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233 WRITING OCCUPATIONS Earnings and Working Conditions Many daily newspapers have ne gotiated, with the American News paper Guild, contracts which set minimum wages based on experi ence and provide for annual salary increases. In 1970, the minimum starting salaries on most daily news papers with Guild contracts ranged between $100 and $135 a week for reporters having no previous experi ence. On a few small dailies, the Guild minimum starting salaries were less than $90 a week; on a few large dailies, Guild minimum rates for beginning reporters exceeded $140 a week. Young persons work ing as copy boys earn less than new reporters; minimum Guild rates for copy boys with some experience ranged from about $65 to $120 a week. On most dailies, minimum Guild rates for reporters who have some experience (usually for those with 4 to 6 years) ranged from $170 to $230 a week in 1970. Contract minimums for experienced reporters on a few small dailies were less than $160 a week; on a few large dailies, they were over $250 a week. Papers under Guild contracts often pay sal aries higher than the minimum rates called for in their contracts. Particu larly successful, experienced re porters on city dailies may earn over $300 a week. Newspaper reporters on big city papers frequently work 7 to IV 2 hours a day, 5 days a week; most other reporters generally work an 8-hour day, 40-hour week. Most of those employed by morning papers start work in the afternoon and finish about midnight. Many news papers pay overtime rates for work performed after the regularly sched uled workday, or for more than 40 hours of work a week; they often provide various employee benefits such as paid vacations, group insur ance, and pension plans. TECHNICAL WRITERS (D.O.T. 139.288) Sources of Additional Information Information about opportunities with daily newspapers may be ob tained from: American Newspaper Publishers As sociation, 750 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. Information on opportunities in the newspaper field, as well as a list of scholarships, fellowships, assistantships, and loans available at col leges and universities, may be ob tained from: The Newspaper Fund, Inc., Box 300, Princeton, N.J. 08540. Information on union wage rates is available from: American Newspaper Guild, Re search Department, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. General information on journal ism opportunities may be obtained from: American Council on Education for Journalism, School of Journalism, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. 65201. Association for Education In Jour nalism, 425 Henry Mall, Uni versity of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. 53706. Sigma Delta Chi, 35 East Wacker Drive, Chicago, 111. 60601. Names and locations of daily newspapers and a list of depart ments and schools of journalism are published in the Editor and Pub lisher International Yearbook, available in most large newspaper offices and public libraries. Nature of the Work The many technical and scientific developments of recent years have created a growing demand for writ ers skilled in interpreting these de velopments. The technical writer organizes, writes, and edits material about science and technology so that it is in a form most useful to those who need to use it—be it a technician or repairman, a scientist or engineer, an executive, or a housewife. When writing for the nonspecialist, he must present his material in a simple, clear, and fac tual manner; for the specialist, he must include technical detail, using a highly specialized vocabulary. Re gardless of what kind of writing he does, the technical writer serves to establish easy communication be tween scientists, engineers, and other technical specialists, and the users of their information. The technical writer’s product takes many forms, such as a public ity release on a company’s scientific or technical achievement or a manu facturer’s contract proposal to the Federal Government. It may be a manual that explains how to oper ate, assemble, disassemble, main tain, or overhaul components of a missile system or a home appliance. Technical writers also write for sci entific and engineering periodicals and for popular magazines. Technical writers, as defined in this statement, include only those people primarily employed to inter pret, write about, or edit technical or scientific subject matter. It ex cludes those primarily employed as scientists, engineers, or other techni- 234 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK fense and Agriculture, the Atomic Energy Commission, and the Na tional Aeronautics and Space Ad ministration. Some work in firms that specialize in technical writing. Others are in business for them selves as freelance technical writers. Technical writers are employed all over the country, but primarily in the Northeastern States, Texas, and California. They are concen trated in the Washington, D.C., Los Angeles-Long Beach, Houston, Fort Worth-Dallas, Chicago, New York, Boston, St. Louis, Kansas City, Denver, and Philadelphia metropol itan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Technical writer discusses project with engineer. cal specialists who also do a consid erable amount of writing. Before starting a writing assign ment, a technical writer usually must research his subject. This proc ess involves studying reports, read ing technical journals, and consult ing with the engineers, scientists, and other technical personnel who have worked on the project. Then he prepares a rough draft that may be revised several times before it is in final form. Technical writers usu ally arrange for the preparation of tables, charts, illustrations, and other artwork, and in so doing may work with technical illustrators, draftsmen, or photographers. Places of Employment An estimated 20,000 technical writers and editors were employed in 1970. Most technical writers are employed in the electronics and aerospace industries. Many work for research and development firms or for the Federal Government— mainly in the Departments of De The bachelor’s degree is the de sirable minimum entrance require ment for work in this field, although talented and experienced writers having less academic training may qualify. Employers do not agree on the most appropriate kind of college training needed by technical writers, but graduates usually must have a combination of courses in writing and scientific and technical subjects. Some employers prefer applicants who have degrees in engineering or science who have had courses in writing. Others seek graduates who majored in English or journalism and have taken some courses in sci entific and technical subjects. Re gardless of the college training they prefer, all employers place great emphasis on writing skills. An increasing number of schools offer formal undergraduate pro grams leading to a bachelor’s degree in technical writing or technical journalism. Some schools now offer graduate work and degrees in the field. In addition, about 170 col leges and universities provide pro 235 WRITING OCCUPATIONS fessional education leading to a bachelor’s degree in journalism; most of these offer at least one course in technical writing or tech nical journalism as part of the regu lar curriculum. Liberal arts colleges and some engineering schools offer English and other courses that sharpen writing skills. Many col leges and universities conduct short-term summer workshops and seminars for technical writers. When still in high school young people who plan to become techni cal writers should supplement the required science and mathematics courses with as many elective courses in grammar and composi tion as possible. They also may gain helpful experience by working as editors or writers for their school papers. In addition to the ability to write well, technical writers must be able to think logically, and should also like to do detailed accurate work. They should be able to work and communicate well with others, since they often work as part of a team. At other times, however, technical writers must work alone with little or no supervision. Beginners often assist experi enced technical writers by doing li brary research, by editing, and by preparing drafts of portions of re ports. Experienced writers in organ izations that have large technical writing staffs may advance to posi tions of technical editors or progress to supervisory and administrative positions. After gaining experience and contacts, a few may open thenown job shops. It also is possible to advance by becoming a specialist in a particular scientific or technical subject. These writers sometimes prepare syndi cated newspaper columns or articles for popular magazines. Employment Outlook Well-qualified and experienced technical writers are expected to find good employment opportunities through the 1970’s. Beginners who have good writing ability and appro priate education also should find many opportunities; those who have minimum qualifications will find stiff competition for jobs, however. The greatest demand probably will be for technical writers with back grounds in electronics and commu nications to work in the aerospace and related industries, particularly in research and development activi ties. The employment of technical writers is expected to increase mod erately during the 1970’s, because of the need to put the increasing vol ume of scientific and technical in formation into language that can be understood by management for de cision making and by technicians for operating and maintaining compli cated industrial equipment. Also, since many products will continue to be assembled from components manufactured by different compa nies, technical writers will be in de mand to describe, in simple terms, the interrelationships of these com ponents. The growth in this occupa tion will be accelerated also by the need for improved and simplified operating and maintenance instruc tions for new consumer products. The demand for technical writers will continue to be related to re search and development expendi tures. During the 1970-80 decade research and development expendi tures of Government and industry are expected to increase, although at a slower rate than during the 1960’s. The anticipated slowdown in Federal R&D spending basically reflects anticipated reductions in the relative importance of the space and defense components of R&D ex penditures. These trends were evi denced in the late 1960’s and in 1970. Technical writers who have train ing in journalism also will find op portunities in other fields that em ploy writers, such as advertising, public relations, trade publishing, and radio and television broadcast ing. In addition to new opportuni ties resulting from growth expected in this profession, hundreds of tech nical writers will be needed each year to replace those who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, inexperienced technical writers having bachelor’s degrees were hired in private industry at starting salaries ranging from $6,000 to $8,000 a year; those who have moderate experience earned from $8,000 to $12,000 a year; highly experienced writers earned from $12,000 to $16,000; and those in supervisory and management po sitions, up to $20,000 or more. Dif ferences in the earnings of experi enced writers depended not only on their ability and previous experi ence, but also on factors such as the type, size, and location of their em ploying firms. Earnings of freelance technical writers vary greatly and are related to the writer’s reputation in the field. In the Federal Government in late 1970, inexperienced technical writers with a bachelor’s degree and credit for about five science courses could start at either $6,548 or $8,098 a year, depending on their college records. Those who have 2 years’ experience could begin at $9,881 and with 3 years’ experi ence, $11,905. Technical writers usually work 236 the standard 40-hour week. They may work under considerable pres sure, frequently working overtime when a deadline has to be met on a publication or report. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Sources of Additional Information Additional information on this occupation, including a list of schools offering accepted courses of study and specific training programs in accredited colleges and universi ties, may be obtained from: Society for Technical Communica tions, Inc., Suite 421, 1010 Ver mont Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. O T H E R P R O F E S S IO N A L AND R E L A T E D O C C U P A T IO N S ARCHITECTS (D.O.T. 001.081) Nature of the Work Architects plan and design build ings and other structures that are safe, useful, and pleasant in appear ance. Architects also work with other professionals, such as engi neers, urban planners, and land scape architects, to design cities and towns and plan and improve overall physical environments. When an architect is commis sioned to design a building, he dis cusses with the client the purpose, requirements, and cost limitations, as well as preferences as to style and plan. Subsequently, the archi tect makes hundreds of decisions and considers not only the require ments of the building, but also local and State building codes, zoning laws, fire regulations, and other or dinances. For example, in planning a school, the architect must decide the amount of corridor and stairway space which students need to move easily from one class to another; the type and arrangement of storage space, and the location, size, and in terior of classrooms, laboratories, lunchroom, gymnasium, and admin istrative offices. The architect makes preliminary drawings of the structure and meets with the client to develop a final de sign. This design includes floor plans and the interior and exterior details of the building. The final de sign then is translated into working drawings, showing the exact dimen sions of every part of the structure and the location of the plumbing, heating, electrical, air-conditioning, and other equipment. Consulting engineers usually prepare detailed drawings of the structural, plumb ing, heating, and electrical work. Engineers’ drawings are coordinated with the architect’s working draw ings, and specifications are prepared listing the construction materials to be used, the equipment, and, in some cases, the furnishings. The architect then assists his client in selecting a building con tractor and in negotiating the con tract between client and contractor, and he acts as the client’s advisor and representative in dealings with the contractor. As construction pro ceeds, the architect makes periodic visits to the construction site to see if the design is being followed, and that the materials specified in the contract are being used. The archi tect’s work is not completed until the project is finished, all required tests are made, and guarantees are received from the contractor. Most self-employed architects plan and design a wide variety of structures, ranging from homes to churches, hospitals, office buildings, and airports. They also plan and de sign multibuilding complexes for urban renewal projects, college campuses, industrial parks, and new towns. Some architects specialize in one particular type of structure or project. When working on largescale projects or for large architec tural firms, architects frequently specialize in one phase of the work, such as design, drafting, specifica tion writing, or construction con tract administration (insuring that a 237 238 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK structure is built according to plans and specifications). Places of Employment An estimated 33,000 registered (licensed) architects were employed in the United States in late 1970. In addition, many other architectural school graduates who are unlicensed were working in positions requiring a knowledge of architecture. About 4 percent of all architects are women. Approximately two-fifths of all architects are self-employed, either practicing individually or as part ners. Most of the others work for architectural firms. Some architects work for engineers, builders, real estate firms, and for other busi nesses having large construction programs. Others are employed by government agencies, often in fields such as city and community plan ning and urban redevelopment. About 1,500 of these are employed by the Federal Government. Architects are employed in all parts of the country. However, they are concentrated in those States with large metropolitan areas. Nearly half of all architects are em ployed in six States—California, New York, Illinois, Texas, Pennsyl vania, and Ohio. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license for the practice of ar chitecture is required by law in all States and the District of Columbia, mainly to insure that architectural work which may affect the safety of life, health, or property is done by qualified architects. Requirements for admission to the licensing exam ination are set by the individual States. These generally include graduation from an accredited pro fessional school followed by 3 years of practical experience in an archi tect’s office. As a substitute for for mal training, most States accept longer periods of practical experi ence (usually 10 to 12 years) for admission to the licensing examina tion. In 1970, professional training in architecture was offered by 85 col leges and universities in the United States, 67 of which were accredited by the National Architectural Ac crediting Board. Most of these schools offered a 5-year curriculum leading to the bachelor of architec ture degree. Many architectural schools also offered graduate educa tion leading to the master’s degree, and a few schools offered the Ph. D. degree. Graduate training is not es sential for the practice of architec ture, but is often desirable for re search and teaching positions. Most schools of architecture admit qualified high school gradu ates who meet the entrance require ments of the college or university with which the school is associated. Some schools require 1 or 2 years of college education before admit ting the student to a 3- or 4-year ar chitectural training program. In general, architectural schools prefer that students’ preparation include mathematics, science, social studies, language, and art. A typical curricu lum includes architectural courses as well as English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, sociology, eco nomics, and a foreign language. Persons planning a career in ar chitecture should have a capacity to master technical problems, a gift for artistic creation, and a flair for busi ness and for human relations. Stu dents are frequently encouraged to work for architects or for building contractors during summers to gain knowledge of practical problems. New graduates usually begin as junior draftsmen in architectural firms where they make drawings and models of building projects or draft details in the working drawings. As they gain experience, they are given more complex work. After several years, they may progress to chief or senior draftsman, with responsibility for all the major details of a set of working drawings and for the super vision of other draftsmen. Other architects may work as designers, construction contract administrators, or specification writers. An employee who is particularly valued by his firm may be designated an associate and may receive, in addition to his salary, a share of the profits. Usually, how ever, the architect’s goal is to estab lish his own practice. Employment Outlook The outlook is for continued rapid growth of the profession through the 1970’s. Employment opportunities are expected to be fa vorable both for experienced archi tects and for new graduates. A major factor contributing to this favorable outlook is the ex pected growth in the volume of nonresidential construction—the major area of work for architects. More over, the increasing size and com plexity of modern nonresidental buildings, as well as the homeown ers’ growing awareness of the value of architects’ services, are likely to bring about a greater demand for architectural services. Urban redev elopment and city and community planning projects, other growing areas of employment for architects, also are expected to increase con siderably in the years ahead. (See statement on Urban Planners.) In 239 OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS addition, expanding college enroll ments will create a need for addi tional architects to teach architec tural courses. Besides those needed to fill new positions due to growth, deaths and retirements will account for about 1,000 new openings every year. Along with the anticipated rise in demand for architects, an increase is expected in the number of archi tectural graduates. If this field fol lows the trend expected in all col lege graduations, the number of ar chitectural degrees awarded each year during the 1970’s should be considerably greater than the esti mated 4900 awarded in 1970. How ever, many architectural graduates work in fields such as sales and ad ministration in the building industry and do not enter the profession. Thus, those who choose to enter the field and become registered should have good employment opportuni ties through the 1970’s. Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries of architectural school graduates employed in pri vate industry were generally be tween $120 and $160 a week in 1970, according to available infor mation. Draftsmen having 3 years’ experience or more earned between $135 and $180 a week; job cap tains, specification writers, and other senior employees usually earned from $150 to $250 a week. Senior employees often receive yearly bonuses in addition to their salaries. Architects well established in pri vate practice generally earn much more than high-paid salaried em ployees of architectural firms. The range in their incomes is very wide, however. Some architects that have many years of experience and good reputations earn well over $25,000 a year. Young architects starting their own practices may go through a period when their expenses are greater than their income. Depending on their college rec ords, architects having bachelor’s de grees and no experience could start in the Federal Government in 1970 at either $8,510 or $10,528 a year. Architects who had completed all requirements for the master’s de gree could start at $10,528 or $11,855; those having the Ph. D. degree could begin at either $13,493 or $14,665 a year. Most architects work in welllighted, well-equipped offices and spend long hours at the drawing board. However, their routine often is varied by interviewing clients or contractors or discussing the design, construction procedures, or building materials of a project with other ar chitects or engineers. Architects in volved in construction contract ad ministration frequently work out of doors during inspections at con struction sites. Sources of Additional Information General information about ca reers in architecture is included in a number of publications of the American Institute of Architects; a catalog of publications is available, as well as two free publications, “Designing a Better Tomorrow” and “Your Building, Your Archi tect.” They can be obtained from: The American Institute of Archi tects, 1785 Massachusetts Ave., NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. COLLEGE CAREER PLANNING AND PLACEMENT COUNSELORS (D.O.T. 166.268) Nature of the Work Career planning and placement counselors, sometimes called college placement officers, provide a variety of services to college students and alumni. They are concerned with the aspects of a student’s develop ment involving his career selection: studying himself, exploring and choosing an occupational area, making a decision either to pursue graduate study or to enter the labor market. They also aid students in obtaining part-time and summer po sitions to meet an economic need or to assist in career exploration. They arrange for employer repre sentatives to visit the campus to dis cuss their firms’ personnel needs and to interview qualified appli cants. Career planning and place ment counselors provide informa tion about students to employer rep resentatives and assist in appraising the qualifications of students. They also make new contacts with em ployers to develop additional em ployment opportunities. In addition, they may suggest improvements in employer recruitment literature and inform the college faculty of any change in job requirements that might warrant adjustment in curric ulum. Many assemble and maintain a li brary of career guidance informa tion and recruitment literature from public and private sources for the use of students and alumni. Such material includes information on various occupations, together with data on current opportunities, edu cational requirements, earnings, ad- 240 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK a combination of placement func tions is performed by one director and his clerical staff. In some col leges, especially the smaller ones, the functions of counselors may be per formed on a part-time basis by members of the faculty or adminis trative staff. Universities frequently have placement offices for each major branch or campus. In most universities, there is a central office which coordinates the work of all career planning and placement counselors; in some, each office works as a separate unit. An estimated 2,800 career plan ning and placement counselors were employed in 4-year colleges and universities in 1970, most of them on a full-time basis. Of this total number, about one-fourth were women. In addition, an increasing number of placement officers are employed full-time or part-time in 2-year colleges. College career planning and placement counselor and student discuss em ployment offers. vancement, and the long-term out look. Placement counselors may spe cialize in areas such as law and part-time and summer work. How ever, the extent of specialization usually depends upon the size and type of the college, as well as the size of the placement staff. Places of Employment Nearly all colleges and universi ties offer career planning and place ment services. Large colleges may employ several counselors working under a director of placement activ ities; in many institutions, however, Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement No specific education program exists to prepare persons for college career planning and placement work. However, a bachelor’s de gree, preferably in one of the be havioral sciences, is considered the minimum requirement for entry into the field. In 1970, more than 100 colleges and universities offered programs leading to a graduate degree in col lege student personnel work. Grad uate study is becoming increasingly important for career counseling and placement workers. Graduate courses that are considered helpful include counseling theory and tech niques, vocational testing, theory of group dynamics, and occupational research and employment trends. Some persons enter the career planning and placement field after gaining a broad background of ex perience in business, industry, gov ernment, or educational organiza tions. Also helpful is an internship in a career planning and placement office. Persons who would like to enter the career planning and placement field should have an interest in peo ple. They must be able to communi cate with and gain the confidence of students, faculty, and employers. The ability to develop a keen insight into the employment problems of both employers and students and to maintain honest and confidential communications also is important in college placement work. They must be energetic and able to work under pressure and to organize and ad minister a wide variety of tasks. Advancement for career planning and placement professionals usually is through promotion to an assistant or associate position, placement director, director of student person nel services, or to some other higher level administrative position. How ever, the extent of such opportunity usually depends upon the type of college or university and the size of the staff. Employment Outlook The number of job opportunities in the college career planning and placement field is expected to rise very rapidly through the 1970’s. In general, employment prospects will be good for new or recent college graduates seeking beginning posi tions. Among the factors expected to contribute to the favorable outlook for college career planning and placement counselors are the in creasing number of college students; a growing number of minority group OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS students and students from low-in come families who require special counseling and assistance in obtain ing part-time jobs to help finance their education; the expansion of counseling and placement programs on many campuses as greater recog nition is given to the need for such programs; and the increasing num ber of two-year institutions and the establishment of career counseling and placement offices on these cam puses. Regional college placement asso ciations and their coordinating or ganization, the College Placement Council, foster activities to upgrade and expand existing career planning and placement programs and en courage the establishment of place ment services where none presently exist. The results of their efforts should create additional job oppor tunities for professional personnel in this field. Some openings also will occur each year as placement officers transfer to other positions, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, annual earnings of placement office directors ranged from less than $5,000 to a high of over $27,500, with the median sal ary about $12,250, according to a National Education Association sur vey of public and private colleges and universities. The survey reports that annual earnings of deans of testing and counseling in 1970 ranged from under $6,500 to more than $29,500 with a median salary of $13,800. In general, the larger institutions paid the highest salaries. Career planning and placement professionals frequently work more than a 40-hour week; irregular hours and overtime often are neces sary, particularly during the “re cruiting season.” Most placement personnel are employed on a 12month basis. They are paid for hol idays and vacations, and receive the same benefits as other professional personnel employed by colleges and universities. Sources of Additional Information The College Placement Council, Inc., P.O. Box 2263, Bethelem, Pa. 18001. HOME ECONOMISTS (D.O.T. 096.128) Nature of the Work Improving products, services, and practices that affect the comfort and 241 well-being of the family is the pri mary function of home economists. These professional workers have a broad knowledge of the home eco nomics field or are specialists in a particular area, such as food, cloth ing and textiles, housing, home furnishings and equipment, child development, household manage ment, or family economics. Teachers make up the largest group of home economists. Second ary school teachers instruct classes in food, nutrition, clothing, textiles, child development, family relations, home furnishings, home manage ment, and consumer education. In addition, they may sponsor local chapters of Future Homemakers of America and conduct related activi ties. Other work done by home eco nomics teachers is similar to that described in the statement on Sec ondary School Teachers, elsewhere in this Handbook. Teachers in adult education programs help homemak- 242 ers to increase their understanding of family relations and to improve their homemaking skills. They also train those who wish to prepare for jobs in home economics. College teachers may combine teaching and research, and often specialize in one particular area of home economics. Private business firms and trade associations employ home econo mists to promote the development, use, and care of specific home prod ucts. These home economists may do research; test products; prepare advertisements and booklets with instructional materials; plan, pre pare, and present programs for radio and television; serve as con sultants; give lectures and demon strations before the public; and con duct classes for such workers as salesmen and appliance servicemen. They also may study consumer needs and help manufacturers trans late these needs into useful prod ucts. Home economists employed by food manufacturers often work in test kitchens or laboratories to im prove products or help create new products. They may also publicize the nutritional value of specific foods. Those employed by utility companies describe the operation and benefits of appliances and serv ices and often give advice on household problems. Home econo mists employed by manufacturers of kitchen and laundry equipment may work with engineers on product de velopment. Those engaged in com munications work for magazines, newspapers, radio and television stations, advertising and public rela tions agencies, trade associations, and other organizations. They usu ally prepare articles, advertise ments, and speeches about home products and services. Their work may include product testing and analysis, and the study of consumer OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK buying habits. Still other home economists work for dress-pattern companies, department stores, inte rior design studios, and other busi ness firms that design, manufacture, and sell products for the home. A small number of home economists are employed in financial institu tions, giving customers advice on spending, saving, and budgeting. Some home economists are en gaged in research for the Federal Government, State agricultural ex periment stations, colleges, universi ties, and private organizations. The U.S. Department of Agriculture em ploys the largest group of these workers, some of whom study the buying and spending habits of farm families, and then develop budget guides. A few in other Federal agencies are engaged in research on space travel, working on such prob lems as food needs in outer space. Cooperative Extension Service home economists conduct adult ed ucation programs for women and 4-H Club programs for girls in such areas as home management, con sumer education, family relations, and nutrition. Home economists employed on social-welfare programs by Federal, State, county, city, and private wel fare agencies may act as advisers and consultants on household budg ets and improved homemaking. They help handicapped homemakers and their families adjust to physical limi tations by changing the arrange ments in the home and revising methods of work. Other home econ omists in welfare agencies super vise or train workers who provide temporary or part-time help to households disrupted by illness. Places of Employment About 105,000 persons were em ployed in home economics occupa tions in 1970. This figure includes an estimated 30,000 dietitians and approximately 5,200 extension work ers who are discussed in separate statements on Dietitians and Co operative Extension Service Work ers in the Handbook. About 65,000 home economists were teachers. Ap proximately 45,000 were secondary school teachers. About 13,500 were adult education instructors, some of whom also taught part-time in sec ondary schools. In addition, there were about 4,000 college and uni versity teachers. The remainder taught in elementary schools, kinder gartens, nursery schools, recreation centers, and other institutions. More than 5,000 home economists were in private business firms and associa tions. Several hundred were govern ment research workers, and some worked in social welfare programs. A few were self-employed. Although home economics is gen erally considered a woman’s field, a growing number of men are em ployed in home economics posi tions. Most men specialize in foods and institution management, though some are in the family relations and child development field, applied arts, and other areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Approximately 400 colleges and universities offer training leading to a bachelor’s degree in home eco nomics, which qualifies graduates for most entry positions in the field. A master’s or doctor’s degree is re quired for college teaching, for cer tain research and supervisory posi tions, for work as an extension spe cialist or supervisor, and for some jobs in the nutrition field. The undergraduate curriculum in OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS home economics gives students a strong background in science and liberal arts and also includes courses in each of the areas of home economics. Students majoring in home economics may specialize in various subject-matter areas. Ad vanced courses in chemistry and nu trition are important for work in foods and nutrition; science and sta tistics for research work; and jour nalism for advertising, public rela tions work, and all other work in the communications field. To teach home economics in a high school, a student must complete the profes sional education courses and other State requirements for a teacher’s certificate. Scholarships, fellowships, and assistantships are available for under graduate and graduate study. Al though colleges and universities offer most of these financial grants, government agencies, research foundations, businesses, and the American Home Economics Asso ciation Foundation provide addi tional funds. Home economists must be able to work with people of various living standards and backgrounds and should have a capacity for leader ship, including an ability to inspire cooperation. Good grooming, poise, and an interest in people also are essential, particularly when dealing with the public. The ability to com municate effectively is also impor tant. Employment Outlook Home economists are expected to have good employment opportuni ties through the 1970’s. The great est demand will stem from the need to fill teaching positions in second ary schools and in colleges and uni versities. Many business establish ments also are becoming increas ingly aware of the contributions that can be made by professionally trained home economists and prob ably will hire more of them to promote home products and to act as consultants to customers. In creased national focus on the needs of low-income families may also in crease the demand for home econo mists. In addition, the need for more home economists in research is expected to increase because of the continued interest in improving home products and services. Many home economists will be needed to replace those who die, re tire, or leave the field because of family responsibilities or other rea sons through the 1970’s. Opportuni ties for those who leave the profes sion but later wish to return will be good, especially as part-time teach ers in adult education programs. 243 rienced county extension home econ omists, $7,000; experienced county extension home economists, $9,600; and State specialists, $13,400. The Federal Government paid in experienced workers who have a bachelor’s degree in home econom ics $6,548 or $8,098 in late 1970, depending on their scholastic rec ords. For those having additional education and experience, salaries generally ranged from $9,881 to $16,760 a year, depending upon the type of position and level of respon sibility. Many home economists work a regular 40-hour week or less. Those in teaching and extension positions, however, frequently work longer hours as they are expected to be available for evening lectures, dem onstrations, and other work. Most home economists receive fringe benefits, such as paid vacation, sick leave, retirement pay, and insurance benefits. Earnings and Working Conditions Home economics teachers in public schools generally receive the same salaries as other teachers, as most school districts have a single salary schedule, based on education and experience. In school districts of 100,000 pupils or more, the me dian salary of beginning teachers who have a bachelor’s degree was $7,200 for the school year 1970-71, according to a National Education Association survey; in districts of 50,000 to 99,999 enrollment, the median starting salary was $6,800; and in districts of 25,000 to 49,999 enrollment, $6,850. The median sal ary of home economics instructors teaching in colleges and universities was about $8,360 a year in 196970. In 1970, average annual salaries received in the Cooperative Exten sion Service were as follows: inexpe Sources of Additional Information A list of schools granting degrees in home economics is available from: Home Economics Education, Bureau of Adult, Vocational, and Tech nical Education, Division of Vo cational and Technical Education, U.S. Department of Health, Edu cation, and Welfare, Washington, D.C. 20202. Additional information about ca reers in this profession, the types of home economic majors offered in each school granting degrees in home economics, and graduate scholarships may be obtained from: American Home Economics Asso ciation, 2010 Massachusetts Ave nue, NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. 244 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK LANDSCAPING ARCHITECTS (D.O.T. 019.081) Nature of the Work Everyone enjoys walking through an attractively designed park or driving along a scenic road. Land scape architects plan, design, and supervise the arrangement of these outdoor areas for people to use and enjoy. The attractiveness of parks, highways, housing projects, cam puses, and country clubs reflects the skill of these architects in design ing useful and pleasing landscapes. Their knowledge of site planning al lows landscape architects to serve many types of clients, from a real estate firm embarking on a new sub urban development to a city prepar ing to build an airport. Landscape architects may plan the entire arrangement of a site and supervise the grading, construction, and planting required to carry out the plan. Whether they perform all or only part of these services on a particular project, however, de pends on the client’s wishes and the available funds. To plan a site, landscape archi tects first study the nature and pur pose of the client’s project, and the various types of structures needed. Next, they study the site itself, ob serving and mapping features such as the slope of the land and the po sition of existing buildings and trees. They also consider the parts of the site that will be sunny or shaded at different times of the day, the struc ture of the soil, existing utilities, and many other factors. Then, after con sultation with the architect and en gineer working on the project, they draw up preliminary plans for the development of the site. After the client approves the preliminary plans, working drawings are made which show all existing and pro posed features such as buildings, roads, walks, terraces, grading, and drainage structures in planted areas. Landscape architects outline in de tail the methods of constructing fea tures such as walks and terraces and draw up lists of materials to be used. Landscape contractors then are invited to submit bids for the work. Firms of landscape architects usually handle a wide variety of as signments. Some, however, special ize in projects such as parks and playgrounds, campuses, hotels and resorts, shopping centers, roads, or public housing. Places of Employment An estimated 10,000 landscape architects were employed in 1970. The majority were self-employed or worked for other landscape archi tects in private firms. About onethird of all landscape architects were employed by government agencies concerned with public housing, city planning, urban re newal, highways, and parks and rec reational areas. Some were on the staffs of engineering firms; others were employed by landscape con tractors and a few taught in colleges and universities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Landscape architect plans site design. A bachelor’s degree in landscape architecture is usually the minimum requirement for entering the profes sion. This training is offered in at least 64 colleges and universities, of which 24 have been accredited by OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS the American Society of Landscape Architects. Another 40 schools offer courses in landscape architecture but not a complete 4-year program. The curriculum for the bachelor’s degree requires 4 to 5 years of study, depending on the institution. Fifteen universities also offer mas ter’s degrees in landscape architec ture. Entrance requirements for the landscape architecture course are usually the same as those for admis sion to the liberal arts college of the same university. Some schools also require completion of a high school course in mechanical or geometrical drawing, and most schools advise high school students to take courses in art and more mathematics than the minimum required for college entrance. Courses in design, including ar chitecture and drawing as well as landscape design, constitute over half of the typical curriculum in landscape architecture. Other major fields of study are civil engineering and horticulture. In addition, courses in English, science, the so cial sciences, and mathematics usu ally are required. A bachelor’s de gree in landscape architecture provides a good background for graduate work in city planning. Young people who plan to be come landscape architects should be interested in both art and nature, for the profession demands a talent for design and an understanding of plant life, as well as technical abil ity. Successful practice as an inde pendent landscape architect also re quires a good business sense and the ability to deal with people. Working for landscape architects or landscape contractors during summer vacations will help the stu dent to discover the phases of land scape architecture that interest him most and may better qualify him for employment upon graduation. New graduates usually begin as junior draftsmen, or designers trac ing drawings and doing other simple drafting work. As their skill in creases, they progress to more re sponsible work. After 2 or 3 years, they usually become registered as landscape architects and are quali fied to carry a design through all stages, from preliminary sketches to finished working drawings. Experi enced draftsmen often handle other aspects of landscape architects’ work also, such as preparing specifi cations and detailing methods of construction. Employees who dem onstrate ability for all phases of work may become associates of the firm; landscape architects who pro gress this far often open their own offices. A license is required for the inde pendent practice of landscape archi tecture in 20 States—Arizona, Cali fornia, Colorado, Connecticut, Flor ida, Georgia, Hawaii, Kansas, Loui siana, Massachusetts, Michigan, Ne braska, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, Utah and Washington. Candidates for the licensing examination are usually required to have 6 to 8 years’ experience, or a degree from an accredited school of landscape architecture plus 2 to 4 years’ expe rience. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for graduates that have professional training in landscape architecture are expected to be favorable throughout the 1970’s. The profes sion probably will continue to ex pand in the years ahead as a result of the continued growth of metro politan areas with their needs for 245 parks and recreational areas, the growing population’s requirements for outdoor recreational facilities, the continued increase in public construction (including public hous ing), and the rising interest in city and regional planning. The ex pected increase in homeownership, coupled with rising per capita in comes and living standards, also will spur the demand for landscape ar chitects. Women represent between 10 and 15 percent of all landscape ar chitects. Well-trained and compe tent women landscape architects can look forward to interesting and worthwhile careers in the profes sion, particularly as specialists in garden and planting design. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, starting salaries in pri vate offices for new graduates hav ing bachelors’ degrees in landscape architecture ranged from about $7,000 to $9,000 annually; holders of master’s degrees generally earned starting salaries between $12,000 and $15,000. Experienced persons employed by private firms typically earned from about $15,000 to $20,000 a year, although it was not unusual for especially well-qualified people to receive annual salaries of more than $25,000. Landscape architects in independ ent practice often earn more than salaried employees with considera ble experience, but their earnings may vary widely and may fluctuate from year to year. In the Federal Civil Service in 1970, newly graduated landscape architects were paid annual en trance salaries of either $8,510 or $10,528 depending on their qualifi cations. Others with advanced de grees earned between $11,855 and 246 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK $13,493. The salary schedule also provides for periodic increases above this amount. Salaried employees both in the government and in landscape archi tectural firms usually work regular hours. Self-employed persons often work long hours, especially during the latter stages of a project. Sala ried employees in private firms may also work overtime during seasonal rush periods. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on the profession and a list of colleges and universities offering accredited courses of study in landscape archi tecture may be obtained from: American Society of Landscape Architects, Inc., 2013 I St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. For information on a career as a landscape architect in the Forest Service, write to: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, D.C. 20250. LAWYERS (D.O.T. 110.108, .118 and 119.168) Nature of the Work When people need legal help they retain lawyers, who advise them of their rights and obligations and, when necessary, represent them in courts of law. In addition, lawyers (also called attorneys) negotiate settlements out of court and repre sent clients before quasi-judicial and administrative agencies of the gov ernment, such as the Internal Reve nue Service and the Social Security Administration. They may act as trustees, guardians, or executors. Government attorneys play a large part in developing and administering Federal and State laws and pro grams; they prepare drafts of pro posed legislation, establish law en forcement procedures, and argue cases. Most lawyers are engaged in gen eral practice, handling all kinds of legal work for clients. However, a significant number specialize in one branch of law, such as corporation, criminal, labor, patent, real estate, tax, or international law. Some attor neys devote themselves entirely to trying cases in the courts. Others never appear in court but instead spend all their time drawing up wills, trusts, contracts, mortgages, and other legal documents; conduct ing out-of-court negotiations; and doing the investigative and other legal work necessary to prepare for trials. Still others are primarily en gaged in teaching, research, writing, or administrative activities. Many people who have legal training are not employed as law yers but are in other occupations where they can use their knowledge of law. They may, for example, be insurance adjusters, tax collectors, probation officers, credit investiga tors, or claims examiners. A legal background also is a valuable asset to people seeking or holding public office. Places of Employment About 280,000 lawyers were em ployed in 1970, the great majority working full time. Of the total num ber almost three-fourths were in private practice. About half of the private practitioners were in prac tice by themselves; the other half were in partnership or working for other lawyers or law firms. Government agencies employ the greatest number of salaried attor neys. In 1970, about 10,000 attor neys worked for the Federal Gov ernment, chiefly in the Justice, De fense and Treasury Departments, and the Veterans Administration. About twice as many attorneys were employed by State and local govern ment. Other salaried lawyers are employed by private companies, such as large manufacturing firms, banks, and insurance companies. OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Most of the remainder teach in law schools. Some lawyers in salaried legal positions also have an inde pendent practice; others do legal work on a part-time basis working primarily in another occupation. Most lawyers work in cities and in the more populous States. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Before a person can practice law in the courts of any State, he must be admitted to its bar. In all States, applicants for bar admission must pass a written examination; how ever, a few States waive this re quirement for graduates of their own law schools. Other usual re quirements are U.S. citizenship and good moral character. A lawyer who has been admitted to the bar in one State can usually be admitted in another without taking an examina tion, provided he meets that State’s standards of good moral character and has a specified period of legal experience. The special rules of each court or agency control the right to practice before Federal courts and agencies. To qualify for the bar examina tions in the majority of States, an applicant must have completed a minimum of 3 years of college work and, in addition, must be a graduate of a law school approved by the American Bar Association or the proper State authorities. A few States will accept as qualification study of the law wholly in a law office or in combination with study in a law school. Only one State will accept study of the law by corre spondence. A number of States re quire registration and approval by the State Board of Examiners be fore students enter law school or during the early years of legal study. In a few States, candidates must complete a period of clerkship in a law office before they are admitted to the bar. As a rule, 7 years of full-time study after high school is necessary to complete the required college and law school work. The most usual preparation for becoming a lawyer is 4 years of college study followed by 3 years in law school. However, many law schools admit students after only 3 years of col lege work. A few schools may ac cept students after 2 years of col lege work. On the other hand, an increasing number of law schools are requiring applicants to have a college degree. Law schools seldom specify the college subjects which must be included in students’ prelegal education. However, English, history, economics and other social sciences, logic, and public speaking are all important for prospective lawyers. In general, their college background should be broad enough to give them an understanding of society and its institutions. Students interested in a particular aspect of the law may find it helpful to take related courses; for example, engi neering and science courses for the prospective patent attorney, and ac counting for the future tax lawyer. Prospective lawyers should also enjoy working with people and be capable of winning their confidence. Acceptance by most law schools is dependent upon the applicant’s ability to demonstrate an aptitude for the study of law, usually through the “Law School Admissions Test.” Of the 173 law schools in exist ence in 1970, 148 were approved by the American Bar Association and the others—chiefly night schools—were approved by State authorities only. A substantial num ber of full-time law schools have night divisions designed to meet the 247 needs of part-time students; some law schools have only night classes. Four years of part-time study are usually required to complete the night-school curriculum. In 1969, almost a quarter of all law students in ABA approved schools were en rolled in evening classes. The first 2 years of law school are generally devoted to fundamen tal courses such as contracts, crimi nal law, property law, and judicial procedure. In the third year, stu dents may elect courses in special ized fields such as tax, labor, or cor poration law. Practical experience is often obtained by participating in school-sponsored legal aid activities, in the school’s practice court where students conduct trials under the su pervision of experienced lawyers, as well as by writing on legal issues for the school’s law journal. Graduates receive the degree of juris doctor (J.D.) from many schools, although other schools confer the bachelor of laws (LL.B.) as the first profes sional degree. Advanced study is often desirable for those planning to specialize or to engage in research and law-school teaching. Most beginning lawyers start in salaried positions, although some go into independent practice immedi ately after passing the bar examina tion. Young salaried attorneys usu ally act as assistants (law clerks) to experienced lawyers or judges. Ini tially, their work is limited to re search, such as checking points of law; they rarely see a client or argue a case in court. After several years of progressively responsible salaried employment, many lawyers go into practice for themselves. Some law yers, after years of practice, become judges. Employment Outlook Graduates from highly regarded 248 law schools, as well as those who rank high in their classes, will have good employment prospects through the 1970’s. They should find oppor tunities for salaried positions with well-known law firms, on the legal staffs of corporations and govern ment agencies, and as law clerks to judges. Graduates of the less promi nent schools and those who gradu ate with lower scholastic ratings may experience some difficulty in finding salaried positions as lawyers. However, numerous opportunities will be available for law school graduates to enter a variety of other types of salaried positions requiring a knowledge of law. Prospects for establishing a new practice will probably continue to be best in small towns and expand ing suburban areas. In such com munities, competition is likely to be less than in big cities, and rent and other business costs somewhat lower. Also, young lawyers may find it easier to become known to poten tial clients. On the other hand, sala ried employment will be limited largely to metropolitan areas where the chief employers of legal talent —government agencies, law firms and big corporations—are concen trated. For many able and wellqualified lawyers, opportunities to advance will be available in both salaried employment and private practice. Although the majority of employ ment opportunities for new lawyers will arise from the need to replace those who retire, die, or otherwise leave the field, the total number of lawyers is expected to grow moder ately over the long run. Most of the growth will result from continuing expansion of business activity and population, and the increased use of legal services by low- and middleincome groups. For example, ex pansion of legal services for low- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK income groups has come about through the Community Action Programs authorized under the Ec onomic Opportunity Act of 1964. In addition, the growing complexity of business and government activi ties is expected to create a steadily expanding demand for lawyers who have extensive experience in corpo ration, patent, administrative, labor, and international law. However, continuing a recent trend, the num ber of lawyers in independent prac tice may remain stable or decline somewhat. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, law firms in several States offered annual starting sala ries as high as $15,000 to law school graduates from widely recog nized schools or those having high academic standing. For lawyers em ployed by manufacturing and other business firms the average starting salary was over $11,500 a year in 1970; with 1 year’s experience, over $13,000; and with a few years’ ex perience, an average of $16,800. In the Federal Government, annual starting salaries for attorneys pass ing the bar were either $9,881 or $11,905 in 1970, depending upon their academic and personal qualifi cations. Those with a few years’ ex perience earned $16,760 a year. Some exceptional government law yers earned more than $35,000 an nually. Beginning lawyers engaged in legal aid work usually receive the lowest starting salaries. New lawyers starting their own practices may earn little more than expenses dur ing the first few years and may work part time in another occupation. Lawyers’ earnings generally in crease with experience. Those on a salaried basis receive increases as they assume greater responsibilities. In 1970, the average annual salary in private industry for those in charge of legal staffs was more than $33,000. Incomes of lawyers in pri vate practice usually grow as their practice develops. Private practition ers who are partners in law firms generally have greater average in comes than those who practice alone. Lawyers often work long hours and are under considerable pressure when a case is being tried. In addi tion, they must keep abreast of the latest laws and court decisions. However, since lawyers in private practice are able to determine their own hours and workload, many stay in practice until well past the usual retirement age. Sources of Additional Information The specific requirements for ad mission to the bar in a particular State may be obtained from the clerk of the Supreme Court or the secretary of the Board of Bar Ex aminers at that State capital. Infor mation on law schools and on law as a career is available from: Information Service, The American Bar Association, 1155 East 60th St., Chicago, 111. 60637. Association of American Law Schools, Suite 370, 1 Dupont Circle, NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. LIBRARIANS (D.O.T. 100.118 through .388) Nature of the Work Making information available is the job of librarians. Librarians se- OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS lect and organize collections of books, pamphlets, manuscripts, pe riodicals, clippings, and reports, and assist readers in their use. In many libraries, they also may make avail able phonograph records, maps, slides, pictures, tapes, films, paint ings, braille and talking books, mi crofilms, and computer tapes and programs. In addition to classifying and cataloging books and other loan items, they publicize library serv ices, study the reading interests of people served by the library, and provide a research and a reference service to various groups. Librari ans also may review and abstract published materials and prepare bibliographies. In small libraries, librarians per form a great variety of tasks. In a large library, each librarian may perform only a single function, such as cataloging, publicizing library services, or providing reference serv ice, or he may specialize in a sub ject area such as science, business, the arts, or medicine. Librarians are generally classified by the type of library in which they are employed: Public library, school media center, college or uni versity library, or special library. There are two principal kinds of li brary work—reader services and 249 technical services. Those who per form reader services—for example, reference librarians and children’s librarians—work directly with the public. Librarians who perform technical services, such as catalog ed or acquisition librarians, deal less frequently with the public. Public librarians serve all kinds of readers—children, students, teachers, research workers, and oth ers. Increasingly, librarians are pro viding special materials and services to culturally and educationally de prived persons and to physically handicapped persons unable to use conventional print. The professional staff of a large public library system may include the chief librarian, an assistant chief, and several division heads who plan and coordinate the work of the entire library system. This system also may include librar ians who supervise branch libraries, and other librarians who are spe cialists in certain areas. The duties of some of these specialists are briefly described as follows: Acquisition librarians purchase books and other library materials recommended by staff members, or requested by patrons,keep a wellbalanced library in quantity and quality, make sure that the library receives what it orders, and main tain close contact with book jobbers and publishers. Catalogers classify books under various subjects and otherwise describe them so they may be located through catalogs on cards or in other forms. Reference librarians aid readers in their search for information—answering specific questions or suggesting sources of information. This work requires a thorough understanding of biblio graphic material and a general knowledge of library materials in various subject fields. Children’s li brarians plan and direct special pro grams for young people. Their du 250 ties include helping children find books they will enjoy, instructing them in the use and content of the library, giving talks on books, con ducting film programs, and main taining contact with schools and community organizations. Often, they conduct regular story hours at libraries, playgrounds and day care centers, and sometimes on radio or television. Adult services librarians may select materials for adult read ers and advise them. They are often asked to suggest reading materials, and to cooperate in or plan and conduct educational programs on such topics of adult interest as com munity development, public affairs, creative arts, problems of the aging, or home and family life. Young adult services librarians may select books and other materials for young people of junior .high school and high school age and guide them in the use of these materials. They may arrange book or film discussion groups, concerts of recorded popu lar and classical music, and other programs related to the interests of young adults. They also may help to coordinate the services of the school libraries and the local public library. Bookmobile librarians take library materials into areas where public li brary services are nonexistent or in adequate, in inner city neighbor hoods, migrant camps, and institu tions such as hospitals and homes for the aged and others. School media specialists (school librarians) instruct students in the use of the library and visit class rooms to familiarize students with print and nonprint materials relating to the subjects being taught. They also work with teachers and school supervisors in planning and devel oping units of study and independ ent study programs and participate in team teaching. They prepare lists of printed and nonprinted materials OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK on certain subjects; meet with fac ulty members to select materials for school programs; and select, order, and organize library materials. Many school media specialists are employed by school district central offices as supervisors to plan and coordinate library services for the entire school system, as catalogers and as librarians to administer pro fessional libraries for teachers and administrators. Very large high schools may employ several media specialists, each responsible for a special function of the library pro gram or for special subject mate rials. College and university librarians work with students, faculty mem bers, and research workers in gen eral reference work or in a particu lar field of interest, such as law, medicine, economics, or music. In addition, they may teach one or more classes in the use of the li brary. A few librarians who are em ployed in university research proj ects operate documentation cen ters. Computers and other modern devices are being increasingly used to record and retrieve specialized information. Special librarians work in librar ies maintained by commercial and industrial firms, such as pharmaceu tical companies, banks, advertising agencies, and research laboratories; professional and trade associations; government agencies; and other types of organizations such as hos pitals and museums. They plan, ac quire, organize, catalog, and re trieve information from collections designed to provide intensive cover age of information resources about subjects of special interest to the or ganization. Special librarians utilize their extensive knowledge of the subject matter, as well as of library science, in building library re sources, advising and assisting li brary users, abstracting, and routing available materials. They must be able to evaluate the importance of new information to their organiza tion. Literature searching and the preparation of summaries, transla tions, bibliographies, and special re ports are among the major duties of special librarians. These operations may involve the use of electronic data processing equipment. Information science specialists, like special librarians, work in tech nical libraries maintained by com mercial and industrial firms. How ever, they must possess a more ex tensive technical and scientific back ground than special librarians. They not only perform many of the duties of special librarians, but they also develop coding and programing techniques for using electronic and electromechanical information stor age devices and abstract compli cated information into short, reada ble form, and interpret and analyze data for a highly specialized clien tele. Information on library techni cians, is found in a separate state ment in the Handbook. Places of Employment In 1970, about 125,000 persons were employed as professional li brarians. Most of them worked full time. School librarians accounted for more than two-fifths of all li brarians; public librarians repre sented nearly one-fourth; librarians in colleges and universities ac counted for one-fifth; and those em ployed in special libraries (includ ing libraries in government agen cies), one out of seven. Some librarians were employed in correc tional institutions, hospitals, and State institutions. A small number of librarians were employed as OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS teachers and administrators in schools of library science. More than 85 percent of all li brarians are women. Men are more frequently employed than women in executive and administrative posi tions in large library systems and in special libraries concerned with sci ence and technology. Most librarians work in cities and towns. Those attached to bookmo bile units serve widely scattered population groups, mostly in subur ban or rural areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To qualify as a professional li brarian, one must ordinarily have completed a 1-year master’s degree program in library science. A Ph. D. degree is an advantage to those who plan a teaching career in li brary schools or who aspire to a top administrative post, particularly in a college or university library or in a large school library system. For those who are interested in the spe cial libraries field, a master’s degree or doctorate in the subject of the li brary’s specialization also is highly desirable. In 1970, 46 library schools in the United States were accredited by the American Library Association. Many other colleges offer courses within their 4-year undergraduate programs, as well as at the graduate level, which prepare students for some types of library work. Entrance requirements to most graduate schools of library science include (1) graduation from an ac credited 4-year college or univer sity, (2) a good undergraduate rec ord, and (3) a reading knowledge of at least one foreign language. Some schools also require introduc tory undergraduate courses in li 251 brary science. Most library schools terested in becoming a librarian prefer a liberal arts background and should have an interest in people, majors in areas such as social sci intellectual curiosity, an ability to ences, physical and biological sci express himself clearly, a desire to ences, the arts, or comparative liter search for recorded materials and ature. Some schools require en use them, and an ability to work with others. trance examinations. Special librarians and science in Experienced librarians may ad formation specialists must have ex vance to administrative positions or tensive knowledge of their subject to specialized work. However, pro matter as well as training in library motion to these positions is limited science. In libraries devoted to sci primarily to those who have com entific information, librarians should pleted graduate training in a library be proficient in one foreign lan school, or to those who have had guage or more. They also must be specialized training. well informed about new equip ment, methods, and techniques used in storing and recalling technical in Employment Outlook formation. The employment outlook for Many students attend library schools under cooperative work- trained librarians is expected to be study programs, combining their ac good through the 1970’s. The best ademic program with practical work opportunities probably will be in experience in a library. Most library school and college and university li schools make every effort to arrange braries, especially in research, sub the student’s schedule to permit him ject specialties, and some languages. to take the necessary courses while Some librarians will probably con working part-time. Scholarships for tinue to find opportunities for em training in library science are avail ployment in the Armed Forces and able under certain State and Federal the U.S. Information Agency over programs and from library schools, seas. Persons who have only a bache as well as from a number of the large libraries and library associa lor’s degree with a major in library tions. Loans, assistantships, and fi science, probably will encounter nancial aids also are available. stiff competition in finding profes School librarians must be certi sional level jobs. Many part-time fied in most States as having met the positions also will be available for requirements for both librarians and persons trained in library work. The demand for qualified librari teachers. Sometimes local, county, or State authorities establish other ans to meet the requirements of a requirements, that are based on dif growing and increasingly well-edu ferent combinations of education cated population will be intensified and experience. In the Federal Gov by the vast and continuing expan ernment, beginning positions re sion in the volume and variety of quire completion of a 4-year college materials which must be processed course and all the work required for for reader use. Because of the demands upon a master’s degree in library science ever-increasing high-level executives in business or the equivalent in experience and and industry, management will rely education. In addition to an appropriate ed more heavily on the services of spe ucational background, a person in cial librarians and science informa 252 tion specialists to keep abreast of new developments. Expanding use of computers to store and retrieve information also will contribute to increased demands for science in formation specialists. The increase of Federal grant assistance through the Library Services and Construc tion Act, the Medical Assistance Act, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, and the Higher Ed ucation Act may further increase the demand for librarians. Im proved standards for school media centers and college libraries and the expanding student population also will contribute to the demand for li brarians. Additional librarians will be needed to provide services to in mates and patients in correctional institutions and to residents in schools for the blind, deaf, and handicapped people who cannot use conventional materials. In addition to openings resulting from growth of the occupation, many librarians also will be needed each year to fill positions vacated by young women who leave their jobs to care for their families, and to re place librarians who transfer to other types of work, retire, or leave the field for other reasons. Oppor tunities for women wishing to reen ter the field also will be favorable. Earnings and Working Conditions The annual starting salary of new library school graduates averaged about $8,700 in 1970. The degree of responsibility and technical skill required, as well as geographic loca tion, size, and type of library, are important factors determining indi vidual salaries. The higher paying positions generally are found in col lege, school, and special libraries. College and university libraries of fered an average beginning salary of OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK about $8,700 in 1970. New gradu ates employed in special libraries received about $8,400; those em ployed in public libraries averaged about $8,100. Librarians having ex tensive experience and information specialists having a Ph. D. degree in a subject matter field generally earned between $10,000 and $15,000 a year. Qualified special librarians can usually expect to earn salaries in ex cess of those paid to public and school librarians because of their additional specialized subject train ing. The annual salary for all special librarians was $11,800 in 1970, but head librarians reported an average salary of $13,600, with a few mak ing over $20,000 a year. Informa tion science specialists received an average of $12,000 a year in 1970. In the Federal Government, the annual entrance salary for librarians having a master’s degree in library science was $9,881 in 1970. Expe rienced librarians generally earned from $10,200 to $19,800. The typical workweek for librari ans is 5 days, ranging from 35 to 40 hours. The work schedule of public and college librarians may include some Saturday, Sunday, and eve ning work. School librarians gener ally have the same workday sched ule as classroom teachers. A 40hour week during normal business hours is common for government and other special librarians. The usual paid vacation after a year’s service is 3 to 4 weeks. Vaca tions may be longer in school librar ies, and somewhat shorter in those operated by business and industry. Many librarians are covered by sick leave; life, health, and accident in surance; and pension plans. Sources of Additional Information Additional information, particu larly on accredited programs, and scholarships or loans may be ob tained from: American Library Association, 50 East Huron St., Chicago, 111. 60611. Information on requirements of special librarians may be obtained from: Special Libraries Association, 235 Park Ave., South, New York, N.Y. 10003. Information on Federal assist ance for library training under the Higher Education Act of J965 may be obtained from: Division of Library and Educational Facilities, Bureau of Libraries and Educational Technology, Office of Education, U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C. 20202. Those interested in a career in Federal libraries should write to: Secretariat Federal Library Com mittee, Room 310, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540. Information on information sci ence specialists may be obtained from: American Society for Information Science, 1140 Connecticut Ave nue, NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Individual State library agencies can furnish information on scholar ships available through their offices, on requirements for certification and general information about ca reer prospects in their regions. State boards of education can furnish in formation on certification require ments and job opportunities for school librarians. OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS LIBRARY TECHNICIANS (D.O.T. 249.368) Nature of the Work Library technicians assist librari ans in furnishing information on li brary sciences, facilities, and rules; in assisting readers in the use of card catalogs and indexes to locate books and other materials; and in answering questions that require only brief consultation of standard references. In some libraries, they train and supervise the clerical staff. Cataloging books is one of their most important duties. Such work includes identifying the title, author, edition, publisher, publication data, and number of pages. Notations in the card catalog reflect the use of a classification system other than the Library of Congress System. Some technicians catalog new editions of works and compare information in the new edition with that on the cards already in the library’s cat alog. In some libraries, technicians prepare orders for library materials by looking up prices and publisher information, maintain files of special materials, such as newspaper clip pings and pictures, and arrange dis plays. In a large library, technicians may maintain controls on check outs, reserves, renewals, and over due materials. They may operate and maintain audiovisual and data processing equipment, including photographs, slide projectors, and tape recorders, as well as readers that magnify, project on a screen, and sometimes print out informa tion on microfilm and microfiche cards. 253 one year of library-related work, such as introductory courses in bib liographic science, and cataloging. Most programs also include an in troduction to library organization, and the purposes, procedures, and development of libraries. Some offer training to familiarize the student with data processing and audiovisual materials. The number of junior and com munity colleges that offer library technician programs is expected to increase rapidly in the future, con tinuing the trend of the 1960’s. A high school diploma or its equiva lent is the standard entrance re Places of Employment quirement for both academic and on-the-job training programs. Many An estimated 76,000 library programs require that a student be technicians were employed in 1970; proficient in typing. A few schools four-fifths were women. Most tech require on-the-job experience under nicians were employed in public and the supervision of a librarian. school libraries. Smaller numbers College programs for library worked in college and university li technicians vary since many of them braries, and in business, medical, are established to meet a particular and other special libraries. In 1970, local need. For this reason, young the Federal Government employed people should select a program with about 3,300 library technicians, care and obtain information on the chiefly in the Department of De curriculum, instructional facilities, fense and the Library of Congress. faculty qualifications, and kinds of jobs obtained by graduates. Credits earned in a two-year college pro Training, Other Qualifications, gram in library technology may not and Advancement apply toward a professional degree in library science. Most library technicians em Library technicians should enjoy ployed in 1968 were trained on- detailed work, have manual dex the-job in programs that required terity, verbal ability to explain pro from 1 to 3 years to complete. Re cedures and regulations, and nu cently, however, an increasing num merical ability to handle circulation ber have received training in formal statistics. The job requires much post-high school programs. In the standing, stooping, bending, and future, a larger number of employers reaching. may require such training. In 1970, about 115 colleges of fered a 2-year program for library Employment Outlook technicians which led to an asso ciate of arts degree in library tech The employment outlook is ex nology. Curriculums generally in cellent for library technicians clude one year of liberal arts and through the 1970’s, particularly for 254 graduates of academic programs. A growing population and recent Fed eral legislation authorizing funds to construct, expand, and improve li braries are factors that influence de mand. Several thousand technicians will be needed annually through the 1970’s to replace those who die, re tire, and transfer to other fields. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries vary widely with the size of the community and the library system in which library technicians are employed. Starting salaries gen erally range from $5,000 to $6,300; experienced library technicians sometimes make over $9,000. In the Federal Government, an nual salaries generally ranged from $5,212 to $8,098 in 1970. A few technicians earned $9,881 a year or more. Library technicians employed in public and private school systems usually work only during school hours. The work schedule in public and college libraries may include some weekend and evening hours. In government and special libraries, a 40-hour week is common. Most libraries provide fringe ben efits such as group insurance and re tirement pay. Additional benefits of fered by private business often include educational assistance pro grams. Library technicians em ployed by the Federal Government receive the same benefits as other Federal workers. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK PHOTOGRAPHERS (D.O.T. 143.062, .282 and .382) Nature of the Work Photography involves much more than just taking clear pictures. Skill ful portrait photographers, for ex ample, take pictures which not only are natural looking and attractive but which also express the personal ity of the individual. Photographing sports and other news events also requires special photographic skills, as do other areas of photographic work. The work of photographers var ies greatly, depending on the area of specialization; however, all photog raphers use equipment and mate rials that are basically the same. Photographers use a variety of still and motion picture cameras. These cameras may be equipped with tele photo, wide-angle, or other special lenses, and have different types of light filters that enable the photog rapher to obtain the particular ef fects desired in each picture. Pho tographers also utilize many kinds of film and must know which to use for each type of picture, lighting condition, and camera. The photog rapher must be able to select the proper filter to be used with differ ent film. When taking pictures in doors or after dark, photographers use lighting equipment—flash bulbs or electronic flash for some pictures, flood lights and other special lights and reflectors for others. In addi tion, photographers must be able to execute the chemical and mechani cal processing by which pictures are developed, enlarged, and printed. (See statement on Photographic Laboratory Occupations.) In small shops and photographic depart ments, the photographer often does all this technical work; as a rule, large studios employ photographic technicians to do the needed labora tory work. The procedures involved in taking motion pictures differ Photographer adjusts distance scale. OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS greatly from those used in still pho tography and, therefore, most pho tographers restrict themselves to ei ther one field or the other. Photographers also need some knowledge of art and design, and they should know how to use makeup and props. In addition, photographers must be able to ar range their subjects properly against a setting. Many professional photographers specialize in such areas as portrait photography, commercial photogra phy, or industrial photography. Por trait photographers usually work in their own studios, although they also take pictures in people’s homes and other places. Commercial pho tographers generally take pictures for use in advertising real estate, furniture, food, apparel, and other items, but they may also do other kinds of photographic work. The in dustrial photographer usually works for a single firm or company, taking pictures that are used in company publications and for advertising company products or services. He may take motion pictures of workers on the job and of equip ment and machinery operating at high speed; these pictures are then used to simplify work methods or to improve the production process. Other photographic specialists in clude press photography (photo journalism that combines a “nose for news” with photographic abil ity); aerial photography; instrumen tation photography; illustrative pho tography; educational photography (preparing slides, film strips, and movies for use in the classroom); and science and engineering photog raphy (the development of photo graphic techniques for use in space photography and related fields). Some photographers teach in high schools or colleges, act as represent atives of photographic equipment manufacturers, manage photo-fin ishing establishments, sell photo graphic equipment and supplies, produce documentary films, or do freelance work. Places of Employment About 65,000 photographers were employed in 1970. Approxi mately half of them worked in com mercial studios—many in business for themselves, the rest as salaried employees. In addition, sizable numbers were employed in indus try; some worked for Federal, State, and local government agencies; and others operated camera stores or worked on the staffs of newspapers and magazines. Still others worked as freelance photographers, taking many kinds of pictures and selling them to advertisers, magazines, and other customers. Photographers work in all parts of the country, in small towns as well as large cities. They are con centrated, however, in States which are heavily populated—California, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Illinois—and which also have great numbers of businesses and in dustrial establishments. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement After high school, young people may prepare for work as profes sional photographers through 2 or 3 years of on-the-job training in a commercial studio. A trainee gener ally starts by working in the dark room, where he learns how to de velop film and do other related work such as photo printing and en larging. Later, he may set up lights and cameras or otherwise assist an 255 experienced photographer in taking pictures. Photographic training also can be obtained in many colleges and uni versities, trade schools, and techni cal institutes, or by taking corre spondence school courses. There are colleges, universities, or other institutions in almost every State that offer courses in some area of photography. Several colleges and universities offer 4-year curriculums leading to a bachelor’s degree with a major in photography. These cur riculums include liberal arts subjects as well as courses in professional photography. The master’s degree with a major in various specialized areas, such as color photography, is offered by some colleges and uni versities. A few institutions have 2-year curriculums leading to a certificate or an associate degree in photography. Training in design at art schools or institutes is also use ful, although these schools usually do not provide the technical training for camera work. (See statement on Commerical Artists.) Some photog raphers are trained in 3-year ap prenticeship programs. Also, many young people learn photographic skills while serving in the Armed Forces. The kind and amount of training obtained greatly influences the type of photographic work for which a young person can qualify. Amateur photographic experience may be helpful to the young person consid ering entry jobs in this field. Considerable post-high school training, plus some photographic experience, is usually needed to enter industrial, news, or scientific photography. Photographic work in scientific and engineering research generally requires a background in science or engineering, as well as skill in photography. The prospective photographer 256 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK should have manual dexterity, good eyesight and color vision, as well as some artistic ability. In addition, a pleasant personality and the ability to put people at ease are needed by photographers. Imagination and originality are particularly impor tant assets for successful careers in commercial photography or free lance work. For press photography, a knowledge of news values and the ability to act quickly are important. Beginning photographers often work in established studios until they accumulate the capital and ex perience needed to start their own businesses, although some open their own immediately after com pleting their training. Employment Outlook Thousands of talented and welltrained photographers will be needed each year though the 1970’s to fill new positions and replace those who retire, die, or stop work ing for other reasons. However, those with limited ability and train ing are likely to encounter competi tion and find few opportunities for advancement. Competition for employment in the portrait and commercial fields of photography is expected to be keen; nevertheless, opportunities should exist for those who are com petent and well trained. These fields may be entered easily, since a pho tographer can go into business for himself with a modest financial in vestment. Moreover, the available supply of portrait and commercial photographers is continually en larged by people who are em ployed in other occupations but who take pictures in their spare time. In coming years, the employment of industrial photographers is ex pected to rise at a more rapid rate than that of either portrait or com mercial photographers. Major fac tors contributing to this growth are the increasing use of photographers in research and development and the more widespread production of audio-visual aids for use by busi ness, industry, civic organizations, and government. Because of ad vances in photographic technology, such as more sophisticated cameras, improved color, and high-speed photography, more and more busi ness concerns and other organiza tions are utilizing photographic work. Microfilming will offer em ployment opportunities for persons having basic photographic skills. In this process, photo methods are used to reduce large quantities of file material to 16 millimeter film for easier filing and retrieval. In ad dition, opportunities are expected to be favorable for photographers working in scientific and engineer ing photography, illustrative pho tography, photo-journalism, and other highly specialized areas that require a thorough knowledge of photography as well as training in a technical or scientific field. Popula tion expansion and the growth of the suburbs also will create some opportunities for photographers to open studios in new shopping cen ters. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning photographers gener ally earned from $125 to $140 a week in 1970, according to the lim ited information available. Many photographers who have established reputations earned much more. Inexperienced photographers em ployed by most daily newspapers having contracts with the American Newspaper Guild received mini mum starting salaries ranging from about $105 to $140 a week. For photographers employed by a few small daily newspapers, the Guild minimum starting salaries were less than $95 a week; on a few large dailies, Guild minimum rates for be ginning photographers approached $200 a week or more. Minimum rates for newspaper photographers having some experience (usually for those with 4 to 6 years) averaged about $200 a week in 1970. Contract minimums for experienced newspaper photographers on a few small dailies were less than $ 165 a week; on a few large dailies, they ranged from about $260 to $290 a week. Photographers who have a science or engineering background usually received begin ning salaries of between $9,000 and $10,000 a year. Depending on the level of experi ence, the entrance salary of photog raphers in the Federal Civil Service ranged from $5,853 to $9,881 a year in 1970. In addition, the salary schedule provides for periodic in creases above this amount. Most ex perienced photographers in the Federal Government earned be tween $6,500 and $14,000 a year; a few earned over $17,000 annually. Self-employed photographers gen erally earn more than salaried workers, but their earnings are af fected greatly by business conditions and many other factors such as the type and size of community and clientele. Photographers who have salaried jobs usually work the standard 5day, 40-hour week and receive ben efits such as paid holidays, vaca tions, and sick leave. Photographers in business for themselves fre quently work longer hours. Working conditions are generally pleasant. Freelance, press, and commercial photographers may be required to travel frequently. 257 OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Sources of Additional Information Information about photography as a career, as well as a list of schools of photography, is available from: Professional Photographers of America, Inc., 1090 Executive Way, Oak Leaf Commons, Des Plaines, 111. 60018. SYSTEMS ANALYSTS (D.O.T. 033.187, 012.168, 020.081 and 020.088) Nature of the Work Systems analysts plan, schedule, and coordinate the activities neces sary to develop systems which proc ess data to solve business, scien tific, or engineering problems. Indi vidual parts of a problem are viewed within the context of the overall problem. Although a system can be developed to process data manually, mechanically, or with electronic computers, most systems analysts develop methods for com puter usage. (This statement dis cusses only the work of systems analysts who devise systems using electronic computers to process data and solve problems.) Business firms employ systems analysts to solve accounting, inven tory, and other problems. With the assistance of managers or subject matter specialists, they determine the exact nature of the data-processing problem. Then systems analysts define, analyze, and structure the problem logically. They identify all of the data needed and define ex actly the way it is to be processed. They prepare charts, tables, and diagrams to describe the processing system and the steps necessary to its operation. Systems analysts use var ious techniques as tools of analysis; these may include cost accounting, sampling, and mathematical meth ods. After analyzing the problem and devising a system for processing data, systems analysts recommend the equipment to be used and pre pare instructions for programers. They also interpret and translate final results into terms that are un derstandable to management, subject matter specialists, or customers. Data processing problems are vast and solutions so varied and complex that many systems analysts specialize in a particular area. For example, systems analysts who work for scientific or engineering organi zations may determine the flight of a space vehicle. Other analysts may develop systems to plan and forecast sales or conduct marketing research. Some analysts improve systems already in use to handle additional or different types of data. Others do research, described as advanced systems design, to devise new meth ods of systems analysis. Analysts engaged in this type of activity usually have mathematical, scientific, or engineering backgrounds. Systems analysts, who are manag ers or administrators and responsi ble for overall systems design, as sign analysts to various phases of a project. They also may plan, organ ize, and control systems analysis throughout the organization in which they work and prepare re ports. Places of Employment More than 100,000 persons were estimated to be employed as sys tems analysts in 1970. They work 258 mainly for insurance companies, manufacturing concerns, banks, wholesale and retail businesses, and the Federal Government. A growing number of systems analysts are em ployed by universities and independ ent service organizations that fur nish computer services to business firms and other organizations on a fee basis. Systems analysts work chiefly in large cities. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ing some experience, they may be promoted to systems analyst trainees and later qualify as systems analysts. In large electronic data-process ing departments, a person who be gins as a junior systems analyst and gains experience may be promoted to senior or lead systems analyst. Systems analysts having proven leadership ability also can advance to positions as manager of systems analysis or an electronic data-proc essing department. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employment Outlook There is no universally accepta ble way of preparing for work in sys tems analysis. Some employers pre fer that candidates have a bache lor’s degree and experience in mathematics, science, engineering, accounting, or business. Other em ployers stress a graduate degree. Educational preparation and ex perience often determine the kind of job opportunities available. For example, employers are likely to seek an analyst having a back ground in business administration to work in finance or similar areas; those having an engineering back ground are sought for engineering or scientifically oriented systems. Applicants also may qualify on the basis of professional experience in scientific, technical, or managerial occupations, or practical experience in data processing jobs such as com puter operator or programer. Most employers prefer to hire people who have had some experi ence in computer programing. A young person can learn to use elec tronic data-processing equipment on the job or can take special courses offered by his employer, computer manufacturers, or colleges. In the Federal Government, for example, systems analysts usually begin their careers as programers. After gain Employment opportunities for systems analysts should be excellent through the 1970’s. Systems analyst has ranked among the fastest grow ing professional occupations in re cent years. However, because peo ple having a systems analysis or similar background work in fields such as mathematics and science, employers have had difficulty re cruiting these workers. A growing demand for systems analysts will result from the rapid expansion of electronic data-proc essing systems in business and gov ernment. Greater emphasis will be placed on developing computer sys tems that will retrieve information more efficiently; solve complex business, scientific, and engineering problems; and monitor industrial processes. These developments and others, such as the extension of computer technology to small busi ness, the use of systems analysis to determine plant and store location, and the growth of computer centers to serve individual clients for a fee, signify a rapid rise in employment. In addition to opportunities due to growth, some openings will occur as systems analysts advance to more responsible positions or leave their jobs to enter other employment. Be cause many of the workers are young, relatively few positions will result from retirement or death. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, beginning salaries of systems analysts averaged between $8,950 and $12,700 a year, accord ing to a private survey which cov ered more than 80,000 workers in business, government, and educa tional data-processing installations in all parts of the country. Earnings of experienced systems analysts av eraged $14,300 annually, and in some cases they were paid $25,000 or more a year. Systems analysts usually work about 40 hours a week—the same as other professional and office workers. Unlike many console oper ators who work on two or three shifts, systems analysts generally work only during the day. Occasion ally, evening or weekend work may be necessary to complete emergency projects. Sources of Additional Information Additional information about the occupation of systems analyst may be obtained from the following sources: American Federation of Informa tion Processing Societies, 210 Summit Avenue, Montvale, N.J. 07645. Data Processing Management As sociation, 505 Busse Highway, Park Ridge, 111. 60068. A list of reading materials on ca reer opportunities in the data proc essing field may be obtained from: Association for Computing Ma chinery, 1133 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10036. 259 OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS PROGRAMERS (D.O.T. 020.188) Nature of the Work An electronic computer, although sometimes called a “mechanical brain,” can only follow step-by-step instructions. The programer pre pares these instructions. A computer not only makes mathematical calculations at fantas tic speeds, but stores large amounts of data for later use. Because com puters work with masses of infor mation at tremendous speed and ac curacy, they are used for much “data processing” that otherwise would require many employees. They handle varied assignments such as maintaining inventories and controlling production machinery in factories. Every “problem” processed in a computer first must be carefully an alyzed so that exact and logical steps for its solution can be worked out. An experienced programer or systems analyst does this prelimi nary work. (See the statement on systems analysts elsewhere in the Handbook.) Once this preliminary work has been completed, the “program,” or detailed instructions for processing the data, can be prepared by the programer. Exactly how he does this depends not only on the type of equipment to be used but on the na ture of the problem. The mathemat ical calculations involved in billing a firm’s customers, for example, are very different from those required in most kinds of scientific and tech nical work. The programing tech niques also are different. Still other techniques are required in writing programing “aids” to reduce the amount of detail. Because of these differences, many programers spe cialize in certain kinds of work. In business offices, computers frequently are used to bill custom ers, make up payrolls, and keep track of inventories. First, the pro gramer determines what informa tion is necessary to prepare the doc uments and the form in which it is entered on company records. He next makes a flow chart or diagram, showing in what order the computer must do each step. Then, he pre pares detailed instructions for the computer’s control unit to tell the machine exactly what to do with each piece of information. The pro gramer also prepares an instruction sheet for the console operator to follow when the program is run. (The work of the console operator is described in the statement on Electronic Computer Operating Personnel.) The final step in programing is “debugging”—that is, checking on whether the instructions have been correctly written and will produce the desired information. A program usually is debugged in two steps. First, the programer takes a sample of the data to be processed and re views step by step exactly what will happen as the computer follows the series of instructions that make up the program. Then, after he has re vised the instructions to take care of any difficulties that have appeared, he completes the test by having a trial run made in the computer. The console operator sometimes helps with this part of the debugging proc ess. A comparatively simple program can be made for a computer within a very few days. A program that deals with a complex problem or is designed to produce many different kinds of information may require a year or more of preparation— sometimes by a large number of programers. On involved problems, several programers at different lev els of responsibility often work as a Programer prepares flow chart. 260 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK team, under the supervision of a senior programer. The programer may perform other related duties, such as design ing forms to use in data presenta tion. In addition, existing programs must be updated to keep pace with administrative changes or to im prove efficiency. Also, larger or newer model computers often re quire that programs be rewritten. Places of Employment Nearly 200,000 programers were employed in 1970. In addition, some professional workers such as engineers, scientists, mathemati cians, economists, and accountants spend a portion of their time pro graming. Programers are employed chiefly by large business organizations and government agencies. A great many work for insurance companies and banks, public utilities, wholesale and retail establishments, and man ufacturing firms of almost every kind. A considerable number are government employees doing work related either to scientific and tech nical problems, or to the processing of the vast amount of paperwork that is handled in many government offices. In addition, a growing num ber of programers are employed by computer manufacturers and inde pendent service organizations that furnish computer and programing services to business firms and other organizations on a fee basis. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The special abilities most sought by employers when they hire pro gramers are similar for all types of positions, but requirements regard ing education and experience vary according to the problems with which the programer will be oc cupied. Some programers are col lege graduates having degrees in en gineering, for example, whereas others have had years of experience in work such as accounting or in ventory control. In selecting pro gramers, employers look for people having an aptitude for logical think ing and the exacting kind of analysis that is part of the job. The work also calls for patience, persistence, and the ability to work with extreme accuracy. Ingenuity and imagination are particularly important in jobs where programers have to solve problems in new ways. Organizations which use comput ers for science and engineering pre fer programers who are college graduates having degrees in engi neering, the physical sciences, mathematics, or computer science. Graduate degrees may be required for some positions; for almost all positions, an applicant who has no college training is at a severe disad vantage. Employers who use computers to process business records may not require programers to have techni cal college training. Many em ployers promote qualified workers having previous experience in machine tabulation, payroll, or ac counting. When hiring outsiders, employers usually prefer applicants having training beyond high school. College courses in data processing or accounting, business administra tion, engineering, or mathematics provide especially good preparation. Entrance requirements for jobs in the Federal Government are similar to those in private industry. Appli cants are required to have a college degree, preferably with training in mathematics or the equivalent work experience. Young people interested in pro graming can acquire some of the necessary skills at a steadily increas ing number of technical schools, colleges, and universities. Instruc tion ranges from introductory home study and extension courses to ad vanced computer technology at the graduate level. High school courses in computer programing also are of fered in many parts of the country. High school and post-high school instruction, however, do not entirely eliminate the need for on-the-job training. Since technology changes continually and each type of com puter has its own special program ing, some additional training usually is necessary. Most beginners in this occupation attend training classes for a few weeks and then, as they work on minor programing assignments, con tinue with further specialized train ing. A year or more of experience usually is necessary before a pro gramer can handle all aspects of his job without close supervision. Once he becomes skilled, his prospects for further advancement are good. Ex perienced and capable programers are in strong demand. In large or ganizations, employees may be promoted to systems analyst posi tions or senior programing jobs hav ing supervisory responsibilities. Employment Outlook Many thousands of new jobs for programers will become available each year through the 1970’s. Em ployment is expected to increase very rapidly, as the number of com puter installations rises to meet the growing demand for data process ing. The increase in employment is expected to be particularly sharp in firms that use computers to process OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS business records or to control man ufacturing processes. The rise in employment is ex pected to be accompanied by changes in the nature of the work done by programers. Advances in programing techniques and equip ment, such as the use of more ad vanced languages and program parts stored in libraries for future reference, will eliminate much of the routine work associated with writing a program. As a conse quence, professionally trained per sonnel qualified to handle both pro graming and systems analysis are likely to be increasingly in demand, especially for work on scientific and engineering problems. For other po sitions, many of them in large busi ness offices where the analysis is done by accountants and other sub ject matter experts, 2 years of posthigh school training may provide a sufficient background for beginning programers. Most of the openings for program ers in the years just ahead will be new jobs that arise as the number of computer installations continues to increase, and computers are put to new uses. Some openings also will occur as programers advance to more responsible positions, or as they leave their jobs to enter other types of employment. Because this occupation includes many compara tively young workers, fewer posi tions are likely to become vacant because of retirement or death than in other occupations of similar size. averaged $12,170 a year, with some earning up to $20,000 annually. The average salary for programers having supervisory duties was $14,250 a year; some programing supervisors earned up to $24,000 annually. The survey indicated salaries var ied substantially. Some workers earned up to five times as much as others in the same position. These differences were due to the data processed, the computer used, the industry, and its location. Federal Government salaries for programers were comparable to those in private industry. The great majority earned between $8,100 and $14,200 a year. The minimum entrance salary for beginners was $6,550 a year in 1970, and the top salaries of experienced programers responsible for complex programing or supervisory and administrative work ranged to $22,900 or more a year. Programers work about 40 hours a week. Unlike many computer con sole and auxiliary equipment opera tors who work on two or three shifts, programers usually work only during the day. Occasionally, eve ning or weekend work may be nec essary. Work places usually are modern offices, well-lighted and air condi tioned. Employers recognize the de sirability of providing the best possi ble work surroundings so that pro gramers can concentrate more read ily on the exacting analysis that is essential to their job. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, beginning salaries for programers averaged $8,530 a year, according to a private survey which covered more than 80,000 data proc essing workers in all parts of the country. Experienced programers Sources of Additional Information Additional information about the occupation of programer may be obtained from: Data Processing Management As 261 sociation, 505 Busse Highway, Park Ridge, 111. 60068. American Federation of Informa tion Processing Societies, 210 Summit Ave., Montvale, N.J. 07645. A list of reading materials on ca reer opportunities in programing may be obtained from: Association for Computing Ma chinery, 1133 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10036. PSYCHOLOGISTS (D.O.T. 045.088 and .108) Nature of the Work The problems of severe emo tional stress and abnormal behavior, the causes of low morale, or the ef fective performance of an astronaut, are among the concerns of psychol ogists seeking to understand people and to explain their actions. Psy chologists study the behavior of in dividuals and groups and often help individuals achieve satisfactory per sonal adjustments. Their work in cludes varied activities such as teaching in colleges and universities; counseling individuals; planning and conducting training programs for workers; performing basic and ap plied research; advising on psychol ogical methods and theories; and administering psychology programs in hospitals, clinics, research labora tories, and other places. Psychologists obtain information about the capacities, traits, interests, behavior, and actions of people in several ways. They may interview individuals, develop and administer tests and rating scales, study per sonal histories, and conduct con OCCUPATIONAL OUTL6OK HANDBOOK 262 trolled experiments. In addition, psychologists often conduct surveys, either by personal interviews or by written questionnaires. Psychologists usually specialize in one of the many interrelated branches of the profession. Clinical psychologists are the largest group of specialists. Generally, they work in mental hospitals or clinics and are concerned mainly with problems of mentally or emotionally disturbed people. They interview patients, give diagnostic tests, and provide in dividual and group psychotherapy. Other specialties in psychology in clude experimental psychology (the laboratory study of basic learning and motivation and sensory and perceptual processes); developmen tal psychology (the study of specific age groups such as young children, teenagers, and the aged); personal ity and social psychology (the study of human relationships to gain un derstanding of behavior); school psychology (concerned with psy chological factors involved in the educational performance and gen eral well being of school age chil dren); comparative psychology (comparative behavior of different animals); physiological psychology (the relationship of behavior to physiological processes); counseling psychology (helping people achieve satisfactory personal, social, educa tional, or occupational adjust ments ); educational psychology (the study of educational proc esses); industrial psychology (de veloping techniques for selecting and training workers and improving worker motivation and morale); and engineering psychology (the study of man-machine and other complex system relationships). Places of Employment An estimated 40,000 psycholo gists were employed in 1970. About one-quarter are women. Colleges and universities employ the largest number of psychologists —nearly three-fifths of the total. Government agencies—Federal, State, and local—employ the sec ond largest group. Within the Fed eral Government, the agencies hav ing the most psychologists are the Veterans Administration, the De partment of Defense, and the Public Health Service. Many psychologists also work in public schools, industry, and non profit foundations and clinics. Some are in independent practice, and others serve as commissioned officers in the Armed Forces and the Public Health Service. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Generally, the master’s degree with a major in psychology is the minimum educational requirement for professional employment in the field. Psychologists having this de gree can qualify for positions where they administer and interpret psy chological tests, collect and analyze statistical data, conduct research ex periments, and perform administra tive duties. In addition, they may teach in colleges, help counsel stu dents or handicapped persons, or —if they have had previous teach ing experience—act as school psy chologists or counselors. (See state ments on School Counselors and Rehabilitation Counselors.) The Ph. D. degree is needed for many entrance positions and is be coming increasingly important for advancement. Psychologists having doctorates qualify for the more re sponsible research, clinical, and counseling positions, as well as for the higher level positions in colleges and universities, and in Federal and State programs. At least 1 year of full-time gradu ate study is needed to earn the mas ter’s degree. An additional 3 to 5 years of graduate work usually is re quired for the Ph. D. degree. In clinical or counseling psychology, the requirements for the Ph. D. de gree generally include an additional 1 year of internship or supervised experience. Many graduate students receive financial help from universities and other sources in the form of fellow ships, scholarships, or part-time em ployment. Several Federal agencies provide funds to graduate students, generally through the educational institution giving the training. The Veterans Administration offers a large number of predoctoral traineeships, during which time the students receive payments and gain supervised experience in VA hospi tals and clinics. The Public Health Service provides funds for predoc toral and post doctoral traineeships and research fellowships. The Na tional Science Foundation, the U.S. Office of Education, the Rehabilita tion Services Administration, and the National Institute of Mental Health also provide fellowships, OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS grants, and loans for advanced training in psychology. The American Board of Examin ers in Professional Psychology awards diplomas in the specialties of clinical, counseling, industrial, and school psychology to those hav ing outstanding educational records and experience and who pass the required examinations. Some universities require an un dergraduate major in psychology for admission to graduate work in that field. Others prefer students with broader educational backgrounds, including not only some basic psy chology courses but also courses in the biological, physical and social sciences, statistics, and mathemat ics. Psychologists desiring to enter in dependent practice must meet certi fication or licensing requirements in an increasing number of States. In 1970, 42 States had these require ments. Young persons who wish to pur sue a career in psychology must be emotionally stable, socially mature, and able to deal effectively with people. Sensitivity, patience, and a genuine interest in others are partic ularly important attributes for work in clinical and counseling psychol ogy. Research psychologists should be able to do detailed and independ ent work. Verbal and writing skills are necessary in communicating re search findings. 263 Continued very rapid expansion of the profession is expected through the 1970’s. Mental hospi tals, correctional institutions, mental hygiene clinics, and community health centers which are currently understaffed, will need many clini cal, counseling, and social psycholo gists in the future. Many openings for psychologists also are antici pated in the Federal Government, primarily in the Veterans Adminis tration and the Department of De fense. Increasing awareness of the need for testing and counseling children is expected to increase the need for psychologists in schools. In colleges and universities, more psychologists will be needed for student personnel work, as well as for teaching and re search. Increased public concern for the development of human re sources as evidenced by the Mental Retardation Facilities and Com munity Mental Health Centers Con struction Act of 1963, as amended; and Medicare, Medicaid, and other federal programs will further in crease the demand for psycholo gists. Many vacancies also will occur each year as a result of retirements and deaths. The transfer of psychol ogists to do work of a purely admin istrative nature also may create some job vacancies. Most opportu nities, however, will result from the rapid expansion that is anticipated for the profession. The median annual salary for all psychologists in the National Sci ence Foundation’s Register of Sci entific and Technical Personnel was $15,000 in 1970. The median sal ary for those having a Ph. D. was $16,000. According to the Register, self-employed psychologists gener ally have higher incomes than sala ried employees. Median salaries in graduate de partments of psychology ranged from $11,700 for assistant profes sors to $19,200 for full professors during the academic year 1970-71 (9-10 months), according to a sur vey conducted for the Conference of Chairmen of Graduate Depart ments of Psychology. In the Federal Government, psy chologists having a Ph. D. degree and limited experience started at $13,493 in 1970. The annual aver age salary in the Department of Medicine and Surgery, Veterans Administration, which requires the doctoral degree for all specialties, was about $18,800 in 1970. Earnings and Working Conditions Information on traineeships and fellowships may be obtained from colleges and universities having graduate psychology departments. Sources of Additional Information General information on career opportunities, certification or licens ing requirements, and educational facilities and financial assistance for graduate students in psychology may be obtained from: American Psychological Association, 1200 17th St. N W , Washington, D.C. 20036. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for psychologists having the Ph. D. de gree are expected to be excellent through the 1970’s. Psychologists holding master’s degrees will be in demand, but their opportunities will be less favorable than for those hav ing the Ph. D. degree. In 1970, starting salaries for psychologists having a master’s de gree averaged about $9,600 a year, according to the American Psycho logical Association. Beginning sala ries for those having the doctorate degree averaged $10,900. 264 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK RECREATION WORKERS (D.O.T. 079.128, 187.118, 195.288) Nature of the Work Modern technological advances increasingly have raised the stand ard of living and provided leisure time for most people. How people spend their nonworking hours is now a major concern. Recreation workers help people to enjoy and use their leisure time constructively by organizing individual and group activities and by administering physical, social, and cultural pro grams for all age groups at camps, playgrounds, community centers, and hospitals. They also operate recreational facilities and study the recreation needs of individuals and communities. Recreation workers employed by local government and voluntary agencies direct activities at neigh borhood playgrounds and indoor recreation centers. They provide in struction in the arts and crafts and in sports such as tennis and basket ball. They may supervise recrea tional activities at correctional insti tutions and work closely with social workers in organizing programs of recreation for the young and the aged at community centers and so cial welfare agencies. Many persons work in industrial, hospital, military, or school recre ation. Recreational workers in in dustry plan programs for company employees and organize bowling leagues, softball teams, and similar activities. Sometimes, they plan fund drives and company social functions. Hospital recreation workers plan recreation programs for the ill and the handicapped in hospitals, convalescent homes, and other institutions. Working under medical direction, they organize and direct sports, dramatics, and arts and crafts for persons suffering from mental problems and physical disa bilities. School recreation workers organize the leisure-time activities of school-age children during school-days, weekends, and vaca tions. Some part-time recreation workers and volunteers assist full time workers throughout the year but mostly during the summer months. Part-time workers are largely college students and teach ers. They work primarily as recrea tion leaders and camp counselors, organizing and leading games and other activities at camps and play grounds. Places of Employment About 13,500 professional rec reation workers were employed full time in 1970; about one-half are women. The majority worked for local governments and voluntary agencies. Most of the remainder were employed by religious organ izations or by the Federal Gov ernment in national parks, the Armed Forces, the Veterans Ad ministration, and correctional insti tutions. Some recreational workers were employed by industry, and a few taught in colleges and universi ties. Recreation workers are employed in all parts of the country; however, a large proportion are employed in California, Massachusetts, New Jer sey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Texas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Recreation worker instructs archery class. Most employers prefer college graduates who have majored in rec OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS reation, social science, or physical education for work in the recreation field. However, fewer than one-half of the recreation workers currently employed have this educational background. Persons interested in becoming recreation workers should take a broad range of courses in college. The typical program of study includes courses in communi cation, natural sciences, the human ities, philosophy, sociology, drama, and music. Specific courses in recre ation include group leadership, pro gram planning and organization, health and safety procedures, out door and indoor sports, dance, arts and crafts, and field work (actual recreation leadership experience). Advanced courses in recreation or public administration leading to the master’s degree are desirable for persons interested in higher level administrative postions. Students in terested in industrial recreation may find it desirable to take courses in business administration; and those interested in working with the aged in hospitals as recreation specialists should take courses in psychology, health education, and sociology. Training leading to a bache lor’s degree with a major in recrea tion was available in over 130 schools in 1970. About 70 offered a master’s degree and about 30 of fered a doctorate in recreation. Over 60 junior colleges offer pro grams in recreation. Young people planning a career as a recreation worker must have the ability to motivate people and be sensitive to their needs. Good health and physical stamina are re quired to participate in sports. Ac tivity planning often calls for cre ativeness and resourcefulness. Since the recreation worker organizes sports, supervises art projects, and gives fund-raising speeches, he should have a variety of skills. Rec 265 reation workers should be able to preparation of budgets and the anal accept responsibility and exercise ysis of recreation programs. judgment since they usually work Opportunities for advancement to alone. administrative positions often are To increase their leadership skills limited for persons who have no and understanding of people, stu graduate training. However, ad dents should obtain related work vancement is sometimes possible experience in high school and col through a combination of education lege. They may do volunteer, part- and experience. Administrative jobs time, or summer work in recreation require varying years of experience departments, camps, youth-serving in full-time recreation work, de organizations, institutions, and com pending upon the size of the com munity centers. munity or organization and the pro Most college graduates entering gram. the recreation field begin as leaders or specialists, although each year a small number of college graduates Employment Outlook enter trainee programs that lead di rectly to recreation administration. Employment of recreation work A few large cities and organizations ers is expected to increase very offer these programs which gener rapidly, through the 1970’s. Several ally last 1 year. thousand recreation workers will be The National Recreation and needed annually for growth and to Park Association administers a na replace personnel who leave the tional internship program to give field because of retirements, deaths, advanced training and experience to or transfers to other occupations. In graduates of recreation curriculums. recent years, the number of college Stipends varying from $6,000 to graduates having a major in recrea $8,000 a year are available. tion has fallen far short of the de Recreation leaders work directly mand, and this pattern is expected with groups and individuals to or to continue. Thus, many new recre ganize and teach diversified activi ation workers will continue to be ties, such as athletics and social hired from the fields of social sci recreation in indoor and outdoor ence, physical education, and health centers. They also supervise nonpro education. Persons having less than fessional workers and assist in ad full professional training also will ministering recreation programs. find employment opportunities. As Recreation specialists organize and a result of the great demand for rec develop one activity or several closely reation workers, part-time and vol related activities. They sometimes unteer personnel will be needed, particularly in social welfare agen oversee nonprofessional workers. After a few years’ experience, cies and at the local government recreation leaders and specialists level. Factors that will contribute to may become recreation directors; those having graduate training, growth include increased leisure however, may start at this level. time and rising levels of per capita Directors are responsible for the op income. As income levels rise, more eration of the facilities, staff super persons will participate in a variety vision, and the development and ex of competitive and noncompetitive ecution of programs at a particular sports and larger numbers will recreation center, as well as the travel to parks and resorts for 266 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK camping, hiking, fishing, and other recreational pursuits. In addition, improvements in the national high way system will make many State parks and national forests more ac cessible to vacationing families. Population growth also will create a demand for more recreation workers to expand existing recrea tion programs and to aid larger numbers of mentally and physically handicapped persons. Longer life and earlier retirements will increase the number of clubs and organiza tions for retired persons, and thus increase the need for recreation workers. Other reasons for the anticipated longrun expansion in the number of recreation workers include a grow ing interest and participation in rec reation activities by the general population; the continued trend to ward urban living; the rise in in dustrial recreation activities as more companies promote recreation pro grams for their employees; in creased attention to physical fitness by government, educators, industry and others; and the initiation of pro grams to insure the preservation of outdoor recreation areas. A number of recent Federal laws also will con tribute to the rising demand for rec reation workers. Among these are the Elementary and Secondary Edu cation Act of 1965, which includes provisions for grants to local educa tional agencies for improving and expanding recreation opportunities for the educationally deprived; and the Older Americans Act of 1965, which provides grants to States for programs, including recreation, for older persons. tween $7,200 and $7,800 annually in 1970, according to the National Recreation and Park Association. In the same year, the salaries of rec reation supervisors ranged from $8,500 to $10,000, depending upon their qualifications and the size of the community in which they were employed. Salaries of recreation directors or superintendents gener ally ranged from $12,000 in some small communities to over $22,000 in many large cities. Regions varied in their salary levels—higher sala ries generally were paid in the West than in other areas of the country. In 1970, the annual starting sal ary for inexperienced recreation workers in the Federal Government was $6,548 or $8,098, depending on their academic records or spe cialized training. Experienced recre ation workers in Federal positions generally earned between $9,900 and $14,200 annually. The average workweek for recre ation workers is 40 hours, although some work upwards of 50 hours. A person entering the recreation field should expect some nightwork and irregular hours, for many recreation personnel work while other persons are enjoying their leisure time. Most public and private recreation agen cies provide from 2 to 4 weeks’ va cation and other fringe benefits, such as sick leave and hospital in surance. Earnings and Working Conditions National Industrial Recreation Asso ciation, 20 North Wacker Dr., Chicago, 111. 60606. Beginning recreation leaders hav ing a bachelor’s degree earned be Sources of Additional Information Information about recreation as a career and about employment op portunities in the field may be ob tained from: National Recreation and Park As sociation, 1700 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Information about employment opportunities in Veterans Adminis tration hospitals may be obtained directly from the hospitals or from the Department of Medicine and Surgery, Veterans Administration, Washington, D.C. 20421. SOCIAL WORKERS (D.O.T. 195.108, .118, .168, .208, and .228) Nature of the Work Development of a more complex urban society has greatly increased the need for organized social serv ices. Social workers provide the link between these services, and in dividuals and families who are not able to provide for themselves or who need assistance in solving their problems. The problems which concern so cial workers include poverty; bro ken homes; physical, mental, and emotional handicaps; antisocial be havior; racial tensions; and unsatis factory community conditions such as inadequate housing and medical care, and lack of educational, recre ational, and cultural opportunities. A variety of public and voluntary agencies have social work programs designed to meet specific needs in specific ways: for example, income maintenance programs; family and child welfare services; social serv ices for the crippled, disabled, ill, and aging; and programs for the prevention of juvenile delinquency. Many social work agencies empha size service to individuals or families; some place primary emphasis on OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS working with larger groups; and still others are concerned mainly with the community’s social welfare. Job titles may identify these three basic approaches as casework, group work, or community organi zation. The trend is for the social worker to use combinations of any two or all three approaches in prob lem-solving, however. Caseworkers identify the social problems of individuals and families through interviews. They aid them in understanding their problems and in securing necessary services, in cluding financial assistance, foster care, and homemaker service. Group workers help people through group activities to understand them selves and others better, and to work with others to achieve a common goal. They plan and conduct activi ties for children, adolescents, and older persons in a variety of set tings, including settlement houses, hospitals, homes for the aged, and correctional institutions. Commu nity organization workers help plan and develop health, housing, wel fare, and recreation services for a neighborhood or larger area. They often coordinate existing social serv ices and organize fund raising for community social welfare activities. The majority of social workers provide social services directly to individuals, families, or groups. However, a substantial number per form executive, administrative, or supervisory duties. Others are col lege teachers, research workers, or consultants. The wide range of serv ices provided by social workers is suggested by the descriptions of the principal areas of social work which follow: Social workers in family service positions in State and local govern ments and voluntary agencies pro vide counseling and social services that strengthen family life and help clients to improve their social func tioning. They also advise their clients on the constructive use of fi nancial assistance and other social services. 267 Social workers in child welfare positions in government and volun tary agencies improve the physical and emotional well-being of de prived and troubled children and youth. They advise parents on child care and child rearing, counsel chil dren and youth with social adjust ment difficulties, arrange home maker services during a mother’s ill ness, institute legal action for the protection of neglected or mistreated children, provide services to unmar ried parents, and counsel couples who wish to adopt children. They may place children in suitable adop tion or foster homes or in specialized institutions. Social workers employed by schools aid children whose unsatis factory behavior or progress in school is related to their social problems. These workers consult and work with parents, teachers, counselors, and other school per sonnel in identifying and seeking a solution to the problems that hinder satisfactory adjustment. Social workers employed by hos pitals, clinics, health agencies, reha bilitation centers, and public wel fare agencies aid patients and their families with social problems ac companying illness, recovery, and rehabilitation. They usually function as part of a medical team composed of physicians, therapists, and nurses. Some social workers provide serv ices for patients in mental health centers, hospitals, or clinics. As members of teams composed of psy chiatrists, psychologists, and other professional personnel, they develop and report information on the pa tient’s family and social background for use in diagnosis and treatment. They help patients respond to treat ment and guide them in their social adjustment to their homes, jobs, and communities. They have particular 268 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK responsibility for helping the fam ilies of patients to understand the nature of the illness. Social workers also participate in community men tal health programs concerned with the prevention of mental illness and readjustment of mental patients to normal home and community living. Some conduct research. Social workers in rehabilitation services assist emotionally or physi cally disabled persons in adjusting to the demands of everyday living. As part of a rehabilitation team, which usually includes physical or occupational therapists, these social workers serve as a link with the community while patients are in the hospital; later, they help them ad just to home and community life. (Rehabilitation counselors, a re lated occupational group, are dis cussed in a separate statement.) Probation and parole officers and other correctional workers assist persons on probation and parole and juvenile offenders in readjusting to society. They investigate the so cial history and background of the person under the jurisdiction of the court and make reports to the court to help the judge in his judicial deci sions. They also counsel persons on probation or parole, may help them secure necessary education or em ployment, and direct them to other services in the community. They also seek to resolve problems in marital and parent-child relation ships. Places of Employment About 170,000 social workers were employed in 1970; about 60 percent worked in Federal, State, county and city government agen cies. Most of the remainder were in voluntary or private agencies. A small number of experienced social workers from the United States were serving in other parts of the world as consultants, teachers, or technicians engaged in setting up agencies, schools, or assistance pro grams. They were employed by the Federal Government, the United Nations or one of its affiliated agen cies, national professional associa tions, or voluntary agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A bachelor’s degree, preferably in social welfare, generally is the mini mum educational requirement for beginning jobs in social work. In most fields of practice, certain spe cialized areas require a master’s de gree in social work. For teaching positions, a master’s degree in social work is required, and a doctorate is preferred. In research work, train ing in social science research meth ods is required, in addition to a graduate degree and experience in social work. In most States, begin ners must pass a written examination in social work for employment in a government agency. A master’s degree in social work is awarded on successful completion of 2 years of specialized study and supervised field instruction in an ac credited school of social work. Social workers who have a mas ter’s degree and belong to the Na tional Association of Social Workers are eligible for certification as mem bers of the Academy of Certified Social Workers (ACSW). In 1970, 70 graduate schools of social work in the United States were accredited by the Council on Social Work Education. For admis sion to these schools, a student must have a bachelor’s degree represent ing broad knowledge of the liberal arts, preferably including courses in economics, history, political science, psychology, sociology, and social anthropology. Many scholarships and fellow ships are available for graduate edu cation. Nearly two-thirds of the full-time students in graduate schools receive some type of finan cial aid from either the schools or employing agencies. Some social welfare agencies, both voluntary and public, offer plans whereby workers are granted “educational leave” to obtain graduate education. The agency may pay the expenses or a salary, or both. Personal qualities essential for social workers include emotional maturity, objectivity, sensitivity, a basic concern for people and their social problems, and the ability to form and sustain good working rela tionships and to encourage social adjustment in others. Students should try to obtain as much related experience as possible during high school and college to determine whether they have the interest and capacity for professional social work. They may do volunteer, part-time, or summer work in places such as camps, settlement houses, community centers, or so cial welfare agencies. Some social welfare agencies, both voluntary and public, hire college students and, in some cases, high school students for nonclerical jobs in which the stu dents assist social workers. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for social workers are expected to be very good through the 1970’s. De spite the anticipated increase in the number of graduates of master’s de gree programs in social work, the demand for these highly trained so cial workers is expected to continue 269 OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS to exceed the supply. The outlook for persons having a bachelor’s de gree in social welfare or in related fields will continue to be favorable. Qualified and experienced women who wish to work part time should have very good employment prospects. Many factors will contribute to the need for more social workers to maintain existing programs and to staff new ones. The occupational structure of the economy is ex pected to continue to change and create severe problems for many unskilled workers and others whose jobs have been replaced by ma chines. In addition, family life will continue to be affected by social change. The increasing population of the very young and the very old, the age groups most in need of so cial work services, is expected to contribute to the demand for social workers. Many openings also will arise because of the need to replace workers who retire, die, or other wise leave the profession. Earnings and Working Conditions According to an early 1971 sur vey of selected occupations by the Public Personnel Association, the average starting salary paid social caseworkers by various State agen cies was about $6,600. This figure, however, reflects very large numbers of persons who do not have a mas ter’s degree in social work. Case work supervisors in State agencies had average annual salaries ranging from $8,900 for those having little experience to about $11,300 for those having considerable experi ence. Salaries of psychiatric social workers averaged from $8,900 to $11,300; those of probation and parole officers averaged from about $7,600 to $9,100. Salaries of social workers in a cross-section of cities and urban counties were, on the average, above those paid by State agencies. For example, according to the sur vey cited above, the average start ing salary of social case workers in selected urban areas was about $7,700. Salaries of casework super visors averaged $10,600 for those with little experience to about $13,000 for those with considerable experience. Beginning psychiatric social workers had average salaries of about $10,200, probation and pa role officers averaged about $8,500 a year. In the Federal Government in 1970, graduates of accredited schools of social work received a starting salary of $9,881 a year. Those with 2 years of progressively responsible experience under pro fessional supervision received a Federal Government starting salary of $11,905. Persons having a bach elor’s degree or 3 years’ experience in technical or investigative work in a welfare activity began at $6,548 and $8,098 a year. The predominant scheduled workweek for social workers in 1970 was generally 40 hours; how ever, as many as one-third regularly worked 37 Vi hours or less a week. In some social work agencies, the na ture of the work requires evening and/or weekend work, for which social workers usually receive com pensatory time off. Virtually all so cial work agencies provide fringe benefits such as paid vacations and sick leave and retirement plans. Sources of Additional Information Information on admission re quirements and scholarship in ac credited graduate schools of social work and colleges offering courses in social work, as well as on social work as a career, may be obtained from: National Association of Social Workers, 2 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. SURVEYORS (D.O.T. 018.188) Nature of the Work Surveyors play an important part in the construction of highways, air fields, bridges, dams, and other structures, by providing information on measurements and physical char acteristics of construction sites. They also locate land boundaries, assist in setting land valuations, and collect information for maps, charts, and plates. The primary task of the surveyor is to determine the precise measure ments and locations of elevations, points, lines, and contours on or near the earth’s surface, and the dis tance between points. The supervi sor is directly responsible for the survey and its accuracy. He plans the fieldwork, selects survey refer ence points, and determines the pre cise location of natural and man made features of the survey region. He records information disclosed by the survey; makes mathematical cal culations based on such informa tion; verifies the accuracy of survey data; and prepares sketches, maps, and reports. In making his detailed measure ments in the field, the surveyor is assisted by workers in a field party which he directs. A typical field party is made up of three to six mem bers in addition to the surveyor OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 270 ments. Surveyors doing topographic surveys determine the elevations, depressions, and contours of an area, and indicate the location of distinguishing surface features such as farms, buildings, forests, roads, and rivers. Several closely related occupa tions are geodesy and photogrammetry. Geodesists measure immense areas of land, sea, or space, taking into account the earth’s curvature and its geophysical characteristics. (See statement on geophysicists.) Photogrammetrists apply analytical processes and mathematical tech niques to photographs and imagery obtained by aerial or ground sur veys to make topographic maps, and to measure and interpret the natural and manmade features of an area. Places of Employment Surveyors work on triangulation tower. (sometimes called the party chief). Included in the typical field party are instrumentmen who set up, adjust, and operate surveying instruments (including the theodolite, transit, level, altimeter, and electronic meas uring devices) at the points desig nated by the surveyor; chainmen, who measure distances between points, using a metal tape or survey or’s chain; and rodmen, who use a level rod, stadia board, or range pole to assist in measuring, between selected points, elevations, distance, and directions. Surveyors often specialize in one particular type of survey. Those doing highway surveys are con cerned with establishing the points, grades, and lines needed for high way locations. Those performing land surveys locate boundaries of a particular tract of land, prepare maps, record plats of the land, and prepare legal descriptions of it for deeds, leases, and other docu It is estimated that about 50,000 surveyors were employed in 1970; less than 5 percent were women. They were located in all parts of the country—in small towns as well as in large cities. About one-third of all surveyors work for Federal, State, and local government agencies. Among the Federal Government agencies utiliz ing these workers are the Interior Department’s U.S. Geological Sur vey and Bureau of Land Manage ment, the Army Corps of Engi neers, and the Agriculture Depart ment’s Forest Service. Surveyors in State and local gov ernment agencies are employed mainly by highway departments and by urban planning and redevelop ment agencies. A large number of surveyors work for construction companies and for engineering and architec tural consulting firms. A sizable OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS number either work for surveying firms which conduct surveys on a fee or contract basis or else head such firms. Other significant num bers work for the crude petroleum and natural gas industries and for utilities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The most common method of preparing for work as a surveyor is through a combination of post-sec ondary school courses in surveying and extensive on-the-job training in survey techniques and in the use of survey instruments. Courses in sur veying are offered in extension divi sions of many post-secondary schools and by correspondence schools. Some junior colleges, tech nical institutes, and vocational schools offer 1, 2, and 3-year pro grams in surveying. The entrance requirement for most surveying pro grams is high school graduation (preferably including courses in al gebra, geometry, trigonometry, cal culus, drafting, and mechanical drawing). For a professional career in photogrammetry, it is usually necessary to obtain a bachelor’s degree in en gineering or in the physical sciences. High school graduates having no formal training in surveying also may enter the field, usually starting as rodmen. After several years of on-the-job experience and some for mal courses in surveying, young persons may advance successively through the positions of chainman and instrumentman to that of party chief or surveyor. With some post-secondary school courses in surveying, beginners may start as instrumentmen. In many in stances, promotion to higher level positions is based on a written ex amination as well as on experience. All 50 States require licensing or registration of land surveyors re sponsible for locating and describ ing land boundaries. In some of these States, applicants for licenses are expected to know other types of surveying in addition to land sur veying. Requirements vary among the States but in general include a combination of 4 to 8 years’ experi ence in surveying and successful completion of an examination. If an applicant has taken post-secondary school courses related to surveying most States reduce the length of ex perience needed for licensing. In 1970 approximately 17,000 land surveyors were registered. In addi tion, about 15,000 engineers were registered to do land surveying, pri marily as part of their civil engi neering duties; however, these workers are considered engineers rather than surveyors. In addition to the necessary train ing and experience, qualifications for success as a surveyor include sound health and a strong liking for outdoor work. Because most sur veyors must supervise and direct the work of others, leadership qualities also are important. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for surveyors are expected to be good through the 1970’s. It is anticipated that employment in the field will grow rapidly. In addition to new po sitions, many openings will result each year from the need to replace those who transfer to other occupa tions, retire, or die. Prospects will be best for people having post-secon dary school training in surveying. Among the factors expected to contribute to the favorable employ 271 ment outlook is the rapid growth of urban areas, which will create re quirements for additional surveyors to locate boundary lines, and to lay out streets, shopping centers, schools, and recreation areas. Con struction and improvement of the Nation’s roads and highways will also require many new surveyors. Employment opportunities for women surveyors may be limited, primarily because much of the sur veyor’s work is strenuous. Earnings and Working Conditions In the Federal Government serv ice, in 1970, surveyors employed as field party chiefs received starting salaries of $7,300 or $8,100 a year, depending on experience. The ma jority of party chiefs earned be tween $8,000 and $11,000 per year, whereas some surveyors in high level positions earned more than $12,000. In private industry, according to the limited data availa ble, salaries for surveyors were gen erally comparable to those offered by the Federal Government but var ied somewhat between different areas of the country. Surveyors usually work an 8-hour day and 5-day week. However, they sometimes work longer hours dur ing the summer months when weather conditions are most suit able for surveying activities. The work of surveyors is active and sometimes strenuous. They may stand for long periods. They may also walk long distances or climb mountains with heavy packs of in struments and equipment. Because most of their work is done out of doors, surveyors may be exposed to all types of weather conditions. Some duties, such as planning sur veys, preparing reports and compu 272 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tations, and drawing maps usually are performed in an office. Sources of Additional Information Specific questions concerning training and career opportunities in surveying may be directed to: American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, Woodward Build ing, 733 15th St. NW„ Washing ton, D.C. 20005. General information on careers in photogrammetry may be obtained from: American Society of Photogram metry, 105 North Virginia Ave., Falls Church, Va. 22046. URBAN PLANNERS (D.O.T. 199.168) community facilities, transportation, recreation, business, and industry. The urban planner analyzes alterna tives and proposes methods for achieving an efficient and attractive community within a framework de termined by the community’s gov erning body. Before they can produce plans for long-range community develop ment, however, urban planners must make detailed studies, includ ing the preparation of maps and charts, which show the current use of land for residential, business, and community purposes; the arrange ment of streets, highways, and water and sewer lines; and the location of such community facilities as schools, libraries, and playgrounds. These studies also provide information on the types of industry in the com munity, population densities and characteristics, social features, in come levels, employment and eco nomic trends, and other related in formation. After they have analyzed and evaluated the facts, urban planners design the layout of recommended facilities and land use and supervise the preparation of illustrative mate rials. They also prepare plans to show how their proposed programs can best be carried out and what the cost is likely to be. Much of their time is spent conferring with private land developers, civic leaders, and officials of public agencies who do specialized planning. They also may prepare materials for community re lations programs, speak at civic meetings, and appear before legisla tive councils and committees to ex plain and defend their recommenda tions or proposals. In small planning organizations, planners must be able to handle several kinds of work. In large or ganizations, which may have several dozen planners, each may specialize in an area such as physical design, survey and research, or community relations work. Some specialize in Nature of the Work Urban planners develop compre hensive plans and programs for the growth and overall revitalization of urban communities. They attempt to remedy urban problems such as deteriorating business and residen tial areas, traffic congestion, inade quate parks and recreation facilities, shortages of suitable space for in dustrial development, and air pol lution. In addition, the growth of the suburbs has added increased pres sure on the urban center to provide more and better transportation and parking facilities. Urban planners visualize future conditions in the light of trends in population growth and social and economic change; they also estimate the community’s long-range needs for land, housing, Urban planners discuss community renewal plans. 273 OTHER PROFESSIONAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS new town planning, the rehabilita tion of city slum areas, or the recon struction of rundown business dis tricts. Places of Employment About 8,000 people were em ployed as professional urban plan ners in 1970. The majority of urban planners are employed by govern mental agencies, mainly city, county, and metropolitan regional planning organizations; a growing number are employed by various State governments and by the Fed eral Government. About one-fifth of the planners do consulting work, ei ther independently in addition to their full-time job, or as an em ployee or partner in a private con sulting firm providing services for private developers or for govern ment agencies. Urban planners also work for large land developers or private research organizations and teach in colleges or universities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers consider a master’s degree in planning the most desira ble educational background for pro fessional work in this field. In Fed eral agencies and in a growing num ber of other government agencies, 2 years of graduate work in city plan ning, or its equivalent, are required for most entrance level positions. However, young people having bachelor’s degrees in city planning, architecture, landscape architecture, engineering, public administration, and some other social science fields also may qualify for entrance level positions. In 1970, more than 50 colleges and universities awarded the mas ter’s degree in urban planning. For entrance into the programs, most schools require that students have undergraduate degrees in fields such as architecture, landscape architec ture, engineering, economics, statis tics, sociology, public administra tion, or city and regional planning. Nearly all schools require students to spend considerable time in work shop, laboratory, or studio courses, learning to analyze and solve practi cal problems in urban planning. Most schools require candidates for the master’s degree to take 2 years of graduate work and to prepare a thesis or take a final comprehensive examination. A few schools have re cently adopted a 3-year master’s de gree program. Nearly half of the schools require some practical expe rience or internship. This latter re quirement is usually fulfilled by reg ular paid employment during sum mer months in a planning office ap proved by the school’s faculty. A very few schools which stress physi cal design grant a master’s degree on completion of 1 year of graduate work to students who hold a bache lor’s degree in architecture or engi neering. Planners must have the ability to think in terms of spatial relation ships and to visualize the effects of their plans and designs. Planners also must be able to cooperate with others, since they sometimes encounter differing atti tudes and viewpoints which must be evaluated and accepted or rejected with tact to achieve the desired goal. On occasion, they face the dis couragement of seeing carefully de signed plans fall through because of conflicting political interests or apa thy. Beginners in urban planning offices are likely to spend some time doing routine work or making field surveys and compiling statistics re quired to make projections for fu ture plans. As they become more experienced, workers may be as signed to outline proposed studies, write reports, design the physical layout of a large development, make statistical analyses and projec tions, or perform other duties which require a high degree of independ ent judgment. Senior planners and planning directors are likely to spend much time meeting with officials in other organizations, ad dressing civic groups, and supervis ing other professionals. Advance ment often occurs through a transfer to a larger city, where the problems are more complex and the responsibilities are greater. Candidates for the position of urban planner in Federal, State, and local government agencies fre quently must pass civil service ex aminations to become eligible for appointment. These examinations are often advertised nationally and usually do not impose residence re strictions. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for graduates having professional train ing in city and regional planning are expected to continue to be very good through the 1970’s. Shortages of qualified planners have been re ported in recent years, even though the number of graduates has been rising. In 1970, the American Soci ety of Planning Officials estimated that there were about 1,300 va cancies in planning agencies be cause of the shortage of well-quali fied planners. Although most open ings will stem from new positions, some also will result from the need to replace planners who transfer to other fields of work, retire, die, or leave the field for other reasons. 274 This profession is expected to grow through the 1970’s as more com munities turn to professional plan ners for help in determining the most effective way to meet the ris ing requirements for physical facili ties that result from urbanization and growth in population. As urban communities continue to spill into neighboring areas or merge with other urban areas, open spaces for recreation disappear, smog and traf fic problems multiply, and the need for more and better planned facili ties becomes acute. The construction of new cities and towns also is expected to con tribute to a rising need for planners. In addition, Federal assistance to communities for urban planning, slum clearance and urban renewal, and beautification and open space land improvement will continue to stimulate the demand for planners. Although many openings will be with the government, more and more private enterprises are em ploying urban planners. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Earnings and Working Conditions Starting salaries of inexperienced planners having only a bachelor’s degree were between $8,300 and $11,300 a year in 1970. Starting salaries for persons having a mas ter’s degree were generally higher, ranging from $9,300 to $12,300 a year. Planners having a master’s de gree and 2 to 5 years experience earned annual salaries of between $9,500 and $16,500 or more. Sala ries of Directors of Planning depend to a great extent on the size of the city in which they are employed. In 1970, the average annual salary for a Planning Director in a city having between 10,000 and 25,000 people was $12,500. In cities of over 250,000 people, the average annual salary of Planning Directors was $22,000. Consultants are generally paid on a fee basis. Their earnings are often high and vary greatly ac cording to their reputation and pre vious experience. In 1970, the usual entrance sal ary for urban planners employed by the Federal Government was $9,881 a year. In a few cases, de pending upon their academic rec ords, individuals having less than 2 years of graduate work or its equiv alent were hired as interns at yearly salaries of $6,548 or $8,098. Since most planners work for government agencies, they usually have sick leave and vacation privi leges, and are covered by retirement and health plans. Although most city planners have a scheduled workweek of 40 hours, they some times work in the evenings and on weekends because of the need to at tend meetings with citizen’s groups. Sources of Additional Information Additional information on plan ning and a list of schools offering training may be obtained from: American Institute of Planners, 917 15th St., N W , Washington, D.C. 20005. American Society of Planning Of ficials, 1313 East 60th St., Chi cago, 111. 60637. M A N A G ER IA L O C C U P A T IO N S The success or failure of business enterprises depends heavily on the way managers do their job. More than 6 million salaried workers— 85 percent of them men—were em ployed in 1970 to manage the Na tion’s business enterprises. An addi tional 2.2 million managed all or part of their own businesses. Sala ried business managers, one of the fastest growing occupational groups in the country, increased nearly four times as fast as all workers between 1960 and 1970. (See chart 18.) This chapter describes salaried managers as a group and presents individual statements on three such occupations—city managers, in dustrial traffic managers, and pur chasing agents. Statements on other occupations that frequently involve managerial functions are presented in the Business Administration and Related Professions section of the Handbook. Nature of the Work A manager’s responsibilities de pend on his level of management and type of employer. Although sal aried managers direct or plan the work of others, some are chiefly policymakers. Entry-level management posi tions are either supervisory or trainee. Supervisors, the largest group, direct workers in activities such as sales, production, account ing, and purchasing. A department manager in a retail department store, for example, has a typical su pervisory job. Responsible for mer chandising in one department or more, he may supervise as many as 50 employees. Manager trainees are sometimes assigned to assist manag ers; or they may be placed in a number of different jobs for short periods to learn several phases of the business. Higher in the managerial pyramid are the middle-level managers; they have the top posts in large and im portant departments such as sales, accounting, research and develop ment, marketing, production, pur chasing, data processing, and per Employment of salaried managers is growing much faster than total employment Employment change, 1960-70 (percent) 0 Salaried managers 20 40 60 80 100 sonnel. When faced with nonroutine business problems, they must make decisions promptly within the framework of company policy. For example, the manager of a manu facturing company’s engineering de partment may (1) oversee the de velopment of new products; (2) de velop plans for making efficient use of the firm’s space and facilities; (3) set up and manage support serv ices such as equipment mainte nance. Top level managers make major decisions such as the goods their firms will produce, locations of new plants, or methods of financing new projects. This top group includes the board of directors, chairman of the board of directors, president, and vice presidents. Each vice pres ident is a policymaker and adminis trator for one or more company de partments (for example, finance, marketing, or production) and re ports directly to the president. The president or chairman of the board has final responsibility for the com pany’s success. He usually presides at meetings and confers with officers on policy matters and problems in their individual areas. Management responsibilities in government are similar to those in private industry. However, public service is a major responsibility of many managers in government. Places of Employment Total employment SOURCE: BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS Although managers are employed throughout industry, more are re quired in some industries than in others. For example, in 1970, nearly one-third of all salaried man agers worked in retail and wholesale trade. About one-fifth had jobs in 275 276 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK manufacturing firms. Considerable numbers also worked in finance, in surance, real estate, service, trans portation, and Government. Women find their best opportunities in retail trade; one-third of all women man agers are employed in this field. Training Employers increasingly require beginning managers to have com pleted college. Although a person who doesn’t have a degree may work his way up through the ranks, his promotional opportunities are becoming limited. For beginning management jobs, many employers look for individu als who have a college degree in business administration, with a major in accounting, economics, or finance. Other employers look for applicants who have technical train ing in engineering, science, or math ematics to deal with complex in dustrial processes. Still others hire liberal arts graduates and give them training on the job. The number of companies that have formal management trainee programs is relatively small. As a result, entrance to many manage ment jobs comes after several years of progressively more responsible work experience in jobs such as salesman or accountant. The climb up the promotional ladder may be in one area of work, such as personnel, or in several areas, such as shifts from sales to marketing, or finance. Managerial skills usually can be applied as ef fectively in one firm or industry as another. For this reason, managers are able to change jobs with relative ease. To increase their knowledge of management techniques, many ex perienced managers take advantage of training programs given by col leges and universities, companies, and various professional and trade organizations. For example, man agement associations conduct edu cational programs for experienced managers ranging from lectures and workshops of a few days duration to formal classroom courses lasting several weeks. These educational activities usually are led by experi enced businessmen. Employment Outlook New career opportunities for managers are expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s; moreover, many thousands of open ings are likely to occur annually as managers retire, die, or leave the field for other reasons. The business world will need more managers as industry continues to expand, spurred by a growing population, ris ing living standards, and an increas ing demand for goods and services. The employment of salaried manag ers is likely to continue to increase rapidly because large firms tend to depend more on trained manage ment specialists as they further in crease in size. Their problems of control and communication, their need for specialized services, and their complex machinery demand a higher ratio of managers to total employees than is required by smaller firms. Similar influences also will necessitate more managers in government agencies. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, starting salaries in pri vate industry for management train ees having bachelor’s degrees gener ally ranged from $7,500 to $10,500 a year. Trainees having master’s de grees generally began at $10,800 to $14,000 a year. In the Federal Government, management trainees usually began at $8,098 in 1970. New employees who had a master’s degree or were well qualified entered managerial work at $9,881 a year. At higher management levels, salaries are related to company size, scope of the job, and nature of the industry. Middle-management sala ries ranged from $10,000 to $35,000 a year in 1970. Very large companies paid up to $50,000 a year for some middle-management positions. Earnings of the chief ex ecutive averaged about $45,000 a year in small companies but as high as $200,000 or more in large corpo rations. In addition to their salaries, man agement officials receive other com pensation, such as bonuses, stock options, and participation in profit sharing plans. Such additional com pensation depends to a considerable extent on a company’s profits. Bo nuses are a common type of extra compensation and generally average about 30 percent of a top execu tive’s earnings. Many companies also provide liberal life insurance, health benefits, club memberships, and various special privileges ac cording to the individual’s position in the firm. Social prestige attained in the upper business levels also may be rewarding. Entry-level managers usually work the standard workweek of the company—from 35 to 40 hours. Managers in more responsible posi tions carry heavier workloads and may work longer hours. Nonroutine assignments carried out on their own time may involve travel, nightwork, speaking engagements, and other activities. 277 MANAGERIAL OCCUPATIONS Sources of Additional Information The American Management Asso ciation, 135 West 50th St., New York, N.Y. 10020. Society for Advancement of Man agement, 1412 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10036. CITY MANAGERS (D.O.T. 188.118) Nature of the Work The country’s growing population and expanding industry are placing increased pressures on the housing, transportation, recreational, and other facilities of our Nation’s cit ies. Other problems associated with growing modern communities such as air and water pollution, and ris ing crime rates also demand atten tion. Coping with these problems ef fectively requires sophisticated management techniques. Thus, communities are turning to a spe cialist having such skills—the city manager. The city manager is appointed by the community’s elected officials and is directly responsible to the ap pointing body. The city manager’s duties vary by city size, but gener ally include appointing department heads and their staffs; coordinating and administering the activities of the operating departments such as tax collection and disbursement, law enforcement, and public works; and preparing the annual budget for the council’s approval. They also study problem areas such as unionization of government employees and urban renewal and report their findings to the council, identifying alternate so lutions. City managers plan for fu ture development of cities and the surrounding areas to provide for population growth and expansion of public services. They also fre quently appear at civic meetings to advocate proposed programs or to inform citizens of current govern ment operations. City managers keep in close com munication with the planning de partment to coordinate the intro duction of new programs with the operations of existing ones. In smaller cities which have no perma nent planning staff, that duty may be assumed entirely by the man ager. Support personnel, such as the assistant city manager, administra tive assistants, and department head assistants, operate under direction of the city manager. Assistant city managers relieve the city manager of routine duties and act for him in his absence. In addition, they may assume responsibility for some proj ects, such as developing a prelimi nary annual budget. Department head assistants generally are re sponsible for one activity, such as personnel, finance, or law, but also may assist in other areas. Adminis trative assistants, also called execu tive assistants or assistants to the city manager, usually perform ad ministrative and staff work. The ef forts of administrative assistants are not concentrated in one area, but are utilized in all departments at the direction of the city manager. For instance, they may compile operat ing statistics, review and analyze work procedures, and answer public inquiries. Places of Employment An estimated 2,600 city manag ers were employed in the United States in 1970. An additional three to four thousand persons were em- 278 ployed as support personnel. About four-fifths of all city managers worked in cities which have a coun cil-manager form of government. Most of the remainder were em ployed in municipalities which have another form of government such as mayor-council government in which the city manager is appointed by the mayor, and called “administrative assistant.” A small number of man agers are employed by metropolitan or regional planning organizations. Over one-half of the cities which had a population of 10,000 to 500,000 had a city manager. Some city managers also worked for county governments. Although city managers are employed in 48 of the 50 States, nearly 45 percent are lo cated in California, Maine, Michi gan, Pennsylvania, and Texas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The minimum educational back ground needed for entrance into this profession is a bachelor’s degree, preferably with a major concentra tion in political science or public ad ministration. However, a master’s degree in public or municipal ad ministration is preferred. In 1970, about 200 colleges and universities offered a master’s de gree program in public or municipal administration. Degree require ments in some schools include suc cessful completion of an internship program in a city manager’s office. During this internship period, which may last from 6 months to a year, the degree candidate observes gov ernment operations and performs research work under direct supervi sion of the city manager. Some new graduates from bache lor’s or master’s degree programs OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK enter the occupation by taking man ager positions in small towns and then seek positions in large cities as they gain experience. However, some new graduates desire positions as interns or lower level assistants in large cities. Larger cities offer greater opportunities for experience in a wider range of problem-solving areas such as freeway planning, urban renewal, and crime control. As the young professional gains additional skills and competence, he may advance to a position of greater responsibility such as department head assistant. In this position, he may gain the supervisory and plan ning skills necessary to oversee an entire department. Administrative experience in the departments of finance, public works, or public planning also may provide the nec essary skills and experience for ad vancement to manager. Certain personal qualifications or traits enhance the city manager’s chances of success. He must be ded icated to public service, since he often must put in long hard hours in times of crises. Another important personal quality is the ability to un derstand and work well with people. The city manager, because he is the most accessible of government officials, must be able to satisfac torily deal with citizen’s complaints and maintain good working rela tionships with his fellow officials. Other desirable traits include: communication skills, sound judg ment, tact, self-confidence, and the ability to perform well under stress. The city manager may be called upon at any time to solve emer gency situations and he must be able to quickly isolate the problem areas, identify the underlying causes, and provide alternate solu tions. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for city managers are expected to be excellent through the 1970’s, espe cially for persons having a master’s degree in public or municipal ad ministration. In addition to openings resulting from the need to fill new positions, many openings will arise each year from the need to replace city managers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. The employment of city manag ers is expected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s as meth ods for dealing with the problems of our growing cities become more complex. Examples of this com plexity are computerized data col lection of police information, ad vances in technology of traffic con trol, and the application of systems analysis to urban problems. The need for city managers is ex pected to increase as cities convert to the council-manager form of gov ernment, currently the fastest grow ing form of local government. City managers also will be needed in places having other forms of gov ernment. Elected officials are ex pected to rely increasingly upon the city manager’s skills to cope with the day-to-day operations of gov ernment. Earnings and Working Conditions Salaries of city managers and their assistants vary according to the amount and type of education and experience as well as job responsi bility and size of city. The average salary earned by persons in begin ning positions was about $7,500 in 1970 according to the International City Management Association. This figure is somewhat lower than start ing salaries in business and industry, 279 MANAGERIAL OCCUPATIONS according to survey reports. Sala ries, however, generally tend to be lower in government, especially local government. In 1970, the median salary for city managers varied from about $17,000 in cities of 10,000 to 25,000 inhabitants, to about $34,000 in cities with 250,000 in habitants or more. Assistant city managers earned median salaries of over $14,000 a year. A workweek of longer than 40 hours is common for most city man agers. This may include work on weekends and evenings to settle emergency problems that may arise. Meetings with individuals and citi zen’s groups consume additional time. Fringe benefits usually include health and life insurance programs, pension plans, sick leave, vacation benefits, and often the availability of a car for official business. Manag ers generally are reimbursed for ex penses incurred while attending professional meetings and seminars. Sources of Additional Information International City Management As sociation, 1140 Connecticut Ave. NW. Washington, D.C. 20036. INDUSTRIAL TRAFFIC MANAGERS (D.O.T. 184.168) Nature of the Work Industrial traffic managers and their assistants arrange transporta tion of raw materials and finished products for industrial firms. After analyzing various transpor tation possibilities, industrial traffic managers choose the most efficient type of transportation—rail, air, road, water, pipeline, or some com bination—the route and the particu lar carrier. They must consider fac tors such as freight classifications, rates, routes, and regulations; com pany time schedules; size of ship ment; and loss and damage rates. This statement does not cover traffic managers employed by railroads, airlines, trucking firms, and other freight carriers who are chiefly con cerned with attracting business to their firms. Activities of industrial traffic managers range from routine check ing of freight bills to major planning and policymaking. For example, they decide whether the company should buy and operate its own fleet of trucks. They route and trace ship ments, arrange with carriers for transportation services, prepare bills of lading and other shipping docu ments, and handle claims for lost or damaged goods. Traffic managers maintain records of shipments, freight rates, commodity classifica tions, and applicable government regulations. Industrial traffic manag ers also must know about changing transportation concepts, such as pig gyback freight or containerization. Sometimes traffic managers are responsible for the packaging of shipments and for their companies’ warehouse facilities and transporta tion equipment. Since many aspects of transporta tion are subject to Federal, State, and local government regulations, traffic managers must know about these and any other legal matters that apply to their companies’ ship ping operations. High level traffic managers represent their companies before rate-making and regulatory bodies—such as the Interstate Commerce Commission, State Com missions, and local traffic bureaus. 280 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Places of Employment In 1970, most of the over 18,000 industrial traffic managers were em ployed by manufacturing firms; some worked for stores. A few were consultants in business for them selves or for firms that handle trans portation problems for clients. Most traffic managers are men. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although persons having only a high school education can qualify for a traffic manager position on the basis of experience in traffic depart ments, a college education is be coming increasingly important for a career in this field. For some kinds of work, college training may be re quired. For example, in order to argue cases before the U.S. Govern ment’s Interstate Commerce Com mission, a traffic manager must meet certain “qualification stand ards” which include at least 2 years of college. Some employers prefer graduates having a degree in traffic management, which is availa ble at more than 100 colleges, uni versities, and junior colleges. Others prefer liberal arts majors who have had courses in transportation, man agement, economics, statistics, mar keting, or commercial law. New traffic department em ployees often complete shipping forms and calculate freight charges in shipping rooms or general traffic offices. After gaining routine experi ence, they may perform more tech nical work, such as analyzing trans portation statistics. A competent worker may advance to a supervi sory position, such as supervisor of rates and routes. The most compe tent may be promoted to assistant general traffic manager and eventu ally to general traffic manager. Workers in traffic departments may advance by participating in company-sponsored training pro grams, taking courses in colleges and universities or schools specializ ing in traffic management, or at tending seminars sponsored by pri vate organizations. “Certified” membership in the American Soci ety of Traffic and Transportation, Inc. can be acquired by successfully completing the Society’s four exami nations and meeting certain educa tion and experience requirements. College credit may be substituted for three of the four examinations. Employment Outlook A moderate increase in employ ment in this occupation is expected through the 1970’s. Many new in dustrial traffic manager positions will be created as corporations reor ganize their shipping and receiving activities into separate traffic de partments to centrally control their transportation functions. Other factors expected to con tribute to growth in this field are the increasing emphasis in many indus tries on efficient management of transportation activities, and the trend toward procuring raw mate rials and finished products from more distant places and distributing them to increasingly wider markets. As more companies realize that transportation costs can vary widely, they will become more con cerned with the economics of ship ping. Thus, a strong demand is ex pected for specialists who know how to classify products so as to ob tain the lowest possible freight rates, or choose the carriers that are best able to handle each shipment, and otherwise protect their compa nies from excessive shipping ex penses. Earnings and Working Conditions Young men having college de grees who started as business train ees in the traffic departments of large industrial firms often received annual salaries of more than $8,000 in 1970 according to the limited data available. Beginners having less schooling, however, usually re ceived lower salaries. Earnings of experienced traffic managers are related generally to their companies’ sales volume and transportation costs. The average (median) salary of traffic managers in companies with transportation costs totaling less than $1 million annually was about $15,000 in 1970 according to the limited infor mation available. In companies where transportation costs ranged between $4 million and $10 million, annual salaries ranged between $25,000 and $30,000. In firms whose costs were still higher, some traffic executives earned $40,000 or more a year. Traffic department employees usually work the standard work week of their companies—generally from 35 to 40 hours. Those in par ticularly responsible jobs may have to spend some time outside regular working hours preparing reports, at tending meetings, and traveling to hearings before State and Federal regulatory agencies. Sources of Additional Information For information on the require ments for certification write to: American Society of Traffic and Transportation, Inc., 22 West Madison St., Chicago, 111. 60602. 281 MANAGERIAL OCCUPATIONS PURCHASING AGENTS (D.O.T. 162.158) Nature of the Work Purchasing agents buy the mate rials, supplies, and equipment needed for their employer’s firms to function. Purchasing agents and their assistants have two main re sponsibilities: Obtaining goods and services at the lowest cost consistent with required quality and seeing that adequate supplies are kept on hand. What the agents buy depends on the kind of organization employ ing them. For manufacturing firms, this may be largely machinery, raw materials, and product components; for government agencies, it may be office supplies, office furniture, and business machines. A purchasing agent buys either when stocks on hand reach a prede termined re-order point or when he receives a requisition from a depart ment in the organization for items it needs. These requisitions list and describe needed items and include information such as required quan tities and delivery dates. Since the agent usually can purchase from many sources, his main job is to se lect the seller who offers the best value. To do this, the agent must consider many factors, such as the exact specifications for the required items, price, quality, quantity dis counts, transportation cost, and de livery time. To select among suppliers, the purchasing agent uses a variety of means. He obtains information by comparing listings in catalogs and trade journals and by telephoning various suppliers. He also meets with salesmen to examine sample goods, watch demonstrations of equipment, and discuss items to be purchased. Sometimes, the agent also invites suppliers to bid on large orders, and then selects the lowest bidder who meets the requirements regarding the specifications estab lished for the goods and date of de livery. It is important for purchasing agents to develop good working re Purchasing agent discusses specifications of items with salesman. lations with their suppliers. These relations can result in savings on purchases, favorable terms of pay ment, and quick delivery on rush orders or material in short supply. They also work closely with person nel in various departments of their own company. For example, they frequently discuss product specifica tions with company engineers or shipment handling problems with employees in the shipping and re ceiving, storage, or traffic depart ments. Once an order has been placed with a supplier, the purchasing agent makes periodic checks to in sure that it will be delivered on time. This is important in prevent ing interruptions in the work flow due to lack of materials. After an order has been received and in spected, the purchasing agent au thorizes payment to the shipper. Because of its importance, pur chasing usually is designated as a separate responsibility. Although the head of the purchasing depart ment usually is called a purchasing agent, he may have the title of vice president-purchasing, procurement or purchasing officer, director or manager of purchasing, or buyer. (“Buyers” in retail stores and oth ers who are engaged in buying mer chandise for resale in its original form are not included in this re port.) In a large firm, the head of the purchasing department directs the work of a staff including assist ant purchasing agents and clerical workers. Each purchasing assistant may be assigned to a broad area. One person may be responsible for buying raw materials; another, fac tory machinery; and another, office supplies. Others may specialize in buying certain items—for example, steel, lumber, cotton, or oil. 282 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Places of Employment In 1970, half of the estimated 167,000 purchasing agents in the United States worked in manufac turing industries. Large numbers also were employed in government agencies, wholesale and retail trade, and service institutions. Most purchasing agents work in firms that have fewer than 10 em ployees in the purchasing depart ment. Some large firms, however, may have a hundred specialized buyers or more. About 90 percent of all purchasing agents are men. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For beginning positions as pur chasing agents, many employers prefer to hire graduates of schools of business administration or engi neering who have had courses in ac counting, economics, and purchas ing. A few require graduate training in business administration. On the other hand, many firms prefer expe rience with the company and select purchasing workers from among their own personnel, whether or not they have a college education. For advancement to high-level positions, however, a college degree is becom ing increasingly important. Regardless of previous training, the beginner in the purchasing field must spend considerable time learn ing about his company’s operations and purchasing procedures. Some companies provide classroom in struction and on-the-job training. The beginner may be assigned to the storekeeper’s section to learn about operations such as keeping inventory records, filling out forms for the purchase of goods, or pro viding proper storage facilities. He then may work with an experienced buyer to learn about types of goods purchased, prices, and sources of supply. Following the initial training period, the trainee may become a junior buyer of standard catalog items. As he gains experience and exercises good judgment in the various aspects of purchasing he may be promoted to assistant pur chasing agent and then to purchas ing agent. In large companies, pur chasing agents or heads of purchas ing departments may become vice presidents with overall responsibil ity for purchasing, warehousing, traffic, and related functions. The purchasing agent must be able to accept the responsibility of spending large amounts of company money. He must also be tactful in his many dealings with salesmen and have a good memory for speci fications. Employment of purchasing agents and their assistants is ex pected to grow moderately through the 1970’s. Some major factors un derlying this expected growth are the continuing increase in the size of business and manufacturing firms, the development of new products and new sources of supply (includ ing foreign markets), and the everincreasing complexity and special ization of business functions. Com petition among manufacturers for new, improved, and less costly goods, raw materials, and services will further direct the attention of top management to the importance of purchasing functions. In addition to job openings resulting from growth, many job opportunities are expected annually because of the need to replace personnel who re tire, transfer to other jobs, or leave the field for other reasons. Employment Outlook Earnings and Working Conditions Opportunities are expected to be good through the 1970’s for young people to enter and advance in pur chasing occupations. Demand is ex pected to be especially strong for graduates of schools of business ad ministration who have taken courses in purchasing. Demand is expected to be excellent also for graduates having backgrounds in engineering and science, for jobs in purchasing departments of firms that manufac ture complex machinery, chemicals, and other technical products. Lib eral arts college graduates should be able to obtain trainee positions in many types of firms. On the other hand, although outstanding persons who do not have a college education will continue to be promoted to pur chasing from clerical, sales, and other types of jobs, their opportuni ties for advancement to high-level purchasing jobs will be limited. Beginning annual salaries of col lege graduates hired as trainees in purchasing departments of large pri vate firms ranged from $6,300 to $7,500 in 1970, according to the limited data available. In the Fed eral Government, beginning pur chasing agents who had college de grees started at $6,548 or $8,093 in 1970, depending on the individual’s scholastic achievement and his per formance on the Federal Civil Serv ice entrance examination. In 1970, the annual earnings of experienced buyers in private firms averaged more than $9,000; more experienced buyers, some having supervisory duties, averaged nearly $14,000. Some top purchasing ex ecutives earned between $35,000 and $75,000 a year. CLERICAL AND RELATED O C C U P A T IO N S More than 13 million people were employed in clerical and re lated work in 1970. A great many of these workers keep records and do other paperwork required in offices. Others handle communica tions, operate office machines of all types, attend to the shipping and re ceiving of merchandise, ring up sales on the cash registers of stores and restaurants, or do related work. Clerical workers represent a wide variety of skills and experience. In cluded, for example, are highly skilled title searchers and examiners in real estate firms and executive secretaries in business offices, as well as workers in occupations which can be entered with little spe cialized training or experience— messengers, file clerks, and others. For women, clerical occupations are particularly important in terms of numbers employed. More than half of all girls who go to work after completing high school find jobs in clerical and related occupations. Also, 7 out of 10 clerical workers are women. By far the largest single group of clerical workers— 1 out of 5—work as secretaries or stenographers. Bookkeepers and accounting clerks, who represent a little less than onetenth of the total, make up the next largest group. Chart 19 shows em ployment in these and in other major clerical occupations discussed in this chapter or elsewhere in the Handbook. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For all but the most routine cleri cal positions, the minimum educa tional requirement is usually grad uation from high school. High school graduates who have had in struction in business subjects are re garded by most employers as partic ularly well qualified. Some compa nies cooperate with local high schools and business schools in The majority of clerical workers are employed in these occupations Employment, 1 9 7 0 (in thousands) 0 500 1 ,0 0 0 1 ,5 0 0 Secretaries and stenographers Women Bookkeepers (Including accounting clerks) Cashiers Typists Telephone operators Shipping and receiving clerks Office machine operators Postal clerks Receptionists Mail carriers Bank tellers SOURCE: BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS n □ Men 2 ,0 0 0 2 ,5 0 0 3 ,0 0 0 office education programs which provide opportunities for students to work part time, under trained su pervision, while still attending school. This experience is useful to beginners seeking office jobs after graduation. The Federal Govern ment also sponsors training for some clerical occupations under provisions of the Manpower Devel opment and Training Act. Qualifications for many types of clerical work include reading com prehension, a knowledge of spelling and grammar, and ability in arith metic. Some employers test appli cants for clerical aptitude to deter mine their qualifications for work in this field. Practically all beginning clerical workers receive some on-the-job training. They learn, for example, how their employer keeps the firm’s records, and what kinds of business forms are used. They also may learn to operate adding and duplicating machines and other equipment which they will use occa sionally. If they are to operate tabu lating machines or other specialized equipment, their employers may have them attend a school to re ceive the necessary training. Advancement prospects are good in many types of clerical work. Some of the better paid positions —insurance claim adjuster and ex ecutive secretary, for example—re quire a general knowledge of com pany policies and procedures, and very often are filled by promotion from within. In other instances, the worker may be promoted to more difficult and higher paid assignments in a related type of work. For ex ample, a keypunch operator is selected and trained to operate a tabulating machine. In large busi 283 284 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ness offices, promotion sometimes may lead to supervisory or mana gerial positions. Experience within an organiza tion is often an important considera tion in selecting employees for pro motion. Emphasis also is placed on the individual’s learning ability and personal qualifications. For workers without a good educational background, opportunities for ad vancement are likely to be limited. Many people in clerical occupations are high school graduates who have had some additional education in colleges, junior colleges, private business schools, or other post-sec ondary institutions. Some are col lege graduates who start as office workers to gain experience which will later qualify them for profes sional or administrative positions. Employment Outlook Employment in clerical occupa tions is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s. As employment rises to meet the needs of an ex panding economy, more than 350,000 new clerical and related positions will be added each year. An even greater number of clerical workers will be needed each year to replace those who retire or leave their jobs for other reasons. Em ployee turnover is especially high among clerical workers because many of the women who do this kind of work leave their jobs to care for their families. Employment opportunities will be best for secretaries and stenogra phers, typists, bookkeeping and ac counting clerks, and other workers who handle paperwork in offices. These workers will be needed par ticularly in banks and insurance companies; in manufacturing estab lishments and in wholesale and re tail trade; and in government offices, educational institutions, and professional service organizations. The growth in the number of clerical workers is expected to re sult primarily from the increasing amount of paperwork which will ac company the growth of large and complex organizations. However, more and more mechanical equip ment will speed the process of keep ing business records, and in some offices, the number of clerical em ployees may be reduced. For the economy as a whole, however, the new positions created by growth are expected to far outnumber the cleri cal jobs eliminated by mechaniza tion. Furthermore, many types of clerical workers are in jobs unlikely to be materially affected by mech anization—for example, secretaries, receptionists, persons responsible for collecting bills and handling complaints, and others whose duties bring them into contact with the public and require them to exercise initiative and judgment. Nevertheless, the increased use of computers and other mechanical de vices to process routine, repetitive work will probably restrict growth in the number of clerks employed to prepare payrolls, keep inventories, sort checks in banks, and do other routine work. As work of this kind is transferred from clerks to ma chines, new positions for various kinds of machine operators will be created. This shift in type of clerical personnel will occur chiefly in large business firms and in the metropoli tan areas where such firms tend to be concentrated. Statistics in 1968—69 ranged from about $70 a week for file clerks doing the most routine kind of work to nearly $160 a week for skilled secretaries. Within each of the office occupations, the differences in the salaries paid some individuals were considerable; for example, a few payroll clerks earned less than $60 a week; a few others whose work was complex earned $190 or more. Men generally were paid higher salaries than women employed in the same localities. For example, the average for office boys was $5 a week more than for office girls, and men employed as accounting clerks averaged about $20 a week more than women in the same kinds of jobs. To some extent, these varia tions were due to differences in the industries where employed. Minor differences in the duties and respon sibilities assigned to men and women also may affect the pay level. Office employees worked a 40hour week in most of the cities in cluded in the survey. In some, espe cially in the northeastern part of the country, the scheduled workweek was 37V^ hours. Most office workers in large cities receive pay for 7 holidays or more a year and 2 weeks of annual vacation after working 1 year. Longer vaca tions, granted on the basis of addi tional years of service, may range up to 4 weeks or more with pay. Life insurance; hospitalization; sur gical and medical insurance; and sick benefits are also generally available, as are retirement pension plans supplementing benefits paid under the Federal Social Security program. Earnings and Working Conditions The average salaries of women office workers in metropolitan areas surveyed by the Bureau of Labor Sources of Additional Information Many State employment service offices maintain occupational guides 285 CLERICAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS giving local information about earn ings, hours, and employment oppor tunities in clerical occupations. Teachers may obtain information concerning training for office occu pations from: Division of Vocational and Tech nical Education, Bureau of Adult Vocational and Library Programs, U.S. Office of Education, Wash ington, D.C. 20202. Or by contacting their: State Supervisor of Office Occupa tions Education, State Depart ment of Education, State Capitol. A directory of private business schools located in 300 cities throughout the country may be ob tained from: BOOKKEEPING WORKERS (D.O.T. 210.368 through .588; 216.388; and 219.388 and .488) Nature of the Work Every business must have sys tematic and up-to-date financial rec ords. Bookkeeping workers record day-to-day business transactions in journals, ledgers, and on other ac counting forms. At regular intervals they also prepare income statements which show all money received and from whom and money paid and to whom. Places of Employment Of the more than 1.34 million bookkeeping workers in 1970, 9 out of 10 were women. Most bookkeep ing workers do general bookkeep ing or accounting. Large numbers work in retail stores, banks, in surance companies, and manu facturing and service firms. United Business Schools Associa tion, 1730 M Street, NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20036. Information of wages and related benefits for office workers in 88 metropolitan areas is given in the following publication: Area Wage Surveys: Selected Metro politan Areas 1968-69 (BLS Bul letin 1625-90), 1970. Superin tendent of Documents, Washing ton, D.C. 20402. Information on wages and related benefit earnings in 229 metropolitan area is summarized for the north eastern, southern, north central, and western regions, and for the United States as a whole, in the following publication: Area Wage Surveys: Metropolitan Areas, United States and Regional Summaries, 1968-69 (BLS Bul letin 1650-91), 1970. Superin tendent of Documents, Washing ton, D.C. 20402. tomers’ bills, and do other office work. Large business organizations usu ally have many workers under the direction of a head bookkeeper. Bookkeepers (D.O.T. 210.388) and bookkeeping and accounting clerks (D.O.T. 219.488) each spe cialize in one or two kinds of book keeping work. Some workers may enter items in accounts payable or receivable ledgers and others may take trial balances, prepare income statements, or do additional book keeping. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Bookkeeping worker checks business transaction records. In many small firms, one general bookkeeper (D.O.T. 210.388) does all of the analysis, recording, and other necessary bookkeeping work. Although employees may use simple office equipment, such as adding machines, they most often work by hand. Often they file, answer the telephone, prepare and mail cus In selecting bookkeeping work ers, most employers prefer high school graduates who have taken business arithmetic and bookkeep ing. Some prefer applicants who have completed post-high school business training or junior college. Training which includes typewriting and the use of office machines is often helpful since many bookkeep ing workers perform a variety of duties. An increasing number of large companies offer new account ing clerks on-the-job training. In some localities, companies cooper ate with business schools and high schools in work-study programs to give students practical part-time ex 286 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK perience that may be helpful in ob taining work after graduation. Bookkeeping and accounting clerks should have above-average aptitude for working with numbers and the ability to concentrate on de tails. Beginning bookkeeping workers usually start recording routine transactions and then advance to more responsible assignments. For example, experienced bookkeepers prepare income statements and op erate complex bookkeeping ma chines. Some workers may be pro moted to supervisors. Bookkeepers who complete college accounting may become accountants. (The oc cupation of Accountant is discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Employment Outlook Employment in this occupation is expected to increase slowly through the 1970’s. Tens of thousands of workers will be needed each year as positions are created and replace ments are needed for employees who retire, stop working, or transfer to other types of employment. Growth in this field is expected to stem mainly from the increase in recordkeeping resulting from popu lation expansion and economic pros perity. The increasing use of elec tronic data processing and other bookkeeping machines, is expected to limit somewhat the growth of em ployment requirements for book keeping workers. Many types of machines, such as posting machines, punchcard machines, and electronic computers, can process accounting and bookkeeping data more accu rately, rapidly, and economically than can be done by hand. Nev ertheless, the need for bookkeeping workers will probably outpace the laborsaving impact of office ma chines over the next 10 years. Earnings and Working Conditions According to a Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) survey of clerical occupations in private industry, be ginning accounting clerks averaged $439 a month in 1970. More expe rienced clerks earned $568 a month. Salaries of accounting clerks var ied by location, size of firm, and type of employment. Highest sala ries were usually paid to accounting clerks working in metropolitan areas for firms which employ at least 2,500 workers, or for public utilities. Working conditions for book keeper employees are similar to those of other office workers in the same firms. (See introductory sec tion to this chapter for more in formation on Earnings and Work ing Conditions and for Sources of Additional Information.) CASHIERS (D.O.T. 211.138, .368, .468, and .488 and 299.468) Nature of the Work Although cashiers usually receive payments made by customers for goods and services, their duties and job titles vary according to their work. In a theater, for example, the cashier may be called box office cashier or ticket seller; in a super market, checkout clerk or grocery checker; in an electric light and power company, teller or bill clerk; and in a cafeteria, cashier-checker. Very large business firms that have several cashiers sometimes use other special job titles such as dis bursement clerk, cash accounting clerk, or credit cashier. (The occu pation of bank cashier, which is dif ferent from other kinds of cashier jobs, is discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. ) Regardless of job title or em ployer, most cashiers accept money paid by customers, make change when necessary, and give some kind of receipt for the payment. They also keep records of the amount of money involved in each transaction so that cash accounts can be bal anced at the end of the day. Many cashiers prepare cash and checks for deposit at the bank. Some pay out cash or write company checks to cover expenses such as the pur chase of supplies and equipment; some prepare pay envelopes or paychecks, make out sales tax reports, and do related work. In receiving payment for goods or services most cashiers use cash registers which print a record of the amount of the sale on a paper tape and release a money drawer. On some registers, cashiers list and total individual items purchased by each customer and record other de tails relating to the transaction. Other machines, somewhat like ac counting machines, are used by cashiers in hotels and hospitals to record the charges for telephone, medical, and other services which are incurred and to prepare the itemized bills which cashiers present to guests or patients as they check out. Cashiers also may use adding machines, change-dispensing ma chines, and other special equipment. Many cashiers have additional duties peculiar to the nature of their employers’ businesses. In a theater, for example, the cashier may oper- CLERICAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS ate a ticket-dispensing machine and answer telephone inquiries. A res taurant cashier may handle reserva tions for meals and special parties, type menus, or be responsible for a candy and cigaretter counter. In su permarkets and other self-service stores, cashiers often wrap or bag each customer’s purchases and, dur ing slack periods, restock shelves, mark prices on articles, and per form other work. In a hotel or motel the cashier’s special duties usually include recording charges for telephone, valet, and other serv ices used by each guest, and no tifying the room clerk when guests check out. Places of Employment In 1970, about 90 percent of the 850,000 cashiers in the United States were women. They work for business firms of all types and sizes. Nearly three-fourths worked in gro cery, drug, and other retail stores; large numbers also were employed in restaurants and theaters. Most of these establishments and other busi nesses which employ cashiers are located in cities and in the shopping centers of heavily populated subur ban areas; however, many also are found in small towns. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers hiring beginners to fill jobs as cashiers prefer high school graduates. Courses in business arithmetic, bookkeeping, typing, and other business subjects are good preparation. In some large cities, business organizations and schools 287 offer brief courses through which students learn to operate a cash reg ister and perform other duties of a cashier. Cashier training also may be offered as part of public school distributive education programs which include courses in retail sell ing or food service work. For some kinds of cashier jobs, employers want persons who have special skills or business experience; for example, cashiers who know how to type or have had selling ex perience. Sometimes cashier jobs are filled by promoting clerk-typists in offices, bag boys in supermarkets, and other qualified people already employed by the firm. Beginners usually are trained in formally on the job under the super vision of an experienced employee. Sometimes, particularly in large firms, trainees attend a brief period of classroom instruction. Some firms train all newly-hired cashiers re gardless of previous experience. Cashiers should have an aptitude for working with figures, finger dex terity, and a high degree of eyehand coordination. Accuracy is par ticularly important. Since cashiers deal with the public, they also should be tactful, neat in appear ance, and able to deal with their customers in a pleasant and courte ous manner. Promotional opportunities for cashiers are likely to be limited, particularly in small firms. The cashier’s job, nevertheless, affords a young person a good opportunity to learn how his employer’s business affairs are conducted and so may serve as a steppingstone to a more responsible clerical job or to some types of managerial positions. In chainstores and other large re tailing enterprises, for example, cashiers eventually may advance to department or store managers. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 288 Employment Outlook Employment in this large occupa tion is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s. Tens of thou sands of workers will be needed each year to fill new positions and to replace cashiers who retire or stop working for other reasons. Still other workers will be needed to re place cashiers who transfer to other types of employment. Employment is expected to in crease mainly because of the antici pated expansion in business activity. In addition, more retail stores will undoubtedly adopt self-service and other merchandising techniques which create jobs for cashiers. The increase in employment due to changes of this kind, however, prob ably will be somewhat less marked than during the 1960’s when con version to self-service on the part of some kinds of retailers was wide spread. The continued use of vend ing machines, changemaking ma chines, and other mechanical equip ment which replaces cashiers or speeds up their work also will tend to limit the expansion in employ ment during the 1970’s. Opportunities probably will con tinue to be best for cashiers having typing, bookkeeping, or other spe cial skills. There also should be many opportunities for cashiers who wish to work part time. Earnings and Working Conditions The salaries earned by beginning cashiers in routine jobs are often at or near the minimum wage required by State and Federal laws. In sev eral States and in establishments covered by the Federal law, the minimum was $1.60 an hour in 1970; elsewhere, starting salaries were somewhat lower. Unionized cashiers, as well as some others in jobs which involve a considerable degree of responsibility or require specialized training, may earn con siderably more than the legal mini mum; often more than $2 an hour. Grocery checkers employed by su permarkets may earn more than $3 an hour. Cashiers’ hours may differ from those of many other clerical workers because they often work during rush periods which are out side regular office hours. Holiday, weekend, late afternoon, and eve ning work may be required, espe cially in theaters, restaurants, and food stores. Many cashiers in these establishments work part time or on split shifts. Cashiers employed full time in supermarkets and other large retail establishments usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week but, since Saturday is a busy day in re tailing, most cashiers usually work on that day and have another day off during the week. Most cashiers work indoors, often in small booths or behind counters near the entrances of stores, theaters, and other establish ments. In some cases, their quarters may be uncomfortable because they are exposed to cold drafts in the winter and considerable heat during the summer. (See introductory section of this chapter for Sources of Additional Information.) ELECTRONIC COMPUTER OPERATING PERSONNEL (D.O.T. 213.138, .382, .582, .588, and .885; and 223.387) Nature of the Work An electronic computer may require many specialized operators. First, the “input” must be coded. Then someone must operate the computer console; finally, the “out put” must be translated back into words and numbers to be read. These procedures vary among com puter systems; often they are more involved and difficult to learn than operating the equipment itself. The number and kinds of employees needed also vary. A computer no larger than an office desk may need one or two employees. A large sys tem, on the other hand, requires several specialized workers. “Input” consists of the data to be processed and step-by-step instruc tions prepared by programers. (In formation about the occupation of Programer is given elsewhere in the Handbook.) In many systems, the input consists of punched cards pre pared by keypunch operators (D.O.T. 213.582) or of paper tapes prepared by data typists (D.O.T. 213.588). Keypunch operators use machines similar to typewriters that punch holes in cards to represent specific items of information. Less frequently, input may be prepared by adding or bookkeeping machine operators using machines with spe cial attachments to perforate tapes. In some computer systems, punched cards or paper tapes feed information directly into the central computer. In other systems, small computers or terminals, linked to the central computer by telephone lines, supply the information. Faster 289 CLERICAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS computer systems obtain their input from “direct access” devices featur ing magnetic surfaces on which data are recorded by spots. Such devices include magnetic tapes, discs, data cells, and data drums. These sys tems include auxiliary equipment that records directly on magnetic surfaces or transfers data from punched cards or paper tapes to the magnetic surface. Small computers transfer data in some systems. Other machines, used for the same purpose, are called converters and are run by card-totape converter operators (D.O.T. 213.382). Converter operators may be required to wire a fairly simple plugboard and must know how to interpret signals from a panel of lights on the machine. They also should understand the whole system to recognize any errors in input and to identify other situations that prevent proper operation. Once facts and figures have been coded, data are ready for the “run” —that is, to be processed. A con sole operator (D.O.T. 213.382) or computer operator operates the computer after examining the pro gram ed instructions to ascertain procedures. He then makes sure the computer is loaded with tape, discs, or cards, and starts the run. He may manipulate dozens of switches and observe numerous lights. If the computer stops or lights signal an error, he must locate the difficulty. To be read, output must be trans lated from machine language to words and numbers. In some sys tems this is done by machines di rectly connected to the computer. In many large systems, however, this work is done on converters, high speed printers, and other machines run by auxiliary equipment opera tors— tape-to-card converter opera tors (D.O.T. 213.382), high-speed printer operators (D.O.T. 213.382), and others. Computer data on tape, discs, or cards are stored by a tape librarian (D.O.T. 223.387) or a console op erator or auxiliary equipment oper ator and often are used again and again—as in making up a payroll at the end of every pay period. Tele phone lines which transmit data from computers have expanded the range of tasks of an auxiliary equip ment operator. Many operators run communications as well as comput ing equipment. Two or three shifts of workers, under a chief supervi sor, operate many computers for 16 to 24 hours a day. Places of Employment The number of console and auxil iary equipment operators employed in 1970 is estimated at 200,000. Jobs for operating personnel are found chiefly in government agen cies and in insurance companies, banks, wholesale and retail busi nesses, transportation and public utility companies, and manufactur ing firms. Many operators also are employed in independent service or ganizations that process data for other firms. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers often transfer opera tors of tabulating and bookkeeping machines to newly installed elec tronic computers. Many other com puter operators are recruited from the outside. In hiring outsiders, private em 290 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ployers usually require at least a high school education. For console operators, some college training may be preferred. The Federal Government requires applicants for auxiliary equipment operator jobs to be high school graduates unless they have had specialized training or previous experience in related work. Console operators should have a high school education and some work experience. They also may qualify for appointment on the basis of previous experience in com puter work and a general aptitude for it, as demonstrated by special tests. Many private employers also give tests to measure an applicant’s aptitude, especially his ability to reason logically. Beginners usually receive training after they are hired. The training of auxiliary equipment operators may require a few weeks, that of console operators somewhat longer. Console operators usually attend classes to learn to mount tapes and operate the console. They must become suf ficiently familiar with the equipment to trace mechanical failures. This training is supplemented by further instruction on the job. As they gain experience, opera tors may be assigned to more com plex equipment and eventually promoted to supervisors or jobs that combine supervisory duties and console operation. Through on-thejob experience and additional study, console operators may qualify as programers. Employment Outlook The use of electronic data-processing equipment will continue to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s as the economy grows. Com puters are being adapted to new uses almost daily and, as they per form more varied tasks, many more business firms will be utilizing them. Although the size of the staff re quired to operate a computer in stallation may be reduced somewhat as new types of equipment are de veloped, the total number of com puter and auxiliary equipment operators is expected to increase very rapidly. Thousands of operators will be needed to fill new jobs, both in firms having their own computer installa tions and service centers that rent computer time to businessmen. Many operators also will be needed to replace operators of computer systems who transfer to other kinds of work or stop working. The equipment changes that are expected in computers also may pro duce changes in job requirements for console and auxiliary equipment operators. Because of advances in technology, much of the equipment in use today is far less complex to operate than computers of the early 1950’s and 1960’s; and future changes may bring further simplifi cation. As a consequence, newcom ers to this field may find it easier to qualify for the openings available than have applicants in the past. Earnings and Working Conditions Information about the salaries of computer operating personnel is available from a nationwide private survey conducted in 1970. The av erage salary for beginning console operators was $122 a week. Some experienced console operators aver aged up to $200 a week. The weekly salary of experienced key punch operators averaged $112. The difference between the salary of the lowest and highest paid em ployees in each of the job classifica tions surveyed was much greater than these figures suggest, however. For example, the highest salary re ported for a skilled console operator was $365 a week—more than 4 times the lowest salary reported for a comparable job. Many variations of this kind were due to differences in salary levels in various parts of the country and among individual companies and industries; to some extent, they also reflect differences in the complexity of the work per formed by operators having the same job titles. Salaries of computer personnel in the Federal Government are roughly comparable to those in pri vate industry. In late 1970, begin ning console operators started at about $113 a week. The maximum salary paid to experienced console operators in the Federal Govern ment was about $190 a week; a few in supervisory positions may earn up to $273 a week, usually after several years of experience. Operators of electronic computer systems generally work the same number of weekly hours and are al lowed the same holidays, vacations, and other benefits as most office employees. Since many computers are operated on a two- or three-shift basis, scheduled hours for some console and auxiliary equipment op erators include late evening or nightwork. Tape librarians usually work only when day shifts are on duty. Because electronic computers must be housed where temperature is carefully controlled, operators work in air-conditioned rooms. A disadvantage of their working envi ronment, however, is the high level of noise generated by the operation of computer consoles and some aux iliary equipment. (See introduction to this chapter for additional infor mation on Working Conditions.) CLERICAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Sources of Additional Information Information on careers in elec tronic data processing may be ob tained from: Data Processing Management As sociation, 505 Busse Highway, Park Ridge, 111. 60068. A list of reading materials giving information about computer operat ing personnel may be obtained from: Association for Computing Ma chinery, 1133 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10036. FILE CLERKS (D.O.T. 206.388) Nature of the Work Most establishments arrange their records in some order to prevent loss of time and money that often results when needed information can’t be located. This creates op portunities for file clerks, who keep such records accurate, up to date, and properly placed. Their specific duties, however, depend on the size and type of establishment that em ploys them. File clerks read the material to be filed and arrange it by number, al phabet, subject matter, or by some other filing system. The kinds of in formation filed vary by type of or ganization. File clerks employed by banks might file deposit or with drawal slips, loan records, and cor respondence; file clerks working for magazine publishers might file news items, subscriptions, and pictures. Aside from inserting new data into files, file clerks usually perform duties related to existing files, such as entering additional information on materials in the files, investigat ing file records, and tracing missing file data. Much of the file clerk’s time is spent retrieving information stored in the files. In such instances, file clerks maintain records of materials removed from the files and see that materials given out are returned. Some other file clerk functions are not carried out as often as those related to the storage and retrieval of data. Periodically, for example, obsolete file materials may be de stroyed or transferred to inactive storage. From time to time, files may be checked to insure that mate rials are correctly placed; and fold ers, labels, and index cards may be prepared for use in the files. As changes take place in the character istics of information filed, some file clerks establish new, or modify ex isting, filing systems. In large organizations, the func tions of file clerks may be so spe cialized that they perform only one duty. In small organizations, on the other hand, file clerks may also han dle tasks closely related to their reg ular job, such as typing, sorting 291 mail, or operating an office ma chine. Places of Employment Almost 170,000 workers— mostly women—were employed as file clerks in 1970. In addition, hundreds of thousands of workers in other kinds of clerical occupations also do filing in connection with their work. Finance, insurance, real estate, and manufacturing establishments employed the largest number of file clerks in 1970, accounting for three-fourths of these workers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most employers prefer high school graduates for beginning posi tions as file clerks. Business courses offered by public and private school are helpful—particularly typewrit ing, which is increasingly required. Other useful business subjects in clude bookkeeping or recordkeep ing, clerical or office practice, and general business. Some on-the-job training is usu ally necessary because each organi zation has its own filing system and office procedures with which the clerk must become familiar. In large establishments having specialized filing procedures, a clerk may learn her job in a few weeks. In small es tablishments that require file clerks to perform various duties, on-thejob training may last up to 3 months. The ability to read accurately and rapidly and to spell correctly is im portant for this type of work. Other desirable traits include a sense of orderliness and a liking for detail. Advancement for file clerks usu ally consists of performing more dif 292 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ficult filing work or supervising other file clerks. With additional training, these workers may advance to other clerical positions such as information clerk or office machine operator. (See statement on office machine operators elsewhere in the Handbook.) Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for file clerks are expected to be good through the 1970’s, with several thousand openings expected yearly during this period. Most of these openings will be for workers to re place file clerks who retire or stop working for other reasons. Em ployee turnover is especially high among file clerks because many of the women who perform this work are young and leave the field to get married and care for a family. Employment of file clerks is ex pected to rise rapidly through the 1970’s as a result of the long-term growth of business and the need for more and better recordkeeping. New positions for file clerks are ex pected to open up as the businesses employing large numbers of file clerks—such as banks, insurance companies, and manufacturing firms —continue to expand. However, the increasing use of mechanical de vices to arrange, store, and transmit records can be expected to limit employment growth for clerks of this type. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning file clerks performing routine duties earned average weekly salaries of $80, according to a 1970 Bureau of Labor Statistics survey. Salaries of file clerks having some experience averaged $88.00 a week, and the most experienced file clerks performing more difficult du ties averaged $106 a week. The sur vey indicated, however, that salary levels of files clerks varied consider ably by location and size of firm. The starting salary for beginning file clerks in the Federal Govern ment in 1970 was about $80.00 a week ($4,125 a year); experienced file clerks earned about $105 a week ($5,212 a year). Office employees, including file clerks, generally work a 40-hour week. In some cities, especially in the northeastern part of the country, the scheduled workweek is ?>1 V2 hours. Most office workers in large cities receive pay for 7 or more holidays a year and for 2 weeks of vacation after working 1 year. Life and health insurance, sick benefits, and retirement pension plans supple menting benefits paid under the Federal Social Security program also are generally available. Working conditions for file clerks are usually similar to those of other office workers in the same organiza tion. File clerk work requires little heavy lifting but usually involves some bending and reaching. (See Clerical and Related Occupations, this chapter for Sources of Addi tional Information). OFFICE MACHINE OPERATORS (D.O.T. 207.782, .884 and .885; 208.782; 214.488; 215.388; 216.488; 234.582 and .885) Nature of the Work The types of machines used to speed paperwork in modern busi ness offices are so varied that it would be almost impossible to list all of them. They range from simple mechanical devices that open letters to electronic equipment capable of performing highly involved compu tations. This statement is concerned with the work done by people whose main job is to operate some of the more common types of office machines. Many, such as the book keeping machine operator and bill ing machine operator, have job ti tles related to the kinds of equip ment they use. (Typists, operators of transcribing machines, and oper ators of electronic computers are not included in this statement, but are discussed in other sections of this chapter. Others not included are clerical workers who occasion ally use equipment such as copying machines, adding machines, and other mechanical devices; and sta tistical clerks who use calculating machines extensively in connection with their regular duties.) Billing machine operators (D.O.T. 214.488) use machines that both type and add, in preparing statements relating to customers’ purchases. By striking lettered and numbered keys on the machine, the operator enters on each bill such in formation as the customer’s name and address, the items bought, and the amounts of money involved in each transaction. Then, when the operator presses other keys, the machine calculates and prints totals, discounts, and other items. Bookkeeping machine operators (D.O.T. 215.388) use office ma chines that record all the financial transactions of a business. As the operator presses the necessary keys, the machine enters totals and net amounts on bookkeeping forms. Through the use of bookkeeping machines, operators also prepare periodic trial balances, summary re CLERICAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS ports, and other statistical informa tion. Adding and calculating machine operators (D.O.T. 216.488) use electrically and manually operated machines to make the computations needed in preparing payrolls and in voices, and in doing other statistical work. By striking numbered keys, operators “put into” these machines the numbers involved in each calcu lation. Then, when other keys are pressed, the machines compute the desired totals, and some may record the results automatically. Adding machine operators use their ma chines to add and subtract numbers, and sometimes to multiply. The cal culator is more complex than the adding machine and usually has a much larger keyboard. Calculating machine operators and Comptome ter operators use their machines not only to add, subtract, multiply, and divide, but also to get square roots, figure percentage distributions, and do other computations. Many office workers who operate adding ma chines and calculators part time also perform other office duties. How ever, operators of the most complex calculating machines—i.e., keydriven calculators which require considerable skill and knowledge— usually are occupied full time in this job. Mail preparing and mail han dling machine operators (D.O.T. 234.582 and .885) run automatic equipment which handles incoming and outgoing mail. Only in offices which handle a very large volume of mail does this work require a full time operator. Some operators feed incoming mail into machines which open the envelopes. Other operators place outgoing mail on the loading racks of machines which fold enclo sures and/or insert them in enve lopes or address, seal, or stamp en velopes. Operators of addressing machines run machines which print addresses and related information either from stencils which have been cut by typists or from plates prepared by embossing machine op erators (D.O.T. 208.782) on a spe cial kind of typing machine. Operators of duplicating ma chines handle equipment which pro duces copies of typewritten, printed, and handwritten documents more quickly and/or inexpensively than is possible by typing. Although some equipment of this kind can be oper ated by almost any office employee, the more complicated duplicating machines, which are capable of producing thousands of copies of typewritten and handwritten docu ments in a single “run,” are usually operated by trained duplicating machine operators (D.O.T. 207.782, .884 and .885) who spend most of their time doing this work. The operators who use these machines 293 insert in the machine a “mas ter” copy of the document and re produce it. Each operator must see that the machine is kept properly adjusted so that it produces legible copies. On some machines, the op erator also feeds in the paper used for making copies and removes fin ished batches of work manually; on other machines, feeding and offbearing are done automatically. Operators of tabulating machines and related equipment (D.O.T. 213.782) run machines designed to sort and count large quantities of accounting and statistical informa tion. Information to be processed in a tabulating machine is inserted through punched cards into ma chines which count the various items punched on each card, multiply and make other calculations, and print the results on accounting records and other business forms. 294 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Places of Employment About 365,000 people were em ployed as office machine operators in 1970. (This total does not in clude 200,000 electronic computer operators. This occupation is dis cussed elsewhere in this chapter.) About three-fourths of all office machine operators are women. Office machine operators are em ployed chiefly in firms handling a large volume of recordkeeping and other paperwork. Consequently, a great many operators work in large cities where such firms are usually located. Approximately one-third of all office machine operators work for manufacturing companies. Oth ers work for banks and insurance companies, government agencies, and wholesale and retail firms. Some office machine operators are employed in “service centers”— agencies equipped with various kinds of office machines which contract to handle—for other firms without this equipment—tasks such as preparing monthly bills and mail ing circulars to lists of prospective customers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Graduation from high school or business school is the minimum ed ucational requirement for all but the most routine office machine opera tor jobs. For work such as operating key driven calculators and some kinds of tabulating and duplicating equipment, specialized training is usually necessary. For many begin ning positions, however, a general knowledge of the equipment used is usually sufficient. Public and private school courses in the operation of office machines are helpful, and business arithmetic is valuable for the many jobs involving work with figures. It is helpful also for office machine operators to have some knowledge of typing, or to be able to operate more than one type of office equipment, since many office positions entail varied assignments. Employers usually give newly hired office machine operators some on-the-job training. Even employees who have training or experience in office machine operation need to become familiar with the particular equipment they will be using on the job; differences exist between the calculating machines produced by one manufacturer and by another, and new models sometimes differ considerably from older models. The amount of instruction and on-the-job experience needed by a beginner varies, depending chiefly on the type of machine. A few days may be sufficient to train operators of some duplicating machines; how ever, a few weeks may be needed for training calculating machine op erators. Operators of calculating machines are often trained at com pany expense in special schools es tablished by equipment manufac turers. Finger dexterity, coordination of eye and hand movements, and good vision are important for most office machine operator jobs. It is helpful for billing and calculating machine operators to have a sufficient sense of mathematical relationships to en able them to quickly detect obvious errors in computations. Some me chanical ability is advantageous, especially for duplicating and tabu lating machine operators. Most employers follow a promotion-from-within policy, taking into consideration seniority and on-thejob performance as shown by super visors’ ratings and recommenda tions. Promotion may be from a be ginning, routine machine job to a more complex one, or the promo tion may be to a related clerical job. Often, employers provide the addi tional training required in such cases. Advancement for office machine operators employed in firms which have large clerical staffs may be to positions in which they are responsible for training begin ners and for the accuracy of their work, or else to supervisory posi tions as section or department heads. Employment Outlook Thousands of job openings for office machine operators are ex pected each year through the 1970’s. Most will result from the need to replace workers who retire or stop working for other reasons. Many machine operators are young women who stop working to care for their families. Other openings are expected to result from the in troduction of new types of mechani cal office equipment which speed recording, copying, and related office work. Still other openings will occur as business organizations con tinue to grow in size and number, and the volume of billing, comput ing, duplicating, and other work continues to mount. Employment of office machine operators is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. In some offices, however, the number of workers needed to operate tabu lating, billing, and other types of machines may be reduced by the spread of automated recordkeeping systems and further advances in office automation. Also, advances in interoffice communications devices for transmitting data and electronic computer technology should enable many large firms and government agencies to centralize recordkeeping 295 CLERICAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS functions. Thus, the requirements for office machine operators in small branch offices will be reduced. Any reductions in employment however, are expected to be more than offset by the new jobs created as the volume of paperwork contin ues to increase in business establish ments of all kinds. Earnings and Working Conditions A 1970 Bureau of Labor Statis tics survey, covering firms in metro politan areas, provides salary infor mation for several office machine operator occupations. For book keeping machine operators, the av erages are given separately for dif ferent skill groups. Operators in Class A were generally experienced employees who performed compar atively difficult work, while Class B operators worked on more routine assignments and used simpler types of equipment. The average weekly salaries reported by this survey are shown in the accompanying tabula tion. RECEPTIONISTS (D.O.T. 237.368) Nature of the Work Most large organizations—and many small ones—employ recep tionists to greet customers and oth ers with whom they deal, and give them information. It is the recep tionist’s job to determine the nature of each caller’s business, and then to direct him to those in the office who may be able to help him. Places of Employment A v e r a g e w e e k l y s a la r ie s , 1970 W om en M en Billing machine operators ................... $ 92.00 $127.00 Bookkeeping machine operators ................... Class A ................. 105.50 113.50 Class B ................. 89.00 102.00 Comptometer operators. 97.00 ........... Because of the noise created by their machines, groups of operators often work in areas which are apart from other company offices. In other respects, working conditions for office machine operators usually are similar to those of other office workers in the same firms. (See in troductory section to this chapter for further information on Working Conditions and for Sources of Addi tional Information.) tion card and see that an escort is available to accompany him to the office of the official with whom he has business. In connection with these duties, many receptionists also keep records showing the name of each caller, the nature of his busi ness, the time of his call, and the person to whom he was referred. Most receptionists, particularly in small offices, have some time when they are not occupied with callers; as a result, they may handle other office tasks. Many receive and route telephone inquiries to the proper company officials. Typing, sorting and opening mail, filing, keeping books or petty cash accounts, or op erating an office telephone switch board may be among their addi tional responsibilities. Receptionists usually refer each caller to the appropriate person in the organization, or else contact his office by telephone and arrange an appointment. Because of differences in the types of organizations where they work, receptionists may have somewhat different duties. In a hos pital clinic, for example, the recep tionist may direct each patient to the proper waiting room; in a beauty shop, she may arrange an appointment and accompany the customer to the operator’s booth; and in a large defense plant, it may be part of the receptionist’s job to provide the caller with an identifica It is estimated that almost 300,000 receptionists were working in the United States in 1970. About one out of four was a part-time worker who spent fewer than 35 hours a week on the job. More than 95 percent were women. Although jobs for receptionists exist in practically all kinds of es tablishments, over half of the peo ple in this occupation are employed in the offices of physicians, attor neys, and other professional people. Many others are employed by hos pitals and educational institutions, and still others by banks, insurance companies, real estate offices, man ufacturing concerns, and beauty shops. The relatively small number of men who are employed as recep tionists work principally in medical service and hospital jobs, in manu facturing, and in banking and credit agencies. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 296 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement When hiring receptionists, em ployers seldom specify any formal educational requirements beyond a high school diploma. Nevertheless, about 1 receptionist out of 5 has some college training. Courses in English, spelling, typewriting, ele mentary bookkeeping, and business practices are assets for a beginner. The ability to operate an office tele phone switchboard also may be de sirable, although this skill often is acquired through on-the-job train ing. (See statement on Telephone Operators.) Because the receptionist’s job is to act as her employer’s public rep resentative, personal characteristics, such as a pleasant manner and an even disposition, are very impor tant. An attractive personal appear ance, pleasant speaking voice, good judgment, punctuality, and the abil ity to communicate information ac curately also are necessary qualities. To perform her job effectively, the receptionist should acquire a thor ough understanding of how her em ployer’s business is organized. The receptionist’s job generally offers limited opportunities for pro motion and advancement. However, work as a receptionist, plus business training, may lead to a better paying position as a secretary or an admin istrative assistant. Employment Outlook The number of receptionists is expected to increase moderately during the 1970’s. Thousands of workers will be needed annually be cause of employment growth and the need to replace receptionists who retire or stop working for other reasons. Additional openings will arise as receptionists transfer to other types of employment. How ever, young applicants probably will meet strong competition, since many older and more experienced workers also seek this type of work. A few opportunities will continue to be available for men. The chief factor affecting em ployment growth in this occupation is the expected general business ex pansion associated with population increase and economic prosperity. In addition, more business firms are realizing the importance of the re ceptionist in promoting good public relations. Since the receptionist’s work is of a person-to-person na ture, it is unlikely to be affected by office automation. Earnings and Working Conditions Switchboard-receptionists earned average salaries of $92 a week in 1970, according to a Bureau of Labor Statistics survey of 229 met ropolitan areas. However, salary levels of these workers varied con siderably by type and location of employer. For example, reception ists employed in the western United States averaged $98 a week while those in the South averaged $85 a week. In the Federal Government, workers employed as information receptionists started at about $90 a week ($4,621 a year) in 1970. For experienced workers, starting sala ries were higher—about $100 or $110 a week ($5,212 or $5,853 a year), depending on the nature of their previous experience. Particularly in large business offices, receptionists usually work in well-furnished front offices, free from noise and overcrowding. In hospitals, beauty shops, and some other types of businesses, scheduled hours may include some weekend and evening work. (See introduc tory section to this chapter for fur ther information on Working Condi tions and for Sources of Additional Information.) SHIPPING AND RECEIVING CLERKS (D.O.T. 222.138 through .687) Nature of the Work Shipping and receiving clerks keep track of goods transferred from one place to another by busi ness firms. Their specific duties de pend on the size and type of estab lishment which employs them. In many small companies, one clerk keeps records of all shipments sent out and received by his employer. In larger companies, however, ship ping and receiving clerks may be employed in separate departments under supervisors called head ship ping clerks or head receiving clerks —or sometimes warehouse manag ers. Before a shipment is sent from a business establishment to a cus tomer, shipping clerks check to be sure the order has been correctly filled. They prepare the invoices and other shipping forms needed, look up freight and postal rates, re cord the weight and cost of each shipment, and check to see that the shipment is properly addressed. They also keep records of the date and other details associated with each shipment. Sometimes shipping clerks requisition the needed mer chandise from the firm’s stockroom, wrap and pack the shipment, and direct its loading on company 297 CLERICAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS trucks. They also may ensure that the weight is evenly distributed and fragile items are safely placed. facturing firms and another fairly large group worked for wholesale houses or retail stores. More than 85 percent of all shipping clerks are men. Establishments employing shipping and receiving clerks tend to be concentrated in metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Receiving clerks do similar work when shipments reach their destina tion. They find out whether their employer’s orders have been cor rectly filled by verifying incoming shipments against the original order and the accompanying bill of lading or invoice, and they check to see whether the merchandise in each shipment has arrived in good condi tion. Receiving clerks record all in coming shipments, their condition, and do clerical work related to dam aged or lost shipments. Routing shipments to the proper department of the company or section of the warehouse or to the stockroom also may be part of their job. Places of Employment The number of shipping and re ceiving clerks employed in 1970 is estimated at 380,000. About two out of every three worked in manu High school graduates are pre ferred for beginning jobs in shipping and receiving departments. Business arithmetic, typing, and other high school business subjects are helpful in preparing for the work. The abil ity to write, legibly is important. Dependability and an interest in learning about the firm’s business activities are also qualities which employers seek. New employees usually are given on-the-job training under the super vision of an experienced worker. This training covers the special care and skill required when the ship ments include merchandise such as garments or scientific instruments; and a knowledge of the regulations which apply to shipments received from or forwarded to other coun tries. In some firms, stockroom workers help beginners acquire a knowledge of the firm’s products and business transactions. In shipping and re ceiving rooms, newly hired clerks often start by doing routine work such as filing; checking addresses; attaching labels to shipments; and checking the items included in ship ments. As clerks acquire experience, they may be assigned tasks requir ing a good deal of independent judg ment—for example, handling prob lems that arise because of damaged merchandise, or supervising other shipping or receiving room workers. Work as a shipping or receiving clerk provides an excellent opportu nity for an ambitious young man to learn about his company’s products and business connections. Some clerks, particularly those who ac quire post high school training or take courses in transportation, may eventually advance to warehouse managers, industrial traffic manag ers, or purchasing agents. (The work of industrial traffic managers and purchasing agents is discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Employment Outlook Several thousand openings for shipping and receiving clerks are expected annually during the 1970’s as employment rises and as workers retire, stop working for other rea sons, or transfer to other types of employment. As the quantity of goods distrib uted increases with population growth, rising income levels, and business expansion, the number of shipping and receiving clerks is likely to rise slowly. Employment probably will not increase as fast as the volume of goods distributed. Shipping and receiving departments in firms handling large quantities of merchandise will undoubtedly be able to handle a greater volume of work with fewer clerks, as they continue to increase efficiency by streamlining recordkeeping and modernizing warehouses through in stallation of moving belts and other laborsaving equipment. Earnings and Working Conditions Shipping and receiving clerks av eraged $3.07 an hour according to a 1970 Bureau of Labor Statistics survey covering 229 metropolitan 298 areas. Average earnings were lowest in the Southern region, $2.79 an hour, and highest in the North Cen tral region, $3.22 an hour. Salary levels of shipping and re ceiving clerks in comparable jobs varied also, due to differences in the industries in which they were em ployed. Shipping and receiving clerks generally work a 40-hour week. Many receive time and a half for work over 40 hours. Nightwork and overtime, including work on Satur days, Sundays, and holidays, may be necessary when raw materials are needed immediately on factory production lines, when shipments have been unduly delayed in arriv ing, or in other emergencies. Ship ping and receiving clerks do much of their work in warehouses and shipping and receiving rooms; they may do some of it on outside load ing platforms. Work places are often large, unpartitioned areas which may be drafty and cold, and littered with packing materials and containers. Some of the work done by ship ping and receiving clerks requires physical stamina and strength. Most clerks must stand for long periods while they check quantities of mer chandise. Locating numbers and de scriptions on cartons often requires a great deal of bending, stooping, and stretching. Also, under the pressure of getting shipments moved on time, clerks may help load or un load materials in the warehouse. (See introductory section this chap ter for Sources of Additional Infor mation.) OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK STOCK CLERKS (D.O.T. 223.387) Nature of the Work Most employers recognize the importance of keeping well-bal anced inventories in order to prevent losses in sales or slowdowns in production. Stock clerks help pro tect against such losses by control ling the flow of goods received, stored, and issued. Their basic duties are similar in all establishments, but their specific responsibilities vary greatly by size and type of firm and the number of items handled. The duties of stock clerks also depend on the items they handle. For example, stock clerks working with a wide variety of foods and drugs must maintain proper temper ature and humidity conditions. Stock clerks responsible for large construction items may be required to do much walking and climbing to note the condition and quantity of that stock. Stock clerks usually receive and unpack incoming merchandise or material. They may check the items for quality and quantity and some times make minor repairs or adjust ments. They also report damaged or spoiled goods and process papers necessary for obtaining replace ments or credit. Stock clerks store materials in bins, on the floor, or on shelves, ac cording to the plan of the stockroom. They may organize and mark items with identifying codes, letters, figures, or prices so that inventories may be located quickly and easily. Stock clerks always maintain a rec ord of items entering or leaving the stockroom. They may also prepare inventory reports showing stock bal ances resulting from a perpetual in ventory system or from taking peri odic physical inventories. In addi tion, stock clerks sometimes order supplies and also may label, pack, crate, or address goods for delivery. Many stock clerks, such as film library clerk, tool clerk, and parts clerk have job titles related to the items they handle. Places of Employment In small firms, stock clerks may perform the varied duties of receiv ing clerks, shipping clerks, and in ventory clerks; whereas in large firms stock clerks may be responsi ble for only one of these functions. About 500,000 stock clerks were employed in 1970; 80 percent were men. Most worked in manufactur ing and in wholesale and retail trade. Large numbers of stock clerks were also employed by mail- 299 CLERICAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS order houses, airlines, government agencies, hospitals, transportation companies, and other establish ments that keep large quantities of goods on hand. The majority of stock clerks work in metropolitan areas where large factories, ware houses, stores, and other large goods-handling organizations are concentrated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although there are no specific educational requirements for be coming a stock clerk, most em ployers prefer high school gradu ates. Employers look for proficiency in reading, writing, mathematics, typing, and filing. Good health, especially good eyesight, is impor tant. As with most jobs, attentive ness, honesty, and the ability to get along with people, also are impor tant. Stock clerks handling jewelry, liquor, or drugs are often bonded. Stock clerks usually receive onthe-job training. New workers are first given simple tasks such as counting and marking stock. Basic responsibilities of the job are usu ally learned within several weeks. As they progress, stock clerks learn to keep records of incoming and outgoing materials, take inventories, and order supplies. Advancement opportunities vary and often depend on the size of the establishment. In a small firm, the stock clerk may advance to a sales position or become an assistant buyer or purchasing agent. In a large establishment, the stock clerk may also advance to more responsi ble stock clerk positions such as in voice clerk, stock control clerk, or merchandise supply man. Advance ment to the position of supervisor or manager of the stockroom is pos sible, but usually additional educa tion and a knowledge of marketing are required. Employment Outlook Continuing population growth, rising income, and business expan sion will result in a moderate em ployment increase for stock clerks through the 1970’s. Many job open ings will arise annually because of this employment growth, as well as the need to replace those who retire or stop working for other reasons. The increased use of electronic computers and other mechanical de vices to control inventories and other closely related work, however, can be expected to limit growth in this occupation. Because entrance into this occu pation is relatively easy, and since many young people seek this work as a first job, some competition for openings is likely. ally have at least 7 paid holidays a year and 2 weeks of vacation after working 1 year. Life and health in surance and sick benefits also are generally available, as are retire ment pension plans supplementing benefits paid under the Federal So cial Security program. The working conditions of stock clerks vary by type of employer. Al though stock clerks usually work in relatively clean, heated, and welllighted areas, some stockrooms may be damp and drafty. Clerks han dling refrigerated goods may spend some time in cold storage rooms. Stock clerks spend much of their working day on their feet, often on a concrete floor. The work often in volves considerable bending, lifting, and climbing. (See introductory section of this chapter for Sources of Additional Information). STENOGRAPHERS AND SECRETARIES Earnings and Working Conditions (D.O.T. 201.268 and .368 and 202.388) Earnings of men and women doing stock clerk type work in met ropolitan areas averaged about $125 and $92 a week respectively in 1970, according to a Bureau of Labor Statistics survey. Differences in pay between men and women are explained in part by differences in the industries where they are em ployed, length of service, and minor variations in job duties. The earn ings of stock clerks employed by the Federal Government generally ranged between $110 and $140 a week in 1970. Stock clerks usually work a 40hour week and receive the same fringe benefits as office employees in the same establishment. Those working in metropolitan areas usu Nature of the Work About 2.8 million persons were employed in occupations requiring stenographic skills in 1970. More than 95 percent were women. Prac tically all stenographers and secre taries take dictation and transcribe it on a typewriter. They usually have additional duties related to the nature of their employer’s business; they sometimes have special job ti tles which reflect their skill levels or work specialties. Stenographers (D.O.T. 202.388) take dictation from one or more persons and then transcribe their notes on a typewriter. Most stenog- 300 raphers record their notes in short hand; some use machines which print symbols as different keys are pressed. In addition to taking and transcribing dictation, many stenog raphers also do other kinds of typ ing, answer telephones, operate var ious office machines, and perform other clerical duties. Some stenogra phers, including most beginners, are classified as general stenographers; they take fairly routine dictation and perform routine office tasks. More experienced senior stenographers have a higher degree of stenographic speed and accuracy, and perform more responsible clerical work. Some senior stenographers, called technical stenographers, take dicta tion in medical, legal, or scientific terms; others take dictation in a foreign language; and still others work as public stenographers. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Some stenographers specialize in shorthand reporting. Included in this group are court reporters, who record proceedings in law courts. Other reporting stenographers re cord proceedings at conventions and other meetings; report statements made at press conferences and be fore Government legislative com mittees; and do other kinds of word for word reporting. Reporting ste nographers take their notes by machine or, less frequently, in writ ten shorthand. Then, they either transcribe them on a typewriter or dictate them onto sound-producing records which are later transcribed by typists. Stenographers who do this kind of work must be excep tionally rapid and accurate—some times taking notes in technical lan guage from many speakers and for extended periods of time. In addition to stenographic work, Secretaries (D.O.T. 201.268) re lieve employers of routine duties and business details. Duties vary and depend on the employer’s business and the secre tary’s experience and capabilities. Secretaries often arrange airline and hotel reservations, and take care of some kinds of correspondence. Some times they supervise other personnel. Some secretaries special ize in legal, medical, and other tech nical work. Social secretaries (D.O.T. 201.268) arrange social functions and attend to personal and social matters for employers. Places of Employment Although organizations of every size and type employ stenographers and secretaries, more than half work for service; finance, insurance, and real estate; and government or ganizations. Many technical stenog raphers and secretaries work for physicians, attorneys, and other pro fessional people. A few—chiefly public stenographers and some re porting stenographers—are selfemployed. Stenographic and secre tarial jobs for men tend to be con centrated in educational and other professional services, and in manu facturing and public administration. Many of the nearly 15,000 stenog raphers who specialize in shorthand reporting are men. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Adequate performance as a ste nographer or secretary requires a good basic education and technical training. Graduation from high school is essential for practically all positions. Graduates whose high school courses have included short 301 CLERICAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS hand, typing, and other business subjects meet the requirements of many employers. Some employers prefer a background of academic high school subjects, supplemented by technical training taken after graduation. Daytime and evening courses that prepare students for stenographic and secretarial work are offered by hundreds of public schools, private business schools, and colleges throughout the country. In connec tion with high school courses in business subjects, some public schools conduct cooperative pro grams which enable students to ac quire practical work experience under trained supervision. Also, the Federal Government sponsors train ing programs for unemployed and underemployed workers for entry positions as stenographers under provisions of the Manpower Devel opment and Training Act. Associate degrees in the field of secretarial studies are conferred by a great number of junior and community colleges. Bachelor’s degrees in the field of executive secretary are con ferred by the schools of business and commerce in many universities; a few confer the master’s degree. Some courses which train for stenographic work are limited to shorthand and typing and can be completed in a few months. In other courses which usually last longer, students also may be taught addi tional office skills and receive in struction in general business prac tices and office conduct. Some courses provide intensive training to prepare students for stenographic reporting or for legal, technical, or medical-dental secretarial work. Many different shorthand systems are used, some of which are faster than others. Employers seldom have strong preferences about the system a stenographer uses, but they usually regard the rate of speed as an important factor. To qualify for positions in the Federal Govern ment—and for employment in many private firms—stenographers must be able to take dictation at a rate of at least 80 words a minute and type 40 words or more a min ute. Although speed requirements in some positions may be less than this, in others—especially shorthand reporting—they are much greater. Many shorthand reporting jobs re quire dictation speeds of 200 words or more a minute. For beginning shorthand reporters in the Federal Government, the minimum is 160 words a minute. Good hearing and a working knowledge of spelling, punctuation, grammar, and vocabulary are essen tial in stenographic and secre tarial positions. Employers seek workers who are poised, alert, and have pleasant personalities. Discre tion, good judgment, and initiative are also important, particularly for the more responsible secretarial po sitions. Capable and well-trained stenog raphers and secretaries have excel lent opportunities for advancement. Many stenographers advance to bet ter paying positions as secre taries; others, who acquire the necessary speed through experience or additional training, may become reporting stenographers. Both ste nographers and secretaries may eventually be promoted to jobs such as administrative assistant, office supervisor, executive secretary, or some other responsible position re quiring specialized knowledge of the employer’s industry or business. Employment Outlook As modern businesses continue to expand in size and complexity, the increased paperwork will lead to a rapid expansion in the employment of secretaries and stenographers. The increasing use of dictating, du plicating, and other office machines will undoubtedly continue, but tech nological changes of this kind are not expected to greatly affect the growth of employment in these occupations. Thus, employment opportunities for workers who have stenographic skills are expected to be favorable through the 1970’s. About one hundred thousand workers will be hired annually to fill new jobs, and an even greater number will be needed to replace stenographers and secretaries who retire or stop working for other reasons. Turnover among stenographic workers is high because many young women leave to care for their families. Some openings also will occur as stenog raphers and secretaries leave their jobs to enter other types of employ ment. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, persons employed as general stenographers in metropoli tan areas surveyed by the Bureau of Labor Statistics earned average sala ries of $461 a month. Salaries earned by senior and technical ste nographers working in metropolitan areas averaged $526 a month. The salaries earned by individu als included in the survey varied considerably, partly because of dif ferences in the location and industry where they were employed, but also because of differences in experi ence. The earnings of reporting ste nographers generally are considera bly higher than those of other steno graphic workers. Salaries of secretaries to supervi sors in small organizational units or 302 nonsupervisory staff specialists av eraged $522 a month throughout the United States, according to the same survey. Secretaries to officers in small companies and to middle manage ment executives in large companies earned average monthly salaries of $582 and $625 respectively. Secre taries having even greater responsi bilities earned average salaries of $679 a month. The entrance salary for beginning stenographers in the Federal Gov ernment in 1970 was $5,212 a year. (See introductory section of this chapter for additional information on working conditions.) Sources of Additional Information Additional information on ca reers in secretarial work, as well as a directory of business schools, may be obtained from: United Business Schools Associa tion, 1730 M Street, NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20036. Information regarding shorthand reporting may be obtained from: National Shorthand Reporters As sociation, 25 West Main St., Madison, Wis. 53703. For information on becoming a certified professional secretary, write to: The Institute for Certifying Secre taries, 616 East 63rd St., Kansas City, Mo. 64110. See introductory section of this chapter for additional sources of in formation. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK TYPISTS (D.O.T. 203.138 through .588; 208.588; and 209.388 through .588) Nature of the Work Typists operate the one machine found in practically every business office—the typewriter. Their main job assignment is to produce typed copies of printed and handwritten materials; in this respect, their work differs from that of many other office employees, who also do some typing but whose principal job as signment is different. Practically all typewriters, includ ing the electric machines being used in an increasing number of offices, have the same type keyboard and are operated in much the same way. Some typing jobs are considerably more difficult than others, however. Beginners, sometimes called junior typists, often address envelopes, type headings on form letters, copy directly from handwritten or typed drafts, and do other routine work. Experienced, or senior typists, gen erally perform work requiring a particularly high degree of accuracy or independent judgment; they may work from rough drafts which are difficult to read and which contain technical material, or they may plan and type complicated statistical ta bles, combine and rearrange mate rials from several different sources, or prepare master copies of material to be reproduced by photographic processes. A few specially trained typists operate teletypewriters, pro portional spacing typewriters, and 303 CLERICAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS other special kinds of typewriting machines. Because many typists use special equipment or have jobs involving special duties, they also have special job titles. Thousands who combine typing with filing, sorting mail, an swering the phone, and other gen eral office work are called clerk typ ists (D.O.T. 209.588). Other much smaller groups of typists include transcribing machine operators (D.O.T. 208.588), who type let ters and other documents as they listen to dictation recorded on tape or on sound-producing records; and data typists (D.O.T. 213.588) and tape perforator operators (D.O.T. 203.588), who use specially equipped electric typewriters to transfer coded instructions to mag netic or paper tapes for use in elec tronic computers. Still other typists having special duties and job titles include policy writers (D.O.T. 202.388) in insurance companies, waybill clerks (D.O.T. 209.588) in railroad offices, and mortgage clerks (D.O.T. 203.588) in banks. Places of Employment Almost 700,000 workers were employed as typists in 1970; over 95 percent were women. In addi tion, hundreds of thousands of workers in other kinds of clerical occupations also use typing skills in connection with their main job as signments. Typists are employed in private and public enterprises of practically every kind—particularly in manu facturing firms, banks, insurance companies, and Federal, State, and local government agencies. Over one-half of all typists worked in such establishments in 1970. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many employers require appli cants for typing positions to take a test to show their speed and accu racy. For most jobs, 40 to 50 words a minute is required. Typists also should have a good understanding of spelling, vocabulary, punctuation, and grammar. Employers generally prefer to hire high school graduates. Business training, including the operation of office equipment, such as copying and adding machines, may be help ful. Also, the Federal Government sponsors training programs for un employed and underemployed workers for entry positions as typ ists under provisions of the Man power Development and Training Act. Important aptitudes and person ality traits for this occupation in clude finger dexterity, accuracy, neatness, a friendly personality, and the ability to concentrate in the midst of distractions. Transcribing machine operators should have good hearing. A typist may be promoted from junior to senior typist or to other clerical work involving greater re sponsibility and higher pay. Typists who know shorthand may be pro moted to stenographer or secretary. high because many young women leave to care for their families. As modern businesses continue to expand in size and complexity, more typists will be needed. How ever, duplicators increasingly will be used for routine typing and will limit demand for junior typists. The greatest demand will be for senior typists and for typists who can do other office work. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, the average monthly sal ary for beginning typists in metro politan areas surveyed by the Bureau of Labor Statistics was $396 compared with $457 for ex perienced typists. Salaries Varied considerably because of location, in dustry, and experience. In the Federal Government, the entrance salary for beginning typists was $4,620 a year. Working condi tions for typists usually are similar to those of other office workers in the firms where they are employed. (See introductory section of this chapter for information on Working Conditions and Sources of Addi tional Information.) TELEPHONE OPERATORS (D.O.T. 235.862) Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for typists are expected to be favorable through the 1970’s. In addition to an anticipated rapid growth in em ployment, many thousands of ad ditional openings will become avail able for workers to replace typists who retire or stop working for other reasons. Turnover in this field is Nature of the Work Although millions of telephone calls are dialed each day without as sistance, practically every telephone user sometimes makes a call that cannot be completed without help from the operator. Often the opera tor is asked to reverse charges on a 304 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK long distance call, locate an individ ual, or indicate the cost of the call. Frequently the caller needs a cor rect number. The operator also may be needed to call the police in an emergency, assist a blind person who is unable to dial for himself, or arrange a conference which will en able business executives in different locations to confer by telephone. These and many other services are provided by two groups of oper ators—those at switchboards in cen tral offices of telephone companies; and those at private branch ex change (PBX) switchboards. Usu ally both operators insert and re move plugs attached to cords by manipulating keys and dials, and by listening and speaking into their headsets. Some switchboards are operated by pushbuttons or dials. Central office operators are often contacted only when callers need assistance which is usually for long distance calls; for this reason, most central office operators are long dis tance operators. They obtain the in formation needed to complete the call, make the necessary connec tions and record the details of each call for billing. Many directory as sistance operators (D.O.T. 235.862) also work in telephone companies; they provide telephone numbers by searching in telephone directories for numbers and ad dresses of new subscribers. Central office supervisors train new opera tors; they also aid in completing dif ficult calls. In each central office, all operators work under the direction of a chief operator. PBX operators (D.O.T. 235862) run switchboards which serve business offices and other establish ments. In addition to connecting in teroffice or house calls, they answer and relay outside calls, assist com pany employees in making outgoing calls, supply information to callers and record charges for switchboard calls. Duties of operators of PBX switchboards which serve dial tele phones are similar to those of cen tral office operators. In many small establishments, PBX operators work at switchboards which serve only a limited number of tele phones. These operators do other office work such as typing or sorting mail. Many act as receptionists or information clerks. (The reception ist is described elsewhere in this chapter.) Places of Employment Telephone operators use new equipment to handle long-distance calls. About 420,000 people were em ployed as telephone operators in 1970, approximately three-fifths as central office operators in telephone companies, and two-fifths as PBX operators in other types of estab lishments. Although employed in establishments of all kinds, a partic ularly large number of PBX opera tors worked in manufacturing plants, hospitals, schools, and de partment stores. Central office and PBX operators tend to be concen trated in heavily populated areas. Nearly one-fifth of the total were employed in the New York, Chi cago, and Los Angeles metropolitan area. Practically all operators were women. CLERICAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In hiring beginners, employers prefer persons who have at least a high school education. English and business arithmetic provide good preparation. Since many jobs com bine the switchboard and other office work, typing and commercial subjects also are helpful. Young persons planning to be come telephone operators should like to serve the public, be pleasant and courteous under all circum stances, and able to sit in a confined area. Rapid reading, a good mem ory, a pleasing voice, a good vocab ulary, and good diction are impor tant qualifications. Although some schools have brief courses in switchboard operation, practically all new operators receive some on-the-job training to become familiar with the equipment, rec ords, and work. In telephone com pany central offices operators first learn the procedures used to handle calls. Then they put through prac tice calls. After this instruction and practice—which usually lasts from 1 to 3 weeks—they are assigned to the regular operating force in a cen tral office for further instructions in handling special types of calls not learned earlier. PBX operators handling routine calls may have a somewhat shorter training period than central office operators. In a large business, a su pervisor in the company’s employ or an instructor from the local tele phone company may train new em ployees. In a small establishment, an experienced operator usually su pervises the training. The telephone operator’s job is becoming less re petitive, largely because of the in creasing use of direct dialing. Thus, public contacts make up an increas ing proportion of their work. A high degree of eye-hand coordination and normal eyesight and hearing are helpful. Most telephone companies and many large business firms re quire applicants to pass physical ex aminations and general intelligence tests. An experienced central office op erator may be promoted to central office supervisor and, eventually, to chief operator. Promotion also may be to a clerical job or some other position within the telephone com pany. Similar opportunities exist for PBX operators in large firms; in many small businesses, however, opportunities for advancement are limited. 305 stalled but its effect on employment should be more than offset by the number of new jobs created as more businesses require PBX services. Earnings and Working Conditions Central office operators in train ing averaged $2.16 an hour in De cember 1969, according to a Bureau of Labor Statistics survey: Experi enced operators, $2.25; service as sistants (central office supervisors), $3.15; and chief operators, $4.24. Salary levels varied in different sec tions of the country; they were highest in the Pacific States, where experienced operators averaged $2.66 an hour. Contracts between unions and telephone companies Employment Outlook generally provide for periodic in Employment of telephone opera creases to operators. Central office tors is expected to rise slowly operators usually receive extra pay through the 1970’s. An estimated for work on evenings, Sundays, and 22,000 openings each year will be holidays. The median weekly earning of needed to replace central office and PBX operators who retire or stop Class A, PBX operators in metro working. Turnover is high, because politan areas in February 1970 was most operators are young women $113; for Class B, PBX operators, who work a few years and then leave the average was $91. Earnings varied according to the to care for families. Additional op erators also will be needed to replace industry in which PBX operators workers who transfer to other work. were employed and the section of Direct dialing and other changes the country. Average earnings were have been under way for some highest in public utilities and lowest years and have restricted growth in in retail trade and services. By employment. At the same time, areas, earnings were highest in the however, further increases are an West and lowest in the South. ticipated in the volume of calls. The workweek for most central Consequently, little or no growth in office and PBX operators averaged employment is expected through the between 35 and 40 hours. Often, their scheduled hours are approxi 1970’s. The number of PBX operators, mately the same as those of other on the other hand, is expected to clerical workers in the business rise throughout the 1970’s. Employ community. In telephone compa ment in many PBX installations is nies, however, and in hotels, hospi expected to be relatively unaffected tals, and other establishments where by further technological change. In telephone service is maintained on a some large PBX systems modern la 24-hour basis, operators usually borsaving equipment may be in work on shifts and on holidays and 306 weekends. Some central office oper ators work split shifts—that is, they are on duty during the peak calling periods which occur in the late morning and early evening, and have time off between these two pe riods. Operators in most telephone companies and other large estab lishments usually work in well- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK lighted and pleasant surroundings. Attractive lounges often are pro vided for relaxation during “breaks” in their scheduled hours. Insurance, pension, tuition plans and practices relating to paid holi days and vacations are much the same as those for other types of clerical employees. Many operators employed by telephone companies are members of the Communications Workers of America and the Alliance of Inde pendent Telephone Unions. See the telephone industry chap ter and introductory section of this chapter for sources of additional in formation. SA LES O C C U P A T IO N S Saleswork offers career opportu nities for young people who have not completed high school, as well as for those who have a college de gree; for men and women who like to travel and those who do not; and for people who want salaried em ployment, as well as those who aspire to run their own businesses. Workers in this occupational group may sell for manufacturers, insurance companies, and other producers of goods and services; for wholesalers who stock large quanti ties of goods so that smaller lots may be purchased and resold by re tail stores; and for drugstores, dress shops, and other retailers who deal directly with the public. About 4.9 million workers were employed in sales occupations in 1970. Approximately one-fourth were part-time employees who usu ally worked fewer than 35 hours a week. Two out of five were women, employed mainly in retail stores. In insurance, real estate, and other saleswork outside retail stores, the great majority of employees were men. Chart 20 shows employment in the major sales occupations dis cussed in this chapter. This chapter also includes individual statements for automotive salesworkers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for differ ent kinds of saleswork are as varied as the work itself. Thousands of salespersons have routine jobs sell ing standardized merchandise such as magazines, candy, cigarettes, and cosmetics. In such cases, the salesworker needs to do little more than “wait on” people who already have made their selections from the stock displayed. Employers seldom re quire salespeople in such jobs to have specialized training. They usu ally learn their duties on the job as they work with experienced sales clerks; in some large stores, they may attend brief training courses. Even in the most routine kinds of selling, however, a high school di ploma is an asset to a beginner seeking a job. High school courses in business subjects, as well as specialized courses in distributive education offered in some school systems, are regarded by most em ployers as particularly good prepa ration for saleswork. The Federal Government also sponsors training for some salesworkers under provi sions of the Manpower Develop ment and Training Act. The salesman who sells complex products or services—electronic equipment or liability insurance, for example—has a job which is alto gether different from that of most retail salesclerks. Beginners on jobs of this kind sometimes receive train ing which lasts many months. For some positions, salesmen must be college graduates who have majored in engineering or some other field. Other salesmen dealing in special ized services and products may ac quire the necessary technical knowl edge through courses offered by universities or manufacturers. Still others gain knowledge through years of on-the-job experience, often supplemented by home study. Thus, a real estate salesman may qualify better for his job by taking university extension courses; a beauty counselor in a department store may participate in an indus try-sponsored training program be fore beginning her sales duties; or a salesman of fine jewelry may ac quire his knowledge of gems during years of observation and study as he works on the job. Successful salespeople must have the ability to understand the needs and viewpoints of their customers, and a readiness to be of assistance to them. Saleswork also requires people with poise who are at ease in 307 308 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK dealing with strangers. Other impor tant attributes in many types of sell ing are energy, self-confidence, imagination, the ability to communi cate, and self-discipline. Because salesworkers frequently are re quired to make price computations or give customers change, arithme tic skills are an asset. In almost all saleswork, except retail stores, the salesman must have the initiative to locate his own prospective custom ers and plan his own work schedule. ployment prospects for salesworkers in retail stores and other major fields is given in the sections which follow. AUTOMOBILE PARTS COUNTERMEN (D.O.T. 289.358) Nature of the Work Employment Outlook During the 1970’s, employment in sales occupations is expected to rise slowly. Openings created by employment growth as well as va cancies that arise as salesworkers retire, or stop working for other reasons, are expected to result in a need for a few hundred thousand workers each year. Additional workers will be needed to replace people now employed in saleswork who transfer to other types of em ployment. As employment rises, the propor tion of part-time workers—already higher than in most occupational groups—also is likely to increase. In the growing number of suburban shopping centers, where many retail stores remain open several nights a week, a larger-than-average propor tion of the sales force is likely to be made up of part-time workers. The main reason for the antici pated rise in employment is the prospect of increased sales resulting from population growth, business expansion and rising income levels. Within retail stores, however, spe cial circumstances which have re stricted employment growth in the recent past probably will continue to do so. Information about these special circumstances and the em Automobile parts countermen sell replacement parts and acces sories for automobiles, trucks, and other motor vehicles. Most of them work in automobile parts wholesale stores and automobile dealerships, where they sell directly over the counter and take telephone orders for various items such as piston rings, head gaskets, shock absorb ers, rearview mirrors, and seat cov ers. Parts countermen employed by wholesalers sell parts for many makes of automobiles and trucks to independent repair shops, self-em ployed mechanics, service station operators, and “do-it-yourselfers.” Parts countermen employed by dealers usually sell parts only for the particular makes of automobiles and trucks sold by the dealers. They may spend most of their time supplying parts to mechanics em ployed by the dealer. A parts counterman identifies the item the customer needs—often only from general description—and locates it in the stockroom. By knowing parts catalogs and the lay out of the stockroom he readily can find any one of several thousand items. If a customer needs a part that is not stocked, the parts coun terman may suggest one that is in terchangeable, place a special order, or refer the customer elsewhere. The parts counterman determines the prices of parts from price lists, receives cash payment or charges the customer’s account, fills out sales receipts and, when necessary, packages the item sold. In addition to selling, parts coun termen keep catalogs and price lists up to date, order parts to replenish stock, unpack and distribute incom ing shipments in the stockroom, maintain sales records, and take in ventories. In many large firms some of these nonselling duties are per formed by other workers such as stock clerks and receiving clerks. Parts countermen use microme ters, calipers, fan belt measurers, and other devices to measure parts for interchangeability. They also may use coil condenser testers, spark plug testers, and other testing equipment to determine if parts are defective. In some firms—particu larly in small wholesale stores— they repair parts by using equip ment such as brake riveting ma chines and brake drum lathes. Places of Employment Most of the estimated 68,000 au tomobile parts countermen em ployed in 1970 worked for automo bile dealers and parts wholesalers. Most dealers employed 1 to 4 parts countermen; many wholesalers em ployed more than four. Other em ployers include truck dealers, retail automotive parts stores, automotive parts and accessories departments of department stores, and warehouse distributors of automotive parts. Trucking companies and buslines employ parts countermen to main tain stockrooms and dispense parts to the mechanics who repair their fleets. 309 SALES OCCUPATIONS Parts countermen work through out the country in dealerships and automobile parts wholesale stores. Those who work for warehouse dis tributors, department stores, truck ing companies, and buslines are em ployed mainly in large towns and cities. Parts counterman identifies item in catalog. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Automobile parts countermen should know the different types and functions of motor vehicle parts and have an aptitude for working with numbers. They should be neat, friendly, and tactful since they deal with many different types of cus tomers. A good memory and the ability to write legibly and concen trate on details also are desirable qualifications. High school or voca tional school courses in automobile mechanics, commercial arithmetic, salesmanship, and bookkeeping are helpful to young persons interested in becoming parts countermen. Practical experience from working in a gasoline service station or auto mobile repair shop, or working on cars as a hobby also is helpful. Em ployers generally prefer to hire high school graduates for entry jobs. Most parts countermen learn the trade through informal on-the-job training. Beginners usually are hired as parts delivery men or trainees. In some large firms beginners start as stock or receiving clerks. Trainees gradually learn the different types of parts, the use of catalogs and price lists, and the layout of the stockroom. Although trainees may wait on customers after a few months’ experience, generally about 2 years are required to become a qualified parts counterman. Training programs for unem ployed and underemployed workers for entry jobs as parts countermen are in operation in several cities under the Manpower Development and Training Act. Persons who complete these programs, which usually last up to a year, may need additional on-the-job training to be come fully qualified. Parts countermen who have su pervisory and business management ability may become parts depart ment or store managers. Others may become “outside salesmen” for parts wholesalers and distributors. These salesmen call on automobile repair shops, service stations, truck ing companies, and other businesses that buy parts and accessories in large quantities. Some parts coun termen establish their own automo bile parts stores. Employment Outlook Employment of automobile parts countermen is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. In addition to the job opportunities re sulting from employment growth, more than a thousand job openings are expected annually to replace ex perienced workers who retire or die. Job openings also will occur as some parts countermen transfer to other occupations. Employment is expected to in crease to maintain the increasing number of motor vehicles in use. Moreover, the variety of parts is growing because automobile manu facturers are producing a greater selection of makes, models, and op tional equipment. As a result, auto mobile dealers and parts wholesal ers are selling a larger variety of parts, although many parts are in terchangeable. Earnings and Working Conditions Automobile parts countermen are paid a weekly or monthly salary, or an hourly wage rate. In addition, they may receive commissions on sales. Parts countermen employed by automobile dealers in 34 cities had average straight-time hourly earnings of $3.40, based on a sur vey in late 1969. Averages ranged from $2.48 in R ichm ond, V a., to $4.66 in San Francisco-Oakland, Calif. Most parts countermen work be tween 40 and 48 hours a week. In many firms, they work half a day on Saturday. Many employers provide paid holidays and vacations, and pay part or all of additional benefits such as life, health, and accident in surance. Others also contribute to retirement plans. Stockrooms usually are clean and well lighted. The work is not physi cally strenuous, but parts counter men spend much of their time 310 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK standing or walking. They fre quently have to work rapidly when waiting on more than one customer and simultaneously answering tele phone calls. Many parts countermen belong to the following unions: the Interna tional Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Asso ciation; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf feurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Sources of Additional Information For further information on em ployment opportunities, inquiries should be directed to local automo bile dealers and parts wholesalers, locals of the unions previously men tioned, or the local- office of the State employment service. The State employment service also may be a source of information about the Manpower Development and Train ing Act and other training pro grams. General information about the work of automobile parts counter men may be obtained from: Automotive Service Industry As sociation, 230 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60601. National Automotive Parts Asso ciation, 29 East Madison St., Chicago, 111. 60602. AUTOMOBILE SALESMEN (D.O.T. 280.358) Nature of the Work Automobile salesmen are impor tant links between dealers and car buyers. Many salesmen sell only new or used cars. Others, particu larly those employed in small deal erships, sell both new and used cars, as well as trucks. (This statement does not discuss salesmen who sell trucks only.) The automobile salesman spends much of his time waiting on custom ers in the showroom or used-car lot. After greeting a customer, he deter mines the kind of car the customer wants by asking questions and en couraging comments about cars on display. For example, one customer may be interested primarily in econ omy and ease of operation, but an other may be more impressed with styling and performance. The sales man emphasizes the points that sat isfy the customer’s desires and stim ulate his willingness to buy. To il lustrate features such as smoothness of ride and ease of operation, he in vites the customer to test drive the car. Because the purchase of a car in volves a considerable sum of money, many customers must be convinced that they are making a wise decision. Successful salesmen have ability to overcome the cus tomer’s hesitancy to buy, and get the order (called closing the sale). Since closing the sale frequently is difficult for beginning salesmen, ex perienced salesmen or sales manag ers often lend assistance. Salesmen may quote tentative prices and trade-in allowances when conferring with customers, but these figures usually are subject to the approval of sales managers. Salesmen may arrange financing and insurance for the cars they sell. They also register cars and obtain license plates. Before the salesman approves de livery, he makes sure the car has been serviced properly and has the accessories specified by the cus tomer. He answers the customer’s questions on subjects such as the car’s controls and the maintenance warranty. Following delivery of the car, he may contact the customer by phone or mail to express apprecia 311 SALES OCCUPATIONS tion for his business and to inquire about his satisfaction with the car. From time to time, he also may send brochures on new-car models and other literature. By keeping in contact with his customers, the salesman builds repeat business. Salesmen develop and follow leads on prospective customers. For example, they obtain names of pros pects from automobile registration records and dealer sales, service, and finance records. A salesman also can obtain leads from gasoline service station operators, parking lot attendants, and others whose work brings them into frequent con tact with people. He may contact prospects by phone or mail. Places of Employment An estimated 120,000 automo bile salesmen were employed in 1970. More than four out of every five were employed by new-car dealers, many of whom also sell used cars. The remainder worked for used-car dealers. Although many used-car dealers employ only 1 salesman, a few new-car dealers employ more than 50 salesmen. Some used-car dealers do not em ploy full-time salesmen. Automobile salesmen are em ployed throughout the country, al though most work in large urban areas and in the most populous States. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most beginners are trained on the job by sales managers and experi enced salesmen. Many large dealers also provide several days of class room training on obtaining cus tomer leads, making sales presenta tions, and closing sales. Beginners frequently are given training man uals and other educational material published by automobile manufac turers. Experienced and beginning salesmen receive continuing guid ance and training from sales manag ers, both on the job and at periodic sales meetings. Salesmen also may attend training programs offered by automobile manufacturers. Most sales managers regard a high school diploma as the mini mum educational requirement for beginning automobile salesmen. Many automobile salesmen have additional education. Courses in public speaking, commercial arith metic, English, business law, psy chology, and salesmanship provide a good background for selling. Pre vious sales experience or work re quiring contact with the public is helpful. Many automobile salesmen previously have been furniture salesmen, route salesmen, door-todoor salesmen, automobile parts countermen, or gasoline service sta tion attendants. However, many sales managers will hire inexperi enced applicants who have satisfac tory personal and educational quali fications. Although age requirements for beginning salesmen vary, many em ployers prefer applicants who are at least in their mid- or late twenties. Age requirements may be waived if the employer considers the appli cant to be mature. However, most employers consider 21 the minimum age for beginning salesmen. Automobile salesmen must be tactful, well-groomed, able to ex press themselves well, and have other personal qualities that make a good impression on customers. Ini tiative and aggressiveness also are important because the volume of sales usually is related to the num ber of prospective customers con tacted. Because automobile sales men occasionally work for days without making a sale, they need self-confidence and determination to get through these slow periods. Successful salesmen who have managerial ability may advance to assistant sales manager, sales man ager, or general manager. Some sales managers and general manag ers open their own dealerships or become partners in dealerships. Employment Outlook The number of automobile sales men is expected to increase moder ately through the 1970’s. In addi tion to openings resulting from em ployment growth, a few thousand openings will occur each year to re place salesmen who retire or die. Many openings also will arise as salesmen transfer to other occupa tions. Although selling cars is re warding for many people, others leave to seek new jobs because they are not suited for the work. Employment of automobile sales men will increase primarily because car sales will grow as population, multicar ownership, and personal income increase. Car sales generally fluctuate from year to year as a re sult of changes in general business conditions, consumer preferences, and the availability of credit. Em ployment of automobile salesmen also fluctuates, but tends to be more stable than sales. Earnings and Working Conditions Most automobile salesmen are paid a commission based on the selling price of a car or the gross profit received by the dealer. Addi tional commissions may be paid when cars are financed and insured 312 through the dealer. Although sales men work year-round, their sales (and their commissions) vary from month to month. To provide com missioned salesmen with a steady income, many dealers pay a modest weekly or monthly base salary. Oth ers advance salesmen money against future commissions. A few dealers pay salesmen a straight salary. Dealers may guarantee beginners a modest income for a few weeks or months. Thereafter, they are paid on the same basis as experienced salesmen. Automobile salesmen had aver age weekly earnings of $193 in 1969, according to information from the National Automobile Dealers Association. Earnings var ied considerably, depending on indi vidual ability and experience, geo graphic location, dealership size, and other factors. For example, salesmen employed by dealers that sold between 100 and 149 vehicles annually had average weekly earn ings of $143, while those employed by dealers that sold 1,000 or more had average weekly earnings of $234. A large number of employers fur nish salesmen with demonstrator cars free of charge. Others allow salesmen to buy or lease them at a discount, often at dealer’s cost. Salesmen also receive discounts on cars bought for their personal use. Most dealers provide paid vaca tions. Many provide life insurance, hospitalization, and surgical and medical insurance. Because most customers find shopping after work convenient, salesmen frequently work during the evenings. In some areas, they may work on Sundays and take a day off during the week. Many deal ers assign salesmen “floortime”— hours they spend in the showroom greeting customers. For example, a OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK salesman may be scheduled to work on the showroom floor from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. one week, from 3 p.m. to 9 p.m. the next week, and all day on Saturdays. When not assigned to the floor, salesmen may spend a few hours each day delivering cars to customers and looking for new cus tomers. Sources of Additional Information Information on employment op portunities may be obtained from local automobile dealers or the local office of the State employment serv ice. General information about the work of automobile salesmen may be obtained from: National Automobile Dealers As sociation, 2000 K St. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20006. AUTOMOBILE SERVICE ADVISORS (D.O.T. 620.281) Nature of the Work Many automobile dealers and some large independent garages em ploy service advisors to wait on cus tomers who bring their automobiles for maintenance and repairs. The service advisor (sometimes called service salesman or service writer) confers with the customer to deter mine his service requirements and arranges for a mechanic to perform the work. When a routine checkup is re quested, the advisor merely writes the customer’s requests on a repair order. However, when the customer complains of mechanical or electri cal trouble, the service advisor asks about the nature of the trouble and may test drive the automobile. For example, if the customer says his automobile is difficult to start, the service advisor may try to deter mine if this occurs when the engine is cold or after it has warmed up. He writes a brief description of these symptoms on the repair order to help the mechanic locate the cause of the trouble. The advisor also records other information on the repair order, including identifi cation of the customer and his auto mobile. If the repairs are covered by a factory warranty, he records the automobile engine and body numbers, and the automobile’s mileage and purchase date. The service advisor tells custom ers what repairs are needed, their approximate cost, and how long the work will take. He may advise on the necessity of having work done, by pointing out that it will assure improved performance, safer opera tion, and prevent more serious trou ble. In addition to advising custom ers on service needs, he may sell ac cessories such as air-conditioners or radios. If the service advisor is unable to tell the customer what repairs are needed until a mechanic has in spected the automobile, he records the customer’s phone number and contacts him later to obtain permis sion to perform the repairs. The service advisor gives the re pair order to the shop dispatcher who in turn usually computes the cost of repairs and assigns the work to a mechanic. In some shops, serv ice advisors may compute the cost of repairs. If the mechanic has questions about the repair order, he contacts the service advisor. After the mechanic has completed the repair work, the service advisor may test drive the automobile to be 313 SALES OCCUPATIONS Automobile service advisor listens to customer’s description of automobile trouble. sure the problem has been cor rected. When the customer returns for his automobile, the service advisor answers questions regarding the re pairs and settles complaints about their cost or quality. If the automo bile is to be returned to the shop be cause the customer is dissatisfied, or the cost of repairs is to be adjusted, the service advisor usually must ob tain the authorization of his supervi sor, the service manager. In some dealerships, the most experienced service advisor substitutes for the service manager when he is absent. Places of Employment An estimated 20,000 automobile service advisors were employed in 1970. Most of them worked for large automobile dealers that em ployed from one to four service ad visors. Few small automobile deal ers employ service advisors. Some service advisors are employed by large independent automobile repair shops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Service advisors are trained on the job under the guidance of expe rienced service advisors and the service manager. In many shops, the trainee’s first assignment is to assist the service department dispatcher or cashier. By working with the dis patcher, he learns how repair orders are routed through the shop, how long it takes to complete different types of repairs, and how to com pute repair costs. At the cashier’s counter he learns the cost of differ ent types of repairs. He also learns how experienced service advisors handle customer complaints. The beginner usually can become a qualified service advisor in 1 to 2 years, although it may take longer if his duties include estimating auto mobile body repairs. In addition to on-the-job training, some service advisor trainees attend formal train ing programs conducted by automo bile manufacturers. For service advisor trainees, em ployers prefer high school graduates who are over 21 years of age and have work experience in automobile repair or related activities. Em ployers usually promote young per sons from within their own organi zations when vacancies for service advisor trainees arise. For example, a young person may apply for a job as service advisor trainee after he has gained experience in the firm as an automobile mechanic trainee or parts counterman trainee. Some firms, however, prefer to hire indi viduals who are qualified automo bile mechanics. Because he is likely to be the only employee who deals directly with customers, the manner in which the service advisor does his job is very important in establishing customer satisfaction. Therefore, employers look for applicants who are neat, courteous, even-tempered, attentive listeners, and good conver sationalists. High school and voca tional school courses in automobile mechanics, commercial arithmetic, salesmanship, public speaking, and English are helpful to young per sons interested in becoming service advisors. Service advisors with supervisory ability may advance to shop fore 314 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK men or to service managers. Some service advisors open their own au tomobile repair shops. Employment Outlook Employment of automobile serv ice advisors is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s as a result of the increasing number of automobiles in operation. In addi tion to the job opportunities result ing from employment growth, a few hundred job openings are expected each year from the need to replace experienced service advisors who retire, die, or transfer to other occu pations. The number of automobiles reg istered in the United States is ex pected to grow because of increases in driving age population, consumer purchasing power, and multicar ownership. The growing number of automobiles and their increasing complexity will result in additional repair work; consequently, many automobile dealers will need addi tional service advisors. Also, some small dealers who presently do not employ service advisors are ex pected to hire them as the volume of service work increases. sors are paid on a straight commis sion basis. Commission earnings may vary as a result of fluctuations in the volume of repair work. Many employers provide paid holidays and vacations, and pay all or part of the cost of life insurance, and health and accident insurance. Others also contribute to retirement plans. Laundered uniforms are fur nished free of charge by many em ployers. Most service advisors work from 40 to 48 hours a week. They are busiest in the early morning when most customers bring their cars for repairs, and in late afternoon when they return. During these peak hours, some advisors may be rushed when waiting on customers. Service advisors stand much of the time and may be outdoors in all kinds of weather. Their work is not physically strenuous. Occasionally, they have to deal with disgruntled customers, but most customers are pleasant. Unions that organize service ad visors include the International As sociation of Machinists and Aero space Workers; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Ware housemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Earnings and Working Conditions Service advisors employed by au tomobile dealers in 34 cities had av erage straight-time hourly earnings of $4.38, based on a survey made in late 1969. Average hourly earnings in individual cities ranged from $3.06 in Richmond, Va., to $5.59 in Los Angeles, Calif. Many service advisors are paid a salary plus a commission. The com mission usually is based on both the cost of repairs and the price of ac cessories sold. Some service advi Sources of Additional Information Further information on employ ment opportunities may be obtained from local automobile dealers or re pair shops; locals of the unions pre viously mentioned; or the local office of the State employment serv ice. General information about the work of automobile service advisors may be obtained from: Automotive Service Industry Asso ciation, 230 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60601. Independent Garage Owners of America, Inc., 624 South Michi gan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60605. INSURANCE AGENTS AND BROKERS (D.O.T. 250.258) Nature of the Work Insurance agents and brokers sell policies which protect individuals and businesses against future losses and financial pressures. They also provide their customers with many services related to the insurance they sell. They may, for example, assist in planning the financial pro tection which best meets the special needs of a customer’s family; advise about the types of insurance best suited for the protection of an auto mobile, home, business establish ment, or other property; or help a policyholder in obtaining settlement of an insurance claim. Three basic types of insurance are available—life, property and li ability, and health. Agents and bro kers usually sell one or more of these types of insurance. Some agents also sell equity products, such as mutual fund shares. Life in surance policies pay survivors in the event of the policyholder’s death; they also may provide annuities, funds for the education of children when they reach college age, and other benefits which the policy holder has arranged in anticipation of a future need for these funds. Property and liability insurance pol icies protect policyholders from fi nancial losses which they might oth erwise incur because of automobile 315 SALES OCCUPATIONS accidents, fire and theft, or other hazards. Health insurance policies offer protection against the costs of hospital and medical care or loss of income due to an illness or injury. An insurance agent may be either an insurance company employee or an independent businessman who is under contract to act as the author ized representative of one insur ance company or more. A broker occupies a somewhat different posi tion; he is not under contract to any particular company but places the policies he sells with whatever insur ance company he feels best meets his clients’ needs. In other respects, agents and brokers do much the same kind of work. Agents and brokers spend most of their time discussing insurance policies with prospective customers. Some time must be spent in office work—planning insurance programs that are tailored to prospects’ needs, preparing reports, maintaining rec ords, and drawing up lists of prospective customers. Salesmen who specialize in group policies may help to incorporate an insur ance program into a company’s bookkeeping system. (See chapter on Insurance Occu pations for additional information about life and property and liability insurance companies.) but the greatest number work in large cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although employers seldom spec ify age limits or formal educational requirements, practically all agents hired in recent years have been at least 21 years of age, and more than half of them have had some college Places of Employment training. Many were college gradu Of the 350,000 agents and bro ates. College training, although not kers who sold insurance in 1970, essential, may be an aid to the agent about half specialized in life insur in grasping insurance fundamentals ance; the remainder, in property and in establishing good personal with prospective and liability insurance. Both groups relationships also sold health insurance. Nine out clients. Courses in accounting, eco of ten agents and brokers were men. nomics, finance, and business law, Many additional agents—both men as well as courses in insurance sub and women—sold insurance on a jects, are considered helpful. A lib eral arts curriculum is equally desir part-time basis. Insurance agents and brokers are able in preparing the prospective employed in all parts of the country, agent. Because an agent’s or broker’s success depends on his sales ability, he must have the initiative to locate new prospects. He also must know insurance fundamentals and be able to explain policy terms clearly. En thusiasm, self-confidence, and a cheerful personality are valuable. All insurance agents and most brokers must obtain licenses in the States where they plan to sell insur ance. In most States, licenses are is sued only to applicants who pass written examinations covering in surance fundamentals and the State insurance laws. Before new agents sell they usu ally receive training at insurance company home offices or at the agencies and brokerage firms where they will be working. Some insur ance companies sponsor classes in sales problems and insurance princi ples. This instruction may be given over a period of several weeks or a 316 few months. In other cases, training takes the form of working on the job under the supervision of experi enced sales personnel. Agents and brokers have oppor tunities to broaden their knowledge of the insurance business by enroll ing in intermediate and advanced courses available at many colleges and universities and by attending in stitutes, conferences, and seminars sponsored by insurance organiza tions. The Life Underwriter Train ing Council (LUTC) offers courses in life and health insurance for ex perienced life agents. A diploma in life insurance marketing is awarded to graduates who successfully com plete the Council’s 2-year life pro gram. As an agent or broker ac quires experience and broadens his knowledge of the life insurance business, he can qualify for the des ignation Chartered Life Underwri ter (CLU) by passing a series of examinations given by the Ameri can Society of Chartered Life Un derwriters. In much the same way, a property and liability agent, by passing an examination given by the American Institute for Property and Liability Underwriters, Inc., will qualify for the Chartered Property Casualty Underwriter (CPCU) des ignation. The CLU and CPCU des ignations are recognized marks of achievement in their respective fields. Insurance agents who demon strate sales ability and leadership may be promoted to sales manager positions in district offices or to managerial positions in home offices. A few may advance to top positions as agency superintendents or company vice-presidents or pres idents. Many agents who have built up a good clientele prefer to remain in sales work. Some, particularly in the property and liability field, eventually establish their own inde OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK pendent firms. agencies or brokerage Employment Outlook Several thousand openings for in surance agents and brokers are ex pected to arise each year through the 1970’s. Some will be new jobs created as employment expands; others will become available as agents and brokers retire or stop working for other reasons. Because the rate of turnover is high among beginners in this occupation, many workers also will be needed to re place insurance agents who enter other types of employment. During the 1970’s, the number of insurance agents and brokers is ex pected to grow moderately. As pop ulation and incomes rise and life ex pectancy increases, more families will depend on life insurance and on policies that provide protection in the form of retirement income, medical care, and funds for a col lege education. Expansion in in dustrial plant and equipment and growth in the number of major con sumer purchases, such as homes or automobiles, will contribute to in creased sales of property and liabil ity insurance. Despite the expected increase in the number of policies issued, however, insurance selling will remain keenly competitive as more insurance is sold to groups or by mail and as electronic data proc essing relieves agents of clerical tasks. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginners in this occupation often are guaranteed moderate sala ries or advances on commissions while they are learning the business and building up a clientele. There after, most agents are paid on a commission basis. The size of the commission varies, depending on the type and amount of insurance sold, and on whether the transaction involves a new policy or the renewal of a policy already in force. After a few years, an agent’s commissions on new policies sold and on re newals may range from $8,000 to $20,000 annually. A number of es tablished and highly successful agents and brokers earn $30,000 a year or more. Agents and brokers generally pay their own automobile and traveling expenses. In addition, those who own and operate independent busi nesses must pay office rent, clerical salaries, and other operating ex penses out of their earnings. Although insurance agents usu ally are free to arrange their own hours of work, they often schedule appointments during evenings and weekends for the convenience of clients. Some agents spend more than the customary 40 hours a week on the job. Sources of Additional Information General occupational information about insurance agents and brokers may be obtained from the home office of many life insurance and property and liability insurance companies. Information on State li censing requirements may be ob tained from the department of in surance at any State capital. Information about a career as a life insurance agent also may be ob tained from: Institute of Life Insurance, 277 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. Life Insurance Agency Management Association, 170 Sigourney St., Hartford, Conn. 06105. SALES OCCUPATIONS The National Association of Life Underwriters, 1922 F St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Information about sales training in life and health insurance is avail able from: The Life Underwriter Training Council, 1922 F St., NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20006. Information about property and liability agents and brokers can be obtained from: Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, N.Y. 10038. National Association of Insurance Agents, Inc., 96 Fulton St., New York, N.Y. 10038. MANUFACTURERS' SALESMEN (D.O.T. 260. through 289.458) Nature of the Work Practically all manufacturers— whether they make electronic com puters or can openers—employ salesmen. Manufacturers’ salesmen sell mainly to other businesses—fac tories, railroads, banks, wholesalers, and retailers. They also sell to hos pitals, schools, and other institu tions. Most manufacturers’ salesmen sell nontechnical products. Sales men in this kind of work must be well informed about their firms’ products and also about the special requirements of their customers. When a salesman visits firms in his territory, he uses an approach adapted to his particular line of merchandise. Thus, a salesman of crackers or cookies emphasizes the 3 17 wholesomeness of his products, their attractive packaging, and the variety. Sometimes salesmen pro mote their products by displays in hotels and conferences with whole salers and other customers. A salesman of highly technical products, such as electronic equip ment, often is called a sales engi neer or an industrial salesman. In addition to having a thorough knowledge of his firm’s products, he must be able to help prospective buyers with technical problems. For example, he may spend days or weeks analyzing a firm’s manufac turing problems to determine the kinds of equipment and materials best suited to its operation. He then presents his solution to company of ficials and tries to negotiate the sale. Often, sales engineers work with the research and development depart ments of their own companies in de vising ways to adapt products to a customer’s specialized needs. Sales men of technical products some times train their customers’ em ployees in the operation and main tenance of new equipment, and make frequent return visits to be certain that it is giving the desired service. Although manufacturers’ sales men spend most of their time visit ing prospective customers, they also do some paperwork including re ports on sales prospects in their ter ritories or customers’ credit ratings. In addition they must plan their work schedules, compile lists of prospects, make appointments, con duct some sales correspondence, and study literature relating to their products. Places of Employment Over 500,000 manufacturers’ salesmen were employed in 1970; about 45,000 were sales engineers. Some manufacturers’ salesmen work out of home offices, often lo cated at manufacturing plants. The majority, however, work out of branch offices, usually in big cities near prospective customers. More salesmen work for compa nies that produce food products than for any other industry. Other industries that employ large num bers of salesmen include printing and publishing, chemicals, fabri cated metal products, and electrical and other machinery. The largest employers of sales engineers pro duce heavy machinery, transporta tion equipment, fabricated metal products, and professional and sci entific instruments. About 10 per cent of all manufacturers’ sales people are women, most of whom are employed in industries produc ing food products. 318 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although high school graduates can be successful manufacturers’ salesmen, college graduates increas ingly are preferred as trainees. Manufacturers of nontechnical products often prefer college gradu ates who have a degree in liberal arts or business administration. Training at a college of pharmacy usually is required for jobs as drug salesmen. A salesman of compli cated equipment needs a technical education. For example, manufac turers of electrical equipment, heavy machinery, and some types of chemicals prefer to hire collegetrained engineers or chemists. (In formation on chemists, engineers, and other professionally trained workers who may be employed as manufacturers’ salesmen is pre sented elsewhere in the Handbook.) Although many prospective sales men are hired at the sales offices of manufacturing concerns, represent atives of manufacturers sometimes recruit college seniors who are well qualified academically and have participated in extra-curricular ac tivities. A pleasing personality and appearance and the ability to meet and get along well with many types of people are important. Since salesmen may have to walk or stand for long periods of time or carry product samples, physical stamina is necessary. As in most selling jobs, arithmetic skills are an asset. Beginning salesmen are given specialized training before they start on the job. Some companies, espe cially those manufacturing complex technical products, have formal training programs lasting 2 years or longer. In some of these programs, trainees are rotated among jobs in several departments of the plant and office to learn all phases of OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK production, installation, and distri bution of the product. Other train ees receive formal class instruction at the plant, followed by intensive on-the-job training in a branch office under the supervision of field sales managers. Sales representatives who have good sales records and leadership ability may advance to sales super visors, branch managers, or district managers. Those having managerial skill eventually may advance to sales manager or other executive positions; many top executive jobs in industry are filled by men who started as salesmen. Because of frequent contact with businessmen in other firms, sales men often transfer to better jobs. Some salesmen go into business for themselves as manufacturers’ agents selling similar products of several manufacturers. Experienced sales men often find opportunities in ad vertising, market research, and other fields related to selling. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for manufacturers’ salesmen are ex pected to be favorable during the 1970’s. Several thousand openings will occur annually as employment in this occupation rises and as exist ing jobs become vacant because of retirements or deaths. Still other va cancies will occur as salesmen leave their jobs to enter other types of employment. The number of manufacturers’ salesmen is expected to rise moder ately due to general economic growth and the greater emphasis manufacturers will be placing on their sales activities. The devel opment of new products and im proved marketing techniques proba bly will heighten competition among the manufacturers. Because of the increase in the volume of business transacted with some customers— modern industrial complexes, chain store organizations, and large insti tutions of many kinds—competition among the manufacturers supplying these organizations will intensify the need for effective sales organiza tions. Despite the filling of thou sands of sales jobs each year, manu facturers are expected to be selec tive in hiring. They will look for ambitious young people who are both well trained and temperamen tally suited for their jobs. As mar kets for technical products expand, demand for trained salesmen is likely to be particularly strong. Earnings and Working Conditions According to limited data, start ing salaries for beginning salesmen averaged about $8,500 a year in 1970. By including commissions and bonuses most salesmen earned more than this amount annually. The highest starting salaries gener ally were paid by manufacturers of electrical and electronic equipment, construction materials, hardware and tools, and scientific and preci sion instruments. Some manufacturing concerns pay experienced salesmen a straight commission, based on their dollar amount of sales; others pay a fixed salary. The majority, however, use a combination plan: salary and com mission, salary and bonus, or salary-commission and bonus. Com missions vary according to the sales man’s efforts and ability, the com mission rate, location of his sales territory, and the type of product sold. Bonus payments may be con tingent upon the individual sales man’s performance, that of all sales men in his group or district, or upon SALES OCCUPATIONS Division, 630 Third Ave., New the company’s sales performance. York, N.Y. 10017. Some firms pay annual bonuses; others offer them as incentive pay ments on a quarterly or monthly basis. In 1970, many experienced salesmen earned between $16,000 and $32,000 annually; some earned REAL ESTATE SALESMEN considerably more. AND BROKERS Some manufacturers’ salesmen (D.O.T. 250.358) have large territories and do consid erable traveling. Others usually work in the neighborhood of their “home base.” For example, a sales Nature of the Work man of heavy industrial equipment Real estate salesmen and brokers may be assigned a territory covering several States and often may be are at the center of most property away from home for days or weeks transactions. They represent prop at a time. On the other hand, a erty owners who want to sell and salesman of food products may find potential buyers for residential work in a small area and commute and commercial properties. Sales men and brokers also may be called from home. When on business trips, salesmen real estate agents, or if they are are reimbursed for expenses such as members of the National Associa transportation and hotels. Some tion of Real Estate Boards, “Real companies provide a car or pay a tors. Salesmen are employed by bro mileage allowance to salesmen who kers to show and sell real estate; use their own cars. Salesmen call at the time most some handle rental properties. Bro convenient to customers and may kers are independent businessmen have to travel at night or on week who not only sell real estate but ends. Frequently, they spend eve sometimes rent and manage prop nings writing reports and planning erties, make appraisals, arrange for itineraries. However, some sales loans to finance purchases, and de men plan their schedules for time velop new building projects. In ad off when they want it. Most sales dition, brokers manage their offices, men who are not paid a straight advertise properties, and handle commission receive 2 to 4 weeks’ other business operations. Some paid vacation, depending on their combine other work, such as selling length of service. They usually insurance or practicing law, with share in company benefits, including their real estate business. Most real estate salesmen and life insurance, pensions, and hospi tal, surgical, and medical benefits. brokers sell residential property, and sometimes specialize in homes within a certain price range or in a particular area of the city. A few, Sources of Additional Information usually those in large real estate For more information on the oc firms, specialize in commercial, in cupation of manufacturers’ sales dustrial, or other types of real es man, write to: tate. Each specialty requires knowl edge of the particular type of prop Sales and Marketing Executives In erty. For example, salesmen who ternational, Student Education 319 specialize in commercial sales or leasing must understand leasing practices, business trends, and loca tion needs. Salesmen selling or leas ing industrial properties must be able to supply information on trans portation, utilities, and labor supply. Salesmen who handle farm prop erties must have considerable knowledge of soil types, water sup ply, drainage, and transportation fa cilities. An important duty of a real es tate salesman is obtaining “listings” (getting owners to place properties for sale with the firm). A salesman spends much time on the telephone, seeking such listings and answering inquiries about properties. He ob tains leads for listings through ad vertising and personal contact. A real estate salesman spends much time away from his office showing and discussing properties with prospective buyers. When a 320 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK number of houses are for sale in a new development, the salesman may operate from a model home. He explains special features which meet particular needs of the prospective buyer (or renter) such as location of schools and churches and public transportation. For busi ness property, he may discuss the income potential, zoning, and com munity facilities. He also must be familiar with tax rates and insur ance. He must try to meet the buy er’s needs at the same time that he follows the seller’s instructions. In closing the sale, the broker often ar ranges for a loan, title search, and a meeting when details of the transac tion are agreed upon and the new owner takes possession of the prop erty. Places of Employment The number of people whose main occupation was selling real es tate in 1970 is estimated at about 225,000; about three-fifths were men. A large number of people also sold real estate part time. The total number of men and women licensed to sell was more than 900,000 in 1969, according to the National As sociation of Real Estate License Law Officials. Most real estate salesmen work for small business establishments; a few, in metropolitan areas, work for firms having large sales staffs. Bro kers generally are self-employed. Although salesmen and brokers are found in every part of the country, they are concentrated in large urban areas and in smaller but rapidly growing communities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A license is required to work as a real estate salesman or broker in every State and in the District of Columbia. All States require prospective agents to pass written examinations that generally include questions on the fundamentals of real estate transactions and on laws affecting the sale of real estate. The examination is more comprehensive for brokers than for salesmen. In more than three-fifths of the States, candidates for the broker’s license also must have a specified amount of experience as a real estate sales man or the equivalent in related ex perience or education (generally from 1 to 3 years). State licenses usually can be renewed annually without reexamination. Although a specified amount of education seldom is required, em ployers prefer to hire persons who have at least a high school educa tion. A broad academic program in high school including courses such as English, mathematics, salesman ship, architectural drawing, business law, economics, and public speaking is helpful for those planning a career in real estate. Most real estate agents have some college training and many are college graduates. College courses in real estate subjects as well as psychology, economics, finance, and business administration are an asset. Characteristics important for suc cess in selling real estate include a pleasing personality, honesty, and a neat appearance. Dealing with prospective customers requires ma turity and tact as well as enthusiasm for the job. Agents also should have a good memory for names and faces and business details such as prices and zoning regulations. Young men and women inter ested in beginning jobs as real estate salesmen often apply to brokers in their own communities, where their knowledge of local neighborhoods is an advantage. The beginner usually works under the direction of an ex perienced salesman or broker to learn the practical aspects of his job. Training opportunities are availa ble for beginners and experienced agents; many firms offer formal training programs for salesmen. At some of the more than 360 universi ties, colleges, and junior colleges which offer courses in real estate, a student can earn an associate’s or bachelor’s degree with a major in real estate; some offer advanced de grees. Many local real estate boards that are members of the National Association of Real Estate Boards (NAREB) sponsor courses in sub jects such as real estate fundamen tals and legal aspects of real estate. Advanced courses in appraisal, mortgage financing, and property development and management also are available through various NAREB affiliates. Salesmen who have experience and training can advance in many large firms to sales or general man ager. Licensed brokers may open their own offices. Training and ex perience in estimating the value of property can lead to work as a real estate appraiser. Persons familiar with operating and maintaining rental properties may specialize in property management. Those who gain wide general experience in real estate and a thorough knowledge of business conditions and property values in their localities may enter mortgage financing or real estate counseling. Employment Outlook Several thousand openings for real estate salesmen are expected to arise each year during the 1970’s. Some will be new positions created SALES OCCUPATIONS by the need for more salesmen to serve a growing population. Most, however, will be openings resulting from turnover. Because the average age of real estate salesmen and brokers is considerably higher than that of workers in most occupations, death and retirement losses are high. In addition, a relatively large number of agents—many of them beginners—transfer to other types of work. Many openings are likely to be filled by mature workers, including persons who transfer from other kinds of sales work. The proportion of salesmen employed part time may decline, as State licensing re quirements change and more spe cialized knowledge is necessary for the agent who handles real estate transactions. Employment of real estate sales men and brokers is expected to rise moderately during the 1970’s, when the many young people bom after World War II will be purchasing or renting their own homes. Among other factors contributing to a grow ing need for agents are the expected expansion in residential and com mercial construction due to an in creasing population, migration to metropolitan areas, and urban re newal. Although this field is likely to remain highly competitive, it should offer many career opportuni ties to persons with an aptitude for selling. Earnings and Working Conditions Commissions on sales are the usual source of earnings for most real estate salesmen and brokers. A few are paid on a straight salary basis, although this is the exception rather than the rule. Commissions paid on the sale of farm and com mercial properties and unimproved 321 land usually are higher than those Some salesmen, especially those on the sale of a home. who work for large firms, are fur Commissions on the sale of prop nished group life, health, and acci erties may be shared by several em dent insurance. ployees of a real estate firm. Often, when a sale is made, a commission is paid to the salesman who ob Sources of Additional Information tained the listing of the property. Information on licensing require The rest of the commission either is retained by the broker who made ments for real estate salesmen and the sale, or shared by the broker brokers is available from the real and the agent who handled the estate commission or board located transaction. An agent’s share of the in each State capital. This informa commission varies greatly from one tion also can be obtained from most real estate firm to another; frequent local real estate organizations. ly it is about half of the commission. Many States can furnish manuals Many full-time real estate agents that help applicants prepare for the earn between $7,000 and $12,000 a required written examinations. Additional information on oppor year, according to the limited data available. Beginners usually earn tunities in the real estate field, and a less. At the other extreme, many list of colleges and universities of experienced salesmen earn $20,000 fering real estate courses may be or more a year. obtained by writing to: Income usually increases as an National Association of Real Estate agent gains experience, but earnings Boards, Department of Education, 155 East Superior St., Chicago, also are affected by factors such as 111. 60611. individual ability, economic condi tions, and the type and location of property. Salesmen who are active in community organizations and local real estate boards can broaden their contacts and increase their RETAIL TRADE earnings. A beginner’s earnings SALESWORKERS often are irregular. A few weeks or (D.O.T. 260. through 298.877) even months may go by without a sale. For this reason, some firms pay salesmen a “draw” against fu ture commissions. However, be Nature of the Work cause this practice is not usual with The success of any retail business beginners, most new salesmen should have money to support depends largely on its salespeople. themselves until their commissions Courteous and efficient service from increase. behind the counter or on the sales Brokers provide office space, but floor does much to satsify customers salesmen are expected to furnish and to build a store’s reputation. their own automobiles. Although Although contact with customers is salesmen and brokers have much a part of all sales jobs, the duties, independence in planning their skills, and responsibilities of sales schedules, often they work in the people are as different as the kinds evenings and during weekends to of merchandise they sell. In selling items such as furniture, meet the convenience of customers. 322 electrical appliances, or some types of wearing apparel, the salesworker’s primary job is to create an in terest in the merchandise the store has to offer. The salesman or sales woman may answer questions about the construction of an article, dem onstrate its use, explain how it is cared for, show various models and colors, and otherwise help the cus tomer make a selection. In some stores, special knowledge or skills may be needed to sell the merchan dise carried. In a pet shop, for example, the salesworker should know about the care and feeding of animals. People who sell standardized articles, such as many of the items in hardware and drugstores, are called upon less frequently to give customers this OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK kind of assistance. Often, they do little more than assemble and wrap the items purchased by each cus tomer. (In supermarkets and some drugstores cashiers wrap or bag purchases, receive payments, and make change. See statement on Cashiers.) In addition to selling, most retail salespeople make out sales or charge slips, receive cash payments, and give change and receipts. They also handle returns and exchanges of merchandise for the customer. Salespersons usually are responsible for keeping their work areas neat and presentable. In small stores, they may assist in ordering mer chandise, stocking shelves or racks, marking price tags, taking inven tories, preparing attractive merchan dise displays, and promoting sales in other ways. (Route salesmen, who sell bread, milk, and other products directly to customers on a regular route, are discussed in the chapter on Driving Occupations.) Places of Employment In 1970, about 2.5 million sales persons—three-fifths of them women—were employed in retail businesses. They worked in stores that range in size from the small drug or grocery store, employing only one part-time salesclerk, to the giant department store having hundreds of salesworkers. They also worked for door to door sales com panies and mail-order houses. The largest employers of retail sales workers are department and general merchandise, food, and apparel and accessories stores. Men predomi nate in stores selling furniture, household appliances, hardware, farm equipment, shoes, and lumber, and in automobile dealerships. (See statement on Automobile Salesmen elsewhere in the Handbook. ) Women outnumber men in depart ment and general merchandise, va riety, apparel and accessories, and in drugstores. Sales jobs are found in practically every community in all parts of the country. Most salespersons, how ever, work in large cities and in heavily populated suburban areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers generally prefer to hire high school graduates for sales jobs. Subjects such as salesmanship, commercial arithmetic, and home economics help to give the student a good background for many selling positions. Some high schools have 323 SALES OCCUPATIONS distributive education programs in cluding courses in merchandising and principles of retailing and retail selling. Many programs also provide an opportunity for students to gain practical experience under trained supervision by working part time in local stores. Such part-time selling experience may be helpful in obtain ing full-time employment. Young people interested in ob taining sales jobs may apply to the personnel offices of large retail es tablishments. Applicants are inter viewed and sometimes given special tests that measure their aptitude for sales work. Employers prefer per sons who enjoy working with people and have the tact to deal with dif ferent personalities. Among other desirable characteristics are a pleas ing personality, an interest in sales work, a neat appearance, and the ability to communicate clearly. Prospective salespersons also should be in good general health and able to stand for long periods of time. Arithmetic skills are an asset for salesworkers who calculate prices and make change. In many small stores, an experi enced employee or the proprietor gives newly hired sales personnel on-the-job instructions in making out sales slips and operating the cash register. In large stores, train ing programs are likely to be more formal, and beginners may be given specialized training to sell certain products. Executive positions in large retail businesses often are filled by pro moting college graduates originally hired as trainees and assigned sales jobs to gain practical experience. However, retail selling is one of the few fields in which an employee who has initiative and ability may be selected for promotion, regard less of his education. Many stores offer opportunities for persons with out a college degree to advance to executive positions. Some salesper sons eventually become buyers, de partment managers, or store manag ers. Others, particularly in large stores, may transfer to office posi tions that afford opportunities for further promotion to administrative work in areas such as personnel or advertising. Opportunities for ad vancement are relatively limited in small stores where one person, often the owner, performs most managerial functions. Retail sales experience may be an asset in qual ifying for jobs such as selling for wholesalers or manufacturers. Employment Outlook The number of salesworkers em ployed in retail trade is expected to increase slowly through the 1970’s. However, openings created by growth and vacancies that must be filled as salespersons retire or stop working for other reasons are ex pected to number in the tens of thousands each year; additional thousands of jobs will become avail able as retail salesworkers transfer to other types of employment. Among the major factors contrib uting to the anticipated rise in retail sales jobs are population and eco nomic growth, and the resulting in crease in the volume of sales. The trend for stores to remain open for longer hours, while the number of weekly hours worked by salesper sons continues to decline, also will contribute to the need for more salespersons. In addition to full time sales jobs, there will be many opportunities for part-time workers, as well as for temporary workers during peak selling periods such as the Christmas season. Changes in the way goods are sold are likely to limit the number of salesworkers in some types of stores, and affect the kinds of open ings that occur in others. Because self-service—already the rule in most food stores—is being extended rapidly to drug, variety, and other kinds of stores, customers will pur chase more articles without the help of salesworkers. On the other hand, rising income levels probably will increase the demand for some mer chandise that requires the salesper son to spend a good deal of time with each customer. Two examples are electrical appliances and auto mobiles, which prospective custom ers may want demonstrated. In view of these developments, sales em ployment probably will increase more slowly than the volume of sales. Little of the increase is likely to be in routine sales jobs; much of the demand will be for workers who are skilled in salesmanship and well informed about the merchandise they sell. Some retail salesworkers have more stable employment than workers in many other occupations. When retail sales are affected by downturns in the economy, em ployers—particularly in large stores —can reduce the number of em ployees by not filling vacancies that result from turnover or by eliminat ing some part-time jobs. Competi tion for sales jobs tends to increase when other jobs are scarce, how ever, because workers in other oc cupations often can qualify for sales work. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, young people starting in routine jobs where they were re quired to do little more than “wait on” customers generally were paid $1.60 an hour (in many establish ments, the minimum wage required 324 by law). In stores where salesman ship is more important, starting sal aries sometimes were higher than this; in small establishments not covered by the minimum wage law, they were somewhat lower. Salaries usually are lower in rural than in metropolitan areas. Experienced salesworkers, in cluding those whose pay scales are determined by union contracts, often earn $3 an hour or more. Many are paid on a straight salary basis; some also receive commis sions—that is, a percentage of the sales they make; and still others are on a straight commission basis. Earnings are likely to be highest in jobs that require special skill in dealing with customers, or technical knowledge of the merchandise sold. Among the highest paid are people who sell automobiles, major appli ances, and furniture. Salespersons in many retail stores are allowed to purchase merchan dise at a discount, often from 10 to 25 percent below regular prices. This privilege sometimes is ex tended to the employee’s family. Some stores, especially the large ones, pay all or part of the cost of employee benefits such as life insur ance, retirement, hospitalization, and surgical and medical insurance. Some full-time salespersons work a 5-day, 40-hour week, although in many stores, the standard work week is longer. Some stores are re quired by law to pay overtime rates for more than 40 hours’ work a week. Since Saturday is a busy day in retailing, employees usually work that day and have another weekday off. Longer than normal hours may be scheduled before Christmas and during other peak periods, and em ployees who work overtime receive additional pay or an equal amount of time off during slack periods. Some salespersons regularly work OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK one evening a week or more, espe cially those employed by stores in suburban shopping centers. Part-time salespersons generally work during the store’s peak hours of business—daytime rush hours, evenings, and weekends. Salespeople in retail trade usually work in clean, well-lighted places and many stores are air conditioned. Some sales positions, however, re quire work outside the store. A salesman of kitchen equipment may visit prospective customers at their homes, for example, to assist them in planning renovations, and a used-car salesman may spend much of his time working at an outdoor lot. Sources of Additional Information Information about careers in re tail sales is available from: The National Retail Merchants Association, 100 W. 31st St., New York, N.Y. 10001. Additional information on ca reers in retailing may be obtained from the personnel offices of local stores; from State merchants’ asso ciations; or from local unions of the Retail Clerks International Associa tion. Information on retailing courses given in high schools may be ob tained from local Superintendents of Schools or from the State Supervi sor of Distributive Education in the Department of Education at each State capital. SECURITIES SALESMEN (D.O.T. 251.258) Nature of the Work When an investor buys or sells stocks, bonds, or shares in mutual funds, he does so through a securi ties salesman who puts the “market machinery” into operation. A sales man’s services are required both by the individual having a few hundred dollars to invest and by the large in stitution investing millions. Securi ties salesmen are often called cus tomers’ brokers, registered repre sentatives, or account executives. In executing a buy or sell trans action, a securities salesmah relays the order through his firm’s order room to the floor of a securities ex change. In the over-the-counter market, he sends the order to his firm’s trading department and noti fies the customer when the transac tion is completed. He also provides many kinds of related services for his customers. To an inexperienced investor, for example, he may ex plain the meaning of stock market terms and trading practices. For customers having a variety of hold ings, the salesman may offer sug gestions about the purchase or sale of a particular security. Cus tomers’ investment objectives vary. An individual may prefer long term investments designed to pro vide a steady income over the years or short-term investments which appear likely to rise in price quickly. Salesmen, therefore, may be called on to furnish information about the advantages and disadvan tages of each type of investment. Salesmen often are expected to fur nish the latest stock and bond quo tations as well as information re 325 SALES OCCUPATIONS garding the activities and financial positions of corporations. Salesmen may serve all types of customers or specialize in only one type such as institutional investors. They also may specialize in certain kinds of securities. For example, a salesman may handle only transac tions in municipal bonds or only shares in mutual funds. If his em ployer underwrites “new issues,” such as the corporation securities is sued for plant expansion funds, he may take part only in the initial sale of these new securities. Establishing a clientele is very important to the new securities salesman’s success. In the begin ning, he may spend much of his time contacting potential investors and former customers of his firm, or seeking new customers in other ways. On the other hand, an experi enced salesman may spend most of his time servicing the accounts of established customers. Places of Employment In 1970, about 200,000 men and women sold securities. Most were full-time employees of securities firms—salesmen, partners, and branch office managers. Others were regularly employed in jobs outside the securities business; most of these persons sold shares in mu tual funds or variable annuities (contracts yielding periodic pay ments that fluctuate with the value of securities or other variable fac tors). Over one-third of all securi ties salesmen work part time; the majority are men. Securities salesmen are employed by hundreds of brokerage firms, in vestment bankers, and mutual fund firms in all parts of the country. Many of these firms are very small. Most salesmen, however, work for a relatively small number of large firms that operate main offices lo cated in big cities (especially in New York City), and approxi mately 7,000 branch offices in other areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because a securities salesman must be well informed about eco nomic conditions and trends, a col lege education is becoming increas ingly important for applicants in this field. Although employers seldom require specialized training, a de gree in business administration, eco nomics, or liberal arts is regarded as good preparation. Courses in finance and other subjects related to the securities business, available at colleges and universities throughout the country, also are helpful. Almost all States require securi ties salesmen to be licensed. State licensing requirements vary. The ap plicant may have to furnish a per sonal bond or pass written examina tions. In addition, practically every salesman must be registered as a representative of his firm according to regulations of the securities ex change or exchanges where it trans acts business, or the National Asso ciation of Securities Dealers, Inc. (NASD), or both. Before beginning salesmen can qualify as registered representatives, they must pass the Securities and Exchange Commis sion’s General Securities Examina tion, or examinations prepared by the exchanges and/or the NASD. These test the prospective sales man’s knowledge of the securities business. Character investigations also are required. Most employers provide training to assist their salesmen in meeting the requirements for registration. In many firms, including all members of the New York Stock Exchange, the training period equals at least 6 months. In large firms, training pro grams are sometimes quite elabo rate. Trainees may receive class room instruction in subjects such as security analysis and effective speak ing, take courses offered by schools of business and other institutions and associations, and undergo a period of on-the-job training. Other training programs, particularly in small firms, may be relatively in formal and brief. In programs of the latter type, the trainee may read assigned materials and observe other salesmen as they transact business. Many employers consider per sonality traits as important as aca demic training in specialized fields. Employers seek applicants who are well groomed, who possess the abil ity to deal with people, and who are ambitious and have a sense of re sponsibility. Because maturity and the ability to work independently also are important, many employers prefer prospective salesmen to have previous experience in other jobs. Before being hired, applicants are sometimes given tests to determine their aptitude for this kind of sales work. The principal form of advance ment for securities salesmen is an increase in the number and the size of the accounts they handle. Al though a beginner usually starts by servicing the accounts of individual investors, eventually he may handle very large accounts such as those of institutional investors. Some experi enced salesmen may advance to po sitions as branch office managers, who supervise the work of other salesmen while executing buy and sell orders for their own customers. A few salesmen may become part OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 326 ners in their firms or perform other administrative work. Employment Outlook Employment of securities sales men is expected to increase moder ately during the 1970’s. Some new positions will be created to serve the growing number of individuals and institutions investing money in securities of all kinds. Most posi tions, however, will be vacancies that occur as salesmen retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. The number of beginners who leave the occupation tends to be high because of the difficulty new salesmen have in establishing a clientele. Several factors should contribute to expanding employment oppor tunities for securities salesmen over the next decade. Both the number of individual investors and the funds they have to invest will continue to increase as a result of economic growth, rising personal incomes, and a number of other factors. The latter include interest stimulated by the activities of investment clubs and associations, plans enabling small investors to make minimum monthly payments toward the pur chase of securities, and the increas ing need for parents to set aside funds for their children’s education and their own retirement. Institu tional investors also can be ex pected to have more funds for in vestment in the future as more peo ple purchase insurance; participate in pension plans; contribute to the endowment funds of colleges, uni versities and other nonprofit institu tions; and deposit their savings in banks. Many more securities sales men will be needed also to sell new securities issued by expanding cor porations and by State and local ties. Size of the commission depends partly on the policies of the firm, partly on the type of security bought or sold, and also on whether it was traded on a stock exchange or in the over-the-counter market. Commis Earnings and Working Conditions sion earnings may fluctuate because Trainees are usually paid a salary of extremes in market activity. until such time as they are able to Earnings are likely to be high when meet licensing and registration re there is much buying and selling quirements. After registration, a few and lower when there is a severe firms continue to pay a salary until slump in market activity. To pro the new salesman’s commissions in vide their salesmen with a steady in crease to a minimum amount. The come, most firms pay a “draw salaries paid during the training pe against commission”—that is, a riod usually range from $400 to minimum salary based on the com $500 a month; brokers employed in missions which salesmen can be ex large firms receive somewhat higher pected to earn—plus commissions salaries. Factors which help deter from additional sales. A few firms mine salary during the training pe pay salesmen only salary and bo riod include locality of the firm, the nuses, usually determined by com individual’s educational back pany business. ground, and his experience. Earnings of securities salesmen Once the salesman has completed working full time generally ranged his training, earnings are usually in between $8,000 and $17,000 a year the form of commissions from cus in 1970, according to the limited tomers’ sale and purchase of securi data available. Many successful governments financing construction of new roads and other public im provements. 327 SALES OCCUPATIONS salesmen have incomes over $25,000 a year, however. Salesmen paid on a commission basis may re ceive annual bonuses when business is good. A securities salesman works in an office which is the scene of much activity. In large offices, rows of salesmen generally sit at desks in front of “quote boards” and wall screens, which continually flash in formation on securities transactions and prices. Most offices provide seats so that customers and other persons may watch the latest market developments. Although securities salesmen usu ally are not required to observe fixed hours of work, many work ap proximately the same hours as oth ers in the business community. Some also must adjust their time to accommodate those customers who can meet with them only outside business hours—for example, at home in the evenings or on week ends. Sources of Additional Information Further information about the work of securities salesmen in firms that are members of the New York Stock Exchange and about the na ture of the securities business is available from: New York Stock Exchange, 11 Wall St., New York, N.Y. 10005. Information about the investment banking business and sales positions with investment bankers may be ob tained from: Investment Bankers Association of America, 425 13th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20004. WHOLESALE TRADE SALESWORKERS (D.O.T. 260. through 289.458) Nature of the Work Salesworkers in wholesale trade play an important part in moving goods from the factory to the con sumer. Each salesman may repre sent a company that distributes hundreds of similar products. A wholesale drug company, for exam ple, may stock its warehouse with many brands of drugs, soap, and cosmetics to supply drug, variety, and other stores that sell directly to the consumer. In much the same way, a wholesale building materials distributor sells hardware and con struction materials to builders who would otherwise have to deal with many manufacturers. At regular intervals, the salesman visits buyers for retail, industrial, and commercial firms, as well as those for institutions such as schools and hospitals. He shows them sam ples, pictures, or catalogs listing the items his company stocks. The salesman seldom urges customers to purchase any particular product, since he handles a very large num ber of items; his objective is to per suade buyers to become regular customers. His success depends upon prompt and dependable serv ice to keep customers well sup plied. Wholesale salesmen render a va riety of special services that are be coming increasingly important. Re tailers sometimes depend on them to check the store’s stock and order items that will be needed before the next visit. Some wholesale salesmen assist store personnel in applying electronic data processing systems to their ordering and inventory tasks. In addition, they often advise re tailers about advertising, pricing, and arranging window and counter displays. A salesman of specialized products, such as air-conditioning equipment, may give technical as sistance on installation and mainte nance. Salesmen are responsible for some paperwork and other details. They must forward orders to the wholesale house, prepare reports and expense accounts, plan their work schedule, compile lists of prospects, make appointments, and study literature relating to their products. Some salesmen collect money for their companies. Places of Employment About 540,000 salespeople, mostly men, worked for wholesalers in 1970. Wholesale houses are lo cated mainly in cities, but the terri tories assigned to salesmen may be in any part of the country. This territory may cover a small section of a city having many retail stores and industrial users; however, in less populated regions it may cover half a State or more. 328 Companies that sell foods and food products are leading employers of wholesale salesmen. Other large employers are wholesalers dealing in drugs, dry goods and apparel, motor vehicle equipment, and electrical appliances. Many sales men also work for establishments selling machinery and building ma terials to industrial and business firms. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In hiring trainees for sales work, most wholesalers seek young per sons who are outgoing and neat in appearance. Other traits include self-confidence, enthusiasm for the job, and an understanding of human nature. As in most selling jobs, skills in arithmetic and a good mem ory are assets. High school gradua tion is the usual educational re quirement, although many compa nies selling technical and scientific products prefer men who have spe cialized training beyond high school. In some cases, an engineering de gree is required. Prospective salesmen who are college graduates usually participate in formal training programs that combine classroom instruction and short rotations in various nonsell ing jobs. By working a few weeks in the wholesaler’s warehouse, for ex ample, a new salesman may gain first-hand experience in writing or ders, pricing, and locating stock. Through cooperative programs, some college students combine aca demic study and on-the-job experi ence. Graduates having this back ground often begin outside saleswork without further training. The high school graduate may begin his career with a wholesale firm in a nonselling job, or he may OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK be hired as a sales trainee. In either case, the beginner usually works in several kinds of nonselling jobs be fore being assigned as a salesman. He may begin in the stockroom or shipping department to become fa miliar with the thousands of items the wholesaler carries. Later he may learn the prices of articles and dis count rates for goods sold in quanti ties. Next, he is likely to become an “inside salesman,” writing tele phone orders. In this job and later as he accompanies an experienced salesman on calls, the trainee comes to know some of the firm’s cus tomers. The time spent in these ini tial jobs varies among companies; usually it takes 2 years or longer to prepare the trainee for outside sell ing. After he has become familiar with the company’s products and techniques of selling, he is assigned a territory. Experienced salesmen who have leadership qualities and sales ability may advance to supervisor, sales manager, or another executive posi tion. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for salesworkers in wholesale trade are expected to be good through the 1970’s. In addition to new positions created as a result of growth, thou sands of openings will occur each year as salesmen retire, die, or transfer to other kinds of work; turnover among newly-hired sales workers is high. The number of wholesale sales workers is expected to rise rapidly as business increases due to popula tion expansion and economic growth. Although the computer will relieve wholesale salesmen of some duties, an increasing proportion of their time will be spent rendering special services to customers. As chain stores and other large firms centralize their purchasing ac tivities, the value of the sales made to individual customers becomes larger and competition for sales cor respondingly greater. Wholesalers can be expected to meet this com petition by emphasizing sales activi ties. Earnings and Working Conditions According to limited information, most beginning salesmen earned around $9,000 a year in 1970. Ex perienced salesmen averaged $15,000 annually, and many earned considerably more. Most employers pay a salary plus a percentage commission on sales; others pay a straight commission. Practically all wholesale salesmen have steady, year-round work. However, their sales (and their commissions) vary from month to month because ,demand for some products—for example, air condi tioners—is greater during certain seasons. To provide salesmen with a steady income regardless of sales, many companies pay experienced salesmen a “draw” against the com missions they can expect to earn an nually. Most companies furnish each salesman a car or allowance if he uses his own car, and reimburse ment for certain expenses on the road. The salesman often works long, irregular hours. Although he calls on customers during business hours, he may travel at night or on week ends to meet his schedule. How ever, most salesmen seldom are away from home for more than a few days at a time. They may spend many evenings writing reports and orders. Salesmen generally carry 329 SALES OCCUPATIONS heavy catalogs and sample cases and are on their feet long periods of time. Depending on length of service with their employers, most salesmen have a 2-to-4-week paid vacation. Many are covered by company ben efits, including health and life insur ance and retirement pensions. Sources of Additional Information Information on jobs in wholesale selling may be obtained directly from local wholesale houses or from associations of wholesalers in many of the larger cities. If no local asso ciation is available, write to: National Association of Wholesaler- Distributors, 1725 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Sales and Marketing Executives International, Student Education Division, 630 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. f S E R V IC E O C C U P A T IO N S Workers in service occupations police streets, serve food, put out fires, clean homes and buildings, and, in numerous other ways, pro vide services to the American peo ple. The more than 9.7 million service workers who were employed in 1970 included a wide range of oc cupations such as babysitters, po licemen, cooks, hospital attendants, golf caddies, theatre ushers, bar bers, and cleaning women. The major groups of service workers are discussed below: Occupations related to food prep aration and service. In 1970, more than 2.7 million people, or approxi mately three-tenths of all service workers, were employed in this group which includes occupations such as cooks and chefs, kitchen workers, waiters and waitresses, counter and fountain workers, and bartenders. These workers are em ployed in hotels, restaurants, and other institutions, such as hospitals, schools, and plant cafeterias. Building cleaning and servicing occupations. The nearly 2 million persons employed to clean and provide other services in buildings made up the second largest group of service workers in 1970. This group includes workers in occupations such as janitors, charwomen, cham bermaids, and elevator operators. Private household workers. About 1.5 million people were em ployed as private household workers in 1970. Altogether they made up the third largest group of service workers and constituted al most one-fifth of all service worker employment. Private household workers perform tasks that are fa miliar to all homemakers. They pre pare and serve meals, make beds, do cleaning and laundering, take care of children, and perform other household duties as well. (This chapter includes a detailed state ment covering private household workers.) Protective service workers, an other large group of service workers, are needed to help safe guard lives and property. More than 950,000 workers, or one-tenth of all service workers, were employed in protective service occupations in 1970. The majority of these workers are policemen, guards, or firemen. Policemen and detectives together account for more than one-third of the total number of protective service workers. Most policemen and detectives are gov ernment employees, but some work for hotels, stores, and other busi nesses. Guards and watchmen, an other large group of protective serv ice workers, are employed chiefly by private companies to protect their property and enforce company rules and regulations. Some guards and watchmen are employed in jails, prisons, and other government @ establishments. Firemen, also a sig nificant group of protective service workers, are employed mainly by city governments. The remaining protective service workers are sher iffs and bailiffs, crossing watchmen and bridge tenders, and marshals and constables. This chapter in cludes separate statements for FBI special agents, police officers (local government), State police officers, firefighters, and guards and watch men. The remaining service workers —those concerned with providing health care, grooming and personal services, and people in occupations related to entertainment and leisure time activities—accounted for about 2.5 million workers. More than 1 million were employed in health service occupations, which include workers such as hospital attendants and nurse aides. Service occupa tions concerned with grooming and personal services, such as barbers and cosmetologists, provided em ployment for over 800,000 workers. Nearly 100,000 workers were em- Nearly 10 million persons work in service occupations Employment, 1970 0 1 (in millions) 2 Food preparation and service Building cleaning and service Private household workers Health care Protective service Personal appearance Other service SOURCEBUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 331 332 ployed in occupations related to en tertainment. This group includes occupations such as ski instructors, ushers, and check room attendants. All other service workers, nearly 300,000, were in occupations such as airline stewardess and travel guide. Some of the occupations men tioned briefly in this introduction are described in greater detail later in this chapter. They are cook and chef, waiter and waitress, bartender, hospital attendant, barber, and cos metologist. Other personal service occupations, including the airline stewardess, hotel bellman, human services aide, and hotel house keeper and assistant, are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training and skill requirements differ greatly among the various service occupations. FBI special agents, for example, must have a college degree. Barbers and beauty operators need specialized voca tional training. Still other occupa tions—general maid, waitress, and hotel bellman, for example—have no specific educational requirements for entry, although a high school di ploma is always an advantage. The Federal Government sponsors train ing for many service occupations under provisions of the Manpower Development and Training Act. For many service occupations, personality traits and special abili ties may be as important as formal schooling. Thus, physical strength and endurance are a necessity for work as a porter, life guard, or win dow cleaner; and a pleasing manner and appearance are especially im portant for the theater usher, eleva tor operator, and checkroom girl. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Still other service workers, includ ing store and hotel detectives and travel guides, should possess good judgment and be skillful in dealing with people. Some service workers eventually go into business for themselves—as caterers or restaurant operators, for example, or proprietors of barber or beauty shops. Advancement from service occupations that require lit tle specialized training or skill may be difficult, however, particularly for young people without a good basic education and some knowl edge of the business in which they are employed. Employment Trends and Outlook For many years, the number of workers in service occupations has been growing at about the same rate as the labor force as a whole. Be tween 1960 and 1970, both in creased by about 20 percent. Among service workers, health serv ice employment increased by nearly two-thirds since the early 1960’s. Employment in food services has risen by about one-fourth; and entertainment services, food serv ices, protective services, and per sonal appearance services by about 20 percent. Employment of private household workers, however, de creased by 20 percent, despite a strong demand for their services. Employment in service occupa tions is expected to increase faster than the labor force as a whole in the years ahead as income levels rise and leisure time increases. By 1980, as many as 4 million more workers may be providing the serv ices that add to people’s comfort and enjoyment and protect life and property. As total employment rises, however, different occupations within the service group are likely to be affected quite differently— some growing very rapidly, others only moderately, and a few decreas ing in size. Most of the future employment increase is expected to be among policemen and other protective serv ice workers; attendants in hospitals and businesses rendering profes sional and personal services; beauty operators; and cooks, waiters, and others who prepare and serve meals outside private homes. Some of the factors responsible for their growth are the added medical care related to the increase in population, espe cially the number of older people; the greater need to protect life and property as urbanization continues and cities become more crowded; and the more frequent use of res taurants, beauty parlors, and other services by families and individuals as income levels rise and as an in creasing number of housewives take jobs outside the home. Although service workers are employed throughout the country, firefighters, hospital attendants, hotel service employees, and amusement and recreation attend ants are found chiefly in the larger towns and cities. BARBERS (D.O.T. 330.371) Nature of the Work Barbers provide many services related to the care of hair, face, and scalp. They may give hair and scalp treatments, shaves, facial massages, and shampoos. Their main task, SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 333 All cities and towns and many very small communities have bar bershops. However, employment is concentrated in large cities and in the most populous States. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement however, is to cut hair to satisfy each customer. In recent years, an increasing proportion of men have desired ad ditional barbering services, such as hairstyling and coloring. Specially trained barbers, called “hairstyl ists,” are providing these services in some barbershops and styling sa lons. These barbers shampoo, cut the hair with a razor, and style it. They also may color the hair and fit hair pieces. A barber builds a steady clientele by giving good haircuts, putting cus tomers at ease, giving them efficient, courteous service, and keeping a clean, attractive shop. Barbers keep their barbering in struments sterilized and in good condition. They also clean their work areas and may sweep the shop. Those who own or manage a shop have additional responsibilities such as ordering supplies, paying bills, keeping records, and hiring employees. Places of Employment An estimated 180,000 barbers were employed in 1970; most of them were men. More than half of all barbers own and operate their own shops. Most barbers work in small shops, either as the owner or with one other barber. Many bar bers also work in large shops in shopping centers, hotels, or office buildings. Some barbers work in combination barber-and-beauty shops; a few work for government agencies and hospitals. To obtain a license, which all States require, a candidate must have graduated from a State ap proved barber school. In addition, he must meet certain health requirements, usually be at least 16 (in some States 18) years old, and have completed the eighth grade. All but a very few States re quire the beginner to take an exami nation for an apprentice license; then, usually after working 1 or 2 years as an apprentice, he takes a second examination for his license as a registered barber. The exami nations usually include both a writ ten test and a demonstration of the applicant’s ability to cut hair. The fees charged for these examinations generally range from $5 to $25. A few States do not require a fee for their apprentice examination. Bar bers who move to another State must meet the licensing require ments of that State. Barber training is offered in many public and private schools and a few vocational schools. Courses usually last 6 to 11 months and include from 1,000 to 2,000 hours of in struction. The trainee customarily purchases his own tools which cost $100 or more. He studies the basic services—haircutting, shaving, mas saging, and facial and scalp treat ments—and, under supervision, practices these services on fellow students and customers in school “clinics.” Besides attending lectures on barber services and the use and care of instruments, the student 334 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK takes courses in anatomy, sanita tion, and hygiene, and learns how to recognize certain skin conditions. Instruction is also given in sales manship and general business prac tices. Advanced courses are availa ble in some localities for registered barbers who wish to specialize in hair styling and coloring. A beginner may locate his first job through the barber school he at tended, or through the local bar ber’s union or employer’s associa tion. Some experienced barbers ad vance by becoming managers of large shops or by opening their own shops. A few, who meet the re quirements, may teach at barber schools. Barbers who go into busi ness for themselves must have the capital to buy or rent a shop and in stall equipment. The required capi tal differs, because some owners buy used equipment and fixtures at reduced prices, whereas others pay higher prices for new equipment. Equipping a one-chair shop with new equipment usually costs from $1,500 to $2,800. Dealing with customers requires patience and a better-than-average disposition. Good health and stam ina also are important because a barber must stand for long periods and work with both hands at shoul der level. Employment Outlook Employment of barbers is ex pected to grow slowly through the 1970’s. Most job openings will result from the need to replace experienced barbers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Replace ment needs in this occupation are relatively high because barbers are somewhat older, on the average, than workers in other occupations. Employment opportunities for barbers have been limited in recent years by the trend to longer hair. In the future, however, the effect of this trend is expected to be more than offset by population increases. Employment also may be stimulated by the growing popularity of hair styling for men. The small shop with only one or two barbers will probably remain the most common type of establish ment; however, the continued growth of suburban communities should result in opportunities to open large shops and expand staffs in established shops in these areas. days, but during slack periods he may have time off for personal mat ters. Some barbers, however, are now requiring appointments to reg ulate their working hours. Under some union contracts, barbers re ceive 1- or 2-week paid vacations, insurance, and medical benefits. The principal union which organ izes barbers—both employees and shopowners—is the Journeymen Barbers, Hairdressers, Cosmetolo gists and Proprietors’ International Union of America. The principal trade association which represents and organizes shopowners and man agers is the Associated Master Bar bers and Beauticians of America. Earnings and Working Conditions Sources of Additional Information Barbers receive income from commissions or wages and from tips. Most barbers who are not shop owners normally receive 65 to 75 percent of the money they take in; a few are paid straight salaries. Weekly earnings of experienced barbers (including tips), generally ranged between $150 and $175 in 1970 according to limited informa tion available. A few expert bar bers, as well as some barbers who operated their own shops, earned more than $250 a week. Apprentice barbers usually earned about $85 to $125 a week. Earnings depend on the size and location of the shop, customers’ in come levels and tipping habits, com petition from other barbershops, the barber’s skill at his trade, his ability to attract and hold regular custom ers, and the prices he charges for his services. Most full-time barbers work more than 40 hours a week; a work week of over 50 hours is not un common. A barber may have a steady stream of customers during peak hours and especially on Satur Information on State licensing re quirements and approved barber schools may be obtained from the State Board of barber examiners or other State authority at each State capital. General information on training facilities, and State licensing laws may also be obtained from: National Association of Barber Schools, Inc., 750 Third Ave., Huntington, W. Va. 25701. Additional information on this occupation is also available from: Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of America, 219 Greenwich Rd., P.O. Box 17782, Charlotte, N.C. 28211. Journeymen Barbers, Hairdressers, Cosmetologists, and Proprietors’ International Union of America, 1141 North Delaware St., India napolis, Ind. 46207. 335 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS COSMETOLOGISTS (D.O.T. 332.271 and .381; 331.878; and 339.371) salon, in addition to working as an operator, usually performs a num ber of managerial duties, such as recordkeeping, property mainte nance, control of supplies, and supervision of employees. Nature of the Work Cosmetologists shampoo, cut, set, style, straighten, bleach, and tint hair and give permanent waves. They also may give manicures and scalp and facial treatments, provide makeup analysis, shape eyebrows, and clean and style wigs and hair pieces. Other duties include making appointments with patrons, cleaning their equipment, and sanitizing im plements. Cosmetologists are also called beauty operators, hairdress ers, or beauticians. Places of Employment Approximately 485,000 people were employed as hairdressers and cosmetologists in 1970; about 10 percent were men. The proportion of part-time to full-time workers was relatively high. Most cosmetologists are employed in salons which are operated as in dependent establishments or in con junction with hotels and department and specialty stores. Smaller num bers work in a variety of other es tablishments—for example, in mo tion picture and television studios, in hospitals, and on ocean liners. Although employment is concen trated in urban areas, many opera tors work in small towns and rural areas in all parts of the country. Most beauty salons are small and have fewer than four employees. More than half of all beauty salons are owner-operated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Beauty operators may specialize in different phases of the work such as manicurist, tint specialist, or hair stylist. Many men employed as cos metologists are hair stylists. The owner-operator of a beauty All States require that beauty op erators be licensed. Before appli cants are eligible to take State licensing examinations in the theory and practice of cosmetology, they usually must be at least 16 years of age, present certificates of good health, and have completed at least the 10th grade—many states require a high school diploma. Successful completion of a State-approved cos metology course is recognized as adequate preparation for these ex aminations in all States; in some, a period of apprenticeship may be substituted. Most States provide for reciprocity, whereby operators li censed to work in one State can move to another and continue their work without taking an examination to qualify for another license. About 3,500 public vocational schools and private schools offer training which meets State licensing requirements for cosmetologists. In many of them, instruction preparing students for a general operator’s li cense is available in evening classes as well as in full-time day classes. Many daytime courses offered by public and private schools require from 6 months to a year to com plete. Other public school courses, which include academic subjects re quired for a high school diploma, last from 2 to 3 years. Apprentice training usually continues over 1 or 2 years. Many States issue special manicurists’ licenses which require substantially fewer hours of training than general operator’s licenses. Both public and private school training programs include classroom study, lectures, demonstrations, and practical work. Beginning students usually practice by working on each other or on manikins and, when they have satisfactorily completed a period of preliminary training, they may practice on patrons in school “clinics.” Practically all beauty schools help their students* find jobs after graduation. Some cosmetologists start as manicurists or shampooers, while others begin as all-round operators performing a variety of services. Advancement may come in higher earnings, as operators gain experi ence and build up a steady clientele, or as they become skilled specialists in one or more phases of the work. For those who wish to specialize, advanced courses in hair styling, 336 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK hair coloring, and other types of work are available in many locali ties, sometimes offered by public or private schools, and sometimes by manufacturers of beauty prepara tions or by other individuals and or ganizations. Experienced operators may also advance to positions in which they manage large salons or open salons of their own. Others ad vance to teaching positions in cos metology schools, or use their knowledge and skills in some differ ent type of employment—working as demonstrators for manufacturers of cosmetics, for example, or as beauty editors for newspapers and magazines, or inspectors for State cosmetology boards. Cosmetologists must keep abreast of changing hair styles and beauty techniques. Ability to get along with people is also important, as are good grooming, dexterity, a sense of form and artistry, and willingness to follow patrons’ instructions. An op erator’s job also calls for physical stamina, because much standing is normally required. Operators usually furnish their own uniforms; a few salons require them to furnish brushes, combs, and clips. Employment Outlook Through the 1970’s, job oppor tunities are expected to be very good for newcomers to this field, as well as for experienced cosmetolo gists and those who are seeking part-time work. Employment in this occupation is expected to continue to expand very rapidly. Among the factors responsible for this expected employment growth are the popula tion increase and the more frequent use of beauty salons as income lev els rise and more women take jobs outside the home. In addition to new job opportuni ties created by growth, thousands of replacements will be needed as cos metologists retire or stop working for other reasons. Still other open ings will become available as jobs are vacated by workers leaving to enter other kinds of employment. Earnings and Working Conditions Many cosmetologists are paid on a straight commission basis. Others receive a salary plus commission and still others, a straight salary. Estimating total earnings is difficult because, in addition to salaries and commissions, most cosmetologists receive tips, and tipping practices vary in different localities. Earnings of cosmetologists also depend on experience, speed of performance, skill, location of the salon, and the ability to satisfy patrons and build up a clientele. Many beginning operators earn between $65 and $90 a week, ac cording to limited information avail able. A very few top stylists and others in highly specialized jobs may earn $300 or more a week. Most full-time operators work 40 hours or longer a week, which usu ally includes late afternoon and Sat urday work. Many part-time opera tors are also employed during these busy periods. In many large salons, department stores, and hotels, operators may participate in group life and health insurance and other employee bene fit plans sponsored by the employer. Some establishments allow their employees annual paid vacations of at least 1 week after a year’s serv ice. The most active union in this oc cupational field is the Journeymen Barbers, Hairdressers, Cosmetolo gists and Proprietors’ International Union of America. Other organiza tions in the field are the National Hairdressers and Cosmetologists Association, Inc., which includes both shopowners and operators; The Associated Master Barbers and Beauticians of America, represent ing salon owners and managers; the National Association of Cosmetol ogy Schools, Inc. representing school owners and teachers; and the National Beauty Culturists’ League, made up of Negro operators, teach ers, managers, and salon owners. Sources of Additional Information State boards of cosmetology can supply information about approved training schools and requirements for licensing. Additional information about ca reers in beauty culture, and State li censing requirements, can be ob tained from: National Beauty Career Center, 3839 White Plains Rd., Bronx, N.Y. 10467. General information about cos metology may be obtained from: National Hairdressers and Cosmetol ogists Association, 3510 Olive Street, St. Louis, Missouri 63103. Journeymen Barbers International Union, 1141 North Delaware St., Indianapolis, Ind. 46207. COOKS AND CHEFS (D.O.T. 313.131 through .887; 314.381 through .878; and 315.131 through .381) Nature of the Work The nature of a cook’s job de pends partly on where he works. There is a good deal of difference, SERVICE OCCUPATIONS for example, in preparing food for students in a high school cafeteria, for passengers on a jet airliner, or for patients in a hospital. Similarly, the “home cooking” which is the trademark of many small establish ments is far different from the elab orate cuisine featured in some cosmopolitan restaurants; and the cook who works in a steak house prepares food that is quite different from that prepared by the cook in a restaurant which serves Chinese dishes. A cook’s duties also depend on the size of the establishment in which he works. In many small res taurants, one cook—perhaps aided by a short order cook and one or two kitchen helpers—prepares all the foods. Often, the menu consists of a few dishes prepared on a short order basis, plus pies and other baked goods purchased at a bakery. Large eating places are more likely to have varied menus and to 337 prepare on the premises all the food served. The kitchen staff often in cludes several cooks—sometimes called assistant cooks—and many kitchen helpers. Each cook usually has a special assignment and often a special job title—pastry cook, fry cook, roast cook, vegetable cook, or sauce cook, for example. The head cook or chef—or, in a large restau rant or hotel, the executive chef— coordinates the work of the kitchen staff and often may take direct charge of certain kinds of food preparation. He decides on the size of the food portions served, and sometimes plans menus and pur chases food supplies. In addition, he has the important responsibility of seeing that the dishes served taste good and are attractive. Because of their special skill in creating new dishes and improving the flavor of familiar ones, some chefs have ac quired national and international reputations for themselves and for the restaurants and hotels where they work. Places of Employment Approximately 740,000 cooks and chefs were employed in 1970. Most of these workers were restau rant cooks, but large numbers were employed in public and private schools and in hotels and hospitals. Government agencies, manufactur ing plants, private clubs, and many other kinds of establishments also employed cooks and chefs. Three out of every 5 of these workers are women. About half of the cooks in restaurants, and the great majority of those employed in schools and hospitals, are women. Men, on the other hand, outnumber women as cooks in hotels and pri vate clubs. Also, most head cooks and practically all chefs are men. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most cooks—particularly those who work in small eating places— acquire their skills on the job while employed as kitchen helpers. Less frequently, they are trained as ap prentices under trade union con tracts or the training programs which some large hotels and restau rants conduct for new employees. Young people seeking jobs in large restaurants and hotels will find it advantageous to have had courses in restaurant cooking because hir ing standards are often high in these establishments. Many voca tional schools—both public and pri vate—offer this kind of training to high school students. Other courses, open in some cases only to high school graduates, are given under the guidance of restaurant associa tions, hotel management groups, and trade unions, and in technical schools and colleges. These courses range from a few months to 2 years or more in length. Programs to train unemployed and underemployed workers for jobs as cooks were op erating in several cities in 1970 under the Manpower Development and Training Act. Although curriculums may vary, a student usually spends a major part of his time learning food prepa ration through actual practice in well-equipped kitchens. The student receives instruction in baking, broil ing, and other methods of preparing food, and in the use and care of kitchen equipment. Instruction may be given in selecting and storing food, determining the size of por tions, planning menus, and buying food supplies in quantity. Hotel and restaurant sanitation, and public health aspects of food handling, are also taught. Many school districts provide 338 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK on-the-job training opportunities for their cafeteria workers who wish to become cooks. In addition, they may conduct cooking workshops during the summer, and frequently select school cooks from employees who have participated. Inexperienced workers usually can qualify as assistant cooks or fry cooks after several months of onthe-job training, but acquiring all round skills necessary for advancing to head cook or chef in a fine res taurant often takes several years. Many cooks acquire higher paying positions and new cooking skills by moving from restaurant to restau rant. Some eventually go into busi ness as caterers or restaurant own ers; other may become instructors at vocational schools and other in stitutions. Cleanliness, the ability to work under pressure during busy periods, physical stamina, and a keen sense of taste and smell are among the important qualifications needed for this occupation. A cook or chef in a supervisory position must not only be an expert cook, but must also be able to organize and direct kitchen operations effectively. Health certif icates, indicating that cooks and chefs are free from communicable diseases, are required by the laws of many States. Employment Outlook Employment of cooks and chefs is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s as new restau rants, hotels, and other food estab lishments open. Besides job open ings resulting from employment growth, thousands will result each year from the need to replace expe rienced cooks and chefs who retire, die, or transfer to other occupa tions. Continued expansion in the busi ness of serving meals away from home is expected because of popu lation growth and relatively rapid increases likely among some groups who customarily eat away from home. Large increases are expected in the number of married women working outside their homes and the number of students attending schools and colleges. In hospitals and other institutions, a continued increase is foreseen in the number of patients, attendants, and others who regularly eat on the premises. In addition, travel for business and pleasure is expected to increase; as a result, more people will be pa tronizing eating places. Small restaurants and other eat ing places where the food prepara tion is fairly simple will provide the greatest number of starting jobs as cooks. Beginners—especially those having training in restaurant cook ing— also will find starting positions available in those hotel and restau rant kitchens where foods are pre pared more elaborately. The short age of highly skilled cooks and chefs is acute, and employment op portunities for well qualified begin ners will be especially good. Earnings and Working Conditions Limited wage data from unionmanagement contracts covering eat ing and drinking places in large metropolitan areas provide an indi cation of earnings for cooks and chefs in 1970. In these contracts, straight-time hourly pay rates gen erally ranged from $2.22 to $4.65 for chefs; $2.02 to $4.12 for cooks of various types (such as pastry, fry, roast, and vegetable cooks); and $1.47 to $3.86 for assistant cooks. However, most cooks and chefs are not covered by union- management contracts. Wages also vary greatly according to geographic location and type of establishment. In large restaurants and hotels many cooks and chefs earn considerably more than the minimum rates. Some chefs with national reputations make more than $25,000 a year. In addition to their wages, restau rant cooks usually receive at least one free meal a day and are fur nished with uniforms. Paid vaca tions and holidays are common, and various types of health insurance programs also are provided. Sched uled hours in restaurants include late evening, holiday, and weekend work, and range from 40 to 48 a week. Cooks employed in public and private schools work during the school year only—usually 9 months. The hours worked frequently coin cide with the school’s hours. Many kitchens are air condi tioned, have convenient work areas, and are furnished with modern equipment and laborsaving devices. Others—particularly kitchens in small eating places—are often not as well-equipped and working con ditions may be less desirable. In kitchens of all kinds, however, cooks spend long periods on their feet and may be required to lift heavy pots and other objects or work near hot ovens or ranges. The principal union organizing cooks and chefs is the Hotel & Res taurant Employees and Bartenders International Union. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportuni ties may be obtained from local em ployers, locals of the Hotel & Res taurant Employees and Bartenders International Union, and local offices of the State employment service. The State employment serv 339 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS ice also may be a source of infor mation about the Manpower Devel opment and Training Act and other training programs. General information about res taurant cooks and chefs is available from the: Culinary Institute of America, Inc. 393 Prospect Street, NW., New Haven, Conn. 06511 Educational Director, National Res taurant Association, 153 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111. 60610. The Educational Institute, American Hotel and Motel Association, 221 West 57th Street, New York, N.Y. 10019. A list of public and private schools offering courses in cooking may be obtained from: Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, 1522 K St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005. WAITERS AND WAITRESSES (D.O.T. 311.138 through .878) Nature of the Work Whether they work in small lunchrooms or fashionable restau rants, all waiters and waitresses have jobs that are essentially the same. They take customers’ orders, serve food and beverages, make out customers’ checks, and sometimes take payments. The manner in which waiters and waitresses go about their work may vary consid erably, however, because food serv ice in very small eating places dif fers from that in large ones; and service in restaurants that empha size speed and efficiency is different from that where dining is formal and leisurely. In addition to waiting on tables, waiters and waitresses usually per form a variety of other duties. Often, they set up and clear tables, and carry dishes back to the kitchen. In very small restaurants, they may combine waiting on tables with counter service, preparing sandwiches, or cashiering. However, in large restaurants and in places where meal service is formal, waiters and waitresses are relieved of most of those additional duties. Busboys and busgirls often set up tables, keep water glasses filled, and perform other routine tasks, leaving the waiters and wait resses free to devote practically all of their time to serving guests. In those eating places where meals are served elaborately and a great deal of emphasis is placed on the satisfaction and comfort of each guest, a waiter may be called upon to advise about the choice of a wine or answer questions about the prep aration of items on the menu. Sometimes, from a side table, he may prepare and serve salads or flame certain dishes such as crepes suzettes. Places of Employment More than a million waiters and waitresses were employed in 1970. The great majority—about 9 out of every 10—were women. Many waiters and waitresses worked part time. Approximately four-fifths of the waiters and waitesses were em ployed in restaurants and other re tail establishments that serve food. Hotels and educational institutions of all kinds also employed many of these workers. Jobs for waiters 340 tended to be concentrated in those restaurants, hotel dining rooms, pri vate clubs, and other establishments where meal service was formal. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although many waiters and wait resses do not have extensive school ing, more and more employers pre fer that beginners have at least 2 or 3 years of high school. Home eco nomics courses and special courses for waiters and waitresses, which are offered by some public and pri vate schools, provide good prepara tion. Restaurant associations also offer training in this field. Unem ployed and underemployed workers are trained for jobs as waiters and waitresses in several cities under provisions of the Manpower Devel opment and Training Act. Practically all newly hired workers without previous experi ence undergo a period of on-the-job training, during which they learn about the type of food service of fered in their employer’s establish ment. Sometimes they work as busboys or busgirls before being as signed a station as a waiter or wait ress. Waiters and waitresses must be able to make the calculations neces sary to total guests’ checks and compute taxes. Personal appear ance, a pleasant manner, an even disposition, and the ability to cope with the rush of business that usu ally occurs at mealtimes are very important. In a few restaurants, knowledge of a foreign language is desirable. Waiters and waitresses often are required by State law to obtain health certificates to assure that they are free of communicable diseases. Physical stamina also is OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK needed because they are on their feet during their working hours. In many small eating places, op portunities for promotion are lim ited. However, after gaining experi ence, a waiter or waitress may transfer to a larger restaurant where earnings and prospects for advance ment are likely to be better. Ad vancement may be to a position as cashier or to supervisory work as a head waiter or hostess. Some super visory workers eventually advance to managerial positions. Employment Outlook Employment of waiters and wait resses is expected to increase mod erately throughout the 1970’s. Most openings, however, will result from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or leave their jobs for other reasons. A substantial increase in the con sumption of food outside the home is expected as a result of population growth, higher personal incomes, more vacation and business travel, and other factors. Eating places which employ waiters and wait resses, however, will share only part of the additional business. Some of it will be handled by the growing number of food and beverage vend ing machines, and some of it will go to the drug stores, variety stores, and cafeterias where meal service is provided by counter and fountain workers instead of waiters and wait resses. Most job openings will be for waitresses. The turnover of wait resses is particularly high because many of them leave their jobs to take care of family responsibilities. Jobs for waiters have become more concentrated in formal restaurants where hiring standards are high and turnover is usually low, and this trend is expected to continue. Both waiters and waitresses seeking jobs in formal restaurants will find com petition keen for the jobs that be come available. Beginners will find their best opportunities for employ ment in the thousands of restaurants where food service is less elaborate. Earnings and Working Conditions Because most waiters and wait resses receive tips from the guests they serve, as well as wages paid by their employers, estimating average weekly earnings is difficult. Wages generally are lower than in other occupations, and the amount re ceived in tips is usually somewhat greater than wages. Tips vary greatly in amount, however, de pending on the skill of the waiter or waitress, the tipping customs in the community, and especially on the type of restaurant. Because tips often average between 10 and 15 percent of guests’ checks, earnings from tips are usually highest in res taurants where prices are also high est. Limited data from union-man agement contracts in effect in 1970, covering eating and drinking places in several large cities, provide an indication of earnings (excluding tips). In these contracts, straighttime hourly rates for waiters and waitresses ranged from $0.82 to $2.15. However, many waiters and waitresses are not covered by unionmanagement contracts, and hourly rates in large cities generally are higher than those in small towns. The majority of waiters and wait resses receive free meals at work. Many also are furnished with uni forms. Paid vacations, after qualify ing periods of service, are custom ary, and various types of health, in 341 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS surance, and pension plans also may be offered. Waiters and waitresses often work split shifts—that is, they work for several hours during the middle of the day, take a few hours off in the afternoon, and then return to their jobs for the evening hours. Scheduled hours often include work on holidays and weekends. Large restaurants and dining rooms usual ly are furnished comfortably with convenient working areas, and are often air conditioned. Workers in other eating places—particularly small ones—may find working con ditions less desirable, and the pace of work very rushed at times. In restaurants of all types, workers often spend long periods on their feet and may be required to lift heavy trays. Work hazards include the possibility of burns'and cuts. The principal union organizing waiters and waitresses is the Hotel & Restaurant Employees and Bar tenders International Union. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportuni ties may be obtained from local em ployers, locals of the union pre viously mentioned, and local offices of the State employment service. The State employment service also may be a source of information about the Manpower Development and Training Act and other pro grams that provide training oppor tunities. General information about restaurant waiters and waitresses is available from: Educational Director, National Res taurant Association, 1530 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111. 60610. BARTENDERS (D.O.T. 312.878) Nature of the Work Although they may work in set tings as varied as a neighborhood tavern, a discotheque, or a luxuri ous hotel lounge, all bartenders per form essentially similar functions. Their primary duties are to mix and serve a variety of alcoholic and non alcoholic beverages by combining ingredients such as liquor, soda, water, sugar, bitters, and fruit gar nishes. They also serve wine and draft or bottled beer. Some bartenders handle the drink-buying transaction from be ginning to end. They take the order, prepare the drink, collect the pay ment, and make proper change. Others, who work at service bars, simply prepare the drinks that are served by waiters or waitresses. In addition to preparing and serv ing drinks, bartenders may be re sponsible for ordering and maintain ing an inventory of liquor and sup plies; preparing an attractive display of bottled goods and glasses; wash ing glassware; and cleaning the bar. They also may prepare fruit for gar nishing drinks (for example, slice limes and oranges) and prepare and serve appetizers for the patrons at the bar. Larger establishments customar ily employ bar boys or bartender helpers (D.O.T. 312.887) who as sist bartenders by replenishing sup plies such as liquor, fruit, and ice; stocking refrigerators with wines and beer; replacing empty beer kegs with full ones; and washing equip ment and polishing fixtures. In addi tion, they mop floors and remove empty bottles and trash. Places of Employment Approximately 160,000 bartend ers were employed in 1970. Nearly one-third of them were self-em ployed. Most bartenders work in restaurants and bars; others work in hotels, entertainment and recreation places, and private clubs. Several thousand persons tend bar part-time. They usually have full-time jobs in other occupations or attend college. Some of them serve drinks at banquets and private parties; bartenders’ unions often are clearing houses for these temporary jobs. About 1 out of every 4 bar tenders is a woman. Most of them work in small establishments. Most bartenders are employed in the urban population centers of New York, California, and other large States, but many also are em ployed in small communities. Vaca tion resorts offer seasonal employ ment, and some bartenders alter nate between summer and winter resorts rather than remain in one area the entire year. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 342 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most bartenders learn their trade on the job. Practice in preparing drinks at home can be helpful, but more practical experience can be gained by working as a bar boy or bus boy. They have an opportunity to observe the bartender at work; and, when he has time to give in structions, can learn how to prepare drinks and perform other tasks. Working as a waiter also can be val uable training for this occupation. Some private schools offer short courses in bartending that include instructions on State and local laws and regulations, cocktail recipes, at tire and conduct, and how to prop erly stock the bar. Some schools maintain a placement service for their students. Manual dexterity, accuracy, and speed are required in order to pre pare the proper mix, especially at times when the demand is heavy. Physical stamina is important, be cause the bartender works on his feet and may have to lift heavy kegs or cases. Because bartenders deal with the public, a pleasant personal ity is an important qualification. Twenty-one is generally the mini mum age required by law for em ployment as a bartender. Some em ployers, however, prefer their bar tenders to be at least twenty-five. Some States require bartenders to obtain health certificates to assure that they are free of communicable diseases. In some instances, they must be bonded. Beginners usually find the best entry opportunities in small estab lishments and resorts. After gaining experience, a bartender may trans fer to a larger establishment where earning prospects are likely to be better. In these places they may ad vance to head bartender or food and beverage manager. Some bar tenders with business know-how be come proprietors of their own es tablishments. Employment Outlook Employment of bartenders is ex pected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. In addition to employment growth, several thou sand job openings will arise an nually from the need to replace ex perienced bartenders who retire, die, or transfer to other occupa tions. Most of the increase in demand for bartenders will occur as new restaurants and hotels are estab lished to meet the needs of a grow ing population. Higher average in comes and more leisure time have resulted in increased vacation travel, and extensive business travel has become common. Also, with a greater proportion of women in the labor force, families often find din ing out a welcome convenience. These factors are expected to con tribute to a significant increase in consumption of food and beverages outside the home. While technology has had little effect on this occupation, an auto mated liquor and cocktail mixing unit recently has been introduced and is being tested at several loca tions. The unit delivers a predeter mined amount of liquor, or mixes and dispenses a variety of cocktails when the bartender presses a but ton. This type of device could in crease bartender efficiency and also reduce skill requirements. Earnings and Working Conditions Limited data from union-man agement contracts in the restaurant industry indicate that straight-time hourly earnings of bartenders ranged from $2.09 to $3.87 in 1970, depending on experience, ge ographic location, and type of es tablishment. In addition to salaries, bartenders at public bars receive tips that generally increase earnings substantially. Since bartenders at service bars do not receive tips, some establishments provide wage differentials to increase their earn ings. Bartenders often receive free meals at work and may be furnished bar jackets or complete uniforms. Paid holidays and vacations are cus tomary as are various types of em ployee benefits such as health and accident insurance and pension plans. Many bartenders work more than 40 hours a week, but there is a trend toward fewer hours. Night and weekend work and split shifts are common. For many bartenders, however, the opportunity to social ize with customers and the possibil ity of someday managing or owning a bar or restaurant more than offset these disadvantages. For others, the opportunity to get part-time em ployment is important. Sources of Additional Information Information about job opportuni ties may be obtained from locals of the Hotel & Restaurant Employees and Bartenders International Union, which is the principal union organ izing bartenders. Additional infor mation about job opportunities may be available at local offices of the State employment service. 343 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS GUARDS AND WATCHMEN (D.O.T. 372.868) Nature of the Work Guards and watchmen patrol and inspect property to protect it against fire, theft, vandalism, and illegal entry. The specific duties of these workers, however, vary by size, type, and location of employer. In office buildings, banks, hospi tals, and department stores, guards and watchmen are responsible for the security of records, merchan dise, money, and office machines and other equipment. Department store guards may work with plainclothesmen in watching for shop lifters and spotting theft by store employees. At ports and railroads, guards and watchmen protect merchandise in shipment as well as property and equipment. They make sure that nothing is stolen while being loaded or unloaded, and guard against fires, prowlers, and trouble among work crews. Sometimes, they examine pa pers of truckers hauling goods, or direct and control traffic. Guards who work in public build ings such as museums or art gal leries, protect paintings or exhibits from fire, theft, or damage. They also answer routine questions asked by visitors, and sometimes guide traffic. In large factories, aircraft plants, and defense installations where val uable information must be pro tected, some guards are assigned to entrances where they check the cre dentials of persons and vehicles en tering and leaving the premises. Similar duties often are performed by university, park, or recreation guards who also may issue parking permits and direct traffic. At social affairs, sports events, conventions, and other public gath erings, guards maintain order, give information, and watch for suspi cious persons. In a large organization, guards may serve under a security officer who is in charge of the guard force; in a small organization, a single watchman may be responsible for security. Patrolling is usually done on foot, but if the property is large, guards or watchmen may make their rounds by car or motor scooter. As they make their rounds, guards and watchmen check all doors and windows, see that no un authorized persons remain after working hours, and insure that fire extinguishers, alarms, sprinkler sys tems, furnaces, and various electri cal and plumbing systems are work ing properly. Although most guards and watch men are not expected to do jani torial work, they sometimes set thermostats or turn on machines for workers. Guards and watchmen usually are uniformed and often carry a nightstick or gun. They also may carry a flashlight, whistle, two-way radio, and a watch clock—a device that indicates the time they reach various check-points. Places of Employment Over 200,000 guards and watch men were employed in 1970; about 90 percent were men. The largest number of guards and watchmen are found in office build ings, defense installations and other government buildings, hospitals, nursing homes, hotels, banks, and schools. Many guards and watch men in these places work for private guard companies. Large numbers of guards and watchmen also work in 344 various manufacturing industries such as automobiles, aerospace, steel, and rubber. Although guard and watchman jobs are found throughout the coun try, the largest numbers are located in highly industrialized areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement These workers have no specific educational requirements but most employers prefer guards and watch men who are high school graduates. Employers also seek people who have experience in the military po lice or in State and local police de partments. Applicants who have less than a high school education usually are tested for their reading and writing ability, and their compe tence in following written and oral instructions. Candidates for guard and watchman jobs in the Federal Government must be veterans, have some experience as guards, and pass a written examination. For most Federal guard positions, ap plicants must qualify in the use of firearms. A driver’s permit is re quired for some jobs. Many companies give newly hired guards pre-job instruction and several weeks of on-the-job train ing. For example, guards may be taught the use of firearms, the ad ministration of first aid, the han dling of various emergencies, and ways to spot and deal with various security problems. Applicants are expected to have good character references; no police record; good health, especially hear ing and vision; and good personal habits. Although many companies require guards to meet height and weight requirements, no age limits are specified. Depending upon the material or the property being pro OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tected, some employers prefer an older person as a guard, while oth ers look for the young applicants who may better cope with intruders. Mental alertness, emotional sta bility, and physical stamina are pre requisites for guards and watchmen since they must be aware of any thing unusual and make split-second decisions when quick action is im portant and outside help is not available. Guards and watchmen must be dependable since they often are the only ones guarding property. Because guards and watchmen often are the first company employee to have contact with the public, they should be neat, pleasant, and cour teous. Although guards and watchmen in small companies receive periodic salary increases, advancement is likely to be limited. However, the military-type ranking of guards— from patrolman, through interme diate ranks, to captain—which ex ists in most big companies and public agencies, provides advance ment in position and salary. Guards with some college education may advance to jobs involving adminis trative duties or to prevention and disclosure of espionage and sabo tage. Employment Outlook The number of guards and watchmen is expected to grow mod erately through the 1970’s. Con tinuing increases in the number of plants, offices, banks, retail stores, and educational institutions needed to serve a growing population will create more jobs for guards and watchmen. In addition, the mounting inci dence of crime and vandalism is ex pected to increase the need for more guards and watchmen. Similarly, so cial unrest also would necessitate the increased use of these workers. In addition to new jobs resulting from employment growth, many thousands of openings will occur each year as workers retire, die, or leave their jobs for other reasons. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of guards and watch men in private industry varied widely in 1970. Salaries ranged from a low of $74 for inexperienced persons working a 40-hour week in small protective service agencies, to over $180 a week for experienced workers and supervisors in large in dustrial plants. Entrance salaries for guards em ployed in the Federal Government were $5,212 a year in 1970; experi enced guards often earned $5,853 a year. Top supervisory guard posi tions in the Federal Government may pay up to $15,000 annually. These workers usually receive over time pay as well as a wage differen tial for the second and third shift. Guards and watchmen usually re ceive benefits such as paid vaca tions, sick leave, and insurance and pension plans. About two-thirds of all guards and watchmen work at night; the usual shift lasts 8 hours. Some em ployers, however, have three shifts, and in such cases guards are often rotated to divide daytime work, weekends, and holidays equally. Usually, guards and watchmen do not take a regular lunch break; in stead, they eat on the job. Working conditions vary and generally depend on whether most of the work is indoors or outdoors. In addition, since guards often work alone, they have no one to call if an accident or injury occurs. To reduce this hazard, some large firms use a 345 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS central station watchman’s reporting service which enables guards and watchmen to be in constant contact with the central station outside the plant. If they fail to transmit an ex pected signal, the central station in vestigates. FBI SPECIAL AGENTS (D.O.T. 375.168) Nature of the Work Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Special Agents investigate many types of violations of Federal laws, such as bank robberies, kid nappings, frauds against the Gov ernment, thefts of Government property, espionage, and sabotage. The FBI, which is part of the U.S Department of Justice, has jurisdic tion over more than 185 Federal in vestigative matters. Special Agents may be assigned to any type of case, but those having specialized training in accounting are likely to be as signed chiefly to cases involving complex financial records; for ex ample, frauds involving Federal Re serve Bank records. The FBI is a fact-gathering and fact-reporting agency, and its Spe cial Agents function strictly as in vestigators. (Its authority does not include affording personal protec tion to individuals nor does it in clude police functions to assure that the law is obeyed. Such matters are within the purview of local and State law enforcement agencies.) To perform their duties, Special Agents may interview people, ob serve the activities of suspects, and participate in raids; their duties may involve extensive travel. Because of the highly confidential nature of the FBI’s work, Special Agents may not disclose any of the information which they gather in the course of their official duties to unauthorized persons, including members of their families. Special Agents may have to testify in court about cases that they investigate, but they do not make recommendations pertaining to prosecution, express opinions concerning the guilt or innocence of suspects, nor issue “clearances” of any kind. In most assignments, Special Agents work alone but must main tain continued contact with their su periors by radio or telephone. For potentially dangerous duties, such as arrests and raids, two agents or more are assigned to work together. Places of Employment Most of the more than 7,900 Special Agents employed in 1970 were assigned to the FBI’s 59 field offices located throughout the Na tion and in Puerto Rico. These agents work either in the city where the field office headquarters is lo- 346 cated or in resident agencies (sub offices) established under the su pervision of the field office to pro vide prompt and economic handling of investigative matters arising throughout the field office territory. Some agents are assigned to the Bu reau headquarters staff in Washing ton, D.C., which supervises all FBI activities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To be eligible for appointment as an FBI Special Agent, an applicant must have graduated from a Stateaccredited resident law school or a 4-year resident college with a major in accounting. The law school train ing must have been preceded by at least 2 years of resident undergrad uate college work. Accounting grad uates also must have had at least 3 years of experience in accounting or auditing or a combination of both. Applicants for the position of FBI Special Agent must be male citizens of the United States, at least 23 and not more than 40 years of age, and willing to serve anywhere in the United States or Puerto Rico. They must be at least 5 feet 7 inches tall and capable of strenuous physical exertion; they must have excellent hearing and vision, normal color perception, and no physical defects which would prevent their using firearms or participating in dangerous assignments. Each appli cant must pass a rigid physical ex amination, as well as written and oral examinations testing his knowl edge of law or accounting and his aptitude for meeting the public and conducting investigations. All of the tests except the physical examina tions are given by the FBI at its fa cilities. Exhaustive background and OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK character investigations are made of all applicants. Appointments are made on a probationary basis and become permanent after 1 year of satisfactory service. Each newly appointed Special Agent is given approximately 14 weeks of training before he is as signed to a field office. He receives most of this training at FBI head quarters at Washington, D.C., and the rest at the FBI Academy at the U.S. Marine Corps Base in Quantico, Va. During this period, he re ceives intensive training in defensive tactics and firearms. In addition, he is also thoroughly schooled in Fed eral criminal law and procedures, FBI rules and regulations, finger printing, and investigative work. After assignment to a field office, the new agent usually works closely with an experienced agent for a period of about 2 weeks before handling any assignments independ ently. All administrative and supervi sory positions are filled from within the ranks by selecting those FBI Special Agents who have demon strated the ability to assume more responsible positions. Earnings and Working Conditions The entrance salary for FBI Spe cial Agents in 1970 was $10,869 a year. FBI Special Agents are not appointed under Federal Civil Serv ice regulations, but, like other Fed eral employees, they receive peri odic within-grade salary raises if their work performance is satisfac tory, and they can advance in grade as they gain experience. The top sal ary for regular field Special Agents in 1970 was about $23,000. Agents in supervisory and administrative positions received higher salaries. Special Agents are subject to call 24 hours a day and must be availa ble for assignment at all times and places. They frequently work longer than the customary 40-hour week and, under certain specified condi tions, receive over-time pay up to a maximum of $2,870 a year. They are granted paid vacations, sick leave, and annuities on retirement. Sources of Additional Information The Federal Bureau of Investiga tion, U.S. Department of Justice, Washington, D.C. 20535. Employment Outlook The FBI has experienced a sub stantial expansion in its jurisdiction over the years. Although it is im possible to forecast Special Agent personnel requirements, employ ment may be expected to increase with growing FBI responsibilities. The FBI provides a career serv ice and its rate of personnel turn over is traditionally low. Neverthe less, the FBI is always interested in applications from qualified men who would like to be considered for the position of Special Agent. POLICE OFFICERS (D.O.T. 375.118 through .868 and 377.868) Nature of the Work Police officers—whether direct ing traffic at busy intersections or arresting dangerous criminals—are helping to preserve law and order. As local government employees, their job is to prevent criminal ac- 347 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS tivities, to investigate crimes, and to apprehend and assist in the prosecu tion of offenders. Whether on or off duty, they are expected to exercise their authority whenever necessary. (This report covers policemen and policewomen employed by local governments. It does not include ci vilian employees of police depart ments; State and Federal Govern ment police employees; or police men and detectives employed by private businesses.) The policeman who works in a small community handles many po lice duties. In the course of a day’s work, he may direct traffic at the scene of a fire, investigate a house breaking, and give first aid to an ac cident victim. In a large police de partment, officers usually are as signed to a specific type of police duty. Most policemen are detailed either to patrol or traffic duty; smaller numbers are assigned to special work, such as accident pre vention or operating communica tions systems. Some officers are de tectives (plain-clothesmen) assigned to criminal investigation; others are experts in chemical and microscopic analysis, firearms identification and hand-writing and fingerprint identi fication. In very large cities, a few officers may be trained to work with special units such as mounted and motorcycle police, harbor patrols, helicopter patrols, canine corps, mobile rescue teams and youth aid services. An increasing number of city po lice departments include women on their police forces. These police women work with juvenile delin quents, try to locate lost children and runaways, or search, question, book, and fingerprint women pris oners. They may also be assigned to detective squads, where they work mainly on crimes involving women. Most newly recruited policemen begin on patrol duty, which has be come particularly important as a means of preventing crime and providing other services to the public. Patrolmen may be assigned to congested business districts, outlying residential areas, or other sections of a community. They may cover their beats alone or with other patrolmen, and they may ride in a police vehicle or walk on “foot” pa trol. In any case, they become thor oughly familiar with conditions throughout their area and, while on patrol, remain alert for anything un usual. They note suspicious circum stances, such as open windows or lights in vacant buildings, as well as hazards to public safety such as burned-out street lights or fallen trees. Patrolmen also may watch for stolen automobiles and enforce traf fic regulations. At regular intervals, they report to police headquarters through call boxes, by radio, or by walkie-talkie. They also prepare re ports about their activities and may testify in court when cases result in legal action. Places of Employment An estimated 330,000 full-time policemen and policewomen were employed in 1970 by local police departments. The majority were men. Some cities have very large police forces. For example, New York has 348 over 31,000 police officers and Chi cago has over 12,000. Hundreds of small communities employ fewer than 25 policemen each. Police women work mainly in large cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Local civil service regulations govern the appointment of police officers in practically all large cities and in many small ones. Candidates must be U.S. citizens, usually at least 21 years of age, and be able to meet certain height and weight standards. Eligibility for appoint ment also is determined by perform ance on competitive examinations, physical and personal qualifications, and education and experience. The physical examinations often include tests of strength and agility. Because personal characteristics such as honesty, good judgment, and a sense of responsibility are especially important in police work, candi dates usually are interviewed by a senior officer at police headquarters, and their character traits and back ground may be investigated. In some police departments, candi dates also may be interviewed by a psychiatrist or a psychologist, or given a personality test. In large po lice departments, where most jobs are to be found, applicants usually must have at least a high school ed ucation. A few cities require some college training and some hire law enforcement students as police in terns. Some police departments ac cept men who have less than a high school education as recruits, partic ularly if they have had work experi ence in a field related to law en forcement. Police departments increasingly emphasize post-high school training in sociology, psychology, and mi OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK nority group relations. As a result, more than 400 colleges and univer sities now offer major programs in law enforcement. Other courses considered helpful in preparing for a police career include English, American history, civics and gov ernment, business law, and physics. Physical education and sports activ ities are especially helpful in devel oping the physical stamina and agil ity needed for police work. College training may be required for police women because of their specialized assignments. Training or experience in social work, teaching, or nursing is desirable. Young men who have completed high school can enter police work in some large cities as police cadets, or trainees, while still in their teens. As paid civilian employees of the police department, they attend classes part of the time to learn police science and they also do clerical work. When police cadets who qualify in other respects reach the age of 21, they may be appointed to the police force. Before their first assignments, po licemen usually go through a pe riod of training. In many small com munities, the instruction is given in formally as recruits work for about a week with experienced officers. More extensive training, such as that provided in large city police de partments, may extend over several weeks or a few months. This train ing includes classroom instruction in constitutional law and civil rights, as well as in State laws and local ord inances, and in the procedures to be followed in accident investigation, patrol, traffic control, and other po lice work. Recruits learn how to use a gun, defend themselves from at tack, administer first aid, and deal with other emergencies. Policemen and policewomen gen erally become eligible for promotion after specified periods of service. In a large department, promotion may enable an officer to specialize in one kind of law enforcement activity such as laboratory work, traffic con trol, communications or work with juveniles. Promotions to the rank of sergeant, lieutenant, and captain are made according to each candidate’s position on a promotion list, as de termined by his performance on written examinations and his work as a police officer. Advancement opportunities generally are most nu merous in large police departments, where separate bureaus work under the direction of administrative officers and their assistants. Many types of training help po lice officers improve their perform ance on the job and prepare for ad vancement. Through training given at police department academies, and at colleges and other institu tions, officers keep abreast of crowd-control techniques, civil de fense, legal developments that affect policemen and advances in law en forcement equipment. Many police departments encourage officers to work toward college degrees, and some pay all or part of the tuition. Employment Outlook Employment opportunities for police officers are expected to be very favorable through the 1970’s. Many new positions will arise as cit ies increase the size of their police forces to meet the needs of a grow ing population. More openings, however, will occur as policemen and policewomen retire or leave their jobs for other reasons. Police officers usually retire at a somewhat younger age than workers in most other occupations, and replacement rates are relatively high for this rea son. 349 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Police employment is expected to rise moderately during the 1970’s as population and economic growth create a need for more officers to protect life and property, regulate traffic, and provide other police serv ices. Future police jobs are likely to be affected by changes now oc curring in police methods and equipment. Specialists are becoming more essential to the effective oper ation of city police departments. In an increasing number of depart ments, for example, electronic data processing is used to compile ad ministrative, criminal, and identifi cation records, and to operate emer gency communications systems. Many departments also need officers with specialized training to apply engineering techniques to traffic control and social work tech niques to crime prevention. At the same time, the use of automatic sig nal lights has somewhat reduced the number of policemen needed for di recting traffic. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, entrance salaries for po lice officers averaged $8,500 a year, according to survey information. The earnings of more experienced officers averaged $10,000 annually. Most policemen and police women receive regular pay in creases during the first few years of employment until a specified maxi mum is reached. Sergeants, lieuten ants, and captains are paid progres sively higher basic salaries than pa trolmen in the same police depart ments. Top salaries are paid to po lice chiefs or commissioners, and in 1970 their salaries averaged $11,000 a year in some small cities and $23,000 in the largest. Police departments usually pro vide officers with special allowances for uniforms and furnish revolvers, night sticks, handcuffs, and other required equipment. The scheduled workweek for po lice officers usually is 40 hours, and in localities where the workweek is longer weekly hours gradually are being reduced. Police protection must be provided around the clock; therefore, in all but the very small est communities, some officers are on duty over weekends, on holidays, and at night. Policemen are subject to call at any time their services may be needed and in emergencies may work overtime. In some de partments, overtime is paid at straight time or at time and a half; in others, officers may be given an equal amount of time off on another day of the week. Police officers generally are cov ered by liberal pension plans, ena bling many to retire at half pay by the time they reach age 55. Paid va cations, sick leave, and medical, surgical, and life insurance plans are among the other benefits frequently provided. Policemen may be assigned to work outdoors for long periods in all kinds of weather. The injury rate is higher than in many occupations and reflects the risks police officers take in pursuing speeding motorists, capturing lawbreakers, and dealing with public disorder. Sources of Additional Information Information about local entrance requirements may be obtained from local civil service commissions or police departments. Additional information on the oc cupation of policeman or police woman may be obtained from: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 11 Firstfield Road, Gaithersburg, Md. 20760. Fraternal Order of Police, PickCarter Hotel, 1012 Prospect Ave., Cleveland, Ohio 44115. Further information on the sala ries and hours of work of policemen in various cities is published by The International City Managers’ Asso ciation in its Municipal Yearbook, and by the Fraternal Order of Po lice. STATE POLICE OFFICERS (D.O.T. 375.118, .138, .168, .228, .268, and .388) Nature of the Work State policemen (sometimes called State highway patrolmen or troopers) are protective service of ficers whose primary responsibility is to enforce the laws and regula tions governing the use of highways. Officers spend most of their time patroling highways to insure that traffic laws are obeyed and issuing traffic tickets to motorists who vio late the laws. When necessary, they testify in court. State police officers assist at the scene of traffic accidents. They give first aid to injured persons, summon ambulances and other emergency equipment, and direct traffic to avoid additional accidents. Patrol men conduct investigations of acci dents and write reports containing information that may be used as legal evidence in determining cause and liability. In addition, State po lice officers provide services to mo torists on the highways. For exam ple, they radio for road service in case of mechanical trouble, direct tourists to their destination, or pro- 350 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK division or bureau chiefs responsible for training or investigation, and those who command police opera tions in an assigned area. Places of Employment About 40,000 State police officers—virtually all men—were employed throughout the 49 States that maintained a police force in 1970. The size of State police forces varies considerably. The largest force (in California) has over 5,000 officers. The smallest (in North Da kota) has fewer than 100. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement State police officer investigates accident. vide information about lodging, res taurants, and tourist attractions. State police officers also direct traffic during road repairs, fires, and other emergencies, as well as for special occurrences such as parades, celebrations, and sporting events. They sometimes check the weight of commercial vehicles, conduct driver examinations, and serve as public safety information officers. In some States, these policemen may investigate crimes such as thefts, murders, and narcotics vio lations. However, the jurisdiction of the State police in such matters usu ally is limited to those areas that do not maintain their own police forces. Nevertheless, they some times assist municipal or county po lice forces in criminal investigations, the apprehension of lawbreakers, and the control of civil disturbances and riots. Some police officers spend part or all of their time in specialized work. These specialties include fingerprint classification, chemical or micro scopic analysis, instruction of train ees in State police schools, and pi loting police aircraft. Others work with special State police units such as the mounted police, canine corps, and marine patrols. State police officers also have clerical duties. They prepare reports and maintain police records. Some officers are administrators, including State civil service regulations govern the appointment of State po lice officers. All candidates must be citizens of the United States. Other entry requirements vary by State, but most States require that appli cants have a high school education or equivalent education and experi ence and be at least 21 years of age. State police officers must pass a competitive examination and meet physical and personal qualifications. Physical requirements include stand ards of height, weight, and eye sight. Tests of strength and agility often are required. Since personal characteristics such as honesty and a sense of responsibility are espe cially important in police work, an applicant’s character traits and background are investigated. In all States, recruits enter a for mal training program for a period of several months. The minimum pe riod of training usually is 12 weeks. Recruits receive classroom instruc tion in State laws and jurisdictions. They also study procedures for acci dent investigation, patrol, traffic control, and other police work. 351 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS They learn to use a gun, defend themselves from attack, handle an automobile at high speeds, adminis ter first aid, and deal with other emergencies. After gaining experi ence, some State police officers take advanced or specialized training in police science, administration, law enforcement, or criminology. Classes are held at junior colleges, colleges and universities, or special police institutions such as the Na tional Academy of the Federal Bu reau of Investigation. High school and college courses in English composition, reading comprehension, American history, civics and government, psychology, sociology, and physics are helpful in preparing for a police career. Physi cal education and sports activities are useful, for they develop needed stamina and agility. Completion of a driver education course and training received in military police schools also are assets. Police officer recruits serve a pro bationary period from 6 months to 2 or 3 years. After a specified pe riod of time, State police officers be come eligible for promotion. Most States have merit promotion sys tems requiring officers to pass a competitive examination to qualify for the next highest rank. Although the organization of State police forces differs among States, the typ ical avenue of advancement is from private to corporal, to sergeant, to first sergeant, to lieutenant, and then to captain. Police officers who demonstrate administrative ability may be considered for higher level positions such as commissioner or director. In some States, high school grad uates may enter State police work as police cadets. These paid civilian employees of the police organization attend classes to learn various as pects of police work and are assigned nonenforcement duties. Cadets who qualify may be ap pointed to the State police force at age 21. Employment Outlook State police employment is ex pected to rise very rapidly through the 1970’s. Hundreds of job open ings are expected to result each year from growth in employment re quirements; a somewhat smaller number of openings will arise as of ficers retire, die, or leave the occu pation for other reasons. Although some State police will be needed in criminal investigation and other nonhighway functions, the greatest demand will be for officers to work in highway patrol and re lated activities. This is the result of a growing and more mobile popula tion. Along with an increasing num ber of motor vehicles, the nature of highway systems is rapidly chang ing. Limited access highways re quire increased police patrol to con trol high speeds, prevent accidents, and assist stranded motorists. The newer dual highways also require more patrolmen, since officers can patrol effectively only one side of these roads. Because law enforcement work is becoming more complex, some spe cialists will be needed to work in crime laboratories and electronic data processing centers to create better administrative and criminal information systems. Earnings and Working Conditions In 1970, entrance salaries for State policemen ranged from $480 to about $800 a month, according to a private survey. The most com mon entry rates ranged from $500 to $700 per month. Average monthly starting rates are highest in the Western States and lowest in the South. State policemen generally receive regular salary increases, based on experience and performance, until a specified maximum is reached. The 1970 maximums ranged from $640 to $1,100 a month; the most com mon maximum rates ranged from $700 to $900 a month. Earnings may increase above these levels with promotions to a higher rank, such as corporal or sergeant. State police agencies usually fur nish officers uniforms, firearms, and other necessary equipment, or pro vide special allowances for their purchase. In most States, the scheduled workweek for police officers is 40 hours. Although the workweek is longer in some States, weekly hours in excess of 40 rapidly are being re duced. In a few States, officers are paid overtime. Since police protec tion must be provided around the clock, some officers are on duty over weekends, on holidays, and at night. Police officers also are subject to emergency calls at any time. State police usually are covered by liberal pension plans. Paid vaca tions, sick leave, and medical, surgi cal, and life insurance plans fre quently are provided. The work of State police officers sometimes is hazardous. They al ways run the risk of an automobile accident while pursuing speeding motorists or fleeing criminals. Police officers also face the risk of bodily harm while apprehending criminals or controlling disorders. Sources of Additional Information Information about specific en trance requirements may be ob- 352 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tained from State civil service com missions or State police headquar ters, usually located in each State capitol. FIREFIGHTERS (D.O.T. 373.118 through .884) Nature of the Work Firefighters help protect us from fires that claim thousands of lives and cause extensive property dam age each year. This statement gives information about firefighters who are full-time paid employees of city and town fire departments. It does not cover part-time volunteer fire men and “call men” who serve only when the alarm signals that they are needed. While on duty, firefighters must be prepared at a moment’s notice, to rush to a fire and handle any emergency that occurs. Because fire fighting is dangerous and compli cated, it requires teamwork and must be well organized. At every fire, firefighters perform specific jobs assigned to them by a com manding officer; they may connect hose lines to hydrants, operate a pressure pump, position ladders, or perform some other duty. Further more, the assigned duties of individ ual firefighters may be changed sev eral times while the company is in action. Under emergency conditions firefighters are often called on to use their own initiative and judg ment. They must, therefore, be pro ficient in many different kinds of firefighting activities. They also must be able to help people to safety and administer first aid. Fire prevention is another impor tant responsibility of municipal fire departments. Specially trained per sonnel inspect public buildings for conditions that might cause a fire and for compliance with local regu lations relating to fire escapes, fire doors, storage of flammable mate rials, and other possible hazards. Educating the public about fire pre vention and safety measures is also a part of the firefighter’s job. Fre quently, they speak on this subject before school assemblies and civic groups. In many communities, they regularly inspect private homes, at the owner’s request, to point out possible fire hazards. Between alarms, firefighters spend considerable time at their local sta tions, improving their knowledge of firefighting and doing maintenance work. They also participate in prac tice drills, clean and lubricate fire fighting equipment, stretch hoses to dry, stand watch at fire alarm in struments, and verify and record alarms. Places of Employment There were 180,000 firefighters employed in 1970 by municipal fire departments. In addition, thousands of paid “call men” and hundreds of thousands of part-time volunteer firemen are organized in small towns and rural communities throughout the Nation to help fight fires. A few very large cities have several thousand firemen; some small cities have fewer than 25. 353 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To become eligible for an ap pointment as a firefighter, an appli cant must pass a written intelligence test, a medical examination, and tests of strength, physical stamina, and agility, as specified by local civil service regulations. In most com munities, these examinations are open only to men who are at least 21 years of age, meet certain height and weight requirements, and have a high school education. The men who receive the highest grades on their examinations have the best chances for appointment. Extra credit usually is given for military service. Experience gained as a vol unteer fireman or through firefight ing training in the Armed Forces also may improve an applicant’s chances for appointment. As a rule, beginners in large fire departments are given training for several weeks at the city’s fireschool. Through classroom instruction and practice drills, the recruits study such fundamentals as firefight ing techniques, local building codes, fire prevention, and first aid; and learn about the use of axes, chemi cal extinguishers, ladders, and other firefighting equipment. Upon com pletion of this training, they are as signed to local fire companies. Op portunities for promotion are good in most fire departments. As fire fighters gain experience, they may advance to higher ratings, and, after 5 to 10 years or more of service, be come eligible for promotion to the grade of lieutenant. The line of fur ther promotion is usually to captain, then battalion chief, assistant chief, and finally to chief. Chances for ad vancement generally depend upon each candidate’s position on the promotion list, as determined by his rating on a written examination, his work as a fireman, and his sen iority. Throughout their service, many firefighters continue to study fire prevention and related subjects to improve their performance on the job and prepare for promotional ex aminations. Programs conducted by many State governments and city fire departments throughout the country provide training of this kind for tens of thousands of firefighters each year. Some universities offer courses in fire engineering. Among the important personal qualities of firefighters are mental alertness, courage, mechanical apti tude, endurance, and a sense of public service. Initiative and good judgment are extremely important, because firefighters often must make quick decisions. Leadership qualities are valuable assets for officers, who have the responsibility for establishing and maintaining a high degree of discipline and efficiency, as well as planning and directing the activities of the fire fighters in their companies. Employment Outlook Several thousand openings for fire fighters are expected to occur each year through the 1970’s. Many openings will arise from the need to replace men who retire, die, or oth erwise leave the occupation. Fire fighters often are permitted to retire at an earlier age than people in many other occupations. New jobs also will become available as city fire departments enlarge their staffs and as paid departments replace volunteer fire companies in smaller, growing communities. In addition, some openings probably will be created as city fire departments con tinue to shorten the hours that fire men are on duty. The number of young men who qualify for firefighter jobs in large cities usually is greater than the number of job openings, even though the written examination and physical requirements eliminate many applicants. Competition among candidates is apt to be keen since employment in this occupation is very stable. The number of firefighters is ex pected to increase rapidly to meet the needs for fire protection in growing urban communities. As cit ies become more crowded, however, officials will give more emphasis to activities associated with fire pre vention, and many firefighters will spend a greater amount of their time inspecting buildings for com pliance with fire regulations and participating in fire prevention cam paigns. Earnings and Working Conditions Firefighters in larger cities usually receive the highest starting salaries. In 1970 the average salary for be ginning firefighters was about $7,800 a year in cities which had populations of more than 500,000. In cities which had populations of 10,000 to 25,000, the average an nual starting salary was about $ 6 , 100 . Experienced firefighters also usu ally earn more money in the larger cities. In cities of over 500,000 per sons, the average salary received by experienced firefighters was $9,200 a year. In nearly all other cities, the average salary received was over $7,000 a year. In 1970, fire chiefs were receiv ing average salaries of $9,600 a year in the smaller cities and $21,600 a year in cities that had populations over 250,000. Practically all fire departments furnish pay allowances for protec 354 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Most firefighters are members of tive firefighting clothing (helmets, boots, and rubber coats) and many the International Association of Fire Fighters (AFL-CIO). also provide dress uniforms. In some cities, firemen are on duty for a 24-hour shift, then off for 24 hours, and receive an extra day Sources of Additional Information off at intervals. In other cities, the Information on how to obtain a day shift is 10 hours and the night job as a firefighter may be secured shift is 14 hours, and firemen rotate from your local civil service com shifts at frequent intervals. Fire mission or fire department. men’s hours range from 40 a week General information on the occu in some cities to 60 in others; the pation may be obtained from: national average workweek is about International Association of Fire 56 hours. Duty hours usually in Fighters, 905 16th St. NW., Wash clude some time when firemen are ington, D.C. 20006. free to read, study, or pursue other International Association of Fire personal interests. Chiefs, 1725 K Street, NW., In addition to their scheduled Washington, D.C. 20006. hours, firefighters must work as Additional information on the many extra hours as necessary to salaries and hours of work of fire bring a fire under control. When ov men in various cities is published ertime is worked, most city fire de annually by The International City partments either give compensatory Managers Association in its Munici time off or extra pay for the addi pal Yearbook, available in many li tional hours. braries. The job of a firefighter involves risk of life or injury from sudden cave-ins of floors or toppling walls, as well as hazards associated with exposure to flames, smoke, and bad weather. In fighting fires in in HOSPITAL ATTENDANTS dustrial establishments, firefighters (D.O.T. 355.687 through 355.887) may come in contact with poison ous, flammable, and explosive gases and chemicals. Firefighters generally are covered Nature of the Work by liberal pension plans, many of Under the direction of registered which provide for retirement at half pay at age 50 after 25 years of serv nurses and licensed practical nurses, ice, or at any age if disabled in the hospital attendants perform a vari line of duty. Firefighters also re ety of duties. Most require relatively ceive paid vacations. Provisions for little specialized training but con sick leave usually are very liberal; tribute to the comfort and care of health and surgical benefit plans are patients. The help they provide ena offered in many fire departments; bles nurses to devote more time to and compensation also is provided work that requires professional and for firefighters injured in the line of technical training. Women employed as hospital at duty. Most fire departments either allow paid holidays—ranging up to tendants usually are called nursing 11 or more a year—or time off for aides and men often are known as orderlies. Other job titles include working on holidays. nursing assistant, auxiliary nursing worker, and (in mental institutions) psychiatric aide. Nursing aides answer patients’ bell calls and deliver messages, serve meals, feed patients who are unable to feed themselves, make beds, and bathe or dress patients. They also may give massages, take temperatures, and assist patients in getting out of bed and walking. Or derlies provide many of the same services for male patients and, in addition, perform tasks such as wheeling patients to operating and examining rooms, and transporting and setting up heavy equipment. Attendants also may perform tasks less directly associated with patient care such as working in hospital pharmacies or helping with sterile supplies. 355 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS The range of duties performed by hospital attendants depends on the policies of the institutions employ ing them, the type of patient being cared for, and—equally important —the capacities and resourcefulness of the nursing aide or orderly. In some hospitals, the nursing aide’s work may include household tasks such as cleaning patients’ rooms, whereas in others it may be limited to assisting in the care of patients. The tasks performed for patients differ considerably, depending on whether the patient is confined to his bed following major surgery, is learning to walk again after a dis abling accident or illness, or re quires assistance with daily activi ties because of infirmity caused by advanced age. Places of Employment An estimated 830,000 attendants were employed in 1970; more than four-fifths were women. Most of them worked in hospitals. Others were employed primarily in nursing homes, and other institutions pro viding facilities for care and re cuperation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although some employers hire persons with less than a high school education as hospital attendants, high school graduates are preferred. Many employers accept applicants 17 or 18 years of age. Others—par ticularly in nursing homes and in mental hospitals—prefer to hire more mature men and women who are at least in their mid-twenties. Hospital attendants generally are trained after they are hired. In some institutions, on-the-job training under the close supervision of regis tered and licensed practical nurses is combined with classroom instruc tion that includes demonstrations in taking and recording temperatures, bathing patients, changing linens on beds which are occupied by pa tients, and moving and lifting pa tients. Training may last several days or continue over a period of a few months, depending on the pol icies of the hospital, the attendant’s aptitude for the work, and the na ture of the duties assigned. Many training programs for hospital at tendants are aided by funds pro vided by the Manpower Develop ment and Training Act and the Vo cational Education Act. Courses in home nursing and first aid, offered by many public school systems and other community agen cies, provide a useful background of knowledge for the work. Volunteer work and temporary summer jobs in hospitals and similar institutions also may furnish helpful experience. Applicants for this work should be in good health. Personal qualities, such as tact, patience, understand ing, emotional stability, and de pendability are important. For work as an attendant, as in other health occupations, a basic requisite is a genuine interest in people and a de sire to be of help to them. Also, persons planning to become hospital attendants should be willing to ac cept menial tasks. Promotional opportunities are limited for hospital attendants, un less they undertake further training. Some may prepare for better paying positions such as hospital operating room or oxygen technician by ac quiring specialized training. In order to become licensed prac tical nurses, hospital attendants must complete the year of training required for licensure. (See state ment on “Licensed Practical Nurses” elsewhere in the Hand book.) Employment Outlook Employment of hospital attend ants is expected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s. In addi tion to those needed for occupa tional growth, many thousands of hospital attendants will be needed each year to replace those who die, retire, or leave the occupation for other reasons. Most new jobs for nursing aides and orderlies during the 1970’s will be in hospitals, but many openings also will occur in nursing homes, convalescent homes, and other long-term care facilities. A major reason for expected occupational growth is the increasing need for medical care of a growing population, including a larger pro portion of elderly people (a group particularly susceptible to long-term illness). Combined with this will be an increasing ability of persons to pay for health care because of rising incomes, the growth of health insur ance plans (both public and pri vate), and the expansion of medical care services to the elderly through Medicare and to the poor through Medicaid. Important also will be the emphasis being placed on rehabili tation in mental hospitals and other institutions. In addition, employ ment opportunities will arise as hos pitals continue to delegate to at tendants tasks which, although asso ciated with patient care, do not re quire the training of registered and licensed practical nurses. Earnings and Working Conditions Weekly earnings of hospital at tendants averaged $80.50 in State and local hospitals and $74 in non 356 government hospitals in early 1969, according to a survey conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. At tendants employed full time by nursing homes and related facilities earned considerably less than those in hospitals. Salaries of inexperi enced hospital attendants in Veter ans Administration hospitals started at $89 a week in 1970. In some institutions, free lodging may be furnished hospital attend ants. Free meals or meals at cost, as well as uniforms and laundering of uniforms, also are provided hospital attendants in some institutions. With few exceptions, the sched uled workweek of attendants in hos pitals is 40 hours or less. Because nursing care must be available to patients on a 24-hour-a-day basis, scheduled hours include nightwork and work on weekends and holi days. According to the limited informa tion available, attendants who are employed in hospitals and similar institutions generally received paid vacations which, after 1 year of service, may be a week or more in length. Paid holidays and sick leave, hospitalization and medical benefits, and pension plans also are available to many hospital employees. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment opportunities and duties may be ob tained from local hospitals and State and metropolitan health career pro grams. Additional information about the work of hospital attendants also may be obtained from: ANA-NLN Committee on Nursing Careers, American Nurses’ Asso ciation, 10 Columbus Circle, New York, N.Y. 10019. Division of Careers and Recruit OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ment, American Hospital Associa tion, 840 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, 111. 60611. PRIVATE HOUSEHOLD WORKERS (D.O.T. 301.887; 302.887; 303.138 and .878; 304.887; 305.281; 306.878; 307.878; and 309.138 through .999) Nature of the Work Although private household work involves many different jobs, most women employed in this field are maids of various kinds. The general maid performs a variety of duties, such as cleaning household furnish ings, floors, and lavatories; changing beds; attending children at play; washing dishes; buying, cooking, and serving food; and washing and ironing clothes. The mother’s helper performs similar duties under her employer’s supervision, while learning on the job. More spe cialized duties are performed by other kinds of maids. For example, the personal maid performs per sonal services for a woman such as keeping her clothes in good condi tion by mending, cleaning, washing, and pressing them or by having these services performed; cleaning and keeping private quarters tidy; and helping her employer dress. The nursemaid cares for children, gives baths, supervises play activi ties, washes and irons clothes, and prepares meals. When caring for in fants, she is called an infant’s nurse and her duties include sterilizing bottles and other feeding equip ment, preparing formulas, and feed ing the child at scheduled periods during the day and night. Babysit ters may perform some or all of the duties of a nursemaid or infant’s nurse, but on a daily or an hourly basis. Housekeepers usually have more responsibility and less supervision than maids. The home housekeeper manages a household where there is a large staff of other household em ployees. She directs their activities, orders food and cleaning supplies, keeps an expenditure record, and may hire and fire employees. The working housekeeper, or her rural counterpart, the farm housekeeper, often is the only employee in homes where the housewife is absent or is unable to do her own housework. Her household duties combine those of the general maid and the usual responsibilities of a housekeeper. The farm housekeeper also assists in light farm chores, such as feeding chickens, and picking fruits and vegetables for the table. As their titles suggest, the cook and the laundress usually handle only one aspect of household work. The laundress washes and irons household laundry, but seldom does other housework. The cook pre pares meals. She plans her own 357 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS menus or follows instructions. She prepares vegetables and meats for cooking, or supervises a cook’s helper who performs these tasks and other work requiring little skill. The cook also may serve meals and perform special cooking duties such as making preserves and fancy pas tries. A companion lives with a conva lescent or a person who is alone, and acts as an aide and friend; she generally has the same social back ground as the employer. A compan ion attends to the the employer’s personal needs and looks after so cial or business affairs. She may en tertain her employer by reading or conversing. A governess has charge of children in a home; usually she supervises their recreation, diet, health, and education, according to parents’ instructions. Among her duties are teaching music and lan guage, arranging outings, and taking disciplinary measures. Although women predominate in household work, some jobs are per formed by men. The man-of-allwork, sometimes called the handy man or odd-job man, performs a va riety of duties to keep a private home clean and in good condition, such as dusting furniture, washing windows, waxing and polishing floors, tending the furnace, repair ing screens, painting fences, and caring for the yard. When employed the year-round, he may be called a caretaker, and when concerned only with taking care of the house, a houseman. The valet performs per sonal services for a male employer, such as brushing, cleaning, ironing, mending, and laying out clothing; mixing and serving drinks; and run ning errands. The butler may super vise household workers, by assign ing and coordinating their work; re ceive and announce guests; answer the telephone; serve food and drinks; or act as a valet. Households not large enough to require both a butler and chauffeur, or butler and houseman, may employ one person who is referred to as butler-chauf feur, or butler-houseman. Places of Employment Over 1.5 million people were em ployed as private household workers in 1970. These workers are employed in residences throughout the country, but are concentrated in heavily populated urban areas. Household workers usually spend their working time in their em ployer’s residence. Laundresses, the exception, may work either in their own or their employer’s home. Few household workers “live in” their employer’s home. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For most household workers, there are no formal educational re quirements. The ability to cook, sew, wash and iron, clean house, and care for children is generally acquired by girls while helping with the housework in their own homes. This ability also may be acquired by working for about a year as an as sistant to an experienced household worker or housewife. Most em ployers prefer workers who can op erate household equipment such as vacuum cleaners, floor waxers, dish washers, and electric mixers. Home economics courses offered in high schools, vocational schools, and jun ior colleges as well as training courses sponsored by Federal agen cies, State employment service offices, and local welfare depart ments help to develop domestic service skills beyond the level ordi narily reached in the home. With knowledge acquired as a mother’s helper, a woman can take a job as a general household worker or nursemaid. With this experience or with the skill acquired in a spe cial training program, she can pro gress to personal maid, infant’s nurse, cook, or housekeeper. For the positions of governess and companion, work experience is less important than educational and cultural background. A companion should be similar to the employer in age, interests, and background. Practical nursing experience is help ful if the employer is feeble or an invalid. A broad educational back ground in the arts is useful to a gov erness. Special skills in music, in foreign language, and in teaching young children also are helpful. Because of the close contact be tween household workers and mem bers of the families for whom they work, employers look for agreeable and trustworthy workers who are neat, clean, and in good health. Some employers require their household workers, particularly cooks and infant’s nurses, to have a health certificate. Advancement other than a wage increase is generally not available in households with only one or two workers. To get a better job, a do mestic worker usually must change to a home where a job requiring greater skill is available. Employment Outlook This occupation is characterized by a large number of employment opportunities, but a reluctance on the part of job seekers to do this type of work. In spite of the strong demand for private household workers created by rising family in comes and the added number of wives and mothers working outside 358 the home, the traditionally low pay, long hours, and absence of fringe benefits have attached a social stigma to this work. In addition to new job opportuni ties resulting from increased de mand for these workers, many thou sands of job openings will occur each year as private household workers retire, die, or transfer to other kinds of work. Earnings and Working Conditions Wages of household workers vary according to the size of the em ployer’s income, kind of work per formed, and local standards of pay. Wages tend to be higher in larger cities, especially in the northern part of the country. Workers who “live in” generally are paid the same wage rates as those who “live out,” but get free room and board. Workers who “live out” usually re ceive a free meal plus the cost of their transportation. According to limited data available, most private household workers earn between $0.90 and $2 an hour. Private household work involves some hard labor at times, especially for day-workers, who are usually given the heavier tasks in the home. “Live-ins” in homes with no other household workers are likely to be alone most of the time; length and irregularity of working hours often isolate these workers from family and friends. Dayworkers generally do clean ing on a part-time basis at specific intervals (once or twice a week, or maybe at longer intervals) for part or all of a day. Duties are nego tiated with each employer, some times on a day-to-day basis. Fre quently there is no supervision, as when the employer works away from home during the day and the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK employee has her own key to the home or apartment. Most household workers are em ployed part time. Full-time workers generally work at least 35 hours a week; those who live in usually work longer hours. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment opportunities and training programs in private-household work may be obtained from local offices of the State employment service. Additional information on private household work can be obtained from: National Committee on Household Employment, 1725 K Street, NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. BUILDING CUSTODIANS (D.O.T. 187.168; 381.137, .887; 382.138, .884) Nature of the Work Building custodians, often called janitors or cleaners, are responsible for the upkeep and maintenance of hotels, hospitals, office buildings, apartment houses, and other build ings. Their jobs include the respon sibility that heating and ventilating equipment function properly, that the building be kept clean and or derly, and that they attend to many other tasks that maintain a building in good condition. On a typical day, a custodian may wet- or dry-mop floors, vacuum carpets, clean furni ture and other equipment, make minor repairs, and eradicate insects and rodents. Custodians use many different tools and cleaning materials. For one job, they may need only a sim ple mop; for another, they may use an electric polishing machine and a special cleaning compound. In re cent years, the maintenance of a building has required less and less physical labor, in part because chemical cleaners and power equip ment have reduced the effort needed for cleaning jobs. Custo dians must be familiar with cleaning equipment and materials designed for specific tasks, because improper use of a chemical cleaner or ma chine not only will result in a poor job but may actually harm the sur faces involved, as well. Most women employed in cus todial occupations are assigned tasks such as mopping, dusting, and furniture waxing. Men usually per form the maintenance tasks that re quire more physical effort; for ex ample, moving furniture, removing refuse cans, and operating floor pol ishers and buffers. Some custodians have supervi- 359 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS sory positions. Supervisors are re sponsible for seeing that an entire building or sections of a building are properly cleaned and maintained. They see that certain jobs, such as floor waxing or furniture polish ing, are being performed correctly throughout the building. Places of Employment About 1.1 million building custo dians were employed in 1970; ap proximately three-quarters were male. They were employed in cities and towns throughout the Nation, and the distribution of jobs was par allel to the population patterns of the United States. Many building custodians are employed by hospitals and hotels. Large numbers are employed in manufacturing plants and retail stores; many others work in apart ment houses and office buildings. Some are employed by contract firms that provide building mainte nance service on a fee basis. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most building custodians learn their skills while working on the job. Usually, an inexperienced worker begins by doing simple tasks of cleaning and maintenance. As the worker gains experience with the various cleaners and machines, he is given more complex duties. There are no formal educational requirements for most positions in custodial work. However, entry workers should be able to do simple arithmetic and follow instructions. Also, high school shop courses may help the building service worker perform the many handymen tasks that are required such as minor plumbing repair or carpentry. In some cities, training programs where prospective building custo dians can learn the necessary skills are provided by unions and govern ment agencies. Students are taught the properties of different surfaces, and the correct way to clean each. They learn to operate and maintain machines such as wet and dry vac uums, buffers, and polishers. In structions on how to make minor electrical, plumbing, and other re pairs also are given. In addition to specific courses that involve cus todial tasks, students learn to plan their work and to deal with the public. A few training programs for these workers offer remedial courses in reading, writing, and arithmetic. Advancement opportunities for custodial workers often are limited because the custodian often is the only maintenance employee in a building. However, where a large maintenance staff is employed, cus todians can advance to supervisory positions. For advancement to su pervisory positions, a high school diploma is helpful. Some custodians go into business for themselves after becoming thoroughly familiar with their job; they then maintain build ings for clients on a fee basis. Custodial workers may obtain employment by answering adver tisements in the newspapers or by applying directly to a company. Jobs also may be obtained through State employment offices. For gov ernment positions, it is necessary to fill out an application for employ ment and contact civil service or personnel headquarters. In addition to rapid growth in the number of new jobs that will be created, thousands of job openings will occur each year as experienced custodians retire, die, or transfer to other types of employment. The employment of building cus todians is expected to increase as continued high levels of economic activity, increases in population, and large numbers of young families spur the demand for new apart ments, hospitals, offices, recreation centers, and other buildings. How ever, recent improvements in clean ing and maintenance technology will limit the growth of custodial jobs. Buildings are being designed with surfaces that are specially treated for easy maintenance, and new cleaners and solvents work much more efficiently than those used pre viously. The growing use of new machines, such as ultrasonic Vene tian blind cleaners, will reduce the time needed to perform mainte nance tasks. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of building cus todial workers vary with the indus try in which they are employed. A survey of workers employed in pri vate industry covering 229 metro politan areas in 1969-70, reports the following average hourly earn ings of building custodians: A v e r a g e H o u r ly E a r n in g s I n d u s tr y M en Manufacturing . . . . . . .$2.80 Public Utilities . . . . . . . 2.85 Wholesale Trade . . . . . 2.46 Retail Trade ........... . . . 2.15 Finance ................... . . . 2.45 Services ................... . . . 2.14 W om en $2.57 2.38 2.20 1.89 2.15 1.89 Employment Outlook Opportunities to enter building custodian jobs are expected to be very favorable through the 1970’s. Earnings tend to be highest in the large cities of the West Coast and North Central section of the coun try. 360 In the Federal Government, building custodial workers pay rates are similar to those paid by private industries in the same local areas. Most building service workers re ceive paid vacations and health in surance. Some employers give paid holidays. Custodians usually work inside heated, well-lighted buildings. How ever, sometimes they may work out doors doing tasks such as sweeping walkways, mowing lawns, or shovel ing snow. Those primarily con cerned with machinery maintenance and building heating systems may find themselves working in noise and grease. Building custodians often suffer from minor cuts, bruises, and burns caused by ma chines, hand tools, and chemicals. Custodial workers spend most of their time on their feet. Many of the tasks, such as dusting or sweeping, require constant bending, stooping, and stretching. Some custodial workers work during the evening, because many buildings and offices are cleaned after the regular staff has left for the day. When there is a need for 24-hour maintenance, cus todial workers may be assigned to shifts. Sources of Additional Information For information about oppor tunities in custodial work and train ing programs set up under pro visions of the Manpower Develop ment and Training Act of 1962, contact the local office of your State employment service. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK SOCIAL SERVICE AIDES Nature of the Work Social service or social welfare aides, by freeing the professional social worker for more creative and supervisory responsibilities, enable the social welfare agency to provide more and better service to its clients. Most work under the close guidance and supervision of a social worker or a counselor. Aides often greet new applicants, help to fill out eligibility forms, and explain the reason information is needed and the way it will be used. Aides also supply applicants with general information about the agen cy’s services, facilties, and proce dures. In some welfare agencies, aides gather data necessary to de termine an individual’s or family’s eligibility for public assistance. This work can involve making home visits, interviewing friends and rela tives of the applicant, or obtaining necessary documents such as mar riage licenses or birth certificates. Much of the routine paperwork required in most welfare programs has been taken over by welfare aides. They may keep fact sheets on clients up to date, maintain a filing system of reports or a control sys tem for periodic case reviews, and fill out school enrollment, employ ment, medical, and compensation forms. Welfare aides also provide escort services, such as guiding the elderly to clinics for medical checkups or driving unemployed clients to job interviews. Aides usually referred to as case work aides or assistants, may work directly with clients. They may help clients locate and obtain more adequate housing, counsel parents regarding their children’s personal hygiene and dress, or mediate dif ferences between landlords and ten ants. Apart from these more specific duties, the single most useful func tion of the aide is to be a friendly listener—to be available when needed to offer encouragement and counsel. Homemaker aides are assigned to a home for 1 or more days a week or instruct a group of housewives at a community center. They help SERVICE OCCUPATIONS women improve their skills in shop ping, cleaning, sewing, budgeting, family health and hygiene, child care, and meal planning and prepa ration. An important facet of the home maker aides’ work is the actual demonstration of homemaker skills. Stressing the importance of regular ity and routine in the home, they set up a schedule of weekly activities. Then they get down to particulars of housekeeping by teaching home makers how to clean a stove or re frigerator, how to prepare a meal from leftovers, or how to recognize a bargain in inexpensive material and make an attractive dress. They encourage clients to take advantage of all cost-saving opportunities—the barber school for inexpensive hair cuts, the thrift shop, surplus foods, and free recreation. In addition to instructing in do mestic skills, some homemaker aides help housewives develop so cial skills by going with the home maker to the clinic to act as an in terpreter and to lend moral support or help communicate effectively with institutions that provide valu able services—the schools, the wel fare department, or a Community Action Agency. Outreach workers serve as a bridge between commu nity agencies and the people being served, to maintain a two-way flow of information. Neighborhood workers are one type of outreach worker. Function ing through a Community Action Agency, they personally contact the residents of an area to explain and discuss the services of the agency. They determine the needs of indi viduals and families and refer rou tine cases to a counselor or to the appropriate community service agency. The more difficult problems are reported to a supervisor. Neigh borhood workers may inform resi 361 dents about employment opportuni ties, availability of housing, man power training opportunities, and public services. On a broader scale, they assist in the organization of block clubs and other neighborhood groups designed to conduct pro grams to benefit the neighborhood, to foster a sense of community re sponsibility among residents, and to encourage participation in the anti poverty efforts of the community action agency. They may assist in routine neighborhood surveys and counts, keep records, and prepare reports of their activities for the su pervisor. Employment aides, another type of outreach worker, assist in ac tively seeking out the disadvantaged and preparing them for employment through special training and counsel ing. Stationed in neighborhood cen ters or working in mobile units, they locate candidates for available jobs and training programs by contact ing residents at various locations throughout the neighborhood— poolrooms, laundromats, and street corners. Then, they provide the un employed with initial information about the services of the local State Employment Service office and the requirements for a particular posi tion, and help them fill out the necessary application forms. After the workers are employed, aides maintain contact with their clients to help them adjust to the new work environment and to iron out minor difficulties. Places of Employment An estimated 50,000 social serv ice aides were employed in the United States in 1970. Most are concentrated in large cities, espe cially in “poverty pockets.” About 3,400 employment aides were em ployed in State Employment Service offices. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Graduation from high school is not generally a requirement for so cial service aides. Aides usually are trained on the job from one to sev eral months; in addition, nongrad uates often have classroom instruc tion to help them pass a high school equivalency examination. Em ployers of social service aides do not always look for the most highly skilled applicants. A person’s need for work, as well as his potential for upgrading his skills and making a useful contribution to the agency, is weighed in evaluating prospective applicants. Apart from formal requirements, aides need to get along well with people, especially the disadvan taged. It is important that they be tactful and courteous and possess strong leadership qualities. Homemaker aides should be housewives and mothers who have demonstrated competence in run ning homes and rearing children. Neighborhood workers assigned to a Puerto Rican or Mexican-American community should be able to understand and speak Spanish. Typ ing ability is required for some wel fare service aide positions. Most social service programs em phasize the development of career ladders with opportunities for ad vancement through a combination of work experience and further ed ucation. Entry level jobs as employ ment aides can lead to positions as employment agents and coaches, then to employment interviewers, and, finally, after special training, to employment counselors. Employing agencies frequently are willing to OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 362 pay part of the cost of further edu cation for their social service aides. Employment Outlook A large proportion of aide jobs in the social services have been gener ated by antipoverty legislation. The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 created opportunities for neighbor hood workers through Community Action programs. The 1967 Amendments to the Social Security Act authorized the employment of supportive staff in welfare pro grams. And finally, the 1966 Scheuer Amendment to the Eco nomic Opportunity Act is expected to open up a wide variety of social service jobs for unemployed and low-income persons. This amend ment established the New Careers program, which is designed to create entry level positions in public service, including health, education, welfare, neighborhood redevelop ment, public safety, and recreation. Its objectives are to provide perma nent positions within service agen cies and to encourage employer re sponsibility for providing aides with the training and education necessary to move up an established career ladder. The promise of a job upon successful completion of training and the opportunity to move up to higher level positions set the New Careers program apart from most other federally sponsored training programs. Earnings and Working Conditions The starting salary of social wel fare aides graduating from the New Careers program was about $2.25 per hour in 1970. Employment aides started at about $4,200 per year. In the Federal Government in 1970, beginning social work aides (welfare aides) earned from $4,125 to $5,212 per year. Experienced workers earned from $5,853 to $7,294 per year. Many aides work fewer than 40 hours a week. Sources of Additional Information Information on requirements for positions as social service aides may be obtained from the city, county, or State department of welfare, de partment of recreation, or local Community Action Agency. Infor mation on employment aide posi tions is available from the State civil service or merit system office in each State capital or from local offices of the State Employment Service. MODELS (D.O.T. 297.868 and 961.868) Nature of the Work Models convey the idea that life can become happier, more glamor ous, adventuresome, or secure if people buy the products or use the services they advertise. The attrac tive female model or the athletic male model furnishes the indispens able image that can trigger public demand for a new look or product. Most models specialize in some line of fashion or photographic work. Fashion models wear clothing gracefully and exhibit an air of dis tinction. As they walk, pivot, and turn to the back and side, they re veal the highlights of each garment for prospective buyers. On some jobs, they may stop before a prospective purchaser to mention the price and the style number of the garment. Fashion models em ployed by apparel designers, manu facturers, and wholesalers are called showroom or wholesale models. At peak seasons, showroom models are on duty constantly. During slack pe riods, when the showroom is empty for many hours each day, they may perform various clerical jobs. Fashion models employed in de partment stores, custom salons, and other retail and specialty shops are called informal models. This type of modeling is for customers or pro motional purposes and usually con ducted at a more leisurely pace than in showrooms. In the other major branch of modeling—photographic—the work generally is done for advertising or editorial purposes. Photographic models are employed by advertising agencies or free-lance photogra phers who supply pictures for cata- 363 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS logs, pamphlets, and magazine and newspaper ads or features. Photo graphic models should have some acting ability, since facial expres sions help to create the desired mood. To show pleasure, dissatis faction, or surprise under bright lights in a hard-to-hold pose is not easy. Photographic models usually work in a neighborhood photogra pher’s studio; occasionally they fly to places such as Miami Beach or Paris to pose against an authentic background. In addition to fashion or photo graphic work, models demonstrate new products and services at manu facturers’ exhibits and industry trade shows, in commercial or fash ion films, or on television. Some are hired by designers for fittings; still others pose for artists and sculptors. Places of Employment An estimated 55,000 models were employed in the United States in 1970. Many worked part time; approximately 4 out of 5 were women or girls. Although most models are employed in major cit ies, the largest number work in New York City, center of the fashion in dustry. Large numbers also are em ployed in Chicago, Dallas, Detroit, Los Angeles, Miami, San Fran cisco, and Washington, D.C. Manufacturers, designers, and wholesalers employ the largest number of full-time models. In New York City’s garment district, for ex ample, thousands of firms and de signers permanently employ from one to four models. Others work for advertising agencies, retail stores, mail-order houses, and magazines, as well as for commercial artists, sculptors, illustrators, fashion art ists, and art schools. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employers prefer to hire models who have training or experience. Prospective models should attend a modeling school to learn the proper way to walk and stand, how to style hair and use makeup, and to select the appropriate clothing and acces sories. In photo modeling courses, students are taught to pose for the photographer and convey different emotions through facial expressions. Classes in developing personality and poise are helpful. Placement offices at modeling schools provide jobs for many stu dents. Some jobseekers find em ployment by registering at a model agency. The agency usually asks the applicant for photos in a number of modeling poses to show prospective clients. Department stores some times hold auditions that give inex perienced models an opportunity to display the newest styles. Some parttime jobs in department stores also provide useful experience in han dling clothing, observing customers, and occasional modeling. Some times experience can be gained in local fashion shows to raise funds for charity. Although no formal educational requirements are necessary for many jobs, some employers require a high school diploma; a few prefer some college. Courses in art, speech, drama, dancing, fashion de sign and salesmanship are useful. The job demands not only perfect grooming, poise, and a pleasant per sonality, but also physical stamina and a generous helping of determi nation. Models are required to with stand the pressures of close sched ules and quick changes. Sometimes they work under uncomfortable conditions, such as modeling furs in the summer or swim suits in winter. The wise aspirant will take typing, shorthand, or other practical courses as income insurance between mod eling assignments. Young fashion models must be well proportioned and slim, since they usually model manufacturers’ samples in small sizes. Many mod els, however, work for manufac turers who specialize in apparel for particular types of individuals, such as sportsmen, toddlers, the short, the tall, or the stout. A female shoe model generally must wear size 5, and a hosiery model must have very long and graceful legs. The male model should be able to wear trim clothing—usually a size 40 or 41 long suit. In short, a fashion model is hired to fit the clothing. Not all attractive people have physical characteristics acceptable for commercial photography. Women photographic models, for instance, usually must be longwaisted and at least 5 feet 6 inches tall, have good teeth, and a face that is pretty or reflects the style demand of the period. Modeling can serve as a steppingstone to other jobs in the fashion field such as fashion coordinator, staff editor of a fashion magazine, or fashion consultant. Models who serve as doubles or stand-ins in movies or television may become actors or actresses. Some work their way through art school by modeling and then qualify for jobs as fashion illustrators. Employment Outlook Full-time modeling should re main highly competitive through the 1970’s. Because young people are attracted to the glamour attached to this occupation, the number of job hunters is expected to be much larger than the number of full-time 364 jobs. Employment opportunities for part-time work, however, should be favorable. Employment of models is ex pected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. Expanded em ployment is anticipated in industries such as apparel manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade, and ad vertising. The competition to gain a greater share of growing sales volume will increase emphasis on product promotion and, in turn, stimulate the demand for models. Most openings for models will re sult from the need to replace those who leave the field. The work span of most models is relatively short —particularly in high fashion mod eling where the accent is on youth. Others are eased out of the field be cause the work with which they are identified becomes outdated or their pictures have been seen too often. Many women also leave modeling to marry and raise a family. For these reasons, female models sel dom work more than 8 years. The working life of the male model, on the other hand, generally is much longer—often 20 years or more. Earnings and Working Conditions A model’s earnings depend on factors such as the type and place of employment and the nature, fre quency, and duration of assign ments. Although the earnings of a few top models are high and range to $40,000 or more a year, most models earn much less. According to the limited information available, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK beginning fashion models who worked full time for manufacturers or wholesalers generally earned from $95 to $100 a week in 1970. Those having experience had weekly earnings of $100 to $135. Beginning models employed by re tail stores usually were paid from $65 to $100 a week, whereas expe rienced retail models earned from $110 to $125. Retail models often supplement their weekly salaries by modeling in fashion shows. A model is paid for pre-show fittings as well as the show at hourly rates ranging from $15 in some cities to $60 for experienced models in the New York City area. Beginning photographic models earned from $25 to $50 an hour in 1970. This rate is deceptive when considered on a weekly or annual basis because many models—espe cially beginners—work only a few hours each week. Although photo graphic modeling often pays well, it can be an “expensive” career. In many cases, models must provide their own accessories and pay for other expenses. Occasionally, a complete outfit is needed to get a job. Television models earn at least $35 an appearance as an extra, and at least $135 an appearance as a principal character, plus an addi tional amount for each rerun. They must be members of a union—ei ther the Screen Actors Guild, Inc., or the American Federation of Tele vision and Radio Artists. Manufacturers, wholesalers, and retailers usually employ models on a permanent basis. They work a 5- day week and receive a 2-week va cation and other benefits. Those who work through agencies or on a free-lance basis, however, receive no supplementary benefits. Models usually are paid time and a half for work after 5:30 p.m. on weekdays, and for any time worked on Satur days and Sundays. The client pays travel expenses outside the city. Ad ditional compensation also is re ceived for hazardous assignments, such as striking a friendly pose with a lion or climbing a ship’s rigging. Modeling may influence the model’s personal life. Since the camera highlights the effects of keeping late night hours, for exam ple, a model may limit evening so cial engagements to be fresh for the next day’s work. In addition, a fe male model must devote part of each evening to beauty care, and sometimes must prepare clothing and accessories for the next day’s assignment. To stay in the profes sion, the high fashion model must remain very slender. Sources of Additional Information Young people interested in at tending a professional modeling or charm school can write to the De partment of Education in their State for a list of approved modeling schools. Catalogs describing the program, entrance requirements, and tuition costs at particular modeling schools may be obtained by writing their directors. S K ILLE D AND O TH E R M A N U A L O C C U P A T IO N S The 27.8 million blue-collar workers—skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled—employed in 1970 made up more than one-third of all the Nation’s employed workers. They work in hundreds of different occu pations and perform many impor tant functions in our economy. They transform the ideas of scientists and the plans of engineers into goods and services. They operate trans portation and communication sys tems that tie the country together. They build homes, office buildings, and factories. They fabricate, in stall, control, maintain, and repair the complex equipment necessary for operating our highly mechanized society. They repair automobiles, television sets, washing machines, and other household appliances. They move raw materials, wrap and pack finished products, and load and unload supplies and equipment of all kinds. Young persons who have me chanical interests and abilities, or who enjoy working with their hands, will find many employment oppor tunities among the hundreds of oc cupations in this group. Technological progress is causing major changes in the occupational composition of the Nation’s labor force. Rapid advances in the indus trial applications of scientific knowl edge and invention are making pos sible increasing use of automatic de vices that operate the machinery and equipment used in manufactur ing. Nonetheless, the number of skilled and semiskilled workers is expected to continue to increase through the 1970’s, despite this rapid mechanization and automa tion of production processes. It is expected that our increasingly com plex technology generally will re quire higher levels of skill to operate and service this machinery and re lated equipment. Although blue-collar workers de clined slightly as a proportion of total employment between 1960 and 1970, their number increased by about 3.7 million. Semiskilled workers accounted for nearly 53 percent of the increase, skilled workers for 43 percent, and un skilled workers for less than 5 per cent. Through the 1970’s, employment of blue-collar workers is expected to increase only about half as fast as total employment. However, differ ent rates of growth are expected for each of the three major occupa tional groups that make up the blue-collar worker category. For ex ample, employment of skilled workers is likely to increase nearly as fast as total employment; semi skilled workers will grow at a much slower rate; and no significant change is expected in the number of unskilled workers. In addition to the large number of job opportunities expected to be available for blue-collar workers be cause of employment growth, an even greater number is expected to result from the replacement of ex perienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Replacement needs caused by re tirements and deaths alone should provide more than 600,000 job openings annually. For skilled work ers, replacement needs are expected to offer about the same number of job opportunities as employment growth. For semiskilled workers, on the other hand, replacement needs are expected to offer more than twice as many job opportunities as employment growth. For unskilled workers, virtually all job opportuni ties will come from replacement needs. The skilled, semiskilled, and un skilled occupation groups are dis cussed separately in the following section. Following these general dis cussions are more detailed state ments on selected blue-collar occu pations. Many other blue-collar occupations also are described in individual industry statements else where in the Handbook. SKILLED WORKERS (Craftsmen, Foremen, and Kindred Workers) The Nation’s economic strength depends to a great extent on the ini tiative and competence of its skilled work force. Skilled workers make the patterns, models, tool?, dies, fhachines, and equipment without which industrial processes could not take place. They repair the equip ment used in industry, and the me chanical equipment and appliances used by consumers. They also build homes, commercial and industrial buildings, and highways. In 1970, there were about 10.2 million skilled workers. More than half of them were employed in two broad occupational groupings— construction craftsmen and mechan365 366 ics and repairmen. (See chart 22.) Two occupations had more than 800,000 workers each—carpenters and automotive mechanics. About a dozen additional skilled occupations had more than 100,000 workers each. (See chart 23.) However, many skilled occupations, such as watch repairmen and paperhangers, had fewer than 20,000 workers each. Although skilled workers are em ployed in almost every branch of in dustry, more than three-fifths work in manufacturing and construction. About 9 out of every 10 skilled workers are employed by private firms; others are self-employed or work for Federal, State, or local governments. The building trades have a fairly high percentage of self-employed craftsmen. As might be expected, the skilled work force is concentrated in the highly popu lated and industrialized States. Job opportunities, however, are found in every State. A very small propor tion (about 3 percent) of skilled workers are women. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Skilled workers must have a thor ough knowledge of the processes in volved in their work. They often ex ercise independent judgment and they may also be responsible for valuable equipment or products. Consequently, they require consid erable training to qualify for their jobs. A large proportion of skilled workers learn their trades through informal on-the-job training and ex perience. Many others learn their trades through apprenticeship or other formal training programs. Large numbers of young men also acquire skills in the armed services. For others, vocational school train ing plays an important role. Most training authorities agree that the best way to learn a skilled trade is through a formal appren ticeship program. Apprenticeship is a period of systematic on-the-job training, supplemented by related trade instruction, which is designed to familiarize the apprentice with the materials, tools, and principles of the trade. The apprenticeship program provides the trainee with a balanced knowledge of his trade. The formal apprenticeship agree ment specifies the training time the apprentice is to receive in the vari ous aspects of the trade. Most ap prenticeship programs last from 3 to 4 years. Apprenticeship has several ad vantages over less formal methods of learning a trade. An apprentice receives broad training and experi ence that enable him to adjust to constantly changing job require ments, and prepare him to work in a wide range of jobs. The comple tion of an apprenticeship also gives the worker a recognized status that is an advantage in finding and hold ing jobs. In addition, it may in crease his opportunities for promo tion to a foreman or supervisorylevel job. Many companies have training programs that also provide system atic on-the-job training. Frequently, these programs include supplemen tary classroom instruction. Many young persons move from one semiskilled job to another and, over a period of years, acquire knowledge and skills sufficient to make them skilled workers. Others begin learning a skilled trade in vo cational, trade, or technical schools. A small proportion of these students move directly into jobs in their trade and, after acquiring on-thejob experience, qualify as skilled workers. Other young persons, who already are employed in semiskilled or unskilled jobs, move into skilled occupations by taking vocational studies related to their work, such as correspondence courses, manu facturers’ training programs, and night school courses. Large numbers of young men ac quire skills in the Armed Forces that enable them to qualify, with additional training, for skilled jobs in civilian life, such as automobile SKILLED AND OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS Many skilled occupations have more than a hundred thousand workers Workers, 1970 (in hundred thousands) Y SELECTED OCCUPATIONS Automotive mechanics Carpenters Electricians (construction and maintenance) All-round mechanics Painters (construction and maintenance) Plumbers and pipefitters Operating engineers 2/ Appliance servicemen Stationary engineers Bricklayers b Compositors and typesetters Business machine repairmen Industrial machinery repairmen Tool and die makers Aircraft mechanics TV & radio service technicians Air conditioning, refrigeration, & heating mechanics Telephone & PBX installers & repairm en!/ 367 in mathematics and the sciences), as well as thorough job training, will be better able to compete for higher paying skilled jobs than applicants without this training. SEMISKILLED WORKERS (Operatives) ir ESTIMATED 1 / EXCAVATING. GRADING. AND ROAD MACHINERY OPERATORS INCLUDING TILE SETTERS. STONEMASONS. ANO MARBLE SETTERS ' INCLUDING CENTRAL OFFICE CRAFTSMEN SOURCE: BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS mechanic, aircraft mechanic, elec trician, or office machine repairman. Many supervisors and men in ad ministrative positions have come from the ranks of craftsmen. Em ployers long have recognized the value of executives who have both industrial know-how and adminis trative ability. Young persons who do not ex pect to go to college should consider the definite advantages the skilled trades offer, compared with semi skilled and unskilled occupations. Skilled workers have higher earn ings, more job security, better chances for promotions, and more opportunities to open their own businesses than most workers hav ing lesser skills. Among the 11 oc cupational groups that make up our labor force, only men in the profes sional, managerial, and salesworker groups had higher earnings than the average $8,791 a year earned by skilled men in 1969. Employment Trends and Outlook Employment in skilled occupa tions grew from about 8.6 million workers in 1960 to 10.2 million in 1970. Continued growth in the number of skilled jobs is expected in the years ahead. Job opportuni ties also will result from the re placement of skilled workers who transfer to other fields of work, are promoted, retire, or die. About 215,000 skilled workers are ex pected to be needed each year to re place those who retire or die. Employment in skilled occupa tions is expected to rise moderately through the 1970’s because of in dustrial growth and technological advances that increase the need for skilled workers. As in the past, rates of employment growth will differ among the skilled occupational groups. For example, employment of mechanics and repairmen and construction craftsmen is expected to grow more rapidly than the skilled work force as a whole, and employment in major skilled ma chining occupations is expected to grow less rapidly. On the other hand, employment in the printing trades is expected to show little or no change. Young men who acquire a good basic education (including courses Semiskilled workers make up the largest occupational group in the Nation’s labor force. About 13.9 million workers— 1 out of every 6 —were employed in semiskilled jobs in 1970. Of the 9 million semi skilled workers employed in manu facturing industries (chart 24), large numbers were engaged in processing food, making textiles and clothing, and producing automobiles and industrial machinery. The broad field of semiskilled jobs will provide hundreds of thousands of employment opportunities for young persons in the years ahead. Truckdrivers account for the largest single group of semiskilled workers. Millions of other semi skilled workers operate power driven machines in factories. Many use sewing machines to join fabrics for clothing. Others operate machines to stamp out metal parts; still others use machine tools, such as engine lathes and milling machines, to shape metal to precise sizes. A con siderable number of semiskilled workers operate materials moving equipment, such as forklift trucks, to move raw materials and manu factured products from place to place in factories. Large numbers of semiskilled workers are employed as assemblers and inspectors. Assemblers install 368 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 0 About 1 worker in every 6 is employed in a semi-skilled job Total employment, 1 9 7 0 -7 8,62 7 ,0 0 0 Semi-skilled workers Semi-skilled workers, 1970 (in millions) 0 5 M anufacturing 10 15 Non-manufacturing _i---------------------- PRINCIPAL OCCUPATIONS Machine operator Truck driver Assembler Gas station attendant Inspector Laundry & drycleaning Material mover Semiskilled jobs often pay well. Some semiskilled workers who are paid on an incentive basis are among the highest paid workers in manufacturing. However, the aver age annual earnings of semiskilled men in 1969 was $7,348—$1,443 less than those of skilled men. An added disadvantage is that semi skilled workers are more likely to lose their jobs during a business re cession, and to remain unemployed longer than skilled or white-collar employees. operatives Bus driver Employment Outlook components and subassemblies into end products such as radios and television sets. Inspectors examine and test products to find out whether their quality is satisfactory. Many semiskilled workers in facto ries are employed as helpers or as sistants to skilled workers. For ex ample, stationary firemen help skilled stationary engineers operate and maintain steam boilers. In 1970, 4.3 million women ac counted for about 30 percent of all semiskilled workers. Jobs like those of sewing machine operators, pack ers and wrappers, and assemblers were by far the largest source of employment for women in manufac turing. The number of women em ployed in the different manufactur ing industries varied considerably. Women accounted for a large pro portion of the semiskilled jobs in the apparel, textiles, and food in dustries. On the other hand, plants that produce iron and steel and pe troleum products employed rela tively few women in semiskilled jobs. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Semiskilled workers ordinarily receive only brief on-the-job train ing. Usually, they are told exactly what to do and how to do it, and their work is supervised closely. They often repeat the same motions or the same routine throughout the working day. Semiskilled workers do not need to invest many years in learning their jobs. The simplest, most repet itive jobs can be learned in a day and mastered in a few weeks. Even jobs that require a higher degree of skill, such as truckdriving, can be learned in a few months. At the same time, the ability to learn new jobs quickly, including the operation of new machines, is an important qualification for semiskilled workers. New employees in semiskilled jobs are not expected to be highly proficient. After a short training pe riod, however, they must work at a fast and steady pace. Frequently good eyesight and good coordina tion are required. Employment of semiskilled workers is expected to increase slowly through the 1970’s. Most job opportunities are expected to result from the need to replace workers who are promoted, transfer out of semiskilled jobs, retire, or die. About 320,000 job openings are ex pected each year as a result of re tirements and deaths. Transfer rates for semiskilled workers are high be cause a large proportion of them are young workers who tend to change jobs frequently, and women workers who leave their jobs to marry, raise families, or move to other areas when their husbands change jobs. The continuing growth in the use of commercial motor vehicles will increase employment opportunities for drivers of trucks and buses. Greater substitution of power equipment for unskilled labor in lifting, hauling, digging, and similar heavy physical work will create new jobs for semiskilled workers such as power equipment operators. On the other hand, employment growth in manufacturing will be limited by in creasing automation of production processes. There are many proc esses, however, to which automa tion is not likely to be applied in the 369 SKILLED AND OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS 1970’s, and many industries in which the impact of automation will be limited. Young men and women who have no training beyond high school will continue to find a major area of job opportunities in semiskilled oc cupations. The most rapid gains in the Nation’s employment, however, will be in professional, technical and other white-collar occupations and in skilled occupations. If possible, young persons having ability should obtain the additional training and education that these occupations re quire. Semiskilled workers, how ever, even those who did not com plete high school, are not cut off permanently from advancement if they take advantage of the many ed ucational opportunities available in their communities. They may take courses in evening schools or enter apprentice training programs and eventually qualify for better jobs. UNSKILLED WORKERS (Laborers) Unskilled laborers work in man ual occupations that generally re quire no special training. These jobs usually involve handling and moving materials; for example, loading or unloading, digging, hauling, hoist ing, wrapping, and mixing. Some jobs require heavy physical work. About half of the 3.7 million un skilled laborers employed in 1970 worked in manufacturing and con struction industries. A large propor tion of the remainder were em ployed in retail and wholesale trade, transportation, public utilities, and service industries. Although some of these jobs pay well, particularly in construction work, the average annual earnings of unskilled men in 1969 was $6,082—$1,266 less than those of semiskilled men. Moreover, un skilled workers are usually the first to lose their jobs during a business recession; they have the highest un employment rate of all the major occupational groups. Little or no change in the number of unskilled laborers is expected through the 1970’s. Nevertheless, there will be thousands of opportu nities for new workers to get jobs as unskilled laborers because of the need to replace workers who trans fer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Deaths and retirements alone are expected to result in about 70,000 job openings each year. Mechanical equipment has been replacing manual labor, and this trend will continue. Power-driven equipment, such as forklift trucks, derricks, cranes, hoists, and convey or belts will take over more and more materials-handling work in factories, freight terminals, and warehouses. Other power-driven machines will do excavating, ditch digging, and similar work. Inte grated systems of processing and materials-handling equipment, a more advanced step in automation, will be installed in an increasing number of plants in the years ahead. Industrial expansion, how ever, is expected to create a need for unskilled laborers which will ap proximately offset the jobs lost to laborsaving mechanical equipment. FO REM EN Nature of the Work Foremen play a strategic role in the economic activities of the Na tion. They supervise and coordinate the work of highly skilled, semi skilled and unskilled blue-collar workers, and are often responsible for millions of dollars worth of equipment and material. They may oversee workers engaged in assem bling television sets, servicing auto mobiles, laying bricks, unloading ships, or any thousands of other ac tivities. Foremen often are referred to by different titles. For example, in the textile industry they are re ferred to as second hands; on board ship they are called boatswains; and in construction they are known by titles such as overseer, strawboss, gang leader, or pusher. Supervising workers is the most important part of the formen’s job. Many blue-collar workers never work under supervisors above the rank of foreman, and it is through their foremen that they get their work orders, their discipline, and their recognition. Foremen interpret and communicate company policy to the workers. They are responsi ble for the guidance and instruction necessary to assure that workers are qualified to handle their assign ments and to see that new em ployees are properly trained for their jobs. In some enterprises, foremen, in addition to their supervisory respon sibilities, work at specific crafts. “Working foremen” are common in construction, where, for example, bricklayer foremen supervise the work of journeymen bricklayers and helpers and also lay brick. Working foremen in some cases belong to the 370 same labor union as the workers they supervise. Foremen must plan and schedule the work of their subordinates and maintain production and employee records. They spend part of their time participating in meetings and preparing reports on production, cost, personnel, and safety. Fore men must exercise considerable judgment in their planning and allow for unforeseen contingencies such as absenteeism and machinery breakdown. Foremen see that safety rules and regulations are observed and in struct employees in safety practices. In unionized plants, foremen may meet with union representatives to discuss work problems and griev ances. They must know the provi sions of labor-management agree ments and run their operation ac cording to the agreements. Places of Employment Almost every business enterprise and government agency that em ploys blue-collar workers has fore men. Nearly 1.5 million were em ployed in 1970; about 90 percent were men. Foremen work mainly in the highly industrialized sections of the Nation. About three-fifths are em ployed in the following manufactur ing industries: machinery, metals, transportation equipment, food, chemicals, and paper products. Large numbers also are found in the construction, trade, and service in dustries. Female foremen, or forela dies, are primarily employed in the apparel, electrical machinery, leather products, and laundry and drycleaning industries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Unlike entry requirements for most supervisory positions, em ployers generally look for experi ence and skill rather than specific educational background when choosing foremen. Most foremen rise through the ranks—that is, they are promoted from the machine or work bench or construction craft. By performing different jobs over a period of time, they develop their skills and acquire a thorough knowl edge of the processes involved in the work they supervise. During this time, they also learn much about their fellow worker, individually and collectively, and about manage ment policies and employee atti tudes toward these policies. Very 371 FOREMEN often, foremen are former union members who have served as elected representatives and learned about grievance procedures, collec tive bargaining, and labor manage ment contracts. The experience gained by fore men rising through the ranks gives them the advantage of knowing how a job should be done and possible problems involved, and helps them know what to expect from the workers they supervise. Most workers who are promoted to foremen jobs are high school graduates who have learned their skills on-the-job. Many have ac quired technical skills through ap prenticeship or other formal train ing programs, and some have bene fited from courses offered through Armed Forces training schools. Al though fewer than one-tenth of all foremen are college graduates, a growing number of employers are hiring foremen trainees with college backgrounds. This practice is most prevalent in industries that have highly technical production proc esses such as the chemical, oil and electronics industries. Employers generally look for college graduates with backgrounds in business ad ministration, industrial relations, mathematics, engineering, or sci ence. These workers are hired as foremen helpers and undergo onthe-job training until they are capa ble of accepting supervisory respon sibilities. Employers look for leadership qualities when considering persons for foremen positions. Especially helpful is the ability to motivate em ployees, command respect, and get along with people. Foremen with outstanding ability, particularly those with post-high school education, may move up to higher management positions. In manufacturing, for example, fore men may advance to jobs such as department head, general foremen, and plant manager. In the construc tion industry, some foremen use the experience and skills they acquire to go into business for themselves. Employment Outlook Employment of foremen is ex pected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. In addition to the substantial number of job op portunities expected to occur as a result of employment growth, an even greater number of job open ings will occur each year as experi enced foremen are promoted, trans fer to other occupations, retire, or die. Factors underlying the expected growth of foremen are the increase in the size of business operations and government services requiring blue-collar workers, and the grow ing trend towards increased supervi sion as industrial production proc esses become more technical. More foremen, for example, will be re quired for functions such as inspec tion and production scheduling. Most foremen will continue to be employed in manufacturing. How ever, more than half of the increase in the number of foremen during the 1970’s will be due to the rapid expansion of nonmanufacturing in dustries—construction, trade, serv ice, and public utilities. The num ber of foremen in construction is expected to grow very rapidly. entials between foremen and the workers they supervise that range from about 10 percent to 40 per cent. However, these differentials do not take into account overtime payments to hourly workers. Fore men are usually salaried and not paid for overtime. If they are paid for overtime, they normally do not get the premium rate that workers under their supervision receive. In 1969, the average (median) earn ings of foremen who worked full time during the year was $9,493. Working conditions of foremen vary widely from industry to indus try. As the lowest level supervisory group, foremen spend much of their time with the workers on the plant floor or at the construction site. Plant foremen are apt to get dirty around machinery and materials and may be subjected to noisy man ufacturing operations. Construction foremen often are subject to un pleasant weather conditions. Fore men generally work more than 40 hours a week and often are ex pected to be at work before their subordinates arrive, and remain there after they leave. Some foremen who have limited authority may feel isolated, neither a member of the workforce nor a significant part of management. On the other hand, the foreman posi tion holds more prestige than that of blue-collar workers and the work is often more challenging and reward ing. Sources of Additional Information Earnings and Working Conditions Salary levels of foremen generally are keyed to the earnings of the highest paid workers they supervise. Some companies have a formal pol icy to maintain specific wage differ American Management Association, 135 West 50th St., New York, N.Y. 10020. B U IL D IN G T R A D E S Building trades craftsmen repre sent the largest group of skilled workers in the Nation’s labor force. Altogether, there were more than 234 million of these craftsmen em ployed in 1970—about 3 out of every 10 skilled workers. The more than two dozen skilled building trades vary greatly in size. Several major trades—carpenter, painter, plumber, pipefitter, brick layer, operating engineer (construc tion machinery operator), and con struction electrician—each had more than a hundred thousand workers. (See chart 25.) Carpenters alone numbered 830,000—nearly onethird of all building craftsmen. By contrast, only a few thousand were employed in each of several trades such as marble setter, terrazzo worker, glazier, and stonemason. What Are the Building Trades? Building trades craftsmen are employed mainly in the construc tion, maintenance, repair, and alter ation of various structures. These include homes and other types of buildings, highways, and airports. They also include substantial work in the Nation’s defense and space programs. The wide range of materials and skills used in construction has re sulted in the specialization of vari ous work operations. Thus, building trades workers who use essentially the same materials or skills have tended to become identified with distinct trades. For example, brick layers and stonemasons both work with masonry materials. Although operating engineers do not work with particular materials, they have a group of related skills that enables them to handle various types of ex cavating, grading, hoisting, and other equipment. The building trades consist pri marily of journeymen (craftsmen) who generally must have a high level of skill and a sound knowledge of assembly and construction opera Employment in the building trades Number, 1970 (in thousands) 0 200 400 600 800 Carpenters ____ Electricians (construction and maintenance) Painters and paperhangers (construction and maintenance) Plumbers and pipefitters Operating engineers Bricklayers^ Structural metal workers2 ..-l:'-it Cement m asons^ Z3 Roofers and slaters ZD Plasterers 3 I/IN C LU D E S STONEMASONS, MARBLE SETTERS, AND TILE SETTERS 2/STRUCTURAL AND ORNAMENTAL IRON WORKERS SOURCE: BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 372 3/ INCLUDES TERRAZZO WORKERS 1000 tions. They often are assisted by ap prentices, tenders, and laborers. The work of journeymen may be grouped into three broad classifica tions—structural, finishing, and me chanical. However, some craftsmen —for example, carpenters—may do finishing as well as structural work. Generally, each building trade is classified in one of these three cate gories, as follows: Occupations mainly concerned with structural work: Carpenter, operating engineer (construction machinery operator), bricklayer, structural-iron worker, ornamentaliron worker, cement mason, rein forcing-iron worker (rodman), rig ger and machine mover, stonema son, and boilermaker. Occupations mainly concerned with finishing work: Lather, plas terer, marble setter, tile setter, ter razzo worker, painter, paperhanger, glazier, roofer, floor covering in staller, and asbestos worker. Occupations mainly concerned with mechanical work: Plumber, pipefitter, construction electrician, sheet-metal worker, elevator con structor, and millwright. Most building trades occupations are described individually later in this chapter. These descriptions are necessarily brief and incomplete. They do not apply fully to all locali ties because of local differences in the types of work done by the vari ous trades. Also, they are not statements or recommendations concerning the work jurisdiction of these trades and are inappropriate for use in ju risdictional negotiations or the set tlement of jurisdictional questions. Detailed descriptions of the na ture of the work, training, employ ment outlook, and other informa tion concerning boilermakers and millwrights appear elsewhere in the Handbook. 373 BUILDING TRADES Where Building Trades Workers Are Employed Building trades workers are em ployed mainly by contractors in the contract construction industry. Many others are employed in indus tries other than construction, mainly to do maintenance and repair work. Some work directly for business firms or government agencies that have their own construction force, and others are self-employed. The building trades craftsmen who work in the contract construc tion industry are employed by gen eral and special-trade contractors. General contractors may be classi fied as building (residential, com mercial, or industrial), highway, or heavy construction contractors, since most general contractors limit their operations to one of these ac tivities. These contractors construct buildings and other structures, such as dams, bridges, tunnels, and roads. They take full responsibility for the complete job, except for specified portions of the work omit ted from the general contract. Gen eral contractors may do a large part of the work with their own crews, but they often sub-contract particu lar phases of the construction job to special-trade contractors. Special-trade contractors usually do the work of only one trade, such as painting, carpentry, or electrical work, or of two or more closely re lated trades, such as plumbing and heating, or plastering and lathing. Beyond fitting their work to that of other trades, they have no responsi bility for the structure as a whole. The special-trade contractors obtain orders for their work from general contractors, from architects, or from property owners. Repair work is done almost always on direct order from owners, occupants, architects, or rental agents. There are several hundred thou sand contractors (both general and special-trade); most of them oper ate within a limited geographical area. The great majority are small —generally employing fewer than 10 workers. Some large firms em ploy several thousand workers each. Thousands of building trades workers are employed in factories, stores, mines, hotels, and most other types of large business estab lishments. For example, plumbers and pipefitters are employed by firms to maintain, repair, and install piping systems. In addition, large firms frequently employ crews of building trades workers to construct houses, office buildings, and other new structures. Government agen cies also employ many construction craftsmen to build, maintain, and repair highway, water, and sanita tion systems. Many building trades workers are self-employed. Self-employed jour neymen work directly for property owners on small jobs. They may be paid by the hour or the day, or they may be paid an agreed price for the job. They may provide the materials and include them in the price, or use materials provided by the owner. Self-employment is most common in carpentry and painting, but it also is characteristic of other skilled building trades. The work of the skilled building craftsman is identified with a spe cific trade, such as carpentry or bricklaying, rather than with an in dividual contractor or even a broad group of contractors. Thus, a car penter may be employed mainly by a particular builder but, in the course of a year, he also may be employed by a concrete contractor to build forms for a concrete bridge; by an electrical or plumbing con tractor to build' a temporary struc ture at a large construction site; or he may contract to do a small repair job on his own. In some of the trades, work may be performed away from the con struction site. For example, sheetmetal workers may be employed in shops where ducts are fabricated for installation in a building. In other trades, craftsmen may work in the central shop of the contractor or in fabrication shops at the job site. Employment of these workers is distributed geographically in much the same way as the Nation’s popu lation. Thus, their employment is concentrated generally in the indus trialized and highly populated States, such as California, New York, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Texas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities, includ ing national joint labor-management apprenticeship committees estab lished for most of the building trades, recommend formal appren tice training as the best way to ac quire the all-around proficiency of craftsmen in the building trades. Apprenticeship is a prescribed pe riod of on-the-job training, supple mented by related classroom in struction, which is designed to de velop skill by making the apprentice familiar with the materials, tools, and principles of his trade. This type of training provides the ap prentice with a balanced knowledge of his field of work and enables him to perform its operations compe tently. Formal apprenticeship agree ments are registered with a State apprenticeship agency or the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training. Many building trades workers have acquired the skills of their 374 trades informally by working as la borers and helpers, observing or being taught by experienced crafts men. Some building trades crafts men have acquired their skills, or part of their skills, by attending vo cational or trade schools or by tak ing correspondence school courses. Apprentices in the building trades generally are required to be between 18 and 25 years of age, and in good physical condition. The maximum age limit may be waived for veterans or others having experi ence or special qualifications. A high school education, or its equiva lent, including courses in mathemat ics and the sciences, is desirable and, in a few trades, actually re quired. Often, applicants are given tests to determine their aptitude for a particular trade. For some skilled building trades, it is important to have considerable manual dexterity, mechanical aptitude, and an eye for proper alinement of materials. The formal registered apprentice ship agreement generally stipulates a training period of from 2 to 5 years of relatively continuous em ployment and training, in addition to a minimum of 144 hours a year of related classroom instruction. The journeymen on the job and the foreman explain to the apprentice how the work is done and show him how different operations are per formed and the way different tools are used. Ordinarily, most of this in struction is given by a particular journeyman to whom the apprentice is assigned. The apprentice is re quired to do work of progressively increasing difficulty and with pro gressively less supervision. Related classroom instruction varies among the skilled building trades, but usually includes courses such as history of the trade; charac teristics of the materials used; shop mathematics related to the work of OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK the trade; and some basic principles of engineering, where appropriate (particularly for pipework, work on ventilating systems, and electrical work). It also includes sketching, elementary drafting, and interpreta tion of drawings; safety practices; and special-trade theory such as color harmony for painters and ele mentary sanitation for plumbers. Such related instruction seldom is offered in small communities where there may be only a few apprentices and a small number of journeymen in a particular trade. In these areas, apprentices receive instruction through courses offered in the local high school or by visiting instruc tors, generally furnished by the State. Other subject matter require ments are met through personal in struction by local journeymen and contractors or, sometimes, through correspondence courses. The formal registered apprentice ship agreements also stipulate the length of time the apprentice is to be required to work in each major operation of the trade, as well as his rate of pay at successive intervals of advancement. The apprentice is paid at an advancing rate, usually starting at 50 percent of the jour neyman’s pay. The apprentice’s rate increases at 6-month or 1-year in tervals until a rate of about 90 per cent of the journeyman’s rate is reached in the final months of train ing. Often, advanced apprenticeship standing and pay are given to ap prentices who have acquired trade skills in the Armed Forces or through trade school instruction. Advanced standing is granted on an individual basis and usually is deter mined by a demonstration of trade skill and knowledge. In most communities, the appren ticeship programs are supervised by joint apprenticeship committees composed of representatives of the local employers or employer groups and the local union. The appren tices sign their apprenticeship agreements with these committees. The committee determines the need for apprentices in the locality and es tablishes minimum apprenticeship standards of education, experience, and training. Whenever employers cannot provide the variety of expe rience necessary to give an appren tice all-round instruction in the vari ous branches of the trade, or rela tively continuous employment over the entire period of apprenticeship, the committee transfers the appren tice to another employer. Where specialization by contractors is ex tensive—for instance, in electrical work—it is customary for the joint committee to rotate apprentices among several contractors in the trade at intervals of about 6 months. In some large cities, the local joint apprenticeship committee employs an apprenticeship program coordi nator. In areas where these committees have not been established, the ap prenticeship agreement is solely be tween the apprentice and an em ployer or employer group. Many journeymen have received valuable training under this type of appren ticeship program, but such a pro gram may involve some element of risk for the apprentice. In those in stances, there is no joint committee to supervise the training offered, to settle differences over the terms and conditions of apprentice training, or to arrange a transfer in cases of per sonal disagreements between the apprentice and the employer. The apprentice’s training depends prin cipally on his employer’s business prospects and policies. If the em ployer lacks continuous work or does only a restricted type of work, he cannot provide the apprentice 375 BUILDING TRADES with the broad training needed to develop journeyman skills. In early 1970, about 150,000 men were registered in apprentice training programs in the construc tion trades. Additional apprentices receive their training in unregistered programs. In future years, oppor tunities for many young men to re ceive apprentice training will be available in all parts of the country. In addition, thousands of other workers will be able to learn con struction trades informally. Some indication of the location of future apprenticeship opportunities in the building trades is available from the latest data showing the geographical distribution of regis tered apprentices in these trades. The following eight States ac counted for nearly one-half of the registered apprentices in training for selected building trades in early 1970; California, New York, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, Texas, Pennsyl vania, and Florida. In many localities, craftsmen— most commonly construction elec tricians and plumbers—are required to have a journeyman’s license to work at their trade. To qualify for these licenses, they must pass an ex amination, demonstrating a broad knowledge of the job and of State and local regulations. Building trades craftsmen may advance in a number of ways. For example, a journeyman may be come a foreman in charge of a crew. In most localities, small jobs are run by “working foremen” who work at the trade along with mem bers of their crews. On larger jobs, the foremen supervise only. A craftsman also can become an esti mator for a contractor. In this job, he estimates material requirements and labor costs to enable the con tractor to bid on a particular con struction project. Some craftsmen advance to jobs as superintendents on large projects. Others become in structors in trade and vocational schools, or salesmen for building supply companies. In addition, many thousands of journeymen have become contractors, particu larly in the homebuilding field. It is easier to start a small con tract construction business than a small business in many other indus tries. Only relatively moderate finan cial investment is needed because liberal credit arrangements make it easier to buy materials, and it is possible to conduct a fairly substan tial business from the proprietor’s home. However, the contract con struction field is highly competitive, and the rate of business failure is especially high among small con tractors. To be successful, the pro prietor of a small contracting firm must have the ability to plan work, to foresee needs and problems, to direct others, and to estimate mate rial and labor requirements for jobs on which he is bidding. He also must have a sound knowledge of business practices and financing. Sound journeyman knowledge in creases chances for success. Some States or municipalities require con tractors to be licensed. Employment Outlook Employment in the building trades is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s, assum ing relatively full employment na tionally and the high levels of eco nomic activity needed to achieve this goal. If the high levels of eco nomic activity are not achieved, em ployment in the building trades will increase at a slower rate than that projected. In addition to employ ment growth, tens of thousands of job openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retirement and deaths alone will provide nearly 80,000 job openings in the building trades each year through the 1970’s. The rapid increase in total em ployment in the building trades (7 out of 10 of whom are employed in the construction industry) is ex pected to result primarily from a rapid rise in construction activity. The anticipated large increases in population and households and the relatively low-level of housing con struction in recent years are ex pected to create strong pressure for new housing in the 1970’s. Con gress, through the Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968, has expressed its resolve that hous ing receive high priority among the Nation’s domestic needs. Among other factors that will stimulate con struction activity are a rise in ex penditures for new industrial plant capacity, and higher levels of per sonal and corporate income. In ad dition, there will be a growing de mand for alteration and moderniza tion work on existing structures, as well as maintenance and repair work on the expanding highway sys tem and on the increasing numbers of dams, bridges, and similar proj ects. Employment of building 'trades workers outside the construction in dustry is expected to expand as a result of the anticipated high levels of economic activity, which will stimulate the construction of com mercial and industrial buildings and, therefore, increase maintenance and repair requirements. The increase in building trades employment is not expected to be as great as the total expansion in con struction activity. Continued tech nological developments in construe- 376 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tion methods, tools and equipment, being used for a growing variety of and materials will permit increasing components, including partitions, output per construction worker. wall panels, siding, insulation, and One such important development in roofing. Other new and improved construction methods is the increas products are adhesives that elimi ing use of prefabricated compo nate the need for conventional fas nents, which are installed as com teners, nails that have improved plete units at the job site for almost holding power, paints that last twice all types of construction projects. as long as those in common use, and For example, preassembled outside wood products that come from the walls and partitions can be lifted factory prepainted with the prime into place in one operation, and coat and even the final coat. The rates of employment growth electric circuit boxes and switch boards prewired at the factory in will differ among the various build stead of being wired by the electri ing trades. Employment growth is cian at the job site. An important expected to be most rapid for con extension of prefabrication is “mod struction electricians; cement ma ule building” in which units, includ sons; plumbers and pipefitters; ex ing complete rooms or buildings, cavating, grading, and road machin are available in standard sizes. Fur ery operators; and glaziers. Among thermore, standardization of com the trades that will have a slower ponents will contribute to their growth rate are stonemasons, mar greater use in the future. ble setters, and plasterers. Also expected to affect employ ment growth by increasing workers’ Earnings and Working Conditions efficiency are technological ad vances in construction tools and Hourly wage rates paid to build equipment, such as shock resistant, ing trades craftsmen are among the cordless, electric-powered tools. highest paid to skilled workers. Items formerly unloaded and moved However, because construction to the construction site by hand, work is seasonal and time also is such as concrete and brick, now are lost for other reasons, average an being moved by forklift trucks, mo nual earnings of building trades torized wheelbarrows, and conveyor craftsmen are not as high as the belts. The size, speed, durability, hourly rates of pay would indicate. and mobility of large cranes, con The hourly rates of pay for struction machines, including bull skilled workers in the building dozers and scrapers, have increased trades vary by trade and locality. considerably. Many of these ma Generally, the highest hourly rates chines, while they can do many are paid in the larger communities. times more work than the largest Minimum hourly rates under union machines a few years ago, require contracts for journeymen and for only one operator. New types that helpers and laborers in selected reduce labor requirements also are building trades in 68 large cities, on being developed, including concrete July 1, 1970, averaged as follows: paving machines that perform the Union work formerly done by four sepa minimum average rate machines. hourly rate New and improved construction All building trades .. .$6.18 materials also are expected to limit Journeymen ................................ 6.54 employment growth. For example, Asbestos w orkers............... 6.69 lightweight and durable plastics are Bricklayers .......................... 6.77 Carpenters....................... 6.42 Cement masons (finishers) 6.02 Electricians (inside wiremen) ........... 6.82 Elevator constructors... 6.65 Glaziers .............................. 6.08 Lathers ................................ 6.44 Marble setters ................... 6.29 Terrazzo w orkers.......... 6.46 Tile setters..................... 6.08 Painters........................... 5.95 Paperhangers ...................... 6.02 Pipefitters ............................ 6.93 Plasterers ............................ 6.35 Plumbers ............................ 7.01 Roofers, composition . . . . 6.17 Roofers, slate and tile . . . . 5.81 Sheet-metal workers ......... 6.75 Stonemasons.................. 6.73 Structural-iron workers . . . 6.72 Rodmen .............................. 6.64 Helpers and laborers............ 4.86 Bricklayers’ tenders..... 5.06 Building laborers.......... 4.78 Composition roofers’ helpers ............................ 3.65 Elevator constructors’ helpers ................ 4.76 Marble setters’ helpers . . . 5.43 Terrazzo workers’ helpers . 5.46 Tile setters’ h elp ers...... 5.15 Plasterers’ laborers........ 5.17 Plumbers’ laborers........ 4.95 Union wage rates for these occu pations are negotiated between trade unions and employers. The minimum rates do not include holi day, vacation, or other benefit pay ments made or credited to the worker each pay period. They also do not include overtime, bonuses, or payments for special qualifica tions or for other reasons. Construction work frequently re quires prolonged standing, bending, stooping, and working in cramped quarters. Exposure to cold, hot, and inclement weather is common, as much of the work is done outdoors or in partially enclosed structures. During the winter, when the build ing is sufficiently enclosed, heat is sometimes provided. Many persons prefer construction work to other 377 BUILDING TRADES skilled occupations because it per ment fluctuations that result from mits them to work outdoors. changes in general business condi Construction work generally is tions. Another disadvantage is that more dangerous than work in manu even during years of high levels of facturing, but the risk of injury is construction activity, annual earn lessened considerably when proper ings of workers in the building work practices are followed. trades are limited somewhat by the Forty hours was the standard seasonal nature of construction workweek for a vast majority of work. Worktime is lost as a result of union building trades workers in bad weather and other interrup 1970. Time and one-half generally tions. was paid for hours worked beyond A large proportion of building the standard workday of 8 hours. trades workers are members of Time and one-half or double-time trade unions affiliated with the rates were usually paid for work on Building and Construction Trades Saturdays and Sundays or holidays. Department of the American Feder A substantial proportion of or ation of Labor and Congress of In ganized building trades workers are dustrial Organizations. included in health, insurance, and pension programs negotiated be tween unions and employers, and Sources of Additional Information financed entirely by employer con Information about opportunities tributions. There are several reasons why for apprenticeship or other types of young men may wish to consider construction employment in a par one of the building trades as a ca ticular locality should be obtained reer. These trades offer especially from individual construction firms, good opportunities for those who employer associations, locals of the are not planning to go to college, building trades unions, the nearest but who are willing to spend several office of the State apprenticeship years in learning a skilled occupa agency, or the local office of the Bu tion. Well-trained building trades reau of Apprenticeship and Train craftsmen can find job opportunities ing, U.S. Department of Labor. in all parts of the country. Their Many apprenticeship programs are hourly wage rates generally are supervised by local joint unionmuch higher than those of most management apprenticeship com other manual workers. As pre mittees. In these instances, an ap viously noted, building trades crafts prentice applicant may apply di men with business ability have rectly to the coordinator of the joint greater opportunities to establish apprenticeship committee if there is their own businesses than workers one in his locality. In addition, the in many other skilled occupations. local office of the State employment In addition, there will be job oppor service may be a source of informa tunities for workers in the major tion about the Manpower Develop building trades in nonconstruction ment and Training Act, apprentice industries, mainly in maintenance ship, and other programs that pro and repair activities. This work is vide training opportunities. For additional information on generally less seasonal than contract jobs in the building trades, inquiries construction work. A principal disadvantage of work should be directed to the organiza in the building trades is the employ tions listed above: American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organiza tions, Building and Construction Trades Department, 815 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. National Association of Home Build ers, 1625 L St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. For the names of labor organiza tions and trade associations con cerned with specific building trades, see the discussions of individual building trades later in this chapter. ASBESTOS AND INSULATING WORKERS (D.O.T. 863.381, .781, and .884) Nature of the Work Asbestos and insulating workers cover pipes, boilers, furnaces, ducts, and other related equipment such as cork, felt, asbestos, and fiberglass. The insulating materials which these workers install serve many pur poses. For example, insulated pipes and ducts retain heat and save fuel. Insulation in refrigeration sys tems prevents heat absorption. Insu lation in walls and ceilings provides thermal insulation and disperses sound. Insulating materials are installed by pasting, wiring, taping, stud welding, spraying, or plastering. When covering pipework, asbestos workers cut either block or pre formed insulation to the required size and shape and then wrap this material around the pipe. Care is 378 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK maintenance of insulated pipework in chemical plants, petroleum refin eries, atomic energy installations, and other industrial establishments which have extensive steam installa tions for power and heating. Some large establishments which have cold storage facilities also employ asbestos workers for maintenance work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Asbestos worker cuts insulating material. required to completely cover joints, flanges, elbows, and other connec tions. They secure the insulating material by using wire bands, or by covering the insulating pipework further with tar paper, cloth or can vas, sewed or stapled into place. When covering flat surfaces, as bestos workers may spot weld or screw wire studs to the surface and fasten the insulating material to the studs. They may coat joints with an asbestos cement and then wrap the joints with tape for a tight seal. In some instances, asbestos workers may spray or plaster the insulating material to a wire netting placed on the surface to be covered. The wire netting provides adhesion and struc tural strength. The final coat is smoothed with a trowel, straight edge, and float. Asbestos and insulating workers use handtools such as trowels, brushes, scissors, sewing palms and heavy-duty needles, hammers, saws, pliers, and stud-welding guns. Pow ersaws, as well as handtools, are used to cut insulating materials. Most asbestos workers learn their trade through a 4-year “improvership” program similar in many re spects to apprenticeship programs in other building trades. The improvership program consists of a speci fied period of on-the-job training in which the new worker learns how to handle the tools of the trade and to work with insulating materials. Applicants for improvership pro grams are generally required to be between 18 and 30 and in good physical condition. Hourly wage rates start at about 50 percent of the journeyman’s rate and increase 10 percent each year until 80 per cent of the journeyman’s rate is reached during the final stage of the program. Trainees are required to pass an examination which demon strates their knowledge of the trade. A skilled asbestos worker may advance to foreman, shop superin tendent, or estimator, or he may open his own insulation contracting business. Employment Outlook Places of Employment Most asbestos workers are em ployed by insulation contractors in new industrial and commercial con struction. A substantial number are employed in the alteration and Employment of asbestos and in sulating workers—estimated at about 25,000 in 1970—is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. In addition to the job open ings resulting from the growth of 379 BUILDING TRADES the trade, other opportunities will arise from the replacement of workers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone will result in a few hundred job openings annually through the 1970’s. Employment growth will result mainly from the anticipated large rise in the volume of construction activity, particularly of commercial and industrial buildings. (See dis cussion, p. 375.) The increasing use of pipe in numerous manufacturing processes and in air-conditioning and refrigeration installations will expand the need for asbestos workers in installation and mainte nance work. Pittsburgh .................................. San Diego ................................ Springfield ................................ Tampa ...................................... 6.67 7.45 6.59 5.99 Asbestos and insulating workers spend most of the workday on their feet, either standing, bending, stooping, or squatting. Working from ladders or in tight or inaccessi ble spaces when covering pipes and ducts may be necessary. Removing old insulation before installing new materials may be particularly dusty and dirty. A large proportion of the workers in this trade are members of the In ternational Association of Heat and Frost Insulators and Asbestos Workers. Earnings and Working Conditions Sources of Additional Information Union minimum hourly wage rates for asbestos workers averaged $6.69, compared with $6.54 for all journeymen in the building trades, on July 1, 1970, according to a na tional survey of building trades workers in 68 large cities. Among individual cities, the minimum hourly rates for asbestos workers ranged from $4.90 in Norfolk, Va., to $8.46 in Cleveland, Ohio. Straight-time hourly earnings, ex cluding fringe benefits or payments to health, insurance, or pension funds, for asbestos workers in 12 of the 68 cities selected to show wage rates from various regions and areas of the country, on July 1, 1970, ap pear in the accompanying tabula tion. For further information regarding asbestos workers’ improvership pro grams or other work opportunities in this trade, inquiries should be di rected to local asbestos contractors or to a local of the International As sociation of Heat and Frost Insula tors and Asbestos Workers. In addi tion, the local office of the State em ployment service may be a source of information about work and training opportunities, including training programs operated under the Man power Development and Training Act. City Rate per hour Birmingham ............................... $5.55 Buffalo ........................................ 7.19 Columbus .................................... 7.96 Denver ........................................ 6.32 Indianapolis ............................... 7.20 M em phis.................................... 5.40 Minneapolis-St. Paul .............. 7.05 N ew ark ....................................... 6.24 BRICKLAYERS (D.O.T. 861.131, .381, .781, and .884) Nature of the Work Bricklayers (or brickmasons) are craftsmen who construct walls, partitions, fireplaces, chimneys, and other structures from brick. They also work with various other ma sonry materials, such as concrete or cinder block; precast panels made of concrete, stone, or marble; por celain glazed tile; structural tile; and terra cotta (a hard baked clay mate rial used for ornamental purposes). They also install the brick linings of industrial kilns and furnaces. When building a brick wall, bricklayers usually construct cor ners at each end of the building or wall, using plumb lines and a ma son’s level. Then the bricklayer is able to stretch a horizontal line (gage or course line) from corner to corner as a guide for each course or layer of brick. The line is raised when the course is completed. On longer walls, a brick is often set at fixed points along the wall, plumbed for accuracy, and the course line is trigged to this brick. The line trig overcomes sag in the course line; lessens line movement caused by the wind and by other bricklayers working on the wall; and overall, helps to insure the accuracy of the finished brickwork. In laying brick, a bricklayer first spreads a layer or “bed” of mortar. He then applies a full cross-joint of mortar to one end of the brick to be laid or to the end of the last brick laid. In a single motion, he places the brick on the bed joint while po sitioning the cross-joint between the bricks to the desired width. A tap or two with his trowel positions the brick to the course line. He cuts off the excess mortar with his trowel and is then ready to lay the next brick. Once the course is completed (or sometimes sooner), the mortar joints between the brick are struck (jointed) with special finishing tools to achieve a neat and uniform ap pearance. If two or more thicknesses of 380 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK making glass or steel, where fur naces and kilns require special fire brick and refractory brick linings. For example, in a steel manufactur ing plant, the bricklayer lines con verters, cupolas, and ladles which hold molten metal. Bricklayers must have additional training to do re fractory brick work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement brick are being laid, the bricklayer lays a “bond” or “header” course at regular intervals (usually every sixth or seventh course); that is, he arranges a course of bricks cross wise or in another bond pattern in order to tie the interior and exterior walls into a single unit. Whether the bricklayer works with brick, block, or other masonry material, the work is essentially the same. Bricklaying requires careful, ac curate work combined with plan ning and proper layout so that the structure will have a uniform ap pearance and the brickwork will line up with windows, doors, and other openings in an acceptable manner. Craftsmen in this trade mainly use handtools, including trowels, brick hammers, levels, jointers, brick cutting chisels, and rules. Powersaws are often used for cutting and fitting masonry mate rials; however, a bricklayer will usu ally cut brick with his trowel, brick hammer, or brick chisel. Journey men bricklayers are usually assisted by hod carriers or helpers (detailed descriptions of the nature of the work, employment outlook, and other information concerning con struction laborers and hod carriers appear elsewhere in the Handbook) who stock scaffolds with mortar, bricks, and blocks; mix the mortar; and set up and move scaffolding. Places of Employment The great majority of bricklayers work mainly on new construction. Some are employed also in sewer construction to build manholes and catch basins. In addition, bricklayers do a considerable amount of altera tion work, especially in the larger cities where construction of fire-re sistant partitions, store front remod eling, and similar modernization work are often done. They also do a substantial amount of maintenance and repair work. Bricklayers also work for such in dustrial establishments as factories Most training authorities, includ ing the National Joint (labor-man agement) Bricklaying Apprentice ship and Training Committee, rec ommend the completion of a 3-year apprenticeship program as the best way to learn this trade. Many workers in this trade have acquired bricklaying skills informally, by working as helpers or hod carriers, observing or being taught by experi enced bricklayers. Many of these persons have gained additional knowledge of their trade by taking trade school courses. Apprenticeship applicants are generally required to be between 17 and 24, but this requirement may be waived for veterans. A high school education or its equivalent is desira ble. The ability to solve arithmetic problems quickly and accurately is an asset. The apprenticeship program gen erally consists of 6,000 hours (3 years) of on-the-job training, in ad dition to related classroom instruc tion. In a typical 3-year bricklayer training program, the apprentice learns, among other things, to use, care for, and handle safely the tools, machines, equipment, and materials commonly used in the trade; lay, bond, and tie brickwork; build foot ings and foundations; do exterior brickwork such as straight wall work, steps, and arches; build col BUILDING TRADES umns, piers, and corners; plan and build chimneys, fireplaces, and hearths; lay stone; point brick and stone; clean stone, brick, and tile using acid solutions, and by sand blasting; cut, set, and point concrete and cinder blocks, artificial stone, and glass blocks; and fireproof and waterproof structures. The apprentice receives related classroom instruction in blueprint reading, layout work, measurement and sketches, and welding. In fact, some apprenticeship programs con duct actual welding instructions that qualify trainees as bricklayer-welder upon completion of their training. In addition, the apprentice trainee learns the relationship between bricklaying and other building trades. In some areas, formal apprentice training for bricklayers includes brief preliminary instruction at a vocational school or some other type of prejob instruction. This training is designed to give the ap prentice a basic knowledge in the handling of tools and materials to prepare him for the start of his onthe-job training. Hourly wage rates for bricklayer apprentices generally start at 50 percent of the journeyman rate and increase periodically until 95 per cent of the journeyman’s rate is reached during the last period of the apprenticeship. A bricklayer must have an eye for straight lines and proportions. Good physical condition and man ual dexterity are important assets. Since the other building craftsmen must usually fit their work to his, he should know how the parts of a structure fit together. Bricklayers may advance to jobs as foremen. They also may become estimators for bricklaying contrac tors. Estimators compute material requirements and labor costs. Some 381 journeymen advance to the position of bricklaying superintendent on large construction projects, while others may start their own bricklay ing contracting business. Employment Outlook Employment of bricklayers—es timated at about 175,000 in 1970 —is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s. In addition to new jobs created by employment growth, thousands of job opportuni ties will result from the replacement of journeymen who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retire ments and deaths alone will result in a few thousand job openings an nually through the 1970’s. Much of the expected growth in this trade will result from the antici pated large increase in construction activity. (See discussion, p. 375.) The demand for bricklayers also will be favorably affected by such factors as the increasing use of structural clay tile for fire-resistant partitions; and ornamental brickwork for struc tures, such as exterior screenwalls and lobbies and foyers. In addition, the use of brick masonry load-bear ing walls is growing, particularly in apartment building construction. These favorable developments will be offset to some extent by other construction techniques that reduce the amount of brickwork per structure. For example, the use of steel framework and reinforced con crete in structures permits the elimi nation of load-bearing exterior brick walls. Also, the use of metal, glass, and precast concrete wall panels in buildings results in less masonry work. Other recent developments that have increased the efficiency of bricklayers include high-strength mortars that can be applied with caulking guns or compressor-pow ered extruders. Earnings and Working Conditions Hourly wage rates for bricklayers rank among the highest in the build ing trades. Union minimum hourly wage rates for bricklayers, on July 1, 1970, averaged $6.77, compared with an average of $6.54 for all journeymen in the building trades, according to a national survey of building trades workers in 68 large cities. Among individual cities sur veyed, the minimum hourly rates for bricklayers ranged from $4.90 in Charlotte, N.C., to $8.16 in Cleveland, Ohio. Straight-time hourly earnings, excluding fringe benefits or payments to health, in surance, or pension funds, for brick layers in 12 of the 68 cities selected to show wage rates from various areas and regions of the country, on July 1, 1970, appear in the accom panying tabulation. C ity Atlanta ................. Boston ................. Chicago ............... Detroit ................. Indianapolis ......... M em phis............... Milwaukee ........... N ew ark ................. Sacramento........... Seattle ................. Tampa ................. Topeka ................. R a te p e r h o u r ................... $5.40 ................... 7.25 ................... 7.20 ................... 7.68 ................... 7.10 ................... 6.15 ................... 6.64 ................... 7.80 ................... 7.33 ................... 6.95 ................... 5.20 ................... 6.20 Although these hourly rates indi cate high annual incomes for brick layers, time lost because of inclem ent weather and occasional periods of unemployment between jobs make average annual earnings less than hourly rates of pay imply. The work of the bricklayer is ac tive and sometimes strenuous, like the work in other building trades. It 382 involves stooping to pick up mate rials, moderately heavy lifting, and prolonged standing. Most of the work is done outdoors. A large proportion of bricklayers are members of the Bricklayers, Masons and Plasterers’ Interna tional Union of America. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding bricklaying apprenticeships or other work opportunities in the trade, in quiries should be directed to local bricklaying contractors; a local of the Bricklayers, Masons and Plas terers’ International Union of America; a local joint union-man agement apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State ap prenticeship agency or the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addi tion, the local office of the State em ployment service may be a source of information about the Manpower Development and Training Act, ap prenticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. Some local employment service offices provide services such as screening applicants and giving apti tude tests. General information about the work of bricklayers may be ob tained from: Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20006. Bricklayers, Masons and Plasterers’ International Union of America, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Structural Clay Products Institute, 1750 Old Meadow Road, McLean, Va. 22101. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK CARPENTERS (D.O.T. 860.281 through .781) Nature of the Work Carpenters, the largest group of building trades workers, are em ployed in almost every type of con struction activity. They erect the wood framework in buildings, in cluding subflooring, sheathing, partitions, floor joists, studding, and rafters. When the building is ready for trimming, they install molding, wood paneling, cabinets, window sash, doorframes, doors, and hard ware. They also build stairs and lay floors. Carpenters, when doing finish work, must concern them selves with the appearance, as well as the structural accuracy, of the work. Carpenters also install heavy tim bers used to build docks, railroad trestles, and similar structures. They build the forms needed to pour con crete decks, columns, piers, and re taining walls used in bridges, build ings, and other structures. They also erect scaffolding and temporary buildings at the construction site. Carpenters also may install lino leum, asphalt tile, and similar softfloor coverings. Carpenters also saw, fit, and as semble plywood, wallboard, and other materials. They use nails, bolts, wood screws, or glue to fasten materials. Carpenters use handtools such as hammers, saws, chisels, and planes, and power tools such as portable power saws, drills, and rivet guns. Because of the wide scope of the work performed in the trade, some carpenters specialize in a particular type of carpentry. For example, some specialize in installing acoustic panels on ceilings and walls; others in installing millwork and finish hardware (trimming), laying hard wood floors, or building stairs. Spe cialization is more common in the large cities; in small communities, 383 BUILDING TRADES carpenters ordinarily do all types of carpentry. In rural areas, carpenters may do the work of other crafts men, particularly painting, glazing, or roofing. Carpenters generally stay in a particular field of construc tion, such as home, bridge, or high way construction, or in industrial maintenance. Places of Employment Most carpenters working in new construction are employed mainly by contractors and homebuilders at construction sites. A substantial number, however, are employed on alteration, remodeling, or building repair. Some carpenters alternate between wage employment for con tractors and self-employment on small jobs. Others work for govern ment agencies or nonconstruction firms which employ a separate work force to perform their own con struction. A large number of car penters do maintenance work in factories, hotels, office buildings, and other large establishments. Still others are employed in shipbuilding, in mining, and in the production of many kinds of display materials. taking correspondence or trade school courses. Apprenticeship applicants are generally required to be from 17 through 27 years of age; a high school education or its equivalent is desirable. Good physical condition, a good sense of balance, and lack of fear of working on high structures are important assets. Aptitudes which the apprentice should have include manual dexterity and the ability to solve arithmetic problems quickly and accurately. The apprenticeship program usu ally consists of 8,000 hours (4 years) of on-the-job training, in ad dition to a minimum of 144 hours of related classroom instruction each year. During the apprentice ship period, the apprentice learns elementary structural design and becomes familiar with the common systems of frame and concrete form Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities, includ ing the National Joint (labor-man agement) Carpentry Apprenticeship and Training Committee recom mend the completion of a 4-year apprenticeship program as the best way to learn carpentry. A substan tial number of workers in this trade, however, have acquired some car pentry skills informally (for exam ple, by working around a farm). Many of these men have also gained some knowledge of the trade by construction, and to use, care for, and handle safely the tools, ma chines, equipment, and materials used in the trade. He also learns how to lay out work, do rough fram ing, do outside and inside finishing work (for example, hanging doors, setting and finishing windows, fitting hardware, and flooring and stair work), weld, do acoustic and drywall construction, and erect scaf folding and shoring. The apprentice receives related classroom instruction in drafting and blueprint reading, mathematics applicable to layout work, and the use of woodworking machines. Both in the classroom and on the job he learns the relationship between car pentry and the other building trades, because the work of the car penter is basic to the construction process. Hourly wage rates for appren tices usually start at about 50 per cent of the journeyman rate and in crease by about 5 percent in each 6-month period, until a rate of 85 to 90 percent is reached during the last period of apprenticeship. It is important for young men in terested in entering carpentry to ob tain the all-around training given in apprenticeship programs, particu larly because technological innova tions increasingly are affecting car pentry. Carpenters having such training will have especially favor able long-range job prospects. They will be in much greater demand and have better opportunities for ad vancement than those in the trade who can do only the relatively sim ple, routine types of carpentry. Carpenters may advance to car penter foremen or to general con struction foremen. Carpenters usu ally have greater opportunities than most building craftsmen to become general construction foremen, since they are involved with the entire construction process. The propor tion of self-employed is higher among carpenters than among most other skilled building trades. Some 384 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK self-employed carpenters are able to become contractors and employ other journeymen. Employment Outlook Employment of carpenters—who numbered about 830,000 in 1970 —is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s. In addition to new jobs created by employment growth, tens of thousands of jobs for carpenters will be available each year to replace experienced carpen ters who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone are expected to provide more than 20,000 job open ings annually. The large rise expected in con struction activity, particularly homebuilding (see discussion, p. 375), is expected to result in a growing de mand for carpenters. In addition, more carpenters will be needed in the maintenance departments of factories, commercial establish ments, large residential projects, and government agencies. However, employment growth will continue to be limited by tech nological developments. For exam ple, the use of construction mate rials prepared away from the build ing site is expected to increase. These materials, which include floors, partitions, and stairs, are de signed for easy and speedy installa tion. Walls and partitions can be lifted into place in one operation. Beams and, in some instances, roof assemblies are lifted into place by cranes. Because of the standardiza tion of prefabricated components, the use of such materials will in crease further. More widespread use of im proved tools and equipment will in crease the efficiency of carpenters. These products include new types of nails with improved holding prop erties; hence, fewer nails and less hammering are required. Stronger adhesives are being used that re duce the time needed to join pieces of wood and other materials. Power tools in widespread use include stud drivers, screwdrivers, sanders, saws, staplers, and nailing machines. One type of power tool can drill and nail in one operation. New types of scaf folding are easier to erect, adapta ble to varying construction situa tions, and safer to use. Employment of carpenters also will be affected by construction ma terials and techniques that reduce the amount of carpentry required in residential buildings. For example, where houses are framed with steel, the use of curtain-wall panels is pos sible. In addition to the speed with which they can be put in place, curtain-wall panels also may reduce the need for carpenters because they are available in nonwood materials such as glass, aluminum, and porce lain-coated steel. Although the use of plastics in construction is in its infancy, their greater use is ex pected. Already available in plastics are siding, curtain walls, partitions, roofing, ornamental screening, and insulation materials. Under devel opment are foam plastic roofs and even entire houses of plastic that can be constructed on site. Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates for carpenters averaged $6.42, compared with $6.54 for all jour neymen in the building trades, on July 1, 1970, according to a national survey of building trades workers in 68 large cities. Among individual cities surveyed, minimum hourly rates for carpenters ranged from $4.45 in Charlotte, N.C., to $8.10 in Cleveland, Ohio. Straight-time hourly earnings, excluding fringe benefits or payments to health, in surance, or pension funds, for car penters in 12 of the 68 cities selected to show wage rates from various areas and regions of the country, on July 1, 1970, appear in the accompanying tabulation. C ity Atlanta ................... B oston ..................... Chicago ................. Denver ................... Detroit ................... Los A n g eles........... New Orleans ......... Philadelphia ........... Pittsburgh ............... St. L o u is................. San D ie g o ............... Seattle ..................... R a te p e r h o u r ................. $6.20 ................. 6.65 ................. 6.85 ................. 6.02 ................. 7.36 ................. 5.98 ................. 5.72 ................. 7.05 ................. 7.00 ................. 6.61 ................. 6.21 ................. 6.10 As other building trades, the work of the carpenter is active and sometimes strenuous, but excep tional physical strength is not re quired. However, prolonged stand ing, as well as climbing and squat ting, is often necessary. Carpenters risk injury from slips or falls, from contact with sharp or rough mate rials, and from the use of sharp tools and power equipment. Many young persons like carpentry be cause they are able to work out doors. A large proportion of carpenters are members of the United Brother hood of Carpenters and Joiners of America. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding carpentry apprenticeships or other work opportunities in this trade, in quiries should be directed to local carpentry contractors or general contractors; a local union of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters 385 BUILDING TRADES and Joiners of America; a local joint union-management apprentice ship committee; or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency or the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addition, the local office of the State employment service may be a source of information about the Manpower Development and Training Act, apprenticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. Some local employment services screen appli cants and give aptitude tests. General information on appren ticeship in this trade is also availa ble from: Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Con stitution Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20001. CEMENT MASONS (CEMENT AND CONCRETE FINISHERS) (D.O.T. 844.884 and 852.884) Nature of the Work The principal work of cement masons is finishing the exposed con crete surfaces on many types of construction projects. These projects range from small jobs, such as the finishing of patios, floors, and sidewalks, to work on huge dams, miles of concrete highways, founda tions and walls of large buildings, airport runways, and missile launch ing sites. On small projects, a ce ment mason, assisted by one or two helpers, may do all the concrete work; on large projects, a crew of several cement masons and many helpers may be employed. In preparing the site for pouring (placing) the concrete mixture, the cement mason makes sure that the forms, which hold the concrete, are set for the desired pitch and depth of the concrete mixture and are properly alined. On larger (and wider) pours, a screed (guide) may be placed to section the pour into 12-15 foot widths, which allows easier handling and greater accu racy in the initial leveling process. The cement mason directs the pouring of the concrete. He usually supervises the laborers who use shovels or special rakes to “strike off” (place and spread the mixture to its approximate level) the con crete. The cement masons then level the surface further using a “straight edge” (a rod made of wood or lightweight metal long enough to ex tend across the freshly poured con crete). The concrete is ready for its intermediate and final finishing. The finisher uses special tools, such as a float, whip, or darby, to fill minor depressions and remove high spots. This agitation tends to draw surface fines (a rich mixture of cement and fine sand) to the top and imbed coarser aggregates. Final finishing is usually delayed until the concrete has hardened suf ficiently to support the weight of a finisher on kneeboards. While the concrete is still workable, the crafts men use handtools—a wood or magnesium float and a finishing trowel—to bring the concrete to the proper consistency and obtain the desired finish. Concrete finishing also may be done with the aid of power-operated trowels; howeyer, edges, corners, and other inaccessi ble places for power-operated tools must still be finished by hand. On most small building projects, such as sidewalks, driveways, and patios, concrete finishing generally 386 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK involves hand operations. On high ways and other large-scale projects, however, power-operated floats and cement finishing machines are used extensively. On concrete work which is ex posed (for example, columns, piers, ceilings, and wall panels), ce ment masons correct surface de fects and air pockets (called honey combs) when the forms are stripped. This involves preparing the surface with a rubbing brick (silicon carbide) to remove high spots. A rich cement mixture is rubbed into the concrete surface using a sponge rubber float or piece of burlap cloth to fill imperfections and voids. The end result is a smooth uniform ap pearance. Some cement masons specialize in laying a mastic coat (a fine as phalt mixture) over concrete, par ticularly in buildings where soundinsulated or acid-resistant floors are specified. Heavy hand tools are used to smooth the hot mastic. The cement mason must know materials and be familiar with vari ous cement and concrete mixes which speed or slow the setting time, and those which are used for weight-supporting walls or surfaces of specified strengths. Because of the effects that heat, cold, and wind have on the curing of cement, the skilled mason must recognize by sight and touch what is occurring in the cement mixture so that he may be able to prevent structural de fects. Places of Employment Cement masons work principally on large buildings, but many are employed on highway or other nonbuilding construction. Cement masons work directly for general contractors who construct entire projects such as highways, or large industrial, commercial, and resi dential buildings. They also work for concrete contractors who do only the concrete work on a large con struction project or who work on smaller projects such as sidewalks, driveways, and basement floors. Some install composition resilient floors, such as trowel applied epox ies, latex underlayments, and simu lated terrazzo floors for specialty floor contractors. A small number are employed by municipal public works departments, public utilities, and manufacturing firms which do their own construction. Some ce ment masons are self-employed and do small cement jobs, such as side walks, driveways, patios, and curb and gutter work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities, includ ing the National Cement Masonry, Asphalt, and Composition Joint (la bor-management) Apprenticeship and Training Committee, recom mended the completion of a 3-year apprenticeship program as the best way to learn this trade. A substan tial number of workers, however, have acquired cement masonry skills informally by working on building and road construction jobs as laborers assisting cement masons. Others have worked with specialty contractors constructing sidewalks and doing other masonry. Apprenticeship applicants gener ally are required to be between 18 and 25. Good physical condition and manual dexterity are important assets. The apprenticeship program usu ally consists of 6,000 hours (3 years) of on-the-job training, in ad dition to related classroom instruc tion. During the apprenticeship pe riod, the apprentice learns, among other things, to use and handle the tools, equipment, and materials of the trade. He also learns finishing, layout work, and safety techniques. The apprentice receives related classroom instruction in subjects such as applied mathematics and re lated sciences, blueprint reading, ar chitectural drawing, estimating ma terials and costs, and local building regulations. Although a high school education is not required, education above the grade school level, pref erably including mathematics, is needed to understand the classroom instruction. Cement masons may advance to foremen or become estimators of material requirements and labor costs for concrete contractors. Oth ers may start their own concrete contracting business. Employment Outlook Employment of cement masons —estimated at about 65,000 in 1970—is expected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s. In addition to new jobs created by em ployment growth, thousands of job opportunities will result from the replacement of craftsmen who trans fer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone will result in several hundred job openings annually through the 1970’s. Employment of cement masons is expected to increase mainly because the anticipated rapid increase in construction activity (see discus sion, p. 375) will be accompanied by the growing use of concrete and concrete products. Prestressed con crete makes possible wide spans where column-free construction is desired. Lightweight concrete wall BUILDING TRADES panels that are fire- and weather-re sistant are being used increasingly on nonload-bearing walls. These panels, available in different fin ishes, colors, and designs, can be speedily fastened into place. In some instances, buildings made with concrete wall panels can be easily dismantled and reerected elsewhere. Artistic and functional shapes can be incorporated into structures where prestressed concrete is used. In addition, the use of concrete and concrete products has expanded to include thinshell dome roofs, orna mental grill work, and slab and arch roofs in residential buildings; and bridge girders, columns, piles, and beams. Also, concrete can be poured year round by using heated, temporary shelters made of sheet plastic. Employment of cement masons is not expected to increase as rapidly as the use of cement and concrete products. Many concrete products are now precast and generally do not require finishing. The efficiency of onsite masons also has increased through new and improved con struction methods, materials, and equipment. Concrete slabs for floors, walls, and roofs can be proc essed at ground level and raised into place with synchronized hy draulic jacks or cranes. For certain jobs, concrete can be applied pneu matically through hoses. Glass-fi ber-reinforced plastic forms provide a smooth surface and reduce rub bing and patching work. Reusable steel and plastic-covered wood forms are now available. Adhesives reduce the need for bolts and other fasteners. Worker efficiency has also been increased because of new machines, including powered con crete conveyors, such as powered wheelbarrows; portable, powered screeds; electric concrete vibrators; hydraulic joint-forming machines; 387 powered concrete cutting saws; and cement-finishing machines. Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates for cement masons averaged $6.02, compared with $6.54 for all journeymen in the building trades, on July 1, 1970, according to a na tional survey of building trades workers in 68 large cities. Among individual cities surveyed, the mini mum hourly rates for cement ma sons ranged from $3.93 in Char lotte, N.C., to $8.06 in Buffalo, N.Y., and Cleveland, Ohio. Straight-time hourly earnings, ex cluding fringe benefits or payments to health, insurance, or pension funds, for cement masons in 12 of the 68 cities selected to show wage information from various areas and regions of the country, on July 1, 1970, appear in the accompanying tabulation. C ity R a te p e r h o u r Birmingham .............. ...............$4.68 B oston......................... ............... 7.35 Columbus ................. ............... 6.15 Dallas ....................... ............... 5.40 Denver ....................... ............... 5.85 F resn o ....................... ............... 5.62 Jacksonville .............................. 4.35 Milwaukee ................................ 5.90 N ew ark ..................... ................ 7.80 Pittsburgh .................................. 6.70 Salt Lake C it y .......................... 5.87 Washington, D.C. . .. ............. 5.93 Cement masons usually receive premium pay for hours worked in excess of the regularly scheduled workday or workweek. Overtime work for these craftsmen often oc curs because once concrete has been poured, the work must be completed. The work of the cement mason is active and strenuous, like the work of skilled building tradesmen gener ally. Since most cement finishing is done on floors or at ground level, the cement mason is required to stoop, bend, or kneel. Much of his work is done outdoors. A large proportion of cement ma sons are union members. They be long either to the Operative Plaster ers’ and Cement Masons’ Interna tional Association of the United States and Canada, or to the Brick layers, Masons and Plasterers’ In ternational Union of America. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding cement mason apprenticeships or other work opportunities in the trade, inquiries should be directed to local cement finishing contrac tors; locals of unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-man agement apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State ap prenticeship agency or the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addi tion, the local office of the State em ployment service may be a source of information about the Manpower Development and Training Act, ap prenticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. General information about the work of cement masons may be ob tained from: Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Bricklayers, Masons and Plasterers’ International Union of America, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. 388 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK some who have started as laborers have learned that trade. Building and construction labor ers are commonly classified as un skilled workers, but this term can be misleading. Their work covers a wide range of requirements. Many types of construction-laborer and hod-carrier jobs require training and experience, as well as a broad knowledge of construction methods, materials, and operations. Rock blasting, rock drilling, tun nel construction, and concrete work are examples of work in which “know-how” is important. Con struction laborers who work with explosives drill holes in rock, handle explosives, and set charges. These workers must know the effects of different explosive charges under varying rock conditions so that proper measures can be taken to prevent injury and property damage. Construction laborers learn how to handle and use blasting materials through job experience and instruc tion from foreman in charge of blasting work. Also, in the construc tion of tunnels, and dam and bridge foundations, contruction laborers must have specific on-the-job expe rience. They do all the work in the boring and mining of a tunnel, in cluding operations which would be handled by journeymen if the job were located above ground. CONSTRUCTION LABORERS AND HOD CARRIERS (D.O.T. 809.887; 844.887; 850. through 852.887; and 859. through 862.887) Nature of the Work Construction laborers work on all types of building construction, as well as on other types of construc tion projects, such as highways, dams, pipelines, and water and sewer projects. Their work includes the loading and unloading of con struction materials at the worksite and the shoveling and grading of earth. Laborers stack and carry ma terials, including small units of ma chinery and equipment, and do other work that aids building crafts men. They also erect and dismantle scaffolding, set braces to support the sides of excavations, and clean up rubble and accumulated debris to provide clear work areas. On alteration and modernization jobs, laborers tear out the existing work. They perform most of the work done by wrecking and salvage crews during the demolition of buildings. When concrete is mixed at the worksite, laborers unload and han dle materials and fill handloaded mixers with ingredients. Whether the concrete is mixed on-site or hauled in by truck, laborers pour and spread the concrete, and spade or vibrate it to prevent air pockets. In highway paving laborers clean the right-of-way, fine grade and pre pare the site, handle and place the forms into which wet concrete is poured, and cover new pavement with straw, burlap, or other mate rials to prevent excessive drying. Bricklayers’ tenders and plaster tenders, both commonly known as hod carriers, serve journeymen in their respective trades, mixing and supplying materials, setting up and moving portable scaffolding, and providing the many other services needed. Hod carriers must be famil iar with the work of the journeymen and have some knowledge of the materials and tools used. Laborers also tend cement finishers, and Places of Employment Laborers are employed by all types of construction contractors. In addition, a large number are em ployed by State and municipal public works and highway depart ments, and by public utility compa nies in road repairing and mainte nance, and excavating. BUILDING TRADES 389 Earnings and Working Conditions Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Little formal training is required to obtain a job as a building or con struction laborer. Generally, to be employed in these jobs, a young man must be at least 18 years of age and in good physical condition. A laborer’s first job is usually on the simplest type of work, but as he gains experience, he does more dif ficult work. If he works closely with a skilled craftsman for several years, he may be able to pick up the skills of the trade. However, in their work as construction laborers, rela tively few workers have such oppor tunities. Many tasks assigned to laborers have become too complex to learn through a lengthy on-the-job train ing period. Recognizing these prob lems, contractors and unions have established formal training pro grams, lasting 4 to 8 weeks, in many areas of the country. Employment Outlook Employment of construction la borers and hod carriers—estimated at about 815,000 in 1970—is ex pected to increase slowly through the 1970’s. However, thousands of additional job openings will arise from the replacement of construc tion laborers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Retire ments and deaths alone are ex pected to provide nearly 15,000 job openings annually. The anticipated large increase in construction activity (see discussion p. 375) is expected to result in a growing demand for laborers and hod carriers, but the increase in their employment will be somewhat limited by more widespread use of mechanized equipment. For exam ple, construction materials formerly handled at the construction site, such as brick, concrete, and lumber, are moved by forklift truck, powered wheelbarrows, and conveyor belts. Materials are lifted to the upper floors of multistoried buildings by automatic lifts and heavy duty cranes. The use of earth moving machines, including specialized equipment such as trenchers and front-end loaders, is also increasing. Union minimum hourly wage rates for bricklayers’ tenders and building laborers averaged $5.06 and $4.78, respectively, on July 1, 1970, according to a national survey of building trades workers in 68 large cities. Among individual cities surveyed, the minimum hourly rates for bricklayers’ tenders ranged from $2.70 in Norfolk and Richmond, Va., to $6.57 in Toledo, Ohio. The rates for building laborers ranged from $2.60 in Norfolk and Rich mond, Va., to $6.52 in Cleveland, Ohio. Straight-time hourly earnings, excluding fringe benefits or pay ments to health, insurance, or pen sion funds, for bricklayers’ tenders and building laborers in 12 of the 68 cities selected to show wage rates from various areas and regions of the country, on July 1, 1970, ap pear in the accompanying tabulation. R a te p e r h o u r C ity B r ic k la y e r s ’ te n d e r s Albuquerque . . ........ $3.91 Baltim ore........ ........ 3.80 B u ffalo............. ........ 5.89 Columbus . . . . ........ 5.02 Des Moines . . . ........ 4.91 Fresno ............. ......... 5.25 Los Angeles . . . ........ 5.00 Omaha ............. ........ 4.83 Phoenix ........... ........ 4.99 Providence .. . . ........ 5.00 Seattle ............. ........ 5.20 Tampa ............. ......... 3.73 B u ild in g la b o r e r s $3.61 3.65 5.89 4.86 4.91 4.94 4.55 4.70 4.38 5.00 4.90 3.58 Construction work is physically strenuous, since it requires frequent bending, stooping, and heavy lifting. Much of the work is performed out doors. Many laborers are members of the Laborers’ International Union of North America. 390 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding work opportunities as a construction laborer, inquiries should be directed to local building or construction contractors, or a local of the Labor ers’ International Union of North America. In addition, the local office of the State employment service is a source of information about work opportunities. General information about the work of construction laborers may be obtained from: Laborers’ International Union of North America, 905 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. ELECTRICIANS (CONSTRUCTION) (D.O.T. 821.381; 824.281; and 829.281 and .381) Nature of the Work Construction electricians lay out, assemble, install, and test electrical fixtures, apparatus, and wiring used in electrical systems. These systems provide heat, light, power, air con ditioning, and refrigeration in resi dences, office buildings, factories, hospitals, schools, and other struc tures. Construction electricians also install and connect electrical ma chinery, electronic equipment, con trols, and signal and communica tions systems. (Maintenance electri cians do work which is similar in many respects to that performed by construction electricians. A discus sion of maintenance electricians is presented elsewhere in the Hand book.) Construction electricians usually follow blueprints and specifications when installing electrical compo nents. If there is no electrical draw ing, the electrician terminates the incoming electrical service into a central load center. The electrician then installs interior circuits and outlets according to the amount of electrical current expected to be used in the various sections of the building. He also installs fuses or circuit breakers of the proper rating in the incoming and interior circuits to prevent overloading, which causes overheating of wires, appli ances, and motors. The construction electrician must know and follow National Electrical Code regulations and, in addition, must fulfill State, county, and municipal regulations. When installing wiring, the con struction electrician uses a mechani cal or hydraulic bender to shape conduit (pipe or tubing). The con duit usually must fit inside parti tions, walls, concealed areas of the ceiling, or within other narrow and inaccessible spaces. He pulls insu lated wires or cables through the conduit to complete the circuit be tween the electrical outlet and the switch. Next, he connects the wires or cables to circuit breakers, switch-gear motors, transformers, or other components. Wires are spliced (joined) by soldering or mechanical means. When these operations are completed, the electrician tests the electrical circuits to make sure that the entire system is properly grounded, the connections properly made, and the circuits do not carry excessive current. The electrician furnishes his own handtools, such as pliers, screwdriv ers, brace and bits, knives, and hacksaws. The employer furnishes test meters and heavier tools and equipment, such as pipe threaders, conduit benders, chain hoists, elec tric drills, power fasteners, and lad ders. In residential construction, heavier tools are not usually re quired. Places of Employment Most construction electricians work for electrical contractors. Sub stantial numbers are self-employed. Others work for government agen cies or business establishments that do their own electrical work. Con struction electricians usually work for a large number of different em ployers during their work life be cause of the intermittent needs of individual contractors. However, many construction electricians work for the same electrical contractor for long periods of time. During a single year, a construction electri cian may work for an electrical con tractor in the construction of new homes or office buildings, for a manufacturing firm in remodeling its plant or offices, or he may do electrical repairs for homeowners or business firms. 391 BUILDING TRADES Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities, includ ing the National Joint (labor-man agement ) Apprenticeship and Training Committee for the Electri cal Industry, recommend the com pletion of a 4-year apprenticeship program as the best way to learn all aspects of the electrical trade. How ever, in the past, some construction electricians have acquired skills of the trade informally by working for many years as helpers, observing or being taught by experienced crafts men. Many of these persons have gained additional knowledge of the trade by taking trade school or cor respondence courses, or through special training when in the Armed Forces. The International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers and the National Electrical Contractors Association have jointly developed an extensive apprenticeship program. Appren ticeship applicants generally are re quired to be between 18 and 24, but exceptions may be made for veter ans. A high school education is re quired; courses in mathematics and physics are desirable. Applicants are usually required to take tests to determine their aptitude for the trade. All apprenticeship programs are conducted under written agreement between the apprentice and the local joint union-management ap prenticeship committee, which su pervises the training. The com mittee determines the need for ap prentices in the locality, establishes minimum apprenticeship standards, and schedules a diversified, rotating work program. This program is de signed to give the apprentice all round training by having him work for several electrical contractors who engage in particular types of work. The apprenticeship program usu ally requires 8,000 hours (4 years) of on-the-job training, in addition to a minimum of 144 hours of related classroom instruction each year. In a typical 4-year training program, the apprentice learns, among other things, to use, care for, and handle safely the tools, equipment, and materials commonly used in the trade; do residential, commercial, and industrial electrical installa tions; and maintain and repair in stallations. In addition, he receives related classroom instruction in sub jects such as electrical layout, blue print reading, mathematics, and electrical theory, including electron ics. After completing their appren ticeship, many journeymen electri cians enroll in courses, which may include advanced electronics, to keep abreast of the latest develop ments in this rapidly changing occu pation. Hourly wage rates of appren tices usually start at 40 to 50 per cent of the journeyman rate and in crease by 5 percent in each 6-month period until 80 to 85 percent of the jouneyman rate is reached during the last period of the apprentice ship. An experienced construction electrician who has learned all the aspects of the craft through appren ticeship can transfer readily to other types of electrical work. For exam ple, many take jobs as maintenance electricians in factories or in com mercial establishments, and others work as electricians in shipbuilding and aircraft manufacturing. Because improperly installed electrical work is hazardous, most cities require electricians to be li censed. To obtain a license, the electrician must pass an examina tion which requires a thorough knowledge of the craft and of State and local building codes. Many journeymen electricians become foremen or superintendents for electrical contractors on con struction jobs. These craftsmen may also become estimators for electri cal contractors, computing material requirements and labor costs. Many construction electricians go into business for themselves. As they expand their activities, they may employ other workers and be come contractors. In most large urban areas, a master electrician’s license is required to engage in an electrical contracting business. Employment Outlook Employment of construction elec tricians—who numbered about 190,000 in 1970—is expected to in crease very rapidly through the 1970’s. In addition to the growth that is anticipated in the trade, many thousands of job opportuni ties will result from the replacement of journeymen who transfer to other types of electrical work, leave the trade for other reasons, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone will result in a few thousand job openings annually. The increase in employment of electricians is expected mainly be cause of the anticipated large ex pansion in construction activity. (See discussion, p. 375.) Other fac tors expected to contribute to the growth of this trade are greater re quirements for electric outlets, switches, and wiring in homes to ac commodate the increasing use of appliances and air-conditioning sys tems; and the extensive wiring sys tems needed for the installation of electronic data-processing equip ment and electrical control devices being used increasingly in com 392 merce and industry. Other recent developments expected to expand the demand for construction electri cians include an increase in the number of “all-electric” homes, and the use of outdoor radiant heating, and snow- and ice-melting systems. Technological developments are expected to limit the employment growth of this trade. A major tech nological development increasing the efficiency of electricians is the prefabrication of electrical equip ment. For example, preassembled conductors and raceways that can be installed in one operation are available. Switch boxes and switch boards, which formerly had to be wired on site, are now preassembled at the factory. Also available are “packaged” (preassembled and pre wired) ceiling units, which the elec trician connects to the power source, eliminating the need to wire the complete system and install the fixtures. Improved tools and equipment being used increasingly by electri cians include more efficient conduit benders; multiple spindle drills; cordless electric drills, saws, and other tools; and “kits” of splicing materials that have reduced the time needed to do field insulation of cable splices. Earnings and Working Conditions Hourly wage rates of construc tion electricians are among the highest in the skilled building trades. Furthermore, because the seasonal nature of construction work affects electricians less than most other construction workers, their annual earnings generally are among the highest in the building trades. Union minimum hourly wage rates for electricians averaged OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK $6.82, compared with $6.54 for all journeymen in the building trades on July 1, 1970, according to a na tional survey of building trades workers in 68 large cities. Among individual cities surveyed, the union minimum hourly rates for construc tion electricians ranged from $5 in Charlotte, N.C., to $8.11 in Buffalo, N.Y. Straight-time hourly earnings, excluding fringe benefits or pay ments to health, insurance, or pen sion funds, for construction electri cians in 12 of the 68 cities selected to show wage rates from various areas and regions of the country, on July 1, 1970, appear in the accom panying tabulation. C ity R a te p e r h o u r Birmingham ............. ...............$6.20 Columbus ................. ............... 7.68 Des Moines .............................. 6.75 Erie ............................. ............... 7.20 F resn o ....................... ............... 6.88 Grand R apids............................ 6.52 Little R o c k ................................ 5.65 Louisville .................................. 7.13 Providence ............... ............... 6.45 Spokane .................................... 6.13 T renton...................................... 6.85 Washington, D.C. . . ............... 6.85 The work of the construction electrician, like that of other build ing trades, is active but does not re quire great physical strength. Fre quently, the construction electrician stands for prolonged periods; some times he works in cramped quarters. Because most of his work is in doors, the construction electrician is less exposed to unfavorable weather conditions than most other skilled building trades workers. Electri cians risk falls from ladders and scaffolds, cuts from sharp tools, electrical shock, blows from falling objects, and burns from “live” wires. However, safety practice learned during apprenticeship and other types of training have helped to reduce the injury rate for these workers. The number of injuries per million man-hours worked by em ployees in contract electrical work has been lower than in contract con struction work as a whole, but higher than that for production workers in manufacturing indus tries. A large proportion of construc tion electricians are members of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding electrician apprenticeships or other work opportunities in the trade, in quiries should be directed to local electrical contractors; a local union of the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee, or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency or the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addition, the local office of the State employment service may be a source of information about the Manpower Development and Training Act, apprenticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. Some local employment service offices provide services such as screening applicants and giving aptitude tests. General information about the work of electricians may be ob tained from: International Brotherhood of Elec trical Workers, 1125 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. National Electrical Contractors Association, 1730 Rhode Island Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. National Joint Apprenticeship and Training Committee for the Elec trical Industry, 1730 Rhode Island Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. 393 BUILDING TRADES ELEVATOR CONSTRUCTORS (D.O.T. 825.381) Nature of the Work Elevator constructors (also called elevator mechanics) assemble and install elevators, escalators, dumb waiters, and similar equipment. In new buildings, this equipment is in stalled on-site while the building is under construction. In older build ings, these craftsmen may replace an earlier installation with the latest available elevator equipment. Once the elevator equipment is in service, elevator mechanics perform regular maintenance and repair work. In stallation or repair work is usually performed by small crews consisting of skilled mechanics and their help ers. In elevator construction work, the crew first installs the guide rails of the car in the elevator shaft of the building. Then they install the hoisting machines, the car frame and platform, the counterweight, the elevator chassis, and the control apparatus. Next, the car frame is connected to the counterweight with cables, the cab body and roof are installed, and the control system is wired. Finally, the entire assembly, including cables, wire, and electrical control apparatus, is carefully ad justed and tested. Alteration work on elevators is important because of the rapid rate of innovation and improvement in elevator engineering. This work is similar to new installation work be cause all elevator equipment except the old rail, car frame, platform, and counterweight is generally re placed. In maintenance and repair work, elevator mechanics inspect el evator and escalator installations periodically and, when necessary, adjust cables and lubricate or re place parts. To install and repair modern ele vators, most of which are electri cally controlled, elevator construc tors must have a working knowl edge of electricity, electronics, and hydraulics. They also must be able to repair electric motors, as well as control and signal systems. Because of the variety of their work, they use many different handtools, power tools, and mechanical and electrical testing meters and gages. Places of Employment Most of the estimated 15,000 journeymen elevator constructors employed in 1970, worked for ele vator manufacturers, doing new in stallation and modernization work and elevator servicing. Some eleva tor constructors are employed by small, local contractors who special ize in elevator maintenance and re pair. Others work for government agencies or business establishments that do their own elevator mainte nance and repair. Elevator con structors also are employed as ele vator inspectors for municipal or other government licensing and reg ulatory agencies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Elevator constructor adjusts door. Although elevator constructors are highly skilled craftsmen, train ing is comparatively informal and is obtained through employment as a helper for a number of years. The helper-trainee must be at least 18 years of age, in good physical condi tion, and have a high school educa tion or its equivalent, preferably in cluding courses in mathematics and physics. Mechanical aptitude and an interest in machines are important assets. To become a skilled elevator me chanic, at least 2 years of contin uous job experience, including 6 months’ on-the-job training at the factory of a major elevator firm, is 394 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK usually necessary. During this pe riod, the helper learns to perform all of the operations involved in the installation, maintenance, and re pair of elevators, escalators, and similar equipment. The helpertrainee generally attends evening classes in vocational schools. Among the subjects studied are mathematics, physics, electrical and electronic theory, and proper safety techniques. Elevator mechanics may advance to positions as foremen for elevator manufacturing firms. A few may es tablish an individually owned small contracting business; however, op portunities are limited. Employment Outlook A moderate increase in employ ment of elevator constructors is ex pected through the 1970’s. In addi tion to new jobs created by employ ment growth, a few thousand job opportunities for new workers will result from the replacement of ex perienced workers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Employment growth and retire ments and deaths in this small occu pation will provide a few hundred job openings annually. More elevator constructors will be needed as a result of the antici pated large expansion in new in dustrial, commercial, and large resi dential buildings. (See discussion p. 375.) In addition, technological de velopments in elevator and escala tor construction will spur moderni zation of older installations and thus will contribute to the growing need for these craftsmen. For example, modern high speed elevators having automatic control systems require more work and higher skill for the installation and adjustment of electrical and electronic controls. Earnings and Working Conditions Sources of Additional Information Both the hourly wage rates and the annual earnings of elevator con structors are among the highest in the skilled building trades. These craftsmen lose less worktime be cause of seasonal factors than do most other building trades workers. Union minimum hourly wage rates for elevator constructors aver aged $6.65, compared with $6.54 for all journeymen in the building trades, on July 1, 1970, according to a national survey of building trades workers in 68 large cities. Among the individual cities sur veyed, the minimum hourly rates for elevator constructors ranged from $5.09 in Norfolk, Va., to $8.12 in Cleveland, Ohio. Straighttime hourly earnings, excluding fringe benefits or payments to health, insurance, or pension funds, for elevator constructors in 12 of the 68 cities selected to show wage information from various areas and regions of the country, on July 1, 1970, appear in the accompanying tabulation. For further information regarding work opportunities as a helper in this trade, inquiries should be di rected to elevator manufacturers, elevator constructors, or a local of the International Union of Elevator Constructors. In addition, the local office of the State employment serv ice may be a source of information about work opportunities in this trade. General information about the work of elevator constructors may be obtained from the International Union of Elevator Constructors, 12 South 12th St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19107. C ity FLOOR COVERING INSTALLERS (D.O.T. 864.781) Nature of the Work R a te p e r h o u r Baltimore ............. ................... $6.46 C hicago................. ................... 7.64 Denver ................. ................... 5.69 F resn o ................... ................... 7.58 Houston ............... ................... 5.56 Jacksonville ........ ................... 5.27 Little R o c k ............ ................... 5.19 Los A n g eles......... ................... 6.63 Madison ............... ................... 6.04 Philadelphia ......... ................... 6.83 Providence ........... ................... 6.07 Rochester ............. ................... 6.60 Elevator construction involves lifting and carrying heavy equip ment and parts, but this is usually done by helpers. Most of the work is indoors—sometimes in cramped and awkward positions. Most elevator constructors are members of the International Union of Elevator Constructors. Floor covering installers (also called floor covering mechanics and floor layers) install, replace, and re pair a number of floor coverings. These include resilient tile, linoleum and vinyl sheet goods, and carpet ing. The craftsman installs these coverings over wood, concrete, metal, and other subfloors of resi dential, commercial, and industrial buildings. Areas covered may vary in size from a small kitchen or bath room to a large supermarket floor or hotel lobby. When installing resilient floor covering (such as asphalt tile or vinyl sheet goods), the floor cover ing installer first inspects the floor to be sure that it is firm, dry, smooth, and free of loose dust or dirt. If he BUILDING TRADES finds the floor inadequate, he pre pares it for covering. He may sand a rough or painted floor; fill cracks, indentations, or other irregularities with a filler material; or, if a floor is extremely uneven, resurface it with plywood, hardwood, or synthetic underlayments. In newly poured concrete floors or floors laid over earthwork at ground level or below, the installer also may test for moisture content. If the moisture in the floor is too great, he may suggest postponing in stallation of floor covering or rec ommend a type of floor covering technique particularly suited to the condition of the floor. For this rea son, the installer should be familiar with the many types of adhesives and floor coverings recommended by manufacturers for specific sub floor conditions. The craftsman then prepares for the installation of resilient floor cov ering by carefully measuring and marking off the floor in accordance with the floor covering plan. The plan may be in the form of architec tural drawings specifying every de 395 tail of the floor covering design, or it may be a simple, verbal descrip tion by the customer. When the floor layout is completed, the crafts man, assisted, when necessary, by an apprentice or other worker, cuts and fits the flooring material, ap plies the proper adhesive, and in stalls the floor covering. He must take care in cutting, matching, and fitting floor covering, particularly at door openings, along irregular wall surfaces, and around permanent floor fixtures, such as columns or piping. He must take special care also in cutting out and setting in decorative designs in the flooring. After the flooring is installed, the craftsman runs a floor roller over it to insure good adhesion to the subfloor. The carpet craftsman, like the in staller of resilient floor coverings, first inspects the floor to be covered to determine its condition. Then he plans his layout carefully to mini mize waste of materials. He also al lows for expected foot-traffic pat terns so that best appearance and long wear will be obtained, and that carpet sections expected to receive heavy traffic can be replaced easily. When installing the carpet, the craftsman may fasten “tackless strip,” with adhesive or nails along the borders of the installation. (The strip secures the carpet when it is installed.) Instead of using this strip, the floor layer may use tacks to secure carpeting. Padding, which is placed under the carpet, is cut and placed within the framework of the strip and the carpet then placed approximately in position. If the carpet has not been precut and seamed by the floor covering firm, the installer will do this work before stretching the carpet into place. He then trims the edge of the carpet so that it will be held securely and smoothly by tacks or by nails pro truding from the border strip. Fin ishing touches may include the use of a special roller to obscure seam markings that may result when car pet sections are joined. Floor covering craftsmen gener ally specialize in installation of ei ther carpet or resilient floor cover ing, although some mechanics can install both types. Some may spe cialize even further. For example, the most skilled installers generally install the more expensive carpet ing, and the resilient sheet flooring with the most intricate designs. Many floor installers specialize also in the installation of resilient tile; others, resilient wall and counter coverings. The tools used by floor covering installers include hammers; pry bars; knives, shears, and other cut ting devices; measuring and mark ing tools, such as tape measures, compasses, straightedges, scribes, chalk, and chalklines; and a variety of specialized tools, such as notched adhesive trowels, carpet stretching devices, and floor rollers. Places of Employment Most floor covering installers are employed by flooring contractors who may specialize in commercial and industrial flooring work, in resi dential floor covering, or in specific types of installations such as resil ient tile. Many others work for re tailers of floor covering who also provide installation service. Floor covering installers also are em ployed by furniture and department stores that sell and install floor cov erings, as well as by home alteration and repair contractors. Heavy concentrations of these workers are found in large business centers where high levels of both 396 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK lation of resilient floor and wall cov ments and deaths alone are ex ering with training in the laying of pected to provide several hundred carpets. Other programs may be job openings annually through the limited to the installation of resilient 1970’s. The projected increase in em coverings. Training, Other Qualifications, Many workers in this trade have ployment of floor covering installers and Advancement acquired their skills through infor is expected mainly because of the In considering applicants for floor mal training methods, such as work anticipated expansion in construc covering installation jobs, employers ing as a trainee or laborer, and ob tion activity. (See discussion, p. are particularly interested in those serving or being taught by experi 375.) Moreover, the use of resilient having manual abilities. They prefer enced floor covering installers. floor coverings and wall-to-wall car applicants with a high school educa Many of these men also have gained peting will become more wide tion, but this qualification is not some knowledge of floor covering spread. More versatile materials generally required. Most employers installation by attending trade and colorful patterns are expected seek applicants between 17 and 30 school or manufacturers’ training to contribute to a growing demand years of age having at least average courses, and through home study. for floor coverings. For example, physical strength. A neat appear Many informal training programs epoxy materials, a relatively new ance and a pleasant business-like limit the trainee’s work experience floor covering material, is extremely manner are important attributes be to installation of resilient tile, or to durable and can be used in many cause the work is performed on the residential floor covering work of ways— as a solid floor covering to customer’s premises. limited complexity. This lack of be painted a variety of colors, or as Training authorities generally all-round experience, however, may an adhesive or base for laying resil recommend a 3- or 4-year appren be partially offset by trade school ient flooring. The best job opportunities will be ticeship program as the best way to and home-study courses and manu learn the floor covering trade. Most facturers’ training programs. A for floor installers having all-round apprenticeship programs include young man interested in becoming a training in the installation of resil 6,000 hours (3 years) or 8,000 floor covering installer should direct ient tile and sheet goods or carpet hours (4 years) of on-the-job train inquiries to several firms about their ing. ing in addition to related classroom training programs before accepting instruction. In these training pro employment as a trainee. grams, the trainee learns the tech Skilled floor covering installers Earnings and Working Conditions niques of floor covering installation may advance to the position of fore and how to handle the tools of the man or installation manager for a No national wage data on floor trade. Through work assignments large floor laying firm. Some be covering installers are available. with skilled craftsmen on a wide va come salesmen or estimators for However, wage information from a riety of floor covering jobs, he floor covering firms. Floor covering limited number of firms indicates learns to plan and execute different installers having business ability that, in 1970, most experienced types of jobs in a minimum of time may form their own firms and em floor layers were paid between and with the most efficient and dec ploy their own mechanics. $4.50 and $6.00 per hour, although orative use of materials. Most ap wage rates for skilled workers prentices are required to attend ranged from about $3.50 an hour in class twice a week to lparn about some areas to more than $7.00 an Employment Outlook the nature of the materials they will hour in others. Wage rates for these be using, and the use and care of Employment of floor covering in workers may also vary within an tools and equipment. They also stallers—estimated at about 40,000 area because of differences in level study the mathematics of layout in 1970—is expected to increase of skill or degree of work specializa work, interpretation of architectural rapidly through the 1970’s. Many tion. Starting wage rates for appren drawings, and planning and layout additional job openings will arise tices and other trainees usually are of floor covering installations. from the need to replace experi about half of the mechanic’s rate. Most floor covering craftsmen, Some apprenticeship programs enced workers who transfer to other may combine training in the instal occupations, retire, or die. Retire including those under union-man commercial and residential building prevail. 397 BUILDING TRADES agement agreements, are paid on an hourly basis. In some nonunion shops, part of the installer’s pay may be in the form of bonuses for work performed within a specified time period. In others, installers re ceive a monthly salary or are paid on the basis of the number of square feet or square yards of floor covering they install. Floor covering installers gener ally work regular daytime hours. Particular circumstances, however, such as installing a floor in a store, or office, may require work during evening hours or on weekends when stores and offices are not open for business. Floor covering installation work is usually not affected by weather conditions, since it is performed in doors. During the winter months, most work is done in heated build ings. Job hazards are not numerous, but installers frequently experience knee injuries because they do much of their work while kneeling; back injuries occur occasionally as a re sult of twisting and lifting on the job. Most of these injuries can be avoided, however, if proper work procedures are followed. Generally, an installer is assisted by a helper in heavy lifting, and usually he has proper equipm ent available to move heavy objects. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding floor covering apprenticeships or other work opportunities in this trade, inquiries should be directed to local flooring contractors or floor covering retailers; a local union of the United Brotherhood of Carpen ters and Joiners of America (in Eastern States); a local union of the International Brotherhood of Painters, and Allied Trades (in Western States); or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency or the Bureau of Appren ticeship and Training, U.S. Depart ment of Labor. In addition, the local office of the State employment service may be a source of informa tion about apprenticeship, the Man power Development and Training Act, and other programs that pro vide training opportunities. General information about the work of floor covering installers may be obtained from: Carpet and Rug Institute, Empire State Bldg., New York, N.Y. 10001. Asphalt and Vinyl Asbestos Tile Institute, 101 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. 401) applies mastic cement to the supporting backing and presses the glass into it. The glass may have to be trimmed with a glass cutter if it is not precut to specifications. Gla ziers generally install all types of structural glass, both interior and exterior, that is set or glazed with putty, moulding, rubber, and mas tic. For example, they install shower doors and bathtub enclosures, mir rors of all types, and window glass. These craftsmen also set a wide va riety of automatic doors, and fabri cated units constructed of glass that are installed in many buildings. In addition to handtools, such as glass cutters and putty knives, gla ziers use power cutting tools and grinders. Places of Employment GLAZIERS (D.O.T. 865.781) Nature of the Work Glaziers engaged in construction work cut, fit, and install plate glass, ordinary window glass, mirrors, and special items such as leaded glass panels. When installing glass, the glazier cuts the glass to size or uses precut glass. The glazier puts a bed of putty into the wood or metal sash (frames) and presses the glass into place. He fastens the glass using wire clips or triangular metal points and then places and smoothes another strip of putty on the outside edges of the glass to keep out moisture. When installing structural glass, which is used to decorate building fronts, walls, ceilings, and parti tions, the glazier (and sometimes the marble setter, see discussion, p. Most of the estimated 10,500 construction glaziers employed in 1970 worked for glazing contractors engaged in new construction, altera tion and modernization work, and on the replacement of broken glass, particularly for store windows. Some glaziers were employed by government agencies or business es tablishments which do their own construction work. About 12,500 glaziers worked outside the construction industry. Many are employed in factories where they install glass in sash, doors, mirror frames, and parti tions. Others, using skills similar to those used by glaziers, install glass or mirrors in furniture and ships or replace glass in automobiles. Training and Other Qualifications Most training authorities, includ ing the National Joint (labor-man agement) Glazier and Glassworker 398 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK the-job training in the glazing of wood and metal sash in doors, win dows, partitions, and other open ings; and the setting and replace ment of all types of store front in stallations, structural glass, mirrors, showcases, partitions and fixtures, and automobile glass. Hourly wage rates for glazier ap prentices usually start at 50 percent of the journeyman rate and increase periodically until the journeyman rate is reached at the completion of training. Employment Outlook Apprenticeship Committee, recom mend the completion of a 3-year apprenticeship program as the best way to learn the skills of the con struction glazier. A substantial pro portion of glaziers, however, have learned the trade informally. They have acquired their skills by work ing with experienced glaziers and observing or being taught by them. In smaller communities, many jour neymen painters and paperhangers also have learned to do glazier work as part of the apprentice training for their trade. Apprenticeship applicants gener ally are required to be at least 18 years of age, but they should not have reached their 26th birthday. Eligible veterans are exempt from the maximum age limit. A high school diploma or its equivalent is required. The apprenticeship program usu ally consists of 6,000 hours (3 years) of on-the-job training, in ad dition to a minimum of 144 hours a year of related classroom instruc tion. During the apprenticeship, the trainee learns how to use and han dle the tools, machines, and mate rials of the trade. Instruction is given in safety measures and first aid, and the reading of specifica tions and blueprints, and scaffold ing. The program also includes on- A rapid increase in employment of construction glaziers is expected through the 1970’s. In addition to new jobs created by employment growth, many job opportunities will result from the replacement of con struction glaziers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. The large increase anticipated in construction activity (see discus sion, p. 375) and the increasing use of glass in building construction are expected to result in more work for construction glaziers. Replacement and modernization work, frequently involving large glass installations, also will contribute to the demand for these workers. The long-range outlook for this occupation gener ally can be considered very favor able. Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates for construction glaziers aver aged $6.08, compared with $6.54 for all journeymen in the building trades, on July 1, 1970, according to a national survey of building trades workers in 68 large cities. Among individual cities surveyed, 399 BUILDING TRADES the union minimum hourly wage rate for construction glaziers ranged from $4.25 in Jackson, Miss., to $7.51 in Cleveland, Ohio. Straighttime hourly earnings, excluding fringe benefits or payments to health, insurance, or pension funds, for construction glaziers in 12 of the 68 cities selected to show wage rates from various regions and areas of the country, on July 1, 1970, ap pear in the accompanying tabula tion. C ity R a te p e r h o u r Albuquerque ........ ...................$4.45 Atlanta ................. ................... 5.15 Baltimore .............. ................... 5.30 Dallas ................... ................... 5.25 Detroit ................. ................... 6.92 Kansas C it y .......... ................... 5.92 Los A n g eles.......... ................... 7.03 Madison .................................... 5.20 Providence ............ ................... 5.42 San D ie g o .................................. 6.19 Spokane .................................... 5.34 T renton................. ................... 6.98 Glaziers are exposed to some hazards in their work, such as cuts from glass edges and sharp tools used in cutting glass, back injuries caused by lifting plate glass, and falls from scaffolding. However, employers and unions attempt to eliminate injuries by promoting safety training and procedures. A large proportion of glaziers employed in construction work are members of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding glazer apprenticeships or other work opportunities in this trade, in quiries should be directed to local glazing contractors or general con tractors; a local of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades; a local joint union-manage ment apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State ap prenticeship agency or the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addi tion, the local office of the State em ployment service may be a source of information about the Manpower Development and Training Act, ap prenticeship, and other training op portunities. General information about the work of glaziers may be obtained from the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades, 1925 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. LATHERS (D.O.T. 842.781) Nature of the Work Lathers install the support back ings on which plaster, stucco, or concrete materials are applied. These supports are usually of two types—metal lath (strips of ex panded metal or a metal wire mesh) or gypsum lath. The plaster easily adheres to either type of lath when mixed to the proper propor tion and consistency. When installing metal lath, the lathers first build a light metal framework (furring), which is fas tened securely to the structural framework of the building. On ceil ings or interior walls, the lath may be attached directly to the wood framework or partitions. Attach ment to the furring or framework may be done by nailing, clipping, tying, or machine stapling. As the lath is being installed, the lathers cut openings for electrical outlets and piping. Gypsum lath is installed in much the same way. These lath boards are usually 16 by 48 inches (% inch thick) and cover three studs (upright 2 by 4 inches framework, placed 16 inches on center). The gypsum lath is cut by using a lath hatchet to score one side, and then easily broken with a sharp blow on the opposite side. Openings for electrical outlets and other openings must be cut before attaching the lath to the wall or ceiling. 400 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Lathers also install wire mesh reinforcement in all inside angles and corners to prevent structural cracking. On outside or exposed corners, a metal reinforcement called a corner bead is attached as a guide for the plasterer. It provides protection and structural strength to the finished corner. Lathers also install the metal studs and framework for metal inte rior partitions which receive lath and plaster or gypsum board. They erect the light iron furring which supports acoustical ceilings. The method of installation varies slightly in other types of lath work. For example, when cornices or other ornamental plaster shapes are specified, the lather builds the framework that approximates the desired shape or form. Metal lath is then attached to the framework by the lather. When stucco (a mixture of portland cement and sand) is to be ap plied over wood framework, the lather installs two layers of wire mesh, separated by a layer of felt, to act as a base. The tools of the trade include measuring rules and tapes, drills, hammers, chisels, hacksaws, shears, wirecutters, boltcutters, punches, pliers, hatchets, stapling machines, and powder- or power-actuated fastening devices. Places of Employment Most lathers—who numbered about 30,000 in 1970—work for lathing and plastering contractors on new residential, commercial, or in dustrial construction. They also work on modernization and altera tion jobs. Some lathers also are em ployed outside the construction in dustry; for example, they make the lath backing for plaster display ma terials or scenery. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The National Joint (labor-man agement) Apprenticeship Commit tee for the Lathing Industry and many other training authorities rec ommend the completion of a mini mum of 2 years of apprenticeship as the best way to learn lathing. How ever, many lathers, particularly in small communities, have acquired skills informally, by working as helpers, observing or being taught by experienced lathers. Apprenticeship applicants gener ally are required to be between 16 and 26, and in good physical condi tion. Aptitude tests are often given to applicants to determine whether they have manual and finger dexter ity, as well as the other qualifica tions required. Apprentices gener ally must pass examinations that are given at the end of each 6-month period. During the apprenticeship period, the apprentice learns to use and handle the tools and materials of the trade. For example, he installs gyp sum lath, wall furring, and metal lathing. In addition, he generally re ceives related instruction in sub jects, such as applied mathematics, geometry, reading of blueprints and sketches, welding, estimating, and safety practices. Today, a high school education is encouraged, and education above grade school level, particularly courses in mathemat ics, is needed to understand the re lated instruction. Hourly wage rates for lather ap prentices usually start at 50 percent of the journeyman rate. The rate is increased periodically by 5 percent every third or fourth month until a rate of 85 percent is reached in the final quarter of the second year of training. Skilled and experienced lathers may become foremen. Others may be able to start their own lath con tracting business. Employment Outlook Employment of lathers is ex pected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s. In addition to new jobs created by employment growth, many job opportunities will result from the replacement of experi enced lathers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retire ments and deaths alone are ex pected to result in a few hundred job openings annually. Growth of the trade depends principally upon the anticipated large increase in construction activ ity. (See discussion p. 375.) More over, there will be a growing need for lathing work because of the in creasing use of new kinds of plaster and improved methods of applying plaster. Improved, lightweight plas ters are being used increasingly be cause of their excellent fireproofing qualities and ease of handling. There is also a trend toward the greater use of curved surfaces and ceilings made of plaster, both as a form of architectural treatment and to achieve special lighting and acoustical effects. The use of “plas ter veneer” as a surface finish is ex pected to expand because of time and cost economy. Machine plaster ing and fireproofing are growing in importance. Because these ma chines reduce the cost of plastering, their greater use should increase the demand for plaster work and for lathers. These developments are ex pected to more than offset the loss 401 BUILDING TRADES of lathing work resulting from the use of nonplaster (dry-wall) con struction. Earnings Union minimum hourly wage rates for lathers averaged $6.44, compared with $6.54 for all jour neymen in the building trades, on July 1, 1970, according to a na tional survey of building trades workers in 68 large citjes. Among individual cities surveyed, the mini mum hourly rates for lathers ranged from $4.45 in Tampa, Fla., to $8.56 in Cleveland, Ohio. Straighttime hourly earnings, excluding fringe benefits or payments to health, insurance or pension funds, for lathers in 12 of the 68 cities selected to present wage' data from various areas and regions of the country, on July 1, 1970, appear in the accompanying tabulation. C ity R a te p e r h o u r B oston ..................... .................$6.50 Des Moines ........... ................. 5.78 Knoxville ............... ................. 4.90 (gypsum 6.74 Los A ngeles............. (metal 6.22 Louisville ............... ................. 5.84 N ew a rk ................... ................. 6.65 Peoria ..................... ................. 6.58 Philadelphia ........... ................. 6.39 Rochester ............... ................. 7.23 Sacramento............. ................. 6.45 Shreveport ............. ................. 5.38 Washington, D.C. . ................. 5.98 A large proportion of lathers are members of The Wood, Wire and Metal Lathers International Union. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding lathers’ apprenticeships or other work opportunities in the trade, a young man should apply to a lathing contractor in his area; a local of The Wood, Wire, and Metal Lath ers International Union; a local joint labor-management apprentice ship committee; or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency or the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addition, the local office of the State employment service may be a source of information about the Manpower Development and Training Act, apprenticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. General information about the work of lathers may be obtained from: Contracting Plasterers’ and Lathers’ International Association, 304 Landmark Bldg., 1343 H St. NW , Washington, D.C. 20005. National Bureau for Lathing and Plastering, 938 K St. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20001. National Lathing Industries Joint Apprenticeship Program, 140 Main St., Annapolis, Md. 21401. The Wood, Wire and Metal Lath ers International Union, 6530 New Hampshire Ave., Takoma Park, Md. 20012. MARBLE SETTERS, TILESETTERS, AND TERRAZZO WORKERS (D.O.T. 861.381 and .781) Nature of the Work Marble setters, tilesetters, and terrazzo workers cover interior or exterior walls, floors, or other sur faces with marble, tile, or terrazzo. Craftsmen in each of these distinct trades work primarily with the ma terial indicated by their job title. Marble setters install marble, shop-made terrazzo panels and arti ficial marble, and structural glass in building interiors. The marble setter does little fabrication work because the marble and other materials are cut to size and polished before they are delivered to the worksite. How ever, he may do some minor cut ting to make the materials fit ex actly. In setting marble, he lays out the work, drills anchor holes in the marble for wall-work, fastens the nonferrous anchors to the marble, and then applies a special plaster mixture to the backing material and sets the marble pieces in place. When necessary, he braces the mar ble until the setting plaster has hardened. Special grout is packed into the joints between the marble pieces, and the joints are “pointed up” (slightly indented) with a pointing trowel or wooden paddle. Bolt holes have to be drilled if at tachments to the marble are neces sary, and for the installation of all marble toilet and shower compart ments. The setting of marble on floors involves the preparation of the portland cement mortar, apply ing sufficient mortar for one piece of marble, and then placing the marble on the mortar and tamping it to the proper elevation. The crafts man then removes the marble piece, brushes or trowels a coat of neat ce ment to the back surface and, finally, resets the piece of marble on the setting bed and retamps it to the proper line and elevation. Each marble setter has a helper to pre pare plaster, carry marble slabs, and clean the completed work. The tilesetter attaches tile (a thin slab of baked clay, stone, or other material) on walls, floors, or ceil ings according to blueprints or other instructions. For walls and ceilings, the tilesetter applies a setting bed to the surface or other support backing on which the tile is to be installed. 402 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Marble setter applies mortar to terrazzo panel. This setting bed consists of a coat of sand, cement, and a small amount of lime, plus a bond coat of pure Portland cement mixed with water, or one of a number of patented Portland cement mixtures. This bond coat is troweled directly on the mortar setting bed or is applied to the back of each individual tile immediately before the placement of the individual tiles to the setting bed. By using patented portland ce ment mixtures, one can wait for the setting bed to harden, and using the same procedure, set the tile on the hardened setting bed the following day or even the following week. Tiles are tapped into place on the setting bed with a trowel handle. In laying tile floors, the tilesetter ap plies the mortar setting bed on the floor, tamping the mortar firmly and screeding (leveling) the bed to the correct elevation. A bond coat of neat cement is then brushed or troweled to the setting bed or to the back of the tiles. The craftsman places the tile on the setting bed, and they are tapped firmly into the mortar. He chips the tile with a hammer and chisels or cuts it with pincers to make it fit into irregular areas, into corners, or around pipes. Small tiles, such as those laid in bathrooms, are available on paper backed strips and sheets that can be attached to the floor as a unit, using portland cement or various adhe sives. This eliminates the setting of individual tiles. The tilesetter usu ally is assisted by a helper who mixes mortar, sets up scaffolds, sup plies the setter with material, grouts (fills) the joints after the tile setting is completed, and cleans the com pleted work. Terrazzo is a type of ornamental concrete used mainly for floors. Marble chips are used as the coars est concrete ingredient. After the terrazzo hardens, it is ground and polished to give a smooth surface on which the marble chips are exposed against the background of the mate rial in which the chips are mixed. A terrazzo worker starts his work by laying a base of concrete mortar. He levels and tamps the concrete base with a long, flat tool called a straightedge. Then he places metal strips in the base wherever there is to be a joint or a change of color between panels or to create a pat tern, and imbeds their bottom edges in the base. If there is to be lettering or an ornamental figure, he also imbeds a shopmade mold. Finally, he mixes the top course of cement and marble chips, pours it onto the base, and rolls and levels it. A sepa rate mixture is made for each color. Where no concrete base is required, the craftsman mixes the marble chips with epoxy polyester resins, or latex, and this mixture is poured di rectly onto the floor. After the mix ture has hardened for a few days, a terrazzo helper grinds and polishes the floor with an electric-powered grinding machine. The terrazzo worker is assisted by helpers in the mixing and placing of the base course, but he alone does the leveling and placing of the metal strips. Helpers handle sand, cement, marble chips, and all other materials used by the terrazzo worker. They rub and clean marble, mosaic, and terrazzo floors and per form other work required in helping a terrazzo craftsman. The terrazzo worker generally supervises mixing of the top course that, along with the grinding, governs its final ap pearance. Places of Employment Marble setters, tilesetters, and 403 BUILDING TRADES terrazzo workers are employed mainly in new building construction and in the large urban areas. Sub stantial numbers of terrazzo workers are employed in Florida and California. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities, includ ing the national joint labor-manage ment apprenticeship committees that set the training standards in these trades, recommend the com pletion of a 3-year apprenticeship program as the best way to learn each of these trades. A substantial proportion of tilesetters, terrazzo workers, and marble setters, how ever, have acquired their skills in formally by working as helpers, ob serving, or being taught by experi enced craftsmen. its equivalent is desirable. Good physical condition and manual dex terity are important assets. Appli cants should have an eye for quickly determining proper alinements of tile, terrazzo, and marble, and have a good sense of color harmony. The apprenticeship programs in each of these trades generally con sist of 6,000 hours of on-the-job training, in addition to related class room instruction. In a typical 3-year training program for terrazzo workers, apprentices learn, among other things, to use, care for, and handle safely the tools, equipment, and materials commonly used in the trade; mix, place, tamp, and level concrete and terrazzo material; and select, set, and level metal dividing strips. The apprentice also learns the selection and placement of ma terials according to the design of the job; the rough and final finishing of bases and covers; and hand and machine rubbing. The apprentice receives related classroom instruction in blueprint reading, layout work, basic mathe matics, and shop practice. Hourly wage rates for appren tices in each of these trades start at about 50 or 60 percent of the jour neyman rate and increase periodi cally until 95 percent of the jour neyman rate is reached during the last period of apprentice training. Skilled and experienced tile, ter razzo, or marble setters may be come foremen. Others may be able to start their own small contracting businesses. Employment Outlook Apprenticeship applicants gener ally are required to be between 17 and 22; a high school education or Combined employment estimated at about 30,000 in 1970 in the three trades—marble setter, tilesetter, and terrazzo worker—is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. In addition, job opportuni ties will result from the need to re place experienced workers who transfer to other fields of work, re tire, or die. However, employment growth and retirements and deaths will provide only several hundred job openings annually. Total employment in these trades is expected to increase mainly be cause of the anticipated rapid ex pansion in construction activity. (See discussion, p. 375.) However, the rate of employment growth will vary sharply among these trades. The demand for terrazzo workers is expected to increase rapidly. Be cause terrazzo is durable and attrac tive, the number of terrazzo instal lations is expected to continue to in crease substantially. Growth of the trade also will be stimulated by the use of new terrazzo materials, espe cially epoxy and latex terrazzo. These products, which are lighter and occupy less space than cementbased terrazzo, are being used in creasingly, especially on the upper floors of multistoried buildings. A small number of skilled terrazzo workers have been recruited from abroad to meet shortages of these workers in some areas. A moderate increase is expected in the employment of tilesetters. Growth of this trade will be limited by the increasing use of competing materials, such as asphalt floor tile, structural glass, plastic tile, and plastic-coated wallboards, which usually are installed by workers other than tilesetters. Little change in the employment of marble setters is expected. How ever, the excellent properties of marble as a building material will insure its continued use and provide work for marble setters, despite the relatively higher costs of marble compared with competitive mate rials. 404 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Marble Setters’ Helpers and Marble Mosaic and Terrazzo Workers’ Helpers. Sources of Additional Information Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates for terrazzo workers averaged $6.46; for marble setters, $6.29; and for tilesetters $6.08; on July 1, 1970, according to a national survey of building trades workers in 68 large cities. These rates compared with the average of $6.54 for all journeymen in the building trades. Among the individual cities sur veyed, the minimum hourly rates for terrazzo workers ranged from $4.50 in Norfolk, Va., to $8.09 in Cleveland, Ohio. For marble set ters, the hourly rates ranged from $4.50 in Norfolk, Va., to $8.16 in Cleveland, Ohio. The rates for tile setters ranged from $4.50 in Nor folk, Va., to $8.09 in Cleveland, Ohio. Straight time hourly earnings, excluding fringe benefits or pay ments to health, insurance, or pen sion funds, for marble setters, tile setters, and terrazzo workers in 12 of the 68 cities selected to show wage rates from various areas and regions of the country, on July 1, 1970, appear in the accompanying tabulation. R a te s p e r h o u r M a r b le s e tte r s T ile s e tte r s T erra zzo w o rk ers Atlanta . . . . . . .$5.20 Baltimore . . . . . 6.60 B oston ........ . . . 6.40 Chicago . . . . . . 6.55 Dallas ........ . . . 5.25 Denver . . . . . . . 5.55 Detroit ......... . . 8.04 Little Rock . . .. 4.70 New Orleans .. 5.75 Sacramento . Spokane . . . . . . 6.16 Toledo . . . . . . . 7.66 $5.20 5.39 6.75 6.55 5.60 5.55 7.00 4.70 5.30 6.00 5.81 6.44 $5.20 5.39 6.40 6.55 5.60 5.55 6.77 4.70 5.30 7.73 6.00 6.44 C ity Marble setters and terrazzo workers work both indoors and out doors, depending on the types of in stallation. Tilesetters work mostly indoors. A large proportion of the workers in each of these trades are mem bers of one of the following unions —Bricklayers, Masons and Plaster ers’ International Union of Amer ica; and International Association of Marble, Slate and Stone Polishers, Rubbers and Sawyers, Tile and For further information regarding apprenticeship or other work oppor tunities in these trades, inquiries should be directed to local tile, ter razzo and marble setting contractors or to locals of the unions previously mentioned. In addition, the local office of the State employment serv ice may be a source of information about the Manpower Development and Training Act, apprenticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. General information about the work of marble setters, tilesetters, and terrazzo workers may be ob tained from: Bricklayers, Masons and Plasterers’ International Union of America, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. International Association of Marble, Slate and Stone Polishers, Rubbers and Sawyers, Tile and Marble Setters’ Helpers and Marble Mosaic and Terrazzo Workers’ Helpers, 821 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. National Terrazzo and Mosaic As sociation, Inc., 716 Church St., Alexandria, Va. 22314. Tile Contractors’ Association of America, Inc., 112 North Alfred St., Alexandria, Va. 22314. BUILDING TRADES OPERATING ENGINEERS (CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY OPERATORS) (D.O.T. 850.782 through .887; 851.883 and .887; 852.883; 853.782 and .883; 859.782; and 859.883) Nature of the Work Operating engineers operate and maintain various types of powerdriven construction machinery. These machines include power shovels, cranes, derricks, hoists, pile drivers, concrete mixers, paving machines, trench excavators, bull dozers, tractors, and pumps. Oper ating engineers often are identified by the types of machines they oper ate; for example, craneman, bull dozer operator, derrick operator, or heavy equipment mechanic. These craftsmen have a wide range of skills, working with many different machines—some complex and oth ers relatively simple. The range of 405 skills may be described by discuss ing the duties of an engineer who operates a crane and one who op erates an earth-boring machine. The crane operator manipulates various pedals and levers to rotate the crane on its chassis and to raise and lower the crane boom and the loadline. The operator also manipu lates a number of different attach ments to the crane boom for various construction purposes. For exam ple, he manipulates buckets for ex cavation work; pile drivers to drive steel beams, wood, and concrete pil ing into the ground; and wrecking balls for demolition work. Good eye-hand-foot coordination, preci sion handling of heavy equipment, and judgment in estimating proper load size are essential aptitudes for a crane operator. In contrast, earthboring machines that dig holes for poles or posts require less skilled operators to set the proper auger (drill) in the spindle, start the machine, and stop the auger when it has penetrated to the correct depth. Although skills vary, the trend is toward more versatility. An individ ual who desires steady employment, particularly in construction, should know how to operate several differ ent types of equipment. Operators prefer to work on more complex machines because wage rates for operating such machines are higher. Places of Employment An estimated 310,000 operating engineers were employed as exca vating, grading, and road machinery operators in 1970. In addition, thousands of operating engineers were employed for other types of construction machinery, including cranes, derricks, hoists, diesel en gines, air-compressors, trench-pipe layers, and dredges. Most operating engineers are em ployed by contractors engaged in highway, dam, airport, and other large-scale engineering projects. They are employed in excavating, grading, landscaping and in hoisting concrete, steel, and other building materials. Others are employed by utility companies, manufacturers, and other business firms that do their own construction work, as well as by State and local public works and highway departments. Rela tively few operating engineers are self-employed. Those few 'are usu ally owner-operators of construction equipment, such as bulldozers, small cranes, and backhoes. In addition to employment in construction work, operating engi neers operate cranes, hoists, and other power-driven machinery in factories and mines. In some cases, the duties of operating engineers in nonconstruction jobs are about the same as those in construction work. For example, operation of a crane to unload cars of coal at a factory is 406 very similar to operation of a crane to unload barges of sand and gravel for a street paving job. On the other hand, the work of a steel pourer (craneman) in a steel mill differs considerably from that of a crane operator in the construction indus try. Construction machinery opera tors are employed in every section of the country. Their work, how ever, may often take them to re mote locations where highways and heavy engineering projects, such as dams are being built. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities, includ ing the National Joint (labor-man agement) Apprenticeship and Training Committee for Operating Engineers, recommend completion of a 3-year apprenticeship as the best way to qualify for journeyman operating engineer. Apprenticeship standards provide training in the following equipment: (1) Universal equipment (hoists, shovels, cranes, and related equipment), (2) grad ing and paving equipment, and (3) plant equipment (such as material mixing and crushing machines). These standards also provide for training of heavy-duty construction machinery repairmen. The apprenticeship program for each classification consists of at least 6,000 hours (3 years) of onthe-job training. Training is given by a lead engineer, a journeyman, or a master mechanic. In a typical uni versal equipment program, the ap prentice learns to use, maintain, and handle safely the equipment and tools of the trade; set grade stakes; and read plans and instructions. He also learns the different types of greases and oils and to use welding OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK and cutting equipment. In addition to on-the-job training, the program includes a minimum of 144 hours a year of related classroom instruc tion in subjects such as reading grade plans, elements of electricity, physics, welding, and automotive maintenance. Apprenticeship applicants gener ally must be between 18 and 30; physically able to perform the work; have a high school education or its equivalent; and the ability and apti tude to master the trade. Hourly wage rates for appren tices start at a stipulated proportion of the journeyman rate (at least 65 percent in most cases), and increase periodically until the journeyman rate is reached at the completion of the apprenticeship. Many men having mechanical ap titude enter this occupation as oilers (operating engineer’s assistants) or as helpers to heavy equipment re pairmen. These workers learn to re pair and maintain machinery. In time, they may receive operating in struction on the equipment from ex perienced operators. Some men having mechanical ex perience, such as that obtained from operating farm equipment, may get jobs operating the simpler construc tion machines. The all-round knowledge necessary to obtain con tinuous employment is obtained best through a formal apprentice ship program. Employment Outlook Employment of construction ma chinery operators is expected to in crease rapidly through the 1970’s. Thousands of additional job oppor tunities will result from the replace ment of experienced workers who transfer to other fields of work, re tire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone are expected to provide a few thousand job openings annually. The rapid rise in employment of operating engineers will occur mainly because of the anticipated growth in construction activity and the growing volume of highway con struction resulting from the longrange multibillion dollar highway program (see discussion, p. 375). Job opportunities also will result 407 BUILDING TRADES from the need to maintain and re pair the highway system. The increasing use of construc tion machinery shows every indica tion of continuing. More specialized machines, particularly earth-moving and smaller machines for small con struction projects, are expected to be used. The increasing mechaniza tion of materials movement in facto ries and mines also should result in growing employment of operating engineers outside of construction. Technological improvements are expected to limit somewhat the growth in employment of construc tion machinery operators. For ex ample, mobile truck cranes now can lift 125 tons to a height of 330 feet (equivalent to a 33-story building) and travel at speeds up to 35 m.p.h. Scrapers in use can scoop and carry from 75 to 150 tons of dirt in one load. Many types of laborsaving equipment, which combine the func tions of several conventional ma chines, are expected to gain wide spread use in the next decade. One example is the slipform paver that spreads, vibrates, forms, and fin ishes concrete paving in one contin uous operation. Also, a pipelaying machine digs a trench, lowers the pipe into the trench, and fills the trench after the pipes are con nected. Electronic controls on construc tion equipment are being used in creasingly. Electronic grade controls on highway paving equipment re sults in smoother pavements and greater efficiency. Earnings and Working Conditions Operating engineers have a more complicated wage structure than any other construction trade. Hourly rates are established for op erators of machines of different types, for machines of the same type but different capacity, for the same machine in different types of con struction, and for the same work in different parts of the country. Crane operators, who generally are among the highest paid con struction machinery operators, had union minimum hourly rates rang ing from $4.70 in Birmingham, Ala., to $8.35 in Trenton, N.J., on July 1, 1970, according to a na tional survey of building trades workers in 68 large cities. The rates for bulldozer operators ranged from $3.90 in Norfolk and Richmond, Va., to $7.85 in Cleveland, Ohio. Straight-time hourly earnings, ex cluding fringe benefits or payments to health, insurance, or pension funds, for crane operators and bull dozer operators in 12 of the 68 cit ies selected to show wage rates from various areas and regions of the country, on July 1, 1970, appear in the accompanying tabulation. R a te p e r h o u r C ity C ran e B u lld o z e r o p e r a to r o p e r a to r Baltimore ......... ...........$6.02 Boston ............... ........... 6.94 Cincinnati ......... ........... 6.94 D en v er............... ........... 5.25 Erie ................... ........... 7.58 Houston ........... ........... 5.60 Los Angeles . . . ........... 6.91 Milwaukee . . . . ........... 7.04 Omaha ............... ........... 6.13 Phoenix ............. .......... 6.74 San Diego ......... ........... 6.76 Tampa ............... .......... 6.06 $5.22 6.82 6.74 5.25 7.58 5.60 6.91 6.79 5.78 6.50 6.66 4.85 The operating engineer works outdoors; consequently, he usually works steadily during the warmer months and experiences slow pe riods during the colder months. The operation of some machines, partic ularly bulldozers and some types of scrapers, is physically tiring because the constant movement of the machine shakes or jolts the opera tor. A large proportion of operating engineers are members of the Inter national Union of Operating Engi neers. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding operating engineer apprenticeships or work opportunities in this occu pation, inquiries should be directed to local general contractors; a local of the International Union of Oper ating Engineers; a local joint ap prenticeship committee; or the near est office of the State apprenticeship agency or the Bureau of Appren ticeship and Training, U.S. Depart ment of Labor. In addition, the local office of the State employment service may be a source of informa tion about the Manpower Develop ment and Training Act, apprentice ship, and other programs that pro vide training opportunities. General information about the work of operating engineers may be obtained from: Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. PAINTERS AND PAPERHANGERS (D.O.T. 840.131, .381, .781, .884, and .887 and 841.781) Nature of the Work Painting and paperhanging are separate, skilled building trades, al- 408 though many craftsmen in these trades do both types of work. Both apply finishes to walls and other building surfaces. However, the ma terials they use, and the method of application, differ. The painter applies coats of paint or other materials to either interior or exterior building surfaces (and other structures), for the purpose of decorating or protecting them. Other finishes can include varnish, stains, enamel, and lacquer. On the other hand, the paperhanger covers interior walls and ceilings of rooms with decorative wallpaper, fabric, vinyls, or other materials. One of the primary duties of the painter—especially if he is repaint ing—is to prepare the surface to be painted. He must remove loose paint, either by scraping or by heat ing with a blowtorch and then scraping. He must also remove grease, fill nail holes and cracks, sandpaper rough spots, and brush off dust. Usually, in painting new surfaces, he must cover them with a prime coat or scaler to provide a suitable surface or base. He applies paint to many kinds of materials, in cluding wood, structural steel, and clay products, generally by using a brush, spray gun, or roller. A painter must be skilled in han dling brushes and other painting tools so that he can apply paint thoroughly, uniformly, and rapidly to any type of surface. He must be able to mix paints and match colors, using a knowledge of paint compo sition and color harmony. He also must know the characteristics of common types of paints and finishes from the standpoints of durability, suitability for different purposes, and ease of handling and applica tion. Painters often use spray guns to paint those surfaces or objects on which it is difficult to use a brush, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK such as lattices, cinder and concrete block, and metal fencing. They use them also on large areas that can be sprayed with a minimum of prepa ration. The painter also sometimes uses a roller (a rotating applicator covered with soft material), rolling the applicator over the surface to be covered. Painters must know how to erect the scaffolding from which they often work, including “swing stages” (scaffolds suspended by ropes or cables attached to roof hooks) and “bosun chairs,” which they use when working on tall buildings and other structures. The paperhanger’s first step is preparing the surface which he will cover. In undertaking new work, he applies “sizing,” a prepared mate rial that makes the plaster less po rous and assures better sticking of the paper to the surface. In doing redecorating work, he may have to remove old paper by soaking or—if there arc many layers—by steam ing. Frequently, it is also necessary for paperhangers to do minor plas ter patching in order to get a smooth base for the covering mate rial After he has prepared the wall, the paperhanger measures the area to be covered. He first cuts a length from the roll of wallpaper, and carefully positions the patterns so they will match at the ceiling and baseboard. He next mixes a paste and applies it to the reverse side of the paper. He then places the paste-coated paper strip on the wall, smoothing it into place with his hand and a dry brush. The paperhanger removes air bubbles by smoothing the paper strip toward the outer edges. In this final step, the craftsman matches the adjacent edges of the patterned paper, cuts and fits the horizontal edges at ceil ing and base; smooths the scams be tween strips with a roller or other special tool; and makes a thorough inspection for air bubbles and other 409 BUILDING TRADES imperfections in the work. Then he is ready to place the next wallpaper strip. When working with wall cov erings other than paper, the paperhanger follows the same general procedure. Places of Employment Many painters and paperhangers work for contractors engaged in new construction. Substantial num bers of painters and paperhangers also are employed by contractors to do repair, alteration, or moderniza tion work on existing structures. Hotels, office buildings, shipyards, utility companies, manufacturing firms, schools and other government units, and other organizations that own or manage extensive property holdings commonly employ mainte nance painters. When interior redec orating involves wall papering, as in hotels or apartment buildings, maintenance painters also may do the required paperhanging. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities, includ ing the National Joint (labor-man agement) Painting and Decorating Apprenticeship and Training Com mittee recommend the completion of a 3-year formal apprenticeship as the best way to become a journey man painter or paperhanger. A substantial proportion of painters and paperhangers, however, have learned the trade informally, work ing as helpers or handymen to expe rienced craftsmen or by observing them or being taught by them. Workers without formal apprentice training have gained acceptance as journeymen more easily in these crafts than in most of the other building trades. Apprentice applicants generally are required to be between 16 and 25 and in good physical condition. A high school education is pre ferred, although not essential. Ap plicants should have manual dexter ity and a discerning color sense. They should not be allergic to paint fumes or to the other materials used in these trades, such as varnish, tur pentine, and lacquer. The apprenticeship for painters and paperhangers generally consists of 6,000 hours (3 years) of onthe-job training, in addition to 144 hours a year of related classroom instruction. Many apprenticeships combine painting and paperhanging. In a typical 3-ycar training pro gram, the apprentice learns, among other things, to use, care for, and handle safely the tools, machines, equipment, and materials commonly used in the trade. He must also learn how to prepare surfaces (in cluding sizing, sandpapering, and patching walls); match and mix col ors; and apply various types of inte rior and exterior materials (includ ing stain, lacquer, enamel, oil, and varnish). He must also learn how to erect scaffolding. In addition, the apprentice re ceives related classroom instruction in such diverse subjects as color harmony; paint chemistry; estimat ing costs; and making, mixing, and matching paints. He also learns the relationship between painting and paperhanging and the work per formed by the other building trades craftsmen. Hourly wage rates for appren tices usually start at 50 percent of the journeyman rate and increase periodically until the journeyman rate of pay is reached upon comple tion of apprenticeship. Painters and paperhangers may advance to foreman. They also may advance to jobs as estimators for painting and decorating contractors —computing material requirements and labor costs. Some may become superintendents on large contract painting jobs, or they may establish their own businesses as painting and decorating contractors. Employment Outlook Employment of painters—esti mated at about 385,000 in 1970— is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s. In addition to employment growth, thousands of job openings will arise from the re placement of experienced painters who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone are expected to provide more than 10,000 job openings annually. The large rise anticipated in con struction activity (see discussion, p. 375) is expected to result in a grow ing demand for painters. Moreover, recently developed paints, such as polyester and vinyl coatings and epoxys, that are heat-, abrasion-, and corrosion-resisting have re sulted in new uses for paints and additional job opportunities for painters. Furthermore, a growing number of painters arc expected to be needed in the maintenance de partments of large industrial and commercial firms. Technological developments are expected to limit the growth of em ployment among painters. New types of paint that are more easily applied and have improved “cover ing power” have made it easier for inexperienced workers to do work that is acceptable to some custom ers. Other paints now being intro duced promise to lengthen the “life” of present-day paints. Spray paint- 410 ing requires fewer painters to do the same amount of work. In addition, many items formerly painted at the building site now come from a fac tory with a prime coat and often with a final coat. Aluminum build ing products, which often require no painting, have been used increas ingly in recent years. Employment of paperhangers— estimated at about 5,000 in 1970 —is expected to increase by a few thousand through the 1970’s. In ad dition, some job openings will result from the replacement of experi enced paperhangers who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone are expected to result in a few hundred job openings annually. Growth in the employment of paperhangers is expected to result mainly from the anticipated increase in construction activity. Also, more widespread use of fabric, plastic, and other types of wall covering ap plied by paperhangers should con tribute to the demand for these workers. On the other hand, the use of paints for interior walls, as well as wallpapers designed for easier application by “do-it-yourselfers,” will tend to limit the employment growth of paperhangers. Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates for painters and paperhangers in 68 large cities averaged $5.95 and $6.02, respectively, on July 1, 1970, according to a national survey of building trades workers. In com parison, the average rate for all journeymen in the building trades was $6.54 an hour. Among individ ual cities surveyed the minimum hourly rates for painters ranged from $3.65 in Richmond, Va., to $7.06 in Cleveland, Ohio. The rates OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK for paperhangers ranged from $3.65 in Richmond, Va., to $7.09 in Dayton, Ohio. Straight-time hourly earnings, excluding fringe benefits or payments to health, insurance or pension funds, for painters and pa perhangers in 12 of the 68 cities se lected to show wage rates from vari ous areas and regions of the coun try, on July 1, 1970, appear in the accompanying tabulation. C ity R a te p e r h o u r P a in te r s Atlanta ................. Boston ................. Chicago ............... C incinnati............. Detroit ................. Houston ............... N ew ark ................. New Orleans........ Philadelphia ......... Salt Lake City . .. San Diego ........... Spokane ............... . $5.95 . 6.08 . 6.35 . 6.23 . 7.00 . 5.34 . 6.00 . 4.38 . 5.22 . 4.87 . 6.49 . 6.17 P a p erh a n g ers $6.20 6.35 6.83 7.00 5.44 4.38 5.34 5.07 6.99 6.17 Their work often requires painters and paperhangers to stand for long periods of time, to climb, and to bend. A painter must have strong arms because much of the work is done with arms raised over head. Painters and paperhangers risk injury from slips or falls from ladders and scaffolds. A large proportion of painters and paperhangers are members of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades. A few are members of other unions. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding painting and paperhanging appren ticeships or other work opportuni ties in these trades, inquiries should be directed to local painting and decorating contractors; a local of the International Brotherhood of Painters and Allied Trades; a local joint union-management apprentice ship committee; or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency or the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addition, the local office of the State employment service may be a source of information about the Manpower Development and Training Act, apprenticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. General information about the work of painters and paperhangers may be obtained from: International Brotherhood of Paint ers and Allied Trades, 1925 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. Painting and Decorating Contrac tors Association of America, 2625 West Peterson Ave., Chicago, 111. 60605. PLASTERERS (D.O.T. 842.381 and .781) Nature of the Work The plasterer is the building craftsman who applies a plaster coating to interior walls and ceilings to form fire-resistant and relative sound-proof surfaces, which then may be decorated with paint or wallpaper covering. They also apply more durable cement plaster or stucco to exterior walls, and form and cast ornamental designs in plas ter. In interior work, the plasterer usually applies three distinct coats of plaster—scratch, brown, and finish, to ceilings and walls. On wire or metal lath (backing to which plaster readily adheres), he applies the initial or scratch coat directly, then scratching it with a special rak 411 BUILDING TRADES ing tool before it “sets” (hardens). He then allows it to set a day or more before applying the brown coat, or second layer of plaster. On gypsum lath or masonry walls, he may use the same procedure; how ever, the brown coat can usually be applied immediately after the scratch coat has been completed. The plasterer uses a hawk (a square plate of lightweight metal with a handle, about 14 by 14 inches), which holds several trowel fuls of material, and a trowel to apply the wet material. While applying the brown coat, the plas terer plumbs and straightens cor ners, angles, and wall and ceiling surfaces, using a straightedge, rod, or beveledge. The craftsman then uses a darby (a wood or metal float with handles, about 4 by 42 inches) to bring the main body of the walls and ceiling to a smooth and uniform finish. The brown coat is allowed to start its initial set and is then floated (rubbed lightly using a circular mo tion) using a wood hand float with slightly protruding nails. The nails scratch the undercoat which, in turn leaves the undercoat coarse and provides greater adhesion for the final finish coat. Before applying the finish, or white coat, the craftsman must allow the brown coat to dry for sev eral days. During cold weather, use of heat may be necessary to prevent the freezing and failure of materials, and to aid the plaster in drying. When the plasterer considers the brown-coated walls ready for the final coat, he mixes the white coat on a plaster board. He mixes only enough material, however, to cover an area to which he can apply a proper finish. The “white coat” is a relatively thin covering, which the craftsman must apply carefully and quickly, and finish smoothly with a trowel, brush, and water before the mixture has time to set. This cover ing sets very quickly, and in a few days dries to a very durable and hard finish. The craftsman may finish wall surfaces in a number of ways by using different tools, methods, or materials. In place of a white coat as described above, he may use a variety of decorative textures, such as stipple (dots), swirl, and sand fin ishes, or colored interior stucco fin ishes. A plasterer may perform more complex types of plastering work, such as decorative and ornamental plastering. For example, he may be called upon to mold or form intri cate ornamental designs such as cornices, paneling, or recesses for indirect lighting. Plasterers who do this type of work must be able to follow blueprints and other specifi cations furnished by the architect. In exterior stucco work, the plas terer applies a mixture of portland cement and sand to masonry, ex panded metal, or metal wire lath in the same manner as he would in plastering interior surfaces. The finish coat usually consists of either a mixture of white cement and sand or a patented finish material, which may both be applied in a variety of colors and textures. Also, marble or gravel chips may be imbedded into the soft plaster to form a textured surface. Apprentice plasterers work with journeymen so that they may ac quire a full knowledge of the craft and develop the necessary skills. Laborers (hod carriers) also work with plasterers, mixing base coat materials and some finish materials, and carrying them to the plasterer. They also erect scaffolding when needed. In recent years, plasterers have been making increasing use of machines that spray plaster on walls, ceilings, and structural sec tions of buildings. These machines are particularly desirable when used to apply the newly developed light weight plasters. Machines used to mix plaster have been in general use for many years. Places of Employment Most plasterers work on new construction. In addition, these craftsmen work on extensive build ing alterations, particularly where special architectural and lighting ef fects are part of the building moder nization. Some work for plasterers is found in the repair and mainte nance of older buildings. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities, includ ing the National Plastering Industry Joint (labor-management) Appren ticeship and Training Committee, recommend completion of a 3- or 4-year apprenticeship as the best way to learn plastering. However, many workers in this trade have ac quired some plastering skills by working as helpers or laborers, ob 412 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK serving or being taught by experi enced plasterers. Apprentice applicants in this trade generally are required to be between 17 and 25, but this re quirement may be waived for veter ans. Good physical condition and manual dexterity are important as sets. Apprenticeship programs gener ally consist of 6,000 to 8,000 hours (3 or 4 years) of on-the-job train ing, in addition to at least 144 hours of related classroom instruction an nually. In a typical 4-year training program, the apprentice learns, among other things, to use and han dle the tools of the trade, and the properties and appropriate handling of the different kinds of materials and mixtures used in plastering. In addition, he learns how to apply scratch (first) coat and brown (sec ond) coat; aline walls and beams to given measurements; apply white coat and sand finish; install acousti cal plaster and stucco, and acousti cal tile, cork, and similar materials; use machines to apply and finish plaster; and lay out arches and ceil ings. He also learns texture finish ing. The apprentice receives class room instruction in such subjects as drafting, blueprint reading, and mathematics applicable to layout work. In the classroom and on the job, the apprentice becomes famil iar with the work of other trades so that he may determine, for example, whether lathing, or other prepara tory work is satisfactory. Plasterers may advance to fore man, superintendent, or estimator for a plastering contractor. Many plasterers are self-employed and they may employ other plasterers. ment of plasterers—estimated at about 35,000 in 1970— is expected during the 1970’s. In addition, re placement of experienced plasterers who transfer to other fields of work or who retire or die will provide many job openings for new workers. Retirements and deaths alone are expected to result in several hundred job openings annually. The growth in employment of these workers will result primarily from anticipated large increases in construction activity. (See discus sion, p. 375.) In addition, recent changes in plastering materials and improvement in methods of apply ing these materials are creating work opportunities for plasterers by in creasing the scope of the craft. For example, improved lightweight plas ters are being used increasingly be cause of their excellent soundproof ing and fireproofing qualities. Also, expanding job opportunities for plasterers is the growing use of curved surfaces and ceilings made of plaster, both to achieve a form of architectural treatment and also special lighting and acoustical ef fects. Plastering and fireproofing by machine have been widespread. Still other developments are the increas ing use of “plaster veneer” or “high density” plaster, a thin, extremely hard material used to create a finished surface, and “marblecrete,” a type of stucco in which vari colored marble chips have been im bedded. However, the growth in employ ment resulting from these favorable developments will be countered by the continuing use of nonplaster (dry-wall) construction, installed by craftsmen other than plasterers. Earnings and Working Conditions Employment Outlook A slow increase in the employ Union minimum hourly rates for plasterers averaged $6.35, com pared with $6.54 for all journeymen in the building trades, on July 1, 1970, according to a national survey of building trades workers in 68 cities. Among individual cities sur veyed, the minimum hourly rates for plasterers ranged from $4.25 in Charlotte, N.C., to $8.56 in Cleve land, Ohio. Straight-time hourly earnings, excluding fringe benefits or payments to health, insurance, or pension funds, for plasterers in 12 of the 68 cities selected to show wage rates from various areas and regions of the country, on July 1, 1970, ap pear in the accompanying tabula tion. City Birmingham ........... C hicago................... Dayton ................... Detroit ................... Grand Rapids . . . . Little R o c k ............. Madison ................. New Haven ........... New Orleans ......... Philadelphia ........... Sacramento............. Spokane ................. Rate per hour .................$4.82 ................. 7.00 ................. 6.95 ................. 6.84 ................. 6.77 ................. 5.04 ................. 6.20 ................. 6.55 ................. 5.20 ................. 6.19 ................. 6.30 ................. 6.49 Plastering requires considerable standing, stooping, and lifting. Plas terers work both outdoors doing stucco work, and indoors plastering walls and ceilings and forming and casting ornamental designs. A large proportion of plasterers are members of unions. They are represented by either the Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ In ternational Association of the United States and Canada, or the Bricklayers, Masons and Plasterers’ International Union of America. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding plastering apprenticeships or other work opportunities in the trade, in quiries should be directed to local 413 BUILDING TRADES plastering contractors; locals of the unions previously mentioned; a local joint union-management ap prenticeship committee; or the near est office of the State apprenticeship agency or the Bureau of Appren ticeship and Training, U.S. Depart ment of Labor. In addition, the local office of the State employment service may be a source of informa tion about the Manpower Develop ment and Training Act, apprentice ship, and other programs that pro vide training opportunities. General information about the work of plasterers may be obtained from: Bricklayers, Masons and Plasterers’ International Union of America, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. International Association of Wall and Ceiling Contractors, 20 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20001. National Bureau for Lathing and Plastering, 938 K St. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20001. Although plumbing and pipefit ting are sometimes considered to be a single trade, journeymen can spe cialize in either craft, particularly in large cities. Water, gas, and waste disposal systems, especially those connected to public utility systems, are installed by plumbers. These in stallations are made in residential and commercial buildings, schools, industrial plants, and other struc tures. In homes, for example, plumbers initially “rough in” (in stall) the pipe system as the building progresses. During the final con struction stages, they install the heating and air conditioning units, and connect radiators, water heat ers, and plumbing fixtures, such as bathtubs and sinks. Pipefitters install both high- and low-pressure pipes that carry hot water, steam, and other liquids and gases, especially those in industrial and commercial buildings and de fense establishments such as missile launching and testing sites. Pipefit ters, for example, install ammonia carrying pipelines in refrigeration plants, complex pipe systems in oil refineries and chemical and food processing plants, and pipelines for carrying compressed air and in dustrial gases in many types of in dustrial establishments. Some plumbers and pipefitters specialize in gas fitting, steam fit ting, or sprinkler fitting. Gas fitters install and maintain the gas fittings and the central gas main extensions that connect the main gas line with those leading to homes. Steamfitters assemble and install steam or hot water systems for commercial and industrial uses. Sprinkler fitters in stall and maintain all types of fixed piping fire extinguishing systems. Plumbers and pipefitters use a Operative Plasterers’ and Cement Masons’ International Association of the United States and Canada, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. PLUMBERS AND PIPEFITTERS (D.O.T. 862.381) Nature of the Work Plumbers and pipefitters are craftsmen who install pipe systems that carry water, steam, air, or other liquids or gases needed for sanita tion, industrial production, or other uses. They also alter and repair ex isting pipe systems and install plumbing fixtures, appliances, and heating and refrigerating units. Plumbers use auger to clean waste line. 414 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK variety of skills when installing pipe systems. For example, they bend pipe and weld, braze, calk, solder, or thread joints. After a pipe system is installed, the plumber or pipefit ter tests for leaks by filling the pipes with liquid or gas under pressure. Plumbers and pipefitters use wrenches, reamers, drills, braces and bits, hammers, chisels, saws, and other handtools. Power ma chines often are used to cut, bend, and thread pipes. Hand-operated hydraulic pipe benders are also used. In addition, plumbers and pipefitters use gas or acetylene torches and welding, soldering, and brazing equipment in their work. Places of Employment Most plumbers and pipefitters are employed by plumbing and pipefit ting contractors in new construction activity, mainly at the construction site. A substantial proportion of plumbers are self-employed or work for plumbing contractors doing re pair, alteration, or modernization work. Some plumbers install and maintain pipe systems for govern ment agencies and public utilities, and some work on the construction of ships and aircraft. Others do maintenance work in industrial and commercial establishments. Pipefit ters, in particular, are employed as maintenance personnel in the petro leum, chemical, and food-processing industries where the industrial oper ations include the processing of fluids through pipes. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities, includ ing the national joint labor-manage ment apprenticeship committees for the plumbing and pipefitting indus tries, recommend a formal 5-year apprenticeship for plumbers or for pipefitters as the best way to learn all aspects of these trades. A large number of plumbers and pipefitters, however, have acquired plumbing and pipefitting skills informally by working for several years with craftsmen, and by observing and re ceiving instruction from them. Many of these persons have gained some knowledge of their trade by taking trade or correspondence school courses. Apprentice applicants generally are required to be between 16 and 25, and in good physical condition. A high school education or its equivalent, including courses in mathematics, physics, and chemis try, is generally recommended. Ap plicants often are required to take aptitude tests, particularly to deter mine whether they have the high degree of mechanical aptitude re quired in this field. Most apprentice training pro grams for plumbers and pipefitters are conducted under written agree ments between the apprentices and local joint apprenticeship commit tees, composed of union and man agement representatives, who su pervise the training. The appren ticeship committee determines the need for apprentices in the locality, establishes minimum apprenticeship standards of training and, if neces sary, schedules a rotating work pro gram. This program is designed to give the apprentice diversified train ing by having him work for several plumbing or pipefitting contractors. The apprenticeship program for plumbers or for pipefitters usually consists of 10,000 hours of on-thejob training, in addition to at least 144 hours of related classroom in struction annually. In a typical 5year training program, the plumber or pipefitter apprentice learns, among other things, how to use, care for, and handle safely the tools, machines, equipment, and materials used in the trades. They also learn welding and soldering techniques 415 BUILDING TRADES and general repair work; the use of ladders and the erection and dis mantling of scaffolding; and the proper use of plastic and glass pip ing. The plumber apprenticeship program includes training in the basic skills of the trade and in the installation of sewers, drains, and services outside the building; private water supply and drainage systems; building water supply systems; building drainage and vent systems; water heaters and treatment equip ment; appliances; the testing, repair, and maintenance of these systems and equipment; and also in estimat ing the materials required. The pipe fitter apprenticeship program in cludes training in the installation and maintenance of radiators, pumps, boilers, stokers, oil burners, and gas furnaces; hot water, steam panel, and radiant-heating systems; air-conditioning and powerplant piping systems; and pneumatic con trol systems and instrumentation. The apprentice receives related classroom instruction in subjects such as drafting and blueprint read ing, mathematics applicable to lay out work, applied physics and chemistry, and local building codes and regulations that apply to the trade. Hourly wage rates of apprentices in these trades usually start at 40-50 percent of the journeyman rate and increase in each 6-month period until a rate of 85-90 percent is reached during the last period of the apprenticeship. To obtain a journeyman’s license which some communities require, a person must pass a special examina tion to demonstrate knowledge of the trade and of the local building codes. Some journeymen plumbers and pipefitters may become foremen for plumbing or pipefitting contractors. Many journeymen go into business for themselves. As they expand their activities, they may employ other workers and become plumb ing and pipefitting contractors. In most localities, contractors are re quired to obtain a master plumber’s license. Employment Outlook Employment of plumbers and pipefitters—who numbered about 350,000 in 1970—is expected to rise rapidly through the 1970’s. In addition to new jobs created by em ployment growth, thousands of job opportunities will arise to replace experienced plumbers and pipefit ters who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone are expected to re sult in several thousand job open ings annually. The most important factor that will contribute to the projected rise in employment is the anticipated large increase in construction activ ity. (See discussion, p. 375.) Fur thermore, plumbing and heating work is expected to become more important in many types of con struction. For example, the trend toward more bathrooms per dwell ing unit is likely to continue. The installation of appliances, such as washing machines for clothes or dishes, gas dryers, and waste dispos als, also will continue. The number of automatic heating system instal lations probably will increase. Also, in industry generally, plumbers and pipefitters will be required for nec essary installation and maintenance work. For example, the chemical in dustry, which uses extensive pipe work in its processing activities, is expected to expand its facilities. Those industries that are automat ing more of their production activi ties will require more pipefitting work. The increasing industrial ac tivities related to nuclear energy and the greater use of refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment also will result in more work for plumb ers and pipefitters. Finally, mainte nance and repair, and moderniza tion of existing plumbing or heating systems will create additional em ployment opportunities for these craftsmen. Technological developments are expected to limit the growth in the number of jobs for plumbers and pipefitters. For example, prefabri cated plumbing assemblies can now be installed as a unit, reducing the amount of on-site plumbing re quired. Packaged gas vents also are available. Ventpipe sections come in standardized lengths that can be fastened together by locking joint bands, thus eliminating cementing operations. Some builders are preassembling their own waste, vent, and other systems compo nents. This work—usually per formed by the employers’ regular crew in well-equipped shops set up near the building site—can be per formed during inclement weather or other “slow” periods. Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates for plumbers and fop pipefit ters averaged $7.01 and $6.93, respectively, on July 1, 1970, ac cording to a national survey of building trades workers in 68 large cities. At the same time, the average hourly rate for all journeymen in the building trades was $6.54. Among individual cities surveyed, the union minimum hourly wage rates for plumbers ranged from $5.00 in Norfolk, Va., to $9.42 in Oakland, Calif.; pipefitters’ rates ranged from $5.00 in Norfolk, Va., 416 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK to $9.42 in Oakland, Calif. Straight-time hourly earnings, ex cluding fringe benefits or payments to health, insurance, or pension funds, for plumbers and pipefitters in 12 of the 68 cities selected to show wage information from vari ous areas and regions of the coun try, on July 1, 1970, appear in the accompanying tabulation. Annual earnings of workers in this field are among the highest in the building trades because plumbing and pipe fitting are affected less by seasonal factors than are most other building crafts. C ity R a te p e r h o u r P lu m b e r s A tla n ta ........ ...............$6.85 Boston ........ ................. 6.70 Columbus . . .................8.63 Dallas ......... ............... 6.21 Kansas City ............... 7.60 Memphis . . . ............... 6.44 Newark . . . .................. 7.25 Phoenix . . . . ............... 6.70 Pittsburgh . . ............... 6.81 Sacramento . ............... 7.33 Shreveport . . ............... 6.09 Tulsa ........... ............... 6.21 P ip e f itte r s $6.85 6.60 8.63 6.21 7.42 6.40 7.45 6.70 6.44 7.33 6.09 6.16 The work of plumbers and pipefitters is active and sometimes strenu ous, as in other building trades. They frequently must stand for pro longed periods and occasionally work in cramped or uncomfortable positions. Workers in this trade risk the danger of falls from ladders, cuts from sharp tools, and burns from hot pipes or steam. The number of injuries per million man-hours worked by employees of plumbing, heating, and air-conditioning con tractors in the contract construction industry has been lower than that for contract construction as a whole, but higher than the average for production workers in manufactur ing industries. A large proportion of plumbers and pipefitters are members of the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada. ROOFERS (D.O.T. 804.281; 843.844; and 866.381) Nature of the Work Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding plumber or pipefitter apprentice ships or work opportunities in these trades, inquiries should be directed to local plumbing, heating, and airconditioning contractors; a local union of the United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada; a local joint union-management ap prenticeship committee; or the near est office of the State apprenticeship agency or the Bureau of Appren ticeship and Training, U.S. Depart ment of Labor. In addition, the local office of the State employment service may be a source of informa tion about the Manpower Develop ment and Training Act, apprentice ship, and other programs that pro vide training opportunities. Some local employment service offices provide such services as screening applicants and giving aptitude tests. General information about the work of plumbers, pipefitters, and sprinkler fitters may be obtained from: National Association of PlumbingHeating-Cooling Contractors, 1016 20th St. NW„ Washington, D.C. 20036. National Automatic Sprinkler and Fire Control Association, 277 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10007. United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumb ing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada, 901 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20001. Roofers apply composition roof ing and other materials, such as tile and slate, to the roofs of buildings. They also waterproof and dampproof walls and other building sur faces. In applying composition roofing, the roofer first places over-lapping strips of asphalt or tar impregnated felt over the entire surface. He then applies a coating of coal tar pitch, asphalt, or other bituminous mate rial. This process is repeated until at least three layers of felt are in place. Finally, he applies a surfacing of coal tar pitch, or asphalt and gravel, or a smooth surface asphalt to pro tect the roofing materials from the weather. Other types of composition roof ing, such as roll roofing and asphalt shingles, overlap and are fastened to the roof base with nails or asphalt cement. If necessary, material is cut to fit corners, pipes, and chimneys. Wherever two roof surfaces inter sect, the roofer cements or nails flashing (strips of felt or metal) to make the intersections (joints) wa tertight. Roofers also use metal, tile, and slate for the more expensive types of roofs. Metal roofs are con structed by soldering metal sheets together and nailing them to the wood sheathing. In installing tile and slate roofs, the roofer places a covering of roofing felt over the wood sheathing. He punches holes in the slate or tile that he nails to the sheathing. Each row of slate or tile overlaps the preceding row. Fi nally, the roofer covers the exposed nailheads with roofing cement to BUILDING TRADES 417 tors on new building construction. They also do maintenance and re pair work, especially on composi tion roofing. A few roofers are selfemployed, doing either roofing on small, new buildings or repairs and alterations. Roofers also work for government agencies or business es tablishments that do their own con struction and repair work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Roofers apply tar prior to spreading gravel. avoid rusting and water leakage around the nailheads. Handtools usually are used in applying roof surfaces—for example, hammers, roofing knives, mops, pincers, and calking guns. Roofers also waterproof and dampproof structures other than roofs, such as masonry, concrete walls, or swimming pools and other tanks. The roofer prepares surfaces to be waterproofed by removing rough projections and roughing glazed surfaces, using a hammer and chisel or rubbing brick. He then applies a coat of liquid compound with a brush. He also may paint or spray surfaces with a waterproofing material or nail waterproofing fabric to surfaces. When dampproofing, he usually sprays a coating of tar or as phalt on interior or exterior surfaces to avoid the penetration of mois ture. Places of Employment Roofers work for roofing contrac Most training authorities, includ ing the National Joint (labor-man agement) Apprenticeship and Training Committee for the Roofing Industry, recommend completion of a 3-year apprenticeship program, covering all types of roofing work, as the best way to learn this trade. A substantial proportion of workers, however, have acquired roofing skills informally, by working as helpers or handymen, observing or being taught by experienced roofers. Apprenticeship applicants are re quired to be at least 18 and not over 30 years of age; however, excep tions may be made for veterans. A high school education or its equiva lent is desirable. Good physical con dition and a good sense of balance are important assets. The 3-year apprenticeship pro gram generally consists of a mini mum of 1,400 hours of on-the-job training annually, in addition to re lated classroom instruction. In a typical training program, the ap prentice learns, among other things, to use, care for, and handle safely the tools, equipment, and materials commonly used in the trade; work with composition, tar, and asphalt; prepare roof surfaces for covering; apply pitch and other materials; spread gravel; install slate, tile, and 418 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK terra cotta; and dampproof and wa terproof structures. The trainee receives related classroom instruction in such sub jects as blueprint reading and math ematics applicable to layout work. Hourly wage rates for appren tices usually start at 65 percent of the journeyman rate and increase periodically until 90 percent of the journeyman rate is reached in the final 6 months of the training pe riod. Roofers may advance to foreman and to superintendent for a roofing contractor. Also, they may enter business for themselves and hire other roofers. Employment Outlook Employment of roofers—who numbered about 60,000 in 1970— is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s. In addition to new jobs created by employment growth, thousands of job opportuni ties will result from the replacement of journeymen who transfer to other occupations, retire, or die. Retire ments and deaths alone are ex pected to result in several hundred job openings annually. Employment of roofers is ex pected to increase mainly because of the anticipated rapid increase in construction activity. (See discus sion, p. 375.) New construction and repairs on existing structures will provide most of the work for these craftsmen. However, dampproofing and waterproofing are expected to provide an increasing proportion of roofers’ work. Although the projected increase in construction activity will result in rising employment of roofers, em ployment growth will be limited by the increasing use of spray-on or fluid roofing systems; improved roofing materials and roofing tech niques that increase the “life” of roofs; improved tools, such as nail ing machines; and more efficient materials handling equipment. Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates for composition roofers aver aged $6.17, on July 1, 1970, ac cording to a national survey of building trades workers in 68 large cities. For slate and tile roofers, the rate was $5.81. By comparison, the average for all journeymen in the building trades was $6.54 an hour. Among individual cities surveyed, the minimum hourly rates for com position roofers ranged from $3 in Norfolk, Va., to $7.57 in Detroit, Mich. Slate and tile roofers had hourly rates ranging from $3 in Norfolk, Va., to $8.07 in Detroit, Mich. Straight-time hourly earnings, excluding fringe benefits or pay ments to health, insurance, or pen sion funds, for roofers in 12 of the 68 cities selected to show wage in formation from various areas and regions of the country, on July 1, 1970, appear in the accompanying tabulation. C ity R a te p e r h o u r C o m p o s i t io n Atlanta ............. $4.35 B oston ................ 6.55 Cleveland ........ 7.56 Dallas ............... 4.70 Kansas City . . . 5.32 Milwaukee . .. . 5.97 New Orleans . . 5.10 New York City 6.70 Pittsburgh .. . . 6.80 San D ie g o ......... 5.25 Spokane ........... 5.80 Syracuse ........... 6.95 S la te a n d tile $4.60 6.55 7.56 4.85 5.32 6.12 5.10 6.80 6.80 5.25 5.80 6.95 Roofers’ work, like that of other building tradesmen, is sometimes strenuous. It involves prolonged standing, as well as climbing, bend ing, and squatting. These workers risk injuries from slips or falls from scaffolds or roofs. They may have to work outdoors in all types of weather, particularly when doing re pair work. Roofing work may be especially hot during the warmer months. A large proportion of roofers are members of the United Slate, Tile and Composition Roofers, Damp and Waterproof Workers Associa tion. Sources of Additional Information For further information concern ing roofing apprenticeships or other work opportunities in this trade, in quiries should be directed to local roofing contractors; a local of the United Slate, Tile and Composition Roofers, Damp and Waterproof Workers Association; a local joint union-management apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency or the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addition, the local office of the State employment service may be a source of information about the Manpower Development and Training Act, apprenticeship, and other training opportunities. General information about the work of roofers may be obtained from: National Roofing Contractors Asso ciation, 1515 North Harlem Ave., Oak Park, 111. 60302. United Slate, Tile and Composition Roofers, Damp and Waterproof Workers Association, 1125 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. 419 BUILDING TRADES SHEET-METAL WORKERS (D.O.T. 804.281 and .884) Nature of the Work Sheet-metal workers engaged in construction-related work fabricate and install ducts used in ventilating, air-conditioning, and heating sys tems. They also fabricate and install a wide variety of other products made from thin metal sheets, such as roofing and siding, partitions, store fronts, and metal framework for neon signs. Skilled construction sheet-metal workers should not be confused with assembly-line factory operatives who also make sheetmetal products, but can perform only a few specific operations. In heating or air-conditioning duct work, the sheet-metal worker lays out and plans the job and de termines the size and type of sheet metal to be used. The ducts are often fabricated at the sheet-metal shop. Sheet-metal workers cut the metal with hand snips, power-driven shears, and other cutting tools. They shape the metal with a variety of machines, hammers, and anvils; Places of Employment Sheet-metal workers are em ployed mainly by firms that fabri cate and install heating, refrigera tion, and air-conditioning equip ment, and by contractors engaged in residential, industrial, and commer cial building. In residential con struction, these workers also may work for roofing contractors who specialize in metal roofing work. Many of these craftsmen work for government agencies or business establishments that do their own construction and alteration work. Others are self-employed, mainly on repair work or on smaller types of installation. In addition to construction-re lated work, thousands of skilled sheet-metal workers are employed in nonconstruction; for example, the railroad, aircraft, or shipbuilding in dustries. Some are employed in small shops manufacturing specialty products, such as custom kitchen equipment for hotels and restau rants. Firms making blowers, ex hausts, electrical generating and dis tributing equipment, food products machinery, steam engines, and tur bines also employ skilled sheetmetal workers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement then weld, bolt, rivet, solder, or ce ment the seams and joints. How ever, fabricated ducts in standard sizes often are available and require little additional fabrication at the work site. In the installation of ducts, components are fitted to- gether; hangers and braces installed for support; and points soldered, connected, or welded. Some jour neymen specialize in shopwork or on-site installation. However, skilled workers must know all aspects of the trade. Most training authorities, includ ing the National Joint (labor-man agement) Apprenticeship and Training Committee for the Sheet Metal Industry, recommend the completion of a 4-year apprentice ship program as the best way to learn the sheet-metal trade. Some sheet-metal workers, however, have acquired skills of the trade infor mally, by working as helpers or handymen, observing or being 420 taught by experienced craftsmen. Many of these persons have gained additional knowledge of the trade by taking correspondence or trade school courses. Apprenticeship applicants gener ally are required to be between 17 and 23, but special consideration may be given for military service. A high school education or its equiva lent is required. Good physical and mechanical aptitude are necessary assets. The apprenticeship program usu ally consists of 8,000 hours (4 years) of on-the-job training, in ad dition to related classroom instruc tion. In a typical training program, the apprentice learns, among other Sheet-metal worker drills sheeting. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK things, to use, care for, and handle safely the tools, machines, equip ment, and materials commonly used in the trade. Also, he learns how to do welding, soldering, and seaming; air-conditioning, heating, and venti lating work; residential installations such as roofing, gutters, and down spouts; and architectural and in dustrial sheet-metal work. In addi tion, he learns general work proc esses such as cutting, forming, folding, grooving metal material, bending edges, and punching and drilling holes. The trainee receives related class room instruction in subjects such as drafting, blueprint reading, and mathematics applicable to layout work. In addition, he learns the re lationship between sheet-metal work and other building trades. Hourly wage rates for sheetmetal apprentices generally start at 45 percent of the journeyman rate and increase periodically until 80 percent of the journeyman rate is reached during the final portion of the training period. Sheet-metal workers in construc tion may advance to foreman, su perintendent of large projects, or go into business as sheet-metal con tractors. Experienced workers in this trade have more job mobility than many other building trades workers because they can transfer their skills to nonconstruction in dustries. crease rapidly through the 1970’s. In addition to new jobs created by employment growth, thousands of job opportunities will result from the replacement of journeymen who transfer to other fields of work, re tire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone are expected to result in sev eral hundred job openings annually. The projected increase in em ployment of sheet-metal workers is expected mainly because of the an ticipated large expansion in residen tial, commercial, and industrial con struction. (See discussion, p. 375.) In addition, year-round, central air-conditioning systems are ex pected to be installed in a greater number of homes, office buildings, schools, hospitals, department stores and factories. Many of these installations will be in existing struc tures. Sheet-metal work should also result from growth in the number of large refrigeration systems. Such equipment will be needed in the production and storage of growing quantities of food and other perish able items required by an expanding population. The shops that fabricate sheet-metal products used in con struction also are expected to re quire more of these skilled crafts men. Prefabrication is not likely to af fect the growth of employment in this occupation as much as in most other building trades, because much sheet-metal work is custom made. The fabrication of ducts and fittings for ventilating installations is limited by the need to tailor these installa tions to meet a wide variety of structural conditions, such as the di mensions of the building and the Employment Outlook space allowed for ducts, and also by Employment of sheet-metal the cost of storage space needed to workers—who numbered about store prefabricated ducts and fit 60,000 in 1970—is expected to in tings. 421 BUILDING TRADES Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates for sheet-metal workers aver aged $6.75, compared with $6.54 for all journeymen in the building trades on July 1, 1970, according to a national survey of building trades workers in 68 large cities. Among individual cities surveyed, the mini mum hourly rates for sheet-metal workers ranged from $4.65 in Nor folk, Va., to $8.81 in Cleveland, Ohio. Straight-time hourly earnings, excluding fringe benefits or pay ments to health, insurance, or pen sion funds, for sheet-metal workers in 12 of the 68 cities selected to show wage information from vari ous areas and regions of the coun try, on July 1, 1970, appear in the accompanying tabulation. C ity R a te p e r h ou r Albuquerque ............................$5.88 Boston ....................... ............... 7.33 Buffalo ....................... ............... 7.35 Cincinnati................. ............... 6.79 Des Moines .............................. 6.27 Houston ..................... ............... 5.69 Kansas City .............................. 6.78 Pittsburgh ................... ............... 7.23 Sacramento .............................. 7.00 San Diego ................................ 7.34 Tampa ....................... ............... 5.85 Washington, D.C. . . . ............. 6.50 Many sheet-metal workers spend considerable time at the construc tion site, where they may work ei ther indoors or outdoors. Other sheet-metal workers may work pri marily indoors, doing fabricating and layout work. When installing gutters, skylights, and cornices, they may work high above the ground level. When in stalling ventilation and air-condi tioning systems, they may work in awkward and relatively inaccessible places. Sheet-metal workers run the risk of cuts and burns from the ma terials, tools, and equipment used in their trade. A large proportion of sheet-metal workers are members of the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Asso ciation. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding sheet-metal apprenticeships or other work opportunities in this trade, in quiries should be directed to local sheet-metal contractors or heating, refrigeration, or air-conditioning contractors; a local of the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Asso ciation; a local joint union-manage ment apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office of the State ap prenticeship agency or the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addi tion, the local office of the State em ployment service may be a source of information about the Manpower Development and Training Act, ap prenticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. General information about the work of sheet-metal workers may be obtained from: Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Association, Inc., 1611 North Kent St., Arling ton, Va. 22209. Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association, 1000 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. STONEMASONS (D.O.T. 861.131 and .781) Nature of the Work Stonemasons build the stone ex teriors of structures. They work pri marily with two types of stones— natural cut stone, such as marble, granite, limestone, or sandstone; and artificial stone, which is made to order from cement, marble chips, or other types of masonry materials. Much of the work of these crafts men is the setting of cut stone for comparatively high-cost structures, such as office buildings, hotels, churches, and public buildings. The stonemason often works from a set of drawings in which each stone has been numbered for identification. A helper locates the pieces needed and brings them to the mason. A derrickman using a hoist may be required to lift large stones into place. The stonemason sets the stone in mortar and moves it into position with a mallet, ham mer, or crowbar. He alines the stone with a plumb line and finishes the joints between the stones with a pointing trowel. When necessary, he may fasten the stone to supports with metal ties, anchors, or by weld ing. Occasionally, the stonemason may have to cut stone to an exact size. To do this, he must determine the grain of the stone selected and strike blows along a predetermined line with a stonemason’s hammer. Valuable stones are often cut with an abrasive saw to make them fit. Stonemasons also do some stone veneer work, in which cut stone is applied in various patterns to the exterior of a building. In some sec tions of the country, stone is used extensively to veneer homes. In one 422 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK gram in this occupation is similar to that for bricklayer. (See discussion, p. 380.) Stonemasons may advance to jobs as foremen. They may also be come estimators for stonemasonry contractors. Estimators compute labor and material requirements for competitive job bidding. A few of these craftsmen may start their own contracting business. Employment Outlook Stone masons adjust stone floor panel. specialized branch of the trade known as alberene stone setting, stonemasons set acid-resistant soap-stone linings for vats, tanks, and floors. The principal handtools of the stonemason are trowels, heavy ham mers, wooden or hard rubber mal lets, and chisels. For rapid stone cutting, pneumatic tools are used, such as hammers, drills, and brush ing tools. Special power tools smooth the surface of large stones. An abrasive saw is used for fine cut ting. Places of Employment Stonemasons work most often on new construction, particularly on the more expensive residential and commercial and public buildings. A few also work for government agen cies or business establishments that handle their own construction and alteration work. Stonemasons are employed mainly in the larger urban areas. In many areas which have no stonemasons, bricklayers perform the work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most training authorities, includ ing the National Joint (labor-man agement) Bricklaying Apprentice ship Committee, recommend the completion of a 3-year apprentice ship program as the best way to learn stonemasonry. A substantial proportion of stonemasons, how ever, have picked up the trade by working as helpers, observing or being taught by experienced stone masons. Apprenticeship applicants gener ally are required to be between 17 and 24; a high school education or its equivalent is desirable. Good physical condition is an important asset. The apprentice training program for stonemasons generally requires 6,000 hours (3 years) of on-the-job training, in addition to related class room instruction. During the ap prenticeship, the trainee learns to use, care for, and handle safely the tools, machines, and materials of the trade. He must also learn to lay out and install walls, floors, stairs, and arches. The apprenticeship pro Little increase in the employment of stonemasons is expected through the 1970’s, in spite of the antici pated large expansion in construc tion activity. (See discussion, p. 375.) Less use of stone masonry work is expected because modern architectural design has emphasized simple lines, little ornamentation, and large window areas. Replace ment needs will provide a small number of job opportunities for new workers each year. Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates for stonemasons averaged $6.73, compared with $6.54 for all journeymen in the building trades, on July 1, 1970, according to a na tional survey of building trades workers in 68 large cities. Among individual cities surveyed, the mini mum hourly rates for stonemasons ranged from $4.95 in Jacksonville, Fla., to $8.16 in Cleveland, Ohio. Straight-time hourly earnings, ex cluding fringe benefits or payments to health, insurance, or pension funds, for stonemasons in 12 of the 68 cities selected to show wage rates from various areas and regions of the country, on July 1, 1970, ap 423 BUILDING TRADES pear in the accompanying tabula tion. C ity International Union of America, 815 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. R a te p e r h o u r Albuquerque ............. .............$6.31 Birmingham .............................. 5.55 B oston ......................... ............... 7.25 Chicago ..................... .............. 7.22 Des Moines ............................. 6.43 Houston ..................... .............. 5.90 Knoxville .................................. 6.02 Los Angeles ............................. 5.95 Phoenix ..................... ............... 6.80 Pittsburgh ............................... 7.51 Seattle ......................... ............... 7.20 Washington, D.C. . . . ............... 6.80 Since most stonemasonry is done outdoors, working hours are often lost because of inclement weather. The work of the stonemason is ac tive and sometimes strenuous, as it involves lifting heavy materials. A large proportion of stonema sons are members of the Bricklay ers, Masons and Plasterers’ Interna tional Union of America. STRUCTURAL-, ORNAMENTAL-, AND REINFORCING-IRON WORKERS, RIGGERS, AND MACHINE MOVERS (D.O.T. 801.131, .134, .281, .381, .781, .884; 809.130, .131, .134, .380, .381, .781, .884, .887; and 869.883) Nature of the Work Ironworkers erect, assemble, or install fabricated metal products mainly in industrial, commercial, and large residential buildings. They also rig heavy construction machin ery (prepare the machinery for moving with the proper lines, ca bles, and accessories) and deliver the machinery to new sites. In addi tion, ironworkers do alteration work, such as installing steel stairs or adding window guards to existing buildings, and repair or remodel ex isting structures, such as replacing metal bridge parts. Ironworkers comprise four re lated trades—structural ironwork ers, rigger and machine mover, orna mental-ironworker, and reinforcingironworker (rodman). Many crafts men are skilled in two or more of these trades. Structural-ironworkers (D.O.T. 809.381) erect the steel framework of bridges, buildings, and other structures including metal storage tanks and overhead crane runways that support heavy equipment. They install floor decking and the doors and frames of vaults. In erecting a steel framework, structural-ironworkers push, pull, or Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding apprenticeships for stonemasons or other work opportunities in this trade, inquiries should be directed to local bricklaying contractors; a local of the Bricklayers, Masons and Plasterers’ International Union of America; a local joint unionmanagement apprenticeship com mittee; or the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency or the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addition, the local office of the State employment service may be a source of information about apprenticeship and other training opportunities. General information about the work of stonemasons may be ob tained from: Bricklayers, Masons and Plasterers’ Rodmen position reinforcing bars. 424 pry fabricated steel beams and girders into proper position while hoisting equipment hold steel parts. Next, they temporarily connect all steel members with bolts, use plumb bobs and levels to aline the struc ture, and then weld or bolt the pieces. In a large building iron workers generally specialize in a particular operation, such as weld ing or bolting. Structural-ironwork ers often rig, as well as erect, steel structures. Riggers and machine movers (D.O.T. 869.883) set up and rig hoisting equipment to erect and dis mantle structural steel frames and move heavy construction machinery and equipment. They study the size, shape, and weight of the object to be moved; choose the lines and ca bles with which the object can be safely moved; and select the points of attachment that will provide a safe and secure hold on the load. Next, they attach the lifting device to both the hoisting equipment and the item to be moved, and direct the load into position by giving hand signals and other directions to the hoisting machine operator. In many instances, special rigging equipment must be built on the job to move unusual shaped materials and ma chines. This work requires a knowl edge of hoisting equipment and lift ing devices. Ornamental-ironworkers (D.O.T. 809.381) install metal stairways, catwalks, floor gratings, iron ladders (such as those used extensively in powerhouses and chemical plants), metal window sash and doors, grilles and screens (such as those used in bank tellers’ compartments and ele vators), metal cabinets, and safety deposit boxes. They also install lampposts, gates, fences, and deco rative ironwork on balconies. In addition to iron and steel, or namental-ironworkers work with OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK prefabricated alumimum, brass, and bronze metal shapes, frames, and panels. Examples are recently-de veloped curtain-wall and windowwall, and the many types and de signs of ornamental and functional building facades which are bolted or welded to a building or other struc ture. Reinforcing-ironworkers (rodmen) (D.O.T. 801.884) set steel bars in concrete forms to reinforce concrete structures. They place the steel bars on suitable supports in the concrete form and tie the bars together at intersections so that each bar re ceives its intended structural load. The bars are placed in the concrete form according to blueprints, spe cifications, or verbal instruction. The rodmen use steel pliers and other tying tools to wire the rods securely in place. Some concrete reinforcing is a coarse mesh made of welded wire (usually 6- by 6inch grids). When using mesh, the rodmen measure the surface to be covered, cut and bend the mesh to the desired shape, and place the mesh over the area to be reinforced. When the concrete crew pours the slab, hooked rods are used to posi tion the wire mesh in the freshly poured mixture. Places of Employment About 85,000 structural- and or namental-ironworkers were em ployed in 1970. Thousands of addi tional workers were employed as riggers, machine movers, and rein forcing-iron workers. A large proportion of these craftsmen are employed by general contractors on large building proj ects, by steel-erection contractors, or ornamental-iron contractors. Many are employed by large steel companies or their subsidiaries en gaged in the construction of bridges, dams, and large buildings. Some work for government agencies, public utilities, or large industrial establishments that do their own construction work. Few of these craftsmen are self-employed. Training and Other Qualifications Most training authorities recom mend the completion of a 3-year apprenticeship as the best way to learn these trades. Apprenticeship applicants are re quired to be between 18 and 30. Good physical condition is required. A high school education or its equiv alent is desirable. The apprenticeship program for ironworkers usually consists of 6,000 hours (3 years) of on-the-job training, given either by the fore man or an experienced journeyman. In a typical training program, the apprentice learns, among other things, to use, care for, and handle safely the tools, machines, equip ment, and materials commonly used in the trade; read blueprints and working drawings; form, shape, drill, tap, and erect and assemble various metal structures; lay out and assemble various metal structures; lay out and assemble steel stairs, fire escapes, grilles, railings, fences, doors, and related metal structures; and erect, place, and tie reinforcing iron. He also learns arc and gas welding; acetylene cutting; rigging, bolting, and riveting; and how to re pair and alter metal structures. The apprenticeship program gen erally includes a minimum of 144 hours a year of related classroom instruction in subjects such as draft ing, blueprint reading, and mathe matics applicable to layout work. Areawide apprenticeship pro grams, sometimes covering an en- BUILDING TRADES tire State or region, are found ex tensively in iron working trades. They are supervised by joint ap prenticeship committees composed of representatives of the Interna tional Association of Bridge, Struc tural and Ornamental Iron Workers’ local unions and local management groups. Hourly wage rates for appren tices start at 60 percent of the jour neyman rate and increase periodi cally until the journeyman rate is reached at the completion of the ap prenticeship. In some localities, the starting rate may be as high as 75 percent of the journeyman rate. Employment Outlook Employment in these trades is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s. In addition to new jobs created by employment growth, the replacement of experienced iron workers who transfer to other occu pations, retire, or die will provide a few thousand job opportunities each year. Retirements and deaths alone 425 are expected to result in several hundred job openings annually. A continued rapid rise in employ ment of these workers is expected principally because of the antici pated large increase in construction activity. (See discussion, p. 375.) The job outlook in these trades also will be affected favorably by the in creased use of structural steel in smaller buildings. Also, the devel opment of lightweight and specialty steels has improved the competitive position of steel as a construction material and resulted in increasing job opportunities for structural-iron workers. Work opportunities for or namental-ironworkers will result from the growing use of ornamental panels of aluminum, porcelainized steel, or other metals which are at tached to the exterior wall of large buildings; and by the use of metal frames to hold large glass installa tions. The demand for riggers and machine movers is expected to in crease because of the expanding use of heavy construction machinery. The use of prestressed concrete in a growing variety of structures will in crease job opportunities for rein forcing-iron workers. Technological developments are expected to limit employment growth of ironworkers. For exam ple, a compact squirt-welding ma chine has greatly reduced the time needed for field welding. Structural steel frames are being assembled on the ground and hoisted into vertical position to reduce iron work above ground. Prestressed steel beams making possible longer spans with less steel are being used increasingly in bridge construction. Also availa ble are almost completely prefabri cated and painted short-span bridges made of prestressed steel, which can be erected in 1 day. Also, prefabricated reinforcing mats or fabrics which reduce on-site rod bending, tying, and welding are being used increasingly in highways and buildings. In addition, manufac turers are designing an increasing variety of ornamental metal prod ucts for more efficient on-site instal lation. Earnings and Working Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates for structural-ironworkers and rodmen averaged $6.72 and $6.64, respectively, on July 1, 1970, ac cording to a national survey of building trades workers ift 68 large cities. The average for all journey men in the building trades surveyed was $6.54. Among individual cities, the minimum hourly rate for struc tural-iron workers ranged from $4.88 in Lubbock, Tex., to $8.60 in Chicago, 111. The rates for rodmen ranged from $4.87 in San Antonio, Tex., to $8.60 in Chicago, 111. The rates for ornamental-ironworkers, riggers, and machine movers are generally about the same as those for structural-ironworkers. 426 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Straight-time hourly earnings, ex cluding fringe benefits or payments to health, insurance, or pension funds, for structural-ironworkers and rodmen in 12 of the 68 cities selected to show wage rates from various areas and regions of the country, on July 1, 1970, appear in the accompanying tabulation. C ity R a te p e r h o u r S tr u c tu r a l- I r o n w o rk ers Atlanta ........... .. .$5.60 Baltimore . . . . . . . 6.91 Boston ........... .. . 7.64 Cleveland . . . ., .. . 7.95 Denver .......... . . . 6.25 Detroit ............ . . . 7.25 Los Angeles . . . . . 6.48 MinneapolisSt. Paul . . . . . . . 6.95 Philadelphia . ., . . . 7.07 St. L o u is ......... . . . 6.53 San Diego . . . . . . . 6.48 T u ls a ................ .. . 5.75 R odm en $5.60 6.91 7.64 7.95 6.25 6.86 6.37 6.95 7.70 6.53 6.37 5.75 above-average physical strength is necessary. Agility and a good sense of balance also are required to work at great heights and on narrow foot ings. Although many ironworkers risk injury from falls, safety devices, such as nets and scaffolding, have reduced the frequency of accidents. Ironwork often involves consider able travel, because demand is in sufficient to keep local crews con stantly employed. Consequently, workers must be imported to handle occasional large construction proj ects. Large contractors may keep a small crew continually employed by moving them from job to job. A large proportion of workers in these trades are members of the In ternational Association of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Iron Workers. Sources of Additional Information Since materials used in ironwork ing trades are heavy and bulky, For further information concern ing apprenticeships or other work opportunities in these trades, in quiries should be directed to local general contractors; a local of the International Association of Bridge, Structural and Ornamental Iron Workers; a local joint union-man agement apprenticeship committee; or the nearest office or the State ap prenticeship agency of the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor. In addition, the local office of the State employ ment service may be a source of in formation about the Manpower De velopment and Training Act, ap prenticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. General information about the work of ironworkers may be ob tained from: Associated General Contractors of America, Inc., 1957 E St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. D R IV IN G tacts with people, which are charac teristic of most of these jobs. O C C U P A T IO N S More than 2.5 million truck, bus, and taxicab drivers were engaged in moving passengers and goods over highways and city streets in 1970. They transported thousands of products used in homes, schools, and factories, and also transported millions of people every day. Some men employed in the driv ing occupations drive practically all their working time. Others are oc cupied much of the time in loading and unloading goods, making pick ups and deliveries, and collecting money. Still others, like the routeman, spend a good deal of their time selling. The individual state ments that follow deal only with employment opportunities for those whose principal occupation is driv ing intercity and local trucks and buses and taxis. For example, they do not cover schoolbus drivers, chauffeurs, part-time taxi drivers, ambulance drivers, or employees whose driving is incidental to their regular duties. Many driving jobs require a high degree of responsibility. Drivers, for the most part, operate large and ex pensive equipment which they must drive carefully, obeying safety regu lations and traffic laws, to deliver their passengers and freight safely. These men are free from direct su pervision. During the 1970’s, employment of local and over-the-road truckdrivers is expected to expand as a result of increases in the freight moved by motor carrier. Employment in other driving jobs is not expected to change much in the years ahead. Normal turnover in this large occu pational field also will provide many job opportunities each year. Driving jobs offer excellent op portunities for young men who are not planning to attend college and have no interest in or aptitude for craft or technical occupations. The pay of most drivers is relatively high, and working conditions are fairly good. Many young men also will enjoy the freedom from close supervision and the frequent con Nearly half of all drivers are local truckdrivers Drivers, 1970 (in thousands) 0 500 --------------- L— .................... Local truckdrivers Over-the-road truckdrivers Routemen Taxi drivers Local transit bus drivers Intercity bus drivers | Other drivers SOURCE: BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 1,000 .......... ------1 1,500 I OVER-THE-ROAD TRUCKDRIVERS (D.O.T. 903.883; 904.883; 905.883; and 909.883) Nature of the Work The men at the wheel of the big trucks on highways and turnpikes are the top professional drivers. They drive the largest and most ex pensive equipment and receive the highest wages of all drivers. They are on their own practically all the time and have much responsibility. The work requires initiative, be cause they must transport goods of great value which must be delivered safely and on time. Most over-the-road drivers oper ate gasoline or diesel-powered trac tor-trailers. They deliver goods over long distances—frequently driving at night. Unlike the local truckdriver who spends considerable time in loading and unloading, the over-the-road driver (sometimes called intercity line-haul or long-haul driver) drives practically all of his working time. He sometimes may handle the freight. Some drivers, for example, may have to unload the goods they deliver to stores at night when re ceiving crews are not available. Drivers of long-distance moving vans generally have to load or un load their cargoes with the assist ance of local helpers. The truckdriver must back up big trailers to loading platforms; this re quires the ability to maneuver the trailers while driving in reverse. He must also be able to judge distance accurately while driving around cor427 428 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ners or through narrow passage ways. Because the over-the-road truckdriver spends most of his time driving, safe driving practices and courtesy are of the utmost im portance. Everyone has seen the emergency warning signals set out by a driver near his disabled truck. Many motorists have noted the courtesy of truckdrivers who pull off the road at the top of the hill to allow the accumulated traffic to pass. U.S. Department of Transportion (U.S. DOT) regulations require drivers to inspect their trucks before and after trips and make out reports on the condition of the vehicle at the end of the run. Drivers also are required to keep a daily log of their activities. If a driver has an acci dent, he must make out a detailed report. These regulations also pre scribe special safety precautions concerning packing and loading flammable, explosive, or otherwise hazardous materials, and over-theroad driving of trucks containing these materials. Where Employed An estimated 655,000 over-theroad drivers were employed throughout the United States in 1970. Many work out of large cities such as Chicago and Los Angeles; however, some large companies have their operating headquarters in small towns. Over-the-road drivers are em ployed by private and for-hire car riers. Private carriers are compa nies, such as chain food stores or manufacturing plants, which use their own or leased trucks to trans port their goods. For-hire carriers are either common carriers (truck ing companies serving the general public) or contract carriers (truck ing firms hauling goods under con tract for certain companies). Al though the drivers on long intercity runs are employed more often by common carriers, an increasing number in recent years have been working for private or exempt (from U.S. DOT regulation) car riers, or for specialized carriers han dling large pieces of machinery, ex plosives, or missiles. On shorter hauls, many drivers are employed by contract and common carriers to make deliveries of machinery, food, petroleum products, household ap pliances, and other items, from plants to warehouses and from warehouses to large volume pur chasers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Regulations of the U.S. DOT es tablish minimum qualifications for 429 DRIVING OCCUPATIONS over-the-road drivers engaged in in terstate or foreign commerce. The driver must be at least 21 years of age and able-bodied. His vision should be at least 24/40 with or without glasses; good hearing also is necessary. He must be able to read and speak English; have at least 1 year’s driving experience, which may include driving private automo biles; and have a good driving rec ord. He is required also to complete successfully a road test that demon strates his driving skills and a writ ten test that indicates an adequate knowledge of driving regulations. Most States require truckdrivers to have a chauffeur’s license, which is a commercial driving permit ob tained from State Motor Vehicle Departments. Most fleet operators have higher hiring standards than those de scribed above. Many firms will not hire drivers under age 25; some specify height and weight limita tions. Many require at least a grade school education; others require 2 years of high school. Some com panies employ only applicants who have had several years of experi ence in handling vehicles of the type they would be required to drive. The standards for over-the-road drivers generally are higher than those for local truckdrivers. Fur thermore, these standards are more strictly adhered to than those for local drivers, whose standards may be lowered when there are not enough applicants for jobs. Tractor-trailers usually cost be tween $25,000 and $40,000, and the load inside may be worth more than $100,000. The owners of such valuable equipment, therefore, em ploy experienced drivers who also can accept great responsibility. Driver training is a common method of preparing for truckdriv ing jobs. Many training authorities and employers recommend taking the driver-training courses offered by high schools. If such a course is not available, the driving schools which operate in most large cities are recommended. A high school course in automotive mechanics also is helpful. A small number of private tech nical-vocational schools offer truck driving courses. Students receive in structions on driving large vehicles in close quarters and on the high way, with emphasis on safe driving practices. Instructions also are given on care of equipment and freight, and compliance with Federal, State, and local regulations. Truck driving experience is also helpful. Long-haul driving is a senior driving job, and most of these driv ers have had previous experience in local trucking. Usually, they enter this occupation by first driving small trucks. Then, after gaining experi ence, they get jobs driving the larger and more complicated trucks. A young person also may begin as a helper to a local truckdriver, assist ing him in loading and unloading the truck, occasionally doing some relief driving. All employers are interested in obtaining good, safe, reliable driv ers, but the methods of selection and training vary. Some have for mal tests and training programs. Others hire on the basis of personal interviews; their training programs may consist of a “break-in” period during which the new employee ob serves and works with an experi enced driver. Applicants for jobs as over-theroad drivers are required to pass a physical examination which is usu ally paid for by the employer. Many firms also give written traffic and driving knowledge tests. Some em ployers give tests to measure factors such as sharpness and field of vi sion, reaction time, ability to judge speed, and emotional stability. The last step in the selection of drivers is the road test. The applicant is ex pected to demonstrate his ability to handle, under a variety of driving conditions, a vehicle of the type and size he will operate in regular serv ice. A few States require such a test before licensing a driver to op erate a tractor-trailer. A new driver may be given a brief indoctrination course covering company policy and the preparation of various forms used on the job. He then will make one or more training trips with an instructor or an experienced driver. Drivers employed by common carriers frequently start on the “extra board,” bidding for regular runs on the basis of seniority as va cancies occur. (The extra board is a list of men, assigned in rotation, who substitute for regular drivers or who make extra trips when neces sary.) Drivers for private carriers are more likely to begin with as signed regular routes. Opportunities for promotion in this occupation are limited. A few drivers may advance to jobs as safety supervisors, driver supervi sors, and dispatchers. However, these jobs are often unattractive to over-the-road truckdrivers, since the starting pay is usually less than the pay on truckdriving jobs. Most drivers can expect to advance only on the basis of seniority to driving runs that provide increased earnings or preferred schedules and working conditions. Employment Outlook Employment of over-the-road truckdrivers is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. 430 Substantial growth in the volume of intercity freight is anticipated, re sulting from increased commercial and industrial activity and the con tinued decentralization of industry. A large number of job openings also will be created by transfers from this field of work to other occupa tions. Another reason for expected in creases in freight carried by overthe-road trucks is the general eco nomic growth of the Nation, and this trend is expected to continue. Many factories, warehouses, and stores are being located at great dis tances from each other in suburban or semirural areas where rail facili ties are nonexistent or extremely limited. The intercity highway building program has aided the trucking industry in this regard. Furthermore, the growth of chainstores and the trend to smaller in ventories and decentralization of factories require daily coordination of shipping; this can be handled best by trucks. Improvements in trailer design to handle certain kinds of freight such as frozen goods and livestock for extended distances has ex panded the opportunities for overthe-road trucking. Demand for trucking services may increase in the future as a re sult of new trucking methods which promise reduced handling and ship ping time and reduce freight costs for small loads. One example is the increasing use of “double-bottoms” —two trailers hitched in tandem to a tractor. When two trailers are used, they can be unhitched at the truck terminal and promptly deliv ered to different customers, thus eliminating the need to unpack a larger trailer, separate its contents, and repack on local delivery trucks. Handling time also is being re duced through the practice of pack OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ing all freight destined for a single customer or area into large contain ers or cargo cages which can be handled at the truck terminal more conveniently and quickly than indi vidual packages. Some recent freight transporta tion innovations will limit somewhat the anticipated increase in trucking business and driver employment. For example, the movement of highway trailers on railroad flatcars, ocean vessels, and aircraft saves the cost of driver, fuel, and tractor, and appears to have prospects for con siderable expansion. To compensate for job displacement that may arise from these innovations, there is a growing practice under labor-man agement agreements to provide for retirement at an earlier age. Further limitations on employ ment expansion among over-theroad drivers are related to changes in State laws. State limitations on truck weight, size, and speed are becoming less restrictive as a result of the construction of better high ways and improved travel arteries inside the cities. The movement of bigger loads at higher average speeds could result in a need for fewer drivers than would otherwise be required. Earnings and Working Conditions Most over-the-road drivers earned more than $200 a week in 1970. Drivers employed by Class I common carriers of general freight (carriers with gross operating reve nues of $1 million or more a year) had estimated annual average earn ings of $12,600 in 1970. More experienced over-the-road drivers can earn considerably more than this average. The rates are fairly uniform because this is a highly unionized field, and union-employer contracts are generally master agreements covering all employers within a region—an area including a number of States. The earn ings of an individual driver are affected by factors such as mileage driven, number of hours worked, type of equipment driven or the weight of the loads carried, and type of “run” (whether or not pickup or delivery en route is re quired). Earnings also are affected by the nature of the cargo carried, with premium rates paid for trans porting flammable or otherwise haz ardous commodities. Some private carriers pay their drivers on the same basis as their other employees—a monthly, weekly, or daily wage. Generally, such a wage is for a specified num ber of hours, and, if the driver works additional hours, he receives extra pay. Motor carriers engaged in inter state or foreign commerce are sub ject to the U.S. DOT rules govern ing hours of work and other mat ters. These regulations limit the hours over-the-road drivers may work in order to be certain the driver receives a reasonable amount of rest. For example, no driver may be on duty for more than 60 hours in any 7-day period, but for carriers operating every day of the week, the driver may remain on duty for a maximum of 70 hours in any period of 8 consecutive days. The regula tions also provide that no driver may drive more than 10 hours with out first having an off-duty period of at least 8 hours. For drivers who drive less than 10 hours, but per form other work for the motor car rier in a garage, warehouse, or other place, the regulations prohibit re sumption of driving after any com bination of driving time and other on-duty work which totals 15 hours, unless the driver has first had at DRIVING OCCUPATIONS least 8 hours off duty. Many drivers, particularly on the very long runs, work fairly close to the maximum hours permitted. A workweek of at least 50 hours is very common. Most drivers receive pay for 6 or more National, State, and local holi days. They also have paid vacations, usually from 1 to 4 weeks, depend ing upon their length of service. Health insurance and pension plans, paid for by the employers, are very common. Over-the-road truckdrivers often are required to spend time away from home—particularly when they drive long runs. The driver often starts out in the evening and arrives at the terminal in the other city the following morning. In such in stances, the company provides lodg ing for him either in a company dormitory or a hotel. In the eve ning, he starts on his return trip and arrives at the home terminal the fol lowing morning. He may make two or three such round trips a week. Some companies use two-man sleeper teams on their very long runs. One drives while the other sleeps in a berth behind the cab. Although earnings on sleeper runs are the highest in this field of work, few drivers stay with this type of run very long. The work is very tiring and requires being away from family and friends for days and even weeks. However, many drivers go back to sleeper runs after they have had a rest or have done some relay driving. The earnings of drivers of long distance moving vans are quite high, but their hours are long and the work is strenuous. They drive more miles than the average overthe-road driver and also work more hours in loading and unloading goods. Largely because of intensive safety programs and drivers’ skill, 431 the accident rate in over-the-road trucking is low. Injuries occur less frequently than in other forms of motor transportation. The physical strain of over-theroad truckdriving has been reduced by more comfortable seating, better highways, and more stringent safety regulations. Sitting in one place for hours at a time, however, is tiring and the nervous strain of sustained driving at night also is fatiguing. Most over-the-road drivers are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf feurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Some drivers of private carriers belong to unions representing the plant employees of the companies for which they work. Sources of Additional Information Information on career opportuni ties may be obtained from: American Trucking Association, 1616 P St. N W , Washington, D.C. 20036. LOCAL TRUCKDRIVERS (D.O.T. 900.883; 902.883; 903.883; 906.883; and 909.883) Nature of the Work Much of the food, clothing, and other products required by consum ers is transported by trucks. The men who move these goods from terminals, warehouses, mines, and factories to wholesalers, retailers, and consumers in tne local area must be skilled drivers to avoid ac cidents on congested city streets. They also must be able to maneuver big trucks or tractor-trailers into tight parking spaces, through nar row alleys, and up to loading plat forms. (Telephone linemen, repair men, and many thousands of other workers for whom driving is inci dental to their primary duties are not included in this discussion.) When the local truckdriver re ports to work at the terminal or warehouse, he receives his assign ment to make deliveries, pickups, or both. He also receives the delivery forms he will need and checks the condition of his truck. His truck generally is loaded for him by plat form men. If he does the loading himself, however, and must make many deliveries, he arranges the items in proper sequence so that there will be a minimum of han dling. At the customer’s place of business, the driver generally loads and unloads the merchandise him self. If he has heavy loads such as machinery, or if he has many deliv eries to make during the day, he may have a helper to assist him. The driver of a moving van usually has a crew of helpers to assist him in loading and unloading household or office furniture. At the delivery points, the driver gets customers to sign receipts and freight bills, and he sometimes col lects money for freight, c.o.d. deliv eries, and other charges. At the end of his day, he turns in all receipts and cash collected and records his time and the deliveries made. He also reports whatever maintenance or repair is needed before his truck is used again. Some of these workers drive spe cial types of trucks, such as dump or oil trucks, which require the op eration of mechanical levers, pedals, or other equipment. If they haul heavy machinery, they operate me chanical hoists to load and unload the machines. 432 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Places of Employment Over 1.2 million workers were employed as local truckdrivers in 1970, mostly in and around large metropolitan areas; however, they work in all localities. A large majority of local drivers work for businesses which deliver their own products and goods— such as department stores, meatpackers and other food processors, wholesale distributors, grocery chains, petroleum companies, and construction companies. Many oth ers are employed by local for-hire operators—trucking companies which serve the general public or specific companies under contract. Some are employed by the Federal Government, particularly the Post Office Department, and by States and municipalities. A large number are in business for themselves. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Qualifications for local truckdrivers vary considerably, depend ing upon factors such as the type of equipment to be operated and the nature of the employer’s business. Generally, applicants must be 21 years of age or older. Some em ployers prefer applicants who have completed 2 to 4 years of high school. The applicant must be phys ically able to lift heavy objects and otherwise be in good health. He should have good hearing and good vision, with or without glasses. Since a driver often deals directly with the public, employers look for people who are tactful and courte ous. An applicant must have a chauf feur’s license, which is a commer cial driving permit. Familiarity with traffic laws and safety measures is necessary, and some previous expe rience in driving a truck is helpful. A young person may obtain such experience by working as a truckdriver’s helper. Employers also give consideration to driving experience gained in the Armed Forces. Since he will be responsible for costly vehicles and cargo, a truckdriver must be cautious, alert, and able to judge distances and to coor dinate his reactions to avoid acci dents in congested traffic. To dem onstrate these qualifications, an applicant’s driving ability is tested, and he may have to pass a written examination as well as a general physical examination. Employers generally will check applicants for traffic and police records. Training given to new drivers is often informal and may consist only of riding with and observing an ex perienced driver on the job. Addi tional training may be given if they are to drive a special type of truck. Some companies give a brief indoc trination course which lasts 1 or 2 days and covers general duties, the efficient operation and loading of a truck, company policies, and the preparation of delivery forms and company records. Although most new employees are assigned immediately to regular driving jobs, some start as extra drivers, covering the routes of regu lar drivers who are ill or on vaca tion, or making extra trips when necessary. They receive regular as signments when openings occur. Local truckdrivers may transfer to jobs as dispatchers or advance to jobs such as terminal managers or supervisors, or to traffic work— for example, in planning delivery schedules. However, these jobs are relatively few. For the most part, advancement for a local truckdriver 433 DRIVING OCCUPATIONS consists of earning higher hourly wages by driving heavy or special type truck loads instead of light trucks or by transferring to overthe-road truckdriving. An experienced truckdriver who has some business ability and ambi tion can start his own trucking com pany, when he has sufficient capital to purchase expensive trucking equipment and to meet other busi ness expenses. Truckers who own one or two vehicles continue to ac count for a sizable proportion of local for-hire trucking businesses. Employment Outlook A moderate increase in the em ployment of local truckdrivers is an ticipated through the 1970’s be cause of the expected increase in volume of freight. Many new workers also will be needed to re place drivers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retire ments and deaths alone will result in more than 15,000 job openings each year for local truckdrivers. The rise in total business activity anticipated in the years ahead will increase the volume of freight. Since trucks carry virtually all freight for local distribution and do not com pete for hauling with other types of carriers, this anticipated increase in total intercity and local freight vol ume will expand local trucking busi ness and, thereby, truckdriver em ployment. The continued growth of suburban areas will contribute to the employment of more drivers. Some recent developments may offset somewhat the growth in the number of local truckdrivers that would otherwise occur with an in crease in freight volume. For exam ple, the trend toward larger deliv eries to relatively fewer retail out lets is the result of the growth of chainstores and shopping centers. (On the other hand, as suburban areas expand, local truckers tend to service a wider area, increasing the travel time per truck.) The intro duction of new equipment, such as power tailgates for loading and un loading also may affect the number of drivers who will be needed to de liver large and heavy loads. Also, the use of radio telephones to in struct drivers en route will reduce the time needed for deliveries. In novation in local trucking will con tinue to be limited, however, by narrow city streets, heavy traffic, and local city ordinances controlling the size and weight of local delivery trucks. However, urban renewal and urban highway building projects may improve driving conditions. Earnings and Working Conditions On the average, hourly union wage scales were $4.41 for local truckdrivers and $3.91 for helpers on July 1, 1970, according to a sur vey in 68 large cities. Average hourly pay scales for drivers ranged from $5.17 in Sacramento, Calif., to $3.63 in Washington, D.C. How ever, wage scales vary, even in the same city, depending on the type of trucking service (such as general freight hauling or local moving and storage), the types of product hauled, and the size and type of truck operated. As a rule, local truckdrivers are paid by the hour and receive extra pay for working overtime, usually after 40 hours. Some drivers are guaranteed minimum daily or weekly earnings. Local truckdrivers frequently work 48 hours or more a week and thus often drive 6 days a week. Although daytime work is customary, nightwork or early morning work is sometimes neces sary, particularly for drivers han dling foodstuffs for chain grocery stores, produce markets, or baker ies. Most drivers deliver over regu lar routes or runs, although some may be assigned different routes when they report to work each day. Local truckdrivers generally have paid vacations of 1 or 2 weeks after a year of service and up to 4 weeks after 15 years. In addition, they usually receive pay for seven or more National, State, and local holi days. A majority of local truckdrivers belong to unions. Most of them be long to the International Brother hood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Some local truckdrivers employed by private carriers are members of unions representing the plant workers of their em ployers. Practically all unionized local truckdrivers and their helpers are covered by life and health insurance and pension plans which are almost always paid for by the employer. When uniforms are required, the cost usually is paid for entirely or partly by the employer, who also may provide for their upkeep. Local truckdrivers, because they drive in heavy traffic, are subject to nervous strain. The actual operation of a truck has become less physi cally demanding because of im provements such as power steering and more comfortable seating. However, when local drivers make many deliveries during a day, their work can be exhausting. Some driv ers may develop physical disorders, such as back strain and hernia. Local truckdrivers, however, do have certain work advantages, such as steady employment. Unlike over-the-road drivers, they usually 434 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK work a regular day-time schedule and return home in the evenings. ROUTEMEN (D.O.T. 292.358) Nature of the Work Routemen are as much salesmen as they are drivers. In fact, they are sometimes known as driver-sales men or route-salesmen. They must, through their selling ability, increase sales to existing customers and ob tain new business by canvassing po tential customers within their terri tories. Routemen drive panel or light trucks over an assigned route, selling and delivering goods, or providing services such as collecting and delivering laundry and dry cleaning, to retail establishments (wholesale routemen) or directly to the public (retail routemen). Wholesale routemen usually drive heavier trucks. These trucks are re frigerated when dairy products or frozen foods are carried. Before starting on his daily route, the routeman loads or supervises the loading of his truck. The amount of merchandise in his truck generally is checked by another em ployee. Some routemen deliver mer chandise previously ordered and ob tain orders for future delivery. Oth ers make immediate sales from the stock in the truck. In either case, they must collect payments and keep records of their transactions. When they check in at the plant after completing their routes, they empty their trucks and turn in their collections to the cashier. The retail routemen serving homes make from 5 to 10 times as many stops as the wholesale routemen who serve stores and other business establish ments. Routemen’s work varies accord ing to the industry in which they are employed, the type of routes they have (retail or wholesale), and the company employing them. Some specific examples, however, may de scribe in a general way what most routemen do. A typical day for a dry-cleaning routeman begins when he picks up cleaned garments at the processing plant and loads his truck, which is equipped with carrying racks. He delivers the garments to homes or business establishments and picks up soiled clothing. He marks the soiled articles so that they may be identified at the plant. Sometimes, he makes notes of the type of stains or of special processes to be used such as waterproofing. Each cleaned garment has an itemized bill at tached so that he can collect the amount of money due. Although all routemen must be able to get along well with people, it is particularly important for the drycleaning and laundry routeman. His reaction to complaints and requests for special services may be the dif ference between increasing business or losing customers. Periodically, he calls at homes and business estab lishments along his route which are not using his company’s services to try to get their trade. A wholesale routeman may de liver bakery products to grocery stores. His truck is loaded the night before or early in the morning, and he checks to see whether he has the proper variety and quantity of prod ucts before starting on his route. He stops at from 10 to 50 grocery stores. At each stop he brings the orders of bread and other bakery products into the store and arranges them on the display racks in the best possible display space he can, secure. Together with the store owner or manager, he checks the merchandise he has delivered. He also credits the store for the value of the stale bread and cakes left over from the previous delivery. This routeman prepares a list of products he plans to deliver the next day. This list represents his estimate of the amount of bakery products that will be sold by the grocery stores. From time to time, he calls on grocers along his route, who are not his customers, and tries to get orders from them. The vending machine routeman, although he merchandises his prod ucts through machine, must try to anticipate customers’ needs for serv ice and preferences for merchan dise. In trying, continually, to find profitable new locations for the vending machines he services, the routeman approaches the managers of various businesses about the placement and relocation of his machines. He caters to the custom ers’ demand by noting their prefer ences for merchandise sold at each machine location and stocks each machine with items that sell best. The vending machine routeman also must make certain that his machines are supplied adequately with merchandise, that they func tion properly, and that they are clean and attractive. At each loca tion, the routeman checks the items remaining in the machine and the money deposited in the cash box to determine that what has been sold is accounted for. He tests stock deliv ery and change-making mechanisms to make sure that items and change are dispensed properly when coins are inserted; he may make minor adjustments to machines that are not working properly. He cleans the machine, removing waste, spillage, and accumulated dust, and then re 435 DRIVING OCCUPATIONS places depleted stock. The routeman keeps an exact record of the merchandise that goes into each machine and a precise account of how much money is removed. Places of Employment About 240,000 routemen worked for a wide variety of businesses in 1970. Since most of them were em ployed by companies which distrib uted food products or provided per sonal services, they worked in small towns as well as in large cities throughout the country. The great est concentration of employment, however, was in dairies, bakeries, food and beverage distributors, and drycleaning plants in the large cit ies. Some were engaged in wholesale distribution of goods and services to stores and other business establish ments. The majority, however, dis tributed goods and services to homeowners and apartment dwell ers. Many companies employed both wholesale and retail routemen. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In addition to being a good driver, a routeman must have sales ability. To induce people to buy, he must have a thorough knowledge of the product or service he is selling and a persuasive personality. Other important sales qualifications are a pleasant voice, ability to speak well, and a neat appearance. He also needs to have self-confidence, initia tive, and tact. He must be able to work without direct supervision, do simple arith metic, and write legibly. In most States, a routeman is required to have a chauffeur’s license, which is a commercial driving permit. Infor mation regarding this license can be obtained from State Motor Vehicle Departments. Applicants for jobs as vending machine routemen should have some mechanical ability. Routemen are expected to check the operation of automatic dispensing machines and make necessary adjustments and minor repairs. In case of major malfunctions in equipment, they should be able to report the nature of the trouble. Most employers require their routemen to be high school gradu ates, preferably 25 years of age or older. Many large companies give applicants aptitude and other psy chological tests to determine whether they will make good sales men and safe drivers. Those who handle a great deal of money may have to be bonded. Training for entering the occupa tion can be obtained through high school courses in salesmanship, public speaking, driver-training, bookkeeping and business arithme tic. School-and-work programs in retail and wholesale merchandising are helpful to a person interested in entering this occupation. Immedi ately after high school graduation, valuable experience may be ob tained as a sales clerk in a store or in some other type of selling job. Another method of entering this occupation is to get a job as a routeman helper (D.O.T. 292.887). For this job, employers usually hire per sons 18 years of age or over who have a driver’s license. Helpers are not likely to be used in the dairy or vending machine industries, how ever. Still another way of becoming a routeman is to get a job (plant or office) in a bakery, dairy, laundry, or drycleaning establishment. After learning something about the busi ness, a young person may transfer to a job as a routeman when an opening occurs. Most companies give their routemen on-the-job training which varies in length and thor oughness. Many large companies have classes in salesmanship. Some companies assign newly hired routemen for brief periods to jobs in the different departments of the plant to familiarize them with all the proc essing operations so that they can answer customers’ questions intelli gently and be better salesmen. Routemen may be promoted to route foreman or sales supervisor, but these jobs are relatively scarce. Advancement usually is limited to moving from a retail to a wholesale route, where earnings are generally higher. However, some routemen obtain better paying sales jobs as a result of the experience gained in route selling. Employment Outlook The total number of routemen is expected to change little in the 1970’s, although job opportunities will vary among different types of employers. There will be a few thousand additional openings for new workers each year as experi enced workers transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. ' The number of retail routemen declined in the decade following World War II, particularly among drivers handling milk and dairy products. However, the decline ap pears to have run its course, and some employment upturn is likely. The convenience of home delivery to suburban families consuming large quantites of milk and dairy products makes such service popu lar, despite the growth of local shopping centers. For laundry and drycleaning retail routemen, the 436 outlook is for an increase in em ployment, in line with population growth, especially in areas with a large concentration of apartment houses. The increasing number of married women working outside the home will result also in the com mercial handling of more laundry or cleaning work. Employment of wholesale routemen probably will remain at about present levels or decline slightly. Although large supermarkets have been replacing small neighborhood stores, more supermarkets are being built in the suburban areas. The number of routemen will not in crease correspondingly, however. There has been a growing trend to ward larger delivery trucks. More over, in recent years, some manu facturers and wholesale food com panies have replaced their routemen with salesmen who cover assigned territories by automobile, and truckdrivers who make the deliv eries. On the other hand, opportunities for employment as vending machine routemen will be excellent through the 1970’s because of the expected rapid increase in the volume of machine-vended merchandise. Some of the factors expected to stimulate the industry’s growth are the devel opment of new and improved ma chines and the greater use of auto matic food service in industrial plants, schools, hospitals, depart ment stores, and other high-traffic areas. Earnings and Working Conditions Most routemen receive a mini mum salary plus a percent of the sales they make. Thus, the earnings of routemen are determined largely by their selling ability and initiative. According to limited information OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK available in 1970, wholesale routemen in the dairy and baking indus tries had minimum weekly salaries ranging from $100 to $170. Includ ing commissions on sales, many of these routemen earned $200 a week and more. Wholesale routemen usu ally earn more than retail routemen because they sell much larger quantities of products. However, they receive a lower commission on each sale. The number of hours worked by routemen varies. Some work only about 30 hours a week; others may work as many as 60 hours or more a week, depending upon whether the individual has a well-established route or whether he is trying to build up a new one, whether he has a retail or a wholesale route, and how ambitious he is. For some, the hours of work generally are limited by union-management contract. In other cases, the contract specifies merely the earliest hour that work may begin and the latest quitting time. The hours may also vary ac cording to seasonal peaks and lows. During the spring-cleaning season, for example, drycleaning routemen may work about 60 hours a week; in the winter, they may work less than 30 hours a week. Many companies require routemen to wear uniforms. Some em ployers pay for the uniforms and for keeping them clean. Most routemen receive paid va cations, generally ranging from 1 to 4 weeks, depending upon length of service, and 6 paid holidays or more a year. Many employers provide hospitalization and medical benefits; some have pension plans. The routeman is on his own to a great extent. He does not work under strict supervision and, within certain broad limits, may decide how fast he will work and where and when he will have his lunch or rest period. This freedom of action and the daily meeting and dealing with people on the route appeal to many young men. On the other hand, a retail routeman has to make deliveries in bad weather and do a great deal of lifting, carrying, and walking up and down stairs. He also may have to work unusual hours. For example, retail routemen deliv ering milk generally work in the very early morning hours. Many routemen, particularly those delivering bakery and dairy products, are members of the Inter national Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Some belong to the unions which represent the plant workers of their em ployers. INTERCITY BUSDRIVERS (D.O.T. 913.363 and 913.463) Nature of the Work The drivers of the buses that travel between cities are selected on the basis of their driving skill, driv ing record, emotional stability, and courtesy. A driver’s duties generally begin when he reports to the termi nal for his assignment. Before be ginning his scheduled trip, he in spects the bus carefully at the termi nal or garage. He checks the fuel, oil, water, and tires, and makes cer tain that the bus is carrying safety equipment, such as fire extinguish ers, first-aid kit, flags, and flares. The driver also picks up the tickets, change, report blanks, and other items needed for his trip. The driver moves his empty bus from the terminal or garage to the 437 DRIVING OCCUPATIONS proper loading platform, where he takes on his passengers. He collects fares—tickets usually—from the passengers as they board the bus and announces the destination, route, time of arrival, and other in formation concerning the trip. The driver also loads or supervises the loading of baggage and package ex press into the baggage compart ment. He also collects cash fares from passengers who board the bus between stations where tickets are sold. The driver operates the bus care fully at speeds which will enable him to arrive at and leave regular bus stops according to established time schedules. On many runs, he also stops momentarily at other des ignated points to discharge or pick up passengers, and load or unload baggage and package express wher ever necessary. He announces regu lar stops and rest or lunch stops. The driver, also regulates lighting, heating, and air-conditioning equip ment for the passengers’ comfort. In an emergency, he sometimes is re quired to make minor road repairs, such as changing tires, for which he generally receives extra pay. Upon arriving at his final destina tion, the driver unloads or super vises the unloading of the remaining baggage. He prepares reports on mileage, time, and fares, as required by company rules. He also keeps a log of hours as required by the U.S. Department of Transportation (U.S. DOT). The driver must make a complete report if an accident or unusual delay occurs. Places of Employment Approximately 25,400 intercity busdrivers were employed by about 1,050 bus companies in 1970. About three-fourths of these drivers worked for Class I intercity compa nies—those with annual revenues of over $200,000. Intercity busdrivers are employed in the many small communities served by bus, as well as in the larger cities where home and regional offices and major ter minals of bus companies are lo cated. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All intercity busdrivers are re quired to meet minimum age, health, and experience qualifications established by the U.S. DOT. The minimum age requirement is 21 years. The applicant must be ablebodied and have good hearing and at least 20/40 eyesight, with or without glasses. He must have at least 1 year’s driving experience (through all four seasons) with a good driving record and must be able to read and speak English. Many intercity bus companies, however, have considerably higher requirements. Most of these compa nies prefer applicants to be at least 24 years of age and have a high school education or its equivalent. Applicants often are given compre hensive examinations to determine their driving skill, intelligence, tem perament, and personality. Young persons interested in be coming busdrivers should have good foot-hand-and-eye coordination, be able to judge distances accurately, and react quickly. An even tempera ment and emotional stability are other important qualifications be cause busdrivers work under con siderable tension when they operate large vehicles in heavy and swiftly moving traffic. Since they represent their companies in dealing with pas sengers, busdrivers also must be courteous and tactful. Although previous experience in the operation of a truck or bus is not required, it is preferred by some employers. In most States, the law requires that a trainee for a busdriver’s job must have or obtain a chauffeur’s license, which is a com mercial driving permit. Most intercity bus companies conduct training programs for be ginning drivers. These programs, which usually last from 2 to 6 weeks but can extend to 3 months, include both classroom and driving instruc tion. In the classroom, the trainee is instructed in company and U.S. DOT rules; State and municipal regulations; safe driving practices; rates, schedules, and timetables; and dealing with the public. He also is taught how to keep clerical rec ords, inspect the bus, and make minor emergency repairs. The trainee then rides with a reg ular driver to observe safe driving practices and other aspects of the job. He also makes trial runs, with out passengers, to demonstrate his driving skill. After satisfactorily completing the training, which in cludes final driving and written ex aminations, the new driver begins a “break-in” period. During this pe riod, working under strict supervi sion, he makes regularly scheduled trips with passengers. New workers start out on the “extra board,” which is a list of drivers on call who are given tem porary assignments. While on the extra board, the new driver may substitute for a regular driver who is ill or on vacation, drive a second or overload section, make an extra trip if necessary, or drive chartered buses. Extra drivers may have to wait several years before they have the necessary seniority to receive a regular assignment. However, if it becomes necessary for a company to lay off some of its drivers, the 438 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK travel generally. Some part of this increase is expected to be by bus. New and improved highways are expected to enhance travel by bus by making possible a reduction in schedule running time for bus travel. Earnings and Working Conditions extra drivers will be the first to lose their jobs and the last to be rehired. In almost all companies, it is neces sary for a beginning employee to serve a probationary period lasting, as a rule, from 30 to 90 days. Opportunities for promotion gen erally are somewhat limited, partic ularly in small companies. An expe rienced driver may be promoted to a job as dispatcher, supervisor, or terminal manager. For most drivers, advancement consists of receiving better assignments with higher earn ings as their seniority increases. Employment Outlook The number of intercity busdrivers is expected to increase slowly through the 1970’s because of fur ther increase in intercity bus travel. Also, several hundred additional openings will be available each year in this relatively small occupation as replacements for drivers who trans fer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Population growth and higher consumer incomes during the years ahead should result in an increase in The wages of intercity busdrivers .typically are computed on a mileage basis. Rates ranged from 10 to 15 cents a mile in 1970. Drivers (in cluding extra men) employed by Class I intercity bus companies had estimated annual average earnings of $10,800 in 1970. Many regular drivers employed by these compa nies earned considerably more than $10,000 a year. Most regular drivers are guaran teed specified wages in terms of miles or hours per pay period. For all work other than their regular as signments or “tours of duty,” they receive additional pay, customarily at premium rates. Extra drivers usually are paid by the hour when they are on call but not driving, and are paid the regular mileage rate when actually driving. Drivers usually start at a minimum rate and receive increases at inter vals of 6 months or a year. The maximum rate generally is reached at the end of 2 years. Extra men generally earn slightly less than reg ular drivers but, if enough work is available, they may earn as much or more than regular drivers. Extra drivers receive a weekly or biweekly guarantee either in minimum hours, mileage, or earnings. Most drivers who work for the large companies average between 32 and 36 hours driving time a week. Driving schedules may range from 6 to 10 hours a day and from 3V2 to 6 days a week. 439 DRIVING OCCUPATIONS U.S. DOT regulations limit the hours of work of intercity busdrivers. According to these regulations, intercity drivers may drive no more than 10 hours without having at least 8 hours off. Drivers also are limited to 60 hours of “on-duty” time in a 7-day period; those who work for carriers that operate every day of the week, however, are lim ited to 70 hours in an 8-day period. “On-duty” is the period from the time the driver is required to report for work until he is relieved. For those who drive less than 10 hours but perform other work for the bus company, the regulations prohibit resumption of driving after any combination of driving and other on-duty time which totals 15 hours, unless the driver first has had at least 8 hours off duty. Most intercity busdrivers belong to the Amalgamated Transit Union. The Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen, and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf feurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.) also have orga nized intercity busdrivers in some areas. Labor-management contracts cov ering many intercity busdrivers pro vide for health and life insurance paid for by the employer, whereas pension plans under such agree ments are usually financed jointly by the workers and their employers. Drivers are given vacations with pay ranging from 1 to 5 weeks, de pending on the company for which they work and their length of serv ice. Many also receive a minimum of 8 paid holidays. When away from home terminals overnight, drivers employed by some companies re ceive pay for food and lodging. Driving an intercity bus usually is not physically burdensome, but it is demanding and requires steady nerves. The busdriver is given a great deal of independence in his job and is solely responsible for the safety of the passengers and bus. Many drivers enjoy working without direct supervision and take pride in assuming these responsibilities. Some drivers enjoy the opportunity to travel and to meet the public. Among the less desirable aspects of this job are weekend and holiday work and the necessity of being away from home for varying pe riods. Also, extra drivers are on call at all hours and may be required to work at any time on very short no tice. In addition, drivers that have little seniority sometimes may be laid off when business declines. Sources of Additional Information For information regarding job opportunities for an intercity busdriver, a young man should apply to intercity bus companies or the local office of the State employment service. LOCAL TRANSIT BUSDRIVERS kens, transfers, passes, and any other items needed. Before starting the run, the driver usually is required to check the tires, brakes and lights. Some very small local bus compa nies also may require him to check the water, oil, and fuel. On most runs, the driver makes regular stops every block or two, where he operates the controls of the bus doors to enable passengers to enter and leave the vehicle. As the passengers board the bus, the driver collects cash fares, tokens, tickets, or transfers, and also issues transfers, and in many places, sells tokens, and makes change. The local busdriver often answers ques tions concerning schedules, routes, transfer points, and street numbers, and sometimes is required to call out the name of the street at each regular bus stop. He also regulates heating, air conditioning, and light equipment to keep the passengers comfortable. At the end of his day’s run, the busdriver turns in a trip sheet which usually includes a record of fares received, trips made, and any delays in schedule. In case of an accident or unusual delay, the driver must make out a comprehensive report on its nature and cause. (D.O.T. 913.363 and 913.463) Places of Employment Nature of the Work Local busdrivers transport mil lions of Americans to and from work, schools, and homes every day. These drivers follow definite time schedules and routes over city and suburban streets to get passen gers to their destinations on time. The local busdriver’s workday begins when he reports to the termi nal or garage. There, he is assigned his bus and receives his change, to In 1970, nearly 69,000 busdriv ers were employed by about 1,090 local transit bus companies. A small proportion of these drivers were women. Approximately one-half the total worked in large cities where the transit system was publicly owned, such as Boston, Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, Pittsburg, St. Louis, and San Francisco. In addi tion to those employed by the local transit bus industry, some local 440 drivers work for charter and sightseeing lines, government agen cies, and companies which special ize in operating schoolbuses. (There are also more than 200,000 schoolbus drivers, most of whom are parttime drivers.) A few drivers are employed by Federal, State, and local governments. Although many drivers work in major metropolitan areas such as New York, Chicago, and Detroit, some are employed in almost every community in the Nation. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Applicants for busdriver positions should be between the ages of 21 and 40, of average height and weight, and have good eyesight— with or without glasses. The appli cant must be in good health, have no physical disabilities, and must be able to pass the written and physical examinations given by most em ployers. He must be able to judge distance accurately, have good hand-eye coordination, and have quick reflexes. Because the driver often works under pressure and deals with many different personalities, an even temperament and emotional stability are important. Although educational requirements are not high, many employers prefer appli cants that have a high school educa tion or its equivalent. A motor vehicle operator’s per mit and, generally, 1 or 2 years of driving experience on some type of motor vehicle are basic require ments. A good driving record is essential because a busdriver is re sponsible for the safety of his pas sengers. Most States require busdrivers to have a chauffeur’s license which permits the holder to operate commerical motor vehicles. This li OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK cense may be obtained either during or immediately after the driver’s training period. Some employers prefer drivers who have had experi ence operating a truck or bus. Most local transit companies con duct training courses which may last several weeks and include both classroom and driving instructions. In the classroom, the trainee is taught company rules, safety regula tions, and safe driving practices. He is taught how to keep records and how to deal tactfully and courte ously with passengers. The trainee’s driving instruction consists of super vised trips both with and without passengers. At the conclusion of his training, the new driver often is re quired to pass a written and final driving examination before he starts on a run. After passing the examinations, he is placed on the “extra” list. While on this list, he substitutes for regular drivers who are ill or on va cation and also makes extra trips in the morning or evening rush hours. He also may drive charter or sightseeing runs and other extra runs such as special service buses for public meetings and sporting events. In almost all companies it is necessary for a beginning employee to serve a probationary period— generally lasting for 30 to 90 days. He may remain on the extra list until he has the necessary seniority to obtain a regular run. It may take from several months to several years before he is assigned a regular run. Promotional opportunities in reg ular driving jobs generally are lim ited. Experienced drivers may ad vance to jobs such as instructor, dis- 441 DRIVING OCCUPATIONS patcher, road supervisor, and, sometimes, executive. Promotion in municipally owned bus systems is usually by examination. The oppor tunities for advancement of most drivers are limited to assignments to more desirable runs. Only after ac quiring sufficient seniority do the drivers receive these assignments. Employment Outlook There will be a small number of opportunities for new workers to enter this occupation each year through the 1970’s, even though employment of local busdrivers is expected to continue to decline (but at a slower rate than in the past). These openings will result from the need to replace drivers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone may account for about 1,200 open ings each year. In recent years, the volume of passenger traffic handled by the local transit bus industry has de clined significantly. The main cause of this decline has been the rapid rise in the number of private auto mobiles and their increasing use in both city and suburban areas. An other factor has been the rapid growth of suburbs, most of which have a wide variety of stores, the aters, restaurants, and other serv ices in their shopping centers. Be cause most suburban shopping cen ters have good parking facilities and are reached easily by automobile, many suburban residents have found it unnecessary to use public transportation for shopping or other activities. The increasing numbers of people employed in suburban areas are likely to rely more on pri vate automobile transportation than those employed in downtown areas. In addition, increasing traffic congestion and parking problems in most downtown sections have led to the decline of many central business districts. This decline, in turn, has resulted in some curtailment of downtown bus service between rush hours. As local transit bus traffic de clined steadily in recent years and bus schedules and routes were cur tailed or entirely eliminated, the employment of busdrivers also de clined. The decline in employment was limited, however, partly be cause transit companies are not completely free to curtail or elimi nate unprofitable routes, since the companies are usually regulated by State or municipal authorities. Downtown traffic congestion and parking problems will continue to encourage bus travel in downtown areas, and the growing need for bus service for school children in the suburbs is an additional factor which may slow the downward trend in busdriver employment. Some increase in the number of publicly owned companies may occur. This increase would favora bly affect busdriver employment, since such companies often provide service on unprofitable routes in the public interest. Earnings and Working Conditions Local transit busdrivers are usu ally paid by the hour, and earnings vary according to locality, length of service, size of company or city, and length and type of run. Nearly all companies pay the maximum job rate after 12 months’ service. Ac cording to a survey of basic hourly wage scales set by union-employer contracts for busdrivers in 66 large cities, the average hourly rate was $3.99 on July 1, 1970. Hourly scales were highest in the larger cit ies in the Great Lakes, Pacific, New England, and Middle Atlantic re gions. Among the cities surveyed, the hourly pay scales for experi enced busdrivers ranged from $2.26 in Topeka, Kansas to $4.60 in Bos ton, Mass. Wage scales for begin ning drivers were generally 5 to 15 cents an hour less. Most busdrivers have a standard work schedule of 8 hours a day, 40 hours a week. For additional work, drivers usually receive 1V2 times their hourly rates. In many compa nies, drivers often work in excess of their standard work schedule, thereby increasing their weekly earnings. Drivers on the extra list generally are guaranteed a mini mum number of hours of work or a minimum weekly salary. The workweek for regular drivers usually consists of any 5 consecutive days; Saturdays and Sundays are counted as regular workdays. Most transit companies run some buses in the evening and a few companies operate 24 hours a day. Therefore, some drivers have to work at night. To accommodate the varying de mands of commuter travel, it is nec essary for many local transit busdrivers to work “swing shifts.” On these runs the operator drives for several hours, is off duty for a pe riod of time, then returns to work for several hours. If the total elapsed time between the beginning and end of a swing shift exceeds 10 or 11 hours, the driver generally re ceives extra pay. Other assignments are “straight runs” which are un broken except for meal periods. Some union contracts require 50 to 60 percent of all assignments to be straight runs. Nearly all local transit busdrivers are covered by labor-management contracts which provide for life and health insurance, and pension plans; the major pension plans are 442 financed jointly by the workers and their employers, while many life and health insurance plans are paid for solely by the employer. Drivers also are given vacations with pay ranging from 1 to 5 weeks or more, depending on the length of service, and usually 6 or 7 or more paid hol idays a year. Although driving a bus is not physically exhausting, busdrivers are exposed to the nervous tension which arises from driving a large vehicle on heavily congested streets and dealing with many types of pas sengers. In addition to driving a bus, they must collect fares, answer questions, see that passengers are clear of the doors, and request rid ers to move to the rear. Among the more favorable as pects of this job is steady year-round employment once a driver receives a regular assignment. Busdrivers are usually free of direct supervision— which many drivers also find desira ble. Drivers take pride in being solely responsible for the safety of the passengers and bus and in acting as the bus company’s representative to the general public. Most busdrivers are members of the Amalgamated Transit Union. Drivers in New York City and sev eral other large cities belong to the Transport Workers Union of Amer ica. The Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen and the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf feurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.) also have organ ized some local transit busdrivers. Sources of Additional Information For information on employment opportunities for local busdrivers, in quiry should be made at the transit company in the local area or to the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK local office of the State employment service. TAXI DRIVERS (D.O.T. 913.363) Nature of the Work In practically all communities, taxicabs are an essential part of the regular transportation system. They offer a type of individualized service not otherwise available, since they operate without the fixed routes and schedules of public buses. As a re sult, the taxidriver can offer a flexi ble independent service to individ ual customers, which provides most of the advantages they would have in using their own private automo biles. Taxicab drivers, in addition to providing transportation, also per form other services. For example, they assist passengers in and out of the cab, handle their luggage, and also may pick up and deliver pack ages. In some communities, cabs are used for transporting crippled chil dren to and from school. Cabdrivers occasionally provide sightseeing tours for out-of-town visitors. Drivers get their “fares” or pas sengers in one or more ways. The majority of taxicab fleets are equipped with two-way radio sys tems over which requests for taxi cabs are transmitted to the driver. These companies also have cab stands at which drivers may wait for phone calls from their central dis patching office, which will direct them to pick up passengers. Many drivers wait in front of theaters, ho tels, bus terminals, railroad stations, and other buildings which may have large numbers of prospective pas sengers. In small cities and in sub urban areas, drivers may work from a central location, such as a termi nal, to which they return after each trip. The driver also may pick up passengers while he is returning to his stand or station. A good driver keeps himself informed on what is happening in the city, where crowds will gather (for example, at the aters, and baseball and football games) and when the crowds will disperse, so that he can be on hand to pick up passengers. Drivers usually are required to keep records, such as the date, time, and place passengers were picked up, and the destination, time of ar rival, and amount of fare collected. If the cabdriver owns his own cab or if he rents a cab over an ex tended period of time, he must clean the cab periodically, as required by regulations in many municipali ties. In large cab companies, this job generally is performed by clean ers employed by the company. Places of Employment In 1970, about 100,000 taxi driv ers, including a small number of women, were employed full time in the taxicab industry, which is made up of both privately owned cabs and fleets of company-owned vehicles. In addition, perhaps as many were employed part time. Although taxicab drivers are em ployed in every metropolitan area in the country, the greatest concentra tion of these workers is found in large cities. New York City, Wash ington, D.C., Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston, New Orleans, Detroit, St. Louis, and Baltimore lead in the employment of cabdrivers. 443 DRIVING OCCUPATIONS ity to deal tactfully and courteously with all types of people. Good eyehand-and-foot coordination is desir able because taxi drivers often must operate their cabs in fast moving and heavy traffic. Opportunities for advancement for taxi drivers are extremely lim ited. Promotion to the job of dis patcher is often the only possible advancement. Some drivers, how ever, have become road supervisors, garage superintendents, or claims agents. Many drivers who work for companies try to purchase their own cabs so that they can become their own employers. In some large cities, however, the number of cabs is re stricted by ordinances, which may limit the opportunity to own cabs in such areas. Employment Outlook Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To become a taxi driver in most large cities, it is necessary to have, in addition to a State-issued chauf feur’s license, a special taxicab op erator’s license issued by the local police, safety department, or Public Utilities Commission. Although li censing requirements vary consider ably among cities, in general, appli cants must be over 21 and in good health, have a good driving record, and have no criminal record. A driver’s record is checked for ar rests, both locally and through the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Most large communities require an applicant for a taxi driver’s li cense to pass a written examination on taxicab and traffic regulations. The examination may include ques tions on street locations, insurance regulations, accident reports, lost articles, zoning or meter rules, and passenger pickup and deliveries. In some cities, the cab company will teach the driver-applicant taxicab regulations and the location of streets and important buildings. In other cities, the driver may prepare himself for the license examination. After the driver has passed the ex amination, he pays an annual li cense fee, generally ranging from 50 cents to $5. Although formal education is sel dom required, many companies pre fer applicants for a taxi driving job to have at least an eighth-grade edu cation. A neat, well-groomed ap pearance is desirable, as is the abil There will be many opportunities for new workers to become taxi drivers throughout the 1970’s, pri marily because of the high turnover in this occupation. The number of taxi drivers has been slowly declin ing during the past decade, and this trend is expected to continue through the 1970’s. In the past, the employment of taxi drivers has been affected ad versely by the increased use of pri vately owned automobiles, rented cars, and the continuing population shift to the suburbs where most people drive their own cars. The high turnover in this occupa tion results from the lack of assur ance of a steady income, the long hours, and the stopgap nature of this employment for some workers when better jobs are not available. Transfers from this occupation are expected to be the major reason that employment opportunities will be available for many new workers 444 who wish to enter this field of driv ing. Earnings and Working Conditions Most taxi drivers employed by taxicab companies are paid a per centage—usually between 40 and 50 percent—of the total fare. Drivers also frequently receive tips, ranging from 10 to 20 percent of the fare. In 1970 many taxicab drivers earned between $2.00 and $3.00 an hour, including tips. Some taxi driv ers covered by union-employer con tracts have guaranteed minimums up to $60 or $70 a week. Many drivers rent their cabs from the company by the day for a set price. Any receipts above the cab rental and other operating expenses are retained by the drivers. A large percentage of full-time taxi drivers work 9 or 10 hours a OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK day for 6 days a week. They usually begin work between 6 a.m. and 8 a.m. Many drivers work nights, starting between 3 p.m. and 5 p.m. Some drivers work on Sundays and holidays. Many college students have been able to work their way through school by driving cabs on a parttime basis and during summer and spring holidays. Some workers also become part-time drivers to supple ment their regular income. Driving a taxicab is not physically strenuous. Most drivers do not change tires or do other heavy re pair work. Drivers, however, are subject to nervous tension from driv ing in heavy traffic in all kinds of weather, and dealing with different types of passengers. Many drivers find the lack of di rect supervision by an employer one of the more desirable aspects of their job. However, they may be subject to municipal regulations which govern their personal appear ance, the fares they charge, and their driving practices. Taxi drivers in many of the large cities belong to labor unions, partic ularly those drivers who work for the large taxicab companies. The main union in this field is the Inter national Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Taxi drivers usually work long hours and do not receive overtime pay. Many of them do not receive fringe benefits, such as pensions and severance pay, that workers in many other occupations receive. When economic conditions decline, their earnings generally are reduced because of increased competition for less business. F O R G E S H O P O C C U P A T IO N S For centuries, blacksmiths have been forging, one of the principal methods of working and shaping metals. The modern forge shop, by substituting heavy power equipment and precision die blocks for the blacksmith’s hand hammer and anvil, can do the work much more rapidly and accurately. Forged metal is exceptionally strong and is used for many prod ucts that must withstand great stress. Examples of forged products include automobile crankshafts, gears, wrenches, scissors, and many aircraft, missile, and spacecraft parts. The great bulk of forging ton nage is made of steel, but alumi num, brass, bronze, copper, tita nium, beryllium, and most other metals also are forged. Forgings range in weight from fractions of a pound to many tons. This chapter describes the major kinds of forging production occupa tions; it does not discuss machining, maintenance, custodial, or other workers who are employed in forge shops but who are not directly en gaged in the forging process. (For a detailed description of the duties, working conditions, and job pros pects for blacksmiths, who do work similar to that of many forge shop workers, see the statement on Blacksmiths.) metal forms, called dies, that are attached to power hammers or presses. The hammers or presses pound or squeeze the metal with tremendous force to form it into the shape desired. Finally, trimmers, grinders, and other workers remove rough edges and excess metal from Nature of the Work Before metal can be shaped by hammers and presses, workers known as heaters must first heat it in intensely hot furnaces. Then drop hammer operators, hammersmiths, press operators, upsetter operators, and other workers manipulate the glowing hot metal between a pair of 445 446 forgings, and perform other finish ing operations. Two kinds of dies are used for forging—the impression (closed) die, which has a cavity shaped to the form of the metal part to be forged, and the open die, which is flat and more closely resembles the blacksmith’s hammer. Impression dies are used where the need for large quantities of identical forging (for example, automobile crank shafts) justifies their expense. Open dies are used to produce relatively small numbers of forged parts, or to forge objects too large for impres sion dies. The basic equipment used by forge shop workers consists of vari ous types of power hammers, power forming and trimming presses, dies, and furnaces. They also use handtools, such as hammers and tongs, and measuring devices, such as cali pers, scales, and rules. A forging hammer or press generally is oper ated by a crew of from 2 to 10 men. The number of men in the crew de pends on the size and type of equip ment operated and the size and shape of the part to be formed. Crews may specialize in the opera tion of a particular kind of hammer or press. The work performed by workers in the major forge shop oc cupations is as follows: Hammersmiths (D.O.T. 612.381) supervise the operation of open-die power hammers that pound pieces of hot metal, called blanks or stock, into desired shapes. The precision of parts forged with such equipment is greatly dependent on the skill of the hammersmith. He must inter pret blueprints, drawings, and sketches to determine how to work the metal under the hammer and determine the force of the hammer so that the piece being forged will be shaped to specifications. He also must decide whether the metal OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK needs additional heating and when and how to use various forming tools under the hammer to produce angles and curves. The hammersmith supervises a crew consisting of a hammer driver, or hammer runner, who operates controls of the hammer to regulate the force of the forging blow; a craneman, who transfers metal blanks from furnace to hammer and manipulates metal under the ham mer; a heater, who heats metal to correct forging temperatures; and one or more helpers. Hammer operators (D.O.T. 610.782), often called hammermen, are skilled forgemen who operate impression-die power hammers. Generally, the larger the hammer and the larger or more intricate the shape of the metal object to be formed, the greater the skill re quired of the operator. With the as sistance of helpers and heaters, the hammerman sets and aligns dies in the hammer. He controls the force of the forging blow, manipulates metal under the hammer, and deter mines whether the metal needs ad ditional heat. Press operators (D.O.T. 611.782 and .885) operate huge presses equipped with either open or im pression dies. Their work differs from that of the hammersmith or hammer operator mainly in that they shape and form hot metal by pressing or squeezing rather than by hammering or pounding. They must know how to regulate the pressure of their machines and position metal stock between the dies. In some cases, operators need to know how to control the heating of metal. Their duties also may include set ting up dies in the presses. Skills of open-die press op erators are similar to those of ham mersmiths. Both types of workers manipulate metal blanks between two open dies; both must be able to understand blueprints, drawings, or sketches in order to transform heated metal into finished forgings; and both may supervise crews com posed of an assistant operator, a craneman, a heater, and several helpers. Impression-die press operators work to more exacting specifications than press operators using open dies, but do not need as much ma nipulating skill because the die im pression determines the shape of the forging. The impression-die press operator may supervise a small crew or work alone. Upsetters (D.O.T. 611.782), also called upsettermen, operate machines that shape hot metal by applying pressure through the hori zontal movement of one impression die against another. With the help of a heater and several helpers, the upsetter performs such duties as alining dies, positioning metal stock between the dies, adjusting the machine’s pressure on the metal stock, and controlling the heating of the metal. Deep-socket wrenches, aircraft engine cylinders, bolts, and valves are examples of products made on upset machines. Heaters (D.O.T. 619.782) con trol the supply of fuel and air in fur naces to obtain the temperature and atmosphere required for the metal being forged. Temperature gauges and observation of the metal’s color help the heater determine when the correct temperature has been reached. Heaters use tongs or me chanical equipment to transfer heated metal from the furnace to the hammer or press. They also keep furnaces clean. Inspectors (D.O.T. 612.281) check forgings for size, shape, quality, and other specifications. Some inspectors examine forged pieces for flaws and faulty work- 447 FORGE SHOP OCCUPATIONS manship while the forgings are still hot; others inspect forgings after they have been trimmed and cleaned. Inspection may be done visually and/or with gauges, mi crometers, calipers, and other meas uring devices. Checking for flaws also may be done with machines that test strength and hardness, and with magnetic and electronic testing devices. Die sinkers (D.O.T. 601.280) are highly skilled workers who make the impression dies used on forging hammers and presses. Work ing from a blueprint, template, or drawing, a die sinker traces the out line of the object to be forged on two matched blocks of steel. He then forms the shape of this object in the steel die blocks by using mill ing machines and other machine tools such as EDM (electric dis charge machinery) and ECM (elec tro chemical machinery). He uses scrapers, hand grinders, and other handtools to smooth and finish the die cavity. Finally, by using the completed dies, he makes a sample cast of the finished cavity, and checks all measurements with a mi crometer and other precision in struments. Many forge shop workers clean and finish forgings. For example, trimmers (D.O.T. 617.885) re move excess metal with presses equipped with trimming dies. Grinders (D.O.T. 705.884) remove rough edges with mechanically pow ered abrasive wheels. Sandblasters and shotblasters (D.O.T. 503.887) operate sandblasting or shotblast ing equipment to clean and smooth forgings. Picklers (D.O.T. 503.885) dip forgings in an acid so lution to remove surface scale and reveal any surface defects. Heat treaters (D.O.T. 504.782) heat and cool forgings to attain certain de sired conditions or properties in the metal, such as hardness. Places of Employment Approximately 65,000 produc tion workers were employed in forge shops in 1970. Nearly three-fourths of these workers were employed in independent shops—those that produce forgings for sale. The re mainder worked in forging depart ments of plants that use forgings in their final products, such as auto mobiles, farm machinery, handtools, and structural and ornamental metal products. Employment of forge shop workers is concentrated mainly in Ohio, Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Pennsylvania, Massachu setts, California, and New York. Forge shops usually are located near steel producing centers, which provide steel for forgings, as well as near metalworking plants, which are the major users of forged products. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most forge shop workers learn their skills through on-the-job train ing and work experience. They gen erally join a hammer or press crew as a helper, or, in some plants, as a heater. As they acquire experience, they progress to more skilled jobs. Advancement to the skilled job of hammersmith, for example, requires several years of on-the-job training and experience. A few forge shops offer appren tice training programs for crafts such as die sinker, heat treater, hammer operator, hammersmith, and press operator. The programs, which generally last 4 years (in the case of die sinkers, from 4 to 8 years), give the apprentice a combi nation of classroom training and practical experience in using the tools and equipment of the trade. For example, hammersmith appren tices learn about the properties of metals and how to operate power hammers and furnaces, use handtools and welding equipment, and read blueprints. Training requirements for inspec tors vary. Those who inspect rough forgings visually or with simple gauges usually can perform their jobs after only a few weeks of onthe-job training. Those who exam ine parts forged to more exact spec ifications and operate more compli cated testing equipment may need some technical background in blue print reading and mathematics and may be given several months of onthe-job training. Employers usually require no more than a grammar school educa tion for helpers and heaters, but high school graduates are preferred. Young men interested in the more skilled forge shop jobs should com plete high school and include math ematics (especially geometry), drafting, and shopwork in their studies. Because forge shop work some times involves lifting and moving heavy forgings and dies, workers must be strong. However, cranes are used for moving very large ob jects. Forge shop workers must have the stamina to work under hot and noisy conditions. Employment Outlook Production worker employment in forge shops is expected to in crease slowly through the 1970’s. Most job openings will arise from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. 448 Employment is expected to in crease because industries that use forgings in their final products—par ticularly the industrial machinery and automobile industries—will ex pand as the Nation’s general eco nomic activity rises. However, em ployment is expected to increase more slowly than forge shop produc tion because continued improve ments in forging techniques and equipment and more efficient plant operations will result in greater out put per worker. Forge shop employ ment has been sensitive to changes in general business conditions, and it is expected that substantial yearto-year changes in the level of em ployment will continue. Earnings and Working Conditions Average earnings of forge shop production workers are higher than those for manufacturing production workers as a whole. In 1970, pro duction workers in iron and steel forging plants earned an average of $172.40 a week, or $4.31 an hour, compared with average weekly earnings of $133.73, or $3.36 an hour, for production workers in all manufacturing industries. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Collective bargaining contracts union members. Many are members negotiated between employers and of the International Brotherhood of unions provide for various fringe Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, benefits, such as holiday pay, vaca Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers. tion pay, and retirement pensions. Others are members of the United Most union-management agree Steelworkers of America; the Inter ments provide for 8 or 9 paid holi national Union, United Automobile, days a year and up to 5 weeks’ va Aerospace and Agricultural Imple cation, depending on length of ment Workers of America; the In service. Other important provisions ternational Association of Machin include life insurance benefits ists and Aerospace Workers; and financed by the employer, as well as the International Die Sinkers’ Con accident and sickness, hospital, and ference (Ind.). surgical benefits. Working conditions in forge shops have improved in recent Sources of Additional Information years. Many firms have installed Further information on employ heat deflectors and ventilating fans ment opportunities in forging can be to reduce heat and smoke and have obtained from local offices of the attempted to reduce machine con State employment service; person cussion, noise, and vibration. Al nel departments of individual forge though the rate of disabling work shops; locals of the labor unions injuries in forge shops is higher than noted above; and from: the average for all manufacturing, The Forging Industry Association, employers and unions attempt to 55 Public Square, Cleveland, Ohio eliminate injuries by promoting 44113. safety training and the use of pro Open Die Forging Institute, 440 tective equipment, including face Sherwood Rd., La Grange Park, shields, ear plugs and muffs, safety 111. 60525. glasses, metal-toe shoes, instep guards, metal helmets, and machine safety guards. Most forge shop workers are M A C H IN IN G O C C U P A T IO N S Almost every product made by American Industry contains metal parts or is manufactured by ma chines made of parts. Many of these metal parts are shaped to precise di mensions by skilled and semiskilled machining workers who use a wide variety of machine tools. Machining workers make up the largest single occupational group in the metal working trades. In 1970, about 1.2 million workers were employed as machinists, tool and die makers, in strument makers, machine tool op erators, and setup men. Nature of the Work The principal job of most machin ing workers is to operate machine tools. A machine tool is a station ary, power-driven machine that holds both the piece of metal to be shaped and a cutting instrument, or “tool,” and brings them together so that the metal is cut to the desired shape. In some cases, the cutting tool is moved, and the metal is held stationary; in others, the metal is moved against a stationary tool. The most common types of machine tools are lathes, grinding machines, drilling and boring ma chines, milling machines, shapers, broachers, and planers. Lathes turn and shape metal against a sharp cut ting tool. Grinding machines smooth metal parts by means of powerdriven abrasive wheels. Drilling machines make holes in metal. Bor ing machines enlarge holes already drilled. Milling machines cut or re move excess metal with tools that have several cutting edges. Shapers, planers, and broachers are machine tools that produce flat surfaces. In addition to these common machining methods, several new metal shaping techniques have been introduced in recent years. For example, metal can now be shaped using chemicals, electricity, magnetism, sound, light, and liquids under controlled condi tions. Accuracy is of prime importance for most machining work. Motors, farm machinery, and typewriters are included among the wide variety of products made of metal parts that must be made to precise dimensions so that they are interchangeable and can be easily assembled for massproduction purposes. Metal parts sometimes are machined to toler ances of 10 millionths of an inch. Machining workers follow direc tions generally given in the form of a drawing or blueprint, upon which exact dimensions of the finished part are specified; some instructions may be less detailed. Machining workers frequently use micrometers and other precision-measuring in struments to check the accuracy of their work against the required specifications. In addition to operating machine tools, skilled tool and die makers, instrument makers, and machinists spend a considerable portion of their time doing precision hand work, such as laying out and assem bling metal parts. After the separate parts have been machined, they use files, scrapers, emery cloths, and miscellaneous small handtools in filing, scraping, and polishing th£ parts for exact fit in the final assem bly. All-round machinists are skilled workers who can operate most types of machine tools. Machine tool op erators commonly operate only one kind of machine tool. Tool and die makers specialize in making dies for use with presses and diecasting machines, devices to guide drills into metal, and special gages to de termine whether the work meets specified tolerances. Instrument makers use machine tools to produce highly accurate instrument parts made of metal or other materials. Setup men adjust machine tools so that semiskilled machine tool oper ators can run the machines. (De tailed discussions of the types of work performed by workers in each of these machining occupations are presented later in this chapter.) Since continuous attention is re quired when machine tools are in operation, the work may be tedious, especially on simple and repetitive machining jobs. However, where the work is varied and complex and standards of accuracy high, a worker may experience the satisfac tion that comes to a capable and conscientious craftsman in a highly skilled trade. Location of Machining Work An estimated 530,000 machin ists; 425,000 machine tool opera tors; 165,000 tool and die makers; 70,000 setup men; and 8,000 in strument makers were employed in 1970. About four-fifths of all ma chining workers were employed in the metal-working industries, mostly in the machinery, except electrical; transportation equipment; fabri cated metal products; and electrical machinery and equipment indus tries. Many thousands also were employed in repair shops of rail roads and maintenance shops of factories that make textiles, paper, glass, or chemicals. A small number worked in research laboratories and shops that fabricate models of new products. Machining workers are employed in every State and in almost every city in the country. However, more 449 450 than half of all machining workers are employed in California, Ohio, New York, Michigan, Illinois, and Pennsylvania. Other States having large numbers of machining workers are New Jersey, Massachu setts, Indiana, Connecticut, Wis consin, and Texas. Most instrument makers are employed in New York City, Chicago, and a few other large cities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The common method of entering skilled machining occupations is through apprenticeship— a period of formal on-the-job training during which the new worker learns all the aspects of his trade. He is taught to operate machine tools and to use handtools and measuring instru ments. In addition to shop training, the apprentice is given classroom instruction in blueprint reading, mathematics, and related subjects. In choosing apprentices, employers usually prefer young men who have a high school or trade school educa tion. Some companies use aptitude tests to help determine whether ap plicants for machining jobs have the necessary mechanical ability and the temperament to perform this exact ing work. Machining workers also must have good vision and superior judgment of depth and distance. Most semiskilled machine tool operators—and some machinists, tool and die makers, and instrument makers—“pick up” the skills of their trade informally through expe rience on several jobs. They gener ally start in the less skilled machin ing jobs working under the supervi sion of experienced craftsmen. They gradually advance to more skilled jobs as they acquire experience and knowledge. Some workers improve OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK their skills and increase their chances for advancement by taking courses in blueprint reading, elec tronics, hydraulics, and shop mathe matics. An increasing number of machining workers are participating in intensive training programs pro vided by machinery manufacturers or sponsored by labor unions. Some of these programs train machining workers to maintain and repair nu merically controlled machine tools. Programs to train unemployed and underemployed workers, pri marily for entry jobs in the machin ing occupations, were operating in many cities in 1970 under the Man power Development and Training Act. The majority of these pro grams, which continue up to a year, were for machine tool operators, but some were for other machining occupations. The programs stressed the fundamentals of machine tool operation. Graduates of these pro grams may eventually become skilled machining workers by gain ing additional training and experi ence. Although women sometimes are employed as machine tool opera tors, relatively few are employed in skilled machining occupations. Machining workers have several advancement opportunities. For ex ample, many can advance to fore men. Individuals having extensive machine shop experience may, with specialized training, become pro gramed who prepare the coded pa per tapes used to operate numerically controlled machines. Tool and die makers and instrument makers can advance to technical positions such as tool and die designer or instru ment technician. Machining workers also can open their own tool and die shops or machine shops. Employment Outlook There will be thousands of job openings for machining workers through the 1970’s. Most of these openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who transfer to other fields of work, re tire, or die. Replacement needs will be a particularly important fac tor in the skilled machining occupa tions, which have a relatively high proportion of older workers. Trans fers of semiskilled machine tool op erators to other occupations are fairly common, and some openings also will result from these transfers. Other openings are expected to re sult from the anticipated slow in crease in the demand for these workers, assuming the realization of relatively full employment nationally and high rates of economic growth necessary to achieve this goal. Employment in the various machining occupations is expected to increase at different rates. For example, the number of instrument makers is expected to increase rapidly, whereas little or no change is expected in the employment of machine tool operators. Laborsav ing technological changes are ex pected to slow the employment growth of most machining occupa tions. The anticipated increase in the employment of machining workers is expected to result from the rapid rise in the demand for machined products. Increases in population and in the number of households, plus higher levels of personal dis posable income, are expected to re sult in a large increase in the de mand for consumer products, such as automobiles, heating and air-con ditioning equipment, and household appliances, in the production of which machining is involved. Higher levels of corporate income and ris- 451 MACHINING OCCUPATIONS ing expenditures for industrial plant capacity should stimulate the de mand for machine tools, engines, pumps, instruments, and other in dustrial equipment. Employment of machining workers is not expected to expand as fast as the demand for machined products because technological de velopments will increase output per worker. For example, automated machining lines, in which machine tools are linked together for produc tion operations, are being used in creasingly. The cutting and feeding speeds of machine tools also are in creasing. New processes that will be used more frequently in the future for metal removal include chemical and electrical milling, electrical dis charge and ultrasonic machining, and machining by electron beams and lasers. The use of powdered metals and advances in metal form ing, both of which significantly re duce the amount of machining nec essary to produce a final product, also may gain more widespread ap plication in the future. Of all the technological changes that are expected to affect the fu ture employment of workers in machining occupations, the greatest impact is expected to arise from the expanding application of numeri cally controlled machine tools. The use of numerically controlled ma chine tools broadly involves the fol lowing sequence of operations: En gineers or draftsmen translate part dimensions and tolerances, cutter shapes and sizes, cutting paths and sequences, and other data into num bers or codes representing numbers. These numbers are punched on tapes or cards which are inserted into electronic or mechanical de vices that translate numbers into motions or actions, such as drilling or cutting. The machine tool opera tor simply installs the tool, inserts and removes the work-piece, and changes the tapes or cards. The growing use of numerically controlled machine tools will limit the employment growth of some machining workers, particularly semiskilled operators. On the other hand, the more sophisticated appli cations of these machine tools will require some operators to have greater skill and knowledge of machining operations. Earnings and Working Conditions Numerically controlled machines increase efficiency of machine workers. The earnings of skilled machining workers compare favorably with those of other skilled industrial workers. Tool and die makers and instrument makers are the highest paid workers in the machining group and are among the highest paid skilled workers in manufactur ing. Earnings information for the individual machining occupations is presented later in this chapter. Most machine shops are rela tively clean and well lighted. Be cause they work with high speed machine tools and sharp cutting in struments, workers in these occupa 452 tions need good safety habits. Per sons working around machine tools are prohibited from wearing loose fitting clothing. They frequently wear safety glasses and other pro tective equipment. Machining work usually is not physically strenuous. The machine tools do the actual cutting while the machining worker sets the machine, watches the controls, and checks the accuracy of the work. The workers, however, usually stand at their jobs most of the day and move about frequently. Companies that employ machin ing workers generally provide paid holidays and paid vacations. Life in surance, hospitalization, medical and surgical insurance, sickness and accident insurance, and pensions also are often provided. The great majority of workers in machining occupations are members of unions. Among the labor organi zations in this field are the Interna tional Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Interna tional Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Imple ment Workers of America; the In ternational Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; the United Steelworkers of America; and the Mechanics Educational Society of America. Sources of Additional Information The National Machine Tool Builders Association, 2139 Wiscon sin Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20007—whose members build a large percentage of all machine tools used in this country—will, on request, supply information on ca reer opportunities in the Machine Tool Industry. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK The National Tool, Die and Pre cision Machining Association, 1411 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005, offers information on ap prenticeship training, including Rec ommended Apprenticeship Stand ards for Tool and Die Makers, cer tified by the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training. Many State employment service local offices provide free aptitude testing to persons interested in be coming all-round machinists or tool and die makers. The State employ ment service also may be a source of information about training op portunities under the Manpower Development and Training Act. In addition, the State employment serv ice refers applicants for apprentice programs to employers. In many communities, applications for ap prenticeship also are received by labor-management apprenticeship committees. Apprenticeship information also may be obtained from the following unions (which have local offices in many cities): International Association of Ma chinists and Aerospace Workers, 1300 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. International Union, United Auto mobile, Aerospace and Agricul tural Implement Workers of America, 8000 East Jefferson Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48214. International Union of Electrical Radio and Machine Workers, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. International Brotherhood of Elec trical Workers, 1200 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. ALL-ROUND MACHINISTS (D.O.T. 600.280 and .281) Nature of the Work The all-round machinist is a skilled worker who uses machine tools to make metal parts. A ma chinist can set up and operate most types of machine tools. His wide knowledge of shop practice and the working properties of metals, plus his understanding of what the vari ous machine tools can accomplish, enable him to turn a block of metal into an intricate part meeting pre cise specifications. Variety is the main characteristic of the work of an all-round machin ist. He plans and carries through all operations needed in turning out machined products. He may switch frequently from the production of one kind of product to another. An all-round machinist selects the tools and material required for each job and plans the cutting and finishing operations in order to complete the finished work according to blueprint or written specifications. He makes standard shop computations relating to dimensions of work, tooling, feeds, and speeds of machining. He often uses precision-measuring in struments, such as micrometers and gages, to measure the accuracy of his work to thousandths or even millionths of an inch. After com pleting machining operations, he may finish the work by hand, using files and scrapers, and then assem ble the finished parts with wrenches and screwdrivers. The all-round machinist may also “heat treat” cut ting tools and parts to improve machinability. Machinists employed in mainte nance departments to make or re pair metal parts of machines and MACHINING OCCUPATIONS 453 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Machinist drills to close tolerance. equipment also have a broad knowl edge of mechanical principles. They sometimes adjust and test the parts they have made or repaired for a machine. In plants that produce large num bers of metal products, some highly skilled machinists specialize in lay out work. These specialists (layout men) mark specifications on metal so that machine tool operators can perform the proper machining oper ations. Places of Employment Almost every factory using a sub stantial amount of machinery em ploys all-round machinists to keep its mechanical equipment operating. Some all-round machinists work in the production departments of metal-working factories where large quantities of identical parts are produced; others work in machine shops where a limited number of varied products are made. Most all-round machinists work in the following industries: Machinery, in cluding electrical; transportation equipment; fabricated metal prod ucts; and primary metals. Among the other industries employing sub stantial numbers of these workers are the railroad, chemical, food processing, and textile industries. The Federal Government also em ploys all-round machinists in Navy yards and other installations. An important advantage of this occupation is that machinists can be employed in almost every locality and industry because their skills are required to maintain all types of machinery. According to most training au thorities, a 4-year apprenticeship is the best way to learn the machinist trade. Many machinists, however, have qualified without an appren ticeship by learning the trade through years of varied experience in machining jobs. Some companies have training programs which qual ify some of their employees as ma chinists in less than 4 years. A young person interested in be coming a machinist should be me chanically inclined and tempera mentally suited to do highly accurate work that requires concentration as well as physical effort. A high school or vocational school educa tion, including courses in mathemat ics, physics, or machine shop train ing, is desirable. Some companies require their experienced machinists to take additional courses in mathe matics and electronics, at company expense, so that they can service and operate the numerically con trolled machine tools coming into greater use. In addition, equipment builders generally provide training in the electrical, hydraulic, and me chanical aspects of machine-andcontrol systems. A typical machinist apprentice program lasts 4 years and consists of approximately 8,000 hours of shop training and about 570 hours of related classroom instruction. Shop training includes learning the operation of various types of ma chine tools. The apprentice also is taught chipping, filing, hand tap ping, dowel fitting, riveting, and other hand operations. In the class room, the apprentice studies blue print reading, mechanical drawing, shop mathematics, and shop prac tices. Numerous promotional oppor 454 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tunities are available to all-round machinists. Many advance to fore man of a section or to other super visory jobs. Others who receive ad ditional training may become tool and die makers or instrument mak ers. A skilled machinist has excel lent opportunities to advance into other technical jobs in machine pro graming and tooling. Machinists also can open their own machine shops. Employment Outlook The number of all-round machin ists is expected to increase slowly through the 1970’s, as a result of the anticipated expansion of metal working activities. (See discussion, p. 450.) However, most job open ings will arise from the need to re place experienced machinists who transfer to other fields of work, re tire, or die. Much of the employment growth will occur in maintenance shops, as industries continue to use a greater volume of complex machinery and equipment. Skilled maintenance machinists are needed to prevent costly breakdowns in highly mecha nized plants where machine tools often are linked together by transfer equipment. In such plants, a break down of one machine may stop many other machines. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of all-round ma chinists compare favorably with those of other skilled factory workers. Maintenance machinists em ployed in various industries in 77 metropolitan areas surveyed in 1969-70 received average straighttime hourly earnings ranging from $2.89 in Greenville, S.C., to $4.86 in Detroit, Mich. Average straighttime hourly earnings of mainte nance machinists employed in the following cities were: Atlanta ................................................ $4.03 Birmingham ....................................... 4.22 C hicago............................................... 4.49 C incinnati........................................... 4.14 Detroit ............................................... 4.86 Greenville ......................................... 2.89 Houston ............................................. 4.38 Los Angeles-LongB e a ch ................. 4.53 M em phis............................................. 3.86 Milwaukee ......................................... 4.76 Minneapolis-St. Paul ...................... 4.44 New York ......................................... 4.47 Portland, Oreg.................................... 4.50 Rockford, 111........................................ 3.85 San Francisco-Oakland ................. 4.75 Worcester ........................................... 3.85 Machinists must follow strict safety regulations when working around high-speed machine tools. The greater use of safety glasses and other protective devices in re cent years has reduced the accident rate for these workers. See introductory section of this chapter for a discussion of nonwage benefits received by machining workers, unions that organize these w orkers, and sources of additional information. MACHINE TOOL OPERATORS (D.O.T. 600.280; 601.280; 602.280 through .885; 603.280 through .885; 604.280 through .885; 605.280 through .885; and 606.280 through .885) Machine tool operators shape metal to precise dimensions by the use of machine tools. Most opera tors can operate only one or two types of machine tools; some can operate several. Many operators are semiskilled machine tenders who perform simple, repetitive opera tions that can be learned quickly. Other operators, however, are skilled workers who can perform complex and varied machining op erations. A typical job of a semiskilled op erator is to place rough metal stock in a machine tool on which the speeds and operation sequence have Machine tool operator positions multiple spindle drilling machine. already been set by a skilled worker. The operator watches the machine and calls his supervisor when it is not functioning correctly. Special, easy-to-use gages help him to measure the work quickly and accurately. The operator who has limited training may make minor adjustments to keep his machine tool operating, but he depends on skilled machining workers for major adjustments. The work of skilled machine tool operators usually is limited to a sin gle type of machine and involves lit tle or no hand fitting or assembly work. He plans and sets up the cor rect sequence of machining opera tions according to blueprints, lay outs, or other instructions. He adjusts speed, feed, and other con 455 MACHINING OCCUPATIONS trols, and selects the proper cutting instruments or tools for each opera tion. He must be able to use all the special attachments of his machine because adjustments during machin ing operations and changes in the setup may be required. Upon com pleting his work, he measures toler ance limits with micrometers, gages, and other precision-measuring in struments to see whether the work meets specifications. The skilled machine tool operator also may se lect cutting and lubricating oils used to cool metal and tools during machining operations. Lathes, drill presses, boring machines, grinding machines, mill ing machines, and automatic screw machines are among the machine tools used by machine operators. Both skilled and semiskilled opera tors have job titles related to the kind of machine they operate, such as engine lathe operator, milling machine operator, and drill press operator. Places of Employment Machine tool operators are em ployed mainly in factories that man ufacture fabricated metal products, transportation equipment, and ma chinery in large quantities. Skilled machine tool operators work in production departments, mainte nance departments, toolrooms, and job shops. Because of their limited training, few semiskilled operators work in maintenance departments or in job shops. learner first operates a machine, he is supervised closely by a more ex perienced worker. The beginner learns how to use measuring instru ments and to make elementary com putations needed in shop work. He gradually acquires experience and learns to operate a machine tool, read blueprints, and plan the se quence of machining work. Individual ability and effort largely determine how long it takes to become a machine tool operator. Semiskilled machine tool operators generally learn their jobs within a few months. However, it usually takes 1Vi to 2 years of on-the-job training and experience to become a skilled machine tool operator. Some skilled machine tool operators’ jobs are filled by men who have com pleted machinists’ apprenticeships. Some companies have formal train ing programs to acquaint new em ployees with the details of machine tool operation and machining prac tice. Although there are no special ed ucational requirements for semi skilled operator jobs, young persons seeking such jobs can improve their job opportunities by completing courses in mathematics and blue print reading. In hiring beginners, employers often look for persons who have mechanical aptitude and some experience working with ma chinery. Skilled machine tool operators can advance to jobs as all-round machinists and tool and die makers. They also may advance to jobs in machine programing and mainte nance. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Earnings and Working Conditions Employment Outlook Most machine tool operators learn their skills on the job. A be ginner usually starts by observing a skilled operator at work. When the the anticipated expansion of metal working activities. (See discussion, p. 450.) However, tens of thousands of workers will be hired to replace experienced machine tool operators who transfer to other jobs, retire, or die. Technological developments will continue to affect both the number and skill requirements of machine tool operators. The use of faster and more versatile automatic machine tools and the increasingly wide spread use of numerically controlled machine tools will result in greater output per worker and tend to limit employment growth. (For the role of numerically controlled machines, see the discussion in the introduc tory section of this chapter under “Employment Outlook.” ) Other factors that may contribute to the slow growth in this occupation are the new processes that are becom ing increasingly important in metal removal, such as chemical milling, electrical milling, electrical dis charge and ultrasonic machining, and machining by electron beams and lasers. Advances in metal form ing and the use of powdered metals also may limit employment growth since they reduce the amount of machining necessary to produce a final product. Workers who have thorough backgrounds in machining opera tions, mathematics, blueprint read ing, and a good working knowledge of the properties of metals will be better able to adjust to the changing job requirements that will result from these technological advances. The number of machine tool op erators is expected to show little change through the 1970’s, despite Machine tool operators are paid hourly or incentive rates, or on the basis of a combination of both methods. In 40 selected metropoli OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 456 tan areas surveyed in 1969-70 machine tool operators received straight-time hourly earnings rang ing from $3.33 in Green Bay, Wis., to $4.87 in Detroit, Mich. Average straight-time hourly earnings of machine tool operators employed in the following cities were: B oston ...................................................$3.79 Buffalo ............................................... 4.48 C hicago............................................... 4.38 Cincinnati ........................................... 4.36 Cleveland ........................................... 4.24 Dallas ................................................. 3.37 Detroit ............................................... 4.87 Green Bay ......................................... 3.33 Houston ............................................. 3.76 Los Angeles-Long B e a ch ............... 4.32 Milwaukee ......................................... 4.63 New York ......................................... 3.81 Pittsburgh ........................................... 4.02 Portland, Oreg.................................... 3.96 St. Louis ........................................... 4.44 San Francisco-Oakland ................. 4.60. Worcester ........................................... 3.42 Machine tool operators are re quired to wear protective glasses and to avoid wearing loose-fitting garments when working around high speed machine tools. Increas ing emphasis upon these and other safety regulations has reduced the accident rate for these workers. See introductory section of this chapter for a discussion of non wage benefits received by machining workers, unions that organize these workers, and sources of additional information. TOOL AND DIE MAKERS (D.O.T. 601.280, .281, .380, and .381) Nature of the Work Tool and die makers are highly skilled, creative workers whose products—tools, dies, and special guiding and holding devices—are the basis of mass production in metalworking industries. Toolmakers specialize in producing jigs and fixtures (devices required to hold metal while it is being shaved, stamped, or drilled). They also make gages and other measuring devices that are used in manufactur ing precision metal parts. Die mak ers construct metal forms (dies) which are used in stamping and forging operations to shape metal. They also make metal molds used in diecasting and in molding plastics. Tool and die makers also repair worn or damaged dies, gages, jigs, and fixtures. Some tool and die makers help design tools and dies. In comparison with most other machining workers, tool and die makers have a broader knowledge of machining operations, shop prac tices, mathematics, and blueprint reading, and can work to closer tol erances and do more precise hand work. Tool and die makers use al most every type of machine tool and precision-measuring instrument. They work with all metals and al loys commonly used in manufactur ing and must be familiar with the machining properties of these vari ous metals. Places of Employment The largest numbers of tool and die makers are employed in plants producing manufacturing, construc tion, and farm machinery and equipment. The automobile, air craft, and other transportation equipment industries also employ large numbers of tool and die mak ers. Several thousand of these 457 MACHINING OCCUPATIONS craftsmen work in small tool and die jobbing shops, making tools, dies, and other machine tool acces sories for use in metalworking fac tories. Companies manufacturing electrical machinery and fabricated metal products are other important employers of tool and die makers. Many nonmetalworking industries also employ them. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Tool and die making requires several years of varied training and experience which can be obtained through formal apprenticeship or equivalent on-the-job training. Since this work is highly skilled, persons planning to enter the trade should have a good working knowledge of mathematics and physics as well as considerable mechanical ability, finger dexterity, and an aptitude for doing very precise work. In select ing apprentices, most employers prefer young men who have a high school or trade school education. Some employers test apprentice ap plicants to determine their mechani cal aptitudes and their abilities in mathematics. A tool and die apprenticeship or dinarily lasts 4 or 5 years. Most of the time is devoted to practical shop training, which includes learning how to use the drill press, milling machine, lathe, grinder, and other machine tools. The apprentice also learns inspection work plus the use of handtools in fitting and assem bling tools, gages, and other me chanical equipment. Tool and die maker apprentices study heat treat ing and other metalworking proc esses. Classroom training is be coming increasingly important and includes shop mathematics, shop theory, mechanical drawing, tool designing, and blueprint reading. After apprenticeship, several years’ experience often is necessary to qualify for more difficult tool and die work. Some companies have separate apprenticeship programs for toolmaking and die making. Many metal machining workers have become tool and die makers without completing formal appren ticeships. After acquiring years of experience as skilled machine tool operators or as machinists plus ad ditional classroom training, these men have developed into all-round workers who can skillfully perform tool and die making. The increasing complexity of modern machinery and metalwork ing equipment is raising the techni cal requirements for tool and die making. A knowledge of mathemat ics, the basic sciences, electronics, and hydraulics will give young per sons entering this occupation greater opportunities to advance their careers. Men who have had tool and die training often advance to supervi sory and administrative positions in industry. Many tool and die makers become tool designers. Some open their own tool and die shops. Employment Outlook Employment of tool and die mak ers is expected to increase slowly through the 1970’s. However, most job opportunities will become avail able as experienced tool and die makers transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. The anticipated long-range ex pansion in the machinery, electrical equipment, transportation equip ment, and other metalworking in dustries will result in a continued need for tool and die makers to make the tools and dies used to produce the large numbers of iden tical metal parts required in these industries. They also will be needed to help put many technological de velopments into effect. However, the expanding use of electrical-dis charge machines and numerical control machines has significantly changed tool making processes. Nu merically controlled machining op erations require fewer of the special tools and jigs and fixtures that are made by tool and die makers. In ad dition, numerically controlled ma chines could replace many of the conventional machines now used in manufacturing tools, jigs, and fix tures, thus increasing output per tool and die maker. Tool and die makers, as a group, have a longer working life than many other workers in the labor force. Their jobs require extensive skill and knowledge that can be ac quired only after many years of ex perience. For this reason, compa nies are reluctant to lay off tool and die makers, even when production is decreased. Tool and die makers also have greater occupational mo bility than other less skilled workers. They can transfer to jobs as instrument makers or machinists. Earnings and Working Conditions Tool and die makers are among the highest paid machining workers. Those employed in various indus tries in 66 metropolitan areas sur veyed in 1969-70 were paid average straight-time hourly earnings rang ing from $3.45 in Chattanooga, Tenn., to $5.29 in San FranciscoOakland and San Jose, Calif. Straight-time hourly earnings of tool and die makers employed in the fol lowing cities were: Atlanta ............................................... $4.55 Baltimore ........................................... 4.33 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 458 Birmingham ....................................... B oston ................................................. Buffalo ............................................... Chattanooga ..................................... Chicago ............................................. Cleveland ........................................... Dallas ................................................. Detroit ............................................... Houston ............................................. Los Angeles-LongBeach ................ Milwaukee ......................................... Minneapolis-St. Paul ...................... Newark-Jersey City ........................ New York ......................................... Philadelphia ....................................... St. L o u is............................................. San Francisco-Oakland................... San Jose ............................................. Worcester ........................................... 3.66 4.13 4.63 3.45 4.84 4.51 4.26 5.08 4.03 4.71 4.89 4.48 4.36 4.35 4.19 4.86 5.29 5.29 3.62 used, for example, to regulate heat, measure distance, record earth quakes, and control industrial proc esses. The mechanical instrument parts and models made by these workers range from simple gears to intricate parts of navigation systems used in guided missiles. Instrument makers fabricate metal parts by operating machine tools, such as lathes and milling machines, and by using handtools, such as files and chisels. Because accuracy is important, they measure finished parts with a wide variety of precision-measuring equipment, in cluding micrometers, verniers, cali pers, profilometers, and dial indica tors, as well as standard optical measuring instruments. Instrument makers work from rough sketches, verbal instructions, or ideas, as well as detailed blue prints. Thus, in making parts, they frequently use considerable imagi nation and ingenuity. Instrument makers sometimes work on parts that must not vary from specifica tions by more than ten millionths of an inch. To meet these standards, See introductory section of this chapter for a discussion of nonwage benefits received by machining workers, unions that organize these workers, and sources of additional information. INSTRUMENT MAKERS (MECHANICAL) (D.O.T. 600.280) Nature of the Work The expanding use of instruments in production, research, develop ment, and testing work is making the work of the instrument maker increasingly important. Instrument makers (also called experimental machinists and modelmakers) work closely with engineers and scientists in translating designs and ideas into experimental models, special labo ratory equipment, and custom in struments. They also modify existing instruments for special pur poses. Experimental devices con structed by these craftsmen are Instrument maker constructs glass part for scientific instrument. 459 MACHINING OCCUPATIONS they commonly use special equip ment or precision devices, such as the electronic height gage, which are used only infrequently by other machining workers. They also work with a variety of materials, includ ing plastics and rare metals such as titanium and rhodium. An instrument maker may con struct instruments from start to fin ish—making and assembling all the parts and testing finished instru ments for proper operation. How ever, in large shops or where elec trical or electronic components are to be incorporated into an instru ment, they frequently work with other instrument makers, such as electronic specialists, each making a part of a complicated instrument. Because they usually work on their own and have highly devel oped manual skills and reasoning abilities, instrument makers have considerable prestige among their fellow employees. Places of Employment Many instrument makers are em ployed by firms which manufacture instruments. Research and develop ment laboratories also employ in strument makers to make the spe cial devices required in scientific re search. The Federal Government employed several thousand instru ment makers in 1970. The main centers of instrument making are located in and around a few large cities, particularly New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Bos ton, Philadelphia, Washington, De troit, Buffalo, Cleveland, and Roch ester. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some instrument makers advance from the ranks of machinists or skilled machine tool operators. These craftsmen, working at first under close supervision and doing the simpler jobs, usually need 1 to 2 years or more of instrument shop experience to qualify as instrument makers. Most instrument makers learn their trade through apprenticeships which generally last 4 or 5 years. A typical 4-year instrument maker ap prenticeship program consists of ap proximately 8,000 hours of shop training and about 570 hours of re lated classroom instruction. The ap prentice’s shop training emphasizes the use of machine tools, hand tools, and measuring instruments, and the working properties of vari ous materials. Classroom instruction covers related technical subjects such as mathematics, physics, blue print reading, chemistry, electron ics, and fundamental instrument de sign. The apprentice must learn enough shop mathematics to plan his work and use handbook formu las. A basic knowledge of mechani cal principles is needed in solving gear and linkage problems. For apprenticeship programs, employers generally prefer high school graduates who have studied algebra, geometry, trigonometry, science, and machine shop work. Further technical schooling in elec tricity and electronics is often desir able, and may make possible future promotions to technician positions. A person interested in becoming an instrument maker should have a strong interest in mechanical sub jects and better-than-average abil ity to work with his hands. He must have initiative and resourcefulness because instrument makers often work alone and almost always under minimum or no supervision. Since the instrument maker often faces new problems, he must be able to develop original solutions. Frequently, he must visualize the relationship between individual parts and the complete instrument. He must understand the principles of the instrument’s operation. Be cause of the nature of his work, the instrument maker has to be very conscientious and take considerable pride in creative work. As the instrument maker’s skill improves and as he broadens his knowledge, he may advance to in creasingly responsible positions. Up to 10 years’ experience is required to rise to the top skill level of in strument making. By gaining addi tional training beyond the high school level in subjects such as physics and machine design, some instrument makers may advance to technician jobs. In these jobs, they plan and estimate time and material requirements for the manufacture of instruments, or provide specialized support to professional personnel. Others may become supervisors and train less skilled instrument makers. Employment Outlook The employment of instrument makers is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s, as a re sult of anticipated expansion of metalworking activities and the growing use of instruments in man ufacturing processes and research and development work. (See discus sion, p. 450.) However, this occu pation is relatively small and few openings will result in any one year. Growing numbers of instrument makers will be needed to make models of new instruments that may be mass-produced in the future, and also to make custom or special pur pose instruments that are not needed in large numbers. Many de vices made by these craftsmen will 460 be needed in the expanding field of industrial automation. Also, many new precision instruments, which will be even more versatile and sen sitive than those in current use, can be expected to emerge from grow ing research and development pro grams of universities, Government agencies, private laboratories, and manufacturing firms. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of instrument makers compare favorably with those of other highly skilled metalworkers. In 1970, instrument makers gener ally earned between $3.50 and $5.30 an hour for a standard work week. Instrument shops usually are clean and well lighted. Room tem peratures usually are controlled in shops where precision measuring in struments are used. Instrument as sembly rooms are usually clean and are sometimes known as “White Rooms,” where almost sterile con ditions are maintained. Serious work accidents are not common, but machine tools and flying particles sometimes cause finger, hand, and eye injuries. Safety rules generally require the wearing of special glasses, aprons, tightly fitted clothes, and shirts with elbow-length sleeves; the wearing of neckties is prohibited. See introductory section of this chapter for a discussion of non wage benefits received by machining workers, unions that organize these workers, and sources of additional information. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK SETUP MEN (MACHINE TOOLS) (D.O.T. 600.380; 604.280 and .380; 605.380; and 619.380) Nature of the Work The setup man, often called a machine tool job setter, is a skilled specialist employed in plant and machine shops that do machining in large volume. His main job is to set up machine tools—that is, to get machine tools ready for use by semi skilled operators. He also may ex plain to these workers the opera tions to be performed, and show them how to check the accuracy of their work. Usually a setup man is assigned a number of machine tools which often are of one type, such as turrent lathes. However, he may set up several different kinds, such as milling machines and automatic screw machines. Working from drawings, blueprints, written speci fications, or job layouts, he deter mines the rate at which the material is to be fed into the machines, oper ating speeds, tooling, and operation sequence. He then selects and in stalls the proper cutting or other tools and adjusts guides, stops, and other controls. He may make trial runs and adjust the machine and tools until the parts produced con form to specifications. The machine is then turned over to a semiskilled operator. The setup man may make additional adjustments later to maintain standardized production. Places of Employment Most setup men are employed in factories that manufacture fabri cated metal products, transportation equipment, and machinery. These workers usually are employed by large companies that employ many semiskilled machine tool operators. They usually are not employed in maintenance shops or in small job bing shops. Training and Other Qualifications Setup man prepares jig borer. To become a setup man, a worker usually must qualify as an all-round machinist or skilled ma chine tool operator. A setup man must be thoroughly trained in the operation of one or more kinds of machine tools. He must read blue prints and make computations in se lecting speeds and feeds for machine tools. The ability to communicate clearly is important since he must explain to a semiskilled machine tool operator how to perform machining operations and how to check ma chining accuracy. Above all, a setup man must be skilled in selecting the sequence of operations so that metal parts will be made exactly to speci fications. Openings for setup men 461 MACHINING OCCUPATIONS usually are filled from within a shop by promotion or reassignment. Employment Outlook Employment of setup men is ex pected to increase moderately through the 1970’s, as a result of the anticipated expansion of metal working activities. Additional job opportunities will arise from the need to replace experienced setup men who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. The use of numerically controlled machine tools may change the du ties of setup men. In the future, setup men may only preset tools, in struct operators, and check the first few parts that are produced. Since setup men are skilled workers, their chances for advancement or transfer into other jobs, such as parts pro grammer, will remain good. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of setup men com pare favorably with those of other skilled machining workers. In 1970, setup men generally earned between $3 and $5 an hour for a standard workweek. Good safety habits are important since the setup man must handle sharp-cutting tools. He also may be exposed to high speed machine tools which have sharp-cutting in struments when he makes the trial runs to test the accuracy of the setup. See the introductory section of this chapter for a discussion of non-wage benefits received by machining workers, unions that or ganize these workers, and sources of additional information. M E C H A N IC S AND Mechanics and repairmen—the skilled workers who keep our auto mobiles, airplanes, industrial ma chinery, household appliances, and similar equipment operating proper ly—make up one of the fastest growing occupational groups in the Nation’s labor force. This occupa tional field offers a variety of career opportunities to young men who are mechanically inclined and are will ing to invest a few years in learning a trade. Employment of mechanics and repairmen totaled nearly 2.8 million in 1970. More than one-third (840,000) of these were automo tive mechanics, such as automobile mechanics, truck or bus mechanics, and automobile body repairmen. Other large occupations—each em ploying more that 100,000 workers —were appliance servicemen, busi ness machine servicemen, industrial machinery repairmen, aircraft me chanics, and television and radio service technicians. (See Chart 27) Employment in some occupations, including vending machine me 27) R E P A IR M E N chanic, electric sign serviceman, bowling-pin-machine mechanic and X-ray equipment serviceman, was relatively small. In addition to the nearly 2.8 mil lion mechanics and repairmen em ployed in 1970, about 450,000 workers were employed in four me chanics and repairmen related occu pations : maintenance electrician, telephone repairman, millwright, and watch repairman. Altogether, these 3.2 million maintenance and repair workers represented about 3 out of every 10 skilled workers. Nearly 30 percent of the mechan ics and repairmen were employed in manufacturing industries, and the majority of these were employed in plants that produce durable goods such as transportation equipment, machinery, primary metals, and fab ricated metal products. About 20 percent of the mechanics and re pairmen were employed in retail trade—mainly by firms that sell and service automobiles, household ap pliances, farm equipment, and other mechanical equipment. Another 20 Employment in selected maintenance and repair occupations Employment, 1970 (in thousands) 0 200 Automotive mechanics I." Maintenance electricians Appliance servicemen Industrial machinery repairmen Business machine servicemen Telephone and PBX Installers and repairmen Air conditioning and refrigeration mechanics Instrument repairmen Millwrights fH 3 Farm equipment mechanics Vending machine mechanics Watch repairmen ♦ in c l u d e s c e n t r a l o f f ic e c r a f t s m e n . SOURCE: BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS 462 □ I 400 600 800 1000 percent were employed in shops that specialize in servicing such equipment. Most of the remaining mechanics and repairmen were em ployed in the transportation, con struction, and public utilties indus tries, and by Government at all levels. Most employment opportunities for mechanics and repairmen occur in the more populous and indus trialized States. About half of them work in eight states: California, New York, Pennsylvania, Texas, Il linois, Ohio, Michigan, and New Jersey. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many mechanics and repair men learn their skills on the job or through apprenticeship training. Some acquire their basic training in vocational and technical school, or attend such schools to increase their skills. Others qualify by taking cor respondence courses. Training and experience in the armed services also may help young men prepare for occupations such as aircraft me chanic and television and radio serviceman. Many employers consider a for mal apprentice training program to be the best way to learn skilled maintenance and repair work. An apprenticeship consists of about 3 to 4 years of paid on-the-job train ing, supplemented each year by at least 144 hours of related classroom instruction. Formal apprenticeship agreements are registered with a State apprenticeship agency or the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training. Employers look for applicants who have mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity. Many employers prefer people whose hobbies or in terests include automobile repair, model building, or radio and televi- 463 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN sion repair. A high school education often is required for employment. Employers also favor applicants who have had courses in mathemat ics, chemistry, physics, blueprint reading, and machine shop. Gener ally, apprentice applicants and other trainees are required to be at least 18 years old and in good health. Physical requirements for work in this field vary greatly. For exam ple, a millwright should be strong and agile, since he may need to climb ladders, lift heavy equipment, and work in awkward positions in cramped spaces. On the other hand, instrument and watch repairmen need patience, finger dexterity, and good vision. Persons with certain physical handicaps can repair watches. Workers in most maintenance and repair occupations have several avenues of advancement. Some move into a supervisory position, such as foreman, maintenance man ager, or service manager. Special ized training prepares others to ad vance to sales, technical writing, and technician jobs. Substantial numbers of servicemen have opened their own businesses. Employment Outlook Employment in maintenance and repair occupations as a whole is ex pected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. Job openings resulting from employment growth, deaths, and retirements are expected to average more than 130,000 a year during this period. Additional job openings will result as experienced workers transfer to other occu pations. Automobile mechanics, business machine servicemen, maintenance electricians, appliance servicemen, aircraft mechanics, in dustrial machinery repairmen, in strument repairmen, and television and radio service technicians will find many employment opportuni ties. Many factors are expected to contribute to the growing demand for mechanics and repairmen. The anticipated rise in expenditures for new plant and equipment will result in more mechanization and the use of more complex machinery and equipment in many industries. Greater research and development expenditures probably will yield new and, in many cases, more com plex products for use by industry and consumers. Growing numbers of household and higher levels of personal spendable income will con tribute to an increased demand for household appliances, automobiles, lawnmowers, boats, and other items that mechanics and repairmen serv ice. In the future, applicants for maintenance and repair jobs will have to meet higher standards of performance to maintain and repair the increasingly complex equipment coming into general use. Young persons who acquire a good basic education (including courses in mathematics and science), as well as thorough job training, will be prepared better than other appli cants to compete for the higher pay ing jobs that are likely to be availa ble. This chapter includes statements on the following maintenance and repair workers: Air-conditioning, re frigeration, and heating mechanics; appliance servicemen; bowling-pinmachine mechanics; automobile body repairmen; automobile me chanics; business machine service men; diesel mechanics; electric sign servicemen; farm equipment me chanics; industrial machinery re pairmen; instrument repairmen; maintenance electricians; mill wrights; motorcycle mechanics; tele vision and radio service technicians; truck and bus mechanics; vending machine mechanics; and watch re pairmen. Other maintenance and repair workers are discussed in other chapters in the Handbook. For example, aircraft mechanics are discussed in Civil Aviation Occupa tions and telephone and PBX in stallers and repairmen in Occupa tions in the Telephone Industry. AIR-CONDITIONING, REFRIGERATION, AND HEATING MECHANICS (D.O.T. 637.281 and .381; 862.281 and .381; and 869.281) Nature of the Work Air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics work on cooling and heating equipment used in homes, offices, schools, and other buildings. Major occupations in this fields are air-conditioning and refrig eration mechanic, furnace installer, oil burner mechanic, and gas burner mechanic. Many workers are skilled in more than one of these trades. This statement does not cover me chanics who work on railroad, truck, automotive, or marine airconditioning and refrigeration equipment. Air-conditioning and refrigera tion mechanics (D.O.T. 637.281 and .381) install and repair equip ment ranging in size from small window air-conditioners to large central-plant type air-conditioning or refrigeration systems. When in stalling new equipment, the me chanic puts the motors, compres sors or absorption equipment, evap- 464 orators, and other components in place, following blueprints and de sign specifications. He connects duct work, refrigerant lines, and other piping and then connects the equip ment to an electrical power source. After completing the installation, he charges the system with refriger ant and checks it for proper opera tion. When air-conditioning and refrig eration equipment breaks down, the mechanic diagnoses the cause and makes the necessary repairs. When looking for defects, he may inspect components such as relays and thermostats. Tools and equip ment used include electric drills, pipe cutters and benders, acetylene torches, and testing devices such as refrigerant gages and ammeters. Furnace installers (D.O.T. 862.381 and 869.281), also called heating equipment installers, follow blueprints or other specifications to install oil, gas, and electric heating units. After setting the heating unit in place, they install fuel pipes, air ducts, pumps, and other compo nents. They then connect electrical wiring and controls, and check the unit for proper operation. Oil burner mechanics (D.O.T. 862.281) keep oil-fueled heating systems in good operating condition. During the fall and winter, they serv ice and adjust oil burners and oilfueled heating systems. The me chanic determines the reason a burner is not operating properly by checking the thermostat, burner nozzles, controls, and other parts. The mechanic may carry a large stock of replacement parts in his truck to make repairs in the cus tomer’s home or business. However, if major repairs are necessary, he usually completes the work in the re pair shop. During the summer the mechanic services heating units, re places oil and air filters, and vac OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK uum cleans vents, ducts, and other parts of the heating system that ac cumulate soot and ash. Gas burner mechanics (D.O.T. 637.281), also called gas appli ance servicemen, have duties similar to those of oil burner mechanics. They diagnose malfunctions in gasfueled heating systems and make necessary repairs and adjustments. They also may repair cooking stoves, clothes dryers, and hot water heaters. During the summer me chanics employed by gas utility companies may inspect and repair gas meters. Furnace installers, oil burner me chanics, and gas burner mechanics use a variety of tools, including hammers, wrenches, metal snips, electric drills, pipe cutters and benders, and acetylene torches. They also use testing devices such as vacuum gages, volt meters, air velocity meters, and electronic cir cuit testers. Cooling and heating systems sometimes are installed or repaired by craftsmen other than the mechan ics discussed here. For example, on a large air-conditioning installation job, especially where workers are covered by union-management con tracts, duct work might be done by 465 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN sheet-metal workers; electrical work by electricians; and installation of piping, condensers, and other com ponents by pipefitters. Appliance servicemen often install and repair window air conditioners. Additional information about appliance service men appears elsewhere in the Hand book. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most air-conditioning, refrigera tion, and heating mechanics start as helpers and acquire their skills by working for several years with expe rienced mechanics. Beginners per form simple tasks, such as insulating refrigerant lines or cleaning fur naces. As helpers gain experience, they are given progressively more complicated tasks such as installing Places of Employment pumps and burners and checking An estimated 115,000 air-condi circuits. tioning, refrigeration, and heating A growing number of employers mechanics were employed in 1970. prefer high school graduates who These mechanics worked mainly for have had courses in mathematics, dealers and contractors who special physics, and blueprint reading. Me ize in selling and servicing cooling chanical aptitude and an interest in and heating equipment; construction electricity also are important quali companies; fuel oil dealers; and gas fications. A good physical condition utility companies. Air-conditioning helps in lifting and moving heavy and refrigeration mechanics, as well equipment. as furnace installers, were employed Many high school and vocational primarily by cooling and heating schools cooperate with local em dealers and contractors. Fuel oil ployers and organizations such as dealers employ most oil burner me the Air-Conditioning and Refrigera chanics, and gas utility companies tion Institute and the National Oil employ most gas burner mechanics. Fuel Institute in offering basic me Air-conditioning and refrigeration chanics courses. These courses may mechanics, and furnace installers last from 2 to 3 years and consist of are employed in all parts of the on-the-job training and classroom country. Generally, the geographic instruction. In 1970, unemployed distribution of these workers is simi and underemployed workers were lar to that of our population. The trained in programs lasting up to a employment of oil burner mechan year in many cities under the Man ics is concentrated in States where power Development and Training oil is a major heating fuel. More Act. Additional on-the-job training than half of these workers are em and experience is needed to qualify ployed in New York, Masachusetts, these students as skilled mechanics. Apprenticeship programs for Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Connecti cut, and Illinois. Similarly, the em pipefitters, electricians, and sheetployment of gas burner mechanics is metal workers often include training concentrated in States where gas is a in air-conditioning, refrigeration, major heating fuel. More than half and heating. Journeymen in these of these workers are employed in trades may specialize in installing California, Texas, Ohio, Illinois, and maintaining air-conditioning, re Michigan, Pennsylvania, and New frigeration, and heating equipment. York. Additional information about these trades appears elsewhere in the Handbook. Employment Outlook Employment of air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics is expected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s. In addition to the anticipated employment growth, a few thousand job openings will arise annually to replace experi enced mechanics who retire or die. Openings also will occur as experi enced mechanics transfer to other occupations. Most new openings will be for air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics. Anticipated increases in household formations and rising personal incomes indicate a very rapid increase in the number of airconditioned homes. Air-condition ing in offices, stores, hospitals, schools, and other nonresidential buildings also is expected to in crease. In addition, more refrigera tion equipment will be needed in the production, storage, and mar keting of food and other perishables. Employment of furnace installers and gas burner mechanics is ex pected to follow the rapid growth trends in the construction of homes and businesses. However, these workers may experience some com petition for jobs as a result of the small but rapidly growing number of electrically heated homes and businesses. Electric heating systems usually are installed and serviced by electricians. Employment of oil burner me chanics is expected to remain fairly stable during the 1970’s, since rela tively few new homes are being built with oil heating systems. Nev ertheless, employment opportunities for oil heating mechanics will occur 466 as experienced mechanics retire, die, or transfer to other occupa tions. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings data for air condition ing, refrigeration, and heating me chanics are not available on a na tional basis. In 1970, however, sev eral employers indicated that straight-time hourly rates for skilled mechanics ranged from about $3.25 to $7. Skilled mechanics generally earned between two and three times as much as inexperienced helpers. Rates of pay for helpers and me chanics depended on factors such as level of skill, type of equipment worked on, and geographic area. For example, mechanics who worked on both air-conditioning and heating equipment frequently had higher rates of pay than those who worked on only one type of equipment. Wage rates may range considera bly higher for electricians, pipefit ters, and sheet-metal workers who are employed by construction firms specializing in air-conditioning, re frigeration, and heating work. Union minimum hourly rates for journeymen construction electri cians, pipefitters, and sheet-metal workers averaged $6.82, $6.93, and $6.75, respectively, on July 1, 1970. (See individual statements on these trades for additional wage informa tion. ) Most mechanics work a 40-hour week. However, during seasonal peaks they often work overtime or irregular hours. Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics are busiest during spring and summer. Oil burner mechanics and gas burner mechanics are busiest during fall and winter. Most employers try to provide their mechanics with a OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK full workweek the year round, but they may temporarily reduce their hours of work or lay off some of them when seasonal peaks end. However, employment in most shops that install and service both air-conditioning and heating equip ment is fairly stable throughout the year. Mechanics sometimes are re quired to work at great heights when installing new equipment. They also may work in awkward or cramped positions to reach motors or other parts of the equipment they are repairing. Common hazards in this trade include electrical shock, torch burns, muscle strains, and other injuries that may result from handling heavy equipment. Sources of Additional Information Information about employment opportunities for air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics can be obtained from the local office of the State employment serv ice, as well as firms that employ these workers. The State employ ment service also may be a source of information about training op portunities available under the Manpower Development and Train ing Act, apprenticeship, and other training programs. Information about advanced training in air-conditioning and re frigeration may be obtained from the Refrigeration Service Engineers Society, 433 North Waller Ave., Chicago, 111. 60644. Information about oil heating systems training may be obtained from the Education Department, National Oil Fuel Institute, 60 East 42nd St, New York, N.Y. 10017, or its local or State organization. General information about gas burner mechanics may be obtained from the American Gas Associa tion, Inc, 605 Third Ave, New York, N.Y. 10016. APPLIANCE SERVICEMEN (D.O.T. 637.281, 723.381, and 827.281) Nature of the Work Appliance servicemen repair ap pliances that range from small, rela tively uncomplicated items such as toasters and irons, to large appli ances that may have complex con trol systems, such as refrigerators and automatic washing machines. To repair appliances, the service man first determines why they are not operating properly and then in stalls new parts, repairs parts, or makes adjustments. Appliance serv icemen usually specialize in the re pair of either electric or gas appli ances, and in the case of large appli ances, specialize in the repair of a single type, such as clothes washers and dryers, refrigerators, freezers, or dishwashers. To determine why an appliance is not operating properly, servicemen may ask customers how the appli ance performed when it was used previously. They may operate an appliance to detect unusual noises; overheating; excess vibration; and broken, worn, or loose parts. Serv icemen also look for common sources of trouble such as faulty gas, electric, and fluid lines and con nections. To check electric and gas systems, they use special tools and testing devices, including ammeters, ohmmeters, voltmeters, and manom eters, combustion test equipment, and vacuum and pressure gages. After servicemen determine why 467 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN an appliance is not operating prop erly, they make the necessary re pairs and adjustments. This work frequently involves replacing parts that receive extra wear, such as electric cords on small appliances, or cleaning parts such as the lint fil ters in clothes dryers. To remove old parts and install new ones, serv icemen use common handtools, in cluding screwdrivers and pliers, and may use special wrenches and other handtools designed for use on par ticular appliances. Most refrigerators and other large appliances are repaired in the customers’ homes. However, if major repairs are necessary, the ap pliance is removed to a repair shop. Small appliances usually are brought to a repair shop by the cus tomer. An important part of the work of most appliance servicemen is per sonal contact with customers. They answer customers’ questions and complaints about appliances and frequently advise customers about their care and use. For example, they may demonstrate to house wives the proper loading of auto matic washing machines or how to arrange dishes in dishwashers. Appliance servicemen have vari ety in their work. They may drive light trucks or automobiles, some equipped with two-way radios. They may give estimates to custom ers on the cost of repair jobs, and usually keep records of parts used and hours worked on each repair job. Places of Employment An estimated 220,000 appliance servicemen were employed through out the country in 1970, mostly in independent repair shops and serv ice centers of retail establishments such as department and appliance stores. Other were employed in service centers operated by appli ance manufacturers and wholesale distributors of appliances and by gas and electric utility companies. Appliance servicemen are em ployed in almost every community. Most servicemen, however, are em ployed in the more highly populated States and metropolitan areas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Appliance servicemen usually are hired as helpers and acquire their skills through on-the-job training and work experience. Inexperienced men are given relatively simple work assignments. In some compa nies, they work for the first few months helping to install appliances in homes, driving service trucks, and learning street locations. In other companies, they begin to learn the skills of appliance servicemen by working in the shop where they rebuild used parts such as washing machine transmissions. Trainees gradually learn how motors, gears, and other appliance parts operate. They progress from simple repair jobs, such as replacing a switch, to more difficult jobs such as adjusting automatic washing machine con trols. In addition to practical experi ence on the job, trainees frequently receive classroom instruction given by appliance manufacturers and local distributors. Many trainees take correspondence courses in basic electricity and electronics or attend technical schools to increase their skills in appliance repair. Trainees usually are supervised closely for 6 to 12 months. By this time, most gas-appliance service men can repair several kinds of ap pliances on their own, and they may be given responsibility for their own service trucks and for appliance parts and tools. Electrical-appliance servicemen usually need up to 3 years’ on-the-job experience to be come fully qualified. Many experi enced servicemen attend training classes (often on company time) and study service manuals to be come familiar with new appliances and the best ways to repair them. Appliance servicemen must un derstand, in a practical way, how to use equipment that measures elec tricity and how to use measure ments to determine whether electri cal currents in appliances are flow ing properly. A knowledge of wiring diagrams that show electrical con nections and current flow between appliance parts also is important. A knowledge of electronics is neces sary to perform some appliance re pair jobs. Programs to train unemployed and underemployed workers for entry jobs in the appliance service field were operating in many cities 468 in 1970 under the Manpower De velopment and Training Act. These programs lasted from several weeks to a year; most lasted longer than 5 months. Through additional training and experience, graduates of these programs can eventually become skilled servicemen. Employers prefer applicants hav ing good mechanical aptitude, par ticularly high school and trade school graduates who have had courses in electricity, mathematics, and science. Some employers, in co operation with local high schools and trade schools, provide students with an opportunity to gain practical experience by working part-time in appliance repair shops while attend ing school. Additional on-the-job training and work experience after graduation can qualify these stu dents as skilled appliance service men. Appliance servicemen who work in large repair shops or service cen ters and show technical proficiency may be promoted to foreman, assist ant service manager, or service manager. Preference is given to men who also have shown ability to cooperate with other servicemen and with customers. A general knowledge of bookkeeping and other subjects related to managing a business is helpful. Experienced servicemen who have sufficient funds may open their own appliance sales or repair shops. Servicemen who work for appli ance manufacturers may become in structors, who teach servicemen to repair new models of appliances, or technical writers, who prepare service manuals. A few servicemen may advance to managerial posi tions such as regional service or parts manager. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook Employment of appliance serv icemen is expected to grow rapidly through the 1970’s. In addi tion to opportunities resulting from growth, thousands of opportunities will arise annually to replace experi enced servicemen who retire, die, or transfer to other kinds of work. The number of household appli ances in use is expected to increase rapidly during the 1970’s. Factors that will contribute to the demand for appliances include increasing population and family formations; rising levels of personal income; in troduction of new appliances; and improved styling to make existing models more attractive and easier to operate. In addition, more wide spread use of appliances such as electric can openers, waste dispos ers, home clothes dryers, dishwash ers, and knife sharpeners is ex pected. Employment of appliance serv icemen is not expected to increase as rapidly as the number of appli ances in use. Although the auto matic operation of some types of appliances has tended to make them more complicated, manufacturers are designing appliances with more durable components, and appliances that can be taken apart and repaired more easily. In addition, employers are increasing the efficiency of servicemen through more effective training. some earned as much as $5.30. In experienced helpers generally start at $2 to $3 an hour. The wide varia tions in wage rates for servicemen and their helpers reflect differences in type of employer, geographical location of the job, the type of equipment serviced, and skill levels. Many appliance servicemen work more than 8 hours a day and re ceive higher rates of pay for over time. Most appliance servicemen re ceive paid vacations, sick leave, health insurance, and other em ployee benefits, as well as credit to ward retirement pensions. Appliance repair shops are rela tively quiet, well lighted, and ade quately ventilated. When repairing small appliances, servicemen usu ally sit at benches. Working condi tions outside the shop vary consid erably. Servicemen sometimes work in narrow spaces, uncomfortable positions, and places that are not clean. Servicemen who repair large appliances may spend several hours a day driving between customers’ homes. Appliance repair work generally is safe, although accidents are possi ble while the serviceman is driving, handling electrical parts, or lifting or moving large appliances. Inexperi enced men are shown how to use tools safely and instructed in simple precautions against electric shock. The work of appliance service men often is performed with little direct supervision. This feature of the job appeals to many people. Earnings and Working Conditions National earnings data are not available for appliance servicemen. However, wage data obtained from a large number of employers and un ion-management contracts in 1970 indicated that most experienced servicemen earned more than $3 and Sources of Additional Information Further information about jobs in the appliance service field may be obtained from local appliance repair shops, appliance dealers, gas and electric utility companies, appliance manufacturers, and local offices of 469 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN the State employment service. Local vocational schools that offer courses in appliance servicing, electricity, and electronics can provide help ful information about training. The State employment service also may provide information about the Man power Development and Training Act and other programs that provide training opportunities. Information about training pro grams or work opportunities in this field also may be obtained from: Association of Home Appliance Manufacturers, 20 North Wacker Drive, Chicago, 111. 60606. National Appliance and Radio-TV Dealers Association, 318 W. Ran dolph St., Chicago, 111. 60601. Gas Appliance Manufacturers Asso ciation, 1901 North Fort Myer Drive, Arlington, Va. 22209. AUTOMOBILE BODY REPAIRMEN (D.O.T. 807.381) Nature of the Work Automobile body repairmen are skilled craftsmen who repair dam aged motor vehicles by straighten ing bent frames, removing dents from fenders and body panels, welding torn metal, and replacing badly damaged parts. Body repair men usually are qualified to repair all types of vehicles, although most work mainly on automobiles and small trucks. Some specialize in re pairing large trucks, buses, or truck trailers. Before making repairs, body re pairmen generally receive instruc tions from their supervisors, who determine which parts are to be re stored or replaced, and who esti mate the amount of time the repairs should take. When repairing dam aged fenders and other body parts, the body repairman may first re move body hardware, window oper ating equipment, and trim in order to gain access to the damaged area. To reshape the metal, he may push large dents out with a hydraulic jack or hand prying bar, or knock them out with a hand tool or pneumatic hammer. He smoothes remaining small dents and creases by holding a small anvil against one side of the damaged area while hammering the opposite side. Very small pits and dimples are removed from the metal by pick hammers and punches. The body repairman may remove badly damaged sections of body panels with a pneumatic metalcut ting gun or acetylene torch, and weld in new sections. If the damage tears the metal, he welds the torn edges. He shrinks stretched metal by repeatedly heating the area with an acetylene torch and striking it with a hammer to restore the metal’s original shape. The automobile body repairman uses solder or plastic to fill small dents that he cannot work out of the metal. Before applying solder, he cleans the dent and coats it with liq uid tin so that the solder will adhere to the surface. He softens the solder with a torch and uses a wooden paddle or other tool to mold it to the desired shape. When the solder has hardened, the body repairman files or grinds it down to the level of the adjacent metal. After being restored to its origi nal shape, the repaired surface is sanded in preparation for painting. In most shops, automobile painters do the painting. (These workers are discussed elsewhere in the Hand book.) Some smaller shops employ workers who are combination body repairmen and painters. The automobile body repairman uses special machines to align dam aged vehicle frames and body sec tions. He chains or clamps the machine to the damaged metal and applies hydraulic pressure to straighten it. He also may use spe cial devices to align damaged vehi cles that have “unit-bodies” instead of frames. In some shops, the straightening of frames and unitbodies is done by a body repairman who specializes in this type of work. The body repairman’s work is characterized by variety because the repair of each damaged vehicle pre sents a different problem. There fore, in addition to having a broad knowledge of automobile construc tion and repair techniques, he also must develop appropriate methods for each repair job. Most body re pairmen find their work challenging and take pride in being able to re store damaged automobiles. Automobile body repairmen usu ally work by themselves with only general directions from foremen. In some shops, they may be assisted by helpers. Places of Employment More than 100,000 automobile body repairmen were employed in 1970. Most of them worked in shops that specialized in automobile body repairs and painting, and in the service departments of automo bile and truck dealers. Other em ployers included organizations that maintain their own fleets of motor vehicles, such as trucking compa nies and buslines, and Federal, State, and local governments. Motor vehi cle manufacturers employed a small number of these workers. Automobile body repairmen can find employment opportunities in every section of the country. About 470 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Automobile body repairman hammers out dents. half of them work in the nine States with the largest number of motor vehicles: California, Texas, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan, Florida, and New Jersey. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most automobile body repairmen learn the trade on-the-job. Young persons usually start as helpers and pick up the skills of the trade from experienced workers. Helpers begin by assisting body repairmen in tasks such as removing damaged parts, installing repaired surfaces in prep aration for painting. They gradually learn how to remove small dents and make other minor repairs, and progress to more difficult tasks as they gain experience. Generally, 3 to 4 years of on-the-job training is necessary to become a fully quali fied body repairman. Although most workers who be come automobile body repairmen pick up the skills of the trade infor mally through on-the-job experi ence, most training authorities rec ommend the completion of a 3- or 4-year formal apprenticeship pro gram as the best way for young men to learn this trade. These programs include both on-the-job and related classroom instruction. Training programs for unem ployed and underemployed workers for entry automobile body repair men jobs are in operation in many cities under provisions of the Man power Development and Training Act. These programs, which last up to a year, stress the fundamentals of automobile body repair. Persons who complete these programs need additional on-the-job or apprentice ship training before they can qualify as skilled body repairmen. Young persons interested in be coming automobile body repairmen should be in good physical condition and have good eye-hand coordina tion. Courses in automobile body repair, offered by a relatively small number of high schools, vocational schools, and private trade schools, provide helpful experience, as do courses in automobile mechanics. Although completion of high school is not generally a requirement for an entry job, many employers be lieve graduation indicates that a young man can “finish a job.” Automobile body repairmen usu ally are required to own their handtools, but power tools ordinarily are furnished by the employer. Many of these craftsmen have a few hundred dollars invested in tools. Trainees are expected to accumulate tools as they gain experience. An experienced automobile body repairman with supervisory ability may advance to shop foreman. Many body repairmen open their own shops. Employment Outlook Employment of automobile body repairmen is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. In addition to the job openings result MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN ing from employment growth, more than a thousand openings are ex pected each year from the need to replace experienced body repairmen who retire or die. Job openings also will occur as some body repairmen transfer to other occupations. The number of body repairmen is expected to increase primarily as a result of the rising number of motor vehicles damaged in traffic. Acci dents are expected to continue to in crease as the number of motor vehi cles in use grows, even though new and improved highways, driver training courses, added safety fea tures on new vehicles, and stricter law enforcement may slow down the rate of increase. The favorable employment effect of the rising number of motor vehi cle accidents will be offset some what by developments that will in crease the efficiency of body repair men. For example, the growing practice of replacing rather than re pairing damaged parts, the use of plastics for filling dents, and im proved tools will enable these workers to complete jobs in less time. Earnings and Working Conditions Body repairmen employed by au tomobile dealers in 34 cities had av erage straight-time earnings of $5.51, based on a survey in late 1969. Average hourly earnings of these workers in individual cities ranged from $3.83 in ProvidencePawtucket, R.I., to $7.67 in De troit, Mich. Skilled body repairmen usually earn between two and three times as much as inexperienced helpers and trainees. Many experienced body repair men employed by automobile deal ers and independent repair shops are paid a commission, usually 471 about 50 percent of the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, a worker’s earnings depend mainly on the amount of work he is assigned and how fast he completes it. Employers frequently guarantee their commissioned body repairmen a minimum weekly salary. Helpers and trainees are usually paid an hourly rate until they are sufficiently skilled to work on commission. Body repairmen employed by truck ing companies, buslines, and other organizations that maintain their own vehicles usually receive an hourly wage rate. Most body repair men work 40 to 48 hours a week. Many employers of body repair men provide holiday and vacation pay, and additional benefits such as life, health, and accident insurance. Some also contribute to retirement plans. Body repairmen in some shops are furnished with laundered uniforms free of charge. Automobile body shops are noisy because of the banging of hammers against metal and the whir of power tools. Most shops are well venti lated, but often they are dusty and the odor of paint is noticeable. Body repairmen often work in awk ward or cramped positions, and much of their work is strenuous and dirty. Hazards include cuts from sharp metal edges, burns from torches and heated metal, and inju ries from power tools. Many automobile body repair men are members of unions, includ ing the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Au tomobile, Aerospace and Agricul tural Implement Workers of Amer ica; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; and the International Brotherhood of Team sters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Most body repairmen who are union members are employed by large au tomobile dealers and by trucking companies and buslines. Sources of Additional Information For further information regarding work opportunities for automobile body repairmen, inquiries should be directed to local employers, such as automobile body repair shops and automobile dealers; locals of the un ions previously mentioned; or the local office of the State employment service. The State employment serv ice also may be a source of infor mation about the Manpower Devel opment and Training Act, appren ticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. General information about the work of automobile body repairmen may be obtained from: Automotive Service Industry Asso ciation, 230 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60601. Independent Garage Owners of America, Inc., 624 South Michi gan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60605. AUTOMOBILE MECHANICS (D.O.T. 620.131 through .381, .782, and .885; 721.281 and 825.281) Nature of the Work Automobile mechanics keep the Nation’s automobiles in good oper ating condition. They perform pre ventive maintenance, diagnose breakdowns, and make repairs. (Although truck mechanics, who repair large trucks; bus mechanics, who repair large buses; and auto mobile body repairmen are some times called “automobile mechan 472 ics,” they are discussed separately in the Handbook.) Preventive maintenance is the pe riodic examination, and adjustment, repair, or replacement of parts. It is an important responsibility of the mechanic and is vital to safe and trouble-free driving. When perform ing preventive maintenance, the me chanic may follow a checklist to be sure he examines all important parts of the car. He may, for example, examine and decide whether to re place worn parts, such as distributor points; clean, adjust, or replace spark plugs; adjust the carburetor; and balance the wheels. When mechanical or electrical troubles occur, the mechanic first obtains a description of the symp toms from the owner. If the cause of the trouble is not evident imme diately, he may visually inspect and listen to the motor, or drive the car. He also may use a variety of testing equipment, such as motor analyzers, spark plug testers, compression gauges, and electrical test meters. The ability to make an accurate di agnosis in a minimum of time is one of the mechanic’s most valuable skills and requires analytical ability as well as a thorough knowledge of a car’s operations. Many skilled me chanics consider diagnosing “hard to find” troubles one of their most challenging and satisfying duties. When the mechanic locates the cause of the trouble, he adjusts, re pairs, or replaces unserviceable parts. For example, he may replace a fuel pump, grind valves, adjust the ignition timing, clean the carbu retor, or machine the brake drums. In addition to the testing equip ment mentioned previously, auto mobile mechanics use many other kinds of tools and equipment. These may range from simple handtools (screwdrivers, wrenches, pliers), to complicated and expensive ma OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK chines and equipment that help the mechanic make repairs. Examples of this equipment are wheel alinement machines and headlight aim ers. Mechanics also consult repair manuals and parts catalogs, since different makes of automobiles re quire different parts and adjust ments. Most automobile mechanics per form a variety of repairs. Some me chanics, such as automatic transmis sion specialists, tune-up men, auto mobile air-conditioning specialists, front-end mechanics, and brake me chanics specialize in one or two types of repair. However, specialists with all-round skills also may per form general automobile repair work. Other specialists, such as au tomobile radiator mechanics and automobile glass mechanics, who do not have all-round skills, usually work exclusively at their specialties. The types of work done by some mechanic specialists are described briefly below: Automatic transmission special ists repair and replace linkage, gear trains, couplings, hydraulic pumps, and other parts of automatic trans missions. Automatic transmissions are complex mechanisms; their re pair requires considerable experi ence and training, including a knowledge of hydraulics. Tune-up men adjust the ignition timing and valves, and adjust or replace spark plugs, distributor breaker points, and other parts to insure efficient 473 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN engine performance. They often use scientific test equipment to locate malfunctions in fuel and ignition systems. Automobile air-condition ing specialists install air-condition ers and repair and adjust compo nents such as compressors and con densers. Front-end mechanics align and balance wheels and repair steering mechanisms and suspension systems. They frequently use special alignment testing equipment and wheel-balancing machines. Brake mechanics adjust brakes, replace brake linings, resurface brake drums, repair hydraulic cylinders, and make other repairs on brake systems. Those employed in repair shops that specialize in brake serv ice also may replace shock absorb ers, springs, and mufflers. In some shops, combination front-end and brake mechanics are employed. Au tomobile-radiator mechanics clean radiators with caustic solutions, lo cate and solder radiator leaks, and install new radiator cores. They also may repair heaters and air-condi tioners, and solder leaks in gasoline tanks. Automobile-glass mechanics replace broken or pitted windshield and window glass and repair manual and power-window mechanisms. They install pre-formed glass to re place curved windows, and may cut some replacement glass from flat sheets by using window patterns and glass cutting tools. Shops that repair both automobile radiators and glass may employ mechanics who are skilled in both specialties. Places of Employment Most of the more than 600,000 automobile mechanics employed in 1970 worked for automobile deal ers, independent automobile repair shops, and gasoline service stations. Many others were employed by Federal, State, and local govern ments, taxicab and automobile leas ing companies, and other organiza tions that maintain and repair their own automobiles. Some mechanics also were employed by automobile manufacturers to make final adjust ments and repairs at the end of the assembly line. A small number of mechanics were employed by de partment stores that have automo bile service facilities. Most automobile mechanics work in shops employing from one to five mechanics, but some of the largest repair shops employ more than a hundred. Generally, automobile dealer shops are larger than inde pendent repair shops. Automobile mechanics are em ployed in every section of the coun try. About half of them work in the nine States with the largest number of motor vehicles: California, Texas, New York, Ohio, Pennsylva nia, Illinois, Michigan, Florida, and New Jersey. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most automobile mechanics learn the trade through on-the-job experi ence. Young persons usually start as helpers, lubrication men, or gasoline service station attendants, and grad ually acquire the necessary knowl edge and skills by working with ex perienced mechanics. Although a beginner can learn to do simple kinds of repair work after a few months’ experience, 3 to 4 years are required to become an all-round me chanic, and an additional year or two to learn a difficult specialty, such as automatic transmission re pair. In contrast, radiator mechan ics, glass mechanics, and brake specialists, who do not need an all round knowledge of automobile re pair, may learn their specialties in about 2 years. Most training authorities recom mend the completion of a 3- or 4year formal apprenticeship program as the best way to become an all round mechanic. These programs include both on-the-job training and related classroom instruction in nearly all phases of automobile re pair. For entry jobs, employers look for young persons with mechanical aptitude and an understanding of automobile construction and opera tion. Generally, a driver’s license is required. Practical experience in automobile repair gained from working as a gasoline service station attendant, training in the Armed Forces, or working on cars as a hobby may be helpful. Courses in automobile repair offered by many high schools, vocational schools, and private trade schools also are valuable. Courses in science and mathematics help a person better understand how an automobile op erates. Training programs for unem ployed and underemployed workers seeking entry jobs as automobile mechanics are in operation in a large number of cities under provi sions of the Manpower Develop ment and Training Act. These pro grams, which last up to a year, stress basic maintenance and repair work. Persons who complete this training are able to make simple re pairs, but they still need additional on-the-job or apprenticeship train ing before they can qualify as skilled mechanics. Completion of high school is an advantage in obtaining an entry me chanic job because to most em ployers high school graduation indi cates that a young person can “finish a job,” and has potential for advancement. 474 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Most mechanics are required to purchase their own handtools. Be ginners are expected to accumulate tools while they gain experience. Many experienced mechanics have several hundred dollars invested in their tools. Employers furnish en gine analyzers and other test equip ment, power tools, and special tools for servicing units such as automatic transmissions. Employers sometimes send expe rienced mechanics to factory train ing centers to learn how to repair new car models or receive special training in subjects such as auto matic transmission or air-condition ing repair. Manufacturers also send representatives to local shops to conduct short training sessions. A relatively small number of young high school graduates are selected by automobile dealers to attend fac tory-sponsored mechanic training programs for beginners. A young person considering a ca reer as an automobile mechanic should have strength and manual dexterity in order to handle tools and equipment. Good mechanics read many service and repair man uals to keep abreast of changes in automobile engineering. A pleasing personality is helpful in dealing with customers who are irate over repair bills or car breakdowns. Mechanics work independently and are able to see the results of their labor. Capable and experienced me chanics in a large shop may advance to a supervisory position, such as repair shop foreman or service manager. Many mechanics open their own repair shops or gasoline service stations. erately through the 1970’s. In addi tion to the job openings resulting from employment growth, several thousand openings are expected each year from the need to replace experienced mechanics who retire or die. Job openings also will occur as some mechanics transfer to other occupations. Employment is expected to in crease because expansion of the driving age population, consumer purchasing power, and multicar ownership will create a demand for more automobiles. Employment of mechanics also is expected to grow because a greater number of auto mobiles will be equipped with ex haust emission control devices, airconditioning, and other features that increase maintenance requirements. Primarily because of greater efficiency in the shop, employment of mechanics is not expected to grow as rapidly as the number of automobiles. For example, in creased mechanic specialization and growth in the use of test equipment (such as dynamometers and engine analyzers) should reduce the time needed to diagnose malfunctions and check the quality of repairs. In a growing number of large shops, mechanics skilled in operating dyna mometers and other kinds of test equipment determine needed re pairs, then route the automobiles to mechanics who specialize in a partic ular kind of repair work. Also ex pected to improve efficiency are greater emphasis on replacement rather than on repair of defective parts, better shop management, and improved training methods. Earnings and Working Conditions Employment Outlook Employment of automobile me chanics is expected to increase mod Skilled (journeymen) automobile mechanics employed by automobile dealers in 34 cities had average straight-time hourly earnings of $5.16, based on a survey in late 1969. Average hourly earnings of these workers in individual cities ranged from $3.62 in Providence-Pawtucket, R.I., to $6.13 in Detroit, Mich. Skilled me chanics usually earn between two and three times as much as inexpe rienced helpers and trainees. A large proportion of the experi enced mechanics employed by auto mobile dealers and independent re pair shops are paid a commission, usually about 50 percent of the labor cost charged to the customer. Undej this method, the mechanic’s weekly earnings depend on the amount of work he is assigned and how fast he completes it. Employers frequently guarantee their commis sioned mechanics a minimum weekly salary. Helpers and trainees usually are paid an hourly rate until they are sufficiently skilled to work on commission. Some mechanics— for example, those employed by or ganizations that repair their own fleets of automobiles—receive an hourly rate. Most mechanics work between 40 and 48 hours a week but may work even longer during busy pe riods. Mechanics paid on an hourly basis frequently receive overtime rates for hours worked in excess of 40 a week. Many employers of automobile mechanics provide holiday and va cation pay, and additional benefits such as life, health, and accident in surance. Some also contribute to re tirement plans. Laundered uniforms are furnished free of charge by some employers. Generally, a mechanic works in doors. Modern automobile repair shops are well ventilated, lighted, and heated, but older shops may not have these advantages. The work of the mechanic fre 475 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN quently requires working with dirty and greasy parts, working in awk ward positions, and lifting heavy ob jects. Minor cuts and bruises are common. Serious accidents usually are avoided by observing safety practices. Some mechanics are members of labor unions. Among the unions or ganizing these workers are the In ternational Association of Machin ists and Aerospace Workers; the In ternational Union, United Automo bile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ Interna tional Association; and the Interna tional Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Where To Go for More Information For further information regarding work opportunities for automobile mechanics, inquiries should be di rected to local employers such as automobile dealers and independent repair shops; locals of the unions previously mentioned; or the local office of the State employment serv ice. The State employment service also may be a source of information about the Manpower Development and Training Act, apprenticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. General information about the work of automobile mechanics may be obtained from: Automotive Service Industry Asso ciation, 230 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60601. Independent Garage Owners of America, Inc., 624 South Michi gan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60605. National Automobile Dealers Asso ciation, 2000 K St. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20006. BOWLING-PIN-MACHINE MECHANICS (D.O.T. 639.381 and 829.281) Nature of the Work Bowling-pin-machine (or auto matic pinsetting) mechanics repair, maintain, and adjust the tens of thousands of pinsetting machines in use today. When a breakdown oc curs, the mechanic determines its cause and makes the necessary ad justments or repairs. He may par tially or completely disassemble components of a machine to repair or replace defective parts. After he reassembles the machine, he adjusts it for proper operation. A pinsetting machine is a com plex mechanism that automatically performs a series of operations—re turns the bowling ball to the bowler, clears the pin deck of fallen pins, and conveys and distributes the pins to a pinsetting mechanism that re sets them on the pin deck. Pinset ting machines are electrically pow ered and electrically or mechani cally controlled. A pinsetting machine mechanic maintains various gap or clearance adjustments in belts, chains, and other drive devices; adjusts the clutch and brakes; and inspects bearings, sliding surfaces, and shock absorbers. He also maintains elec trically controlled systems. Much of the mechanic’s work time is spent in preventive mainte nance. He regularly inspects and tests pinsetting machines, and cleans, oils, greases, and adjusts them. In his work, the mechanic ap plies knowledge gained through training, on-the-job experience, and the use of operating and trouble shooting manuals. When servicing mechanical equipment, the mechanic uses many different types of tools and equip ment, such as pliers, wrenches, screwdrivers, hammers, portable hoists, and lubricating guns. In electrical maintenance and repair work, the mechanic may use solder ing irons, feeler gages, and crimping tools. He uses continuity testers, ammeters, and voltmeters to test electrical circuits, relays, solenoids, transformers, and motors. To assist him in this work, he uses diagrams of electrical circuits. Often the me chanic will purchase his own set of handtools, but the employer usually supplies special tools. The mechanic may supervise one or more assistant mechanics, train ees, and pinchasers. He is often called upon to instruct trainees in locating and correcting minor mal functions in pinsetting machines. Such instruction includes demon strating how the machine operates as well as disassembling compo nents and explaining their function. He shows trainees and pinchasers how to break minor jams and recon dition bowling pins. He also ex plains proper safety procedures. Some clerical work is done by the mechanic. He maintains a stock of repair parts by keeping inventory records and ordering replacements when necessary. He also may keep records of machine breakdowns and estimate maintenance costs. Places of Employment About 6,000 mechanics were employed in 1970. Most worked in commercial bowling establishments. The remainder, about 5 percent, were employed by manufacturers of automatic pinsetting machines to in stall and service machines of bowl ing establishments. Although the primary responsibility of manufac 476 turers’ mechanics is to inspect equipment periodically for proper operation, they may be called in to repair major breakdowns that me chanics in bowling establishments cannot handle. Although mechanics and their as sistants are employed in every State, employment is concentrated in the more populated areas, where there are many bowling establishments. Of the more than 10,000 bowling establishments in operation in early 1970, the majority were located in New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, Michigan, California, Wiscon sin, Minnesota, New Jersey, and Texas. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Pinsetting machine mechanics usually start out as pinchasers, as sisting mechanics in individual bowling establishments. Many pinchasers, who demonstrate mechani cal ability and willingness to learn, become trainees and are sent to a mechanics’ training school main tained by bowling-machine manu facturers. To become a trainee at a factory school, candidates are re quired to take written tests to deter mine their mechanical aptitude and personality traits. Usually, trainees must be at least 16 years old. Train ees’ wages and expenses during the training period, which usually lasts 4 weeks, are paid by employers. Trainees study the structure and op eration of machines manufactured by the firm operating the school and learn to locate typical sources of trouble. They learn preventive maintenance procedures, how to read wiring diagrams, and how to use the tools of the trade. Their training also includes actual repair work on demonstration machines. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK After attending factory schools, trainees usually need several months of on-the-job experience be fore they acquire the skills of the trade. Trainees who do not attend fac tory schools acquire their skills on the job by observing experienced mechanics at work and by receiving instruction in machine operation and maintenance, typical malfunc tions, and safety procedures. They also do actual repair work, pro gressing from simple to more com plex jobs as their skills increase. Usually, 1 to 2 years of such train ing and experience is necessary for trainees to acquire mechanics’ skills. Employers prefer to hire pinchas ers who are high school graduates, although many workers in this trade have not completed high school. Courses in electricity, blueprint reading, and machine repair are useful. Qualified mechanic trainees em ployed in commercial bowling es tablishments may be promoted to assistant mechanic and then to head mechanic. Mechanics can become managers or proprietors of bowling establishments. Those who work for manufacturers may advance to the position of service manager or in structor in a training school. A young person planning a career as a bowling-pin-machine mechanic should have good eyesight (includ ing color vision), physical strength, and eye-hand coordination. He also should have mechanical abilities and like to work with his hands. The job requires a person who can work independently in an isolated area. Because speed is usually es sential in repairing pinsetting ma- MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN chines, he should be capable of working under pressure. Employment Outlook Little or no change in the num ber of bowling-pin-machine me chanics is expected through the 1970’s. However, many job open ings will result each year to replace workers who retire, die, or leave their jobs for other reasons. Trends in the growth of bowling facilities, as well as developments in pinsetting machine technology, will be a major influence in the employ ment of mechanics in the future. Al though the demand for bowling fa cilities is likely to grow as a result of expanding population, rising income levels, and more leisure time for recreation, employment of mechan ics is not likely to increase. Older pinsetting machines are being re placed by improved models which need less maintenance; thus me chanics are able to service a greater number of machines. Earnings and Working Conditions National wage data are not avail able for pinsetter mechanics, assist ant mechanics, and pinchasers. However, wage data from unionmanagement contracts in mid-1970 covering a large number of these workers in large metropolitan areas on the East and West Coasts and in the Midwest show a very wide range of pay rates. Straight-time hourly rates ranged from $2.15 to $3.75 for mechanics, from $1.84 to $3.14 for assistant mechanics, and from $1.53 to $2.45 for pinchasers. On the East Coast and in the Midwest most mechanics and their assistants work a 48-hour, 6-day week. On the West Coast, most of 477 them work a 40-hour, 5-day week. Nightwork and work on Sundays and holidays is common. Workers covered by union-management con tracts receive premium pay for ov ertime. In addition, union-manage ment agreements usually provide for 1 week paid vacation after a year’s service, 2 weeks after 2 years’ service, and 3 weeks after 5 years’ service. These agreements also call for 4 to 8 paid holidays a year. Many contracts provide health insurance and pension plans financed entirely by employers. Mechanics and their assistants work in a long, relatively narrow corridor at one end of a bowling es tablishment where the automatic machines are located. The work area includes space for a work bench. The workspace is usually well lighted and well ventilated, but quite noisy when the lanes are in operation. When making repairs and adjustments, repairmen fre quently have to climb and balance their bodies on the framework of the pinsetting machines, and to stoop, kneel, crouch, and crawl around the machines. Mechanics employed by manufacturers to in stall and service pinsetting machines are required to do considerable traveling. Repairmen usually are not re quired to wear any special safety devices, such as goggles. Safety guards are provided on the pin-set ting machines, but workers are sub ject to common shop hazards, such as electrical shock, cuts, falls, and bruises. Repairmen often wear cov eralls to protect themselves from grease and dirt. Mechanics, assistant mechanics, and trainees employed in large met ropolitan areas generally are mem bers of unions; usually the Service Employees’ International Union or the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehouse men, and Helpers of America (Ind.). Sources of Additional Information A young man who wishes to ob tain further information about train ing or work opportunities in this trade should contact proprietors of commercial bowling establishments in his area, the local bowling pro prietors’ association, or locals of the unions previously mentioned. The local office of the State employment service is another source of infor mation about employment and training opportunities. BUSINESS MACHINE SERVICEMEN (D.O.T. 633.281 and 828.281) Nature of the Work and Places of Employment Business machine servicemen maintain and repair the increasing numbers and types of office equip ment used for correspondence, for recording and processing transac tions, and for duplicating and mail ing information. Equipment used for these purposes includes type writers, adding and calculating machines, cash registers, electronic computers and other data-processing devices, dictating and transcrib ing machines, and mailing, duplicat ing, copying, and microfilm equip ment. These machines are becoming increasingly complex as electric and electronic control components are incorporated in them. Servicemen do much of their 478 work in the offices where the ma chines are used. Servicemen may maintain this equipment on a regu lar basis, returning at frequent in tervals to inspect the machines, to clean and oil them, and to make minor adjustments or repairs. They also may be called to an office to check or repair a defective machine. On office calls, servicemen usually question the operator about the condition of the machine. They often have to explain to operators how various features of the ma chines can best be used and how to avoid machine damage. When inspecting business ma chines, the serviceman usually checks the operation of various parts of the equipment to see if they work properly or to find the source of reported trouble. For example, he may strike the keys of a typewriter or calculator, rotate the drum of a duplicating machine, or feed punchcards to a tabulator or sorter. In ad dition, he may check type or photo graphic devices for alinements and rollers for dryness or compactness. He may make voltage checks of electric or electronic components. The serviceman may take a ma chine to the company’s servicing de partment for a major repair or over haul. In addition to common handtools, such as screwdrivers, pliers, and ad justable wrenches, business machine servicemen frequently use gauges and meters and other test equipment and tools designed for special pur poses. In large service shops, serv icemen use power tools such as drill presses, lathes, and other power equipment. Business machine servicing offers considerable variety in work assign ments. This work requires the appli cation of analytical ability to a wide range of problems. Many persons find considerable satisfaction in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK being able to diagnose and correct the cause of trouble in a faulty machine. Some manufacturers’ serv icemen have the opportunity to evaluate and report on recom mended improvements in new and existing company products. Besides responsibilities for main tenance and repair, servicemen may engage in sales activities. Most com monly, they sell preventive mainte nance contracts for machine servic ing on a regular basis. Some serv icemen also are expected to sell supplies, such as special paper, ink, ribbons, and stencils, used with par ticular machines. Business machine servicemen are employed in several types of firms. Most of them work in the sales and service offices of business machine manufacturers; others, in independ ent business machine repair shops; the remainder, for large organiza tions that have enough machines to justify full-time servicemen. In a manufacturer’s branch office, servicemen usually work exclusively on the manufacturer’s products. They specialize in one or two ma chines or service the full line of equipment. In a small city, speciali zation is impractical and most serv icemen are “full-line.” In these instances, service and selling new equipment usually are combined. Servicemen employed by inde pendent dealers maintain and repair the many makes and models of office machines used in the com munity. Most dealers sell and serv ice typewriters. Some also sell and service adding machines, dictating machines, and less complex types of duplicating and copying equipment. Other dealers specialize in the sales and service of adding and calculat ing machines, cash registers, and bookkeeping-accounting machines. Most independent dealers employ fewer than five servicemen, al though some large dealers may em ploy as many as 10 or 15. Business machine servicing jobs are found throughout the country. Even relatively small communities usually have at least one or two shops which repair machines. How ever, most business machine serv icemen work in large cities, where the majority of business machines are located. Typewriter Servicemen (D.O.T. 633.281). The principal work of the estimated 19,000 typewriter serv icemen employed in 1970 was the maintenance and repair of manual and electric typewriters. Typewrit ers are the most widely used busi ness machines. They are used in al most every business office, as well as by many individuals in their homes. Though the operation of electric typewriters and mechanical typewriters differs, the two types are similar enough that, with additional training, the servicemen who special ize in the repair of mechanical type writers usually can learn to repair the electric machines. Some service men maintain and repair more so phisticated equipment, such as tape-fed automatic typewriters and interchangeable typeface machines, some of which operate in conjunc tion with small computers. These machines are considerably more complicated than regular typewrit ers and extensive training, usually provided by the manufacturer, is re quired before servicemen may qual ify to repair them. Typewriter servicemen are em ployed both in the sales and service branches of typewriter manufac turers and by local independent dealers. Many servicemen operate their own maintenance and repair shops. Typewriter servicemen are found in almost every sizable com munity throughout the Nation. Adding Machine Servicemen MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN (D.O.T. 633.281). In 1970, about use large numbers of adding ma 5,000 business machine service chines. Calculating Machine Servicemen men worked mainly on adding ma chines which are less complex than (D.O.T. 633.281). About 10,000 most office machines. In some cases, calculating machine servicemen servicing of both adding machines were employed in 1970. Calculating and calculators is done by the machines add, subtract, divide, mul same employee. The repair of add tiply, and perform combinations of ing machines and simpler calculat these operations. In some shops, ing machines often provides experi servicing of calculators is combined ence for advancement to work on with the servicing of other business more complicated equipment such machines, particularly adding ma as bookkeeping and accounting chines and accounting-bookkeeping machines. In some independent es machines. tablishments, adding machines are Most of the men who service cal serviced by men who also repair culators are employed in manufac typewriters. turer’s sales and service branches. Adding machine servicemen are Some independent dealers employ employed both in manufacturers’ men skilled in the maintenance and sales and service branches and by repair of calculators. Others are em independent dealers. Other sources ployed by the Federal Government of employment are Federal, State, and some large business organiza and local governments, and a few tions. Cash Register Servicemen large banks and other firms which 479 (D.O.T. 633.281). Repairing cash registers was the main work of ap proximately 4,000 business machine servicemen in 1970. Next to type writers, cash registers are the most widely used business machines. The simplest models merely record trans actions, add receipts, and provide a change drawer. The more compli cated cash registers simultaneously record several different kinds of in formation on each transaction (such as identification of the clerk, depart ment, type of merchandise, payment given, and change due), provide printed receipts, and dispense change and trading stamps to the customer. Most cash register servicemen work in the sales and service branches of the few manufacturing firms making these machines. Some of the repair work, especially in smaller communities, is done by in dependent dealers who also main tain and repair other business ma chines. Accounting-Bookkeeping Ma chine Servicemen (D.O.T. 633.281). The repair of accounting-bookkeep ing machines was the main work of more than 2,500 business machine servicemen in 1970. These machines perform a variety of operations. Some post entries and some do bill ing, but others combine the func tions of typewriters and computing devices. All models have keyboards, like those on typewriters and adding machines. These machines are used in firms that have a great deal of ac counting and bookkeeping work, such as department stores, large re tail and wholesale businesses, and banks. Many of the newer models are adjusted to fit the accounting procedures used in an individual customer’s office. Servicemen set up the controls or programs for these machines from plans which have 480 been devised by the customers and manufacturers’ salesmen. Most accounting-bookkeeping machine servicemen are employed in the sales and service branches of companies manufacturing this equipment. Very few work in inde pendent repair shops. Data-Processing Equipment Serv icemen (D.O.T. 828.281). Nearly 30,000 men were employed in 1970 to install, modify, and maintain groups of machines (systems) used to process large volumes of ac counting-statistical data. These men are the most skilled business ma chine servicemen and must have a good knowledge of electronics. The machines that they service include mechanical and electromechanical devices of varying complexity and highly complicated electronic com puters. However, even those ma chine systems which include the most advanced computers depend to a high degree on associated equip ment having electromechanical op erating and control mechanisms. This auxiliary equipment feeds in formation to the computer for data processing and converts the proc OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK essed data to printed form for im mediate use and to magnetic tape and punchcards for recordkeeping and further processing. Machines used in data-processing systems in clude computers, tabulators, card punchers, sorters, collators, con verters, tape transports, printers, and numerous other devices. Data-processing machine service men are employed principally by firms which manufacture and serv ice this equipment. They may work anywhere in the United States, but they are usually stationed in the larger cities. Some are assigned to a large system in one location; others have territories containing a number of machines or systems. Dictating Machine Servicemen (D.O.T. 623.281). In 1970, about 700 men serviced machines which record dictation on disks, belts, or tape to be played back for typing. In addition to standard office dictat ing machines, servicemen install and maintain central recording and tran scribing systems. Dictating machine servicemen must have a knowledge of electronic fundamentals to maintain and repair sound-amplifying components of this equipment. Mechanical skills are essential in maintenance work on drive mechanisms needed to control the movement of the record ing disk or belt. Dictating machine servicemen are employed throughout the country with concentrations in the large business and commercial centers. Most servicemen work in the sales and service branches of business equipment manufacturers or for their distributors. Typewriter and adding machine servicemen em ployed by some independent dealers also service dictating machines. Duplicating and Copying Machine Servicemen (D.O.T. 633.281). About 6,500 men were employed in 1970 to maintain and repair du plicating and copying machines. These machines are used to make one or more paper copies of printed or written information. The proc esses used in these machines range widely, from highly complex meth ods for large volume reproduction to relatively simple methods used in desk-top copiers. The office duplicator is essen tially an offset printing press requir ing a special plate for reproduction. A serviceman should be familiar with basic printing principles and technologies. Frequently, an office duplicator is operated in conjunc tion with photomechanical plate making equipment that also may be serviced by the office duplicator serviceman. The office copier is an electrome chanical device which produces sin gle or multiple copies direct from an original. The equipment used in a single process may vary considera bly, from relatively simple hand-op erated devices used to make up to five paper copies to highly compli cated electromechanical machines 481 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN which can quickly duplicate several hundred copies. When servicing duplicating or copying machines, the serviceman adjusts, oils, repairs, or replaces parts such as rollers, belts, or gear mechanisms. If the equipment has electric or electronic components, he may check voltages to determine the need for adjustment or replace ments of parts. He also may clean the machine so that it will function properly and produce clear copy. Duplicating and copying machine servicemen employed by some com panies also service microfilm equip ment used in office operations. The maintenance and repair of paper handling mechanisms used to speed the movement of documents, in cluding drawings, through the pho tographic equipment is generally similar to that used in duplicating machines. The men who, service this equipment, however, must under stand the photographic process used in order to properly aline the optical devices so as to produce clear, sharp negatives. Most duplicating and copying machine servicemen are employed in the branch sales and service offices of manufacturers or by their distributors. Servicemen of Postage and Mail ing Equipment (D.O.T. 633.281). More than 2,000 servicemen were employed in 1970 to maintain the many different types of office ma chines needed to handle the billions of pieces of mail sent each year by business firms in this country. These office machines included postage meters, addressing and imprinting machines, and folding and inserting equipment. Data-processing ma chines, used for tabulating and im printing acount information, also are used in addressing operations where the volume of accounts justi fies their use. Servicemen who work on these predominantly electromechanical machines install the equipment and adjust, oil, clean, and repair or re place components to keep the equipment in working order. As with most paper handling equip ment, rollers and other manipulat ing devices driven by belt or gear mechanisms are the components most frequently requiring mainte nance. Since most postage and mail ing equipment is electrically pow ered and an increasing number of machines use electric or electronic controls, the servicemen must have a basic knowledge of electricity. In addition, a knowledge of electronic theory is a decided advantage. Most men who service postage and mailing equipment are em ployed in the branch offices of equipment manufacturers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Usually applicants for entrance jobs as business machine service men must have at least a high school education. Applicants who have not completed high school, however, are accepted by some companies if they can demonstrate superior mechanical aptitude or have had qualifying mechanical or electrical experience. Completion of high school becomes particularly important, however, when a service man has acquired basic skills and is seeking to work on more complex equipment or to be promoted to su pervisor. Applicants interested in servicing complex electrome chanical and electronic equipment are required to have 1 year or more of training or experience in mechan ics or electronics to qualify. Applicants for entrance jobs often have to pass one or more tests. The most frequently tested characteristic is mechanical apti tude, followed by a knowledge of basic electricity or electronics, man ual dexterity, general intelligence and abstract reasoning. Good eye sight, including color vision, also is important. Employers look for applicants who have a pleasant, cooperative manner. Most machine servicing is done in customers’ offices and a serviceman’s ability to do his work with the least interference to office routine is very important. A neat appearance and ability to converse effectively also are desired charac teristics. Some employers require business machine servicemen to be bonded. Applicants for these jobs must have a record of honesty and trustworthi ness because, in their work service men are brought in proximity to large sums of money and other val uables in banks, offices, and other establishments. Servicemen also may collect money for services per formed and office supplies delivered to their customers. Young persons entering the busi ness machine servicing field gen erally begin as trainees and acquire their skills through on-the-job train ing, work experience, and instruc tion in manufacturers’ training schools. Courses in business ma chines maintenance and repair, con ducted by some State and city vocational schools and by private correspondence schools, are avail able to trainees and others interested in this field of work. In addition, programs to train unemployed and underemployed workers as office machine servicemen were operating in several cities in 1970 under pro visions of the Manpower Develop ment and Training Act. Business machine servicemen who are hired for work in a manu 482 facturer’s branch office are trained to service only the company’s line of machines. Trainees usually at tend company schools from several weeks to several months, depending on the type of machine they will service. They then receive from 1 to 3 years of practical experience and on-the-job training before they are considered fully qualified. During this period, they may occasionally go back to factory schools for addi tional training. Even after becoming skilled workers, they may return to school for special instruction in new business machine developments. In addition to training in company schools, servicemen at manufac turers’ branch offices are encour aged to broaden their technical and general knowledge during their non working hours. Many companies provide full or partial tuition grants for a variety of courses at academic institutions, as well as for homestudy courses in subjects related to the serviceman’s work. Men in independent establish ments generally learn the trade by working with experienced service men who instruct them in the skills of the trade. Occasionally, men em ployed by an independent dealer who is authorized to sell and service a manufacturer’s products will be sent to the manufacturer’s school for training. Generally, however, men in independent shops receive little formal training. Length of training depends on the kind of establishment in which a man is employed. In independent shops, the time required to become a skilled serviceman tends to be somewhat longer than in manufac turers’ branches because of the greater variety of machines and the generally informal nature of the training. The training period also varies in relation to the complexity of the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK equipment and the serviceman’s ability to become thoroughly skilled in the maintenance, repair, and other activities associated with less complicated business machines, such as typewriters, adding ma chines, and some photocopy equip ment. For the servicing of calculat ing machines, about 2 years of training and experience are re quired. Cash register repairmen learn their work in from 2 Vi to 3 Vi years, the last 6 months of which are usually spent in the company school. Skilled accounting-book keeping machine repairmen gener ally must have at least 3 to 4 years of training and experience. The first 1 to 2 years may consist of servicing adding machines, calculators, or cash registers, since this is consid ered valuable background for servicing accounting-bookkeeping machines. Most machines used in data-processing systems contain electrical equipment; many have electronic components. The companies which manufacture and service these machines, therefore, usually require that applicants have some knowl edge of electricity or electronics. In qualifying for employment in the maintenance of the complex elec tronic data-processing machines, college or technical institute courses in engineering are helpful, if not es sential. Young veterans who have had electronics training in the Armed Forces are especially desired by employers in this field. Because of the complexity of some computer systems, these servicemen usually must have considerable analytical ability, as well as a broad technical background. For example, they may have to be familiar with computer programing to identify programing procedures as a possible cause of a malfunction. Applicants hired as trainees generally spend their first 2 months in on-the-job training. If they prove satisfactory, they are sent to a company school for a pe riod of from 3 to 6 months. After completing the course, they work under supervision until they acquire enough skill to service and repair on their own. This period usually lasts from 12 to 18 months. Business machine servicemen may move into sales positions where earnings usually are greater. In some cases, service and sales work are combined. Men who show exceptional abilities also have op portunities for promotion to fore man, service manager, or other su pervisory positions, and to service man training or product engineering divisions of their companies. Expe rienced men sometimes open their own repair shops; men who work in the branch offices of some manufac turers are sometimes given sales franchises from the company and become independent dealers. Employment Outlook The rapidly growing business machine industry will provide many thousands of job openings for servicemen each year during the 1970’s. Opportunities also will occur because of the need to re place experienced workmen who re tire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. The estimated 80,000 business machine servicemen in 1970 more than tripled the number employed during the mid-1950’s. The rapid growth is expected to continue as many more types of office machines do all kinds of clerical work. In re cent years, many technical changes have occurred in long-established types of business machines. For ex ample, electric typewriters and add ing machines have been replacing
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