typists, bookkeepers, office machine and computer opera tors, keypunch operators, cashiers, receptionists, file clerks, accounting and auditing clerks, and payroll clerks. These clerical workers, most of whom are women, keep records of services, make up and send bills to customers, and prepare statistical and other reports. A growing amount of this record-keeping and statistical work is being done by electronic data-processing equip ment. About 14 percent of telephone company employees are business and sales representatives, who han dle orders for new telephone serv ices, and administrative and pro fessional workers; these include ac countants, attorneys, personnel specialists, purchasing agents, public relations employees, training spe cialists, and statisticians. Approximately 4 percent of the industry’s employees are scientific and technical personnel such as en gineers and draftsmen. Most of these workers plan and design new buildings, the expansion of existing ones, and solve engineering prob lems. Engineers are employed in sales development work. Many top supervisors and administrators are men having engineering back grounds. Basic research in commu nications systems and the develop ment of new and improved equip ment are not done by employees of telephone operating companies, but mainly by specialists in affiliated laboratories. About 3 percent of the industry’s workers maintain buildings, offices, and warehouses; operate and serv ice motor vehicles; and do other maintenance and service jobs in offices and plants. Skilled mainte nance craftsmen include stationary engineers, carpenters, painters, electricians, and plumbers. Other workers employed by the telephone industry are janitors, porters, watchmen, elevator operators, and guards. TELEPHONE INDUSTRY OCCUPATIONS Employment Outlook Tens of thousands of new workers will be required by tele phone operating companies each year throughout the 1970’s, mainly to replace the large number of women telephone operators and clerical workers who leave the in dustry. Many new workers, how ever, will be needed for craft jobs to replace skilled workers who die, re tire, or shift to other work. Job turnover also will create openings for administrative, sales, profes sional, technical, and scientific per sonnel. Despite an anticipated strong growth in service, total employment is expected to grow only moderately because technological improve ments such as electronic switching equipment permit more calls to be made without assistance. However, operators will continue to handle complex calls. Technological changes are expected to restrict the total number of clerks and skilled craftsmen. Occupational groups in which employment is expected to grow as business increases are sales, administrative, professional, techni cal, and scientific personnel. Part of the expansion in tele phone service will result from ex pected increases in number of households and business establish ments. The remaining households in the United States without tele phones will be another factor in the demand for telephone service, espe cially as incomes rise. Other factors also are expected to increase demand for telephones. For example, in private homes dif ferent styles and color and tele phone extensions are increasing. The recently-developed push-button instrument enables the user to call in half the time required by a dial phone. It may provide many new services, including the transmission of data, remote control of appli ances, or remote access to elec tronic computers. Also growing is the use of specialized equipment on telephone instruments, such as vol ume controls that compensate for impaired hearing and housespeakers that permit “hand free” conversa tion. For industrial and commercial users, high speed transmission of large quantities of computer-proc essed and other data via telephone, teletypewriter, telephotograph, or facsimile are becoming important. Because of high speed of data trans mission, for example, the same newspaper can be published simul taneously in two widely separated cities. To meet the increasing de mand for overseas communications, transoceanic service will continue to expand as more undersea cables are laid and communication satellites come into wider commercial use. Earnings and Working Conditions Since wage rates in the telephone industry are geared to those for comparable work in the locality, earnings of telephone workers de pend not only on the type of job and the worker’s previous training and experience, but also on location and character of the community. Because of differences in rates among regions and communities, considerable variation exists in the rates paid for any given telephone occupation. In general, telephone wage rates are highest in the Pacific and Middle Atlantic States and low est in the Southeast. For the Nation as a whole, aver age basic hourly wage rates in De cember 1969 for all telephone em ployees, except officials and mana gerial assistants, were $3.62. Rates 783 for these workers ranged from an average of $2.16 an hour for tele phone operator trainees and $2.55 for experienced telephone opera tors, to $6.39 for professional and semiprofessional workers. Clerical workers in non-supervisory posi tions averaged $2.79 an hour. Con struction, installation, and mainte nance employees averaged $4.01 an hour. A telephone employee usually starts at the minimum wage for his particular job. Advancement from the starting rate to the maximum rate generally takes from 4 to 6 years and involves from 10 to 14 pay grades. More than two-thirds of the workers in the industry, mainly tele phone operators and craftsmen, are members of labor unions. The Com munications Workers of America represents the largest number of workers in the industry, but many other employees are members of the 13 independent unions which form the Alliance of Independent Tele phone Unions. Others are members of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Wage rates, wage increases, and the amount of time required to ad vance from one step to the next are governed for most telephone workers by union-management con tracts. The contracts also call for extra pay for work beyond the nor mal tour of 6 to 8 hours a day or 5 days a week, and for all Sunday and holiday work. Most contracts pro vide a pay differential for night work. Travel time between jobs is counted as worktime for craftsmen under some contracts. Overtime work sometimes is required in the telephone industry, especially dur ing emergencies, such as floods, hurricanes, or bad storms. During an “emergency call-out,” which is a 784 short-notice request to report to work during non-scheduled hours, workers are guaranteed a minimum period of pay at the basic hourly rate. In addition to these provisions which affect the pay envelope di rectly, other benefits are provided. Annual vacations with pay are granted to workers according to their length of service. Usually, con tracts provide for a 1-week vacation beginning with 6 months of service; 2 weeks for 2 to 10 years; 3 weeks for 11 to 19 years; 4 weeks for 20 to 24 years; and 5 weeks for 25 years and over. Depending on local ity holidays range from 8 to 12 days a year. Most telephone workers are covered by paid sick plans and group insurance which usually provide sickness, accident, and death benefits, and retirement and disability pensions. The telephone industry has achieved one of the best safety rec ords in American industry. The number of disabling injuries has been consistently well below the av erage. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK United States Independent Telephone Association, 438 Pennsylvania Building, Washington, D.C. 20004. TELEPHONE CRAFTMEN Nearly three-tenths of the em ployees in the telephone industry are craftsmen engaged in construc tion, installation, and maintenance activities necessary to operate the vast amount of mechanical, electri cal, and electronic equipment vital to the far-reaching network of our modern communications systems. About 1 out of 7 of these workers are foremen, many of whom have advanced to supervisory positions from a craft job. CENTRAL OFFICE CRAFTMEN Nature of the Work Where To Go for More Information Additional information about jobs in the telephone industry may be obtained from the local tele phone company or from local un ions with telephone workers among their membership. If no local union is listed in the telephone directory, information may be obtained from the following: Alliance of Independent Telephone Unions, Room 302, 1422 Chest nut St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19102. Communication Workers of Ameri ca, 1925 K St., NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. International Brotherhood of Elec trical Workers, 1200 15th St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Central office craftsmen test, maintain, and repair mechanical, electrical, and electronic switching equipment and other central office equipment. They maintain this equipment in operating condition and locate potential trouble before service is affected. Telephone com panies employed about 92,000 cen tral office craftsmen in 1970, in cluding approximately 21,000 test boardmen and 66,000 central office repairmen, helpers, and framemen. Frameman (D.O.T. 822.884) is usu ally the beginning job from which a worker may advance to a more skilled central office craft job. Much of the frameman’s job involves run ning, connecting, and disconnecting wires according to plans prepared by line assigners, another small group of workers. Central office repairmen (D.O.T. 822.281), often called switchmen, maintain and repair switching equipment and automatic message accounting systems in central offices. They check switches and re lays, using special tools and gauges. They also locate and repair trouble on customers’ lines in central office equipment as reported by testboardmen. Testboardmen (D.O.T. 822.281) check customers’ lines to determine the cause of breakdowns or interfer ence in telephone service. They work at special switchboards com prising electrical testing instruments and test for, locate, and analyze trouble spots reported on custom ers’ lines. If repairs are needed and the breakdown is outside the central office, they direct the repair activi ties of line and cable crews or in staller repairmen or of central office repairmen (if the trouble is inside). Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Telephone companies usually train inexperienced men for skilled jobs in central offices. Applicants must have at least a high school or vocational school education. A knowledge of the basic principles of electricity and electronics generally is desired. Telephone training and experience in the armed services or technical training beyond high school may be helpful in obtaining jobs as telephone craftsmen; men with such training may be brought in above the entry level. Preemploy ment aptitude tests usually are given to prospective employees. Young persons considering ca- 785 TELEPHONE INDUSTRY OCCUPATIONS men start as installers or linemen and many, with additional training, transfer to jobs as central office craftsmen. They may then be pro moted to engineering assistant or administrative staff worker. Employment Outlook During the 1970’s many oppor tunities will result for central office craftsmen from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other jobs. Retirements and deaths alone may result in several thousand job openings each year. The total number of central office craftsmen is expected to increase rapidly during the 1970’s, mainly as a result of the increasing demand for telephone service and data com munication systems. However, re cent technological developments, such as electronic switching and various automatic testing devices, will tend to restrict employment growth. reers as central office craftsmen should have manual dexterity, good eyesight—no color blindness, and an aptitude for mechanics and read ing diagrams and blueprints. He should be able to work with others for many times teamwork is essen tial to solve a complex problem. Employees frequently work shifts or overtime to maintain constant tele phone service. Central office crafts men should be adaptable to changes brought about by rapid advances in communications technology. Most telephone companies give classroom instruction and on-thejob training to new central office craft employees. Usually they are assigned to the starting job of frameman and work with experi enced framemen under the direction of a supervisor or foreman. As they gain experience they may advance to central office repairmen or testboardmen to receive additional training. Instruction includes courses in the maintenance of the particular type of central office equipment used by the company. Throughout their careers, the telephone company trains office craftsmen. As new types of equip ment and tools and new mainte nance methods are introduced, they may be sent to school for short pe riods. Usually at least 6 years are necessary for workers to reach the top pay rate for central office re pairmen or testboardmen. Many workers move into central office craft jobs from other types of telephone work. For example, some Earnings and Working Conditions Central office craftsmen are among the highest paid skilled workers in the telephone industry. In December 1969, average basic hourly rates of pay in large tele phone companies in the United States were $4.04 for testboardmen and $3.77 for central office repair men; average basic hourly rates ranged from $3.80 to $4.38 for test boardmen and from $3.46 to $3.81 for central office repairmen, de pending on locality and length of service. Earnings increase considerably with length of service in central office jobs. According to a 1970 union-management contract in one of the higher pay scale cities, craft em ployees start at $105.50 for a 40- 786 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK hour week. Framemen can work up to a maximum of $166 after 4 years and 11 months. If a vacancy occurs and the worker is qualified, a frameman can move into the job of central office repairman or testboardman with a higher pay sched ule. Central office repairmen and testboardmen can earn a maximum of $193 a week after 6 years of pe riodic increases. Since the telephone industry gives continuous service to its customers, central offices operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Some central office craftsmen, therefore, have work schedules for which they re ceive extra pay. Central office craftsmen are covered by the same provisions governing overtime pay, vacations, holidays, and other bene fits that apply to telephone workers generally. (See discussion earlier in this chapter.) Employees in central offices work in clean and welllighted surroundings. CENTRAL OFFICE EQUIPMENT INSTALLERS Nature of the Work Central office equipment install ers set up complex switching and dialing equipment in central offices of telephone companies. They as semble, wire, adjust, and test this equipment to have it comform to the manufacturer’s standards for ef ficiency and dependability. They may install a new central office, add equipment in an expanding local office, or replace outmoded equip ment. About 22,000 installers were em ployed in 1970. Unlike other crafts- Centrai office equipment installer wires switching equipment. men discussed in this chapter, most installers work for manufacturers of central office equipment rather than for telephone companies. A few in cluding about 1,600 in the New England area, work directly for telephone companies; some are em ployed by private contractors who specialize in large-scale installa tions. Central office equipment install ers generally are assigned to areas which include several States to in stall a switchboard in a central office in a small community, where they may work with only one or two other installers. On a large job, such as a long-distance toll center in a big city, he may work with hundreds of other installers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Young persons who wish to be come installers must have a high school or vocational school educa tion. Individuals with some college education, especially engineering majors often are hired. Preemploy ment tests generally determine the applicant’s mechanical aptitudes. A physical examination is required. Young persons considering ca reers as central office craftsmen should have manual dexterity, good eyesight—no color blindness, and an aptitude for mechanics and read ing diagrams and blueprints. He should be able to work with others for many times teamwork is essen tial to solve a complex problem. Employees frequently work shifts or overtime to maintain constant tele phone service. Central office crafts men should be adaptable to changes brought about by rapid advances in communications technology. New employees receive on-thejob training and classroom instruc tion. They attend classes the first few weeks to learn basic installation methods before starting on-the-job training. After several years of ex perience, they may qualify as skilled installers. Training on the job, how ever, continues even after they be come skilled workers. Additional courses are given from time to time to improve their skills and to teach new techniques in installing tele phone equipment. Installers may advance to engineering assistant jobs, especially those workers who have had some technical training beyond the high school level. Employment Outlook Employment of central office equipment installers is expected to increase at a moderate rate during the 1970’s to install equipment in thousands of new central offices and to replace obsolete equipment. A 787 TELEPHONE INDUSTRY OCCUPATIONS few hundred job openings a year are expected to replace office equip ment installers who transfer to other work, retire, or die. Increasingly complex central office and toll equipment, including advanced PBX systems and data and computer networks, will require more highly skilled manpower in electronics. Installers, perhaps more than other telephone craftsmen are subject to possible employment fluc tuations in the short run because of changes in business conditions. When the business outlook is de pressed, there is less likelihood new central offices will be built and ex isting offices enlarged or modern ized. When business is prospering, installations, additions, and modifi cations of central offices may occur at an above-average pace. Earnings and Working Conditions According to a major union con tract in 1970, rates for inexperi enced installers, depending on the locality, start at $2.50 to $2.69 an hour. The contract provides for pe riodic increases, and employees may reach rates of $4 to $4.82 an hour after 6 years of experience. Time and a half is paid for work over 8 hours a day or 40 hours a week, and double time is paid for Sundays and holidays. Travel and expense allowances also are given. Depending on local ity installers receive 8 to 12 paid holidays a year. Length of service determines paid vacations. The Communications Workers of America represents most central office equipment installers, includ ing those servicing the Bell System. The International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers represents some installers employed directly by New England telephone companies, by manufacturers supplying the nonBell or independent segment of the telephone industry, and others, em ployed by large installation contrac tors. LINEMEN AND CABLE SPLICERS Nature of the Work The vast network of wires and cables that connect telephone cen tral offices to the millions of tele phones and switchboards in custom ers’ homes and buildings is con structed and kept in good operating order by linemen and cable splicers and their helpers. Telephone com panies employed over 44,000 of these workers in early 1970, 15,000 linemen, 25,000 cable splicers, and 4,000 helpers, laborers, and other workers. In constructing new telephone lines, linemen (D.O.T. 822.381) place wires and cables leading from the central office to customers’ premises. They use. power-driven equipment to dig holes and set in telephone poles which support ca bles. Linemen climb the poles to at tach the cables, usually leaving the ends free for cable splicers to con nect later. In cities where telephone lines are below the streets, linemen place cables in underground con duits. Construction linemen usually work in crews of two to five men. A foreman directs the work of several of these crews. Linemen repair and maintain ex isting lines. When wires or cables break or a pole is knocked down, linemen make emergency repairs. The line crew foreman keeps in close contact with the testboard foreman who directs him to trouble locations on the lines. Some linemen periodically inspect sections of lines in rural areas and make minor re pairs and line changes. After linemen place cables on poles or in underground conduits, cable splicers (D.O.T. 829.381) generally complete the line connec tions. Splicers work on aerial plat forms, in manholes, or in basements of large commercial buildings. They connect individual wires within the cable by matching colors of wires so as to keep each circuit continuous. Cable splicers also rearrange pairs of wires within a cable when lines have to be changed. At each splice, they either wrap insulation around the wires and seal the joint with a lead sleeve or cover the splice with some other type of closure. Some times, they fill the cable sheathing with compressed air to keep out 788 moisture. Cable splicers also main tain and repair cables. The preven tive maintenance work that they do is extremely important because a single defect in a cable may result in a serious interruption in service. Many trouble spots are located through air pressure or electric tests. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK training, some trainees are assigned to a line crew to work on the job with experienced men under the su pervision of a line foreman. About 6 years are required for linemen to reach the top pay for the job. Other trainees acquire the skills of the trade by working with experienced cable splicers to whom they are as signed. Line construction craftsmen con tinue to receive training throughout their careers to qualify for more dif ficult assignments and to keep up with technological changes in the in dustry. Those having the necessary qualifications find many additional advancement opportunities in the telephone industry. For example, a lineman may be transferred to tele phone installer and later to tele phone repairman or other higher rated jobs. Telephone companies hire inex perienced men to train for jobs as linemen or cable splicers. Appli cants for these jobs must have a high school or vocational school ed ucation and must pass a physical ex amination. Knowledge of the basic principles of electricity, and espe cially electronics, is helpful. Preem ployment tests often are given to help determine the applicant’s apti tudes. Some line and cable work is Employment Outlook strenuous, requiring workers to climb poles and lift lines and equip Employment of linemen and ment. Applicants for these positions cable splicers is expected to in must be physically qualified for such crease only at a slow rate, despite work. Manual dexterity and the anticipation of a continuing high ability to distinguish color also are level of activity in line and cable in important qualifications. Men who stallation, maintenance, and repair. have received telephone training However, hundreds of job openings and experience in the armed serv for these craftsmen as a group are ices frequently are given prefer expected to become available dur ence for job openings and may be ing the 1970’s because of the need brought in above the entry level. to replace workers who transfer to For these jobs, telephone companies other jobs, retire, or die. have training programs which in Employment trends will differ clude classroom instruction as well among individual occupations. Only as on-the-job training. Classrooms moderate growth is expected in the are equipped with actual telephone number of cable splicers because of apparatus, such as poles, cable sup technological developments that in porting clamps, and other fixtures to crease worker efficiency, such as de simulate working conditions as vices that permit splicing of wires closely as possible. Trainees learn without the need to remove insula to climb poles and are taught safe tion; color code for identifying types working practices to avoid contact wires in cables; and use of air pres with power wires and falls. sured cables whose failure can be After a short period of classroom pinpointed by detecting devices. These developments, furthermore, are expected to reduce drastically the need for cable splicers’ helpers, continuing the rapid decline in em ployment in this occupation in re cent years. Little or no change is expected in the number of linemen because of the increasing use of me chanical improvements, such as trucks with derricks and pole-lifting equipment, earth-boring tools, light weight ladders, and “skybuckets,” which have eliminated much of the physical work of the line crews, and is causing a substantial reduction in the regular size of a line crew. Earnings and Working Conditions Cable splicers have higher earn ings than linemen. In December 1969 in the United States as a whole, cable splicer’s basic rates av eraged $3.77 an hour, and line men’s rates averaged $3.07. Aver age hourly rates ranged from $3.43 to $4.02 for cable splicers and from $2.51 to $3.33 for linemen, with variations in earnings depending on locality. Pay rates within the jobs also de pend to a considerable extent upon length of service. For example, ac cording to a 1970 union-manage ment agreement, new workers in line construction jobs in one of the higher pay scale cities begin at $105.50 for a 40-hour week. Line men can reach the maximum of $190 after 6 years service. The maximum basic weekly rate for cable splicers is $193 based upon a combined total of at least 6 years of work in a plant craft job, as a helper and as a splicer, or in related craft jobs. Linemen and cable splicers are covered by the same contract provi sions governing overtime pay, vaca tions, holidays, length of service, and other benefits that apply to tele TELEPHONE INDUSTRY OCCUPATIONS phone workers generally. (See dis cussion earlier in this chapter.) Linemen and cable splicers work outdoors. They must do a consider able amount of climbing. They also work in manholes, often in stooped and cramped positions. Safety standards, developed over the years by telephone companies with the cooperation of labor unions, have greatly reduced the hazards of these occupations. When severe weather conditions damage telephone lines, linemen and cable splicers may be called upon to work long and ir regular hours to repair damaged cable facilities and to restore serv ice. Because of the nature of their work, some linemen and cable splicers, by the time they reach their midfifties, transfer to other jobs such as installers and repairmen or cen tral office craftsmen. TELEPHONE AND PBX INSTALLERS AND REPAIRMEN Nature of the Work Telephone and private branch exchange (PBX) installers and re pairmen (sometimes called service men) install and service telephone and PBX systems on the customers’ property and make necessary re pairs on the equipment when trou ble develops. These workers travel to customers’ homes and offices in trucks equipped with telephone tools and supplies. When telephone customers move or request new types of service, installers relocate telephones or make changes on cus tomers’ existing equipment. For ex ample, they may install a PBX sys- tern in an office or change a twoparty line to a single-party line in a residence. Installers also may fill a customer’s request to add an exten sion in another room or to replace an old telephone with a newer model. Telephone and PBX installers and repairmen are the largest group of telephone craftsmen; about 102,000 were employed in 1970. Most of these men mainly install telephones or private branch ex changes, and about 23,000 repair and maintain this equipment. The 789 jobs of installing and repairing tele phones and PBX systems are dis cussed below as separate jobs, but many telephone companies combine two or more of these jobs. Telephone installers (D.O.T. 822.381) install and remove tele phones in homes and places of busi ness. They connect newly installed telephones to outside service wires which are on nearby buildings or poles. Installers often must climb poles to make these connections. Telephone installers are sometimes called station installers. 790 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK maintain associated equipment such as batteries, relays, and power plants. Some PBX repairmen main tain and repair equipment for radio and television broadcasts, mobile radiotelephones, and teletypewri ters. Sometimes the jobs of PBX in stallers and PBX repairmen are combined into the job of PBX in staller-repairmen . Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement PBX installer tests PBX equipment. PBX installers (D.O.T. 822.381) perform the same duties as tele phone installers, but they specialize in more complex switchboard in stallations. They connect wires from terminals to switchboards and make tests to check their installations. Some PBX installers also set up equipment for radio and television broadcasts, mobile radiotelephones, and teletypewriters. Telephone repairmen (D.O.T. 822.281), with the assistance of testboardmen in the central office, locate trouble on customers’ equip ment and make repairs to restore service. Sometimes the jobs of tele phone repairmen and telephone in stallers are combined and the workers are called telephone install er-repairmen. PBX repairmen (D.O.T. 822.281), with the assistance of testboardmen, locate trouble on customers’ PBX systems and make the necessary repairs. They also Telephone companies train expe rienced men for telephone and PBX installation and repair jobs. Since much of the work requires personal contact with customers, applicants who have a pleasing appearance and the ability to deal effectively with people are preferred. Appli cants for these skilled jobs must have a high school or vocational school education. Preemployment tests usually are given to help deter mine an applicant’s aptitude for me chanics and reading diagrams and blueprints. Installers and repair men should have manual dexterity, good eyesight (corrected), and telephone and PBX installers and repairmen should be able to adapt to the changes brought about by new communications technology. New workers are given on-thejob training and instruction in class rooms equipped with telephone poles, lines and cables, and terminal boxes, as well as models of typical residential construction to simulate actual working conditions. Trainees practice installing telephones and making connections to service wires just as they would in the field. After a few weeks of such training, new workers continue to learn by watch ing and helping experienced men on the job. Telephone and PBX installers TELEPHONE INDUSTRY OCCUPATIONS and repairmen continue to receive training throughout their careers to qualify for more responsible work and to keep up with technological changes. A new worker may start as lineman, move to telephone installer or repairman, and later advance to either PBX installer or repairman. Employment Outlook Employment of telephone and PBX installers and repairmen is ex pected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s due to a growing demand for more telephones, and PBX and CENTREX systems. Many opportunities will also result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other telephone jobs, leave the industry, retire, or die. Some job openings may be filled by workers transferring from other telephone craft jobs, such as linemen and cable splicers, but many will be open to new entrants to the labor force. Expansion is anticipated in the volume of service handled by tele phone and PBX installers and re pairmen because of the expanding number of telephones to be serviced and repaired and the increased use of specialized types of phone equip ment, as well as, the development of improved but more complex equip ment. Technological changes which have increased the efficiency of in dividual installers or repairmen will limit the employment increase. Ex amples of such changes include im proved designs for telephone instru ments, wires, and cables, and the development of removable compo nents which can be returned to fac tory or service shop for repair. Earnings and Working Conditions In December 1969 the average basic hourly rate for PBX repair men was $3.96 and the rate for telephone and PBX installers was $3.62. 791 The effect of length of service on wage rates is illustrated by a 1970 union-management agreement in one of the higher pay scale cities. Under this agreement, telephone in stallers and repairmen have a start ing rate of $105.50 for a 40-hour week, with periodic pay increases until a maximum of $190 a week is reached after about 6 years. Install ers and repairmen are covered by the same provisions governing over time pay, vacations, holidays, and other benefits that apply to tele phone workers generally. (See dis cussion earlier in this chapter.) Telephone and PBX installers and repairmen work indoors and outdoors in all kinds of weather. Outdoor work includes climbing poles to place and repair telephone wires leading from poles to cus tomers’ premises. Installers and re pairmen may work extra hours when breakdowns occur in lines or equipment. O C C U P A T I O N S IN T H E T R U C K IN G IN D U S T R Y In 1970, the trucking industry employed approximately 1 million workers—more than the rail, air, and pipeline transportation indus tries combined. The industry fur nishes many jobs for young persons who do not plan to attend college. Nearly 90 percent of its employees handle freight, drive or maintain trucks, and do clerical or other work that requires no more than a high school education. Nature and Location of the Industry The trucking industry is made up of firms that furnish local and long distance hauling and storage on a for-hire basis. Trucking terminals located in various cities for the dis tribution and pickup of freight and the maintenance of trucking equip ment also are part of the industry. Local trucking companies serve a single city and its suburbs. All oth ers are long-distance carriers and usually travel through many States. Some firms specialize in the type of goods carried, for example, they may carry oil, grain, livestock, auto mobiles, or furniture that usually re quire special truck rigging and load ing and unloading equipment. Trucking companies operate as ei ther contract or common carriers. Contract carriers haul commodities of one or a few shippers exclusively; common carriers serve the general public. The industry’s employment is concentrated in a relatively small number of large companies. Fewer than 10 percent of the trucking companies in interstate commerce have annual revenues of $1 million 792 or more, but account for almost half of the employment. However, a large proportion of the companies are small, particularly those which serve a single city. Many are own er-operated, and the owner does the driving. Trucking industry employees work in cities and towns of all sizes and are distributed much the same as the Nation’s population. About half of them work in seven States: California, New York, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Texas, and New Jersey. Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York are the hubs of the Nation’s trucking networks. Occupations in the Industry About three-fourths of all truck ing industry employees have bluecollar jobs. Included in this occupa tional group are about 580,000 truckdrivers, who represent over half the industry’s total employ ment. About 10 percent are mate rial handlers. Other important blue-collar occupations are mechan ics, washers and lubricators, and foremen. Most white-collar em ployees are clerical workers, such as secretaries and rate clerks, and ad ministrative personnel, such as ter minal managers and accountants. Men hold 9 out of every 10 jobs in the industry. Nearly all women employees are clerical workers. The duties and training require ments of some of the important oc cupations are described briefly in the following sections. Detailed dis cussions of many of these occupa tions are given elsewhere in the Handbook under individual occupa tions. Truckdriving Occupations. More than half of the industry’s em ployees are truckdrivers. Over-theroad drivers (D.O.T. 904.883) op erate large tractor-trailers or single unit trucks long distances, and spend nearly all of their working hours behind the wheel. They trans port goods of great value which must be delivered safely and on time. Some drivers load and unload OCCUPATIONS IN THE TRUCKING INDUSTRY their trucks, but usually other em ployees do this work. Local drivers (D.O.T. 906.883) operate trucks over short distances, usually within a city and its suburbs. They deliver goods from trucking terminals to wholesalers, retailers, and other businesses in the area. They also pick up goods for deliv ery to terminals where loads are made up for long trips. Clerical occupations. About 1 out of every 7 of the industry’s em ployees is a clerical worker. Many have general clerical jobs, such as secretary or clerk-typist, which are common to all industries. Others have specialized jobs. For example, dispatchers (D.O.T. 919.168) coordinate the movement of trucks and freight into and out of termi nals; make up loads for specific des tinations; assign drivers and develop delivery schedules; handle custom ers’ requests for pickup of freight; and provide information on deliv eries. Rate clerks (D.O.T. 219.388) calculate shipping charges according to tariff regulations. Claims clerks (D.O.T. 241.368) handle claims for freight lost or damaged during transit. Manifest clerks (D.O.T. 222.488) prepare forms that list details of freight ship ments. Parts-order clerks (D.O.T. 223.389) supply mechanics with re placement parts for trucks; they also take care of most of the clerical du ties necessary for maintaining a truck repair shop. Administrative and Related Oc cupations. More than 1 out of 10 employees is an administrator. Top executives manage companies and make policy decisions. Middle man agers supervise the operation of in dividual departments, terminals, or warehouses. A small number of ac countants and lawyers are in staff positions. The industry also employs sales representatives to solicit freight business. Material Handling Occupations. About 1 out of 10 employees moves materials into and out of trucks and warehouses. Much of this work is done by material handlers (D.O.T. 909.887) who work in gangs of three or four under the supervision of a dock foreman or gang leader. Material handlers load and unload freight with the aid of handtrucks, conveyors, and other devices. Heavy items are moved by power truck operators (D.O.T. 922.883) and crane operators (D.O.T. 921.280). Gang leaders determine the order in which items will be loaded so that the cargo is balanced and items to be unloaded first are near the back of the truck. Truckdrivers’ helpers (D.O.T. 905.887) travel with drivers to unload and pick up freight. Occasionally, help ers may do relief driving. Truck Maintenance Occupations. About 1 out of every 20 employees maintains the industry’s operating equipment. Truck mechanics (D.O.T. 620.281) keep trucks and trailers in good running condition. Much time is spent in preventive maintenance to assure safe opera tion, to check wear and damage to parts, and to reduce breakdowns. When breakdowns do occur, they determine the cause and make the necessary repairs. Truck mechanic helpers (D.O.T. 620.884) and ap prentices assist experienced me chanics in inspection and repair work. Lubrication men and washers (D.O.T. 915.887 and 919.887) clean, lubricate, and refuel trucks, change tires, and do other routine maintenance. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement New workers in blue-collar occu 793 pations usually are hired at the un skilled level, as material handlers, truck drivers’ helpers, or lubrication men and washers. No formal train ing is required for these jobs, but many employers prefer high school graduates. Applicants must be in good physical condition. New em ployees work under the guidance of experienced workers and foremen while learning their jobs, which usu ally takes no more than a few weeks. As vacancies occur, they ad vance to higher rated blue-collar jobs, such as power truck operators and truckdrivers. Qualifications for promotion are the ability to do the job and length of service with the firm. Material handlers who demon strate supervisory ability can be come gang leaders or dock foremen. Qualifications for truckdriving jobs vary and depend on individual employers, the type of truck, and other factors. Every driver must have a chauffeur’s license, a com mercial driving permit obtained from State Motor Vehicle Depart ments. The U.S. Department of Transportation establishes minimum qualifications for over-the-road drivers. The driver must be at least 21 years old, able-bodied, have good hearing, and vision of at least 20/40 with or without glasses. He also must be able to read and speak English and have at least 1 year of driving experience and a good driv ing record. Many firms will not hire over-the-road drivers under 25; they also may specify limitations on height and weight. Young persons interested in pro fessional driving should take the driver-training courses offered by many high schools. A course in au tomotive mechanics is also helpful because it provides a knowledge of the mechanical operations of a truck. Private truckdriving training schools offer another opportunity to 794 prepare for a driving job. However, completion of such a course does not assure immediate employment as a driver. Graduates frequently must start as material handlers or drivers’ helpers and advance to driving jobs. Prospective students should enroll only in truckdriving courses offered by schools which have been certified by the State. Most truck mechanics learn their skills informally on-the-job as help ers to experienced mechanics. Oth ers complete formal apprenticeship programs which generally last 4 years and include on-the-job train ing and related classroom instruc tion. Unskilled workers, such as lu brication men and washers, fre quently are promoted to helpers and apprentices. However, many firms will hire inexperienced young peo ple for helper or apprentice jobs, especially those who have com pleted courses in automotive me chanics. Completion of commercial courses in high school or business school is uaually adequate for entry into general clerical occupations, such as secretary or typist. Addi tional on-the-job training is needed for specialized clerical occupations, such as rate or claims clerk. Generally, no specialized educa tion is necessary for dispatcher jobs. Openings are filled by truck drivers, rate clerks, or other workers who know their company’s operations and are familiar with State and Fed eral driving regulations. A candi date may improve his qualifications by taking college or technical school courses in transportation. Administrative and sales positions frequently are filled by college grad uates who have majored in business administration, marketing, account ing, industrial relations, or transpor tation. Some companies have man agement training programs for col OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK lege graduates in which trainees work for brief periods in various de partments to get a broad picture of trucking operations before they are assigned to a particular department. High school graduates may be promoted to administrative and sales positions. Employment Outlook Employment in the trucking in dustry is expected to grow rapidly through the 1970’s. New jobs re sulting from employment growth, as well as jobs that must be filled as experienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other fields are expected to account for tens of thousands of openings each year. Demand for trucking is expected to rise very rapidly in response to general economic growth. Also sig nificant are additional segments of the national interstate and defense highway systems to be completed over the next decade. These roads have more lanes, fewer curves and other improvements which have resulted in reduction of State limita tions of truck weight, size, and speed. In addition, many new facto ries and other businesses are located in suburban or rural areas where rail facilities are extremely limited or nonexistent. Employment will not increase as fast as demand for trucking because technological developments and a continued trend to larger, more efficient firms will increase output per worker. As a result of these de velopments, rates of growth will vary among occupations. Employ ment of material handlers, for ex ample, is expected to increase slowly because of more efficient freight handling methods—such as conveyors and draglines to move freight in and out of terminals and warehouses, and cargo cages to combine less-than-truckload ship ments. In contrast, employment of truckdrivers is expected to increase rapidly, although improved high ways and vehicles will result in big ger loads at higher speeds and fewer drivers will be required for each ton of freight. Compared with small organiza tions, large companies have higher proportions of accountants, person nel workers, clerks, sales workers, truck mechanics, and foremen. Em ployment in most of these occupa tions is expected to increase very rapidly as a result of the trend to larger trucking companies. On the other hand, terminal managers make up a greater proportion of employment in small firms, since they perform many of the tasks that are assigned to other workers in large organizations. Thus, the de mand for terminal managers will grow slowly as employment be comes more concentrated in large firms. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, nonsupervisory workers in the trucking industry averaged $169.32 a week or $4.08 an hour compared with $121.73 a week or $3.29 an hour for nonsupervisory workers in all private nonagricultural industries. Earnings are rela tively high in the trucking industry because drivers represent a large proportion of employment; many over-the-road drivers earn more than $200 a week. Most employees are paid an hourly rate or a weekly or monthly salary. However, truckdrivers on the longer runs generally are paid on a mileage basis for driving time. For all other work time, they are paid an hourly rate. Most em OCCUPATIONS IN THE TRUCKING INDUSTRY ployees receive premium pay for overtime, Sundays, and holidays. Paid vacations are almost univer sal in the trucking industry. Typi cally, employees receive a 1 week vacation after 1 year of service, 2 weeks after 3 years, 3 weeks after 10 years, and 4 weeks after 15 years. Nearly all workers receive paid holidays. Insurance and pen sion plans, financed at least partially by employers, cover most workers, and include life, sickness, hospital ization, and surgical insurance. Working conditions vary greatly among occupations in the industry. Truckdriving is both physically and mentally demanding, but conditions have improved as a result of better highways, more comfortable seat ing, power steering, and air-condi tioned cabs. Over-the-road drivers frequently work at night and spend time away from home. Local drivers usually work only during the day. Material handlers and truckdriver’s helpers have strenuous jobs. In re cent years, conveyor systems, mo torized hand trucks, power tail gates, and other freight handling equipment have reduced some of the heavier lifting and made the work safer. Although their duties are not physically strenuous, truck mechan ics and other maintenance person nel may have to work in awkward or cramped positions while servicing vehicles. Most maintenance shops are well lighted, heated, and venti lated. Mechanics occasionally make 795 repairs outdoors where breakdowns occur. Many large organizations op erate around the clock and require some material handling and mainte nance personnel to work evenings and nights. A large number of trucking in dustry employees are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehouse men and Helpers of America (Ind.) Sources of Additional Information Information on career opportuni ties may be obtained from: American Trucking Association, 1616 P St., N W , Washington, D.C. 20036. W H O LE S A LE AND R ETA IL TR A D E Wholesaling and retailing are the final stages in the process of trans ferring goods from producers to consumers. Wholesalers assemble goods in large lots and distribute them to retail stores, industrial firms, and institutions such as schools and hospitals. Retailers sell goods directly to housewives and other consumers in a variety of ways—in stores, by mail, or through door-to-door selling. A list of the items sold by wholesale and retail businesses would include almost every item produced by American industry—automobiles, clothing, food, furniture, and countless oth ers. In 1970, nearly 15 million per sons (not counting an estimated 2 million self-employed and unpaid family workers) worked in whole sale and retail trade. Retail trade accounted for the largest number of workers— 11.1 million—or about three-fourths of the employment in the broad industry group. The ma jority of these workers are em ployed in department stores, in food stores, and in restaurants and other eating places. About 3.8 million persons worked in wholesale trade. Wholesale and retail businesses are a major source of job opportu nities for women. In 1970, for exam ple, nearly one-half of the workers employed in retail trade were women. They represented about one-fifth of all workers employed in wholesale trade. Many of the women employed in retail stores work part time. Workers with a wide range of ed ucation, training, skill, and ability are employed in wholesale and re tail trade. In 1970, white-collar workers accounted for more than 3 out of 5 persons employed in the major industry group, as shown in the accompanying table. Sales workers, the largest single group, make up nearly one-fourth of total industry employment. Managers and proprietors, the second largest group of workers, account for about one-fifth of the industry’s work force. Many managers and proprie tors own and operate small whole sale houses or retail businesses such as food stores and gasoline service stations. Clerical workers account for roughly one-sixth of the work force; many are employed by retail stores as cashiers, especially in su permarkets and other food stores. Other important clerical occupa tions in retail trade include secre taries, stenographers and typists, office machine operators, and book keepers and accounting clerks. Large numbers of shipping and re ceiving clerks are employed in both wholesale and retail trade. Blue-collar workers (craftsmen, operatives, and laborers) accounted for nearly one-fourth of all employ ment in the industry group in 1970. Many are employed as mechanics and repairmen, gasoline service sta tion attendants, drivers and deliv erymen, meat cutters, and materials handlers. Most mechanics work for motor vehicle dealers and gasoline service stations. A large number of meat cutters are employed in whole sale grocery establishments and in supermarkets and other food stores. Service workers, employed mostly in retail trade, accounted for roughly 1 out of 7 workers in the industry group. Food service workers, such as waitresses and cooks, made up by far the largest concentration of service workers. Other large groups of service workers were janitors, charwomen and cleaners, and guards and watch men. M a j o r o c c u p a tio n a l g r o u p E s t i m a te d e m p lo y m e n t, 1970 (p e r c e n t d is tr ib u tio n ) All occupational groups.......... Professional, technical, and kindred workers.... Managers, officials, and proprietors .................... Clerical and kindred workers ......................... Sales workers .................. Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers.... Operatives and kindred workers ......................... Service workers................ Laborers ........................... 100 2 21 17 23 7 11 14 5 N ote : Due to rounding sum of individual items may not equal total. Employment in wholesale and re tail trade is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. The major factors contributing to the ex pected growth of employment are increasing population and consumer expenditures, continuation of the population movement from rural to urban areas and from city to sub urbs, and the trend toward keeping stores open longer hours. Growth in employment requirements is ex pected to be slowed somewhat by the increasing applications of laborsaving technology. For example, technological change may effect em ployment because of improvements in materials-handling methods, packaging innovations, the growing use of computers for inventory con trol and billing operations, the in creasing use of mechanized equip ment in supermarkets, and the con tinued growth in the number of stores using self-service operations. 797 798 Within retail trade, employment in department stores, drug stores, restaurants, auto dealerships, and service stations is expected to rise fastest. Among wholesale establish ments, the rates of employment growth are likely to be highest in businesses that distribute auto parts, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK and in firms selling industrial ma chinery, equipment, and supplies. The statement that follows covers the major occupations in restau rants, where, for example, large numbers of waiters and waitresses, and cooks and chefs are employed. More detailed information about occupations that cut across many in dustries appears elsewhere in the Handbook. These include salesmen, office workers, shipping and receiv ing clerks, maintenance trades, and many others. (See index in the back of the book.) RESTAURANT In 1970, about 2.5 million people were employed in establishments whose main business was serving food and beverages. Many other food-service workers were em ployed in establishments that serve meals in connection with some other activity—for example, drug and department stores, hotels, hos pitals, school and college lunch rooms, and factory cafeterias. Com mercial airlines, railroads, and ship lines also employ food-service workers. Nature and Location of the Industry Establishments catering to the custom of “eating out” range from small diners to luxurious and expen sive restaurants. The kind of food offered and the way it is served de pend upon the size, location, and financing of the restaurant, as well as the type of customer it seeks to attract. For example, cafeterias lo cated in office buildings, factories, or suburban shopping centers em phasize rapid service and inexpen sive meals. In contrast, some restau rants cater to customers who have the time to eat in a leisurely manner and, thus, they serve elaborate meals which may include unusual dishes or “specialties of the house.” Most restaurants are small and have fewer than 10 paid employees; many of these are operated by their owners who have no paid help or have only 1 or 2 part-time workers. An increasing proportion of all res taurants are run by firms owning more than one restaurant. Although restaurant employment is concentrated in the States with IN D U S T R Y the largest populations, and particu larly in large cities, even very small communities have luncheonettes and roadside diners. Restaurant Workers About three-fourths of all restau rant employees prepare and serve food or do other kinds of related service work. The two largest occu pations in this group are waiters and waitresses, and cooks and chefs. Also included are counter attend ants who serve food to customers in cafeterias; bartenders who mix and serve drinks to customers; busboys and busgirls who clear tables, carry soiled dishes back to the kitchen, and sometimes set tables; kitchen workers who wash dishes and pre pare vegetables; pantrymen and pantrywomen who prepare salads and certain other dishes; and jani tors and porters who dispose of trash and garbage, sweep and mop floors, and do other cleaning jobs. Some of these workers operate me chanical equipment such as powerdriven dishwashers, floor polishers, vegetable slicers and peelers, and garbage disposal equipment. These specialized service jobs, however, are likely to be found only in the largest restaurants. In many small eating places, waiters and waitresses clear and set up tables, sometimes prepare certain kinds of dishes, and help in the kitchen when they are not busy with customers. (Detailed information on cooks and chefs, waiters and waitresses, and bartend ers is given elsewhere in the Hand book. See index for page numbers.) Another large group of restaurant workers— about one-sixth of the to tal—are managers and proprietors. Many are owners and operators of small restaurants and, in addition to acting as managers, may do cooking and other work. Some are salaried employees managing restaurants for others. All other restaurant workers combined account for less than one-tenth of total industry employ ment. They are employed princi pally in large restaurants. Most are 799 800 clerical employees—cashiers who receive payments and make change for customers; food checkers who total the cost of the meals selected by cafeteria customers; and book keepers, stenographers, typists, and other office workers. Dietitians plan menus, supervise the preparation of meals, and enforce sanitary regula tions. Some large restaurants also employ mechanics and other main tenance workers, accountants, ad vertising or public relations direc tors, personnel workers, and musi cians or other entertainers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Experience and skill require ments for workers employed in res taurants vary widely and depend on the particular occupation and type and size of the restaurant. For ex ample, employees in inexpensive diners and luncheonettes generally require less training than those em ployed in expensive restaurants. Entry requirements for some res taurant jobs are minimal. Young people who have less than a high school education and no previous experience often can qualify for em ployment as kitchen workers, dish washers, or busboys. Previous expe rience, and in some cases special training, may be required for cooks and chefs, waiters and waitresses, and other occupations. Newly hired restaurant workers receive on-the-job training. A kitchen worker, for example, may learn how to operate a dishwasher or other mechanical kitchen equip ment. Waiters and waitresses may be taught how to set tables, take or ders from customers, and how to serve food in a courteous and efficient manner. In a great many small restaurants, new employees OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK receive their training under the close supervision of an experienced employee or the proprietor. In larger restaurants and some chain restau rant operations, training programs are likely to be more formal, and beginners may be required to attend training sessions for a few days or longer. Many vocational schools—both public and private—provide train ing that is helpful to persons inter ested in restaurant work. Vocational education programs provide courses in food preparation and cooking, catering, restaurant management, and related subjects. Similar train ing programs for a variety of restau rant occupations, ranging from a few months to 2-years or more in length, are available through restau rant associations and trade unions, technical schools, junior and com munity colleges, and 4-year col leges. Many young people, for ex ample, prepare for supervisory jobs by completing 2 year programs in food service management offered by junior and community colleges lo cated throughout the country. Classroom and on-the-job train ing programs for unemployed and underemployed workers seeking employment in restaurants are in operation in a large number of cities under the Manpower Development and Training Act (MDTA). Train ing under the MDTA is provided for cooks and cook apprentices, waiters and waitresses, food service supervisors, and cook helpers. These programs last approximately 12 to 15 weeks. Handicapped workers are being trained in a number of programs for employment in restaurants. Recent projects have resulted in the em ployment of many mentally re tarded persons in occupations such as dishwasher and kitchen helper. Employers look for applicants who have good health and physical stamina because restaurant workers are required to work long hours— often under considerable pressure. Neatness, a pleasant manner, and an even disposition also are impor tant, particularly for waiters and waitresses and other employees who deal with the public. Restaurants, particularly large chain operations, offer promotion opportunities to workers having ini tiative and ability. A young person who begins as a busboy or dish washer can be promoted to a better paying job such as waiter or cook’s helper. Through additional training, he can advance to cook or chef, baker, or bartender. A restaurant hostess may work her way up to as sistant manager. Experience as a maitre d’ hotel may lead to a posi tion as director of food and bever age services in a large chain organi zation. Assistant managers, particu larly those with college training, may be promoted to manager and eventually managing director. Employment Outlook Employment in the restaurant in dustry is expected to rise rapidly through the 1970’s as the volume of restaurant business increases. In ad dition to job openings created by employment growth, an even greater number will result from turnover. Most openings will be for waitresses and kitchen helpers— both because of high turnover and because these workers make up a very large proportion of all restau rant employees. Employment op portunities also are expected to be favorable for skilled cooks and sala ried restaurant managers. The num ber of openings in clerical jobs, such as cashier and bookkeeper, will be relatively small. A few openings will 801 RESTAURANT INDUSTRY occur in specialized positions, such as food manager and dietitian. A growing population, increasing leisure time, and higher income lev els will raise the demand for restau rant services. More people will “eat out” as large numbers of house wives take outside employment and more people travel. However, em ployment will not increase as rapidly as the demand for restau rant services because worker pro ductivity is rising. Restaurants— particularly those serving hundreds of meals daily—have increased the efficiency of their operations in recent years, as managers have cen tralized the purchase of food sup plies, introduced self-service and used precut meats and modern equipment. Further improvements of this kind are expected during the 1970’s. Earnings and Working Conditions The location, size, and type of restaurant affect earnings of restau rant workers. Other significant fac tors include the tipping practice for some occupations and the degree of unionization. In 1970, average earnings of nonsupervisory employees in the restaurant industry (excluding tips) were $57.72 a week or $1.85 an hour for a 31.2-hour workweek, compared with $82.47 a week or $2.44 an hour for a 33.8-hour workweek for workers in all retail trade establishments. Limited data from union-man agement contracts in effect in 1970, covering eating and drinking places in several large cities, indicate straight-time hourly pay rates for various types of restaurant workers ranged as follows: Waiters and waitresses..........$0.82-$2.15 Busboys and busgirls.............. 1.01- 2.26 Dishwashers............................. 1.32- 2.60 Pantry workers ...... 1.46- 3.33 Assistant cooks ....................... 1.47- 3.86 Porters ..................................... 1.48- 2.60 Kitchen helpers...................... 1.53- 3.20 Cashiers ................................... 1.57- 2.47 1.57- 2.73 Checkers ............................ Cooks ..................................... 2.02- 4.12 Bartenders ............................... 2.09- 3.87 Chefs ....................................... 2.22- 4.65 Salaries of managerial employees have a wide range, mainly because of differences in duties and respon sibilities. Many college graduates who have specialized training in res taurant management received start ing salaries ranging from $7,000 to $10,000 annually in 1970. Mana gerial trainees without this back ground often started at lower sala ries. Many experienced restaurant managers receive salaries between $10,000 and $25,000 a year, de pending on size, location, and type of restaurant. Salaries below this range may be paid to managers of small restaurants. In addition to wages, restaurant employees usually receive at least one free meal a day and often are provided with uniforms. Waiters, waitresses, and bartenders also re ceive tips. Paid vacations and holi days are common, and various types of health and insurance programs also are available. Most full-time restaurant workers have work schedules of 40 to 48 hours a week. Many work on split shifts, which means they are on duty for several hours during one meal, take some time off, and then return to work during the next period of heavy ac tivity. Scheduled hours may include work in the late evenings and on holidays and weekends. Many restaurants are air-condi tioned, have convenient work areas, and are furnished with the latest equipment and laborsaving devices. In other restaurants—particularly small ones—working conditions may be less desirable. In all restau rants, workers spend long periods on their feet, may be required to lift heavy trays and other objects, or work near hot ovens or steam ta bles. Work hazards include the pos sibility of burns; injury from knives, broken glass or china, or mechani cal equipment; and slips and falls on wet floors. The principal union in the restau rant industry is the Hotel & Restau rant Employees and Bartenders In ternational Union (AFL-CIO). The proportion of workers covered by union contracts varies greatly from city to city. Sources of Additional Information Additional information about ca reers in the restaurant industry may be obtained from: Educational Director, National Res taurant Association, 1530 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111. 60610. A list of public and private schools and colleges offering courses which train restaurant em ployees may be obtained from: Council on Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional Education, 1522 K Street, NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Information on courses relating to restaurant work may be obtained from the local Director of Voca tional Education, the Superintend ent of Schools in the local commu nity, or the State Director of Voca tional Education in the Department of Education in the State capital. . ' ' FIN A N C E, IN S U R A N C E , AND REAL E S TA TE Nearly every individual or organ ization uses the diverse and com plex services provided by the finance, insurance, and real estate industry. Financial institutions— banks, savings and loan associa tions, consumer credit organiza tions, and others—make banking and credit facilities available to in dividuals and businesses. The types of services they offer range from providing simple financial services such as personal checking and sav ings accounts to acting as the broker and salesman in the buying and sell ing of stocks and bonds needed by giant corporations for investment capital. Insurance firms provide protection against losses due to fire, accident, sickness, death, and many other contingencies. Real estate or ganizations act as intermediaries in the sale of houses, buildings, and other property, and often manage large office and apartment buildings. In 1970, nearly 3.7 million workers were employed in the finance, insurance, and real estate industry. Finance, employing 1.6 million persons, made up the largest sector. The next largest concentra tion of employment was in insur ance where over 1.3 million workers were employed. The re maining workers—about one-sixth of the total—were employed in real estate. Finance, insurance, and real es tate firms are a major source of job opportunities for women, who made up over half of the industry’s work force in 1970. Their proportion ranged from about 35 percent in real estate to over 60 percent in banking. As shown in the accompanying tabulation, 93 percent of the workers in the industry held whitecollar jobs in 1970. Clerical workers alone made up 48 percent of the industry’s work force. Many clerical workers were employed in specialized banking and insurance occupations such as bankteller, checksorter, and insurance claim adjuster. Other large clerical occu pations include stenographer, typ ist, secretary, and office machine operator—occupations also found in most other industries. Sales workers constituted 17 percent of the work force. Most of them were insurance and real estate agents and brokers. A relatively small number of the sales workers sold stocks and bonds. Managers and officials—bank of ficials, office managers, and others —made up 23 percent of the indus try’s work force in 1970. Profes sional and technical workers, such as accountants, programmers, and business research analysts, ac counted for 5 percent of the work force. Most of them were employed by financial institutions. Employment in the finance, in surance, and real estate industry is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s as a result of population growth, increasing busi ness activity, and rising personal in- Estimated employment, 1970 Major occupational group (percent distribution) All occupational groups.. Professional, technical, and kindred workers ............... Managers, officials, and proprietors............................. Clerical and kindred workers.. Sales workers ........................... Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers .................. Operatives and kindred workers ................................. Service workers ....................... Laborers ....... 100 5 23 48 17 3 O 4 1 1 Less than 0.5 percent. N ote : Due to rounding sum of individual items may not equal total. comes. However, increasing use of computers for routine clerical and recordkeeping functions may limit employment growth to some extent. Employment is expected to increase more rapidly in the financial sector than in insurance and real estate. In addition to job openings from employment growth, many thou sands of openings will result as women leave work to assume family responsibilities. Replacements also will be needed to fill vacancies created by deaths and retirements and by transfers of workers out of the industry. The statements that follow cover major occupations in the banking and insurance fields. More detailed information about occupations that exist in many industries appears elsewhere in the Handbook. (See index in the back of the book.) 803 O C C U P A T IO N S Banks have been described as “department stores of finance” be cause of the variety of services they offer. Their services range from in dividual checking accounts to letters of credit to finance world trade. They safeguard money and valu ables; administer trusts and per sonal estates; and lend money to business, educational, religious and other organizations. Banks also lend money for the purchase of homes, automobiles, and household items, and to cover unexpected financial needs. Banks continually strive to serve their customers’ needs. In re cent years, for example, they have offered revolving check credit plans, charge cards, travel services, ac counting and billing services, and money management counseling. Fa cilities to handle charge accounts in retail stores, and convenient “drive-up” windows also are availa ble. Banks and Their Workers Banks employed more than a 804 IN B A N K IN G million workers in 1970; about two-thirds were women. Most of these bank employees work in com mercial banks, where a wide variety of services are offered. Other bank employees work in mutual savings banks, which offer a more limited range of services—mainly savings deposit accounts, mortgage loans, safe-deposit rentals, trust manage ment, money orders, travelers checks, and passbook loans. Still others work in the 12 Federal Re serve Banks (or “bankers’ banks” ) and their 24 branches; and in for eign exchange firms, clearing house associations, check cashing agen cies, and other organizations doing work closely related to banking. In addition, many people are em ployed by savings and loan associa tions, personal credit institutions, and related institutions. In 1970, commercial banks proc essed more than 20 billion checks and handled an enormous amount of paperwork. Clerks who do this work account for nearly two-thirds of all employees. Many of these workers are tellers or clerks who process the thousands of deposit slips, checks, and other documents which banks handle daily. Banks also employ many secretaries, ste nographers, typists, telephone oper ators, and receptionists. Bank officers are the second larg est group in the industry. Approxi mately 1 out of 5 employees is an officer—a president, vice president, treasurer, comptroller, or other official. Much smaller occupations include accountants, lawyers, per sonnel directors, marketing and public relations workers, statisti cians, economists, and other profes sional workers, as well as guards, elevator operators, cleaners, and other service workers. This chapter describes three large occupations unique to banking— clerks, tellers, and officers. Places of Employment In 1970, there were more than 35,000 commercial banks and branch banks and more than 1,400 mutual savings banks and branches. Bank employment is concentrated, to a considerable extent in a rela tively small number of very large banks and their branches. Thus, in 1969, the 500 largest commercial banks in the country, each having total deposits of $100 million or more, employed more than one-half of all commercial bank employees, whereas over 8,000 small commer cial banks (having total deposits of $10 million or less) employed only about 10 percent of all commercial bank workers. Bank employees work mainly in heavily populated areas. Approxi mately half of all bank employees are located in New York, Califor nia, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and Texas. New York City, the financial capital of the Nation, has far more bank employees than any other city. 805 OCCUPATIONS IN BANKING Training Professional and managerial bank personnel usually have completed college; most clerks have completed high school; guards and building service personnel may have less than a high school education. Most new employees undergo some form of in-service training re garding bank policies and proce dures. Banks also provide other nu merous opportunities for workers to broaden their knowledge and skills. Additional information about the educational requirements which apply to bank clerks, tellers, and bank officers, and the training given them, is provided in the statements that follow. Many banks encourage em ployees to take courses at local col leges and universities. In addition, banking associations sponsor a number of educational programs, sometimes in cooperation with col leges and universities. Many banks pay all or part of the costs for those who successfully complete courses. Bank employees can also prepare for better jobs by enrolling in courses offered by the American In stitute of Banking in many cities throughout the country. The Insti tute, which has 375 chapters and 162 study groups, also offers cor respondence study for bank em ployees. The Institute offers a broad range of courses and assists local banks in conducting cooperative training programs for various bank positions. Bank employees should enjoy working with numbers. They also must be able to accept the responsi bility of handling large amounts of money. They should present a good image to customers; often they are encouraged to participate in com munity activities. ers needed to handle the increase in banking activities may be offset Employment in banks is expected somewhat by the continued conver to rise moderately through the sion of many major banking activi 1970’s. New jobs resulting from ties to electronic data processing. employment growth, as well as jobs Even so, employment growth is that must be filled as employees re expected to continue but at a slower tire, die, or stop working for other pace. Electronic data processing is reasons are expected to account for likely to change bank employment tens of thousands of jobs each patterns by reducing the number of year. Still other openings will occur workers in some occupations while as employees leave their positions creating other jobs which are new to to enter other types of employment. banks. The effect of these develop Most openings will be for clerks. ments will vary from one occupa In addition, an increasing number tion to another, as indicated in the of trainee jobs, which may lead to statements on specific banking occu officer positions, will probably be pations which follow. come available for college gradu Bank employees can anticipate ates. Many openings for profes steadier employment than workers sional and specialized personnel in many other fields because their such as accountants and auditors, employment is less likely to be af economists, statisticians, and elec fected by layoffs during periods tronic computer personnel also will when business activity is low. Even occur. when a bank is sold or merged there Population growth and increased is little likelihood that workers will production, sales, and income are lose their jobs. When bank officials expected to produce more financial find it necessary to curtail employ transactions which banks will han ment, they usually do so by not re dle for individuals, businesses, and placing employees who retire or governments. Branch banks will leave their jobs for other reasons. continue to grow as banks bring services closer to residents of sub urban business centers. More jobs Earnings and Working Conditions will be created as banks continue to expand their services. These services Earnings of bank clerks, tellers, include the handling of accounts in and officers are discussed in the retail stores; bank charge cards; statements which follow. In addition savings plans for travel and educa to their salaries, bank workers re tion; estate planning and adminis ceive fringe benefits which are gen tration; “on premise” banking facili erally somewhat more liberal than ties where large numbers of people those provided by other types of work in one building; and the man businesses. For example, most agement of employee pension funds. banks offer their workers some type Approximately 1,500 banks had of profit sharing or bonus plan; sick electronic data processing in 1970 leave; 5 to 12 paid holidays a year; and provided conventional record and vacations with pay, generally keeping services to other banks and 2 weeks for those who have com institutions. They also provided pleted 1 year of service, 3 weeks services such as account reconcilia after 10 to 15 years of service, and tion and payroll preparation. 4 weeks after 20 to 25 years of The number of additional work service. In addition, group plans Employment Outlook 806 that provide life insurance, hos pitalization and surgical benefits, and retirement income are common place fringe benefits for many bank employees. Sometimes free or pre ferred banking services, such as checking accounts or safe deposit boxes, also are provided. The workweek in banks is gener ally 40 hours or less; in a few locali ties, a workweek of 35 hours is common. Tellers and some other types of employees may work at least one evening a week when banks remain open for business. Certain check processors and op erators of electronic computing equipment may work on evening shifts. Generally, bank work is done in modern, clean, well-lighted, and air-conditioned offices. Sources of Additional Information Local banks and State bankers’ associations can furnish specific in formation about job opportunities in local banking institutions. General information about banking occupa tions, training opportunities, and the banking industry itself is available from: American Bankers Association, Per sonnel Administration and Man agement Development Committee, 1120 Connecticut Avenue, NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. National Association of Bank Wom en, Inc., National Office, 111 E. Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60601. National Bankers Association, 4310 Georgia Ave., NW., Washington, D.C. 20011. Information on career opportuni ties in consumer finance can be ob tained from: The National Consumer Finance Association, 1000 16th St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Information about career oppor tunities as a bank examiner can be obtained from: Federal Deposit Insurance Corpora tion, Director of Personnel, 550 17th St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20429. BANK CLERKS Nature of the Work Bank clerks handle much of the paperwork associated with checking and savings accounts, loans to indi viduals and business firms, and other bank business. Because of the nature of banking, some of their work differs from the work done by clerks in other kinds of businesses. (Secretaries, office machine opera tors, receptionists, and other clerical workers whose jobs are much the same in banks as in other businesses are discussed in the chapter on Clerical and Related Occupations.) The specific duties that must be performed in a particular bank de pend on the size of the bank and the nature and scope of the services of fered. In a small bank, for example, one clerk may perform a variety of tasks such as sorting checks, totaling debit and credit slips, and preparing monthly statements for mailing to depositors. However, in a large bank, each clerk usually is assigned one kind of work and frequently has a special job title. Bank clerks known as sorters (D.O.T. 219.388) separate bank documents—checks, deposit slips, and other bank items—into differ ent groups and tabulate each “batch” so they may be charged to the proper account; often they use canceling and adding machines in their work. Many banks also em ploy proof machine operators (D.O.T. 217.388) who use equip- 807 OCCUPATIONS IN BANKING ment that, in one operation, sorts items and adds and records the amount of money involved. The bookkeeping workers who keep records of depositors’ accounts and of bank transactions such as loans to business firms or the pur chase and sale of securities are the largest single group of bank clerks. Bookkeeping machine operators (D.O.T. 215.388) use either con ventional bookkeeping machines or electronic posting machines espe cially designed for bank work; in most other respects, their work is similar to that of bookkeeping machine operators in other types of establishments. In banks, these workers are sometimes known as account clerks, posting machine op erators, or recording clerks. Book keepers (D.O.T. 210.388) are also employed in banks, usually to keep special types of financial records. The job titles of many bank book keepers are related to the kinds of records on which they work— among them, Christmas club book keeper, discount bookkeeper, inter est-accrual bookkeeper, trust book keeper, and commodity loan clerk. Thousands of bookkeeping and ac counting clerks (D.O.T. 219.488) are also employed in bookkeeping departments to do routine typing, calculating, and posting related to bank transactions. Included in this group are reconcilement clerks, who process statements from other banks to expedite the auditing of accounts; and trust investment clerks who post the daily investment transactions of bank customers. Other clerical employees whose duties and job titles are unique to banking include country collection clerks (D.O.T. 219.388) who sort the thousands of pieces of mail which come in daily to a city bank and determine which items must be held at the main office and which should be routed to branch banks or out-of-city banks for collection. Also employed are transit clerks (D.O.T. 217.388) who sort bank items such as checks and drafts on other banks, list and total the amounts involved, and prepare the documents so that they can be mailed for collection; exchange clerks (D.O.T. 219.388) who serv ice foreign deposit accounts and determine charges for cashing or handling checks drawn against such accounts; interest clerks (D.O.T. 219.388) who maintain records re lating to interest-bearing items which are due to or from the bank; and mortgage clerks (D.O.T. 209.388) who type legal papers af fecting title to real estate upon which money has been loaned, and maintain records relating to taxes and insurance on such properties. New clerical occupations which have been created by electronic data-processing and which are unique to banks, include those of the electronic reader-sorter operator who operates electronic check sort ing equipment; the check inscriber or encoder who operates machines that print information on checks and other documents in magnetic ink to prepare them for machine reading; and the control clerk who keeps track of the large volume of documents flowing in and out of the computer division. Other occupa tions include card-tape converter operator, coding clerk, console op erator, data typist, data converting machine operator, data examination clerk, high speed printer operator, tape librarian, teletype operator, 808 and verifier operator. These workers are employed in an increasing num ber of banks that use this kind of equipment. Banks employed more than 500,000 clerical employees of all kinds in 1970; about 9 out of every 10 were women. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduation is ade quate preparation for most begin ning clerical jobs in banks. For the majority of jobs, courses in book keeping, typing, business arthmetic, and office machine operation are desirable. Applicants may be given short employment and clerical apti tude tests to determine their ability to work rapidly and accurately, and to communicate effectively with oth ers. Bank clerks work independ ently and should enjoy attending to details. The nature of the work and the equipment used require bank clerks to follow an established rou tine. Beginners may be hired as file clerks, keypunch operators, transit clerks, clerk-typists, or for related work. Some are trained by the bank to operate various office machines. A few start as inside messengers. A clerk in a routine job may be promoted to a minor supervisory position, to teller or credit analyst, and eventually to senior supervisor. Opportunities for advancement to bank officer positions also exist for outstanding clerks who have had college training or have taken spe cialized courses in banking. Additional education obtained while employed—particularly the courses offered by the American In stitute of Banking—may be helpful in preparing workers for advance ment. (See introduction to this OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK chapter for further information on the Institute’s educational pro gram.) Employment Outlook Employment of bank clerks is ex pected to increase slowly through the 1970’s. New jobs created by growth, as well as replacements for those who retire, die, or stop work ing for other reasons, are expected to result in thousands of openings each year. Turnover is high in banks, as in other industries which employ many women in clerical po sitions. Jobs for clerks will arise as established banks expand their serv ices and new banks are opened. In those banks which install modern electronic equipment, however, fewer opportunities can be expected for check sorters and bookkeeping machine operators. Most employees affected by the changeover will probably be retrained and reas signed, either to new jobs created by the change in equipment and processing methods, or to other du ties related to the many new func tions and services which banks are introducing. Overall, the growth in the volume of work created by new bank facilities and services is ex pected to be so great that the total number of clerical workers will con tinue to rise for some years to come, although much less rapidly than in the recent past. The sharpest in creases in employment are expected in occupations related to electronic data processing. Earnings According to a Bureau of Labor Statistics survey, clerical workers employed in financial institutions, including banks, usually earned be tween $70 and $130 a week in 1969. Men’s weekly salaries gener ally ranged between $80 and $130; women earned between $70 and $120 a week. Among men, Class A accounting clerks and Class A tabulating machine operators—generally expe rienced employees—received the highest average salaries: $123 and $131, respectively. The highest paid occupation for women was Class A tabulating machine operator, $120. The lowest average weekly salary among men was earned by office boys, $77. Among women, Class C file clerks—generally beginners— earned the least, $70 a week. Bank clerks are covered under the Fair Labor Standards Act, a Federal law which provides for a minimum wage. In 1970, the mini mum was $1.60 an hour; thus, any clerk who worked a 40-hour week would earn at least $64. See introductory section of this chapter for information on Places of Employment and Sources of Addi tional Information; and for addi tional information on Training, Em ployment Outlook, and Earnings and Working Conditions. TELLERS (D.O.T. 212.368) Nature of the Work Every bank, no matter how small, has at least one teller who re ceives and pays out money and re cords these transactions. In a very small bank, one teller—often known as an all-around teller—may handle transactions of all kinds, but in larger banks different kinds of 809 OCCUPATIONS IN BANKING simultaneously post the transaction to the bank’s ledger. After banking hours, tellers count cash on hand, list the currency-re ceived tickets on a settlement sheet, and balance the day’s accounts. They also do other tasks such as sorting checks and deposit slips. Paying and receiving tellers may supervise one or more clerks. Approximately 150,000 tellers of all kinds were employed in 1970. A considerable number worked part time; about 9 out of 10 were women. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement transactions usually are assigned to different tellers. A Christmas Club teller accepts and records deposits made to Christmas Club savings ac counts, for example, and a note teller handles certain transactions for clients who have made loans. Other tellers who have special job titles include commercial (or paying and receiving), savings, foreign ex change, payroll, discount, and se curities tellers. Commercial tellers are the most common. They cash customers’ checks, and handle de posits and withdrawals from check ing and savings accounts. Before cashing a check, the teller must verify the identity of the person to whom payment is made and be cer tain that the payee’s account has sufficient funds to cover the pay ment. When accepting a deposit, the teller checks the accuracy of the deposit slip and enters the total in a passbook or on a deposit receipt. Tellers may use machines to make change and to total deposits. Tellers handling savings accounts may use a “window” posting machine to print a receipt, record the transac tion in the customer’s passbook, and In hiring tellers, banks prefer high school graduates experienced in clerical work. Maturity, neatness, tact, and courtesy are important qualifications because customers deal with tellers far more frequently than with other bank employees. Since tellers handle large sums of money and are bonded, they must meet the standards established by bonding companies. New tellers usually observe expe rienced workers for a few days be fore doing the work themselves under close supervision. Training may last from a few days to 3 weeks or longer. A beginner usually starts as a commercial teller; in large banks which have a separate savings teller’s “cage,” he may start as a savings teller. After gaining experience, a com petent teller in a large bank may ad vance to head teller and eventually to bank officer if he has had some college or specialized training of fered by the banking industry. (See introduction to this chapter for in formation about the educational program of the American Institute of Banking.) Employment Outlook The number of bank tellers is ex pected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s, as banks ex pand their services. An increasing proportion of tellers, however, will work part-time during peak hours to accommodate those customers who transact business during the noon hour and in the evenings. Thou sands of openings will occur each year as a result of the increase in employment, and the need to re place tellers who retire, die, or stop working for other reasons. Turnover is high among the many thousands of women who work as tellers. Although increased use of me chanical and electronic equipment may eliminate some routine work and speed other work tellers now perform, total employment is un likely to be adversely affected. Earnings According to a Bureau of Labor Statistics survey, the earnings of nonsupervisory workers, including tellers, averaged about $100 a week in 1970. The range between the lowest and highest salaries depends on factors such as experience, the specific position, and location and size of the bank. Bank tellers are covered under the Fair Labor Standards Act, a Federal law which provides for min imum wages. In 1970, the minimum was $1.60 an hour; thus, tellers who worked a 40-hour week would earn at least $64. See Introduction for Places of Employment and Sources of Addi tional Information, and for general information on banking occupa tions. 810 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK BANK OFFICERS (D.O.T. 186.118, .138, .168, and .288; 161.118; 189.118 and .168) Nature of the Work Practically every bank has a pres ident who directs operations; one or more vice presidents who either act as general managers or have charge of bank departments such as trust, or credit; and a comptroller or cash ier who (unlike cashiers in stores and other businesses) is an execu tive officer generally responsible for all bank property. Large banks also may have treasurers and other senior officers, as well as assistant officers, to supervise the various sections within different depart ments. Banking institutions em ployed almost 175,000 officers in 1970; women represented about one-tenth of the total. A bank officer makes decisions within a framework of policy set by the board of directors and existing laws and regulations. He must have a broad knowledge of business ac tivities, which he can relate to the operations of his particular depart ment. For example, each time a loan officer considers an applica tion, he analyzes the collateral and uses his broad knowledge of busi ness activities. He also evaluates carefully the credit analysis on the individual or business firm applying for a loan. Similarly, the trust officer must understand each account he administers. He must invest wisely to manage trust funds which were established for such purposes as supporting families, sending young people to college, or paying pen sions to retired workers. Besides supervising financial services, bank officers advise individuals and businessmen and participate in many different kinds of community projects. Because of the variety of services offered by banks, a wide choice of officer careers is available for those who wish to specialize in different areas of banking. For example, the loan officer must be familiar with economics, production, distribution, merchandising, and commercial law. He also must have the ability to analyze financial statements and know the operations and customs of businesses to which the bank ex tends credit. Careers in lending in clude: installment loan officer, com mercial loan officer, credit depart ment loan officer, real estate mortgage loan officer, and agri cultural loan officer. In trust serv ices, the trust officer manages assets belonging to individuals, families, corporations, and institutions. Trust management requires specialization in fields such as financial planning and investment. Specialized careers in trust management include estate administration, trust administration, and investment research. The oper ations officer plans, coordinates, and controls the work flow, updates systems, and strives for bank efficiency. He also trains and super vises a large number of people. Careers in the bank operations area include: Customer services, electronic data processing, and in ternal services. Other career specialties include correspondent bank officer, who is responsible for relations with other banks; branch bank manager, who is responsible for all functions of a branch office; and international offi cer, who is financial advisor to cus tomers in the United States and abroad. A working knowledge of a foreign language and knowledge of a foreign country’s geography, poli tics, history, and economic growth can help those interested in interna tional banking. Other career fields for bank officers are auditing, eco nomics, personnel administration, 811 OCCUPATIONS IN BANKING public relations, and operations re search. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Bank officer positions may be filled by management trainees or by promoting experienced clerical em ployees. Outstanding bank clerks may be selected for promotion even though their academic background is limited, but college graduation is the usual requirement for manage ment trainees. A business adminis tration major in finance or a liberal arts curriculum including account ing, economics, commercial law, po litical science, and statistics serve as excellent preparation for officer trainee positions. Valuable experi ence may be gained through sum mer employment programs offered by some banks. Most large city banks have wellorganized officer-training programs usually ranging from 6 months to 1 year. Trainees may start as credit or investment analysts or rotate among bank departments to get the “feel” of banking; bank officers then can better determine the position for which each employee is best suited. Banks too small for formal officertrainee programs provide other forms of training that enable train ees to understand bank operations. Advancement to officer positions may come slowly in small banks where the number of these positions is limited. In large banks having special training programs, promo tions may come more quickly. For a senior officer position, however, many years of experience are usu ally necessary before an employee can acquire the necessary knowl edge of the bank’s operations and customers and of the community. Although experience, ability, and leadership receive great emphasis when bank employees are consid ered for promotion to office posi tions, advancement also may be ac celerated by special study. Courses in every phase of banking are of fered by the American Institute of Banking, a long-established, indus try-sponsored school (See introduc tion to this chapter for more infor mation on the Institute’s program and other training programs spon sored jointly by universities and local bankers’ associations.) Employment Outlook The number of bank officers is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s as banking activities ex pand. Increased use of electronic computers enables banks to analyze and plan banking operations more extensively and to provide new kinds of services. In addition, be cause bank officers are somewhat older, on the average, than most employee groups, a large number of additional officers will be needed each year to replace those who re tire or leave their jobs for other rea sons. Several thousand workers will be needed annually because of em ployment growth and the need to replace bank officers who retire or die. Many other openings will arise as bank officers transfer to other types of employment. Although college graduates who meet the standards for executive trainees should find good opportuni ties for entry positions, many officer positions will be filled by promoting people already experienced in bank ing operations. Competition for these promotions, particularly in large banks, is likely to be keen. Earnings According to a private survey conducted in 1969, large banks, in surance companies, and other finan cial institutions paid salaries ranging from about $580 to $750 a month to new executive trainees who were college graduates. The salaries of senior bank officers may be several times as great as these starting salaries. For officers, as well as for other bank employees, salaries are likely to be lower in small towns than in big cities. See Introduction for Places of Employment and Sources of Addi tional Information, and for general information on banking occupa tions. IN S U R A N C E O C C U P A T IO N S Insurance is a multibillion dollar business which offers many employ ment opportunities for young peo ple recently graduated from high school or college and for experi enced workers. There are about 1,800 life insur ance companies and more than 3,000 property and liability (some times called property and casualty) insurance companies. They conduct their business in main offices, com monly called “home” offices, and in thousands of local sales offices in cities and towns throughout the country. Local offices may be branches operated by an insurance company or they may be operated by independent agents and brokers. Nature of the Business Insurance policies are classified into three broad categories: life, health, and property and liability in surance. Some companies sell all lines of insurance; others specialize in one type or more. An increasing number of life insurance companies also sell equities, such as mutual fund shares and variable annuities (contracts yielding periodic pay ments that fluctuate with the value of securities or other variable fac tors). Life insurance companies sell policies which provide not only basic life insurance protection, but also several other kinds of protec tion. Under some policies, for ex ample, policyholders receive an in come when they reach retirement age or if they become disabled and stop working; other life insurance policies may help to pay the costs of educating children when they reach college age, or may give extra finan 812 cial protection when the children are young. Life insurance is used in creasingly to protect business inter ests and to guarantee employee ben efits. Property and liability insurance provides financial protection against loss or damage to policyholders’ property and protects the policy holder when he is responsible for injuries to others or damage to other people’s property. This insur ance includes protection against hazards such as fire, theft, and windstorm, as well as workmen’s compensation and other liability in surance. Both life and property and liability companies may sell acci dent and health insurance, which assists policyholders in paying medi cal expenses, and may furnish other benefits for an injury or illness. An increasing number of insur ance policies are written to cover groups—from a few individuals to many thousands. Group policies usually are issued to employers for the benefit of their employees. They @ most often provide retirement in come and life or health insurance, although some furnish automobile or homeowners coverage. In 1968, group life insurance protected about 43 million workers; the number of policies in force was double the number 10 years earlier. Insurance Workers The insurance business provided jobs for about 1.4 million people in 1970. The great majority were cler ical and sales workers. (See chart 35.) Almost half of all insurance com pany employees are in clerical and related jobs— a much larger propor tion than in most other industries. These workers keep records of pre mium payments, services, and bene fits rendered to policyholders. The majority are secretaries, stenogra phers, and typists; operators of bookkeeping and other kinds of office machines; or general office clerks. They do much the same kind of work in insurance companies as in other types of business enter prises. Other clerical workers occupy Among the approximately 1.4 million^workers employed in the insurance business almost one-half are in clerical occupations Percent Clerical Sales Managerial Professional All other ^ESTIMATED, 1970 SOURCE: BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS h :m a 813 INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS positions of responsibility which re quire extensive knowledge of one phase of insurance or more. This group includes claim adjusters (D.O.T. 241.168) and claim exam iners (D.O.T. 249.268) who decide whether claims are covered by the policy, see that payment is received on each claim, and when necessary, investigate the circumstances which initiated the claim. (See the state ments on Claim Adjusters and Claim Examiners later in this chap ter.) Salesmen are a key group of workers in insurance companies. About one-third of all insurance workers are sales persons—chiefly agents, brokers, and others who sell policies directly to individuals and business firms. Agents and brokers usually are responsible for finding their own customers or “prospects,” and for seeing that each policy they sell provides the special kind of pro tection required by the policy holder. (A statement on Insurance Agents and Brokers is included in the chapter on Sales Occupations.) About 1 out of 8 insurance workers is in a managerial position. Managers in charge of local offices, through which most insurance pol icies are sold, often spend part of their time in sales work. Others, who work in home offices, are com pany officials or administrators in charge of actuarial calculations, pol icy issuance, accounting, invest ments, loans, and additional office work. The large-scale investment activities of many insurance compa nies make financial administration a particularly important area of em ployment. Professionals, employed mainly at home offices, represent about 1 out of 25 insurance workers. These specialists, working closely with the managerial personnel in insurance companies, study insurance risks and coverage problems, analyze in vestment possibilities, prepare finan cial reports, and do other profes sional work. Included among them is the actuary (D.O.T. 020.188), whose job is unique to the insurance field. Actuaries make statistical studies relating to various kinds of risks and, on the basis of these stud ies, determine how large the pre mium rate on each type of policy should be. (See statement on Actu aries.) Another specialist is the un derwriter (D.O.T. 169.188), who reviews insurance applications to evaluate the degree of risk involved. Underwriters decide whether to ac cept or reject an application for in surance; they also determine which premium rate should apply for each policy issued. (A statement on un derwriters is included in this chap ter.) The work of most other profes sional employees in insurance com panies is fundamentally the same as in other industries. Accountants, for example, analyze insurance com pany records and financial problems relating to premiums, investments, payments to policyholders, and other aspects of the business. Engi neers work on problems connected with policies covering industrial work accidents, damage to in dustrial plants and machinery, and other technical matters. Lawyers in terpret the regulations which apply to insurance company operations, handle the settlement of some kinds of insurance claims, and do other legal work. Investment analysts evaluate real estate mortgages and new issues of bonds and other se curities, analyze current investments held by their companies, and make recommendations on when to hold, buy, or sell. As more electronic computers are installed to handle office records, an increasing number of data processing specialists, in cluding programers and systems an alysts, are being employed. Many companies also employ editorial, public relations, sales promotion, and advertising specialists. About 1 out of 50 workers in the insurance business performs mainte 814 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK nance or custodial work similar to that required by other large busi ness organizations. Additional information about many of these professional, clerical, and maintenance occupations is contained elsewhere in this Hand book. Places of Employment Large numbers of insurance workers are employed in California, Connecticut, Illinois, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, and Texas, where the home offices of some of the largest insurance companies are located. Many insurance workers also are employed in agencies, bro kerage firms, and other sales offices in cities and towns throughout the country. Almost all sales personnel work out of local offices, whereas the majority of professional and clerical workers are employed in company home offices. More than half of all insurance workers are employed by life insur ance companies and agencies; in cluded in this group are some large companies with thousands of em ployees. Companies which deal mainly in property and liability in surance, although more numerous than the life insurance companies, generally have fewer employees. Many local agencies and sales offices are also small, regardless of the type of insurance they handle. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Insurance offers job opportunities for people having very different ed ucational backgrounds and talents. Some positions require much mana gerial and administrative experience and ability; others require college training in mathematics, accounting, and engineering; but still others in volve only routine duties which can be learned on the job. Graduation from high school or business school is regarded as ade quate preparation for most begin ning clerical positions. Courses in typing, business arithmetic, and the operation of office machines may be valuable. These special skills often are required for jobs in insurance company offices, and this kind of training provides a background of information which helps employees advance to more responsible posi tions. Engineering, accounting, and other professional positions in in surance companies usually require the same kinds of college training as they do in other business firms. Col lege-trained people also are pre ferred for managerial positions, many of which are filled by promo tion from within. In professional and managerial work requiring con tact with the public, as well as in sales work and claim adjusting, the employee should have a pleasant disposition and an outgoing person ality. Since insurance companies often encourage participation in community organizations, he should enjoy working with others in a so cial situation. An employee whose work requires frequent contact with policyholders should inspire confi dence in his ability to protect the customer’s interests. Insurance companies and associa tions of companies and agents offer several kinds of training programs to help employees prepare for bet ter jobs. The Insurance Institute of America, for example, has home study courses for property and lia bility insurance adjusters, claim ex aminers, underwriters, loss preven tion specialists, managerial person nel, and salesmen. The Institute awards certificates to those who pass their examinations. The Amer ican College of Life Underwriters, the National Association of Life Underwriters, and the Life Under writer Training Council offer life in surance courses that stress the serv ices agents may provide to policy holders. Other courses, especially designed to help clerical employees gain a better understanding of life insurance and life insurance com pany operations, relate to the or ganization and operation of both home and field offices. They are given under the auspices of the Life Office Management Association which also provides programs for the development of supervisory and managerial personnel. Employment Outlook Employment in the insurance in dustry is expected to rise moder ately through the 1970’s. New jobs to be filled, plus openings that occur as employees retire or stop working for other reasons, are expected to total many thousands each year. Turnover is particularly high in this industry because of the many young women in clerical jobs who work only for a few years and then leave to care for their families. Still other openings will occur as insurance workers leave their jobs for employ ment in other industries. The expected increase in employ ment will result mainly from a rapidly increasing volume of insur ance business. A growing popula tion will purchase more life insur ance, as well as more insurance which provides retirement income and funds for their children’s educa tion. Others who do not presently have insurance may become policy holders; for example, advances in medical science are making life in- 815 INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS surance available to persons who were formerly rejected as poor in surance risks. The need for prop erty and liability insurance also will increase as a rising standard of liv ing enables more individuals and families to own one automobile or more, buy homes, and make other major purchases which are usually insured. In the business world more insurance of this kind also will be required as new plants are built, new equipment is installed, and more goods are shipped throughout the country and the world. Further more, as the coverage of State workmen’s compensation laws is broadened, more employers may need workmen’s compensation in surance. Insurance employment probably will rise at a somewhat slower rate than the volume of business handled by insurance companies. As addi tional types of coverage become available through group contracts and more multiple-line policies are issued (those which cover a variety of insurance risks formerly covered in separate policies), the workload of sales personnel in local offices will be reduced. As more companies install electronic computers and other equipment to process some of the routine paperwork now done by clerks, changes in insurance com pany employment will occur. The total number of insurance company clerical jobs probably will continue to rise, especially those jobs that re quire special training, but the pro portion of routine jobs is likely to decline. Insurance workers have better prospects of regular employment than workers in many other indus tries. Most businessmen regard property and liability insurance as a necessity, both during economic re cession and in boom periods, and private individuals also attempt to retain as much basic financial pro tection as possible, even when their incomes decline. Earnings and Working Conditions A 1968-69 survey of nonsupervisory employees in insurance compa nies, banks, and related businesses showed a wide range of salaries among the individuals in the compa nies surveyed. Some clerical workers in beginning, routine jobs earned less than $70.00 a week; some experienced employees in more responsible positions earned up to twice that amount. Employees in beginning jobs as junior file clerks averaged $71.50 a week and office girls, $73.00. Switchboard op erators averaged between $87.50 and $99.00, depending upon skill and experience. General stenogra phers averaged $88.00 a week and senior stenographers averaged $100.50. Typists, one of the largest groups covered in the survey, aver aged $79.00 for beginning jobs and $90.50 for experienced workers. The average for accounting clerks ranged from $84.50 to $123.50, de pending on experience and skill. To some extent, these differences in salary levels may be due to dif ferences in the specific job duties of the employees involved, and in the firms for which they worked. Salary levels in different parts of the coun try also vary; earnings are generally lowest in southern cities and highest in northeastern and western metro politan areas. (See chapter on Cler ical and Related Occupations for additional information about the earnings of workers in other office occupations found in insurance companies.) Starting salaries for professional workers are generally comparable with those for similar positions in other industries and businesses. Ac cording to limited information avail able from a private survey of life in surance companies, 1970 college graduates were paid starting salaries ranging between $7,475 and $8,590 a year. Specialists having several years’ experience in insurance may receive annual salaries of $10,000 to $15,000; many earn $25,000 a year or more. Unlike salaried pro fessional workers, agents and bro kers earn commissions on the pol icies they sell. (See the statement on Insurance Agents and Brokers.) Based on limited data, annual salaries for supervisors in life in surance companies ranged from $8,900 to $18,870, depending upon the type of company operation. Salaries for supervisors in property and liability companies ranged from $9,200 to $19,050 a year. Except for agents and brokers, who must sometimes extend their working hours to meet with prospective clients, insurance com pany employees usually work be tween 35 and 40 hours a week. The number of paid holidays is some what greater than in many other in dustries. Two-week paid vacations generally are granted employees after 1 year of service; in most com panies, vacations are extended to 3 weeks after 10 years and, in some, to 4 weeks after 20 years. Practi cally all insurance company workers share in group plans providing life and health insurance, as well as re tirement pensions. Sources of Additional Information General information on employ ment opportunities in the insurance business may be obtained from the personnel departments of major in surance companies or from insur ance agencies in local communities. 816 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Other information on careers in the insurance field is available from: Institute of Life Insurance, 277 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, N.Y. 10038. National Association of Insurance Agents, 96 Fulton St., New York, N.Y. 10038. American Mutual Insurance Alli ance, 20 North Wacker Dr., Chi cago, 111. 60606. For additional information on the salaries of clerical workers in finance industries, including insur ance, see: Area Wage Surveys, Metropolitan Areas, United States and Regional Summaries, 1968-69 (BLS Bulle tin 1625-91, 1970). Superintend ent of Documents, U.S. Govern ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. CLAIM ADJUSTERS ing to the claim, using a variety of sources such as records, reports, physical data, and witnesses. From an analysis of the facts he draws a conclusion about the extent, if any, of the insurance company’s obliga tion. Sometimes his investigative work may be aimed at determining the extent of a third party’s liability. In the event that a third party bears some responsibility in a loss, the ad juster’s company may collect a por tion of the payment made to the policyholder from this third party or his insurance company. When the adjuster determines that his company is liable, his job is to negotiate with the claimant and settle the case. A claims man must avoid making settlements unduly large in relation to the real value of a loss; at the same time, he must see that valid claims are paid promptly. Some adjusters have the authority to issue a draft on company funds. Others submit a report of their find ings to the insurance company which then pays the claim. Some adjusters work with all lines of insurance. Others specialize in handling claims such as those arising from damage to property by fire; ocean marine losses; automo bile damage; workmen’s compensa tion losses; or bodily injury. There are two major areas of specialization in claim adjusting: Property claims that result from loss or damage; and claims resulting from bodily injury. Bodily injury negotiations involve specialized knowledge of law and medicine. A claims man frequently advances to this type of adjusting after several years’ work in another adjusting line or as an all-lines adjuster. Most of an adjuster’s job is car ried on outside his office. He may have to work at a construction site where an accident has occurred, or at the location of a fire or burglary. While the adjuster may spend the greater portion of a working day driving from place to place investi gating claims, this travel usually is within a single city or regional area. (D.O.T. 241.168, 191.268) Nature of the Work Claim adjusters investigate, nego tiate, and settle claims regarding a policy made by those who have suf fered a loss. Most adjusters work for companies that sell property and liability insurance, although some are assigned claims arising under accident or health insurance pol icies. (See the statement on Claim Examiners for a discussion of claim settlement in life insurance.) Upon receipt of an insurance claim, the adjuster must determine if the loss is in fact covered by the policy; if so, it is his job to decide the amount of the loss. The adjuster investigates all circumstances relat Adjuster discusses loss with claimant. 817 INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS An adjuster is responsible for plan ning his own schedule of activities necessary to the proper disposal of a claim. He also must keep a careful record of his expenses so that his employer can reimburse him. Adjusters increasingly use porta ble tape recorders in their work. These have the advantage of short ening the amount of time an adjust er must spend in personally inter viewing a witness or claimant. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A variety of educational back grounds are adaptable to success in claim adjusting. Although the trend is toward the employment of college graduates and some companies re quire a degree, men without college training are accepted by many firms. Specialized job experience might qualify an individual for employ ment as an adjuster. For example, a person experienced in automobile repair work may qualify as an auto Places of Employment adjuster. It is likely, however, that An estimated 114,000 claim ad an adjuster who lacks college train justers were employed in 1970; ing will be slower in advancing to most were men. Adjusters are em senior or supervisory positions. ployed by adjustment bureaus (or No specific field of college study ganizations formed by several insur is recommended; many successful ance companies to settle claims), by adjusters have general liberal arts insurance companies, and by inde backgrounds. An adjuster whose pendent adjusting firms. Some are background is in business subjects self-employed. “Staff” adjusters are or accounting might choose to spe on the payrolls of insurance compa cialize in loss from business inter nies; independent adjusters may be ruption or damage to stocks of mer hired by independent adjusting chandise. A man with college train firms or may contract their services ing in engineering or law will find privately for a fee. his education helpful in adjusting A small number of public adjust casualty claims. Legal training is de ers represent the insured rather sirable, although few employers de than the insurance company. These mand that beginning adjusters have adjusters usually are retained by a law degree. banks, financial organizations, and Although insurance company ad other business firms to handle fire justers frequently are exempt from and allied losses to property. They State licensing provisions, nearly negotiate claims against insurance three-fourths of the States and companies and deal with the adjust Puerto Rico require adjusters to be ers for such companies. licensed or to pay occupational fees. The beginning adjuster can look State licensing regulations vary forward to working in almost any widely. However, applicants usually area of the United States, since must comply with one or more of claims must be settled locally in all the following requirements: Pass a parts of the country. Occasionally, the adjuster may be required to written examination covering the travel to the scene of a disaster, fundamentals of adjusting; furnish such as a hurricane or a riot, to character affidavits; be 20 or 21 work with local adjusting personnel. years of age and fulfill certain State Some cases result in travel outside residency qualifications; offer proof that they have completed an ap the United States. proved course in insurance or loss adjusting; and file a surety bond. Many insurance companies and adjustment firms offer programs for beginning adjusters that combine on-the-job training with home study courses. The Insurance Institute of America also offers an educational program for adjusters leading to the Institute’s Diploma in Insurance Loss and Claim Adjusting. This six-semester study program is open to all adjusters, and the Institute’s diploma is awarded upon success ful completion of six national exam inations. Adjusters can prepare to take these examinations by inde pendent home study, through com pany or public classes, or by formal college courses in insurance. A pro fessional Certificate in Insurance Adjusting also is available from the College of Insurance in New York City. Regardless of place of employ ment, most adjusters begin their training with an orientation course in general insurance principles. A beginning adjuster is assigned to work on small claims under supervi sion of an experienced adjuster. This training may be given at one of the metropolitan training centers maintained by some large insurance companies or by assignment to a field office. As the trainee adjuster learns more about claim investiga tion and settlement, both through home study and supervised experi ence, he gradually assumes respon sibility over claims that are more difficult to settle or higher in loss value. Because an adjuster’s work brings him into contact with claim ants, witnesses, and policyholders, he must be skillful in adapting to a variety of persons and situations. He should enjoy working with peo ple from different backgrounds and be able to gain their respect and co 818 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK operation. When an adjuster’s eval uation of a claim differs from that of the person who has suffered the loss, he must exercise considerable tact and diplomacy in explaining the reasons for his conclusions. An ad juster should be able to converse easily with the persons from whom he seeks information in settling a claim; he must “speak the lan guage” of the police detective, the auto damage appraiser, and the medical specialist, to name a few. Habits of keen observation and careful attention to details are valu able to an adjuster in his work, which demands that he gather all facts pertinent to a claim and weigh them together in making a decision. Promotions to senior or chief ad juster depend upon an individual’s demonstrated performance in han dling his claim assignments, the evaluations of his supervisors, and his progress in any of the study courses available through his com pany, insurance associations or local educational institutions. The adjust er who demonstrates administrative skills may be promoted to supervi sory responsibilities in the claims department of a field office. With continued evidence of his ability to organize work flow and make deci sions, he may advance to a mana gerial position in a branch office or in the home office organization. An adjuster who boasts a background in law might be promoted to trial attorney or legal manager in his firm’s home office. Employment Outlook Employment of claim adjusters is expected to increase at a rapid rate through the 1970’s. In addition to openings as a result of growth in the occupation, many jobs will become available each year from the need to replace experienced claim adjusters who die, retire, or transfer to other fields. The expected rapid growth in employment opportunities for ad justers reflects anticipated expan sion in total volume of insurance sales and resulting claims, especially by property and liability insurance companies which employ most ad justers. Various factors expected to contribute to an expanded volume of insurance sales include continued population growth, rising personal incomes, and changing patterns of consumer demand for goods and services. A rapid rate of new family formation should result in increased purchases of consumer durables, such as household furnishings and appliances, that require insurance protection. Automobile insurance, accounting for nearly half the total volume of property and liability sales in recent years, should grow rapidly as more families purchase second and third vehicles. In addi tion, greater population density will increase the risk of accidents, fires, and thefts, with the effect of stimu lating demand for these types of in surance coverage. Since much of an adjuster’s time is spent in personal contact with claimants and others who must be interviewed regarding a loss, the greater volume of claims should re sult in a substantial increase in em ployment requirements for claim adjusters. Because the nature of an adjuster’s work usually demands on-the-scene investigation of facts and events, it is unlikely that con solidation of field operations will significantly reduce the number of claim adjusters assigned locally. Earnings and Working Conditions According to an American Insur ance Association/American Mu tual Insurance Alliance survey of companies selling property and lia bility insurance, the average annual salary of an all-lines adjuster was $9,100 in 1970; salaries generally ranged from $7,300 to $11,800 a year. Adjusters who specialized in ocean marine and cargo claims aver aged $10,200 a year, and their sala ries ranged from $8,300 to $12,600 annually. Adjusters having supervisory re sponsibilities earned average annual salaries of $11,400; their earnings ranged from $9,200 to $14,600. Some supervisory adjusters earned as much as $18,000 annually. Most public adjusters are paid a percent age of the amount of the loss adjust ment—generally 10 percent. An ad juster also may be furnished a com pany car or reimbursed for use of his own vehicle during business hours. Claim adjusting is not a desk job. It requires that a person be physi cally fit since a substantial portion of his day may be spent in driving from one place to another, walking about out of doors, and climbing stairs. An adjuster may be required to work evenings or weekends in order to interview witnesses and claimants when they are available. Since most companies provide both immediate and 24-hour claim serv ice to their policyholders, some ad justers always must be on call. A complicated claim can result in an adjuster’s working long and unusual hours. Claim adjusting is a demanding job and at the same time a challeng ing one that requires imagination and the ability to weigh a group of facts to reach a conclusion. No claim is precisely like any other, so an adjuster’s work offers the stimu lus of continual variety as well as 819 INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS the satisfaction of helping someone who has suffered a loss. Sources of Additional Information Information about licensing re quirements for claim adjusters may be obtained from the department of insurance in each State. General in formation about a career as a claim adjuster is available from the home office of many property and liability insurance companies. Information regarding claim adjusters also may be obtained from: Insurance Information Institute, 110 William Street, New York, N.Y. 10038 Information about a career as a public insurance adjuster is availa ble from: National Association of Public In surance Adjusters, 1613 Munsey Building, Baltimore, Md. 21202 CLAIM EXAMINERS (D.O.T. 168.288 and 249.268) Nature of the Work Although policyholders expect their insurance claims to be honored promptly, a number of important questions must be answered first. A claim examiner, who also may be known as a claim representative or claim reviewer, investigates details of an insurance loss to provide these answers. His investigation may in clude reviewing claim applications to check completeness and accu racy; interviewing policyholders or medical specialists; consulting pol icy files to verify information on a claim; and calculating benefit pay ments. The claim examiner’s duties vary, depending on the type of insurance sold by his employer. When this is life, accident, and disability insur ance, claim examiners usually are assigned to particular types of claims, such as group or health and disability. These examiners investi gate and approve payment on all claims up to a certain dollar amount. Claims beyond this amount are referred to a senior examiner who has a higher approval limit. In property and liability insur ance companies most of the investi gating is done by claim adjusters. (See the statement on Claim Adjust ers for a discussion of claim settle ment in property and liability insur ance.) In these companies the claim examiner usually is a home office employee who reviews insurance claims to determine whether adjust ers are following proper procedures in claim handling. Some property and liability firms employ claim workers to handle small claims, such as those arising over minor property damage to an automobile. These workers are called “inside adjusters” or “desk adjusters.” In both life insurance and prop erty and liability insurance compa nies, some claim examiners process only unusual or questionable claims, referred from field or regional offices to the home office. These ex aminers may be responsible also for reviewing routine claims settled by the regional office staffs. This re view involves determining validity of the claim and correctness of the decision already made by the branch office that handled it. The examiner makes this determination by comparing data on the processed claim application, death certificate, or physician’s statement with the policy file. Regardless of the type of insur ance sold, all claim examiners must develop a thorough knowledge of their company’s settlement proce dures and basic policy provisions. They can refer to company claim manuals describing this information in detail, but efficient handling of several claims a day demands that an examiner be familiar enough with the manuals to make constant referral unnecessary. A claim exam iner must be well acquainted also with company records and forms since he frequently works with data furnished by other company divi sions. Besides verifying a claim and approving its payment, a claim ex aminer also maintains claim records and prepares claim reports. As a re sult, a portion of his time may be spent in the preparation and sub mission of data to his company’s data processing section. To correct errors or omissions on a claim form or to verify question able facts, a claim examiner may need to correspond with investigat ing companies, field managers, agents, and policyholders. Occa sionally, he travels to a field loca tion where he obtains this informa tion by personal interview. The ex aminer who has advanced to this level of responsibility may be asked also to serve on committees, con duct surveys of claim practices within his company, and help to de vise more efficient systems for proc essing claims. He may have contact with State insurance departments and other companies regarding claim policies and practices in his firm. At this level, the claim exam iner’s job demands some knowledge of Federal and State insurance laws and regulations, and he also may appear in court to furnish testimony on contested claims. 820 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ployees can anticipate promotion to senior claim representative or claim An estimated 29,000 claim ex examiner positions after a year or aminers were employed in the in more; high school graduates usually surance industry in 1970; about half need several years’ experience be were women. Claim examiners are fore advancing to one of these posi employed by all types of insurance tions. Advancement to most super companies, life as well as property visory claim examiner jobs demands and liability. a college education. Although expe Claim examiners work in insur rience can sometimes be substituted ance company home offices, in re for a part of the work leading to a gional offices, and in field offices. college degree, the employee who The latter frequently are located in lacks formal college training gener small towns and cities where the ally advances at a slower rate. The beginning claim examiner is companies sell and service their in surance products. Large regional given on-the-job training under the offices and home offices are orga direction of an experienced claim nized along similar lines; they have manager. If the trainee is a college separate departments for underwrit graduate, his on-the-job training ing, claims, and other major func may be combined with courses in tions. Although jobs as claim exam insurance fundamentals or person iners are available in most areas of nel management designed to pre the United States, higher level jobs pare him for supervisory claim generally are found in regional or work. Many property and liability insurance companies follow a prohome offices. motion-from-within policy in select ing claim examiners from the ranks of former claim adjusters. The latter Training, Other Qualifications, have received much of their training and Advancement for examiner positions through onAlthough many employers prefer the-job experience in adjusting to hire college graduates for claim claims. examiner positions, applicants hav The Life Office Management As ing good high school records are ac sociation (LOMA) cooperates with cepted by many firms if they have the International Claim Association additional experience in clerical in offering a Claims Education Pro work or some college training. gram for life and health insurance However, the type of work per claim examiners. The program is formed in entry level positions dif part of the LOMA Institute Insur fers. The employee who has a high ance Education Program leading to school education begins in a clerical the professional designation of job, perhaps as a claim processor in FLMI (Fellow, Life Management a group life or health department. Institute) upon successful comple College graduates, or those having 2 tion of eight written examinations. years or more of college training, Most insurance companies encour may begin work as junior claim ex age study by making educational aminers. Although courses in insur materials available to employees en ance, economics, or other business rolled in the LOMA Institute Pro subjects are helpful, a major in al gram. Many firms offer classroom most any college field is adequate instruction in preparation for the preparation. College-trained em annual examinations. Places of Employment Certain aptitudes and skills are helpful to the examiner. Since he must communicate, by letter and telephone, with his company’s sales force, field managers, and policy holders, a claim examiner should be able to express himself clearly. Be cause he has written and spoken communication with persons of dif ferent educational backgrounds, he must be flexible in adapting his manner of writing or speaking to the circumstances. In addition, since he has frequent contact with the company’s medical and legal de partments, he needs a knowledge of medical and legal terms and prac tices. Because the claim examiner may need to check premium pay ments, policy values, and other nu merical items in processing a claim, some skill in performing mathemati cal calculations is an asset. This is not a good job choice for a person who overlooks details or one who has a poor memory for facts. Advancement may come by dif ferent routes. The individual who shows unusual competence in claim work sometimes can advance within the claim department—either to the position of claim approver or to an other supervisory claim job. A claim supervisor may have as many as 50 to 60 employees under his di rection, and devotes much of his time to administrative duties and to final approval of unusual claims. Though supervisory claim positions are available in field as well as re gional and home offices, many ex aminers find promotion to a super visory job requires transfer either to a larger branch office or to the com pany home office. A claim examiner with a college education should find opportunity for advancement. It may exist either within the claim department or in a related area of company operations, such as under INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS 821 writing, data processing, or adminis tration. nies ranged between $7,700 and $13,050 in 1970. Salaries in the Western United States and in smaller companies were among the lowest. Most claim examiners hired Employment Outlook as trainees by life companies earned Employment requirements for $6,400 a year or more; claim super examiners are not expected to in visors for these companies had min crease over the 1970-80 period. imum annual salaries of about Although rapid population growth, $10,300. Some supervisors earned new family formations, and rising $16,000 a year or more. personal income should stimulate An American Insurance Associa growth in insurance sales, the in tion/ American Mutual Insurance creased volume of claims is not Alliance survey of property and likely to involve comparable in liability companies provided earn creases in examiner manpower. ings data for their claim examiners. Electronic data processing methods In 1970, property and liability claim and equipment will enable propor examiners had average annual earn tionately fewer claim examiners to ings of $7,700, and many earned process an increased volume of more than $9,800 a year. Claim claims, especially those of a routine supervisors employed by these com nature and many that arise under panies had annual earnings which group life and health insurance cov ranged from $9,200 to $14,600. erage. Besides, as smaller banch Claim examiners usually perform office operations continue to be con their duties in the pleasant work solidated, economies of scale will surroundings of large, well-venti enable insurance companies to proc lated office buildings. Most claim ess a rapidly expanding volume of examiners work 35 to 40 hours a claims with a relatively stable work week, although an examiner may force. work longer hours at times of peak Although openings resulting from claim load or when quarterly and employment growth are expected to annual statements are being pre be limited, some positions will be pared. (See the statement on In come available each year of the surance Occupations for additional next decade as claim examiners die, information on working conditions retire, or transfer to other fields. and employee benefits.) These will be found in metropolitan centers where insurance employ ment is concentrated. Competition Sources of Additional Information for the relatively few supervisory claim openings is expected to be General information about a ca keen. reer as a claim examiner is available from the home office of many life insurance and property and liability insurance companies and also from: Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings vary by type of com pany and location. According to limited information available, an nual salaries for claim examiners employed by life insurance compa Institute of Life Insurance, 277 Park Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10017 Insurance Information Institute, 110 William Street, New York, N.Y. 10038 UNDERWRITERS (D.O.T. 169.188) Nature of the Work Insurance companies assume mil lions of dollars in risks each year, by transferring chance of loss from their policyholders to themselves. The policyholder pays for this serv ice through regular premiums. An underwriter’s primary function is to select the risks his company will in sure. (The term underwriter some times is used in referring to an in surance salesman; see the statement on Agents and Brokers elsewhere in the Handbook for a discussion of that occupation.) An underwriter decides the ac ceptability of various types of risks by analyzing information contained in insurance applications, reports of safety engineers, and actuarial stud ies (reports describing the probabil ity of insured loss). In making a de cision, the underwriter also checks his company’s established practice. When working in an area not cov ered by rule or precedent, however, he must exercise considerable per sonal judgment. If an underwriter is too conservative in appraising risks, his company may lose business to a competitor. On the other hand, if his underwriting actions are too lib eral, his firm may have to pay too many claims in the future. When deciding that a policy is an acceptable risk, an underwriter may outline the terms of the contract, in cluding the amount of premium. Certain underwriters may perform other duties as well. In a small com pany, for example, they may have duties such as policy issuance or sales management. Underwriters frequently correspond with policy holders, agents, and management 822 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK staff members who deal with sales men and policyholders. Most underwriters specialize in one of the three major categories of insurance: life, property and liabil ity, or health. In turn, life under writers may specialize in one varia tion or more of life insurance, such as group or individual life policies. These underwriters must thoroughly evaluate medical statistical studies and the applicants’ credit reports in reaching their decisions. The property and liability under writer’s specialty is differentiated by “line” of risk insured, such as fire, automobile, marine, and workmen’s Underwriter discusses information on compensation. Fire underwriting a customer’s insurance application. demands extensive contact with rat ing bureaus (organizations sup personnel about policy cancellation ported by insurance companies to or requests for information. In addi develop premium rates). An auto tion, they sometimes accompany mobile underwriter, on the other salesmen on appointments with hand, devotes a significant share of his time to analyzing past experi prospective customers. Another of the underwriter’s ence as revealed by company statis tasks is to judge the need for issuing tics. Some underwriters handle a policy at a higher than standard “multi-peril” business insurance ex premium because extra risk is in clusively. These specialists, who are volved. In general, the premium called commercial account under rate is figured for an average risk. writers, must evaluate a firm’s entire On a life insurance policy, for ex operation in appraising the degree ample, the rate is based on persons of risk involved in approving an in good health who work in occupa insurance application. A group insurance policy insures tions where there are no substantial all persons in a specified group hazards. A policy can be issued to those whose health is below normal through a single contract. One duty or whose occupation involves some of the group underwriter is to ana risk if the underwriter charges a lyze the overall composition of the group insured to be certain that higher premium as compensation. As underwriters gain experience, total risk involved is not excessive. they are given more difficult cases Some group underwriters perform to evaluate and policies bearing other functions similar to those of larger face value. In addition, they an insurance salesman (such as assume the difficult task of review meeting with union or employer ing applications to renew policies on representatives to discuss the types which losses already have occurred. of policies available to their group). More experienced underwriters also help conduct formal or informal Places of Employment training sessions for junior under writers and may supervise clerical An estimated 55,000 underwrit ers were employed in the insurance industry in 1970. About threefourths were property and liability underwriters, who worked in field or home offices of insurance compa nies. In contrast to the property and li ability part of the business, most life insurance underwriting is performed by home office employees. Some life insurance underwriters work in large regional offices organized along much the same lines as the company home office, that have separate departments for group, in dividual life, and health insurance. Most underwriters are men. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement College graduates are sought in creasingly for entry-level positions in underwriting. Employers usually look for candidates who have de grees in liberal arts or business ad ministration, although a major in al most any college field provides a good general background. Although high school graduates are not barred, their opportunities for ad vancement are limited. They gener ally begin in clerical positions, per haps as underwriting clerks. High school graduates who perform sat isfactorily in such jobs, and demon strate an aptitude for underwriting tasks, then may be trained on the job as underwriters. The entry-level job for a college graduate is generally that of under writing trainee or junior underwrit er. A beginning underwriter usually goes through a training period when he participates in a program of study at the office, and carries out assignments under the direction of an experienced risk appraiser. Dur ing this training period, the beginner 823 INSURANCE OCCUPATIONS may learn from claim files the fac tors associated with certain types of losses and from renewal underwrit ing decisions the experience of the risks his company has insured in the past. Many underwriters supplement their on-the-job training by home study courses and instruction at home office schools or at local col leges and universities. Although most companies do not require it, this supplemental training helps in gaining advancement. Underwriters have a choice of several inde pendent study programs available through insurance associations such as the American Institute for Prop erty and Liability Underwriters; the American College for Life Under writers; the Home Office Life Un derwriters Association and the Institute of Home Office Underwrit ers; and the Life Office Manage ment Association. Many firms pay tuition and the cost of books for those employees who satisfactorily complete courses in underwriting. Some companies also offer salary increases as an incentive. Underwriting can be a satisfying career for a young man or woman who is patient with details and who enjoys relating and evaluating facts. The young person who dislikes being tied to a desk and prefers working with people rather than evaluating facts should consider other career fields. In addition to powers of analysis and good judg ment, an underwriter must be imag inative and aggressive, especially when need arises to obtain addi tional information from outside sources. As an underwriter’s skills de velop, he may be promoted to sen ior underwriter or supervisory un derwriter approving policies with substantial face values and perform ing certain training and administra tive functions. An underwriter who demonstrates competence and who completes available study courses may advance further to a position as chief underwriter or underwriting manager of a department. An un derwriting manager may move on to a senior managerial appointment after several years. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for underwriters are expected to grow moderately during the 1970’s. Many will arise in metropolitan cen ters where insurance workers now are concentrated; others will result from a demand for underwriters to work in field offices, especially in property and liability insurance. In addition to positions created by em ployment growth, many job open ings will result from the need to re place workers who die, retire, or transfer to other fields. Several factors point to an ex panding market for insurance sales through the 1970’s and a resulting need for underwriters. Continued population growth and higher per sonal incomes should stimulate pur chases of life insurance. Property and liability insurance sales should expand with increased purchases of automobiles and other consumer durables. Both spending for new home construction and the Ameri can public’s growing security con sciousness should contribute to de mand for more extensive insurance protection. Heightened competition among insurance companies and changes in regulations affecting in vestment profits also are expected to increase the industry’s need for competent men and women to work in underwriting. Although mechanized handling of routine policy applications may re duce employment opportunities for underwriting clerks, the effect on total employment of underwriters should be negligible. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of life insurance under writers ranged from $7,360 to $12,500 a year in 1970, according to a Life Office Management Asso ciation survey of 79 U.S. compa nies. Earnings differed substantially by area; employees in the South and West averaged lower salaries than those in the Eastern and Central States. Experienced life insurance underwriters employed by compa nies located in metropolitan New York earned annual salaries be tween $10,600 and $15,620; super visors of underwriting in life compa nies earned $11,620 to $21,140 a year. For all levels of life insurance underwriter, salaries were highest in large companies. An American Insurance Association/American Mutual Insurance Alliance survey of companies en gaged in selling property and liability insurance revealed that underwriters’ annual earnings ranged from $8,560 to $10,300 in 1970. Earnings varied by line of underwriting specialty; ocean marine underwriters earned the highest annual salaries. Under writing supervisors in property and liability insurance companies aver aged $11,730 annually; some earned nearly $15,000 a year. Most underwriters have desk jobs that require no unusual physical ac tivity. Underwriting is performed in pleasant, quiet surroundings; in gen eral, insurance company offices are spacious and air conditioned during the summer months. Some under writers may work irregular hours when traveling to advise field per sonnel or attending underwriting 824 seminars, or at times of peak load in policy applications. The average work week for an underwriter is 35 to 40 hours, and most insurance companies have liberal paid vaca tion policies and offer other em ployee benefits. Since relatively few underwriting decisions are reviewed at a higher level, the underwriter holds a job of considerable respon sibility. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Sources of Additional Information General information about a ca reer as an insurance underwriter is available from the home office of many life insurance and property and liability insurance companies. Information about career opportu nities as an underwriter also may be obtained from: Institute of Life Insurance, 277 Park Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10017 Insurance Information Institute, 110 William Street, New York, N.Y. 10038 American Mutual Insurance Alli ance, 20 North Wacker Drive, Chicago, 111. 60606 S E R V IC E AND M IS C E L L A N E O U S The long-term growth in the American economy has created a growing demand for services of all kinds. A growing share of our na tional wealth and manpower is being devoted to services as a result of greater emphasis on medical care, education, personal services, and recreation. In many ways, this rapid growth reflects the country’s aspirations for a better and fuller life for all of its citizens. In today’s job market, the service industries represent an important source of employment to new as well as experienced workers, and offer job opportunities to persons having various levels of skills, train ing, and education. In 1970, about 21.9 million workers were employed in service industries. Approximately one-half were wage and salary workers em ployed by private firms, 6.3 million were government employees (mainly in educational and medical services), and 2.1 million were self-employed persons. The remain der, accounting for 1.8 million per sons, were employed in private households. Educational services, including public and private elementary and secondary schools and institutions of higher education, make up the largest sector of the service industry and account for nearly one-third of its work force. Hospitals and other establishments that provide health services constitute the next largest sector, and account for one-fifth of the workers. In both of these service industries, government workers (mainly local and State) make up a large share of the work force. Other service industries em ploying many workers are hotels, laundries, and other personal serv ices, private households, business and repair services, and entertain ment. In 1970, women accounted for about three-fifths of total employ ment in the service industry. Their employment ranged from less than one-tenth of total employment in automobile and other repair busi nesses to nine-tenths in private households. Women workers also accounted for an especially high proportion of total employment in hospitals, educational services, ho tels, and establishments that provide personal services such as beauty shops and laundries. In 1970, as shown in the accom panying tabulation, white-collar workers (professional, managerial, clerical, and sales workers) ac counted for nearly three-fifths of the service industry’s employment. The industry employs the highest pro portion of professional, technical, and kindred workers of any major industry and they account for over one-third of the industry’s employ ment. By far the largest concentra tion of professional personnel is represented by teachers employed in educational services. Other major employers are medical and health services—where doctors, dentists, and nurses constitute a large share of the work force, and professional services where large numbers of lawyers, accountants, engineers, and architects are employed. Self-em ployment is typical for most male professional workers in health serv ices. By comparison, women in this field—typified by registered nurses —mainly are salaried workers. Clerical workers account for 1 out of 6 service industry employees. Most of them are stenographers, typists, secretaries, and office ma chine operators. Managers, officials, and proprietors, including hospital administrators, make up a relatively small fraction of the industry’s em ployment. Service workers represent nearly one-third of the industry’s employ ment. The major service occupa tions are private household worker, practical nurse, hospital attendant, charwoman, janitor, waiter, wait ress, cook, and protective service worker. Blue-collar workers, mainly skilled craftsmen and semiskilled workers (operatives), constitute only obe-eighth of the industry’s em ployment. Many of the craftsmen are employed as mechanics in auto mobile and other repair service in dustries or as maintenance workers in hotels, schools, and other estab lishments. Motion picture projec tionists are especially important in the entertainment industry. Opera tives are employed mainly in laun dries, auto repair shops, and other types of repair businesses. Most of the relatively few laborers in this in dustry work in auto repair shops, on golf courses, and in bowling alleys. M a j o r o c c u p a tio n a l g r o u p E s tim a te d e m p lo y m e n t, 1970 (p e r c e n t d is tr ib u tio n ) All occupational groups.. 100 Professional, technical, and kindred workers .................. 35 Managers, officials, and proprietors ............................. 6 Clerical and kindred workers.. 16 Salesworkers ............................. 1 Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers .................. 5 Operatives and kindred workers ................................. 5 Service Workers ....................... 31 Laborers ................................... 2 N ote : Because of rounding, individual items may not add to total. 825 826 Employment in the service indus try is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s. Major factors contributing to the sharp growth in the demand for services are ex pected to stem from population growth, expanding business activity, rising personal incomes, and the general awareness of the benefits that educational, health, and other services can provide. The fastest growing components of the service industry will be educational serv OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ices, medical health services, and among firms that provide computer services and laboratory research fa cilities. The necessity for extensive person-to-person contact in the many service functions tends to limit the effect of technological innovations on employment requirements. Al though automatic data-processing equipment may moderate growth in some areas—for example, in ac counting and bookkeeping—techno logical change is not expected to limit the demand for workers in the service industry. The statements that follow dis cuss job opportunities in the hotel and laundry and drycleaning indus tries. More detailed information about occupations that cut across many industries appears elsewhere in the Handbook. (See index in the back of the book.) H O T E L O C C U P A T IO N S Throughout the United States, hotels and motels provide travelers with a “home-away-from-home.” More than 870,000 people worked in hotels and motels in 1970. The great majority were employed in hotels and motor hotels located chiefly in urban areas. The remain der worked in motels and tourists courts located on the outskirts of large cities, along major highways, and in resort areas. About one-half of the employees in hotels and re lated businesses are women. Some hotel occupations can be entered with little or no specialized training. In many kinds of hotel work, however, the demand for spe cially trained people is increasing. Hotels are complex organizations and need specialized personnel to direct and coordinate operations which may involve thousands of guests annually and millions of dol lars of property and equipment. This chapter deals with employ ment opportunities in hotels and motels, and includes separate state ments on several hotel occupations. The Hotel Business and its Workers Hotels are of three general types —commercial, residential, and re sort. The vast majority are commer cial hotels, which cater chiefly to travelers seeking a room for a brief stay. A small number are residential hotels, which generally accommo date people for long periods, ranging from a few months to many years. Others are resort hotels, which provide lodging for vacationers. Motor hotels, motels, and tourist courts also cater to vacationers and other travelers seeking accommoda tions for a short time. Commercial and residential hotels generally op erate the year round. Although some resort hotels, motor hotels, and motels are open for only part of the year—for example, during the winter season in Florida or the sum mer months in northern parts of the country—an increasing number are remaining open the full year. Hotels range in size from those which have fewer than 25 rooms and only a few employees to some which have 1,000 rooms or more and many hundreds of workers. Many of the motor hotels built in recent years have large staffs. Many motels, however, are relatively small, including a sizable number which are run by the owners with few, if any, paid employees. Most hotels have restaurants, ranging from simple coffee shops to vast dining rooms, with wine cellars and elaborate kitchens. Large hotels and motor hotels also may have banquet rooms, exhibit halls, and spacious ballrooms. Many hotels and motels, especially in resort areas, have recreational facilities such as swimming pools, boating fa cilities, golf courses, and tennis courts. Hotels also may provide in formation about interesting places to visit, sell tickets to theaters and sporting events, and even call in ba bysitters. Their facilities often in clude newsstands, gift shops, barber and beauty shops, laundry and valet services, and railroad and airline ticket reservation offices. Although motels and tourist courts usually offer fewer services than hotels, the number with restaurants, swimming pools, and other conveniences for guests is steadily increasing. Because of the many services they offer, hotels need workers in a wide variety of occupations. One of the largest groups of hotel em ployees is in the housekeeping de partment. Many thousands of maids, porters, housemen, linen room attendants, and laundry room workers are employed by hotels and motels to make beds, clean rooms and halls, move furniture, hang dra peries, provide guests with fresh linens and towels, operate laundry equipment, and mark and inspect laundered items. Women usually are employed for the lighter house keeping tasks, whereas men have jobs requiring more strenuous phys ical effort such as washing walls and arranging furniture. Large hotels and motor hotels usually employ ex ecutive housekeepers to supervise these workers, and some hotels also may have a special manager in charge of laundry operations. In most hotels, a uniformed staff performs guest services in the lobby. This staff includes the bell men who carry baggage for guests and escort them to their rooms. Doormen are also a part of the uni formed staff, as are elevator opera tors. The front office staff work as room clerks, key clerks, mail clerks, and information clerks. Their chief duties are to greet guests, assign rooms, and furnish information. More than half of the hotel clerical workers are front office employees. The remainder, mainly women, are employed in a variety of office occu pations such as bookkeeper, cash ier, telephone operator, and secre tary. These occupations are dis cussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Hotel managers and their assist ants have the highly important task of supervising operations and mak ing them profitable. A general man ager is in charge of all hotel opera tions. Some general managers have assistants in charge of various phases of hotel management. Some assistants may be responsible for 827 828 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK specific operations; for example, food-service managers operate the dining rooms and other eating facili ties, and sales managers are re sponsible for attracting more busi ness to hotels and motels. In addition, hotels also employ workers who are found in other in dustries. Among these are account ants, personnel workers, entertain ers, recreation workers, waiters, chefs, and bartenders. Maintenance workers, such as carpenters, electri cians, stationary engineers, plumb ers, and painters, also work for ho tels. Still other types of workers em ployed in hotels include detectives, barbers, beauty salon operators, valets, seamstresses, and gardeners. Most of these occupations are dis cussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Employment Outlook A rapid increase in employment is likely in this industry through the 1970’s. In addition, thousands of workers will be required each year to replace those who retire or die. Other openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to positions in other industries. Most of the anticipated employ ment growth in the industry will stem from the need to staff the new hotels, motor hotels, and motels being built in urban areas, as well as the additional facilities being built in resort areas. Limited expansion will take place in older hotels that try to meet the challenge of increas ing competition for business by modernizing their facilities and ex panding their services. Hotels that are unable to modernize their facili ties are likely to experience low oc cupancy rates and may be forced to reduce overhead costs by eliminat ing services and workers. Thou sands of temporary jobs will con tinue to be available each year in resort hotels, motels, and other es tablishments which are open only part of the year or have more busi ness in some seasons than others. The demand for lodging is ex pected to increase through the 1970’s as the country’s population grows and travel for business and pleasure increases. Jet air travel, which permits businessmen and oth ers who travel frequently to make a trip to a distant city, complete their business, and return home the same day, may somewhat limit this in crease. Employment is likely to rise most rapidly in motels and motor hotels catering to motorists. This trend has been evident for some time and will continue, as the Fed eral highway building program fur ther stimulates both automobile travel and the building of motels and motor hotels. In motels, most of the additional employees will be housekeeping and food-service workers. Most of the job openings in ho tels will continue to be for workers who need little specialized training such as maids, porters, housemen, and some dining room employees. These jobs account for a large pro portion of all hotel workers and have high turnover rates. When general employment conditions are good, people in these jobs find it relatively easy to shift to other kinds of work. Also, many of the workers are women, who often leave their jobs to care for their families. In a few of these occupations, technolog ical changes may limit the number of openings. For example, the in creased use of automatic dishwash ers, vegetable cutters and peelers, and other mechanical kitchen equipment is likely to reduce the need for kitchen helpers. A number of people also will be needed every year in front office jobs to replace workers who are promoted to managerial posts, as well as to fill new jobs in the in creasing number of hotels and mo tels. People in these occupations are less subject than many other workers in the industry to changes in general economic conditions. In addition, there will be openings for other clerical workers, although the increasing use of office machines may affect adversely clerical em ployment in some hotels. Opportu nities are expected to be favorable for young people who acquire the training and experience necessary to qualify for jobs as cooks and food managers. (Food service workers and office workers are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings and Working Conditions The location, size, and type of hotel affect earnings of hotel workers. Other significant factors include the tipping practice for the occupation and the degree of union ization. About one-half of all hotel workers are now covered by the Fair Labor Standards Act, a Fed eral statute which sets minimum wages. In 1970, hotel workers cov ered by the law received at least $1.60 an hour, non-tipped em ployees receiving $1.60 an hour in wages; and tipped employees earn ing at least 80 cents an hour in tips, receiving 80 cents an hour in wages. In addition, more than half the States have their own wage and hour laws that cover hotel workers. Salaries of hotel employees in managerial positions have an espe cially wide range, mainly because of great differences in duties and re sponsibilities. Hotel manager train ees who are graduates of specialized college programs start at yearly sal aries ranging from $8,000 to 829 HOTEL OCCUPATIONS $12,000 and are usually given peri ice. Paid holidays—ranging from odic increases for the first year or 1 to 8 days a year—are provided two. Experienced managers may for about half of the nonsupervisory earn several times as much as be hotel employees. ginners; a few, in top jobs, earn The Hotel & Restaurant Em $50,000 a year or more. In addition ployees and Bartenders Interna to salary, hotels customarily furnish tional Union is the major union in managers and their families with the hotel business. Uniformed per lodging in the hotel, meals, parking sonnel, such as bellmen and eleva facilities, laundry, and other serv tor operators, may be members of ices. the Building Service Employees’ In Wage rates of nonsupervisory ho ternational Union. tel workers vary greatly from occu pation to occupation and in different parts of the country. For example, Sources of Additional Information nonsupervisory hotel workers in the Information on careers in hotel Western part of the United States work may be obtained from: usually have higher hourly earnings than those working in the South. In American Hotel and Motel Associa tion, 888 7th Avenue, New York, addition to regular earnings, bell N.Y. 10019. men, maids, and housekeepers may receive tips from hotel or motel Additional information on hotel guests. According to a recent Bureau training opportunities and a direc of Labor Statistics survey that in tory of schools and colleges offering cluded larger hotels and motels, courses and scholarships in the earnings of bellmen averaged $1.18 hotel field may be obtained by writ an hour. Practically all bellmen sur ing to: veyed were classified as tipped em Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and ployees, receiving more than $20 a Institutional Education, 1522 K Street NW., Washington, D.C. month in tips. 20005. Since hotels are open round the clock, workers may be employed on Information on housekeeping in any one of three shifts. Usually, hotels, including a list of schools of more people are employed during fering courses in housekeeping, may the day than at night, and additional be obtained from: compensation may be paid for National Executive Housekeepers work during late hours. Managers Association, Inc., Business and Professional Building, Gallipolis, and housekeepers who live in the Ohio 45631. hotel usually have regular work schedules, although managers may be called on at any time. Waiters and waitresses, cooks, pantry workers, dishwashers, and other kitchen workers commonly receive meals; in a few hotels, maids, elevator operators, and room clerks also receive meals. Most non supervisory employees are covered by paid vacation provisions, the du ration of the vacation usually being determined by length of serv BELLMEN AND BELL CAPTAINS (D.O.T. 324.138 and .878) Nature of the Work Bellmen, also called bellboys or bellhops, carry the baggage of in coming hotel guests while escorting them to their rooms. The bellman checks to see that everything is in order in the room. He may suggest the use of various hotel services, in cluding the dining room and valet service. Bellmen also handle room service, perform errands, and de liver packages. In 1970, more than 30,000 such workers were em ployed in the Nation’s lodging 830 places. In large hotels, special bag gage porters usually carry baggage for guests who are checking out. In smaller hotels, bellmen carry bag gage for outgoing as well as incom ing guests, and also may relieve the elevator operator or switchboard operator. Bell captains are employed in large and medium-size hotels to su pervise the bellmen. They assign work, keep time records, and in struct new bellmen in their duties. They also may give guests transpor tation information and send a bag gage porter or a bellman to pick up the tickets. In addition, they handle complaints from guests regarding the work of their department, and take care of requests for unusual services. At times, bell captains also may perform the duties of bellmen. Superintendents of service— found in only a few hotels with large service departments—super vise elevator operators, doormen, and washroom attendants, as well as bellmen and bell captains. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement No specific educational require ments exist for bellman jobs. Grad uation from high school, however, enhances a bellman’s opportunities for promotion to front office clerical jobs. (See statement on Front Office Clerks in this chapter.) In many hotels, bellman jobs are filled by promoting elevator opera tors. In the service department of the hotel, the line of promotion is from bellman to bell captain to su perintendent of service. Some of the factors which may affect a bellman’s chances for advancement are a fa vorable work record showing few complaints by guests, good work habits, initiative, and leadership OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK qualities. Since there is only one bell captain position in each hotel, a number of years may pass before an opening occurs. Opportunities for advancement to superintendent of service are even more limited. Since bellmen are in frequent contact with the public, it is impor tant that they be neat, tactful, and courteous. A knowledge of the at tractions and geography of the local community is an asset. They also must be able to stand for long pe riods and to carry heavy baggage. built, and additions are made to ex isting hotels. The fast growing motel business also will provide some ad ditional jobs; however, because of the type of construction and the em phasis on informality, relatively few motels employ bellmen. See introductory section to this chapter for information on Earnings and Working Conditions, Sources of Additional Information, and for ad ditional information on Employ ment Outlook. Employment Outlook Nearly a thousand openings for bellmen are expected each year through the 1970’s, due to growth, deaths, and retirements. Many addi tional openings also will be created as bellmen transfer to other occupa tions. Since many hotels promote from within by advancing men ele vator operators to bellman jobs, chances for outsiders to enter yearround jobs as bellmen will be best in hotels which employ women as elevator operators, and in the in creasing number of hotels which have automatic elevators. Many op portunities for temporary jobs also will arise in resort hotels which are open only part of the year and hire college students and other young men. Beginners also will be needed in small hotels to replace experi enced bellmen who shift to jobs in luxury hotels where earnings from tips may be higher. Competition among employed bellmen for the relatively few bell captain jobs that will become available in the future is expected to remain keen. The number of bellmen em ployed is expected to increase slowly through the 1970’s. Some additional jobs will be created as new hotels and motor hotels are FRONT OFFICE CLERKS (D.O.T. 242.368) Nature of the Work Hotels and motels employ front office clerks to rent the rooms and perform related operations. These include greeting the guests, issuing keys, and handling mail. More than 60,000 such workers were em ployed in the Nation’s lodging places in 1970. By working “up front,” they deal directly with the public and help build an establishment’s reputation for courteous and efficient service. In small hotels and in many motels, a front office clerk (who may be the owner) may also do some bookkeeping and act as cashier or telephone operator. On the other hand, large hotels usually employ several front office clerks, who may be assigned to different kinds of jobs. Room or desk clerks rent the available rooms. Customarily, they are the first of the front office cleri cal staff to greet guests. In assigning rooms, they must be aware of ad vance registrations, consider any preferences guests may express, and HOTEL OCCUPATIONS 831 motels, front office clerks may be responsible for a combination of these various duties. They may have other duties as well, particularly when they work on late evening shifts. For example, the night room clerk may perform bookkeeping functions or assist cashiers with their clerical work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement at the same time try to obtain maxi mum revenues for the hotel. These clerks give information about rates and the types of services available, and see that guests fill out registra tion forms properly. After registra tion is completed, room clerks sig nal bellmen to carry guests’ luggage. Reservation clerks acknowledge room reservations, type out registra tion forms, and notify the room clerk when guests are due to arrive. To keep room assignment records current, rack clerks insert or re move forms indicating the time when rooms become occupied or vacant, or when they are closed for repairs. They also keep house keepers, telephone operators, and other personnel informed about changes in room occupancy. Other special clerks, such as key, mail, and information clerks, are employed in some large hotels. In the largest ho tels, floor supervisors or floor clerks are assigned to each floor to handle the distribution of mail and pack ages and perform other incidental duties. In all but the largest hotels and High school graduates who have some clerical aptitude and the per sonal characteristics necessary for dealing with the public may be hired for beginning jobs as mail, in formation, or key clerks. Neatness, a courteous and friendly manner, and ease in dealing with people are important personal traits for front office clerks. Typing and bookkeep ing courses given in high school may be helpful, particularly for nightshift work where additional clerical du ties often are performed, or for jobs in smaller hotels and motels, where the front office clerks often have a variety of duties. Although educa tion beyond high school generally is not required for front office work, hotel employers are attaching greater importance to college train ing in selecting personnel who may be advanced later to managerial po sitions. Front office clerks may im prove their opportunities for pro motion by taking home study courses, such as those sponsored by the Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Associa tion. Inexperienced workers learn about the front office routine mainly through on-the-job experience. They usually have a brief initial training period during which their duties are described, and they are given information about the hotel, 832 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK such as the location of rooms and the types of services offered. After new employees begin working, they receive help from the assistant man ager or some experienced front of fice worker. Front office workers usually start as key clerks or mail clerks, or in other fairly routine jobs. Occasion ally, employees in other types of re lated work—for example, bellmen or elevator operators—may be transferred to front office jobs. Most hotels have a promotion-fromwithin policy for front office workers. A typical line of promo tion might be from key or rack clerk to room clerk, to assistant front office manager, and later to front officer manager. (See statement on Hotel Managers and Assistants in this chapter.) and for additional information on Employment Outlook. HOTEL HOUSEKEEPERS AND ASSISTANTS (D.O.T. 321.138) Nature of the Work Hotel housekeepers are responsi ble for keeping hotels clean and at tractive. They account for furnish ings and supplies; and hire, train, and supervise the maids, linen and laundry workers, housemen, seam stresses, and repairmen. In addition, they keep employee records and perform other duties which vary by size and type of hotel. Those em ployed in middle-size and small ho tels not only supervise the cleaning staffs but also may do some of their work. In large hotels and smaller luxury-type hotels, the duties of ex ecutive or head housekeepers are primarily administrative. Besides supervising a staff which may num ber in the hundreds, they prepare the budget for the housekeeping de partment; make regular reports to the manager on the condition of rooms, needed repairs, and sug gested improvements; purchase or assist in purchasing supplies; and have responsibility for interior dec orating work. Some executive housekeepers employed by large hotel chains may have special as signments such as reorganizing housekeeping procedures in an es tablished hotel or setting up the Employment Outlook Employment in this occupation is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s. Many openings will re sult from the need to replace workers who are promoted to higher level jobs or transfer to other occupations. In addition, new front office jobs will be created in the hundreds of hotels, motels, and motor hotels expected to open or expand in the next decade. A front office clerk has relatively stable employment. Employment in this occupation does not contract as sharply with changes in general eco nomic conditions as does employ ment in many other hotel occupa tions. However, the introduction of computerized reservation systems may change the duties of some front office clerks. See the introductory section to this chapter for information on Earnings and Working Conditions, Sources of Additional Information, Housekeepers check linen supplies. 833 HOTEL OCCUPATIONS housekeeping department in a new or newly acquired hotel. In many hotels, executive house keepers are assisted by floor house keepers who supervise the work on one or more floors. Large hotels also may employ assistant executive housekeepers. More than 30,000 hotel housekeepers were employed in 1970, most of them women. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although no specific educational requirements exist for house keepers, most employers prefer ap plicants who have at least a high school diploma. Experience is also an asset in obtaining a hotel house keeping job. Specialized training in hotel ad ministration, including courses in housekeeping, was available at sev eral colleges in 1970. Some univer sities offer short summer courses or conduct evening classes in coopera tion with the National Executive Housekeepers Association. In addi tion, the Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Associa tion also offers housekeeping ori ented courses for class or individual home study. The most helpful courses are those emphasizing housekeeping procedures, personnel management, budget preparation, interior decorating, and the pur chase, use, and care of different types of equipment and fabrics. Employment Outlook Several thousand openings for hotel housekeepers and their assist ants are expected annually through the 1970’s. Some openings will re sult from the need to replace workers who retire or leave the oc cupation for other reasons. How ever, many new positions for house keepers will become available in newly built hotels and the growing number of large motor hotels and luxury motels. In established hotels, most openings for assistant house keepers will be filled from within by promoting maids. Similarly, va cancies for executive housekeepers often will be filled by promoting as sistant housekeepers. However, since only one top job as executive housekeeper exists in each hotel, many years may pass before an opening of this kind occurs in a given hotel. Experienced hotel housekeepers also will find employ ment opportunities in hospitals, clubs, college dormitories, and a va riety of welfare institutions. See introduction to this chapter for information on Earnings and Working Conditions, Sources of Additional Information, and for ad ditional information on Employ ment Outlook. departments, such as housekeeping, accounting, personnel, purchasing, publicity, and maintenance. They make decisions on room rates, es tablish credit policy, and have final responsibility for dealing with many other kinds of problems that arise in operating their hotels or motels. Like other managers of business en terprises, they also may spend con siderable time conferring with busi ness and social groups and partici pating in community affairs. HOTEL MANAGERS AND ASSISTANTS (D.O.T. 163.118 and 187.118 and .168) Manager checks convention reservations. Nature of the Work Hotel and motel managers are re sponsible for operating their estab lishments profitably and, at the same time, providing maximum comfort for their guests. Of the more than 190,000 hotel and motel managers employed in 1970, about 90.000 were salaried and more than 100.000 were owner-managers. Managers direct and coordinate the activities of the front office, kitchen, dining rooms, and the various hotel In small hotels, the manager also may perform much of the front office clerical work. In the smallest hotels and in many motels, the own ers—sometimes a family team—do all the work necessary to operate the business. The general manager of a large hotel may have several assistants who manage one department or more and assume general adminis trative responsibility when the man ager is absent. Because preparing 834 and serving food is important in the operation of most large hotels, a special manager usually is in charge of this department. Managers of large hotels usually employ a special assistant, known as a sales manager, whose job is to promote maxi mum use of hotel facilities. The sales manager spends much time advertising the facilities his hotel can offer for meetings, banquets, and conventions. Since large hotel chains often centralize activities such as purchas ing supplies and equipment and planning employee training pro grams, managers in these hotels may have fewer duties than manag ers of independently owned hotels. Hotel chains may assign managers to help organize work in a newly ac quired hotel, or may transfer them to established hotels in different cit ies or in foreign countries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Since most hotels promote from within, individuals who have proven their ability, usually in front office jobs, may be promoted to assistant manager positions and eventually to general manager. Although successful hotel experi ence is generally the first considera tion in selecting managers, em ployers increasingly emphasize a college education. Many believe the best educational preparation is pro OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK vided by colleges offering a special ized 4-year curriculum in hotel and restaurant administration. Special ized courses in hotel work, available in a few junior colleges, and study courses given by the Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Association are also helpful. In colleges offering a specialized 4-year curriculum in hotel manage ment, the courses include hotel ad ministration, hotel accounting, eco nomics, food service management and catering, and hotel maintenance engineering. Students are encour aged to spend their summer vaca tions working in hotel or restaurant jobs. The experience gained in these jobs and the contacts with em ployers may enable young people to obtain better hotel positions after graduation. In addition, students are encouraged to study foreign lan guages and other subjects of cul tural value such as history, philoso phy, and literature. College graduates who have ma jored in hotel administration usually begin their hotel careers as front office clerks; after acquiring the necessary experience, they may ad vance to top managerial positions. An increasing number of employers require some experience in food op erations. Hotel chains may offer better opportunities for advance ment than independent hotels, since vacancies may arise in any hotel of the chain, as well as on the central management staff. Some large hotel organizations have established special programs for management trainees who are college graduates or for less highly trained personnel promoted from within. These programs consist mainly of on-the-job training assign ments in which the trainee is rotated among jobs in the various hotel de partments. Some large hotels pro vide financial assistance to outstand ing employees for college study. Employment Outlook Well-qualified young people will find favorable opportunities through the 1970’s to obtain entry positions that offer the possibility of promo tion to managerial work. Young ap plicants who have college degrees in hotel administration will have an advantage in seeking entry positions and later advancement. Many open ings for management personnel also will result from the need to fill va cancies resulting from turnover. The number of hotel managers is expected to increase moderately during the 1970’s. New positions will arise as additional hotels are built, and as the number of motor hotels and luxury motels expands. See the introductory section of this chapter for information on Earnings and Working Conditions, Sources of Additional Information, and for additional information on Employment Outlook. O C C U P A T I O N S IN L A U N D R Y A N D D R Y C L E A N IN G P L A N T S In 1970, approximately 630,000 persons were engaged in laundering and drycleaning garments, house hold furnishings, and institutional linens and uniforms. These workers are located in every State, in every city, and probably in every neigh borhood. About two-thirds of them are women. Drycleaning firms accounted for more than 40 percent of the indus try’s workers, and laundries (in cluding coin-operated laundromats) accounted for another 35 percent. Most of the remainder worked for firms that specialized in renting and cleaning uniforms, towels, diapers, and similar items. A small propor tion of the total were employed in valet shops. Most employment is concentrated in firms that have 20 or more em ployees. Many firms, however, are owner-operated and have only a few employees. In 1970, about one-sev enth of the industry’s workers were self-employed. @ Nature of the Work One way to describe the work done in this industry is to follow an imaginary bundle of clothes through the plant. (See chart 36.) The bun dle consists of some men’s shirts, a business suit, and bed linens. A route salesman or driver (D.O.T. 292.358) picks up the bundle and leaving a receipt, takes the bundle to the plant. After the items have been cleaned, the route salesman delivers them and collects payment; or the owner of the bundle may in stead leave them at the plant or drive-up store. In this case, a coun ter clerk (D.O.T. 369.887) makes out a receipt and turns the bundle over to a marker. Either the routeman or the counter clerk sorts the items in the bundle into laundry and dry cleaning. The bundle is turned over to markers (D.O.T. 369.887), who put an identifying symbol on each item so it may be matched with the How work flows through a laundry and drycleaning plant Counter clerks Counter clerks Washmen - * • 0] ^ t c f r s —* Finishers — | Sorters and markers Drycleaners Tll „ and — Tumbler — Finishers spotters operators Routemen SOURCE: BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS Inspectors Seamstresses Assemblers and baggers Inspectors Routemen customer’s receipt at some later time. The markers then send the shirts and sheets to the washroom and the suit to the drycleaning room. A washman (D.O.T. 361.885) puts several hundred pounds of sheets in a huge washing machine. Likewise, he loads shirts in another washer. These machines are con trolled automatically, but the washman must understand how to oper ate the controls—water temperature, suds level, time cycles, additives, and the amount of agitation for dif ferent fabrics. When the washing cycle is completed, the laundry is transferred to an extractor that re moves about half the water. This stage is similar to the “spin” cycle on a home washer. Conveyors move the laundry to conditioners, dryers, or tumblers where dry, heated air removes some of the remaining moisture. The sheets go from the drying area to flatwork finishers (D.O.T. 363.886) who shake out folds and creases, spread the sheets on mov ing belts, and feed them into large flatwork ironing machines for iron ing and partial folding. When the sheets come out of the machine, other finishers complete the folding and stacking. Shirts go directly from the extrac tor to shirt finishers (D.O.T. 363.782) who usually work in teams of two or three. One finisher puts the sleeves of the shirt on two armlike forms called a “sleever.” A second operator then puts the shirt on a “triple-head” press that irons the collar and two cuffs at the same time. She then puts the shirt on a “bosom” press that irons the front and back simultaneously. The first finisher either folds the shirt or places it on a hanger, whichever the customer prefers. A third finisher may do the folding. In some laun dries, one shirt finisher performs all these operations. 835 836 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ric construction and selects the pro per time cycle for each load. He may apply special solutions called “reagents” to spots and stains be fore placing the garments in the drycleaning machine. After clean ing, he transfers the clothes to an extractor to remove the solvent, and then places them in a tumbler or hot-air cabinet to dry. The spotter (D.O.T. 362.381) will use chemical reagents and steam to remove stub born stains. Counter clerk prepares customer’s receipt. Men’s suit finisher sprays jacket. Washman empties washer load into bins. The jobs of the drycleaner (D.O.T. 362.782) and washman are similar, but the cleaning solution for drycleaning is a chemical solvent instead of water, and the machine holds only 30-100 pounds. The drycleaner sorts the clothes according to color, fiber content, and fab A men's suit finisher (D.O.T. 363.782) puts the pants on a special “topper and legger” press. The jacket is placed on a body form that may have a second part that comes down to press and shape the shoul ders and collar of the jacket while the steam is forced from the inside. Final finishing touches are done on a steam heated pressing head and “buck,” a flat surface covered in fabric. An inspector (D.O.T. 369.687) 837 OCCUPATIONS IN LAUNDRY AND DRYCLEANING PLANTS checks finished items to see that the quality standards of the plant have been maintained. Any item in need of recleaning or refinishing may be returned to the appropriate depart ment. Occasionally, she may work on them herself. Repair work may be forwarded to a seamstress (D.O.T. 782.884) who sews on buttons, mends tears, and resews seams. Finally, assemblers (D.O.T. 369.687) collect the linens and shirts by matching the sales invoice with the identification marks. An other assembler does the same with personnel develop new customers for the plant’s services. Foremen su pervise production workers in the plant. Mechanics and repairmen keep equipment and machinery op erating properly. Some service workers clean, guard, and otherwise maintain the plant; others plan and serve food to plant workers. Labor ers lift and carry heavy loads to machines. (Discussion of many of these occupations can be found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many workers in this industry get their first jobs without previous training. Basic laundry and drycleaning skills may be learned on the job in a short time. Some jobs such as folding towels and feeding pillowcases and sheets into a flat- work ironer may require only 1 or 2 days to learn. Other jobs, such as counter clerk, marker, inspector, and assembler, may require several weeks to learn. Some finishing jobs —pants presser, shirt finisher—may require less than a week’s training. Several months or more are needed to train a drycleaner or a ladies’ ap parel finisher. Because of the vari ety of fibers and fabrics, spots and stains, and chemical reagents of which he must have knowledge, a spotter may need 6— 12 months to learn his skill. Some preemployment training in finishing and drycleaning/spotting skills is available in vocational high schools and trade schools. Similar training is available in programs ad ministered by the U.S. Department of Labor under the Manpower De velopment and Training Act as well as in the Job Opportunities in the Bagger collects and bags customer’s clothes. the suit. Either they or baggers (D.O.T. 920.887) may remove tags before putting the items in bags or boxes for storage until called for or delivered. Many other workers are found in laundry and drycleaning plants. A manager or proprietor is responsible for seeing that the work of the plant is performed efficiently. Office workers keep records, handle corre spondence, and prepare bills. Sales Spotter treats garment with special chemicals and steam. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 838 Business Sector program carried out by the National Alliance of Busi nessmen. Some Opportunities In dustrialization Centers—self-help programs for unemployed and un deremployed ghetto youth—sponsor training for these same jobs. Home study courses are available from the National Institute of Drycleaning. Most people find jobs in laundry and drycleaning plants through newspaper advertisements or friends who work in these plants. Employers look for workers who are dependable and who have good physical stamina, manual dexterity, and keen eyesight. Workers must be able to adjust to the repetition char acteristic of many laundry and drycleaning jobs. Advancement for most workers in this industry is limited. Many re main permanently in the same job. Few supervisory positions are avail able. Nevertheless, employers occa sionally send promising employees to technical or managerial training programs given by the National In stitute of Drycleaning in Silver Spring, Md., or by the American In stitute of Laundering in Joliet, 111. Some men’s suit finishers become skilled enough on the job to do la dies’ apparel finishing. Markers and assemblers interested in finishing work usually are given an opportu nity to move up to this job. Fore men and managers frequently are chosen from experienced employees already in the industry. Some drycleaners/spotters establish their own drycleaning plants. through the 1970’s. Additional op portunities will develop as experi enced workers retire, die, or trans fer to other fields. Retirements and deaths alone will result in many thousands of job openings each year. The principal reasons for in creases in the demand for laundry and drycleaning services will be ris ing population and incomes. With more people who have more money to spend, demand for personal serv ices will rise. Also, as more women seek careers outside the home, working wives may have the addi tional income to afford outside serv ices. Offsetting some of the in creased demand for laundry and cleaning services resulting from ris ing population and incomes, will be the easier care of the new fabrics and finishes. Many persons who have not previously laundered at home may consider doing so. How ever, drycleaning in the home prob ably will not be practical for many years. These factors will result in in creased employment in all occupa tions in the laundry and drycleaning industry except route salesmen and spotters. The number of route sales men probably will decrease as more people take their clothes to the neighborhood plant or drive-up stores for quicker, more economical service. Employment of spotters may decline over the next decade as technological innovations in fibers and finishes make fabrics less stainable. Employment Outlook Earnings and Working Conditions Employment in this industry is expected to grow moderately Wage levels in the laundry and drycleaning industry are not high. However, workers have recently come under the protection of the Federal Minimum Wage Law. Since February 1971, no worker in this industry may be paid less than $1.60 per hour nor work more than 40 hours per week without receiving premium overtime pay, usually 1Vi times the base hourly rate. How ever, many workers receive more than this minimum. In 1970, the hourly average wage for all nonsupervisory workers in this industry was $2.16. Men usually earn more than women, primarily because they predominate in the more highly skilled occupations such as drycleaner, spotter, and washman. Modern laundry and drycleaning plants are clean and well lighted. Because of the heat, hot air, and steam of the cleaning processes, the plant may be uncomfortably hot during warm months. However, large modern laundries usually have high ceilings—often three stories high—and numerous windows that may be opened for ventilation. Many new, small drycleaning opera tions are air conditioned in the office and customer areas and air cooled in the machinery areas. In addition, new machinery operates with a minimum of noise. Sources of Additional Information The local office of the State em ployment service may have addi tional information on training and employment opportunities in this field. GOVERNMENT Government service, one of the Nation’s largest fields of employ ment, provided jobs for 12.6 million civilian workers in 1970, about 1 out of 6 persons employed in the United States. Nearly four-fifths of these workers were employed by State or local governments (county, city, town, village, or other local government division); and more than one-fifth worked for the Fed eral Government, in the continental United States. In addition, a rela tively small number of U.S. citizens worked for the Federal government overseas. Rapid growth is expected in State and local government em ployment, continuing the trend in the post-World War II period. Fed eral employment is expected to grow slowly. Large numbers of job opportunities will arise in Federal, State, and local governments from the need to replace workers who re tire, or die, or leave government service. Hundreds of thousands of individuals will be needed each year for jobs in a wide variety of occupa tions. Government employees are a sig nificant part of the nonagricultural work force in every State. Their jobs are found not only in capital cities, county seats, and metropoli tan areas, but also in small towns and villages, and even in remote and isolated places such as light house installations and forest ranger stations. schools and colleges supported by State and local governments. In ad dition to teachers, employees in this field included administrative and clerical workers, maintenance workers, librarians, dietitians, nurses, and counselors. The great majority of workers in educational services were employed in elemen tary and secondary schools. In 1970, 1.2 million government workers were engaged in national defense activities. This number in cluded civilians working in the De partment of Defense and a few other defense-related agencies such as the Atomic Energy Commission. Within this group were administra tive and clerical employees, doctors, nurses, teachers, engineers, scien tists, technicians, and craftsmen and other manual workers. Employees in this group worked in offices, re search laboratories, navy yards, ar senals, and missile launching sites, and in hospitals and schools run by the military services. Another 1.2 million government M ajor areas of government employment Employment, 1970 1 National defense & International relations Health & hospitals 2 State & local governments Federal government Postal service Highways General control fcjit 11 Natural resources | Financial administration Q Two-fifths of all government workers in 1970 were engaged in providing educational services (chart 37); the majority are in (in m illions) Education Police protection Government Activities and Occupations workers were employed in health services and hospitals. Large con centrations of employees also were found in the postal service, and highway work. Workers were em ployed also by government agencies in activities such as housing and community development, police and fire protection, social security and public welfare services, transporta tion and public utilities, conserva tion of natural resources, tax en forcement and other financial functions, as well as in general ad ministrative, judicial, and legislative activities. Most employees in the health and hospital fields, in highway work, and in police and fire protection ac tivities worked for State and local government agencies. On the other hand, jobs in national defense and in the postal service were Federal, as were over half the jobs con cerned with natural resources, such as those in the National Park and Forest Service. Although the many different gov- Comprises legislative bodies, courts, ch ief executives, & cen tral sta ff agencies of governm ents All other SOURCE: BUREAU OF THE CENSUS 839 840 ernmental activities require a diver sified work force having many dif ferent levels of education, training, and skill, the majority of govern ment employees are white-collar workers. ‘ Among the largest white-collar occupational groups are teachers, administrators, postal clerks, and office workers such as stenogra phers, typists, and clerks. Some important occupations and occupational groups among service, craft, and other manual workers are aircraft and automotive mechanics and repairmen; policemen; firemen; truckdrivers; skilled maintenance workers (for example, carpenters, painters, plumbers, and electri cians); custodial workers; and la borers. The wide variety of government functions requires employees in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK m any different occupations. B ecause of the special character of m any governm ent activities, the occupational distribution of em ploy- m ent is very different from that in private industry, as show n in the distributions o f em ploym ent in 19 7 0 w hich follow s: P ercen t o f — N on govern m en t G overn m en t e m p lo y m e n t1 e m p lo y m e n t 1 100 Total....................................................... ................. White-collar workers ...................................... ................. 66 Professional and technical..................... ................. 36 Managers, officials, and proprietors.... ................. 6 Clerical ..................................................... .................. 24 Sales ......................................................... .................. (2) Blue-collar workers ......................................... ................. 16 Craftsmen, foremen ................................ ................. 7 Operatives ................................................. .................. 5 Nonfarm laborers.................................... ................. 4 Service workers ............................................... ................. 18 Farm workers ................................................... ................. n 1Data excluded overseas Federal employment. 2Less than 0.5 percent. Note: Because of rounding, sums of individual items may not equal totals. The follow ing chapters 100 45 10 12 16 7 39 14 20 5 11 5 discuss of the A rm ed Forces. A separate opportunities for civilian employ ment in the major divisions of government and in the various branches chapter gives information on post office occupations. F E D E R A L C IV IL IA N GOVERNMENT The Federal Government, the largest employer in the United States, had about 2.7 million civil ian workers in 1970. In addition, it employed about 60,000 U.S. citi zens abroad. Federal employees are engaged in occupations representing nearly every kind of job in private employment, as well as some unique to the Federal Government such as postal clerk, border patrolman, im migration inspector, foreign service officer, and Internal Revenue agent. Practically all Federal employees work for the departments and agen cies that make up the executive branch of the government. The oth ers are employed in the legislative and judicial branches. The executive branch includes the Office of the President, the 11 departments with cabinet represen tation, and a number of independent agencies, commissions, and boards. This branch is responsible for activ ities such as administering Federal laws, handling international rela tions, conserving natural resources, treating and rehabilitating disabled veterans, delivering the mail, con ducting scientific research, main taining the flow of supplies to the Armed Forces, and administering other programs to promote the health and welfare of the people of the United States. The Department of Defense, which includes the Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, is the largest agency; it employed about 1 million civilian workers in the United States in 1970; the Post Office Department employed about 780,000. The Veterans Administra tion, the Department of Agriculture, and the Department of Health, Ed ucation, and Welfare each had more than 100,000 workers. The remain ing employees of the executive branch were distributed among more than 80 departments, agen cies, commissions, offices, and boards. There were about 30,000 employees in the legislative branch, which includes the Congress, the Government Printing Office, the General Accounting Office, and the Library of Congress. Almost 7,000 persons were employed by the judi cial branch, which includes the Su preme Court and the other U.S. courts. The Federal Government em ploys over 2 million white-collar workers, including postal workers. Entrance requirements for whitecollar jobs vary widely. Entrants into professional occupations are re quired to have highly specialized knowledge in a specified field, as evi denced by completion of a pre scribed college course of study or, in many cases, the equivalent in ex perience. Occupations typical of this group are attorney, physicist, and engineer. Entrants into administrative and managerial occupations usually are not required to have knowledge of a specialized field, but rather, they must indicate by graduation from a 4-year college or by responsible job experience that they have potential for future development. The entrant usually begins at a trainee level and learns the duties of the job after he is hired. Typical jobs in this group are budget analyst, claims examiner, purchasing officer, administrative assistant, and personnel officer. Technician, clerical, and aid-as sistant jobs have entry level posi tions that usually are filled by per sons having a high school education or the equivalent. For many of these positions, no earlier experi ence or training is required. The entry level position is usually that of trainee, where the duties of the job are learned and skill is improved. Persons having junior college or technical school training or those having specialized skills may enter these occupations at higher levels. Jobs typical of this group are engi neering technician, supply clerk, clerk-typist, and nursing assistant. Because of its wide range of re sponsibilities, the Federal Govern ment employs white-collar workers in a great many occupational fields. About 150,000 Federal workers are employed in engineering and related fields. Included in this total are about 85,000 engineers, represent ing virtually every branch and spe cialty of the profession. There are also large numbers of technician po sitions in areas such as engineering, electronics, surveying, and drafting. Almost two-thirds of all engineering positions are in the Department of Defense. Of the 115,000 workers em ployed in accounting and budgeting work, 33,000 are professional ac countants and Internal Revenue agents. Among administrative and managerial occupations in the ac counting and budgeting field are tax technician and budget administra tor. There are also large numbers of clerical positions involving special ized accounting work. Accounting workers are employed throughout the Government, particularly in the Department of Defense, the Trea sury Department, and the General Accounting Office. More than 90,000 Federal workers are employed in medical, dental, public health, and hospital work. Professional occupations in this field include medical officer, nurse, dietitian, medical technolo gist, and physical therapist. Among technician and aid jobs are medical 841 842 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK technician, medical laboratory aid, Health, Education, and Welfare. and nursing assistant. Employees in Positions in the computer field are this field work primarily in the Vet found in most Federal agencies. In the field of law are more than erans Administration; others are in the Defense Department and De 11.000 employees in professional partment of Health, Education, and positions, such as attorney, and oth ers in administrative positions such Welfare. About 40,000 workers are em as claims examiner. There are also ployed in the biological and agricul many clerical positions involving tural sciences. Large numbers of claims examining work. Workers in professional workers are engaged in the legal field are employed forestry and soil conservation work. throughout the Federal Govern Others administer farm assistance ment. In the social science field there programs. Technicians and aid-as sistant occupations include biology are professional positions for econo technician, forest and range fire mists throughout the government; control technician, soil conservation psychologists and social workers, technician, and forestry technician. primarily in the Veterans Adminis Most of these workers are employed tration, and foreign affairs and in by the Departments of Agriculture ternational relations specialists in the Department of State. Among so and Interior. In the physical sciences, the Fed cial science administrative workers eral Government employs profes are social insurance administrators sional workers such as physicians, in the Department of Health, Edu chemists, meteorologists, cartogra cation, and Welfare, and intelli phers, and geologists. Aids and gence specialists in the Department technicians in this field include of Defense. The Federal Government em physical science technician, meteor ological technician, and carto ploys approximately 60,000 persons graphic technician. Four-fifths of in investigating and inspection the 44,000 workers in the physical work. Large numbers of these sciences are employed by the De workers engage in administrative partment of Defense, National activities such as criminal investiga Aeronautics and Space Administra tion and food and customs inspec tion, the Department of Agriculture, tion. These jobs are primarily in the the Department of Health, Educa Defense, Treasury, Justice, and Ag tion, and Welfare, and the Com riculture Departments. Jobs concerned with purchasing, merce Department. Within the mathematics field are cataloging, storing, and distribution professional mathematicians and of supplies for the Federal Govern statisticians, and mathematics tech ment provide employment for about nicians and statistical clerks. There 76.000 workers. This field includes are also a number of administrative many managerial and administrative positions in the related field of com positions, such as supply manage puter programing. Mathematics ment officer, purchasing officer and workers are employed primarily by inventory management specialist, as the Defense Department, the Na well as large numbers of specialized tional Aeronautics and Space Ad clerical positions. Most of these jobs ministration, the Department of Ag are in the Department of Defense. Some 450,000 general clerical riculture, the Commerce Depart ment, and the Department of workers are employed in virtually every department and agency of the Federal Government. Included within this group are office machine operator, secretary, stenographer, clerk-typist, mail and file clerk, tele phone operator, and other related workers. In addition, there are several hundred thousand postal clerks employed by the Federal Government. Blue-collar jobs—service, craft, and manual labor—provided em ployment to over 540,000 workers in 1970. The majority of these workers were in establishments such as naval shipyards, arsenals, air bases, or army depots; or they worked on construction, harbor, flood-control, irrigation, or reclama tion projects. Approximately threefourths of these workers were employed by the Department of De fense. Others worked for the Veter ans Administration, Post Office, General Services Administration, Department of the Interior, Tennes see Valley Authority, and Depart ment of Agriculture. Within this group are a wide range of occupa tions, including many of the service, craft, and manual occupations found in industry. The largest single group of bluecollar workers consists of operators and mobile equipment mechanics. Among these jobs are forklift oper ator, chauffeur, truckdriver, and au tomobile mechanic. The next largest group of workers are general labor ers, who perform a wide variety of manual jobs. The Federal Government em ploys many workers in machinery operation and repair occupations, such as boiler and steam plant oper ator, machinist, machinery repair man, maintenance electrician, elec tronics equipment repairman, and aircraft mechanic. Skilled construction workers also are utilized widely throughout the 843 FEDERAL CIVILIAN GOVERNMENT Federal Government. Included in these fields are jobs such as carpen ter, painter, plumber, steamfitter and pipefitter, and sheetmetal worker. Other large blue-collar oc cupations include warehouseman, food service worker, and printer. Many skilled occupations may be entered through apprenticeship pro grams. To qualify, experience nor mally is not required, but a test may be given to indicate whether an ap plicant has an aptitude for the occu pation. There are also jobs as help ers for skilled workers such as car penter’s helper and machinist’s helper. (Detailed descriptions of the work duties of most white-collar, service, craft, and manual labor jobs mentioned above are provided in other sections of the Handbook.) Federal employees are stationed in all parts of the United States and its territories and in many foreign countries. Although most Govern ment departments and agencies have their headquarters offices in the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area, only 1 out of 9 (about 316,000) Federal workers were employed in that area in 1970. Cali fornia had more than 300,000 workers, and New York, Pennsylva nia, Texas, and Illinois each had more than 100,000. About 39,000 U.S. citizens were employed in for eign countries; and about 21,000 worked in U.S* territories. The Merit System Approximately 9 out of 10 jobs in the Federal Government in the United States are covered by the Civil Service Act, which the U.S. Civil Service Commission adminis ters. This act was passed by the Congress to ensure that Federal em ployees are hired on the basis of in dividual merit and fitness. It pro vides for competitive examinations and the selection of new employees from among those who make the highest scores. The Commission, through its network of 65 Civil Serv ice Commission Area Offices, is responsible for examining and rat ing applicants and supplying Fed eral departments and agencies with names of persons eligible for the jobs to be filled. Some Federal jobs are excepted from Civil Service requirements ei ther by law or by action of the Civil Service Commission. However, most of the excepted positions are under separate merit systems of other agencies such as the Foreign Service of the Department of State, the Department of Medicine and Surgery of the Veterans Adminis tration, the Federal Bureau of In vestigation, the Atomic Energy Commission, and the Tennessee Valley Authority. These agencies establish their own standards for the selection of new employees. Civil service competitive exami nations may be taken by all persons who are citizens of the United States, or who owe permanent alle giance to the United States (in the case of residents of American Samoa). To be eligible for appoint ment, an applicant must meet mini mum age, training, and experience requirements for the particular posi tion. A physical handicap will not in itself bar a person from a position if it does not interfere with his per formance of the required duties. Examinations vary according to the types of positions for which they are held. Some examinations include written tests; others do not. Written examinations test the applicant’s ability to do the job applied for or his ability to learn how to do it. In nonwritten examinations, applicants are rated on the basis of the experi ence and training described in their applications and any supporting evi dence required. Applicants are notified as to whether they have achieved eligible or ineligible ratings, and the names of eligible applicants are entered on a list in the order of their scores. When a Federal agency requests names of eligible applicants for a job vacancy, the area office sends the agency the names at the top of the appropriate list. The agency can select any one of the top three available eligibles. Names of those not selected are restored to the list for consideration for other job openings. Appointments to civil service jobs are made without regard to an applicant’s race, color, religion, na tional origin, politics, or sex. Employment Trends and Outlook Federal employment is expected to grow at a relatively slow rate dur ing the 1970’s. A number of factors will tend to limit employment in many clerical and blue-collar occupations. Among these factors are the Federal Gov ernment’s increasing use of laborsaving electronic data-processing and materials-handling equipment and the introduction of improved data-transmission and communica tions systems. The manpower requirements of the Federal Government will, in general, tend to reflect the demand for services of an increasing popula tion and the country’s domestic and international programs. These de mands are expected to be reflected in rapidly rising requirements for professional, administrative, and technical workers. Population expansion will lead to an increased employment of 844 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK <§) retire, or die. Thus, many job op portunities will occur in occupations where total employment is relatively stable, as well as in those in which it is rising. Trends in federal government employment Millions of workers^ Earnings, Advancement, and Working Conditions 1 /ANNUAL AVERAGES SOURCE: BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS workers such as social security claims examiners, accounting and budget workers, and business and industry specialists. Laws providing new or expanded services to the public should result in increased employment of food and drug inspectors, highway engineers, and education personnel. Employment in legal and kindred occupations also may increase mainly because of the existence of more laws and reg ulations to interpret, administer, and enforce; and more claims to ex amine for payment of retirement, disability, and death benefits. Federal employment gains in sci ence, engineering, and other fields will reflect the demands of vigorous national research and development efforts in a variety of programs such as urban development, military weapons, nuclear energy, medicine and health, transportation, and nat ural resource development. The em ployment of engineers and engineer ing technicians will continue to grow rapidly. Employment of scien tists, as well as that of technicians working with them, also will in crease, and the number of medical personnel employed also should continue to rise. In addition to new opportunities due to growth in employment, many thousands of job opportunities will become available because of the need to replace employees who transfer out of the Federal service, Federal civilian employees are paid under several pay systems. Pay rates of employees under the General Schedule are set by Con gress and are nationwide. These pay rates are reviewed an nually to insure that they are kept comparable with salaries in private industry. This General Schedule provides a pay scale for employees in professional, administrative, tech nical, and clerical jobs, and for em ployees such as guards and messen gers. General Schedule jobs are classified and arranged in 18 pay grades according to difficulty of the duties, and the responsibilities, knowledge, experience, or skill re- Distribution of all full-time Federal employees under the General Schedule by grade level, June 30, 1970, and salary scale, effective December 28, 1969 Employees General schedule grade Number Salaries Percent Total........................... 1,286,948 100.0 1.............................................. 2.............................................. 3......... .................................... 4.............................................. 5.............................................. 6.............................................. 7.............................................. 8............................................. 9.............................................. 10.............................................. 11.............................................. 12.............................................. 13.............................................. 14.............................................. 15.............................................. 16.............................................. 17..................................... ........ 18.............................................. 2,277 24,515 115,931 178,068 158,069 77,856 114,420 25,223 140,155 18,067 147,060 121,908 93,135 43,217 22,293 3,391 982 381 .2 1.9 9.0 13.8 12.3 6.0 8.9 2.0 10.9 1.4 11.4 9.5 7.2 3.4 1.7 .3 .1 1 Less than 0.05 percent. S o u r c e : U .S. Civil Service Commission. C) Entrance $4,125 4,621 5,212 5,853 6,548 7,294 8,098 8,956 9,881 10,869 11,905 14,192 16,760 19,643 22,885 26,547 30,714 35,505 Periodic increases Maximum $134 154 174 195 218 243 270 299 329 362 397 473 559 655 763 885 1,024 $5,358 6,007 6,778 7,608 8,510 9,481 10,528 11,647 12,842 14,127 15,478 18,449 21,449 25,538 29,752 33,627 34,810 845 FEDERAL CIVILIAN GOVERNMENT quired. The distribution of Federal white-collar employees by grades, the entrance and maximum salaries, and the amount of periodic in creases for each grade are listed in the accompanying table. Employees in all grades except GS-18 receive within-grade in creases after they have completed the required service periods, if their work is determined to be of an ac ceptable level of competence. Within-grade increases also may be given in recognition of high-quality service. High school graduates who have no related work experience usually are appointed to GS-2 positions, but some having special skills begin at grade GS-3. Graduates of 2-year junior colleges and technical schools often can begin at the GS-4 level. Most young people appointed to professional and administrative po sitions enter at grades GS-5 or GS7, depending on their academic re cord. Those who have a master’s degree or the equivalent in educa tion or experience usually enter at grade GS-7 or GS-9. In addition, the Federal Government also ap points very well-qualified, experi enced people at the GS-11 level and above. These appointments are for positions such as psychologist, stat istician, economist, writer and edi tor, budget analyst, accountant, and physicist. New appointments usually are made at the minimum rate of the salary range for the appropriate grade. However, appointments in hard-to-fill positions frequently are made at a higher rate. For example, in 1970 engineers, accountants, mathematicians, certain physical scientists, and those in a few other specialized occupations were being recruited at above minimum rates. Advancement depends upon abil ity, work performance, and gener ally, upon openings in jobs at higher grades. Craft, service, and manual workers employed by the Federal Government in the United States are paid under the Coordinated Federal Wage System. The pay rates for these workers are fixed on the basis of “prevailing” rates paid for similar work by private em ployers in the areas where they work. The accompanying tabulation of regular pay rates for selected oc cupations illustrates hourly wage rates in 1970. Employees in agencies with sepa rate merit systems are paid under acts other than those already men tioned. Many of the occupations found in the Federal Government are dis cussed in greater detail elsewhere in the Handbook, and many include data on earnings in the Federal Government. The standard workweek for Fed eral Government employees is 40 hours, and the pay schedules are based on this workweek. If an em ployee is required to work overtime, he is either paid overtime rates for the additional time worked or given compensatory time off at a later date. Most employees usually work 8 hours a day and 5 days a week, Monday through Friday, but in some cases, the nature of the work may call for a different workweek. Annual earnings for most full-time Federal workers are not affected by seasonal factors. Federal employees earn 13 days of annual (vacation) leave during each of their first 3 years of service, then 20 days each year until they have completed 15 years; after 15 years, they earn 26 days of leave each year. In addition, they earn 13 days of paid sick leave a year. Nine paid holidays are observed an nually. Employees who are mem bers of military reserve organiza tions also are granted up to 15 days of paid military leave a year for training purposes. A Federal em ployee who is laid off is entitled to unemployment compensation simi lar to that provided for employees in private industry. Other benefits available to most Federal employees include: A con tributory retirement system; op- C o o r d in a te d F e d e r a l W a g e S y s te m h o u r ly p a y r a te s , s e l e c t e d o c c u p a tio n s a n d lo c a tio n s , 1 9 7 0 L o c a tio n Labor ( h e a v y ) E le c tr ic ia n Atlanta, Ga .................................................................... . $2.67 Boston, Mass .................................................................. . 3.28 Chicago, 111 .................................................................... . 3.12 Denver, Colo .................................................................. . 3.46 Norfolk-Portsworth-Newport News-Hampton, Va.. 2.68 Houston-Galveston-Texas City, Texas ....... ............. . 3.07 Los Angeles, Calif ....................................................... . 3.46 New Orleans, La ............................................................ . 2.75 New York, N.Y.............................................................. . 3.07 Pensacola, Fla ............................................................... . 2.70 Philadelphia, Pa ............................................................ . 3.41 Seattle-Everett-Tacoma, Wash .................................. . 3.64 San Francisco, Calif ..................................................... . 3.69 St. Louis, Mo ................................................................ . 3.58 Washington, D.C............................................................ . 3.10 $4.31 4.18 4.40 4.50 3.93 4.42 4.68 3.98 4.15 4.36 4.43 4.61 4.95 4.78 4.41 T o o l, d ie a n d guage m aker $5.02 4.67 4.96 4.95 4.50 5.00 5.20 4.59 4.61 5.07 4.86 5.03 5.45 5.31 5.03 Source: Coordinated Federal Wage System; rates are for the second step of a 3-step pay range. 846 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tional participation in low-cost group life and health insurance programs supported in part by the Government; and training programs to develop maximum job profi ciency and help employees achieve their highest potential. These train ing programs may be conducted in Government facilities or in outside educational facilities at Government expense. stop information service so that all interested citizens may learn of local and nationwide employment opportunities in the Federal Gov ernment service. Information about a specific agency also may be obtained by contacting the agency directly. Sources of Additional Information POST OFFICE OCCUPATIONS Information on Federal employ ment opportunities is available from a number of sources. For college students, the college placement office is often a good source of such information. High school students in many localities may obtain informa tion from their high school guidance counselors. Additional information may be obtained from State em ployment service offices and many post offices. The Area Offices operated by the U.S. Civil Service Commission are located in population centers throughout the country. These offices announce and conduct exam inations and evaluate and refer eli gible applicants to employing agen cies for their geographic areas. They also provide a complete one- The mailman, carrying the famil iar leather pouch over his shoulder, and the clerk, standing behind the stamp window in the Post Office, are the two employees of the Fed eral Government most familiar to the general public. Although we all receive or send mail almost every day, few people realize how many workers are employed by the Post Office and exactly what they do. In early 1971, more than 730,000 postal service workers— about 19 percent of whom were women—were employed in 43,000 separate installations throughout the Nation. These workers collected and distributed over 85 billion let ters, post cards, newspapers, maga zines, parcels, and other items of mail. They also provided special mail services such as registration (giving evidence of mailing and de livery), insurance, and c.o.d. (the collection of the price of an article, and the cost of postage from a cus tomer upon delivery). Other serv ices performed by these workers included selling United States sav ings stamps and money orders. Although many postal jobs are located in small communities and in rural areas, postal employment is concentrated in large centers of population. Nearly 73,000 postal service workers, or 10 percent of all post office employees work in the metropolitan area of New York City. Other large centers of postal employment include the Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., San Francisco, Detroit, and Cleveland metropolitan areas. The Post Office Department is in the process of being converted to the U.S. Postal Service under the Postal Reorganization Act. (PL-91375) of August 12, 1970. Rates of pay, hours of work, and other con ditions of employment were subject to change at the time this statement was prepared and therefore were excluded. Those desiring timely and accurate information regarding em ployment in the U.S. Postal Service should contact their local post office. S T A T E A N D LOCAL GOVERNM ENTS State and local governments provide a very large and growing source of job opportunities in many different occupational fields. In 1970, about 9.9 million workers were employed in State and local government agencies. Almost three-fourths of these workers were with units of local governments, such as counties, municipalities, towns, and school districts, and more than one-fourth were em ployed in State government agen cies. Nearly 5.3 million employees, or over half of all State and local gov ernment workers, were employed in public schools, colleges, or other educational services in 1970. In addition to almost 3.0 million classroom and college teachers, school systems, colleges, and uni versities also employ administrative personnel, librarians, guidance counselors, nurses, dieticians, clerks, and maintenance workers. Three-fourths of employment in the field of education is in elementary and secondary schools, which are administered largely by local gov ernments. State employment in edu cation is concentrated chiefly in in stitutions of higher learning. The next two largest fields of State and local government employ ment in 1970 were in health and hospital work and highway work. The 1 million persons employed in health and hospital work include physicians, nurses, medical labora tory technicians, and hospital at tendants. More than 600,000 workers were employed in highway activities such as construction and maintenance of roads, highways, city streets, toll turnpikes, bridges, and tunnels. Among these em ployees are civil engineers, survey ors, operators of construction ma chinery and equipment, truckdrivers, concrete finishers, carpenters, and construction laborers. In 1970, more than 600,000 workers were employed in general and financial control activities— most of them at the local level. General and financial control func tions include the activities of chief executives and their staffs and legis lative bodies; the administration of justice; tax enforcement and other financial work; and general adminis trative work. These functions re quire the services of individuals such as lawyers, judges, and other court officials, city managers, prop erty assessors, budget analysts, ste nographers, and clerks. Protective services, such as those provided by police and fire depart ments, is another large field of State and local government employment. Almost 510,000 people were em ployed in police work in 1970, prin cipally by local governments. Em ployment in police work includes administrative, clerical, and cus todial personnel, as well as uni formed and plainclothes policemen. All of the 266,000 firemen, many of whom are part-time employees, are employed by local governments. Other State and local government employees are engaged in a wide variety of fields—local utilities (such as water, electricity, transpor tation, and gas supply systems); natural resources; public welfare; parks and recreation; sanitation; correction; local libraries; sewage disposal; and housing and urban re newal. These activities require workers in many different occupa tions such as economist, electrical engineer, electrician, pipefitter, clerk, forester, and busdriver. Clerical, administrative, mainte nance, and custodial workers consti tute a significant proportion of all employees in many areas of govern ment activity. Among the larger groups of workers engaged in these occupations are clerk-typists, ste nographers, secretaries, office man agers, fiscal and budget administra tors, bookkeepers, accountants, car penters, painters, plumbers, guards, and janitors. (Detailed discussions of most occupations in State and local governments are given else where in the Handbook, in the sec tions covering the individual occu pations.) Employment Trends and Outlook The long-range employment trend in State and local govern ments has been steadily upward. (See chart 39.) Much of this growth has occurred because of the need to provide services for increasing num bers of younger and older persons, and because of population move ments from rural to urban areas. City development has required more street and highway facilities; police and fire protection; and public health, sanitation, welfare, and other services. Population growth and increasing personal in come have generated demands for more and improved education, housing, and hospital and other serv ices provided by State and local governments. Much of the increase in State and local government employment in the 1958-70 period was due to in creased employment of teachers and other educational personnel. Expan sion in health and hospital services, highway programs, and protective (police and fire) services also con tributed to the increase. Rapid growth in State and local 847 848 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK (§ ) Employees Trends in state and local government employment (in m illio n s)!/ 10 ----------------------- SOURCE: BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS V ANNUAL AVERAGE government employment is ex such as engineers, scientists, social pected through the 1970’s. Employ workers, counselors, teachers, doc ment of elementary and secondary tors, and librarians. school teachers, however, is ex In addition to job opportunities pected to increase more slowly than resulting from the expected overall in the past, as the areas of rapid growth in State and local govern school enrollment growth shift to ment employment, large numbers of higher education. This shift will employees will be needed to replace create greater needs for college and workers who transfer to other fields university teachers and administra of work, retire, or die. tors. Most positions in State and local A larger State and local work governments are filled by perma force also will be needed to provide nent residents of the State or local improved public transportation sys ity. Often, however, it is necessary tems; more urban planning and re for State and local governments to newal programs; increased police recruit outside their areas if short protection; better measures to guard ages of particular skills exist in against air and water pollution; and their areas. expanded natural resource develop ment programs and hospital facili Earnings and Working Conditions ties. New or recently expanded Fed Earnings of State and local gov eral-State programs in education, ernment employees vary widely, de vocational training, medicine, and pending upon occupation and local other fields will increase greatly the ity. Salaries from State to State tend requirements of local and JState gov to reflect differences in the general ernments for professional, adminis wage level in various localities. trative, and technical personnel Clerical and blue-collar earnings in State and local governments gener ally are comparable to those of workers in similar occupations in private industry. Earnings of admin istrative and professional employees in many areas tend to be somewhat lower than those for workers in sim ilar occupations in private industry. The Handbook statements for in dividual occupations often give sal ary information for State and local government employment. Salary in formation also can be obtained from the appropriate agency in each State and locality. A majority of State and local government positions are filled through some type of formal civil service test, and personnel are hired and promoted on the basis of merit. In some areas, broad groups of em ployees, such as teachers, firemen, and policemen, have separate civil service coverage which applies only to their specific groups. Most State and local government employees are covered by retire ment systems or by the Federal So cial Security program. They usually work a 40-hour week; overtime pay or compensatory time benefits often are granted for hours of work in ex cess of the standard workweek. Sources of Additional Information People interested in working for State or local government agencies should contact the appropriate agencies in the State, county, or city. Local school boards, city clerks, school and college counse lors or placement offices, and local offices of State employment services also will have further information. ARMED When planning their careers, young men must consider their mili tary service obligation. By knowing the choices available for fulfill ment of this obligation, they can better fit their service period into their occupational plans. In many instances, the service activities provide valuable vocational training which is helpful in obtaining civilian jobs later on. The Armed Forces also offer many opportunities to qualified young men and young women for lifetime service careers in many occupations. The Armed Forces are main tained through voluntary enlistment, supplemented by a Selective Service System which drafts young men be tween I 8 V2 and 26. A young man may enlist in any one of a variety of programs involving different combi nations of active service and reserve duty; or he may wait to be drafted for a 2-year period of active duty, followed by 4 years in the reserves; or, if qualified, he may enter one of several officer training programs and discharge his obligation in a com missioned status. Additional choices for fulfilling a military obligation are available in reserve programs. One of these choices allows a young man to ful fill his military obligation by enlist ing in the reserves for 6 years, at least 4 months of which are spent in active duty training. These enlist FO RCES ment choices and the draft, how ever, are subject to change at any time by congressional action. The alternative choices described here in a general way serve only to illus trate a few possibilities. Detailed up-to-date information can be ob tained from local Armed Forces re cruiting stations or from publications available at high schools, colleges, and State employment service offices. In 1970, military personnel were distributed among the various serv ices as follows: Army, 1,231,000; Air Force, 755,000; Navy, 645,000; Marine Corps, 230,000; and Coast Guard, 38,000. A majority of all enlisted jobs in the Armed Forces require special in-service school training; on-the-job training is given for the remainder. It is possible for a young man, during his military service, to receive training in elec tronics, aircraft maintenance, metal working, or other skilled work. In addition to specific on-the-job training, the Armed Forces provide military personnel with a wide choice of voluntary off-duty aca demic and technical training pro grams. Military personnel may en roll in (1) the U.S. Armed Forces Institute (USAFI), (2) the Resi dent Center Program, (3) the Group Study Program, or (4) the Military Extension Correspondence Course Program. USAFI offers ap proximately 235 correspondence courses ranging from elementary school through the second year of college. In addition, approximately 6,000 courses are offered by col leges and universities under contract with USAFI. In the Resident Center Program, civilian institutions offer courses leading to high school diplo mas and college degrees. These courses may be taken either on the military installation or on a nearby campus. The Group Study Program is offered on military installations where local civilian classes are not available. The Military Extension Correspondence Course Program provides technical courses in mili tary specialties which are designed to advance career capabilities. The Armed Forces also offer training to many servicemen during their final 6 months of service to prepare them for job opportunities in civilian life. The Transition Pro gram provides counseling, training, education, and placement services to the combat-disabled, those hav ing no civilian work experience, and those, including many combat veter ans, who did not acquire civilian-re lated skills while in the service or had no opportunities to achieve high school graduation equivalency di plomas during their service. Each of the services publishes handbooks describing entrance re quirements, training, advancement, and other aspects of their career fields. These publications are availa ble at all recruiting stations and at most State employment service offices, high schools, colleges, and public libraries. 849 . T E C H N IC A L A P P E N D IX This appendix is designed for readers who wish to know more about proce dures followed in developing employ ment outlook than is presented in preceding reports. Employment Outlook Conclusions The employment outlook in the oc cupational reports is based on extensive economic and statistical analyses and in formation from many sources. Although sources and analyses among occupations and industries differed, the same general pattern was followed. To insure con sistency of individual occupations and industries, the economy, based on an as sumption of relatively full employment, was analyzed. Projections were made of the population, labor force, gross na tional product, average weekly hours, employment in major industries, and re lated economic measures and the individ ual reports were tied to these projections. Many studies were based heavily on an analysis of past and prospective popu lation trends, including expected changes in school and college enrollment, em ployment of women, and urban and suburban population. Population influ ences employment requirements in fields, such as teaching and health, and is of great importance in many industries—for example, residential construction, baking, telephone communication, and retail trade. Many factors besides population size and composition affect employment in business and industry. Consumer purchas ing patterns change as income levels shift and new products are developed. Technology brings changes in raw ma terials and equipment needed in produc tion and influences the size, occupation, and skill of the work force. Research and development and government poli cies, such as defense and space programs, also bring about changes in occupations. Each industry was analyzed and de mands for its products or services were projected. These projections then were translated into estimates of numbers and kinds of workers needed to produce serv ices and products. Taken into account were employment trends of total employ ment, different occupations, productivity trends, and possible further reductions in the workweek. Population and labor force trends are from the decennial Censuses of Popula tion and the monthly labor force surveys conducted by the Bureau of the Census for the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Data also were drawn from the Censuses of Manufactures and Business conducted by the Census Bureau. Information also was utilized from a variety of sources. Among the major sources were licensing agencies, labor unions, professional and trade associa tions, and special surveys. Statistics on employment in nonagricultural establishments provided monthly data on employment, hours of work, earnings, and labor turnover, based on reports for the past quarter-century or more* from a sample of industrial, com mercial, and governmental establish ments which employed approximately 31 million workers in March 1969. Also contributing to the analysis of future trends was the Bureau’s series of studies of productivity and technological development, information obtained in cooperation with the National Science Foundation about employment of sci entists and engineers in research and other activities, and the Occupational In dustry Matrix. The matrix consists of a set of tables for 116 industries, each showing a percentage distribution of employment among 160 of the most im portant occupations. The matrix was valuable in appraising the effects of changing employment levels in different industries, in specific occupations, and in each occupation. *See E m p l o y m e n t a n d E a r n in g s , U .S. Depart ment of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Conclusions based on an analysis of these various sources generally show in creased employment, but these expected gains do not indicate the number of job openings. In most occupations, more workers are needed yearly to replace those who retire, die, or leave the occu pation than are needed for growth. Con sequently, even declining occupations may offer employment opportunities to many young people. To estimate the number of possible openings in an oc cupation, the Bureau has developed ta bles, similar to the actuarial tables of life insurance companies, to assess future rates of replacement from deaths and re tirement. In occupations in which men are predominant, the rate of replacement for death and retirement is generally be tween 1.5 and 2.5 percent compared with 3.5 and 4.5 percent for women because so many women leave paid employment for marriage or family responsibilities. Information so far in this section re lates to the demand for workers. To appraise prospective employment oppor tunities in an occupation, information on the probable future supply of personnel is important. Statistics on high school and college enrollments and graduations, compiled by the U.S. Office of Educa tion, are the chief sources of information on the potential supply of personnel in the professions and other occupations re quiring extensive formal education. Data on numbers of apprentices from the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Ap prenticeship and Training provides some information on new entrants into skilled trades. Many of the sources and approaches referred to earlier have been developed in recent years. Economic forecasting is still in the developmental stage and at best is difficult and uncertain. Basic as sumptions and underlying projections (enumerated on p. 13) should be kept in mind. Within the framework of assump tions, basic employment trends can be discerned with sufficient accuracy to meet the needs of young people preparing for careers. 851 Index to Occupations and Industries Page Page Able seamen, see: Unlicensed merchant seamen 748 Accelerator operators, atomic energy............... 636 Account clerks, see: Bank clerk s..................... 807 Account executives, advertising....................... 32 Account executives, see: Securities salesmen .. 324 Accountants ...................................................... 29 See also: Insurance business..................... 813 Accounting-bookkeeping machine servicemen . 479 Accounting clerks, see: Bookkeeping workers . 285 Acidizers, petroleum and natural g a s ............. 597 Acquisition librarians........................................ 249 Actors and actresses ................................... 181 Actuaries ........................................................... 144 See also: Insurance business..................... 813 Adding machine operators............................... 293 Adding machine servicemen ........................... 479 Adjusters, claim, insurance............................. 816 Administrators, hospital.................................... 131 Adult services librarians.................................... 250 Advertising artists and layout m e n ................. 33 Advertising copywriters .................................... 32 Advertising m anagers........................................ 32 Advertising production managers ................... 32 Advertising w orkers.......................................... 32 Aeronautical engineers, see: Aerospace en gineers ........................................................... 67 Aeronautical technicians .................................. 221 Aeronomists, see: Geophysicists....................... 152 Aerospace engineers.......................................... 67 See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing ...................................... 607 Agents, see: Insurance agents and brokers................... 314 Real estate salesmen and b ro k ers........... 319 Agents, air traffic, civil aviation....................... 728 Agricultural cooperativew orkers..................... 591 Agricultural economists.................................. 589 Agricultural engineers ..................................... 68 Agricultural managementspecialists............... 590 Agriculture ......................................................... 579 Agriculture, occupations related to ............... 586 Agriculture teachers, vocational....................... 590 Agronomists ........................... 11 See also: Agriculture............................... 589 Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics . 463 See also: Electronics manufacturing............... 656 Office machine and computer manu facturing ........................................ 696 Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration technicians .................................................... 221 Air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating me chanics ........................................................... 463 Air-route traffic controllers, civil aviation . . . . 725 Air traffic controllers, civil aviation............... 725 Air transportation occupations, see: Civil aviation ........................................................ 713 Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing, occupations in .............................................. 605 Aircraft mechanics, civil aviation................... 721 See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing ...................................... 610 Airframe mechanics, civil aviation................. 722 Airline dispatchers, civil aviation................... 724 Airline traffic agents and clerks, civil aviation . 728 Airplane mechanics, aircraft m echanics........ 721 See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing ...................................... 610 Airplane pilots, civil aviation ......................... 713 Airport traffic controllers, civil aviation........ 725 Aluminum industry .......................................... 614 Ampoule examiners, drug industry................... 648 Ampoule fillers, drug industry ....................... 648 Ampoule sealers, drug industry....................... 648 Analysts, chemical, see: Aluminum industry ................................. 618 Paper and allied products....................... 703 Analysts, system s.............................................. 257 Analysts, investment, see: Insurance business . 813 Analytical chemists, see: Drug industry........ 646 Anatomists ......................................................... 163 Animal physiologists and animal husbandmen, see: Agriculture ............................................ 589 Annealers, see: Aluminum industry .................................. 616 Foundry industry.............. 661 Announcers, radio and television........ .......... 758 Anode men, aluminum industry..................... 615 Anodizers, electronics manufacturing............. 655 Anthropologists ................................................ 199 Apparel industry, occupations in t h e ............... 621 Appliance servicemen ...................................... 466 Appraisers, real e s ta te ...................................... 319 Arc cutters, see: Welders ............................... 572 Archeologists, see: Anthropologists................. 199 853 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 854 Page Architects ........................................................... Architects, landscape........................................ Archivists, see: H istorians............................... Armament assemblers, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft ...................................................... Armed Forcees................................................... Art directors, see: Commercial artists............. Artists, see: Advertising w orkers.................................. Commercial a rtis ts ........ ........................... Asbestos and insulating w orkers..................... Assemblers ......................................................... See also: Apparel industry ............................. Electronics manufacturing............... Laundry and dry cleaning plants . . . Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................ Office machine and Computer manu facturing ........................................ Assemblers, bench ............................................ Assemblers, floor .............................................. Assembly inspectors, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft ....................................................... Assistant engineers, see: Licensed merchant marine officers .............................................. Associate-directors, radio and television........ Astrogeologists .................................................. Astronomers....................................................... Astronautical engineers, see: Aerospace en gineers ........................................................... Astrophysicists, see: Astronomers ................... Atomic energy field, occupations in t h e ........... Attendants, gasoline service statio n................. Attendants, hospital ........................................ Attendants, p ark in g .......................................... Attorneys .......................................................... Audio-control technicians, radio and television Audiologists ...................................................... Automatic pin setting machine mechanics . . . Automatic transmission specialists, see: Auto mobile mechanics.......................................... Automobile air-conditioning specialists, see: Automobile mechanics ................................ Automobile body repairmen ........................... Automobile-glass mechanics, see: Automobile mechanics .................................................... Automobile manufacturing occupations, see: Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing Automobile m echanics...................................... 237 244 206 609 849 192 33 192 377 529 623 654 837 689 696 529 529 610 744 754 149 175 67 176 630 630 354 556 246 760 120 475 472 473 469 473 685 471 Page Automobile painters.......................................... Automobile parts counterm en......................... Automobile-radiator mechanics, see: Auto mobile mechanics.......................................... Automobile salesm en........................................ Automobile service advisors ........................... Automobile trimmers and installation men . . Automobile upholsterers .................................. Auxiliary equipment operators, see: Electronic computer operating personnel..................... Auxiliary equipment operators, electric power Auxiliary nursing workers, see: Hospital at tendants ......................................................... Aviation occupations, see: Civil aviation........ 530 308 473 310 312 532 532 289 733 354 713 Babysitters, see: Private household workers . . 356 Backtenders, paper and allied products........... 702 Bakers, all ro u n d ..................... 641 Baking industry ................................................ 640 Baggers, laundry and dry cleaning................... 837 Bacteriologists, see: Drug industry................... 646 Ballet dancers.................................................... 184 Bank clerks......................................................... 806 Bank managers, b ra n c h .................................... 810 Bank officers .................................................. . 810 Bank tellers ...................................................... 808 Banking occupations ........................................ 805 Bankmen, printing (graphic arts) ................. 517 Bar boys, see: Bartenders.................................. 341 B arb ers............................................................... 332 Barker operators, paper and allied products . . 701 Bartenders ......................................................... 341 See also: Restaurants ............................. 799 Bartender h elpers.............................................. 341 Beater engineers, paper and allied products . . . 701 Beauticians ......................................................... 335 Beauty operators .............................................. 335 Bell captains, hotel .......................................... 829 Bellboys, hotel .................................................. 829 Bellmen and bell captains, h o te l..................... 829 Bench assemblers.............................................. 529 Bench hands, b ak in g ........................................ 641 Bench molders, foundry industry ................... 666 Benchmen, optical mechanics ......................... 540 Bill clerks, see: C ashiers.................................. 286 Billing machine operators.................................. 292 Biochemists ....................................................... 166 See also: Chem ists............................................ 170 Drug industry.................................... 646 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES 855 Page Life scientists.................................... Biological aides, see: Food processing tech nicians ............................................................. Biological aides ................................................ Biological oceanographers, see: Life scientists............................................ Oceanographers ........................................ Biologists, see: Drug industry......................... Biomedical engineers ........................................ Biophysicists .................................................... Blacksmiths ....................................................... Blockers, printing (graphic arts) ................... Blowers, iron and s te e l.................................... Boardmen, general, see: Commercial artists . . Boatswains, see: Unlicensed merchant seamen Body repairmen, autom obile........................... Boiler operators, electric power ..................... Boilermakers .................................................... See also: Iron and steel industry..................... Railroad and shop trad e s................. Boilermaking occupations ............................... Bookbinders and related w orkers................... Bookkeepers .................................................... See also: Bank clerks ............................. Bookkeeping and accounting clerks ............... See also: Bank clerks........................................ Bookkeepers...................................... Bookkeeping machine operators, see: Bank C le rk s.............................................. Office machine operators......................... Bookkeeping machine servicemen................... Bookkeeping w orkers........................................ Bookmobile librarians ...................................... Botanists ........................................................... See also: Drug industry........................... Bowling-pin-machine mechanics ..................... Box office cashiers .......................................... Brake mechanics, see: Automobile mechanics . Brakemen, railroad............................................ Branch bank managers .................................... Bricklayers ......................................................... See also: Aluminum in d u stry ......................... Iron and steel industry..................... Brickmasons....................................................... Bridge and building workers, railroad............... Broadcast technicians, radio and television . . . Broadcasting occupations, radio and television 163 228 220 163 158 646 69 163 535 521 676 192 748 469 733 536 681 775 536 527 285 807 285 807 285 807 292 479 285 250 162 646 475 286 473 771 810 379 618 680 379 779 759 752 Page Brokers, insurance............................................ Brokers, real estate............................................ Building custodians .......................................... Building laborers .............................................. Building tra d e s................................................... Bulldozer operators, see: Operating engineers . Bundlers, ap p are l.............................................. Bus boys and girls, restaurant......................... Bus mechanics .................................................. Busdrivers, intercity.......................................... Busdrivers, local tra n sit.................................... Bushelmen, apparel .......................................... Business administration and related professions Business machine operators............................. Business machine servicemen ......................... Butlers, see: Private household w orkers........... 314 319 358 388 372 405 623 799 505 436 439 625 29 292 477 357 Cabdrivers ......................................................... Cable splicers, see: Electric power industry ........................... Telephone industry.................................... Cable-tool drillers, petroleum and natural gas . Calculating machine operators ....................... Calculating machine servicemen..................... Cameramen, printing (graphic arts), see: Lithographers ..................................... Photoengravers.......................................... Captain, see: Licensed merchant marine officers Captain, see: Pilots and copilots..................... Car parkers, parking attendants....................... Card-to-tape converter operators, see: Elec tronics computer operating personnel........... Career counselors, college................................ Career planning counselors, college................. Caretakers, see: Private household workers . . . Carmen, railroad s h o p ...................................... Carpenters ......................................................... See also: Foundries .................................. Carpet layers, see: Floor covering installers . . Cartographers, see: Geographers..................... Casework aides, see: Social service aid es........ Caseworkers, social .......................................... Cash accounting clerks, see: C ashiers............. Cash register servicemen.................................. Cashiers ............................................................. Cashiers, see: Parking attendants..................... Cashiers, restau ran t.......................................... Casting inspectors, foundry industry............... Casting operators, see: Aluminum industry . . . Catalogers, see: Librarians................................ 442 737 787 596 293 479 525 521 743 715 556 289 239 239 357 775 382 661 394 204 360 267 286 479 286 557 800 661 616 249 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 856 Page Catholic priests ................................................ Cement finishers .............................................. Cement masons ................................................ Cementers, petroleum and natural g a s ............. Central office craftsmen, telephone................. Central office equipment installers, telephone . Central office operators, telephone................. Central office repairmen, telephone................. Central office supervisors, see: Telephone op erators ........................................................... Ceramic engineers ............................................ Certified public accountants............................. Chainmen, see: Surveyors.................................. Chaplains, see: Clergymen................................ Check encoders, see: Bank c le rk s................... Check inscribers, see: Bank clerks................... Check-out clerks, see: C ashiers....................... Checkers, apparel industry............................... Checkers, see: D raftsm en.................................. Checkers, motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ......................................................... Chefs, see: Cooks and chefs ........................... Chemical analyst, see: Aluminum industry .................................. Paper and allied products......................... Chemical engineers .......................................... See also: Aluminum industry ......................... Drug industry.................................... Industrial chemical industry ........... Paper and allied products industry . . Petroleum refining........................... Chemical mixers, see: Photographic laboratory occupations .................................................. Chemical oceanographers ............................... Chemical operators, industrial chem ical........ Chemical technicians ........................................ Chem ists............................................................. See also: Aluminum industry........................... Atomic energy fie ld ......................... Drug industry.................................... Electronics manufacturing............... Industrial chemical industry............. Iron and steel industry..................... Paper and allied products............... Petroleum refining........................... Chief cooks, see: Unlicensed merchant seamen . Chief drillers, petroleum and natural gas . . . . 45 385 385 597 784 786 304 784 304 69 30 270 42 807 807 286 624 226 690 336 618 703 70 618 647 670 703 708 559 158 670 221 169 618 635 646 652 670 681 702 708 749 596 Page Chief engineers, see: Licensed merchant marine officers ........................................................... Chief engineers, radio and television............... Chief mates, see: Licensed merchant marine officers ........................................................... Chief mechanics, aircraft, missile, and space craft ............................................................... Chief stewards, see: Unlicensed merchant sea men ............................................................... Child psychologists............................................ Child welfare workers, see: Social workers . . Children’s librarians.......................................... Chippers, foundry industry................................ Chippermen, paper and allied products........... Chiropodists, see: Podiatrists............................ Chiropractors ..................................................... Choreographers, see: D an cers.......................... Christmas club bookkeepers, see: Bank clerks . Christmas club tellers, see: Bank tellers........... Cindermen, iron and s te e l................................ City managers..................................................... City planners ..................................................... Civil aviation occupations.................................. Civil engineering technicians........................... Civil engineers ................................................... See also: Iron and steel industry............... Civil service workers, Federal Government . . . Civil service workers, State and local govern ment ............................................................... Civilian government, F ed eral........................... Claim adjusters, insurance................................ Claim examiners, insurance.............................. See also: Insurance business................... Claim representatives, insurance..................... ....... Claim reviewers, insurance Claim workers, insurance ................................ Claims clerks, see: Truckingindustry................ Cleaners, see: Building custodians................... Clergymen ......................................................... Clerical and related occupations..................... Clerk-typists ....................................................... Clerks, see: Account clerks, bank clerk s..................... Accounting clerks, bookkeeping workers . Airline traffic agents and clerks, civil aviation ................................................ Bank clerks................................................. Bill clerks, cashiers.................................... Bookkeeping and accounting clerk s......... Cash accounting clerks, cashiers............. 744 755 744 610 749 262 267 249 661 701 110 Ill 184 806 809 676 277 272 713 222 71 681 841 847 847 816 819 813 819 819 819 793 358 42 283 303 807 285 728 806 286 285 286 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES 857 Page Page Check-out clerks, cashiers....................... Claim clerks, trucking industry......................... Clerk-typists .............................................. Commodity loan clerks, bank clerks . . . . Control clerks, bank c le rk s..................... Counter clerks, laundry and drycleaning . County collection clerks, bank clerks . . . . Disbursement clerks, cashiers................... Exchange clerks, see: Bank clerk s.......... Floor clerks and supervisors, h o te l.......... Interest clerks, bank c le rk s..................... Law clerks, law yers................................. Mail clerks, post office............................. Manifest clerks, trucking industry........... Mortgage clerks, bank clerks ................. Mortgage clerks, typists........................... Parts-order clerks, trucking industry . . . . Postal clerk s.............................................. Rack clerks, h o te l...................................... Railroad clerks.......................................... Rate clerks, trucking industry................... Receiving clerks, shipping and receiving clerks .................................................... Reconcilement clerks, bank clerk s.......... Recording clerks, bank c le rk s................. Reservation agents and clerks, civil avia tion ......................................................... Reservation clerks, h o te l......................... Room and desk clerks, h o te l................... Sales clerks, retail tra d e ............................. Shipping and receiving clerks................... Stock clerks .............................................. Stock clerks, motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ...................................... Traffic agents and clerks, civil aviation . . Transit clerks, bank clerks ..................... Trust investment clerks, bank clerks . . . . Waybill clerks, typists............................... Climatologists, see: Meteorologists................... Clinical laboratory w orkers............................. Clinical psychologists........................................ Clothing industry occupations, see: Apparel in dustry ............................................................. Coil winders, electronics manufacturing........ Coder operators, aluminum industry............... Collar pointers, ap p arel.................................... College and university teachers....................... College career planning and placement coun selors ............................................................. College librarians.............................................. 286 793 303 807 807 835 807 286 807 831 807 247 846 793 807 303 793 846 831 774 793 296 807 807 728 831 830 321 296 298 690 728 807 807 303 154 122 262 621 655 616 625 216 239 250 College placement officers................................ Color technicians, see: Photographic laboratory occupations .................................................. Commercial account underwriters................... Commercial a rtists............................................ Commercial photographers............................... Commercial tellers, banking............................. Commodity loan clerks, see: Bank clerks........ Companions, see: Private household workers . . Composing room occupations, printing (graphic arts) ............................................................... Composition roofers.......................................... Compositors, hand, printing (graphic arts) . . Compounders, see: Drug industry................... Compressors, see: Drug industry..................... Compressor-station engineers, petroleum and natural gas .................................................... Compressor-station operators, petroleum and natural gas .................................................... Computer geologists.......................................... Computer manufacturing.................................. Computer operators, see: Electronic computer operating personnel ...................................... Computer programers, see: Paper and allied products industry.......................................... Computers prospecting, petroleum and natural gas ................................................................. Computer salesmen, office machine and com puter manufacturing...................................... Concrete finishers ............................................ Conductors, railroad ...................................... . Conservation occupations.................................. Conservationists, range, see: Range managers . Conservationists, s o i l ........................................ Console operators, see: Electronic computer operating personnel ...................................... Construction............................... Construction electricians .................................. Construction laborers and hod carriers ......... Construction machinery operators, see: Op erating engineers............................................ Consulting engineers, see: Architects............... Continuity directors, radio and television . . . . Continuity writers, radio and television........... Control clerks, see: Bank clerk s....................... Control room operators, electric p o w e r........ Converter operators, see: Electronic computer operating personnel ...................................... Cooks/bakers, see: Unlicensed merchant seamen Cooks, see: Private household w orkers........... 239 558 822 192 255 809 807 357 517 416 517 647 647 597 597 149 694 288 703 595 696 385 770 48 52 588 289 601 390 388 504 237 754 754 807 734 289 749 356 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 858 Page Cooks and ch efs................................................ Cooks’ helpers, see: Private household workers Cooperative extension service home economists Cooperative extension service w orkers.......... Copilots, civil aviation...................................... Copying machine servicemen........................... Copywriters, advertising.................................... Core assemblers, foundry industry ................. Coremakers, foundry ........................................ Core-oven tenders, foundry industry ............. Coremakers, see: Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing .............................................. Coresetters, foundry industry........................... Corn and wheat farm ers.................................... Correspondent bank officers, banking............. Corrugator operators, paper and allied products Cosmetologists .................................................. Cotton farm ers.................................................. Counseling ......................................................... Counseling psychologists, see: Psychologists . . See also: Rehabilitation counselors........ Counselers, see: Employment counselers........................... Rehabilitation counselers......................... School counselers .................................... Counter attendants, restaurant......................... Counter clerks, laundry and drycleaning........ Counters, paper and allied products............... Country collection clerks, see: Bank clerks . . . County extension workers, agricultural........... County home economics agents....................... Court reporters ................................................ Craftsmen, foreman, and kindred workers . . . Crane operators, see: Foundry industry ...................................... Motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing .................................................... Operating engineers .................................. Trucking industry...................................... Cranemen, see: Forge shop occupations........ Credit cashiers, see: Cashiers........................... Crew chiefs, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft . . Crop specialty farm ers...................................... Crystal finishers, electronics manufacturing . . . Crystal grinders, electronics manufacturing . . . Cultural anthropologists.................................... Custodians, building ........................................ Customer service occupations, electric power . Customers’ brokers, see: Securities salesmen . . Cutters, apparel ................................................ 336 357 242 586 715 480 32 661 667 661 689 661 584 810 702 335 584 55 262 58 55 58 60 799 835 702 807 586 586 300 365 661 690 405 793 446 286 610 585 655 655 199 358 739 324 623 Page Cutters, fur, apparel.......................................... Cutters, m e a t..................................................... Cutters, motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ......................................................... Cutting room occupations, a p p are l................. 625 552 689 622 Dairy farm ers..................................................... 582 Dampproof workers, see: R o o fer..................... 417 Dancers ............................................................... 184 Dark-room technicians, see: Photographic lab oratory occupations ........................................ 558 Data-processing equipment servicemen........... 480 Data typists, see: T ypists................................... 303 See also: Electronic computer operators . 288 Deck-engine mechanics, see: Unlicensed mer chant seam en .................................................. 749 Deck officers, see: Licensed merchant marine officers .......................................... Deck utilitymen, see: Unlicensed merchant sea men ................................................................. 748 Decontamination men, atomic en erg y .............. 636 Decorators, interior designers and ................... 196 Dehydration-plant operators, petroleum and natural g a s ...................................................... 597 Deliverymen, see: R outem en........................... 434 Dental assistants................................................... 87 Dental hygienists ................................................. 85 Dental laboratory technicians.............................. 89 Dentists ................................................................ 82 Derrick operators, see: Operating engineers . . . 405 Derrickmen, petroleum and natural g a s ........... 596 Derrickmen, see: Stonemasons ......................... 421 Designers, apparel .............................................. 621 Designers, industrial............................................ 194 Designers, interior .............................................. 196 Designers, scenic, television............................... 754 See also: Interior designers and decorators 196 Designers, tool and machine, see: Mechanical technicians ..................................... Designing room occupations, apparel................ 621 Desk adjusters, claim exam iners....................... 819 Detail men, see: Pharmacists....................... .. . 107 Detailers, see: Draftsmen ................................. 226 Detectives, p o lic e ................................................ 347 Developers, see: Photographic laboratory oc cupations ........................................................ 558 Development engineers, radio and television . . 755 Developmental psychologists ............................. 262 Dictating-machine servicemen........................... 480 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES 859 Page Page Die makers, see: Aluminum industry.................................... Electronics manufacturing....................... Paper and allied products....................... Die makers, tool-and........................................ See also listing under Tool-and-die makers. Die sinkers, forge s h o p .................................... Diesel mechanics .............................................. Dietitians ........................................................... See also: Restaurant industry................... Digester operators, paper and allied products . Directors, art, see: Commercial artists............. Directors, education, radio and television . . . . Directors, program, radio and television........ Directors, public affairs, radio and television . Directory assistance operators......................... Disbursement clerks, see: C ashiers................. Disc jockeys, radio and television................... Discount bookkeepers, see: Bank clerks........... Discount tellers, banking.................................. Dispatchers, see: Civil aviation ............................................ Trucking industry...................................... Dispensing opticians and optical mechanics . . . See also: Optometrists................................ District representatives, electric pow er............. Dividermen, baking industry........................... Doctors, medical .............................................. Domestic workers, see: Private household workers ......................................................... Dough molders, b a k in g .................................... Draftsmen ......................................................... See also: Aluminum industry........................... Electronics manufacturing............... Iron and steel industry................ Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing . . . .................................. Petroleum and natural gas production and processing ........................... Petroleum refining........................... Drama teachers, see: Actors and actresses . . . Dressmakers, ap p arel........................................ Driver-salesmen, see: Baking industry ........................................ R outem en.................................................. Drivers, intercity b u ses...................................... Drivers, local transit b u ses................................ Drivers, local tru ck s.......................................... 618 655 702 456 447 483 129 800 701 192 754 754 754 304 286 758 807 809 724 793 539 104 739 640 77 356 640 226 618 653 681 687 595 709 182 625 642 434 436 439 431 Drivers, over-the-road tru c k s............................. 427 Drivers, t a x i ........................................................ 442 Driving occupations............................................ 427 Drug industry, occupations in the ................. 645 Druggists ........................................................... 107 Drycleaners, laundry and drycleaning................ 836 Drycleaning p la n ts .............................................. 835 Drycleaning routemen......................................... 434 Duplicating and copying machine servicemen . 480 Duplicating machine operators ......................... 293 Dynamic meteorologists .....................................154 Earth-boring machine operators, see: Operating engineers ........................................................ Ecologists, see: Life scientists......................... Economic geographers....................................... Economic geologists.......................................... Econom ists.......................................................... Economists, agricultural..................................... Editors, film, television....................................... Education directors, radio and television . . . . EEG technicians .............................................. EKG technicians .............................................. Electric power linem en....................................... Electric power industry, occupations in the . . . Electric sign servicemen.................................... Electrical appliance servicemen....................... Electrical assemblers, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft ........................................................ Electrical engineers .......................................... See also: Aluminum industry............................. Electronics manufacturing................ Industrial chemical industry ............ Iron and steel industry....................... Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ......................................... Paper and allied products industry . . Electrical repairmen, maintenance electricians . Electrical repairmen, see: Iron and steel industry Electrical workers, see: Shop trades, railroads . Electricians, construction.................................. Electricians, maintenance.................................. See also listing under Maintenance elec tricians. Electrocardiographic technicians ..................... Electroencephalographic technicians ............... Electronic assembly inspectors, see: Electronics manufacturing....................... 405 163 203 148 201 589 755 754 99 100 737 730 486 466 610 71 618 652 671 681 687 703 495 681 775 390 495 100 99 656 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 860 Page Office machine and computing manufac turing .................................................... Electronic computer operating personnel . . . . Electronic computer program ers..................... Electronic reader-sorter operators, see: Bank clerks ............................................................. Electronic specialists, see: Oceanographers . . . Electronics checkout men, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft .............................................. Electronics engineers, see: Electronics manufac turing ............................................................. Electronics manufacturing occupations.......... Electronics mechanics, aluminum..................... Electronics repairmen, iron and steel............... Electronics subassembly inspectors, office ma chine and computer manufacturing............. Electronics technicians...................................... See also: Electronics manufacturing............... Office machine and computer manu facturing ........................................ Electroplaters ..................................................... See also: Electronics manufacturing . . . . Electro typers and stereotypers, printing (graphic arts) ............................................................... Elementary school teachers............................. Elevator constructors........................................ Elevator mechanics .......................................... Embossing machine operators......................... Embryologists.................................................... Employment aides, see: Social service aides . . . Employment counselors.................................... Endodontic, see: D entists.................................. Engine mechanics, aircraft, missile, and space craft ............................................................... Engineer aides, petroleum and natural gas . . . Engineering ....................................................... Engineering aides, see: Electronics manufactur ing ................................................................. Engineering and science technicians............... Engineering geologists ...................................... Engineering psychologists, see: Psychologists . . Engineering technicians...................................... Engineers, see: Aeronautical engineers............................. Aerospace engineers.................................. Agricultural engineers ............................. Astronautical engineers ............................. Biomedical engineers ............................... Ceramic engineers .................................... 697 288 259 807 158 610 652 651 618 681 697 222 653 696 542 655 522 211 393 393 293 163 361 55 82 610 597 63 653 220 148 262 618 67 67 68 67 69 69 Page Chemical engineers.................................... 70 Civil engineers .......................................... 71 Electrical engineers .................................... 71 Electronics engineers ................................ 652 Industrial engineers .................................. 73 Mechanical engineers................................ 73 Metallurgical engineers.............................. 74 Mining engineers ...................................... 75 Oceanographic engineers ......................... 158 Petroleum engineers, petroleum and nat ural g a s ................................................... 595 Engineers, compressor-station, petroleum and natural gas ..................................................... 597 Engineers, development, radio and television . 755 Engineers, flight, civil av iatio n....................... 718 Engineers, insurance.......................................... 813 767 Engineers, locomotive .......... Engineers, operating, building trades ............. 405 Engineers, packaging, paper and allied products 703 Engineers, petroleum ........................................ 595 Engineers, stationary ........................................ 565 Enginemen, petroleum and natural g a s ........... 596 Entomologists.................................................... 163 See also: Agriculture.................................. 590 Envelope-machine operators, paper and allied products ......................................................... 702 Environmental sciences .................................... 147 Etchers, printing (graphic arts) ..................... 521 Etching equipment operators, electronics manu facturing ......................................................... 655 Ethnologists, see: Anthropologists................... 199 Exchange clerks, see: Bank clerk s................... 807 Exhaust operators, electronics manufacturing . 655 Experimental machinists, see: Instrument mak ers (mechanical) .......................................... 458 Experimental physicists .................................... 173 Experimental psychologists ............................. 262 Exploration geophysicists.................................. 151 Extension service w orkers............................... 586 Extras, see: Actors and actresses................... 181 Extrusion press operators, aluminum industry 617 Fabrication inspectors, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft ....................................................... 610 Family service workers,see: Social workers . . 267 Farm equipment mechanics............................. 489 Farm housekeepers, see: Private household w orkers........................................................... 356 Farm managers................................................... 590 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES 861 Page Farm service jobs ............................................ 592 Farmers, see: Agriculture ............................... 579 Fashion models.................................................. 362 FBI Special Agents .......................................... 345 Federal civilian government............................. 841 Federal Government occupations..................... 841 Field technicians, radio and television............. 760 File clerks........................................................... 291 Film editors, television .................................... 755 Film librarians, television ............................... 755 Film numberers, see: Photographic laboratory technicians .................................................... 558 Film strippers, see: Photographic laboratory technicians .................................................... 559 Finance, insurance, and real e sta te ................. 803 Finishers, flatwork, laundry anddrycleaning . 835 Finishers, men’s suit, laundry anddrycleaning . 836 Finishers, shirt, laundry and drycleaning . . . . 835 Finishers, fur, ap p arel...................................... 625 Finishers, optical mechanics............................. 540 Finishers, printing (graphic a r t s ) ..................... 521 Firefighters ........................................................ 352 Firemen, see: Firefighters.................................. 352 Firemen (helpers), railroad............................. 768 Firemen, stationary (boiler) ........................... 567 Firemen/watertenders, see: Unlicensed mer chant seamen ................................................ 748 Firers, hydrogen furnace, electronics manufac turing ............................................................. 655 Fitters, apparel ................................................ 623 Fitup men, boilermaking occupations ........... 537 Flagmen, railroad ............................................ 771 Flame cutters, see: W elders............................. 572 Flatwork finishers, laundry and drycleaning . . 835 Flight attendants, civil aviation....................... 720 Flight engineers, civil aviation ....................... 718 Flight service station specialists, civil aviation . 727 Flight superintendents, see: Airline dispatchers, civil aviation ................................................ 724 Floor assemblers................................................ 529 Floor clerks and supervisors, h o te l................. 831 Floor coremakers, foundry............................... 667 Floor covering installers.................................... 394 Floor covering mechanics.................................. 394 Floor layers, see: Floor covering installers . .. 394 Floor managers, radio and television............... 754 Floor molders, foundry industry..................... 666 Floormen, television.......................................... 754 Food checkers, restaurant.................................. 800 Food processing technicians ........................... 228 Page Food scientists .................................................. Foreign exchange tellers, banking................... F o rem en ............................................................. Foresters ........................................................... See also: A griculture........................................ Paper and allied products................. Forestry aids .................................................... Forestry technicians, see: Forestry a id s ........... Forge shop occupations.................................... Forklift truck operators, see: Electronics manufacturing....................... Office machine and computer manufactur ing ........................................................... Power truck operators............................. Foundry industry .............................................. Framemen, telephone central office craftsmen . Free-lance artists, see: Commercial artists . . . . Free-lance photographers, see: Models ........................................... Photographers .......................................... Front-end mechanics, see: Automobile mechan ics ................................................................... Front office clerks, h o te l.................................... Fur cutters, ap p are l.......................................... Fur finishers, ap p arel........................................ Fur machine operators, app arel................ Fur nailers, ap p arel.......................................... Fur shop occupations, apparel......................... Furnace installers (heating mechanics) ........ Furnace operators, foundry............................. Furniture upholsterers ...................................... Gagers, petroleum and natural g a s ................. Garage mechanics, see: Automobile mechanics Gas appliance servicemen................................ See also: Air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics ....................... Gas burner m echanics...................................... Gas fitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters . . . . Gas welders ....................................................... Gas-compressor operators, petroleum and nat ural g a s ........................................................... Gasoline-plant engineers, petroleum and nat ural g a s ........................................................... Gasoline-plant operators, petroleum and natural gas ................................................................. Gasoline service station attendants................. Gasoline station salesmen.................................. Gasoline station servicemen ............................ 178 809 370 48 580 703 50 50 445 656 697 560 660 784 192 362 255 473 830 625 625 625 625 625 464 661 544 597 471 464 464 464 413 572 597 597 597 546 546 546 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 862 General boardmen, see: Commercial artists . . General bookkeepers ........................................ General maids, see: Private household workers General practitioners, see: Physicians............... Geneticists ......................................................... See also: A griculture................................ Geochemists, see: Geologists........................... Geochronologists, see: Geologists ................... Geodesists, see: Geophysicists......................... Geodetic surveyors .......................................... Geographers ....................................................... Geological oceanographers................................ See also: Oceanographers......................... Geologists........................................................... See also: Petroleum and natural gas pro duction and processing......................... Geomagneticians, see: Geophysicists............... Geomorphologists, see: Geologists................... Geophysicists .................................................... See also: Petroleum and natural gas pro duction and processing......................... Glass blowers, electronics manufacturing . . . . Glass lathe operators, electronics manufacturing Glaziers ............................................................. Governesses, see: Private household workers . Government occupations, F ed eral................... See also: Post office ................................ Government occupations, State and local . . . . Government, occupations in ........................... Grain farmers, see: Corn and wheat farmers . . Granulator-machine operators, see: Drug in dustry ................. . ........................................ Grid lathe operators, electronics manufacturing Grinders, forge s h o p ............................. Grocery checkers, see: Cashiers....................... Ground radio operators and teletypists, civil aviation........................................................... Ground water geologists.................................... Groundmen, electric pow er............................... Guards and watchm en...................................... Guidance counselors.......................................... Hairdressers ....................................................... Hairstylists, see: B arbers........ ........................... Hammermen, see: Forge s h o p ................................................ Motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing ......................................................... Hammersmiths, forge s h o p ................ Hand compositors, printing (graphic arts) . . . Page Page 192 285 356 78 163 589 148 149 151 270 203 149 158 147 Hand icers, b ak in g ....................................... 642 Hand molders, foundry industry................... 661 Hand sewers, apparel................................... 624 Hand spreaders, apparel............................... 623 Handymen, see: Private household workers . . . 357 Health insurance ag en ts........ ........................... 314 Health physicists, atomic energy.................. 635 Health physics technicians, atomic energy . . . 635 Health service occupations........................... 77 Heat treaters, see: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufac turing ..................................................... 609 Forge s h o p ............................................ 447 Foundry in d u stry................................. 661 Heaters, see: Forge s h o p ............................................ 446 Iron and steel industry......................... 668 Heating mechanics....................................... 464 Heavy equipment mechanics, see: Operating en gineers ........................................................... 405 Helpers, baking ........................................ ] . . . 641 Helpers, iron and steel .................................... 674 High school teachers ........................................ 214 High speed printer operators, see: Electronic computer operating personnel.................. 289 Highway patrolmen, see: State police officers . 349 Highway surveyors....................................... 270 Historians ........................................................... 206 Hod carriers.................................................. 388 See also: Bricklayers ........................................ 380 Plasterers .......................................... 411 Home economists.......................................... 241 Home housekeepers, see: Private household w orkers...................................................... 356 Horticulturists ................................................... 163 Hospital administrators .................................... 131 Hospital attendants .......................................... 354 Hospital nurses ................................................ 92 Hospital recreation w orkers......................... 264 Hot-cell technicians, atomic energy............ 636 Hot metal cranemen, see: Aluminum industry . 615 Hotel managers ................................................ 833 Hotel occupations.......................................... 827 Household workers, see: Private household workers ......................................................... 356 Housekeepers, see: Private household workers . 356 Housekeepers and assistants, h o te l............ 832 Housemen, see: Private household workers . . . 357 Human nutritionists, see: Agriculture........ 590 594 152 149 151 595 655 655 397 357 841 846 847 839 584 647 655 447 286 727 149 737 343 60 335 333 446 689 446 517 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES 863 Page Husbandry specialists (animal) ....................... 163 Hydrogen furnace firers, electronics manufac turing ............................................................. 655 Hydrologists, see: Geophysicists....................... 152 Hygienists, d e n ta l.............................................. 85 Icing mixers, baking.......................................... 642 Illustrators, see: Commercial artists................. 192 Independent adjusters........................................ 817 Industrial chemical industry, occupations in the 669 Industrial designers ............................................. 194 See also: Electronics manufacturing . . . . 652 Industrial engineers ............ 73 See also: Aluminum industry ......................... 618 Apparel industry ............................. 625 Drug industry.................................... 647 Electronics manufacturing............... 652 Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................ 687 Industrial machinery repairmen ..................... 491 Industrial meteorologists ................................. 154 Industrial n urses................................................ 92 Industrial photographers ................................. 255 Industrial psychologists...................................... 262 Industrial recreation w orkers................ 264 Industrial salesmen............................................ 317 Industrial technicians........................................ 222 Industrial traffic m anagers............................... 279 Infants’ nurses, see: Private household workers 356 Informal models .............................................. 362 Infrared oven operators, electronics manufac turing ............................................................. 655 Ingot strippers, iron and s te e l......................... 677 Inhalation therapists.......................................... 102 Inside adjusters, claim exam iners................... 819 Inspectors, laundry and drycleaning................. 836 Inspectors (manufacturing) ............................. 548 See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing............................... 610 Apparel industry............................... 624 Electronics manufacturing............... 655 Forge s h o p ........................................ 446 Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................ 689 Paper and allied products industry . . 703 Installation men, see: Automobile trimmers (automobile upholsterers) ........................... 533 Page Installers and repairmen, telephone and PBX . Installers, floor covering .................................. Installers, telephone central office equipment . . Instrument makers (m echanical)..................... Instrument men, see: Instrument repairmen . . Instrument repairm en........................................ See also: Drug industry.................................... Industrial chemical industry............. Paper and allied products industry . . Petroleum and natural gas production and processing............................. Instrument technicians, see: Mechanical tech nicians ............................................................ Instrumentmen, see: Surveyors......................... Insulating workers ............................................ Insurance agents and brokers........................... Insurance business, occupations in t h e ........... Insurance salesmen, underwriters..................... Intercity busdrivers............................................ Intercity truckdrivers ........................................ Interest-accrual bookkeepers, see: Bank clerks Interest clerks, see: Bank clerks................ Interior designers and decorators..................... International officers, banking .......................... Intertype machine operators, printing (graphic arts) ............................................................... Interviewers, marketing research..................... Investigators, F B I .............................................. Investment analysts, see: Insurance business . Iron and steel industry, occupations in the . . . . Iron workers, building trad e s........................... 790 394 786 458 492 492 648 670 702 597 223 270 377 314 812 821 436 427 807 807 196 810 518 35 345 813 674 423 Janitors, see: Building custodians .................................. Restaurant industry .................................. Jewelers and jewelry repairm en....................... Jig and fixture builders, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft ...................................................... 608 Keepers, iron and ste e l...................................... Keypunch operators.......................................... Kindergarten teachers ...................... Kitchen workers, restaurant............................. 676 288 211 799 358 799 549 Laboratory assurance technicians, see: Food processing technicians.................................... 228 Laboratory analysts, see: Food processing tech nicians ............................................................. 228 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 864 Page Laboratory technicians...................................... See also: Aluminum industry........................... Drug industry.................................... Electronics manufacturing............... Industrial chemical industry............. Iron and steel industry..................... Petroleum refining ........................... Paper and allied products industry . . Laboratory technicians, d en tal......................... Laboratory technicians, o p tic a l....................... Laborers and hod carriers, building trades . . . Ladle cranemen, iron and steel......................... Land surveyors.................................................. Landmen, petroleum and natural g a s ............... Landscape architects ........................................ Larrymen, iron and steel.................................... Lathers ............................................................... Laundresses, see: Private household workers . . Law clerks, see: Law yers.................................. Laundry and drycleaning p la n ts....................... Lawyers ............................................................. See also: Insurance.................................... Layout artists, see: Commercial artists.......... Layout men, advertising.................................... See also: Commercial a rtists................... Layout men, Boilermaking occupations........... Leasemen, petroleum and natural g a s ............. Lens grinders, see: Optical mechanics............... Letterers, see: Commercial a rtists................... Librarians........................................................... Librarians, medical re c o rd ............................... Librarians, tape, see: Electronic computer op erating personnel .......................................... Librarians, television film ............................... Library technicians .......................................... Licensed merchant marine officers................... Licensed practical n u rses.................................. Licensed vocational nurses................................ Life insurance agen ts........................................ Life sciences...................................................... Life scientists.................................................... Lighting technicians, television....................... Line-haul truckdrivers ...................................... Line maintenance mechanics, civil aviation . . Linemen, see: Electric power industry............................. Telephone industry.................................... Linemen and cable splicers, telephone............. Linotype operators, printing (graphic arts) .. 220 618 647 653 671 681 708 703 89 539 388 677 270 595 244 676 399 356 247 835 246 813 192 33 192 537 595 540 192 248 127 289 755 253 743 94 94 314 161 161 760 427 722 737 787 787 518 Page Lithographic artists, printing (graphic arts) .. Lithographic occupations, printing (graphic arts) ............................................................... Livestock farm ers.............................................. Load dispatchers, electric p o w e r..................... Loan officers, banking...................................... Local government occupations......................... Local transit busdrivers.................................... Local truckdrivers, see: Driving occupations.................................. Trucking industry...................................... Locomotive engineers, railro ad ....................... See also: Iron and steel industry............. Locomotive firemen (helpers), railroad........... Long distance operators, telephone................... Long-haul truckdrivers...................................... Lubrication men, see: Trucking industry . . . . 525 Machine coremakers, foundry......................... Machine designers, see: Mechanical technicians Machine icers, baking ...................................... Machine molders, see: Foundry in d u stry ...................................... Motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing ........................................................... Machine movers, see: Riggers and movers . .. Machine spreaders, ap p are l............................. Machine tool operators...................................... See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing .............................. Electronics manufacturing............... Foundry industry.............................. Iron and steel industry..................... Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................ Office machine and computer manu facturing ........................................ Machined parts inspectors, see: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft............... Office machine and computer manufactur ing ......................................................... Machinery repairmen, industrial..................... Machining occupations...................................... See also: Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ...................................... Machinists, all-round........................................ See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing .............................. 667 222 642 525 583 736 810 847 439 431 793 767 681 768 304 427 793 665 689 424 623 454 608 655 661 680 688 696 610 696 491 449 688 452 608 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Baking industry ............................... Drug industry.................................... Electronics manufacturing............... Foundry industry............................. Instrument makers (mechanical) . . . Iron and steel industry..................... Office machine and computer manu facturing ........................................ Railroad shop tra d e s....................... Maids, see: Private household w orkers........... Mail clerks, post office...................................... Mail preparing and mail handling machine op erators, office machine operators ............... Mailing equipment servicemen......................... Mailmen, post office.......................................... Maintenance electricians .................................. See also: Aluminum industry........................... Baking industry ................................ Drug industry.................................... Electronics manufacturing............... Industrial chemicals industry........... Iron and steel industry..................... Paper and allied products industry . . Petroleum and natural gas production and processing............................. Railroad shop tra d e s ....................... Maintenance machinists, see: Aluminum industry .................................. Electronics manufacturing....................... Industrial chemicals industry................... Office machine and computer manufactur ing ........................................................... Paper and allied products industry.......... Maintenance mechanics, see: Industrial ma chinery repairmen ........................................ Maintenance technicians, radio and television . Maintenance welders, see: Electronics manufac turing ............................................................. Makeup artists, television ............................... Makeup men, printing (graphic arts) ........... Managerial occupations.................................... Managers, branch b a n k .................................... Managers, city .................................................. Managers, industrial traffic............................... Managers, ra n g e ................................................ Managers, restaurant ........................................ Managers, sales, see: Radio and television broadcasting .................................................. Managers and assistants, hotel ....................... 865 Page Page 643 648 655 661 458 680 Manifest clerks, see: Trucking industry........... 793 Manipulator operators, iron and steel............... 679 Manufacturers’ salesmen .................................. 317 Manufacturing .................................................. 603 Marble setters, tile setters, and terrazzo workers 401 Marine biologists, see: Oceanographers........... 158 Marine geologists, see: Oceanographers........... 158 Marine meteorologists, see: Oceanographers . 158 Markers, apparel .............................................. 623 Markers, laundry and drycleaning................... 835 Marketing research w orkers............................. 34 Masons, b ric k .................................................... 379 Masons, cement andconcrete............................. 385 Masons, stone ............................................... 421 Master, see: Licensed merchant marine officers 743 Material handlers,ap p arel................................. 624 Materials handlers, see: Motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing ......................................................... 690 Trucking industry...................................... 793 Mates, see: Licensed merchant marine officers . 743 Mathematical assistants, electronics manufactur ing ................................................................. 653 Mathematical statisticians.................................. 139 See also: Statisticians ............................. 142 Mathematicians ................................................ 139 See also: Electronics manufacturing............... 652 Office machine and computer manu facturing ........................................ 695 Statisticians........................................ 142 Mathematics and related fields ....................... 139 Meat cu tters....................................................... 552 Mechanical engineers ........................................ 73 See also: Aluminum industry ......................... 618 Electronics manufacturing............... 652 Industrial chemical industry............. 671 Iron and steel industry..................... 681 Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................ 687 Office machine and computer manu facturing ........................................ 695 Paper and allied products industry . . 703 Mechanical technicians...................................... 222 Mechanic-attendants, see: Gasoline service sta tion attendants.............................................. 546 Mechanics, see: Air-conditioning mechanics ..................... 463 696 775 356 846 293 481 846 495 618 643 648 656 670 681 702 597 775 618 656 670 697 702 491 760 656 754 517 275 810 277 279 52 799 756 823 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 866 Page Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufac turing .................................................... 610 Aircraft mechanics.................................... 721 Automobile mechanics .............................. 471 Bowling-pin-machine mechanics............... 475 Bus mechanics .......................................... 505 Diesel mechanics ...................................... 483 Dispensing opticians and optical mechanics 539 Farm equipment mechanics..................... 489 Gas burner m echanics............................. 464 Heating m echanics.................................... 464 Motorcycle mechanics ............................. 499 Oil burner mechanics............................... 464 Refrigeration mechanics........................... 463 Truck mechanics ...................................... 505 Vending machine mechanics..................... 507 See also listing under Servicemen and Repairmen. Mechanics and repairmen................................. 462 Media directors, advertising ........................... 32 Medical assistants ............................................ 95 Medical laboratory assistants........................... 122 Medical laboratory technicians ....................... 122 Medical laboratory w orkers............................. 122 Medical record librarians ............................... 127 Medical sales representatives,see: Pharmacists 107 Medical social workers ......................................267 Medical technologists........................................ 122 Medical X-ray technicians............................... 126 Melters, see: Foundry industry...................................... 661 Iron and steel industry ........................... 677 Motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing .................................................... 689 Men’s suit finishers, laundry and drycleaning . . 836 Mental health occupations, see: Nurses ...................................................... 94 Physicians (psychiatrists).......... .............. 77 Psychiatric aides (hospital attendants) . .. 354 Psychologists ............................................ 261 Social workers .......................................... 266 Merchant marine occupations ......................... 741 Merchant marine officers, licensed................. 743 Messmen, see: Unlicensed merchant seamen . 749 Metal finishers, motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing .............................................. 689 Metal patternmakers, foundry industry........... 663 Metal roofers .................................................... 416 Page Metallurgical engineers...................................... See also: Drug industry.................................... Iron and steel industry..................... Metallurgists, see: Aluminum industry .................................. Electronics manufacturing....................... Iron and steel in d u stry ........................... Motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing ......................................................... Meteorological instrumentation specialists . . . . Meteorologists .................................................. Meter installers, electric p o w e r....................... Meter readers, electric p o w e r......................... Meter repairmen, electric p o w e r..................... Meter testers, electric pow er............................. Metermen, electric p o w er.................................. Microbiologists, See: A griculture................................................ Drug industry............................................ Life sciences.............................................. Millwrights ......................................................... See also: Aluminum industry........................... Foundry industry............................. Iron and steel industry..................... Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................ Paper and allied products industry . . Mineralogists, see: Geologists.................................................. Petroleum and natural g a s ....................... Mining ............................................................... Mining engineers .............................................. Ministers, Protestant.......................................... Missile assembly mechanics, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft................................................ Missile manufacturing occupations ................. Missionaries, see: Clergymen........................... Mixers, b ak in g .................................................. Models ............................................................... Modelmakers, see: Instrument makers (mechanical) ........... Motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing ......................................................... Molders’ helpers, foundry industry................... Molders, see: Foundry industry....................... Molding machine operators, baking industry . . 74 647 681 618 653 681 687 154 154 739 739 739 739 739 590 646 162 498 618 661 681 690 702 148 595 593 75 42 609 605 42 640 362 458 686 661 665 640 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES 867 Page Page Monitors, radiation, atomic energy................. Monotype caster operators, printing (graphic arts) ............................................................... Monotype keyboard operators, printing (graphic arts) ..................................... Mortgage clerks, see: Bank clerks................................................ Typists ...................................................... Mothers’ helpers, see: Private household work ers ................................................................... Motion picture projectionists........................... Motorcycle mechanics ...................................... Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing occupations .................................................. Motor vehicle body repairm en......................... Music directors, radio and television............... Music librarians, radio and television............. Musicians and music teachers........................... 685 469 754 754 186 Nailers, fur, apparel.......................................... Natural gas production and processing.......... Natural sciences................................................ Neighborhood workers, see: Social service aides Neon sign servicemen ...................................... News directors, radio and television............... Newscasters, radio and television................... Newspaper reporters.......................................... News writers, radio and television................... Note tellers, banking......................... Nuclear reactor operators, atomic energy . . . . Nurse aides, see: Hospital attendants............... Nurse educators, see: Registered nurses.......... Nurse maids, see: Private household workers . Nurses, industrial.............................................. Nurses, licensed practical.................................. Nurses, licensed vocational............................... Nurses, registered ............................................... Nursing assistants, see: Hospital attendants . .. Nutritionists ...................................................... See also: Dietitians .................................. 625 593 147 361 486 754 754 231 754 809 636 354 92 356 92 94 94 91 354 163 129 Observers, petroleum and natural g a s ............. Occupational health nurses............................... Occupational therapists .................................... Occupational therapists assistants................... Oceanographers ................................................ Oceanographic engineers, see: Oceanographers Odd-job men, see: Private household workers . Office machine and computer manufacturing . Office machine operators.................................. 595 92 113 115 157 158 357 694 292 635 518 518 807 303 356 554 499 Office machine servicemen................................ Office nurses....................... Oil burner mechanics........................................ Oilers, see: Unlicensed merchant seamen . . . . Operating engineers, construction machinery . Operating room technicians............................. Operations agents, civil aviation..................... Operations officers, banking............................. Operatives, see: Semiskilled workers, industrial Operators, resistance welding ......................... Operators, telephone . . .................................. Ophtholmologists, see: Optometrists,............... Optical laboratory technicians ....................... Optical mechanics ............................................ Opticians, dispensing........................................ Optometric assistants........................................ Optometrists...................................................... Oral pathology, see: D entists........................... Oral surgeons, see: D entists............................. Orderlies, see: Hospital attendants................. Ordinary seamen, see: Unlicensed merchant seamen ........................................................... Organic chemists, see: Drug industry............... Ornamental-iron workers, building trades . . . . Orthodonists, see: D entists................................ Osteopathic physicians...................................... Outreach workers, see: Social service aides . . . Outside production inspectors, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft .............................................. Ovenmen, b ak in g .............................................. Over-the-road truckdrivers, see: Driving occupations.................................. Trucking occupations................................ Oxygen cu tte rs.................................................. Packaging engineers, paper and allied products Painters, automobile ........................................ Painters, production.......................................... See also listing under Production painters. Painters and paperhangers................................ Paleonclimatologists, see: Meteorologists . . . . Paleomagneticians, see: Geophysicists............. Paleontologists, see: Geologists.................................................. Petroleum and natural g a s ....................... Pantrymen and pantry women, restaurants . . . . Paper and allied products industries................. Paper inspectors, paper and allied products . . Paper machine operators, paper and allied prod ucts .................. 477 92 464 748 405 97 728 810 367 572 303 104 539 539 539 106 104 82 82 354 748 646 424 82 80 361 610 641 427 792 572 703 530 562 407 154 152 149 595 799 700 703 701 868 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page Page Paper sorters and counters, paper and allied products ........................................................ Paper testers, paper and allied products . . . . Paperhangers .................................................... Parking attendants ............................................ Parole officers, see: Social w orkers................... Parts changers, electronics manufacturing . . . Parts countermen, automobile......................... Parts-order clerks, see: Trucking industry . . . . Paste-up men, see: Commercial a rtis ts .................................... Printing (graphic arts) occupations........ Pastors, see: Clergymen.................................... Pathologists ....................................................... See also: Drug industry.................................... Medical laboratory w orkers............. Pathologists, sp eech .......................................... Patrolmen, see: Police officers............................................ State police officers.................................... Pattern graders, apparel.................................... Patternmakers, apparel .................................... Patternmakers, see: Foundry industry ...................................... Motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing ......................................................... Paying and receiving tellers, banking............... Payroll tellers, banking .................................... PBX installers and repairmen, telephone . . . . PBX operators, see: Telephone operators . . . . Peanut farm ers.................................................. Pedodontics, see: D entists............................... Perforator operators, petroleum and natural gas Performing artists and other related occupations Periodontology, see: D entists........................... Personal maids, see: Private household workers Personnel workers ............................................ Petroleum and natural gas production and processing....................................................... Petroleum engineers, see: Petroleum and natural gas production and processing..................... Petroleum geologists ........................................ See also: Petroleum and natural gas pro duction and processing ....................... Petroleum refining............................................ Petrologists, geologists ...................................... See also: Petroleum and natural gas pro duction and processing......................... 702 703 407 556 268 656 308 793 192 519 42 163 646 122 120 347 349 622 622 663 689 809 809 790 304 584 82 597 181 82 356 37 593 595 148 594 707 148 595 Pharmacists ....................................................... See also: Drug industry............................. Pharmacist mates, see: Licensed merchant ma rine officers .................................................. Pharmaceutical chemists, see: Drug industry . Pharmaceutical operators, see: Drug industry . Pharmacologists, see: Drug industry............................................ Life scientists............................................ Photocheckers and assemblers, see: Photo graphic laboratory occupations ................... Photo-journalists, see: Photographers ............. Photoengravers, printing (graphic a r t s ) ........... Photogeologists, see: Petroleum and natural gas production and processing........................... Photogrammetric surveyors ............................. Photograph retouchers, see: Photographic lab oratory occupations ...................................... Photographers ................................................... Photographic laboratory occupations............... Photographic models, see: M odels................... Phototypesetting machine operators, printing (graphic a r t s ) ................................................ Physical anthropologists.................................... Physical chem ists.............................................. Physical geographers ........................................ Physical metallurgists, see: Aluminum industry Physical meteorologists...................................... Physical oceanographers .................................. Physical scientists.............................................. Physical-science aides, see: Food processing technicians ..................................................... Physical therapists ............................................ Physical therapy assistants................................ Physicians ......................................................... Physicists ........................................................... See also: Atomic energy fie ld ......................... Electronics manufacturing............... Office machine and computer manu facturing ........................................ Physicists, health, atomic energy ................... Physicists, radiological, atomic energy ........... Physiologists, see: Drug industry .......................................... Life scientists............................................ Picklers, forge s h o p .......................................... Piercer machine operators, iron and steel . . . . Pill and tablet coaters, drug industry............... Pilots and copilots, civil aviation..................... 107 646 745 646 647 646 164 559 255 521 595 270 558 254 558 362 519 200 646 204 618 154 158 169 228 116 118 77 173 634 652 695 635 635 646 164 447 680 648 715 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES 869 Page Pinsetting machine mechanics, see: Bowlingpin-machine mechanics ............................... Pipefitters ........................................................... See also: Drug industry.................................... Industrial chemical industry............. Iron and steel industry..................... Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................ Paper and allied products industry . . Placement counselers, see: College placement officers ........................................................... Plainclothesmen, see: Police officers............... Planetologists, see: Geophysicists ................... Planning counselors, college ........................... Planners, urban ................................................ Plant facilities technicians, see: Food processing technicians .................................................... Plant quarantine and plant pest control inspec tors, see: Agriculture...................................... Plant scientists, see: Agriculture....................... Plasterers ........................................................... Platemakers, printing (graphic arts) ............. Platers, electroplaters........................................ See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing ............................. Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................ Plumbers and pipefitters ................................. See also: Aluminum industry ......................... Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................ Podiatrists ......................................................... Police officers.................................................... Policemen, see: Police officers .......................................... State police officers.................................... Policewomen .................................................... Policy writers, see: Typists ............................. Polishers, motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................................ Political geographers ........................................ Political scientists.............................................. Portable equipment operators, see: Track work ers, railroad .................................................. Porters, restaurant ............................................ Portrait photographers...................................... Post office occupations...................................... 475 413 648 670 681 690 702 239 347 152 239 272 228 590 590 410 526 542 609 689 413 618 690 110 346 347 349 347 303 689 203 207 778 799 255 846 Page Postage and mailing equipment servicemen . . . Postal clerk s......................... Posting machine operators, see: Bank clerks . Pot liners, see: Aluminum industry................. Potmen, see: Aluminum industry..................... Poultry farmers ................................................ Pourers, see: Foundry industry...................................... Iron and steel industry ........................... Power brake operators, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft ...................................................... Power dispatchers, electric p o w e r................... Power hammer operators, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft ...................................................... Power linemen, electric p o w er......................... Powerplant installers, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft ...................................................... Powerplant operators, see: Drug industry . . . . Power truck operators...................................... See also: Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................ Trucking industry............................. Powerplant mechanics, civil aviation............... Powerplant occupations, electric p o w e r........ Power shear operators, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft ...................................................... Practical nurses ................................................ Press feeders, printing (graphic arts) .......... Press operators, forge sh o p ............................... Press photographers.......................................... Pressers, apparel................................................ Pressing occupations, apparel........................... Pressmen, printing (graphic arts) ................... Priests, Roman Catholic .................................. Print developers, machine, see: Photographic laboratory occupations.................................. Printer operators, see: Photographic laboratory occupations..................................................... Printer-slotter operators, paper and allied prod ucts ................................................................. Printers, see: Photographic laboratory occupa tions ............................................................... Printers, printing (graphic arts) ..................... Printing (graphic arts) occupations................... Printing pressmen and assistants, printing (graphic arts) .............................................. Private duty nurses .......................................... Private household workers ............................. Private outdoor recreation farm ers................... 481 846 807 615 615 583 661 677 608 736 608 737 610 648 560 690 793 722 733 608 94 524 446 255 625 625 523 45 559 559 702 558 521 513 523 92 356 585 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 870 Page Probation and parole officers, see: Social work ers ................................................................. 268 Process metallurgists, see: Aluminum industry . 618 Producers, program radio and television . . . . 754 Producer-directors, program, radio and tele vision ............................................................. 754 Production managers, advertising ................... 32 Production painters .......................................... 562 See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing.......................... 609 Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................ 689 Production planners, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft ...................................................... 607 Production technicians, see: Industrial engineer ing technicians .............................................. 222 Professional and related occupations.......... 25 Profile cutting machine operators, aircraft, mis sile, and spacecraft................................... 608 Program assistants, radio and television... 754 Program directors, radio and television...... 754 Program, producer-directors, radio and tele vision ............................................................. 754 Programers, electronic computer ................... 259 See also: Insurance .......................................... 813 Office machine and computer manu facturing ........................................ 695 Paper and allied products............ 703 Projectionists, see: Motion pictures............ 554 Proof machine operators, see: Bank clerks . . . 806 Proofers, printing (graphic arts) ................... 521 Proofreaders, printing (graphic arts) ............. 517 Property and liability insurance agents and brokers ........................................................... 314 Prosthodontics, see: D entists...................... 82 Protestant ministers .......................................... 42 Psychiatric aides, see: Hospital attendants ... 354 Psychiatric social w orkers............................. 267 Psychologists .................................................... 261 Public affairs directors, see: Radio and television 754 Public adjusters, claim adjusters................ 817 Public health nurses ........................................ 92 Public health nutritionists, see: Dietitians . . . . 130 Public health sanitarians, see: Sanitarians . . . . 134 Public librarians........................................... 249 Public relations w orkers............................... 39 Public stenographers..................................... 300 Pulp testers, paper and allied products...... 703 Page Pumpers, petroleum and natural g a s ............... Pumpmen, petroleum refining............................ Punch press operators, see: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufac turing ..................................................... Motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing ......................................................... Purchasing agents.............................................. Pursers, see: Licensed merchant marine officers 597 708 608 689 281 745 Quality assurance technicians, see: Food proc essing technicians.......................................... 228 Rabbis ............................................................... Rack clerks, hotel ............................................ Radiation monitors, atomic energy................... Radio and television announcers..................... Radio and television broadcasting occupations Radio officers, see: Licensed merchant marine officers ........................................................... Radio operators, ground, civil aviation........ Radio service technicians.................................. Radiochemists, see: Drug industry................. Radiographers, see: Aluminum industry.................................... Atomic en erg y ....................... Radioisotope-production operators, atomic en ergy ................................................................. Radiologic technologists.................................... Radiological physicists, atomic energy............. Railroad bridge and building workers ........... Railroad clerk s.................................................. Railroad conductors.......................................... Railroad occupations........................................ Ranchers ........................................................... Range conservationists, see: Range managers . Range m anagers................................................ Range scientists, see: Range managers ......... Rate clerks, see: Trucking industry................. Real estate salesmen and brokers.................... Realtors ............................................................. Receiving clerks, see: Shipping and receiving clerks ............................................................. Receiving inspectors, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft ....................................................... Receiving tellers, banking.................................. Receptionists ..................................................... Reconcilement clerks, see: Bank clerk s........... Recording clerks, see: Bank clerk s................... 44 831 635 758 752 745 727 502 646 617 636 636 126 635 779 774 770 763 583 52 52 52 793 319 319 296 610 809 295 807 807 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES 871 Page Page Recording technicians, radio and television . . 760 Recreation workers....................................... 264 Reference librarians..................................... 249 Refinery mechanics, petroleum refining.... 708 Refrigeration engineers, see: Unlicensed mer chant seam en........................................... 749 Refrigeration mechanics............................... 463 Regional geographers................................... 204 Regional planners......................................... 272 Registered n u rses......................................... 91 Registered representatives, see: Securities sales men ............................................................... 324 Rehabilitation counselors ................................ 58 Rehabilitation workers, see: Social workers .. 268 Reinforcing-iron workers, building trades . . . . 424 Remelt operators, see: Aluminum industry . . . 615 Renderers, see: Commercial artists.............. 192 Repairmen, see: Aircraft mechanics............................... 723 Automobile body repairmen................ 469 Central office repairmen, telephone.... 786 Industrial machinery repairm en.......... 491 Instrument repairm en........................... 492 Jewelry repairmen .................................... 549 Shoe repairmen ........................................ 563 Telephone and PBX repairm en.......... 789 Television and radio service technicians . 502 Vending machine operators................ 507 Watch repairm en................................. 510 See also listings under Mechanics and under Servicemen. Reporters, newspaper................................... 231 Reporting stenographers .................................. 300 Research and development technicians, see: Food processing technicians......................... 228 Research directors, advertising......................... 32 Research workers, marketing....................... 34 Reservation agents and clerks, civil aviation . 728 Reservation clerks, hotel ............................... 831 Reservation control agents................................ 728 Resilient floor layers, see: Floor covering instal lers ................................................................. 394 Resistance-welding operators....................... 572 Restaurant industry .......................................... 799 Retail trade salesworkers ............................... 321 Reviewers, claim ............................................ 819 Rewrite men, see: Newspaper reporters...... 231 Rig builders, petroleum and natural g a s .... 595 Riggers and machine movers, building trades . 424 Riveters, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft.... 609 Rocket assembly mechanics, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft .............................................. Rodmen, see: Reinforcing-iron w orkers........... Rodmen, see: Surveyors.................................... Roll turners, iron and steel................................ Rollers, iron and s te e l...................................... Rolling mill operators, see: Aluminum industry Roman Catholic Priests .................................. R oofers............................................................... Room and desk clerks, h o te l............................. Rotary drillers, petroleum and natural gas . . Roustabouts, petroleum and natural g a s ......... Route salesmen, see: Routem en....................... Route salesmen and drivers, laundry and drycleaning ......................................................... Route supervisors, b ak in g ................................ R outem en........................................................... See also: Baking in d u stry ....................... Routers, printing (graphic arts) ..................... Rural sociologists, agriculture......................... Sales clerks, retail tr a d e .................................... Sales engineers, see: Manufacturers’ salesmen . Sales managers, see: Hotels ...................................................... Radio and television broadcasting........... Sales occupations.............................................. Salesworkers, see: Automobile parts countermen................... Automobile salesm en............................... Automobile service advisors..................... Insurance agents and brokers................... Manufacturers’ salesmen ......................... Radio and television salesm en................. Real estate salesmen and b ro k ers........... Retail trade salesworkers......................... Securities salesm en.................................... Wholesale trade salesworkers ................. Sample stitchers, ap p arel.................................. Sample-taker operators, petroleum and natural gas ................................................................. Sand mixers, foundry industry ....................... Sandblasters, forge s h o p .................................... Sanitarians ......................................................... Savings tellers, b an k in g .................................... Scalemen, see: Aluminum industry................. Scalper operators, see: Aluminum industry .. Scenic designers, television................................ See also: Interior designers and decorators School counselors ............................................ 609 424 270 681 679 616 45 416 830 596 596 434 835 642 434 642 521 590 321 317 833 756 307 308 310 312 319 317 755 319 321 324 327 622 597 661 447 133 809 615 616 754 196 60 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 872 A Page Page School media specialists, see: Librarians........ School psychologists.......................................... School recreation w orkers............................... School social w orkers........................................ School teachers, see: Agriculture..................... School teachers, see: Teachers ....................... Science aids ....................................................... Science information specialists, see: Librarians . Science technicians .......................................... Scientists, environmental .................................. Scientists, l i f e .................................................... Scientists, n a tu ra l.............................................. Scientists, physical ............................................ Scientists, range ................................................ Scientists, s o il..................................................... Sealers, electronics manufacturing................... Seamstresses, laundry and drycleaning............. Seat-cover installers, see: Automobile trimmers and installation m e n ...................................... Second assistant engineers, see: Licensed mer chant marine officers...................................... Second electricians, see: Unlicensed merchant seamen ........................................................... Second mates, see: Licensed merchant marine officers ........................................................... Secondary school teachers................................ See also: Home economists..................... Secretaries ......................................................... Securities salesm en............................................ Securities tellers, banking ............................... Sedimentologists, see: Geologists..................... Seismologists, see: Geophysics......................... Semiskilled workers, industrial......................... Service advisors, see: Automobile service ad visors .................................................... Service and miscellaneous ............................... Service occupations .......................................... Service salesmen, see: Automobile service ad visors ............................................................. Service station attendants, see: Gasoline service station attendants ........................................ Service station mechanic-attendants ............... Service writers, see: Automobile service advi sors ................................................................. Servicemen, see: Appliance servicemen ............................. Business machine servicemen................... Electric sign servicemen ......................... Gas appliance servicemen....................... Neon sign servicemen................................ 250 262 264 267 590 211 220 250 220 147 161 147 169 52 587 655 837 533 744 749 744 214 241 300 324 809 149 151 367 312 825 331 312 546 546 312 466 477 486 464 486 Telephone and PBX servicemen............... Television and radio service technicians . Setup men (machine tools) ............................ Sewage plant operators...................................... Sewers, hand, apparel........................................ Sewing machine operators, see: Apparel industry ...................................... Motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing ......................................................... Sewing room occupations, ap p a re l................. Shakeout men, see: Foundry in d u stry ...................................... Motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing ......................................................... Shearmen, iron and steel.................................... Sheet-metal w orkers.......................................... See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing .............................. Railroad shop tra d e s ....................... Shipping and receiving clerk s........................... Ship’s carpenters, see: Unlicensed merchant sea men ................................................................. Ship’s electricians, see: Unlicensed merchant seamen ........................................................... Shirt finishers, laundry and drycleaning......... Shoe repairmen ................................................ Shooters, petroleum and natural g a s ............... Shop trades, railro ad ........................................ Shotblasterers, see: Forge s h o p ................................................ Foundry industry...................................... Shothole drillers, petroleum and natural gas . Shothole drillers, helpers, petroleum and natural gas ................................................................. Showroom models ............................................ Signal department workers, railro ad ............... Signal maintainers, railro ad .............................. Signalmen, railroad .......................................... Silk screen printers, electronics manufacturing . Singers and singing teachers............................. Skilled and other manual occupations............. Skilled w orkers................................................... Skipmen, iron and steel...................................... Slaggers, iron and s te e l.................................... Slate roofers, building trades ......................... Slicing-and-wrapping machine operators, baking Slide mounters, see: Photographic laboratory occupations..................................................... Soaking pit cranemen, iron and steel ........... 789 502 460 569 624 624 689 623 661 689 679 419 608 775 296 748 749 835 563 595 775 447 661 595 595 362 777 777 777 655 189 365 365 676 676 417 641 559 678 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES 873 Page Page Soaking pit operators, alum inum ..................... Social caseworkers............................................ Social psychologists .......................................... Social scientists ................................................ Social secretaries .............................................. Social service aid es............................................ Social workers .................................................. Sociologists......................................................... Sociologists, rural, see: Agriculture................. Soil conservationists.......................................... Soil scientists .................................................... Sorters, see: Bank clerk s.................................. Sorters, see: Paper and allied products indus tries ............................................................... Sorting machine operators............................... Sound effects technicians, radio and television Spacecraft manufacturing occupations ........... Special agents, see: FBI Special A gents........... Special librarians .............................................. Specialty farm operators.................................... Specifications writers, see: Electronics manufac turing ............................................................. Speech pathologists .......................................... Spot welders, electronics manufacturing........ Spotters, laundry and drycleaning................... Sprayers, motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................................ Spreaders, apparel industry............................... Sprinkler fitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters . Staff adjusters, claim adjusters ....................... Staff officers, see: Licensed merchant marine officers ........................................................... Stage managers, radio and television.............. State and local government occupations . . . . State extension workers ................................. State highway patrolm en................................ State police officers ......................................... Station agents, civil aviation............................. Station agents, railroad .................................... Station installers, telephone............................. Stationary engineers.......................................... See also: Aluminum industry........................... Baking industry ............................... Paper and allied products................. Stationary firemen (boiler) ............................. Statisticians......................................................... See also: Electronics manufacturing............... 616 267 262 199 300 360 266 209 590 588 587 806 702 293 754 605 345 250 582 653 120 655 836 689 623 413 817 745 754 847 586 349 349 728 773 789 565 618 643 702 567 142 652 Office machine and computer manu facturing ........................................ Steamfitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters . . . . Steel industry occupations................................ Steel pourers, iron and s te e l........................... Stenographers and secretaries........................... Stereotypers, printing (graphic arts) ............. Stewardesses, civil aviation................................ Stillmen, petroleum refining............................. Stock chasers, motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing .............................................. Stock clerks......................................................... Stock clerks, motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing .............................................. Stock house larrymen, iron and s te e l............... Stock house men, iron and s te e l................... Stonehands, printing (graphic arts) ............... Stonemasons ....................................................... Stove tenders, iron and s te e l........................... Stratigraphers, see: Geologists ....................... See also: Petroleum and natural gas pro duction and processing ....................... Stretcher-leveler-operators, aluminum industry Strippers, printing (graphic a r t s ) ..................... Structural-iron workers, building tra d e s ........ Structural-, ornamental-, and reinforcing-iron workers, riggers, and machine movers . . . . Studio supervisors, radio and television........ Stylists, motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing ............................................................. Substation operators, electric p o w e r............... Supercalendar operators, paper and allied prod ucts ................................................................. Surfacers, optical mechanics ........................... Surgical technicians .......................................... Surveyors ........................................................... See also: Petroleum and natural gas pro duction and processing......................... Switchboard operators, electric p o w e r........... Switchboard operators, telephone..................... Switchers, petroleum and natural g a s ............... Switchmen, railro ad ........................................ Switchmen, telephone........................................ Synoptic meteorologists .................................... Systems analysts................................................ See also: Insurance .......................................... Office machine and computer manu facturing ........................................ Paper and allied products industry .. 695 413 674 677 299 522 720 708 690 298 690 676 676 517 421 676 149 595 617 525 423 423 754 686 736 702 540 97 269 595 733 304 597 771 784 154 257 813 695 703 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 874 Page Tablet coaters, drug industry ......................... Tablet testers, drug industry............................. Tabulating machine operators ....................... Tailoring occupations, ap p arel......................... Tailors, apparel ................................................ Tape librarians, see: Electronic computer op erating personnel .......................................... Tape perforating machine operators, printing (graphic a r t s ) ................................................ Tape perforator typists, see: T ypists............... Tape-to-card converter operators, see: Elec tronic computer operating personnel ........ Tappers, see: Aluminum industry................... Taxi drivers ....................................................... Teachers, college and university..................... Teachers, dancing.............................................. Teachers, d ram a................................................ Teachers, high school........................................ Teachers, home econom ists............................. Teachers, kindergarten and elementary school . Teachers, m u sic ................................................ Teachers, secondary sch o o l............................. See also: Home economists....................... Teachers, singing .............................................. T eaching............................................................. Technical illustrators, see: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufac turing .................................................... Electronics manufacturing....................... Technical stenographers.................................... Technical writers .............................................. See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing ............................. Electronics manufacturing............... Technician occupations .................................... Technicians, broadcasting, radio and television Technicians, dental laboratory......................... Technicians, drug industry................................ Technicians, engineering and science............... See also: Petroleum refining ........................... Paper and allied products industry . . Technicians, forestry, see: Forestry a id s ........... Technicians, medical X -ra y ............................. Technicians, optical laboratory ................. Technicians, sound effects, radio andtelevision Technicians, surgical ........................................ 648 648 293 625 625 289 519 303 289 615 442 216 184 182 214 241 211 186 214 241 189 211 607 653 300 233 607 653 220 759 89 647 220 708 703 50 126 539 754 97 Page Technicians, television and radio service........ Tectonophysicists, see: Geophysicists............... Telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen, rail road ............................................................... Telephone and PBX installers and repairmen Telephone central office equipment installers . . Telephone craftsmen ........................................ Telephone industry occupations....................... Telephone installers.......................................... Telephone installers-repairmen......................... Telephone linemen and cable splicers............... Telephone operators.......................................... Telephone repairm en........................................ Telephone servicemen ...................................... Telephoners, railro ad ........................................ Teletypists, civil aviation ................................ Television announcers ...................................... Television broadcasting occupations................. Television and radio service technicians........... Tellers, banking ................................................ Tellers, cash ier.................................................. Terrazzo workers, building trad es..................... Test-set operators, see: Office machine and computer manufacturing .............................. Testers, electronics manufacturing ................. Testing machine operators, office machine and computer manufacturing................................ Testboardmen, telephone.................................. Theoretical physicists........................................ Therapeutic dietitians........................................ Therapists, inhalation........................................ Therapists, occupational.................................... Therapists, occupational assistants ................. Therapists, physical .......................................... Thermal cutters, see: W elders......................... Third assistant engineers, see: Licensed mer chant marine officers.................................... Third mates, see: Licensed merchant marine officers ........................................................... Ticket agents, civil aviation ........................... Ticket sellers, see: C ashiers.............................. Tile roofers, building trades ........................... Tile setters, building tra d e s .............................. Time salesmen, radio and television............... Tinners, electronics manufacturing................. Tobacco farm ers................................................. Tool-and-die makers ........................................ See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing .............................. 502 152 772 789 786 784 781 789 790 787 303 790 789 772 727 758 752 502 808 286 401 696 655 696 784 173 130 102 113 115 116 572 745 744 728 286 416 401 755 655 584 456 608 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES 875 Page Page Electronics manufacturing............... 655 Iron and steel industry..................... 680 Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................ 688 Office machine and computer manu facturing ........................................ 696 Tool designers, see: Mechanical technicans . . . 223 Tool pushers, petroleum and naturalgas . . . . 596 Toolmakers, electronics manufacturing.......... 655 Topographic surveyors...................................... 270 Towermen, railro ad .......................................... 773 Toxicologists, drug industry ........................... 646 Tracers, see: Draftsmen.................................... 226 Track workers, railroad .................................... 778 Trackmen, railroad............................................ 778 Traffic agents and clerks, civil aviation.......... 728 Traffic controllers, air-route ........................... 725 Traffic controllers, a irp o rt............................... 725 Traffic managers, industrial............................. 279 Traffic managers, radio and television.......... 754 Traffic representatives, civil aviation............... 728 Train directors, railroad ................................. 773 Trainmen, see: Brakemen, railro ad ................. 771 Transcribing machine operators, see: Typists . . 303 Transit clerks, see: Bank clerk s....................... 807 Transmission and distribution occupations, elec tric p o w er...................................................... 736 Transmitter technicians, radio and television . . 760 Transportation, communication, and public utilities ........................................................... 711 Treaters, see: Petroleum and natural g a s ....................... 597 Petroleum refining .................................... 708 Treatment plant operators, wastewater.......... 569 Trimmers, hand, ap p are l.................................. 625 Trimmers, forge s h o p ........................................ 447 Trimmers, automobile (automobile upholster ers) ............................................................... 532 Trimmers, motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................................ 690 Troopers, see: State police officers................... 349 Troublemen, electric p o w e r............................. 737 Truck mechanics .............................................. 505 See also: Trucking industry....................... 793 Truckdriver’s h elp ers........................................ 793 Truckdrivers, see: Baking industry ........................................ 642 Drug industry............................................ 648 Office machine and computer manufactur ing ......................................................... 697 Trucking industry...................................... Truckdrivers, lo c a l............................................ Truckdrivers, over-the-road............................. Trucking industry ............................................ Trust investment clerks, see: Bank clerks . . . . Trust officers, banking...................................... Tube benders, aircraft, missile, and spacecraft . Tumbler operators, foundry industry............... Tune-up men, see: Automobile mechanics . . . Turbine operators, electric pow er..................... Type inspectors, office machine and computer manufacturing................................................ Typesetters, hand, printing (graphic arts) . . . Typesetting machine operators, printing (graphic a r t s ) ................................................ Typewriter servicemen...................................... Typists ............................................................... 793 431 427 792 807 810 609 661 472 733 697 517 517 478 302 Understudies, see: Actors and actresses........... Underwriters, insurance.................................... See also: Insurance.................................... United States Government occupations ........ University librarians.......................................... Unlicensed merchant seamen ......................... University teachers............................................ Unskilled workers, laborers............................. Upholsterers, see: Automobile trimmers and installation men Furniture upholsterers ............................. Upsetters, forge s h o p ........................................ Urban geographers............................................ Urban planners.................................................. Utilitymen, see: Unlicensed merchant seamen . 181 821 813 839 250 748 216 369 Valets, see: Private household w orkers........... Vending machine mechanics ........................... Vending machine routemen, see: Routemen . . Veterinarians ..................................................... See also: Agriculture.................................. Video-control technicians, television............... Video-tape recording technicians, television . . . Virologists, see: Drug in d u stry....................... Vocational agriculture teachers, see: Agriculture Vocational counselors, see: Employment coun selors ............................................................. Vocational n u rses.............................................. Volcanologists, see: Geologists......................... 357 507 434 136 589 760 760 646 590 532 544 446 203 272 749 55 94 149 Waiters and waitresses...................................... 339 Washers, see: Trucking industry..................... 793 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 876 Page Washmen, laundry and drycleaners................. Waste disposal men, atomic energy ............... Waste-treatment operators, atomic energy . . . . Waste treatment engineers and technicians, see: Petroleum refining ........................................ Wastewater treatment plant operators............. Watch engineers, electric pow er....................... Watch repairmen .............................................. Watchmakers .................................................... Watchmen ......................................................... Waterproof workers, see: R oofers................... Waybill clerks, see: Typists............................... Weather forecasters, see: Meteorologists........ Welders, petroleum and natural g a s ................. Welders and oxygen cu tters............................. See also: Aluminum industry ......................... Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing ............................. Iron and Steel industry................... Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................ Natural gas processing..................... Page 709 569 734 510 510 343 417 303 154 597 571 Welders, g a s ....................................................... Welding operators, resistance............................ Well pullers, petroleum and natural g a s ........ Wheat farmers .................................................. Wholesale and retail trade................................ Wholesale m odels.............................................. Wholesale trade salesworkers........................... Wipers, see: Unlicensed merchant seamen . . . . Wire chiefs, railroad.......................................... Wire draw operators, aluminum....................... Wire drawers, iron and s te e l........................... Wood patternmakers, foundry industry........... Writers, technical.............................................. See also listing under Technical writers. Writing occupations........................................... 572 572 597 584 797 362 327 748 773 617 680 663 233 618 X-ray technicians, m edical............................... 126 609 681 Yard foremen, railroad .................................... 770 835 636 636 689 597 231 Zoologists, see: Drug industry............................................ 646 Life scientists............................................ 162 O C C U P A TIO N A L O U TLO O K R E P R IN T S E R IE S B u lle tin N o. 1 P r ic e (c e n ts ) Tomorrow’s Jobs................... ................. 15 PROFESSIONAL, MANAGERIAL, AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS 2 3 4 5 Business Administration and Related Professions Accountants .............................................. Advertising Workers,Marketing Re search Workers, Public Relations Workers ................................................ Personnel Workers ................................. Industrial Traffic Managers, Purchasing Agents ........................ Bulletin No. 26 27 28 10 15 10 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Physicians, Osteopathic Physicians....... Dentists ............................................... Dental Hygienists, Dental Assistants, Dental Laboratory Technicians ....... Registered Nurses, Licensed Practical Nurses, Hospital Attendants............. Optometrists, Optometric Assistants.... Pharmacists ......................................... Podiatrists ........................................... Chiropractors ..................................... Occupational Therapists, Occupa tional Therapy Assistants, Physical Therapists, Physical Therapy Assistants ............... ...................... .. Speech Pathologists and Audiologists.... Medical Assistants, Surgical Techni cians, EEG Technicians, EKG 10 29 30 31 10 10 32 15 33 15 10 10 10 10 15 10 Technicians, Inhalation Therapists.... 15 Medical Laboratory Workers ............. Radiologic Technologists .................... Medical Record Librarians ................ Dietitians ............................................. Hospital Administrators .................... Sanitarians ........................................... Veterinarians ....................................... 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 24 25 Engineers Aerospace, Agricultural, Bio medical, Ceramic, Chemical, Civil, Electrical, Industrial, Mechanical, Metallurgical, Mining .......................................... Environmental Scientists Geologists, Geophysicists, Me teorologists, Oceanographers .... 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 Life Scientists, Biochemists .......... Physical Scientists Chemists, Physicists, Astrono mers, Food Scientists ................ Technicians Engineering and Science, Draftsmen, Food Processing..... Architects ................................................ City Managers ....................................... Clergymen Protestant Clergymen, Rabbis, Roman Catholic Priests ............ Commercial Artists, Industrial De signers, Interior Designers and Decorators ............................................ Conservation Occupations Foresters, Forestry Aids, Range Managers ..................................... Counseling and Placement Occupations School Counselors, Rehabilita tion Counselors, Employment Counselors, College Career Planning and Placement Counselors ................................... Home Economists................................... Landscape Architects ............................. Lawyers .................................................... Librarians, Library Technicians .......... Mathematics and Related Fields Mathematicians, Statisticians, Actuaries .............................................. 15 15 15 43 44 45 Social Sciences 42 10 10 15 15 15 15 10 10 10 15 15 Performing Arts Occupations Actors and Actresses, Dancers, Musicians and Music Teach ers, Singers and Singing Teachers ..................................... Photographers, Photographic Lab oratory Occupations ...... .'................... Programers, Systems Analysts, Elec tronic Computer Operating Per sonnel .................................................. Psychologists ............................................ Recreation Workers ...................... 41 Scientific and Technical Occupations Life Science Occupations Other Professional and Related Occupations Health Service Occupations 6 7 8 P r ic e (cents) 15 15 15 10 10 20 20 Anthropologists, Economists, 877 Bulletin No. Price (cents) 74 Social Sciences— (Cont’d) 46 47 48 49 50 Geographers, Historians, Po litical Scientists, Sociologists..... Social Workers, Social Service Aides.... Surveyors .................................................. Teachers Kindergarten and Elementary School Teachers, Secondary School Teachers, College and University Teachers .................. Urban Planners ....................................... Writing Occupations Newspaper Reporters, Technical Writers ......................................... B u lle tin N o. 15 15 10 75 76 77 78 79 15 10 15 CLERICAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS 80 81 82 83 P r ic e ( c e n ts ) Bricklayers, Stonemasons, Marble Setters, Tile Setters, Terrazzo Workers ................................................ Carpenters, Painters and Paperhangers, Glaziers ........................................ Cement Masons, Lathers, Plasterers...... Construction Laborers and Hod Carriers ................................................ Electricians (Construction) .................. Elevator Constructors, Structural-, Ornamental-, and Reinforcing-Iron Workers, Riggers, Machine Movers .............................................. Floor Covering Installers....................... Operating Engineers (Construction).... Plumbers and Pipefitters ....................... Roofers, Sheet-Metal Workers ............ 10 15 15 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Mechanics and Repairmen 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 Bookkeeping Workers, Office Machine Operators ...................................................... Cashiers ............................................................. File Clerks ...................................................... Receptionists .................................................... Shipping and Receiving Clerks...................... Stenographers and Secretaries, Typists........ Stock Clerks .................................................... Telephone Operators ..................................... 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 SALES OCCUPATIONS 59 60 61 62 63 Automobile Salesmen ..................................... Insurance Agents and Brokers...................... Retail Trade Salesworkers, Wholesale Trade Salesworkers, Manufacturers’ Salesmen ...................................................... Real Estate Salesmen and Brokers................ Securities Salesmen ....................................... 85 10 10 15 10 10 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 Barbers, Cosmetologists ................................. Building Custodians ....................................... Cooks and Chefs, Waiters and Waitresses, Bartenders .................................................... FBI Special A gents......................................... Firefighters ...................................................... Guards and Watchmen ................................. Models ............................................................... Police Officers, State Police Officers............ Private Household Workers.......................... 10 10 Building Trades Asbestos and Insulating Workers.......... 878 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 15 10 10 10 10 15 10 SKILLED AND OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS 73 84 96 Station Attendants .................. Air-Conditioning, Refrigeration, and Heating Mechanics .......................... Appliance Servicemen ........................ Bowling-Pin-Machine Mechanics......... Business Machine Servicemen ............. Diesel Mechanics, Farm Equipment Mechanics ................................ Electric Sign Servicemen .................... Maintenance Electricians, Industrial Machinery Repairmen, Millwrights.. Motorcycle Mechanics.......................... Instrument Repairmen ........................ Jewelers and Jewelry Repairmen, Watch Repairmen ............................ Television and Radio Service Technicians ..................................... Vending Machine Mechanics ............. 20 10 10 10 15 10 10 15 10 10 15 10 10 Other Manual Occupations 97 98 99 100 10 Automobile Service Occupations Automobile Body Repairmen, Automobile Mechanics, Truck and Bus Mechanics, Automo bile Trimmers and Installation Men (Automobile Upholster ers), Automobile Parts Coun termen, Automobile Service Advisors, Gasoline Service Blacksmiths .................. Boilermaking Occupations .................. Dispensing Opticians, Optical Mechanics ................................. Driving Occupations Over-the-road Truckdrivers, Local Truckdrivers, Routemen, Intercity Busdrivers, 10 10 10 Bulletin Price Bulletin N o. (c e n ts ) N o. Other Manual Occupations— (Cont’d) 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 Local Transit Busdrivers, Taxi Drivers ............................... Factory Operatives Assemblers, Electroplaters, Inspectors, Power Truck Operators, Production Painters .......... Forge Shop Occupations ...................... Foremen .................................................. Furniture Upholsterers........................... Machining Occupations All-round Machinists, Machine Tool Operators, Tool and Die Makers, Instrument Makers (Mechanical), Setup Men (Machine Tools) ...................... Meat Cutters ............................................ Motion Picture Projectionists................ Parking Attendants ................................. Printing Occupations Composing Room Occupations, Photoengravers, Electrotypers Photoengravers, Electrotypers and Stereotypers, Printing Pressmen and Assistants, Lithographic Occupations, Bookbinders and Related Workers.... Shoe Repairmen ..................................... Stationary Engineers, Stationary Firemen (Boiler) ....................................... Waste Water Treatment Plant Operators .............................................. Welders, Oxygen and Arc Cutters........ 20 124 125 126 127 15 10 10 10 128 129 130 15 10 10 10 131 132 133 20 10 10 10 10 134 SOME MAJOR INDUSTRIES AND THEIR OCCUPATIONS 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 Agriculture Cooperative Extension Service Workers, Soil Scientists, Soil Conservationists, Other Professional Workers, Farm Service Jobs ............ Petroleum and Natural Gas Production and Processing, Petroleum Refining.......... Aircraft, Missile, and Spacecraft Manufacturing ............................................ Aluminum Industry ....................................... Apparel Industry.............................................. Atomic Energy Field ..................................... Baking Industry .............................................. Drug Industry .................................................. Electronics Manufacturing............................. Foundries Patternmakers, Molders, Coremakers.. 135 136 137 15 138 15 15 15 15 15 10 15 15 15 139 140 141 Price (cents) Industrial Chemical Industry......................... 10 Iron and Steel Industry ................................. 15 Motor Vehicle and Equipment Manufacturing ............................................ 15 Office Machine and Computer Manufacturing ............................................ 15 Paper and Allied ProductsIndustries............ 15 Civil Aviation Pilots and Copilots, Flight Engineers, Stewardesses, Aircraft Mechanics, Airline Dispatchers, Air Traffic Controllers, Ground Radio Opera tors and Teletypists, Traffic Agents and C lerks................................... 20 Electric Power Industry Powerplant Occupations, Transmis sion and Distribution Occupations, Customer Service Occupations.......... 15 Merchant Marine Occupations Licensed Merchant Marine Officers, Unlicensed Merchant Seamen .......... 15 Radio and Television Broadcasting Radio and Television Announcers, Broadcast Technicians ...................... 15 Railroads Locomotive Engineers, Locomotive Firemen (Helpers), Conductors, Brakemen, Telegraphers, Tele phones, Towermen, Station Agents, Clerks, Shop Trades, Sig nal Department Workers, Track Workers, Bridge and Building Workers ................................................ 20 Telephone Industry Central Office Craftsmen, Central Office Equipment Installers, Line men and Cable Splicers, Telephone and PBX Installers and Repairmen.. 15 Trucking Industry .......................................... 10 Restaurants ...................................................... 10 Banking Bank Clerks, Tellers, Bank Officers..... 15 Insurance Claim Adjusters, Claim Examiners, Underwriters ........................................ 15 Hotels Bellmen and Bell Captains, Front Office Clerks, Housekeepers and Assistants, Managers and Assistants.. 15 Laundry and Drycleaning Plants.................. 10 Government (Except Post Office) Federal Civilian Employment, State and Local Governments, Armed Forces ............................................ 15 U . S . G O V E R N M E N T P R I N T I N G O F F I C E : 197 2 O— 4 2 7 - 4 5 S 879 V isu a l A i d fo r V o c a tio n a l C o u n s e lo rs . . . JOBS FOR THE 1970’S A set of color slides describing the occupational composition of today’s work force and the changes anticipated during the 1970’s. The series graphically shows: —Current employment by occupation and industry, —The kinds of jobs which will open during the 1970’s, —Fields of work which are especially promising, —The impact of technology on manpower needs, —The changing characteristics of the work force. JOBS FOR THE ’70’S updates an earlier Bureau of Labor Statistics slide series, Looking Ahead to a Career. The series has been revised completely to reflect 1970 employment data and occupational projections through 1980. JOBS FOR THE ’70’S consists of 40 slides (35 mm, 2x2 inches) and accompanying narrative booklet. Price: $10 a set. JOBS FOR THE 1970’S ORDER FORM NAME_____________________________________________________________ STREET ADDRESS_________________________________________________ CITY, STATE_____________________________________________ZIP CODE NUMBER OF slide sets____ at $10 each. TOTAL AMOUNT______ Make check or money order payable to the BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS. Enclose with order blank and mail to the Bureau of Labor Statistics Regional Office nearest you: 1603-A Federal Bldg. Boston, Mass. 02203 341 Ninth Ave., Rm. 1025 New York, N.Y. 10001 1317 Filbert St. Philadelphia, Pa. 19107 1371 Peachtree St., NE. Atlanta, Ga. 30309 219 S. Dearborn St. Chicago, 111. 60604 911 Walnut St. Kansas City, Mo. 64106 1100 Commerce St., Rm. 6B7 Dallas, Texas 75202 450 Golden Gate Ave. San Francisco, Calif. 94102 JOBS T h a t’s w hat the O c c u p a t i o n a l O u t l o o k Q u a r t e r l y is all about. It’s a h o w -to -d o -it m agazine covering new and em erg in g jobs, training and ed u c atio n al opp ortun ities, salary trends, job prospects to 1980 . . . the facts young peop le need to plan careers with a future. The Q u a r t e r l y is “ m ust” reading for counselors, e d u c a to rs , and o th e r m an p o w er specialists w ho w ant to keep ab re a s t of occupational d evelo p m en ts betw een biennial editions of the O c c u p a t i o n a l O u t l o o k Handbook. Look to the Q u a r t e r l y for new perspectives on em ploym ent problem s and changing technology, for b ib lio g rap h ies of inexp ensive new G overnm ent pub lications on m anp ow er and career o p p ortun ities, and for sum m aries of the latest B ureau of Labo r S tatistics studies of em ploym ent trends and occupational outlook. To get all the facts about to m o rro w ’s jobs, subscribe to the Q u a r t e r l y today. It’s published 4 tim es a y ear by the U.S. D epartm ent of Labor. P rice: $3.00 for a 2-year subscription. the Occupational Outlook Quarterly i Today’s Magazine for Tomorrow’s Jobs q < Q- ixi O^li. <$Ll-Jo C/)Dl ?>° °-oS 2D ( 5 h2 <0)1 1 0 3 “- UJ uj 0(0 5o Ol3g 2u8 po . zoq O ^CM tfl< LU Q a: oQ z? 20 ; oc x uZw >o< Ot/j § ° > t/5 Q Ui X GC iS O O o E. _j > -SC DC 2 iu 0 0 to c<D ° o 1^ to I— O S\ C X D C i= O O U. ° d z m c d zzll o iZ 2- LU DC <D -j a ■0o 2C = : DC o 1 ? j _JI c j Q> JC □ U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS WASHINGTON, D.C. 20212 O F F I C I A L B U SIN ESS P E N A L T Y F O R P R IV A T E U S E, $ 3 0 0 THIRD CLASS MAIL POSTAGE AND FEES PAID U S DEPARTMENT OF LABOR
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