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RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING OCCUPATIONS weekly shows, assign personnel to cover special events, and pro vide general program services such as music, sound effects, and lighting. In addition to these staff employees, freelance actors, co medians, singers, dancers, some well-known announcers, and other entertainers are hired for specific broadcasts or a series of broadcasts or for special assign ments. These performers work on a contract basis for the station, network, advertising agency, sponsor, or an independent com pany and specialize in producing programs. Many radio and tele vision entertainers also perform in stage plays, motion pictures, nightclubs, or other entertain ment media. The size of a station’s program ing department depends not only on the size of the station, but also on the extent to which its broad casts are live, recorded, or re ceived from a network. In small stations, the program functions are handled by a few people who make commercial announce ments, read news and sports sum maries, select and play record ings, and introduce network pro grams. A large television station, on the other hand, may have a program staff consisting of a large number of people in a wide variety of specialized jobs. Responsibility for the overall program schedule of a large sta tion rests with a program direc tor. He arranges for a combina tion of programs that he believes will be most effective in meeting the needs of advertisers who buy the station’s services and will at the same time be most attractive and interesting to members of the community served by the sta tion. He determines and admin isters the station’s programing policy. Daily schedules of programs are prepared by a traffic man ager, who also keeps a record of 735 Program director and assistant monitor on-the-air show from control room. broadcasting time available for advertising. A continuity director is responsible for the writing and editing of all scripts. He may be assisted by a continuity writer, who prepares Announcers’ Books ( “ copy” ). These books contain the script and commercials for each program along with their sequence and length. Individual programs or series of programs are planned and su pervised by a director. In large stations, he may work under the supervision of a producer, who assumes responsibility for selec tion of scripts, financial control, and other overall problems of pro duction. Sometimes these func tions are combined in the job of producer-director. The director’s major functions include selecting appropriate artists and studio personnel, scheduling and con ducting rehearsals, coordinating the efforts of all the people in volved in the show to produce effective entertainment, and di recting the on-the-air show. He may be assisted by an associate director, who takes over such tasks as working out detailed schedules and plans, arranging for distribution of scripts and changes in scripts to the cast, and assisting in directing the onthe-air show. Some stations em ploy program assistants to aid in carrying out the orders of the di rector and his assistants. The assistants help assemble and co ordinate the various parts of the show. They arrange for obtain ing props, makeup service, art work, and film slides. They assist in timing the on-the-air show, preparing cue cards from the scripts and using them to cue the performers. Education and public affairs directors act as a link be tween the station and schools, churches, and civic and chari table institutions. They super- 736 vise and edit most noncommer cial programs. Announcers are the largest and best known group of program workers. In radio and television stations of all sizes, the announc er introduces programs, guests, and musical selections, and de livers most of the live commercial messages. (Further information on broadcast announcers is given later in this chapter.) Music is an important part of radio and television programing. Both small and large stations use recordings and transcriptions to provide musical programs and background m u s i c for other shows. Large stations, which have extensive music libraries, some times employ a music librarian, who maintains the music files and answers requests for any par ticular selection or type of music. In addition to recorded music, a few of the largest stations have specialized personnel who plan and arrange for musical services. The musical director selects, ar ranges, and directs suitable music for programs on general instruc tions from the program director. He selects musicians for live broadcasts and directs them dur ing rehearsals and broadcasts. Musicians are generally hired for particular assignments on a free lance basis, although a few sta tions employ staff musicians full time. News gathering and reporting is an increasingly important as pect of radio and television pro graming. In addition to daily coverage of the news, sports, weather, and, in rural areas, farm reports, the news department also presents special programs cover ing such events as conventions, elections, and disasters. The news director plans and supervises the overall news and special events coverage of a station. A news caster broadcasts daily news pro grams and reports special news OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Writers prepare copy for news shows. events on the scene. A newswriter selects and writes news copy to be read on the air by the news casters. In small stations the jobs of newscaster and newswriter fre quently are combined. Stations that originate live television shows must have staff members capable of handling staging jobs, since staging a tele vision show is similar in many ways to producing a professional stage play. The studio supervisor plans and supervises the setting up of scenery and props and other studio and stage equip ment for broadcasts. The floor or stage manager plans and directs the actors’ positions and move ments on the set in accordance with the director’s instructions by relaying stage directions, sta tion breaks, and cues. The jobs of studio supervisor and floor manager often are combined. Floormen set up props, hold cue cards, and do the unskilled chores around the studio. (This job is frequently held by a beginner in the programing department.) Makeup artists prepare personnel for broadcasts by applying proper makeup, and maintain the sup plies and facilities necessary for RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING OCCUPATIONS this work. Scenic designers plan and design settings and back grounds for programs. They se lect furniture, draperies, pictures, and other properties to help con vey the visual impressions de sired by the director. Sound effects technicians operate special equipment to simulate sounds, such as gunfire, thunder, or fall ing water during rehearsals and broadcasts. About half of all television pro graming is on film, about 15 per cent is live, and the remainder is recorded on magnetic video tape. Video tape recording is done by broadcast technicians on electronic equipment that per mits instantaneous playback of a television performance. It can be used either to record a live show being broadcast or to prerecord a program for future broadcast. For filmed programs, the role of the station’s programing staff is limited to editing the film and timing and scheduling the show. Many stations employ specialized staff members to take care of filmed program material. The film editor edits and prepares all film for on-the-air presentation. This includes screening all films received as well as cutting and splicing feature films to insert commercials. He also edits all locally produced film. The film librarian catalogs and maintains the station’s files of motion pic ture film, which include not only complete programs, but many short sequences that can be fitted into programs to create effects which are difficult to produce in the studio, such as outdoor action. Engineering Department. The en gineering department of a broad casting station is responsible for converting the sounds and pic tures of programs into electro magnetic impulses that can be received on home radio and tele vision sets. The main tasks of the engineering staff are positioning microphones, adjusting levels of sound, keeping transmitters op erating properly, moving and ad justing television cameras to pro duce clear, well-composed pic tures, and lighting television scenes and performers. The staff also installs, maintains, and re pairs the many types of electrical and electronic equipment re quired for these operations. Broadcast technicians in the engineering department perform a variety of jobs in the radio or television station. For example, they control the operation of the transmitter to keep the output level and frequency of the outgo ing broadcast within legal re quirements. They also set up, operate, and maintain equip ment in the studio and in loca tions from which remote broad casts are to be made. (Further 737 information on broadcast tech nicians is given later in this chapter.) All stations employ a chief en gineer, who has responsibility for all engineering matters, including supervision of other technicians. In small stations, he also may work a regular shift at the con trol board. Large stations have engineers who specialize in fields such as sound recording, mainte nance, and lighting. Networks employ a few development engi neers to design and develop new electronic apparatus to meet special problems. Sales Department. Broadcasting stations earn their income by selling services to advertisers. These services consist of the time on the air that is allotted to the advertisers’ commercials. Adver tisers may buy time as part of a regular daily or weekly show Engineers and broadcast technicians control quality of transmission. 738 with which they wish to identify their product, or they may sim ply buy a time segment or “ spot” without special reference to the program being broadcast. Time salesmen, the l a r g e s t group of workers in this depart ment, sell time on the air to sponsors, advertising agencies, and other buyers. They must have a thorough knowledge of the stations’ operations and the characteristics of the area it serves that are of most interest to advertisers, such as population, number of radio and television sets in use, income levels, and consumption p a t t e r n s . Time salesmen in large stations often maintain close relationships with particular sponsors and advertis ing agencies, by selling time and acting as general consultants and advisers in matters pertaining to advertising through the station. In very small stations, the time salesman also may handle other functions. Many stations sell a substantial part of their time, particularly to national adver tisers, through independent sales agencies known as station repre sentatives, which act as interme diaries for time buyers and sta tions or groups of stations. Large stations generally have several workers who do only sales work. The sales manager super vises his staff of time salesmen, by directing their efforts and set ting general sales policy. He also may handle a few of the largest accounts personally. Some large stations employ statistical clerks and research personnel to assist the sales staff by analyzing and reporting market data relating to the community served, the sig nificance of the ratings of the sta tion’s programs reported by the rating services, and other sta tistical information. B u s i n e s s Management. Like other businesses, broadcasting stations have a considerable OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK amount of administrative work. In a very small station, the owner and his secretary may handle all the recordkeeping, accounting, purchasing, hiring, and other routine office work. Where the size of the station warrants the employment of full-time special ists, the business staff may in clude accountants, publicity spe cialists, personnel workers, and other professional workers. They are assisted by office workers such as stenographers, typists, bookkeepers, clerks, and messen gers. Building maintenance men are employed to keep the facili ties in good condition. Train in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent A high school diploma is the minimum educational require ment for entry jobs in broadcast ing, although for many jobs some college training is increasingly preferred. A liberal arts educa tion is a good qualification for the beginner because broadcasting needs broadly educated people with knowledge and interests in many areas. Work in television programing for networks and large independent stations gen erally requires a college degree and some experience in the broadcasting field. Training in specialized areas such as writing, public speaking dramatics, designing, makeup, or electronics may be required of beginners in these specialties, even though work experience usu ally is not necessary. Some young people without specialized train ing or experience get their start in broadcasting in such jobs as clerk, typist, floorman, or assist ant to an experienced worker. As these new workers gain knowl edge knowledge and experience, they have the chance to advance to more responsible jobs. Young people are sometimes hired on the basis of their potentialities rather than for any specific train ing or experience, but the more skills, education, and varied background these beginners have, the better will be their chances for advancement. A few young people get started in broadcast ing with temporary jobs in the summer when regular workers go on vacations, and broadcast schedules of day light-hours sta tions are increased. Technical training in electron ics is required for entry jobs in engineering departments. In ad dition, anyone who operates or adjusts a broadcast transmitter must have a Federal Communi cations Commission Radiotele phone First Class Operator Li cense. T o obtain this license, an applicant must pass a series of technical examinations given by the Federal Communications Commission. Small radio stations with only a few employees some times prefer to have as many per sonnel as possible legally quali fied to operate their transmitters. Because of this, nontechnicians, especially announcers, will have a better chance of getting a job in radio if they have a first class license. A course in electronics at a recognized technical institute is probably the best way to pre pare for the FCC test. Specific training or experience usually is not required for entry jobs as announcers in small sta tions, but an applicant must have a good voice, a broad cultural background, and other character istics that make him a dramatic or attractive personality. Qualifi cations for adminstrative and sales jobs in broadcasting are similar to those required by other employers; a business course of study in high school or college is good preparation for such jobs. Most beginners start out in small stations. Although these RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING OCCUPATIONS stations cannot pay high sala ries, they offer new workers op portunities to learn many differ ent phases of broadcasting work because they generally use their personnel in “ combination” jobs. For example, in addition to his regular duties, an announcer may perform some of the duties of a broadcast technician. People in the engineering de partment tend to remain in this area of work, where thorough training in electronics is essential. Program employees usually re main in programing work, al though sometimes transfers from and to the sales and business services departments are made. Transfers are easier between sales and administrative depart ments because of their close working relationship; in fact, in the small stations, they are often merged into one department. Al though transfers of experienced workers between departments are limited to the extent noted, these distinctions are less important in the beginning jobs and also in the top-level jobs. At the higher levels, a station executive may be drawn from top-level personnel of any department. Many toplevel administrative jobs are filled by people with sales experi ence. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment in the broadcast ing industry is expected to grow at a moderate pace through the 1970’s. More job opportunities will result from replacement as thousands of job openings be come available as workers trans fer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone will provide an estimated 2,800 job openings annually. New radio and television broadcasting stations will be es tablished over the period primar ily in small communities and will result in opportunities for some additional workers. Also, cable television (C A TV ) has emerged as a powerful new force in com munications and some additional job opportunities for professional, technical, and maintenance per sonnel will be created as CATV systems increasingly originate and transmit programs. By using coaxial cables instead of air waves, CATV can bring to sub scribers a large selection of overthe-air signals plus many addi tional programs originated for cable television. The number of educational broadcasting stations is expected to increase as private and govern mental groups continue to expand this medium as an educational tool. The growth of educational television stations, particularly, should increase the number of job opportunities, especially in programing, engineering, and sta tion management. In existing radio stations, em ployment probably will remain about the same. Continued intro duction of equipment that per mits the control of transmitters from the studio will eliminate the need for a technical crew at the transmitter site. Automatic pro graming equipment permits radio stations to provide virtually un attended programing service. As more of the smaller television sta tions acquire the capability to originate local color telecasts, there may be a small expansion in the number of technical work ers to handle and operate the more complex equipment. Competition will be very keen for entry jobs in broadcasting in the years ahead, especially in the large cities, because of the at traction this field has for young people, and the relatively few be ginning jobs that will be avail able. 739 Earnings and W orking Conditions In 1968, earnings of nonsupervisory broadcasting workers aver aged $135.74 a week or $3.61 an hour for an average 37.6-hour week. There is a wide range of salaries among various occupa tions in the industry and among locations. Employees in large cit ies generally earn much more than those in the same kinds of jobs in small towns. Wages also tend to be higher in large stations than in small ones and higher in television than in radio. Working conditions in broad casting stations are usually pleas ant. The work is done in clean, attractive surroundings. It is per formed indoors, except where re mote pickups are involved. Jobs in programing are particularly at tractive to young people inter ested in the performing arts, both because of the glamour attached to this field of work, and the op portunities it affords for high earnings and artistic expression. Most full-time broadcasting employees have a scheduled 40hour workweek. However, some employees, particularly in the small stations, may have a longer workweek. Sales and business services employees generally work in the daytime hours com mon to most office jobs. However, program and engineering em ployees must work shifts which may include evenings, nights, weekends, and holidays. T o meet a broadcast deadline, program and technical employees in the networks may have to work con tinuously for many hours under great pressure. Many unions operate in the broadcasting field. They are most active in the network centers and large stations in metropolitan areas. The National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Work- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 740 ers both organize all kinds of broadcasting workers, although most of their members are tech nicians. The International Alli ance of Theatrical Stage Em ployees and Moving Picture Ma chine Operators organizes vari ous crafts, such as stagehands, sound and lighting technicians, wardrobe attendants, makeup men, and cameramen. Many an nouncers and entertainers are members of the American Feder ation of Television and Radio Artists. The Directors Guild of America, Ind. (Inc.) organizes program directors, associate di rectors, and stage managers. The Screen Actors Guild Inc., repre sents the majority of talent per sonnel who appear on films made for television. RADIO AND TELEVISION ANNOUNCERS (D.O.T. 159.148) N atu re of the W ork Radio and television staff an nouncers present news and live commercial messages, introduce programs, describe s p o r t i n g events, act as masters of cere monies, conduct interviews, and identify stations. In small sta tions, they may perform addi tional duties such as operating the control board, selling time, and writing commercial and news copy. In large stations, their du ties are confined to the program ing department. Many announcers act as disc jockeys, introducing selections of recorded music and commenting on the music and other matters of interest to the audience. Disc jockeys “ ad-lib” much of the com mentary, working without a de tailed script. About 14,000 staff announcers were employed on a regularly scheduled, full-time basis in radio and television broadcasting sta tions in 1968. More than 85 per cent of them were employed in radio. The average radio station employed 2 or 3 announcers; larger stations employed 5 or more. Most television stations employed 3 staff announcers, although larger stations some times employed 4 or more. In ad dition to staff announcers, several thousand freelance announcers sell their services for individual assignments to networks and sta tions, or to advertising agencies and other independent producers, for both programs (news, sports, disc jockey, etc.) and commer cials. Some announcers become well-known and highly paid per sonalities. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent To succceed as an announcer, one must have a pleasant and well-controlled voice, a good sense of timing, and excellent pronunciation. In addition, a thorough knowledge of correct English usage and a knowledge of dramatics, sports, music, and current events improve chances for success. In television, rather high standards of personal ap pearance also must be met. When on the air, an announcer must be able to react quickly and imagi natively in unusual situations. He also must be a convincing sales man when presenting commer cials. In addition to all the above qualifications, the most success ful announcers have a combina tion of personality and showman ship that makes them attractive to audiences. Therefore, anyone considering a career as an an nouncer should judge his chances of success realistically. Most an nouncers are men, but there are a few opportunities for women, especially in programs and com mercials aimed at women. High school courses in English, public speaking, dramatics, and foreign languages, plus sports and music hobbies, are valuable back ground for prospective announc ers. A number of vocational schools offer training in announc ing, and some universities offer courses of study in the broadcast ing field. A college liberal arts education also provides an excel lent background for an an nouncer. Most announcers get their first broadcasting jobs in small sta tions. Because announcers in small stations sometimes operate RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING OCCUPATIONS transmitters, prospective an nouncers often obtain a Federal Communications C o m m i s s i o n Radiotelephone First Class Op erator License which enables them legally to operate a trans mitter and, therefore, makes them much more useful to these stations. Announcers more fre quently operate control boards, for which only a Third Class li cense is required. (For informa tion on how to obtain such li censes, see p. 738.) Announcers usually work in several different stations in the course of their careers. After ac quiring experience at a station in a small community, an ambitious and talented announcer may move to a better paying job in a larger community. He also may advance by getting a regular pro gram as a disc jockey, sportscaster, or other specialist. Competi tion for announcing jobs in the national networks is intense, and an announcer usually must be a college graduate and have several years of successful announcing experience before he will be given an audition. Em ploym ent O utlook The employment of announcers is expected to increase moderate ly in the 1970’s, as new radio and television stations are opened. The gains in employment result ing from these openings during this period, however, will be re duced slightly by the increased use of automatic programing. Some job openings in this rela tively small occupation will also result from transfers to other fields of work and from retire ments and deaths. The growth of the industry and replacement needs will create, on the average, several hundred openings for an nouncers each year through the 1970’s. 741 It will be easier to get an entry job in radio than in television because of the greater number of radio stations, especially small stations which hire beginners. However, the great attraction this field has for young people and its relatively small size will result in keen competition for en try jobs. Earnings and W orking Conditions Earnings of staff announcers vary and depend upon whether the announcer works in radio or television, in a large or small sta tion, or in a large or small com munity. As a general rule, wages increase with the size of the com munity and the station. Earnings of an announcer in television tend to be somewhat higher than those in radio. The earnings of many better paid announcers include fees re ceived from advertisers in addi tion to the salaries received from stations. Such fees are larger and more common in television than in radio. In small radio stations, announcers generally are paid a fixed weekly or monthly salary. Announcers who work in regular shows, such as disc jockeys or announcers who become identi fied with popular network radio or television programs, earn con siderably more than other staff announcers. Most announcers in large sta tions work a 40-hour week and receive overtime for work beyond 40 hours. In small stations, many announcers work 2 to 6 hours of overtime each week. Evening, night, and weekend work occurs frequently since some stations are on the air 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Announcers’ work ing hours consist of both time on the air and time spent in prepar ing for broadcasts. Working con- Technician edits film. ditions are usually pleasant be cause of the variety of work and the many personal contacts which are part of the job. Announcers also receive some satisfaction from becoming well known in the area their station serves. BROADCAST TECHNICIANS (D.O.T. 194.281, .282, and .782; 957.282; and 963.168 through .887) N ature of th e W ork Broadcast technicians set up, operate, and maintain the elec tronic equipment used to record or transmit radio and television programs. They work with equip ment such as microphones, sound recorders, lighting equipment, 742 sound effects devices, television cameras, magnetic video tape re corders, and motion picture pro jection equipment. In the con trol room, broadcast technicians operate equipment that regulates the quality of sounds and pic tures being recorded or broad cast. They also operate controls that switch broadcasts from one camera or studio to another, from film to live programing, or from network to local programs. From the control room, they give tech nical directions to personnel in the studio by means of hand sig nals and, in television, by use of telephone headsets. When work ing on disc jockey programs, they sometimes operate phonograph record turntables. Other control room duties may include operat ing movie projectors, making re cordings of live shows, and keep ing an operation log of all broad casts. As a rule, broadcast technicians in small stations perform a wide Technician previews video tape show. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK variety of duties. In large sta tions and in networks, techni cians are more specialized, al though specific job assignments may change from day to day. Broadcast technicians who spe cialize may be given titles such as transmitter technician (moni tors and logs outgoing signals and is responsible for proper opera tion of the transmitter), mainte nance technician (sets up, main tains, and repairs electronic broadcasting equipment), audio control technician (operates con trols that regulate sound pickup, transmission, and switching), video control technician (oper ates controls that regulate the quality, brightness, and contrast of television pictures), lighting technician (directs lighting of television programs), field tech nician (sets up and operates broadcasting equipment for pro grams originating outside the studio), recording technician (op erates and maintains sound re cording equipment), and video tape recording technician (op erates and maintains magnetic video tape recording equipment). Sometimes the term “ engineer” is substituted for technician in the above titles. Installing a n d maintaining complex electronic equipment is the most technically difficult work of broadcast technicians. Most technicians do at least oc casional maintenance, but large stations usually have one or two experienced men who repair and maintain electronic equipment under supervision of the chief engineer. In small radio stations, the chief engineer frequently does all maintenance and repair work himself. When events taking place out side the studios are to be broad cast, technicians go to the site of the pickup and set up, test, and operate the necessary equip ment. They also make emergency repairs. After the broadcast, they dismantle the equipment and re turn to the station. In 1968, about 20,000 nonsupervisory broadcast technicians were employed in radio and tele vision stations. Most radio sta tions employ fewer than four technicians, although a few large radio stations may employ more than 15. Nearly all television sta tions employ at least five broad cast technicians. Stations located in large metropolitan areas aver age about 30 technicians. Most broadcast technicians work in communities of more than 250,000 population. The highest pay ing and most specialized jobs are concentrated in New York, Los Angeles, Washington, D.C., and Chicago, the originating centers for most of the network programs. In addition to the nonsupervisory technicians, several thou sand supervisory personnel with job titles such as chief engineer, assistant chief engineer, direc tor of engineering, technical director, and supervisory techni cian work in engineering depart ments. Supervisory personnel op erate, maintain, and repair all electronic equipment in the stu dio, at the transmitter, and on remote broadcasting sites. They may also do maintenance and re pair work, design and build new equipment, purchase equipment for the station, and help lay out plans for building new studios, transmitters, relay equipment, and towers. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent A young man interested in be coming a broadcast technician should plan to get a Radiotele phone First Class Operator Li cense from the Federal Commu nications Commission. Federal law requires that anyone who RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING OCCUPATIONS operates or adjusts broadcast transmitters in television and radio stations must hold such a license. Some stations require all their broadcast technicians, in cluding those who do not operate transmitters, to have this license. Applicants for the license must pass a series of written examina tions covering the construction and operation of transmission and receiving equipment, the charac teristics of electromagnetic waves, and Federal Government and in ternational regulations and prac tices governing broadcasting. In formation about these examina tions and guides to Study for them may be obtained from the Federal Communications Com mission, Washington, D.C. 20036. High school courses in algebra and trigonometry, and in physics and other sciences, provide valu able barkground for young men anticipating careers in this occu pation. Building and operating an amateur radio station is also good training. A good way to ac quire the knowledge necessary for becoming a broadcast technician is to take an electronics course in a technical school. Many schools give courses especially de signed to prepare the student for the FCC first-class license test. Training at the technical school or college level is a distinct ad vantage for those who hope to advance to supervisory positions or to the more specialized jobs in large stations and in the net works. Young men with FCC firstclass licenses who get entry jobs are instructed and advised by the chief engineer or other experi enced technicians concerning the work procedures of the station. In small stations, they may start by operating the transmitter and handling other technical duties after a brief instruction period. As they acquire more experience and skill, they are assigned to more responsible jobs. Men who demonstrate above-average abil ity may move into the top-level technical positions, such as super visory technician and chief en gineer. A college degree in engi neering is becoming increasingly important for advancement to supervisory positions. Em ploym ent O utlook The number of broadcast tech nicians is expected to increase only slightly during the 1970’s. Retirements, deaths, and trans fers to other jobs will result in some additional job openings. Some job opportunities for technicians will be provided by the new radio and television sta tions expected to go on the air during this period. In addition, color television broadcasting may slightly increase the need for technicians. Color television pick up and transmitting equipment is much more complicated than black and white equipment and requires more maintenance and technical know-how. However, other technical advances, such as automatic switching and pro graming, automatic operation logging, and remote control of transmitters will limit the in crease in job opportunities in the new stations and replacement needs in existing stations. 743 Earnings and W orking Conditions Earnings of broadcast techni cians vary greatly depending on such factors as the size and loca tion of the community a station serves, the size of the station, whether he works in a radio or television station, and the experi ence of the individual. As a rule, technicians’ wages are highest in large cities and in large stations. Technicians employed by tele vision stations usually are paid more than those working for ra dio stations because television equipment is generally more com plex. Most technicians in large sta tions work a 40-hour week with overtime pay for work beyond 40 hours. Many broadcast techni cians in the larger cities work a 37-hour week. In small stations, many technicians work 2 to 8 hours of overtime each week. Eve ning, night, and weekend work occurs frequently since some sta tions are on the air as many as 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Network technicians may occa sionally have to work continuous ly for many hours and under great pressure in order to meet broadcast deadlines. Broadcast technicians general ly work indoors in pleasant sur roundings. The work is interest ing, and the duties are varied. When remote pickups are made, however, technicians may work out of doors at some distance from the studios, under less fa vorable conditions. R A IL R O A D O C C U P A T IO N S The railroads, with their net work of more than 200,000 miles of rail line reaching into all parts of the country, are one of the Nation’s largest employers. Over 500,000 railroad workers were employed in 1968, operating trains, looking after the needs of the traveling public, maintaining and repairing facilities and equip ment, and performing the hun dreds of other activities required in this industry. These activities offer a great variety of interesting careers requiring different kinds of skills and levels of education. In most railroad occupations, a worker starts at the bottom and works his way up by learning his job, proving his ability, and ac quiring the seniority which will enable him to advance. N ature and Location of the Industry The railroad industry is made up of “ line-haul” railroad com panies which transport freight and passengers between cities and towns, and switching and ter minal companies which operate facilities at stations, freight yards, and other terminal points. About 580 of these railroad com panies were operating in 1968. In addition, the Pullman Com pany performed special services for passengers traveling on these railroads. The Class I line-haul railroads, which include all of the large, well-known companies, handle about 95 percent of the railroad industry’s business and employ about 92 percent of all railroad workers. Equipped with nearly 28.000 locomotive units, about 16.000 passenger cars, and about 1.5 million freight cars, they transported more than 2.6 billion tons of freight and nearly 300 million passengers in 1968. Em ployment and earnings data for jobs on Class I line-haul railroads are used in this chapter to illus trate employment and earnings throughout the entire railroad industry. Of the various transportation services provided by the rail roads, the shipment of commodi ties, such as coal, ore, grain, lum ber, and manufactured products, account for most railroad revenue and employment. Passenger ser vice also is important, although it has declined substantially dur ing the past 20 years. Other rail road services include mail and express. Railroad workers are employed in every State except Hawaii and in both large and small commu nities, but the greatest numbers work at terminal points where the railroads maintain their cen tral offices, freight yards, and maintenance and repair shops. The metropolitan area of Chica go, where the great eastern and western railroad systems meet, is the hub of the Nation’s railroad network and has more railroad workers than any other area. Other places where particularly large numbers of railroad workers are employed are areas around New York City, Los Angeles, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Cleve land, and St. Louis. “ Railroad towns,” such as Altoona, Pa., and Roseville, Calif., where locomo tive and car shops are located, also have relatively large con centrations of railroad workers. R ailroad O ccupations The work force of the railroad industry can be divided into five main groups— employees who (1) operate trains, (2) perform communications, station, and of fice work, (3) build and maintain locomotives, cars, and other roll ing stock, (4) build and maintain tracks, structures, and other rail road property, and (5) handle luggage, prepare and serve food, and provide other personal serv ices to passengers. In 1968, 94 percent of the workers in railroad jobs were men. Most women em ployed by the railroads do office work. Chart 34 shows the number of employees in some of the princi pal railroad occupations. Other occupations in which large num- Eroploym ent In Selected R ailroad Occupations THOUSANDS OF WORKERS, 1968 20 40 60 80 100 TRAIN, ENGINE, & YARD SERVICE BRAKEMEN CONDUCTORS LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS LOCOMOTIVE FIREMEN OFFICE, COM M UNICATION, & STATION CLERICAL WORKERS TELEGRAPHERS. TELEPHONERS, & TOWERMEN STATION AGENTS MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT CARMEN MACHINISTS ELECTRICAL WORKERS HELPERS (ALL SKILLED TRADES) GANG FOREMEN AND LEADERS SHEET METAL WORKERS APPRENTICES (ALL SKILLED TRADES) BOILERMAKERS BLACKSMITHS MAINTENANCE OF WAY & STRUCTURES TRUCKMEN & GANG FOREMEN SIGNAL DEPARTMENT WORKERS BRIDGE & BUILDING WORKERS PORTABLE EQUIPMENT OPERATORS & HELPERS SOURCE: WAGE STATISTICS OF CLASS 1 RAILROADS IN 745 746 bers of workers are employed, but not shown on the chart, range from unskilled laundry and clean ing jobs to professional positions such as accountant, engineer, and statistician. (Information about some of these jobs is given else where in the Handbook.) The workers directly engaged in running the trains are known as “ operating employees.” They represent more than one-fourth of all railroad workers. Class I line-haul railroads employed ap proximately 165,000 operating employees in 1968. In this group are locomotive engineers, fire men, conductors, brakemen, and, on some passenger trains, bag gagemen. These men work to gether as train crews, either op erating trains out on the “ run” or operating trains at the ter minals and railroad yards where freight is loaded and unloaded, freight cars are received and switched, and trains are broken up and put together. Other op erating employees who work in the yards include switchtenders, who assist conductors (or fore men) and brakemen (or switch men) by throwing the track switches, and hostlers, who fuel locomotives, check their operat ing condition, and deliver them to the engine crews. A large group of railroad work ers, about one-fourth of all those employed in the industry, con sists of communications, station, and office employees who regu late the movement of trains and handle the business affairs of the railroads. In 1968, Class I linehaul railroads employed about 150,000 persons in these jobs. Communications are handled by dispatchers who coordinate the movement of trains and issue train orders, and by telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen who either pass train orders and other instructions to the train crews or execute them by setting signals OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK and track switches. At all sta tions, agents are in charge of the railroad stations business affairs. Railroad clerks work in stations and company offices where they may do secretarial and other kinds of office work, assist station agents, deal with customers, sell tickets, tend baggage rooms, keep records, and perform related tasks. Also included in this group of rail road workers are claims investiga tors, accountants, lawyers, motor vehicle operators, partolmen, and watchmen. More than one-fifth of all rail road workers are employed in railroad yards, carshops, and en gine houses where they maintain and repair locomotives, cars, and other railroad rolling stock. Class I line-haul roads employed about 132,000 workers in this group in 1968. Carmen perform a variety of repair and maintenance tasks necessary to keep railroad freight and passenger cars in good oper ating condition. Electrical work ers, machinists, boilermakers, blacksmiths, and sheet metal workers also are employed in car shops. A considerably smaller group of railroad workers, about onesixth of the total, maintains and constructs tracks, bridges, sta tions, signals, and other railroad property. The Class I line-haul railroads employed about 89,000 in work of this kind in 1968. Trackmen and other maintenance-of-way workers maintain, construct, and repair tracks and roadbeds. Bridge and building mechanics construct and main tain bridges, tunnels, and many other kinds of structures along the right of way. Signal workers are responsible for installing the railroad’s vast network of train and crossing signals and for main taining it in working order. Another considerably smaller group of railroad workers pro vides personal services to passen gers at stations and aboard trains. With 6,400 employees in 1968, it is by far the smallest of the five major railroad occupa tional groups. It includes Pull man conductors who are in charge of sleeping and parlor car service on most trains, as well as porters and attendants who perform many kinds of personal service for passengers. This group also includes cooks and waiters who prepare and serve food, and red caps who work in and around railroad stations where they han dle luggage and otherwise assist passengers in boarding and leav ing trains. (Additional informa tion about cooks and waiters is given elsewhere in the Hand book.) T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent For most jobs, particularly those on the trains, in the yards, and around the stations, training is received on the job. The new employee learns by working and receiving instructions from ex perienced men. For some office and maintenance jobs, training may be obtained in high schools and vocational schools. Home study courses on railroading also are available. In addition, univer sities and technical schools offer courses in railway engineering, transportation, traffic manage ment, and other subjects valuable to professional and technical workers. New employees in some occu pations— principally those con nected with train or engine serv ice— start as “ extra board” men, that is, their names are placed on an “ extra list” for individual oc cupations. From these lists, they are called to fill vacancies that arise due to vacations, days off, or illness of men on regular jobs. They also may be called for extra RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS work because of an increase in railroad traffic. As regular job assignments become available and as the extra board workers gain experience and seniority, they are assigned to regular po sitions. The time spent on extra board work varies with the type of job and the number of avail able openings. In some cases, workers may not receive regular assignments for a number of years. Apprenticeship programs are limited chiefly to trainees in the railroad shop crafts. Many of these programs are planned and operated jointly by the compa nies and the railroad workers’ unions. Of the several thousand men who were taking this kind of training in 1968, the majority were “ regular” apprentices, usu ally high school graduates with no previous work experience, who were working and receiving in struction in their chosen trades for a 4-year period. Others were “ helper” apprentices, men having some previous experience as rail road workers, who were receiving the same kind of training, usually for a 3-year period. Applicants who have a high school education or its equivalent are preferred by railroad compa nies for most kinds of nonprofes sional positions. Good physical condition is required for most jobs, and almost all large rail roads require applicants to pass physical examinations before they are hired; in some jobs, phy sical examinations are required periodically. Excellent hearing and eyesight are essential for train and engine service jobs, and color blindness is an absolute bar to employment in work involving the interpretation of railroad signals. Promotions of qualified work ers to jobs covered by union-man agement agreements are made on the basis of seniority. Most job 747 vacancies are listed on a bulletin board, and all workers interested may “ bid” for them. The job goes to the qualified applicant whose length of service places him high est on the seniority list. Often, before workers can qualify for promotion, they must pass writ ten and performance tests. For occupations in train and engine service, there are well-established avenues of promotion. Engineers usually are chosen from the ranks of the firemen, and conduc tors from the list of brakemen. A railroad worker’s seniority usually entitles him to promotion only for job openings which occur within a limited area or “ senior ity district” of the railroad sys tem for which he works. In some cases, seniority rights may apply only to one shop, locality, or of fice. Among train and engine personel, seniority rights may be limited either to road (freight and/or passenger) service or yard service. In such cases, work ers may bid only for positions in the particular type of service in which they have been employed. The worker’s seniority also de termines how much choice he may have about his working con ditions. A beginning telegrapher, for instance, may have to work several years on a night shift in an out-of-the-way location before he accumulates enough seniority to get an assignment without these disadvantages. (Later sections of this chapter contain more complete informa tion about the training and other qualifications for selected occu pations in the railroad industry.) Em ploym ent O utlook The longrun decline in railroad employment is expected to con tinue, but at a decreasing rate in the immediate years ahead. Tech nological innovation and chang ing patterns of transportation and production have resulted in a substantial decline in railroad employment in recent years. Be tween 1955 and 1968, employ ment in Class I line-haul rail roads dropped 59 percent, from nearly 1.1 million to 591,000. De velopments such as the use of larger, more powerful diesel loco motives and the extensive use of machines for roadway upkeep have had a considerable employ ment impact. The railroad work force also declined as competition from other modes of transporta tion— notably a u t o m o b i l e s , trucks, buses, airplanes, and pipe lines— brought a steep drop in railroad passenger travel and relatively little growth in freight traffic. Most of the factors which have led to a reduced employment in the past will continue to influ ence railroad employment dur ing the decade ahead. In addi tion, mergers of connecting or parallel railroads could reduce further railroad employment by eliminating facilities, such as those at terminals, and by com bining accounting and other func tions. Some mergers have occur red in recent years and, on the basis of present developments, other mergers are likely. Despite prospects of declining employment, job opportunities will be available annually for thousands of new railroad work ers. The railroads have one of the largest work forces in American industry, with a high proportion of older workers. Many jobs will become vacant because of retire ments, deaths, promotions to other railroad jobs, and transfers to other fields of work. Retire ments and deaths alone may re sult in tens of thousands of job openings each year during the 1970’s. Future job opportunities for applicants probably will be most 748 numerous in construction and maintenance work along the right-of-way, in operating jobs as brakemen, and in office work. However, because of the season ality of railroad work, and the seniority system under which new workers are furloughed first and recalled last, many new workers will have less than full time employment during the first few years on the job. The number and type of job openings for applicants hired by an individual railroad also will be influenced by the rapidity of the railroad’s adoption of new equip ment and new methods of opera tion, and its geographical loca tion in relation to changing mar keting conditions. There will be a need for professional engineers and skilled personnel capable of maintaining and improving the new mechanical and electrical equipment gradually being intro duced. Opportunities should in crease for industrial engineers and methods analysts as railroads seek better means of utilizing equipment and personnel. The in creasing use of electronic dataprocessing equipment to handle a wide range of railroad account ing and statistical activities will generate a growing demand for programers and other trained specialists. As the railroads con tinue to explore new ways to meet competition, opportunities will arise for specialists in indus trial development and marketing. Railroad freight traffic is ex pected to continue to rise through the 1970’s. The anticipated rise in demand for railroad freight service is based on the assump tion of a high rate of growth in the economy through the 1970’s. The shipment of highway trailers and large containers on railroad flat cars, and the use of larger, special purpose freight cars will increase freight traffic signifi cantly by improving rail carriers’ OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ability to compete more effective ly with other modes of transpor tation. New interest also has been shown in the use of rapid rail transit for intercity and intraur ban passenger movement. Studies of the best methods for moving passengers within and between urban areas are progressing, and may result in a significant re surgence of rail passenger trans portation. Earnings and W orking Conditions Average earnings of railroad workers are higher than those of workers in most manufacturing industries. Employees of Class I line-haul railroads, exclusive of executive and administrative per sonnel, averaged $3.39 an hour and $149.16 a week in 1968, whereas production workers in all manufacturing industries aver aged $3.01 an hour and $122.51 a week. The earnings of individual rail road workers vary greatly be cause of the great variety of their occupations and skill require ments. Geographic differences in wage levels are considerably less than in most other industries, since the wage scales specified in many labor-management con tracts in the railroad industry are identical throughout the country. (Earnings in some of the principal occupations are dis cussed in later sections of this chapter.) Most railroad workers are members of trade unions, and many of the conditions under which they work are regulated by collective bargaining agreements. Contracts between the unions and the railroad companies con tain clauses dealing with wage rates, hours of work, vacation pay, seniority, and oilier matters. (The principal unions represent ing each occupational group are listed in the sections of this chap ter which deal with individual occupations.) The work schedules of railroad employees and the conditions un der which they are paid for over time work depend upon the type of operation in which they are employed. The great majority of railroad employees work at ter minals— in yards, stations, and railroad offices. In 1968, the “ basic” workweek of most work ers in this group was a 5-day week of 40 hours. Premium pay, amounting to time and one-half the regular wage rate, usually was paid for any time worked over 8 hours a day. In freight and passenger road service, the basic workday for train and engine crews is estab lished on an entirely different basis. Generally, when a member of the train or engine crew has covered a specified number of miles, or has worked a certain number of hours— whichever oc curs first— he receives a day’s pay at his regular wage rate. He receives extra pay for any addi tional miles covered or hours worked on that day. The basic hours of employees who serve the needs of passengers aboard trains— dining car cooks and waiters, Pullman porters, and train attendants— are set on a monthly basis. Some workers in these jobs receive time and onehalf pay for hours worked over 184 a month, and those employed on regular assignments are guar anteed at least 174 hours of work a month. Others receive overtime after 240 hours and are guaran teed 205 hours a month, if work ing on regular jobs. Because freight ship pers and the traveling public must be served 24 hours day, the mem bers of train and engine crews, as well as hostlers, telegraphers and telephoners, and station 749 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS agents, often are required to work nights, weekends, and on holidays. Irregular work sched ules are particularly common for extra board workers, since they have no regular assignments and may be called to work any time of the day or night. Some railroad workers, like bridge and building mechanics and certain track and road maintenance workers, are required to work away from home for days at a time. tion for workdays lost because of sickness or injury. Other insurance programs are operated under agreements with trade unions and provide group life insurance to employees and comprehensive hospital and medi cal insurance to these employees and their dependents. Practically all railroad em ployees receive 1 week’s paid va cation after 1 year on the payroll, 2 weeks after 3 years, 3 weeks after 10 years, and 4 weeks after 20 years. On most roads, em ployees receive pay for 8 holidays a year. Under the federally adminis tered Railroad Retirement Act of 1935, all employees having more than 10 years of service in the railroad industry receive pensions upon retirement. They receive full pensions when they reach age 65 and reduced pensions at age 62. Those who have worked for the railroads at least 30 years may retire on a reduced pension at age 60. Employees having 10 years service or more who be come disabled and are unable to work, and dependent wives and husbands of railroad workers who have died also receive pensions. In 1968, the average pension paid to railroad workers who retired because of age was about $155 a month. Another Federal law, the Rail road Unemployment Insurance Act, provides benefits for railroad workers who become unemployed. Unemployment benefits are paid for a period up to 26 weeks, but workers having 10 years service or more can receive benefits for a longer period. Under the Railroad Unemploy ment Insurance Act, railroad workers also receive compensa Additional information about occupations in the railroad indus try can be obtained from railroad offices in your locality. General information about the railroad industry can be obtained from: Sources of A dditional Inform ation Association of American Rail roads, American Railroads Building, 1920 L St. NW., Washington, D.C, 20036. LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS Diesel engineer checks track conditions by radio. (D.O.T. 910.383) N ature of th e W ork The engineer is responsible for running the locomotive safely and efficiently. He operates the throt tle, air brakes, and other con trols, and he supervises the work of the fireman (helper) who may work in the cab with him. Engi neers work in railroad yards or on the road in passenger or freight service. The yard engineer operates the locomotive or switch-engine, which is used to move freight and passenger cars when trains are being put together before a run and broken up after a run, or when cars are being switched for loading or unloading. The engi neer in passenger or freight serv ice operates the locomotive which moves trains over the road ac- cording to the train orders for each run or any instructions re ceived en route through the con ductor, the wayside signal sys tem, or by train radio. Before and after each run, the engineer checks on the condition of the locomotive and either sees that minor adjustments are made on the spot or reports to the en gine foreman mechanical defects needing attention. While operat ing his locomotive, he must ob serve track signals and comply with speed restrictions at all hours and in all weather condi tions. T o do this he must be thor oughly familiar with the charac teristics of the road over which he is operating. He must be alert constantly, especially for obstruc tions on the track or other emer gencies. In 1968, about 35,400 engineers were employed by Class I linehaul railroads, and a few thou- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 750 sand more were employed by short-line railways and switching and terminal companies. Training , O th er Q ualificatio ns, and A dvancem ent Vacancies in engineer positions generally have been filled by fire men (helpers) who have qualified for promotion. Selection is on a seniority basis. T o qualify, the applicant must pass comprehen sive examinations which deal with the train’s mechanical and electrical equipment, and with fuel economy, safety, timetables, train orders, and other operating rules and regulations. He also must be able to operate any kind of locomotive in service on his road. A newly promoted engineer starts out as an extra board man without any regular assignment. It may be several years before he receives such an assignment. Dur ing this period, he works on tem porary assignments whenever an engineer is needed. An experi enced engineer may advance to a supervisory position, such as foreman of engines for his road. Engineers are required to take physical examinations at regular intervals. They must have good eyesight and hearing. If they fail at any time to meet all of the physical standards, they may be restricted to working as engineers only in certain types of service, or they may be transferred to other kinds of work where phy sical standards are less exacting. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment of locomotive en gineers is expected to decline slowly during the 1970’s. How ever, openings will arise from the need to fill positions left vacant by engineers who retire, die, or otherwise leave the occupation. The number of engineers em ployed by the railroads has been declining for some years because of the decrease in railroad pas senger business and increasing multiple-unit operation of diesel locomotives. Introduction of technological innovations, such as the use of remote and automatic ally controlled devices for freight car classification and signal con trol and other changes in equip ment and operating methods, were also important factors in lower employment levels. The total number of engineers em ployed by Class I line-haul rail roads dropped from about 44,000 in 1955 to 35,400 in 1968. However, this decline may be somewhat slower in the 1970’s if rapid transit rail systems are developed on a large scale. Earnings and W orking Conditions The earnings of engineers de pend on the class of locomotive operated and the kind of service in which the engineer is em ployed. Engineers in yard service for Class I line-haul railroads (in cluding extra board men) earned, on the average, about $925 a month in 1968. In road freight service, engineers averaged $1,100 a month. The earnings of pas senger service engineers averaged about $1,090 a month in 1968. In 1968, the standard work week at straight-time rates for yard engineers varied from 5 days on some railroads and railroad divisions to 7 days on others. All yard engineers worked basic 8hour days with time and onehalf paid for work over 8 hours. The basic unit of work for road freight and passenger engineers is 100 miles. Under certain cir cumstances, they may be paid on an hourly basis or on a mileshour basis. On many roads, the amount a road engineer may earn in a sin gle month is governed by mileage limitations agreed upon by the unions and the railroad compa nies. Whenever an engineer on one of these roads reaches the maximum number of miles he is permitted to operate a locomo tive during a month, his assign ment for the rest of the month is taken over by another engineer— usually an extra board man. The engineer in road service, even on regular assignments, of ten is scheduled to work nights, weekends, and h o l i d a y s at straight-time rates. Like other workers in road service, he must often “ lay over” at the end of a run before he makes the return trip back to his home terminal. The assignments of engineers on the extra board may be very irregular because these men may be called to work at any time of the day or night, and the amount of traffic varies from one season to another on many roads. Extra board engineers are likely to have less work and lower earnings than those men having regular assignments. On all major railroads, wages and the conditions under which engineers work are agreed upon by employers and unions. The great majority of engineers are represented by the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers (Ind.). Some are represented by the United Transportation Union. LOCOMOTIVE FIREMEN (HELPERS) (D.O.T. 910.383) N atu re of th e W ork The l o c o m o t i v e fireman (helper) works with the engineer RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS either in the railroad yards or in road service. At the beginning of his run, the fireman (helper) checks to make sure that the locomotive is supplied with the fuel, sand, and water needed for the run, that the engine is in proper working order, and that the flagging equipment, classifi cation markers, and tools needed by the engine crew are on hand and ready to use. During the run, he makes mechanical and electri cal adjustments as needed. On passenger trains, he also is re sponsible for operating the equip ment which supplies heat to the train. From his position at the left side of the cab, the fireman (helper) assists the engineer by acting as lookout for obstructions on tracks and at road crossings, and by checking wayside signals which indicate the speed at which the train is to proceed. In addi tion, he inspects the train as it rounds curves because this view of the train enables him to spot smoke, sparks, fire, and other signs of defective equipment. Class I line-haul railroads em ployed about 18,000 firemen in 1968. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent For the relatively few firemen (helper) positions being filled at present, most railroads prefer that applicants be at least 21 years of age and not over 35. A high school education or its equivalent is desired. Good health is important, and firemen must be able to pass periodic physical examinations. Standards for eye sight and hearing are particularly high. A beginning fireman first makes a series of trial trips in the railroad yard or on the road. On these trips, he works under 751 the direction of an experienced engineer or fireman who instructs him about his future duties and about railroad rules and regula tions. This training period lasts a few days on some roads and as long as 3 weeks on others. Af ter the newly hired fireman has satisfactorily demonstrated his ability on the trial trips, and af ter he has passed examinations on railroad rules and regulations, his name is placed on the fire men’s extra board and he be comes subject to call for tem porary work assignments. He may remain on extra board work up to several years before he ob tains his first regular assignment. On some roads, beginning assign ments are in yard service, and the fireman advances first to road freight service and then to road passenger service. On other rail roads, firemen usually remain either in yard service or in road service throughout their railroad careers. Firemen who have sufficient experience and seniority— usually at least 3 or 4 years— can become eligible for promotion to engineer by passing qualifying examina tions covering the mechanical and electrical equipment on trains, air brake systems, fuel economy, timetables, train orders, and other operating rules and regula tions. As engineers are needed, qualified firemen who have the longest seniority are placed on the engineers’ extra board. Em ploym ent Outlook Job openings for work as loco motive firemen (helpers) have been extremely limited since May 1964, the effective date of a com pulsory arbitration award de signed to eventually eliminate all but a relatively few firemen (helper) positions in road freight and yard locomotive service. Fire man (helper) positions on loco motives in passenger service were not affected by this award, nor were any positions of firemen (helpers) for any class of loco motive service operating where State law requires the employ ment of firemen on locomotives. The national arbitration award expired in April 1966, and since no general agreement had been reached between the parties in the dispute by early 1969, the outlook for job opportunities in this occupation cannot be antici pated with any degree of cer tainty, although it appears that employment opportunities for new entrants will continue to be minimal. Earnings and W orking Conditions The earnings of firemen depend on the class of locomotive on which they work, and the type of service for which the locomotive is operated. Firemen in yard serv ice for Class I line-haul railroads (including extra board men) av eraged $730 a month in 1968. Freight service firemen averaged $860 monthly on freight trains. Road passenger firemen averaged $960 monthly. In 1968, firemen in yard serv ice worked a basic 8-hour day and 40-hour week, and 1*4 times the basic hourly rate was paid for work beyond these hours. On many roads, the amount that fire men in road service could earn in a single month was governed by mileage limitations agreed upon by the unions and the railroad companies. Whenever a fireman en one of these roads reached the maximum number of miles he was permitted to cover in a month, his assignment for the rest of the month was taken over by another fireman— usually a man on the extra board. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 752 Firemen often must work at night and on weekends and holi days because train schedules re quire 24-hour-a-day service. Road service often requires that they be away from their home stations for varying periods of time. Ir regular working hours are par ticularly common among men on the extra board and in road freight service. Extra board men tend to have less work and there fore lower incomes than firemen with regular assignments. On many roads, the amount of work varies from one season of the year to another. Workers in this occupation on all major roads are covered by union contracts. The great ma jority of firemen are represented by the United Transportation Union. Some are members of the Brotherhood of Locomotive En gineers (Ind.). cal breakdowns while the train is on its run, or for defective cars to be set out on the nearest siding. At stops, he signals to the engi neer the proper time for deparure. As the superior officer on the train, the conductor takes charge in any emergency that may occur while the train is on its run, and all persons employed on it are subject to his instructions. On freight trains, the conduc tor keeps a record of the contents and destination of each car, and sees that freight cars are picked up and set out along the route. On passenger trains, the conduc tor collects tickets and cash fares. Yard conductors, often called “ yard foremen,” direct the work of the switching crews who put together and break up trains. In mechanized yards, yard conduc tors operate consoles that electri cally control the alinement of track switches. CONDUCTORS Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent (D.O.T. 198.168) N ature of th e W ork Conductors are responsible for seeing that railroad trains are moved according to train orders or other instructions. Freight and passenger train conductors are the “ captains” of their trains. They are responsible for the safe ty of their passengers and car goes, and they supervise the work of the train and engine crews. Before a freight or passenger train leaves the terminal, the con ductor receives the train orders from the dispatcher and confers with other crew members to make sure they u n d e r s t a n d the orders. During the run, he sees that the cars in the train are in spected periodically and arranges either for the repair of mechani Openings for conductors are filled on a seniority basis by pro motion of qualified brakemen. To qualify for promotion, a man usually must have several years’ experience as a brakeman and pass examinations covering sig nals, air brakes, timetables, op erating rules, and related sub jects. On some roads, those who have qualified for promotion first are given temporary assignments as conductors while they still are working as brakemen. On other roads, brakemen promoted to conductor positions are put on the extra board where they are given temporary assignments as men are needed. In either case, as regular conductor assignments become available, they are as signed to the men having the greatest seniority. On most roads, conductors in Conductor uses radio phone to talk with operator at wayside station. yard service and in road service have separate seniority lists, and they usually remain in one of these two t y p e s of service throughout their careers. A few roads, however, start conductors on yard assignments and then move them to freight service and finally to passenger service. The conductor is the member of the train crew who has the most direct contact with the pub lic, and it is important that he be able to act effectively as the railroad’s representative. Conduc tors who show special ability of this kind may advance to man agerial positions such as train master. Em ploym ent O utlook There will be a moderate num ber of opportunities for brake- RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS men to be promoted to jobs as conductors during the 1970’s. Conductors compose one of the oldest age groups in the Nation’s work force, and job openings will develop to replace those who re tire, die, or leave railroading for some other reason. The number of conductors on Class I line-haul railroads de clined from about 45,200 in 1955 to 38,000 in 1968, owing to the decline of passenger traffic, the trend t o w a r d longer freight trains, and the mechanization of yard operations. Although more yard work will be speeded up by the use of the new devices, such as electric and electronic car classification systems and communications equipment, little change is expected in the number of conductors during the 1970’s as a result of the expected growth in railroad freight traffic. Earnings and W orking Conditions The type of service in which they are employed, and the num ber of cars in their trains deter mine the basic earnings of con ductors. In 1968, yard conductors employed by Class I line-haul railroads earned an average of $830 a month. In road freight service, conductors average $1,000 monthly. The average for pas senger conductors was $960 and for assistant passenger conduc tors and ticket collectors $900 a month. In 1968, conductors in yard service worked a basic 8-hour day and 5-day week. For work beyond these hours, they were paid 1% times their basic wage rates. The pay received by passenger and freight conductors is based on a combination of miles traveled and hours worked. Under this prac tice, these conductors may re ceive more than their basic day’s pay for a trip. 753 Like all other road crew mem bers, conductors in freight or pas senger service often are sched uled to work nights, weekends, and on holidays. Conductors on extra board work often have ir regular hours. They also may work less time than conductors with regular assignments and, therefore, earn less. Conductors on every major railroad are covered by union contracts negoitiated by the United Transportation Union. BRAKEMEN (D.O.T. 910.364 and .884) N atu re of the W ork Brakemen work with the con ductors as members of the train crews on freight and passenger trains and in railroad yards. One brakeman (or “ flagman” ) gener ally is stationed in the rear of each freight and passenger train. His duties include seeing that the proper flags, warning lights, and other signals are displayed at the rear of the train to protect it while it is in motion and at stops. Most freight and passenger trains carry at least one other brakeman stationed in the front end of the train; his duties include setting out signals to protect the front of the train at unexpected stops. Before a train leaves the sta tion, the brakemen in road serv ice check the air brake equip ment on the cars and see that tools and other equipment are in their proper places. During a run, they make frequent visual inspections of their train from positions at both the head and rear end of the train, looking for smoke, sparks or other indica tions of sticking brakes, over heated car bearings, or other equipment malfunctions. At stops during the run, they make “ walk ing inspections” of the cars in the train and, when necessary, couple and uncouple cars and air hose and assist the conductor in setting out and switching cars at industrial sidings. They are re sponsible for regulating the airconditioning, lighting, and heat ing equipment in passenger cars. Brakemen in passenger service (also known as “ trainmen” ) sometimes assist the conductor by collecting tickets and gener ally looking after the needs of the passengers. Yard brakemen (frequently called “ switchmen” or “ helpers” ) assist in putting to gether and breaking up trains by throwing switches, coupling and uncoupling freight and passenger cars, and applying or releasing handbrakes on cars to control car movement. Brakeman signals engineer. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 754 Yard brakemen may advance to yard conductors; usually they stay in yard service throughout their railroad careers. On some roads, brakemen in road service may move from freight service to passenger work, usually consid ered more desirable because it is less strenuous than freight service and sometimes involves shorter working hours. When they have acquired suf ficient seniority, brakemen in road service may advance to con ductors. Less frequently, they take positions as baggagemen. Conductor positions nearly al ways are filled by promoting brakemen who have qualified by passing written and oral examina tions covering subjects such as signals, timetable, brake systems, and operating rules. Promotions are made according to seniority rules, and it may require 10 years or more for a brakeman to get his first assignment as a con ductor. E m ploym ent O utlook Several thousand opportunities for new workers to obtain jobs as brakemen will develop through the 1970’s, almost entirely as a result of retirements and deaths and because of promotions to conductor and transfers to other work. The number of brakemen em ployed by Class I line-haul rail roads declined from about 103,000 in 1955 to 74,000 in 1968. During the early 1970’s, work in railroad yards is expected to be come increasingly mechanized, using automatic car retarders, au tomatic switching, and other de vices. These developments are expected to result in a further decline in the employment of brakemen during this period. Earnings and W orking Conditions The number of cars in the train and the type of service in which he is employed determine the earnings of a freight brakeman. The average monthly earnings of yard brakemen employed by Class I line-haul railroads were $700 in 1968. Brakemen on freight trains averaged $860 a month. The monthly average for passenger train brakemen was $840 in 1968. In 1968, brakemen in yard service had a 5-day, 40-hour basic workweek, and for work beyond this they were paid 1 ^ times their regular hourly rates. In ad dition to their basic day’s pay, brakemen in road, passenger, or freight service earned extra pay under certain conditions; for ex ample, when they traveled more than 100 miles on a freight run or 150 miles on a passenger run. Like other members of train and engine crews, brakemen often are scheduled to work nights, weekends, and holidays. Brakemen who are on the extra board and have been employed by the railroad for only a short time have less steady work and lower earnings than men having regular assignments; and they also may work more irregular hours. Yard and freight brakemen face greater accident risks than most other railroad workers. Brakemen are represented by t h e U n i t e d Transportation Union. TELEGRAPHERS, TELEPHONERS, AND TOWERMEN (D.O.T. 236.588 and 910.782) N atu re of the W ork Telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen control the movement of trains according to instruc tions issued by the train dis patchers. Telegraphers and tele phones receive train orders from the dispatchers and pass them on the train crews. Towermen oper ate the controls which throw track switches and set signals to route traffic according to train schedules or special orders. To some extent, the three jobs are interchangeable. For example, many towermen also act as teleg raphers and telephoners in trans mitting orders, and some teleg raphers and telephoners spend part of their time operating sig nals. Telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen work either in towers located in yards, termin als, and other important junction points along the railroad’s right of way. Often, at the larger fa cilities and signal towers, a chief telegrapher, a chief telephoner, or wire chief, or a chief towerman (train director) is in charge of the work. Telegraphers and telephoners may transmit information about train orders, as well as other types of communications relating to the railroad’s business, by Morse Code, radio telephone, telephone, and teletype or a sim ilar device. Morse Code, once used for this purpose, generally has been replaced by the tele phone. At some stations, teleg raphers may sell tickets or per form clerical work in addition to their other duties. Class I line-haul railroads em ployed about 13,200 workers in the telegrapher, telephoner, and towerman group in 1968. In eluded in this group were about 1,000 chief telegraphers and tele phoners, 300 train directors, and about 4,200 workers who com bined telegraphing and telephon ing with clerical duties in stations. Short-line railways em ployed several hundred more of these workers. RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and Advancem ent Most telegraphers, telephones, and towermen receive their train ing on the job, working under the supervision of experienced teleg raphers, station agents, or towermen. They are instructed about their future responsibilities, in cluding operating rules, train orders, station operators, and the Morse Code. On most roads, trainees must pass examinations on train operating rules, as well as practical tests on other duties relating to their future assign ments before they can qualify for telegraphers, telephones, or tow ermen. Most roads place newly quali fied workers on the extra board, where they serve on temporary assignments as men are needed and, after acquiring sufficient seniority, bid for regular assign ments as telegraphers, towermen, clerk-telegraphers, and station agent telegraphers. Most railroads prefer appli cants for beginning positions to be high school graduates between 21 and 30 years of age. Appli cants must pass physical exam inations which have strict eye sight and hearing requirements. A man with the necessary qualifications may advance to station agent or train dispatcher. 755 dropped from about 24,400 in 1955 to about 13,200 in 1968. The mechanization of yard oper ations, the use of dispatcher-totrain radio hookups and other new communications devices, and the extension of centralized traf fic control and other automatic signaling systems are reducing the number of workers needed to help control the movement of trains. Earnings and W orking Conditions The average straight-time hourly earnings of clerk-telegra phers and clerk-telephoners on Class I line-haul railroads in 1968 were $3.18; telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen averaged $3.21. Chief telegraphers and telephoners and train directors averaged, respectively, $3.61 and $4.32 an hour. Telegraphers worked a basic 40-hour week of five 8-hour days in 1968, with time and one-half paid for overtime. Under Federal law, telegraphers, whose duties involve the movement of trains, are prohibited from working more than 9 hours in any one day, except in emergencies. Telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen are members of the Brotherhood of Railway, Airline and Steamship Clerks. Em ploym ent O utlook There will be some opportuni ties for new workers to become student operators each year through the 1970’s. The open ings that occur will result pri marily from the need to replace experienced workers who retire or die. Employment of Class I linehaul railroads in the telegrapher, telephone, and towerman group STATION AGENTS (D.O.T. 211.468 and 910.138) N atu re of th e W ork Station agents are the rail roads’ official representatives in dealing with the public at rail road stations. Most agents work at small stations where they sell tickets, check baggage, calculate freight and express charges, load and unload freight and express packages, and perform many other tasks. They also may serve as telegraphers and telephoners, receiving and delivering train orders and other messages per taining to the company’s busi ness. At stations where super visory agents are employed, some of this work may be done by rail way clerks, telegraphers, and other employees working under the stations agent’s supervision. In major freight and passenger stations employing many rail road employees, the duties of the station agent are primarily ad ministrative and supervisory. About 10,900 station agents were employed by Class I linehaul railroads in 1968. About 9,200 worked in small stations (7,100 of them acting as teleg raphers and telephoners in addi tion to their other duties), and 1,600 had supervisory positions at major stations. The short-line railways employed several hun dred other agents, chiefly at small stations. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Experienced telegraphers usu ally become agents in small sta tions or assistant agents in larger ones. In addition to the neces sary seniority, an agent should have a knowledge of train sched ules and routes, rates, bookkeep ing methods, and other railroad business transacted at wayside stations. Station agents may advance from small to larger stations or from assistant agents to agents. They may be promoted to super visory positions such as stationmaster or inspector. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 756 E m ploym ent O utlook CLERKS A limited number of opportuni ties for assignment to station ag ent jobs will arise each year through the 1970’s, principally because of the need to replace agents who retire or die. For sev eral years the number of station agents employed by Class I linehaul railroads has been declining. Between 1955 and 1968, employ ment dropped from about 19,600 to 10,900, principally because some local passenger and freight services were consolidated or dis continued. It is expected that the railroads will consolidate or dis continue some additional pas senger and freight services over the next decade, resulting in the employment of fewer station ag ents. However, if rapid transit rail systems are developed on a large scale, this trend may be slowed. (D.O.T. 219.388 and .488; 222.368 through .687; 229.368; 231.682 ; 249.368; 910.368; 910.688; 913.168; and 919.138) Earnings and W orking Conditions N atu re of the W ork Railroad clerks handle the huge volume of paper work neces sary to account for each piece of rolling stock, and to transact business with freight shippers and the traveling public. They work in railroad stations, freight houses, yards, terminals, and company offices. Clerks make up the largest single group of rail road employees— Class I linehaul railroads employed about 93,000 of these workers in 1968 and short-line railways, thou sands more. The majority of railroad clerks — 56,000 on Class I line-haul railroads in 1968— do clerical work connected with business transactions such as collecting bills, investigating complaints, adjusting claims, tracing ship ments, compiling statistics, sell ing tickets, and bookkeeping. T o day, much of this work is done by clerks who utilize computers and other electronic business ma chines. In small offices and sta tions, one man may perform du ties related to several of these jobs, but in large offices with many employees, each clerk usu ally handles a specific job. A second group, totaling 16,000 in 1968, consists of secre taries, stenographers, typists, and operators of calculating, book keeping, and other kinds of office machines. They perform duties similar to those of workers in the same kinds of jobs in other industries. (Information about the nature of the duties of em ployees in these clerical jobs may be found elsewhere in the Handbook.) The earnings of station agents vary. In 1968, agents who also served as telegraphers and tele p h on es on Class I line-haul roads averaged $3.26 an hour; other agents at small stations who did not act as telegraphers averaged $3.48 an hour. Agents at major stations earned a straight-time average of $4.27 an hour. Agents are paid either by the hour or by the month; those in nonsupervisory positions had a basic 40-hour workweek, and time and one-half was paid for overtime work. Most agents who handled the business of the Rail way Express Agency received, in addition to their regular pay, a commission on the business transacted. Station agents, except for some supervisory agents, are members of the Brotherhood of Railway and Steamship Clerks. System operations centers revolutionize control of railroad activity. RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS About 9,000 other railroad clerks were in higher grade “ sen ior” jobs involving more respon sible or technical work. Some of the clerks in this group prepare the statistics on employment, traffic, and other matters relat ing to railroad operations, re quired periodically by the Fed eral Government. Others, called “ cashiers,” deal with customers on matters such as uncollected freight bills. Still others do ac counting work related to their companies’ use of terminals and other facilities owned jointly by several roads. A fourth group are the super visory and chief clerks, who num bered about 11,500. They not only supervise the work of other rail road clerks and assume respon sibility for the clerical activities of entire departments, but they may be called on to discuss high ly complex problems related to the business end of railroad operations. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Beginning railroad clerk posi tions often are filled by hiring newcomers or by promoting workers such as office boys or messengers. A high school edu cation usually is required, and clerical aptitude tests sometimes are given. Railroads prefer work ers who have had training or some experience in working with figures. In some clerical positions — yard clerk for instance— begin ning workers on some roads are assigned to extra board work, where they work on temporary assignments until regular assign ments become available. In many offices, a railroad clerk may advance to assistant chief clerk or to a higher admin istrative position. Some clerks may move from routine jobs to 757 work requiring special knowledge of subjects such as accounting or statistics, and this work may lead eventually to positions as audi tors or statisticians. Railroad clerks also may be promoted to traffic agents, buyers, storekeep ers, or ticket and station agents. Airlines, and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express and Station Employees represents the railroad clerks on all major roads. SHOP TRADES Em ploym ent O utlook Several thousand job oppor tunities for new railroad clerks will be available each year through the 1970’s to replace workers who retire, die, or trans fer to other fields of work. Employment in this occupa tional group has been declining. In 1955, Class I line-haul rail roads employed about 146,000 railroad clerks; by 1968, their number was 93,000. A continued decrease in the employment of these workers is expected during the 1970’s, as electronic business machines do more of the work formerly done by railroad clerks in processing freight bills and r e c o r d i n g information about freight car movements and freight yard operations. Earnings and W orking Conditions Employees of Class I line-haul railroads who had clerical jobs involving work such as billing op erations, filing, and inventory control, received average straighttime pay of $3.25 an hour in 1968. Secretaries, stenographers, typists, and office machine oper ators averaged $3.29 an hour; senior clerks and specialists av eraged $3.75 an hour; and super visory and chief clerks, $4.00 an hour. Railroad clerks in nonsupervisory positions work a basic 8-hour day and 40-hour week, with time and one-half paid for overtime. The Brotherhood of Railway, N atu re of th e W ork The skilled workers employed by the railroads to build, main tain, and repair rolling stock and other equipment may be classi fied in six main “ shop crafts” : Carmen (D.O.T. 622.381), ma chinists, electrical workers, sheetmetal workers, boilermakers, and blacksmiths. They work in rail way shops, enginehouses, yards, and terminals. In 1968, about 86,000 journey men mechanics in these six crafts were employed by Class I linehaul railways. Working with them were 6,500 gang foremen and leaders, 8,700 helpers, and 3,600 apprentices. Several thou sand more workers in the same occupations were employed by short-line railways. Carmen, who numbered about 47,700 on Class I line-haul rail roads in 1968, are by far the larg est group of shop craftsmen. They do many different kinds of work, since they build, maintain, and repair railroad freight and passenger cars. They also work on locomotives and small ve hicles such as the motor-driven cars used in transporting work ers along the tracks. Some car men are skilled in carpentry and can use power equipment as well as handtools. A few are skilled only in specialties such as up holstering, car painting, and pattemmaking. Many carmen work as car inspectors in the railroad yards and stations, examining OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 758 craftsmen employed in the shops include blacksmiths, molders, sta tionary firemen, oilers, and sta tionary engineers (steam). (More information about the nature of the work of most of the above shop trades may be found else where in the Handbook.) T rain in g , O th er Q ualificatio ns, and A dvancem ent Apprenticeship training is a common way of entering the shop trades, although many workers are upgraded from the ranks of helpers and laborers, and others enter the industry as shop crafts men. Shopworker checks for flaws in locomotive axles. cars for defects that might lead to accidents or delays. Machinists are the second larg est group of skilled shop work ers. About 18,000 were employed in 1968, maintaining and over hauling locomotives and machin ery used by the railroads. Elec trical workers, who numbered about 12,000 in 1968, install and maintain wiring and electrical equipment in locomotives, pas senger cars, and cabooses, as well as in buildings owned by the rail roads. (Another group of elec trical workers— nearly 2,100 in 1968— employed mainly away from the shop, lay power and communications lines for equip ment used by the railroads.) Sheet-metal workers, numbering about 5,600 in 1968, install and maintain light sheet-metal parts and do pipefitting on locomotives and other equipment. Boilermak ers, of whom there were about 1,600 in 1968, maintain and re pair stationary boilers, tanks, and other parts made of sheet iron or heavy sheet steel. Other Apprentices are trained in all branches of t h e i r respective trades, according to standards which in many cases are included in agreements negotiated by the shopmen’s trade unions and the railroad companies. Upon com pletion of their training, they are certified as qualified journeymen. Beginners, who have no previous experience in their chosen trades, take this training as regular ap prentices, generally for a 4-year period. Men who have at least 2 years of previous work experience train as helper apprentices for a 3-year period. To become a regular appren tice, the applicant must be at least 16 and not over 21 years of age. The railroads prefer that helpers entering the 3-year ap prentice training be no older than 35. On some roads, applicants for regular apprentice training are required to pass mathematical and mechanical aptitude tests. Workers in the shop trades may advance to supervisory po sitions as foremen in shops, enginehouses and powerplants. RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS Em ploym ent O utlook There will be several hundred opportunities for new workers to obtain jobs either as helpers or as apprentices in the shop crafts each year during the next decade. In 1968, apprenticeship programs operated by Class I line-haul railroads were training about 3,600 new workers, 3,400 of them as regular apprentices. Openings in the skilled shop crafts will result primarily from the need to replace experienced craftsmen who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. The number of journeymen me chanics employed in these crafts declined from about 143,400 in 1955 to 86,000 in 1968, and some further decline appears likely through the 1970’s despite the fact that more rolling stock will be needed to handle the antici pated increase in freight traffic. Among the factors which are making it possible for the rail roads to handle a given amount of work in shops with a smaller work force than formerly are the use of assembly line techniques in repair work, greater specializa tion of labor, and the use of bet ter designed and constructed rolling stock. Also fewer equip ment maintenance employees are needed because of the practice on some railroads of sending diesel locomotives requiring major ov erhaul back to the manufacturer for rebuilding or in exchange for more highly powered new or re built units. Employment trends for indi vidual shops crafts have not been affected equally by changes in equipment and operating meth ods, nor are they likely to be in the future. During the 1955-67 period, the number of electrical workers declined about 30 per cent; carmen, about 35 percent; machinists, 40 percent; and boil ermakers, more than 60 percent. 759 Some increase in employment of electrical workers may occur through the 1970’s because of the installation of more complex elec trical and electronic equipment in locomotives, railroad cars, and communication systems. The de clines in employment of carmen, machinists, and boilermakers are expected to continue through the 1970’s, although at less pro nounced rates. Earnings and W orking Conditions Straight-time average hourly earnings of journeymen em ployed by Class I line-haul rail roads in the shop trades in 1968 were: Carmen, $3.41; machinists, $3.48; electrical workers, $3.50; sheet-metal workers, $3.48; boil ermakers, $3.47; and black smiths, $3.43. Straight-time earn ings of helpers in all shop crafts averaged $2.97 an hour. Regular apprentices, who spend part of their time in classroom instruc tion and the rest on the job, av eraged $2.72 an hour; and helperapprentices, who also worked on the same basis, averaged $3.11 an hour. Gang foremen and gang leaders averaged $3.99 an hour. Most shop workers have a basic 40-hour workweek of five 8-hour days and are paid time and onehalf for overtime. Major repairs on locomotives and cars are made generally in doors in the enginehouse or car repair shop. Minor adjustments, inspection, and emergency re pairs may be performed out-ofdoors. Most shop workers are mem bers of unions. Among the unions in this field are: Brotherhood Railway Carmen of America; In ternational Association of Ma chinists and Aerospace Workers; International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; Sheet Metal Workers’ International Associa tion; International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuild ers, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers; and the International Brotherhood of Firemen and Oil ers. In collective bargaining, these unions usually negotiate their labor contracts through the Railroad Employes’ Department of the AFL-CIO. SIGNAL DEPARTMENT WORKERS (D.O.T. 822.281 and .884) N atu re of the W ork Workers in railroad signal de partments c o n s t r u c t , install, maintain, and repair the signal ing systems which control the movement of trains and assure the safety of railroad travel. One group of skilled workers, known as signal maintainers, keep wires, lights, switches, and other controlling devices in good operating condition. The work requires a thorough practical knowledge of electricity and con siderable mechanical skill. Work on the newer signaling systems also requires a knowledge of elec tronics. A second skilled group, known as signalmen, generally has the same skills and knowledge re quired of maintainers but con struct and install new signals and signal systems. Signalmen work as members of crews which also include semiskilled workers. The crews travel from one part of the road to another, wherever con struction work is underway. In constructing a signal system, crews often build forms for con crete, mix and pour cement, weld metal, and do many other types of work in addition to electrical work. 760 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK New employees start as helpers doing work under the direction of experienced men, or as assistants if they have had previous experi ence in signal work. Helpers, after about 1 year of training on the job, usually advance to assist ant. Openings for signalmen and signal maintainers are filled by promoting qualified assistants ac cording to seniority rules. At least 4 years usually are required for an assistant to advance to sig nalman or signal maintainer. Both signalmen and signal maintainers may be promoted to more responsible positions such as inspectors or testmen, gang foremen, leading signalmen, or leading signal maintainers. A few may advance to assistant super visors or signal engineers. Em ploym ent O utlook Signal maintainers check signal strength of repeater station. In 1968, Class I line-haul rail roads employed about 12,100 men in this kind of work; in cluded were about 8,100 signal men and signal maintainers, about 1,200 semiskilled assist ants, and 700 helpers. Several hundred workers in these groups also were employed by the short line railways and by switching and terminal companies. T rain in g , O th er Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Railroads prefer that appli cants for entry jobs in the signal department be between 18 and 35 years of age and have a high school education or its equiva lent. Knowledge of electricity and mechanical skill are assets to young men seeking these jobs. There will be some opportuni ties for new workers to obtain entry jobs as helpers or assist ants during the 1970’s. Most of these opportunities will result from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Job open ings for new workers will be lim ited because men furloughed in recent years will be recalled be fore new men are hired. Employment of helpers and as sistants declined from about 4,600 in 1955 to 1,900 in 1968, and the number of skilled signal men and signal maintainers de clined from about 8,800 to 6,600. These occupations are expected to decline slowly in the 1970’s, as improved signaling and communi cations systems require less main tenance and repair. were $3.34. Assistant signalmen and signal maintainers averaged $2.94 and helpers, $2.86 an hour. Signal workers have a basic 8hour day and 5-day week, and are paid time and one-half for work beyond 8 hours a day. Signal maintainers have fairly steady work because the amount of work required for maintaining railroad signal systems does not change greatly with variations in traffic or with the seasons. Sig nalmen and other crew members, particularly on some northern roads, may have less work during especially bad weather. In both of these occupations, the work is mostly out of doors, and main tainers must make repairs re gardless of the time of day or the weather conditions. Both maintainers and signalmen, when working on signaling devices, often must climb poles and work near high-tension electric wires and unguarded railroad tracks. Signalmen and other crew members who work on construc tion and installation frequently work away from their homes; on these occasions, many railroads provide camp cars for living quarters while the men pay for their own food. Signal maintaines generally are able to live at home, since they maintain signals only over a limited stretch of track. Most signal workers are mem bers of the Brotherhood of Rail road Signalmen. TRACK WORKERS (D.O.T. 182.168; 859.883; 869.887; 910.782; and 919.887) Earnings and W orking Conditions The a v e r a g e straight-time hourly earnings of signalmen and signal maintainers employed by Class I line-haul railroads in 1968 N a tu re of th e W ork Trackmen and portable equip ment operators construct, main- 761 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS tain, and repair railroad tracks and roadways. Many of them work in section crews which pa trol and maintain a limited sec tion of the railroad’s right-ofway. Some roads combine the section crews and highly mech anized crews to cover longer stretches of the right-of-way. Still other track workers are employed in “ extra” crews. These men per form seasonal maintenance and repair work, such as replacing rails. Either a member of the section crew or track workers operating track motorcars make regular in spections of the right-of-way, looking for cracked rails, weak ties, washed out ballast, and other track and roadway defects. Trackmen and portable equip ment operators working in the crews then make the necessary repairs. Roadway maintenance machines, such as multiple tie tampers, power wrenches, and ballast cleaners, have been dis placing gradually the use of handtools such as picks, shovels, and spike hammers. More and more railroads are using road way machines, which require skilled operators to do heavy maintenance-of-way work once done by trackmen using hand or pneumatically powered tools. In 1968, an average of 57,000 track workers were employed by Class I line-haul railroads. They included 37,000 trackmen work ing in crews, 9,400 portable equipment operators and helpers, and 10,700 gang foremen. Addi tional thousands of these workers were employed by the shortline railroads. The size of this main tenance-of-way work force varies considerably during the year be cause many construction and re pair jobs are done in the sum mer months when the weather is best. Track worker drives spikes with mechanized spike driver. T rain in g , O th er Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent necessary seniority and qualifica tions may advance to gang or as sistant foreman. A qualified fore man may advance to a super visory maintenance-of-way posi tion such as track supervisor. Most track workers are trained on the job. To acquire the skills necessary to become an all round trackman requires up to 2 years. Machine operating jobs in track maintenance work are as Em ploym ent O utlook signed to qualified trackmen on the basis of seniority. Several thousand new workers Most roads prefer workers be will be hired each year in track tween the ages of 21 and 45 for maintenance occupations during their track work forces. Men the 1970’s, mostly for the sea seeking work as trackmen must sonal rush during the summer be able to read and write and do months, particularly in northern heavy work. Applicants often are sections of the country. Com required to take physical exam paratively few openings will offer inations. A high school education "steady year-round employment. is desirable for workers who are For some years, the use of seeking to advance to portable mechanized equipment and new equipment operators and gang kinds of materials in roadway foremen. construction has been reducing Trackmen and portable equip substantially the number of men ment operators who have the employed by the railroads in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 762 maintenance-of-way work. At the same time, however, the use of mechanized equipment has cre ated a limited number of main tenance-of-way jobs involving the operation of roadway machines. Between 1955 and 1968, as the number of trackmen and fore men in section and other kinds of crews dropped from about 136,000 to 47,700, the number of portable equipment workers rose from 7,400 to about 9,400. These trends are expected to continue in the years ahead. Earnings and W orking Conditions Track workers are among the lowest paid groups in the railroad industry. Men employed in sec tion and other kinds of crews on Class I line-haul railroads ha^ straight-time average earnings of $2,76 an hour in 1968. Portable equipment operators and helpers averaged $3.18, and crew fore men averaged $3.28 an hour in 1968. A basic 5-day, 40-hour week was in force for most classes of track workers. Time worked over 8 hours a day was paid for at time and one-half rates. Since most section men inspect and maintain only a few miles of track, they usually live at home. However, the section crew is giving way rapidly to the mech anized “ floating” crew. Track men and portable equipment op erators who work in “ floating” crews usually travel from place to place and generally live in camp cars or trailers provided by the railroads. They pay for their own food. Most maintenance-of-w a y workers are members of the Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employes. BRIDGE AND BUILDING WORKERS N a tu re of th e W ork These workers construct, main tain, and repair tunnels, bridges, stations, railway shops, and a variety of other structures owned by the railroads. In 1968, Class I line-haul railroads employed about 8,800 skilled craftsmen, 2,400 helpers, and 2,300 foremen in this kind of work. Among the skilled craftsmen were about 5,000 carpenters working as all round mechanics in a variety of construction trades in addition to carpentry; about 2,800 ma sons, bricklayers, plasterers, and plumbers; and about 600 painters and 400 ironworkers. The short line railways employed several hundred more workers in the same occupations. (Information about the nature of the work done by these craftsmen can be found elsewhere in the Hand book.) T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent New employees usually receive their training as helpers. As op enings occur in skilled mechan ics’ jobs, they are filled by helpers who have qualified for promotion and have the neces sary seniority. Skilled workers who have the necessary experience m a y ad vance to positions as foremen, in spectors, or bridge and building supervisors. Em ploym ent O utlook A small number of job open ings in the bridge and building work force will arise each year during the 1970’s. Retirements, deaths, and transfers to other fields of work will provide some job opportunities for new work ers. Most of the jobs available will be as beginners or helpers, where turnover rates are relative ly high. Employment by Class I linehaul railroads of skilled crafts men, helpers, and foremen on bridge and building work de creased from about 27,300 in 1955 to 13,400 in 1968. This trend is expected to continue be cause of the increased use of power tools and other laborsav ing equipment, and of new mate rials which require less mainte nance and repair. Earnings and W orking Conditions The a v e r a g e straight-time hourly earnings of carpenters em ployed by Class I line-haul rail roads in bridge and building work in 1968 were $3.15. Masons, bricklayers, p l a s t e r e r s , and plumbers averaged $3.34; iron workers, $3.40; painters $3.19; helpers, $2.93; and foremen, $3.53 an hour in 1968. Bridge and building workers work a 5day, 40-hour week and are paid time and one-half for work be yond 8 hours a day; they may receive double time for work over 16 continuous hours. Bridge and building men usual ly are away from home during their workweek. On these occa sions, they usually live in camp cars supplied by the railroads. While living in camp cars, they pay for their own food. The Brotherhood of Mainte nance of Way Employes repre sents the bridge and building workers on most roads. T E L E P H O N E IN D U S T R Y O C C U P A T IO N S As our population and econ omy grow, and as technology ad vances, the need for more com munication increases. More than 400 million telephone calls are made daily in the United States, both locally and for long dis tances to different parts of the country and overseas. Approxi mately 815,000 employees were required to provide this service in 1968. The telephone industry offers men and women many employ ment opportunities for steady, year-round work in many differ ent jobs. Some of the jobs, such as telephone operator and file clerk, can be learned in a few weeks; other jobs, such as in staller and repairman, require many months to learn. More than half of all telephone workers are women. A large ma jority of them are employed as telephone operators or clerical workers. Men usually are em ployed in installing, repairing, and maintaining telephone equip ment. N ature and Location of the industry Providing telephone service for the many millions of residential, commercial, and industrial cus tomers is the main work of the Nation’s telephone companies. More than 100 million telephones were in use in the United States in 1968. Telephone jobs are found in al most every community in the United States. Most telephone workers, however, are employed in large cities where concentra tions and industrial and business establishments are located. Near ly three-fifths of them work in the 10 States which have the largest number of telephones; New York, California, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, Texas, Michigan, New Jer sey, Massachusetts, and Florida. The nerve center of the local tele phone system is the central of fice, containing the switching equipment through which a tele phone may be connected with any other telephone. Every tele phone call made, whether by dial ing direct or signaling the oper ator, travels from the caller through wires and cables to the cable vault in the central office. Thousands of pairs of wires fan out from the cable vault to a distributing frame where each set of wires is attached to switching equipment. T o join the caller’s telephone to the telephone he is calling, connections are made automatically by electro-mechan ical switching equipment and to a lesser but growing extent by electronic switching equipment. Manual connections also may be made by the operator in the few remaining manually operated switchboards or in unusual situ ations. Long-distance calls are dialed by the customer or an operator and connected with the telephone called through switching equip ment. During 1968, about 85 per cent of all telephone users could dial long-distance calls directly. Information needed to bill the customer may be recorded auto matically or, on operator handled calls, is entered on a ticket by the operator. Some customers make and re ceive more calls than can be han dled on a single telephone line. For these calls, a system some what similar to a miniature cen tral office may be installed on the subscriber’s premises. This sys tem is the private branch ex change (P B X ), usually found in places such as apartment and of fice buildings, hotels, department stores, and other business firms. A new type of service is called CEN TREX, in which incoming calls can be dialed direct to any extension without an operator’s assistance, and outgoing and in tercom calls can be dialed direct by the extension users. The equipment for this service can be located either on telephone company premises or on the cus tomer’s premises. Other communications services provided by telephone companies include conference equipment in stalled at a PBX to permit con versations among several tele phone users simultaneously; mo bile radiotelephones in automo biles, boats, airplanes, and trains; and telephones equipped to an swer calls automatically and to give and take messages by record ings. Telephone companies also build and maintain the vast net work of cables and radio-relay systems for communication serv ices, including those joining the thousands of broadcasting sta tions all over the Nation. These services are leased to networks and their affiliated stations. Tele phone companies also operate teletype and private-wire services which they lease to business and government offices. The domestic telephone net work is made up of two ownership groups— the Bell System and the independent telephone compa nies. Bell, through its associated companies, serves about 5 out of 6 of the Nation’s telephones. The independents serve the remain der. There are approximately 2,000 independent telephone companies in the United States. Telephone Occupations The telephone industry re quires workers in many different 763 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 764 Telephon e Industry Em ploys M ore Craftsmen Th an O p e ra to rs ^ PERCENT OF TOTAL WORKERS U TELEPHONE CRAFTSMEN TELEPHONE OPERATORS CLERICAL WORKERS ADMINISTRATIVE & SALES PERSONNEL SCIENTIFIC & TECH NICAL PERSONNEL MAINTENANCE & BUILD ING SERVICE WORKERS SO URCE: BASED ON DATA FROM T H E FEDERAL C O M M U N IC A T IO N S CO M M ISS IO N occupations. Chart 35 shows the percentage distribution of tele phone employment by occupa tional group. Nearly 3 out of 10 workers in the industry are telephone crafts men and foremen, and about the same proportion are telephone operators. Telephone craftsmen install, repair, and maintain tele phones, cables, switching equip ment, and message accounting systems. These workers can be grouped by the type of work they perform: (1) Line construction men place, splice, and maintain telephone wires and cables; (2) installers and repairmen place, maintain, and repair telephones and private branch exchanges (P B X ) in homes and offices and other places of business; and (3) central office craftsmen test, maintain, and repair equipment in central offices. The duties of the operators include making telephone connections; assisting customers on specialized types of calls, for example reverse-charge calls; and giving telephone in formation. Telephone craftsmen are discussed in detail later in this chapter. A detailed discus sion of telephone operators and operators of private branch ex changes (P B X operators) is pre sented in a separate statement elsewhere in the Handbook. When central office equipment is purchased by a telephone com pany, it usually is installed by employees of the equipment man ufacturers. A few central office equipment installers work for telephone companies or private firms specializing in installation work. Although most of these skilled workers are not employed in telephone operating compa nies, they are discussed in this chapter because their work is so closely connected with the Na tion’s telephone system. Many other occupations in the telephone industry, such as cleri cal, administrative, scientific, and custodial jobs, are found in other industries as well. They are de scribed in detail elsewhere in the Handbook in the sections cover ing individual occupations. More than one-fifth (22 per cent) of all telephone industry employers are clerical workers, such as stenographers, typists, bookkeepers, office machine and computer operators, keypunch operators, cashiers, receptionists, file clerks, accounting and audit ing clerks, and payroll clerks. Among their other duties, these clerical workers, most of whom are women, keep records of serv ices, make up and send bills to customers, and prepare statistical and other reports. A small but growing amount of this record keeping and statistical work is being done by electronic dataprocessing equipment. About 14 percent of telephone company employees are business office and sales representatives who handle orders for new tele phone services, and administra tive and professional workers such as accountants, attorneys, personnel specialists, purchasing agents, public relations employ ees, training specialists, and stat isticians. Approximately 4 percent of the industry’s employees are sci entific and technical personnel; for example, engineers and their assistants, and draftsmen. Most of these workers plan and design the construction of new buildings and the expansion of existing ones, and solve engineering prob lems that arise in the day-to-day operations of the telephone sys tem. Some engineers are em ployed in sales development work. Many top supervisory and administrative jobs are held by men having engineering back grounds. Basic research in com munications systems and the de velopment of new and improved telephone equipment are not done by employees of telephone oper ating companies, but mainly by those employed in affiliated lab oratories specializing in such work. About 3 percent of the tele phone industry’s workers main tain buildings, offices, and ware houses; operate and service motor vehicles; and do many other maintenance and service jobs in offices and plants. Skilled main- TELEPHONE INDUSTRY OCCUPATIONS tenance craftsmen include sta tionary engineers, carpenters, painters, electricians, and plum bers. Other workers employed by the telephone industry are jani tors, porters, watchmen, elevator operators, and guards. Em ploym ent O utlook Part of the expansion in tele phone service will result from ex pected increases in the number of households, and the number of business and industrial establish ments. The remaining one-tenth of households in the United States without telephones will be another factor in the demand for telephone service, especially as family incomes rise. Tens of thousands of new workers will be required by tele phone operating companies each year throughout the 1970’s, main ly to replace the large numbers of women telephone operators and clerical workers who leave the industry to marry, rear a family, or for other reasons. Some of these new workers, however, will be needed for craft jobs to replace skilled workers who die, retire, or shift to other work. Job turnover also will create openings for administrative, sales, profes sional, technical, and scientific personnel. Despite an anticipated strong growth in the amount and types of telephone service, total em ployment in the telephone indus try is expected to grow only mod erately. This is because techno logical improvements such as electronic switching equipment are permitting more calls to be made without any assistance from an operator. However, operators will continue to be needed to handle more complex calls. Cleri cal workers and many of the skilled craftsmen also are being affected by technological changes expected to restrict the total number of workers required for efficient telephone service. Occu pational groups in which employ ment is expected to grow as the volume of business increases are sales, administrative, profes sional, technical, and scientific personnel. Other factors also are expected to increase the demand for tele phone services. For example, the popularity of extension tele phones in private homes and of telephones of different styles and colors is increasing. A recent de velopment is the push-button in strument on which a set of but tons replaces the dial. This in strument enables the user to make a call in half the time re quired for a dial call and has the potential to provide many new services, including the transmis sion of data, remote control of appliances, or remote access to electronic computers. Also, there is growing use of specialized equipment on telephone instru ments, such as volume controls that compensate for impaired hearing, and loudspeakers that permit “ hands free” conversa tion. For industrial and commer cial users, high speed transmis sion of large quantities of com puter-processed and other data via telephone, teletypewriter, telephotograph, or facsimilie are types of special services which are becoming important. Because of high speed data transmission, for example, it is possible to pub lish the same newspaper almost simultaneously in two widely separated cities. T o meet the in creasing demand for overseas communications, transoceanic service will continue to expand as more undersea cables are laid and communications satellites come into wider commercial use. 765 Earnings and W orking C onditions Since wage rates in the tele phone industry are geared to those for comparable work in the locality, earnings of telephone workers depend not only on the type of job and the worker’s previous training and experience, but also on location and charac ter of the community. Because of differences in rates among re gions and communities, consider able variation exists in the rates paid for any given telephone oc cupation. In general, telephone wage rates are highest in the Pacific and Middle Atlantic States and lowest in the South east. For the Nation as a whole, av erage basic hourly wage rates in December 1967 for all telephone employees, except officials and managerial assistants, were $3.25. Rates for these workers ranged from an average of $1.94 an hour for telephone operator trainees and $2.29 for experienced tele phone operators, to $5.71 for pro fessional and semiprofessional workers. Clerical workers in nonsupervisory positions averaged $2.51 an hour. Construction, in stallation, and maintenance em ployees averaged $3.05 an hour. A telephone employee usually starts at the minimum wage for his particular job. Advancement from the starting rate to the maximum rate generally takes from 5 to 6 years and involves from 10 to 14 pay grades. More than two-thirds of the workers in the industry, mainly telephone operators and crafts men, are members of labor un ions. The Communications Work ers of America represents the largest number of workers in the industry, but many other em ployees are members of the 16 independent unions which form the Alliance of Independent Tele phone Unions. Others are mem- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 766 bers of the International Broth erhood of Electrical Workers. Wage rates, wage increases, and the amount of time required to advance from one step to the next are governed for most tele phone workers by union-manage ment contracts. The contracts also call for extra pay for work beyond the normal tour of 6 to 8 hours a day or 5 days a week, and for all Sunday and holiday work. Most contracts provide a pay dif ferential for night work. Travel time between jobs is counted as worktime for crafts men under some contracts. Over time work sometimes is required in the telephone industry, espe cially during emergencies, such as floods, hurricanes, or bad storms. During an “ emergency call-out,” which is a short-notice request to report to work during nonscheduled hours, workers are guaranteed a minimum period of pay at the basic hourly rate. In addition to these provisions which affect the pay envelope di rectly, other benefits are pro vided. Periods of annual vacations with pay are granted to workers according to their length of serv ice. Usually, contracts provide for a 1-week vacation for 6 months to 1 year of service; 2 weeks for 1 to 10 years; 3 weeks for 11 to 19 years, 4 weeks for 20 to 24 years; and 5 weeks for 25 years and over. Holidays range from 8 to 11 days a year, depending on locality. The majority of tele phone workers are covered by paid sick plans and group insurance plans which usually provide sick ness, accident, and death benefits, and retirement and disability pen sions. The telephone industry has achieved one of the best safety records in American industry. The number of disabling injuries has been consistently well below the average. W here To Go fo r M ore Inform ation Additional information about jobs in the telephone industry may be obtained from the local telephone company or from local unions with telephone workers among their membership. If no local union is listed in the tele phone directory, information may be obtained from the following: Alliance of Independent Tele phone Unions, Room 302, 1422 Chestnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19102. Communications Workers of America, 1925 K St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006. International Brotherhood of Elec trical Workers, 1200 15th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005. Telephone craftsm e n Nearly three-tenths of the em ployees in the telephone indus try are craftsmen engaged in con struction, installation, and main tenance activities necessary to operate the vast amount of me chanical, electrical, and elect ronic equipment vital to the farreaching network of our modem communications systems. About 1 out of 8 of these workers are foremen, many of whom have advanced to supervisory positions from a craft job. CENTRAL OFFICE CRAFTSMEN dition and locate potential trou ble before service is affected. Telephone companies employed about 80,000 central office crafts men in 1968, including approxi mately 18,000 test boardmen and 58,000 central office repairmen, helpers, and framemen. Frameman (D.O.T. 822.884) is usually the beginning job from which a worker may advance to a more skilled central office craft job. Much of the frameman’s job involves running, connecting, and disconnecting wires according to plans prepared by line cosigners, another small group of workers. Central office r e p a i r m e n (D.O.T. 822.281), often called switchmen, maintain and repair switching equipment and auto matic message accounting systems in central offices. They check switches and relays, using special toools and gages. They also locate and repair trouble on customers’ lines in central office equipment as reported by testboardmen. Testboardmen (D.O.T. 822.281) make periodic checks of cus tomers’ lines to prevent break downs or interference in tele phone service. They work at spe cial switchboards comprising electrical testing instruments and test for, locate, and analyze trou ble spots reported on customers’ lines. If repairs are needed and the breakdown is outside the cen tral office, they direct the repair activities of line and cable crews or installer repairmen or of cen tral office repairmen (if the trou ble is inside). N atu re of th e W ork T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Central office craftsmen test, maintain, and repair mechanical, electrical, and electronic switch ing equipment and other central office equipment. They maintain this equipment in operating con The telephone companies usu ally hire inexperienced men to train for skilled jobs in central offices. Applicants for these jobs must have at least a high school or vocational school education. A 767 TELEPHONE INDUSTRY OCCUPATIONS Central office repairman tests functioning of switching equipment knowledge of the basic principles of electricity and electronics gen erally is desired. Telephone train ing and experience in the armed services or technical training be yond the high school level may be helpful in obtaining jobs as telephone company craftsmen; men with such training may be brought in above the entry level. Preemployment aptitude tests usually are given to prospective employees. Most telephone companies have regular programs for train ing new employees in central of fice craft jobs. A new worker may be given classroom instruction as well as on-the-job training. Usu ally, he is assigned to the start ing job of frameman and works with experienced framemen un der the direction of a supervisor or foreman. As the frameman gains skill and experience, he may advance to central office repair man or testboardman, and receive such additional classroom in struction or other training as may be required for the new job. In struction includes courses such as the principles of electricity and electronics, as well as special courses in the maintenance of the particular type of central office equipment used by the company. Central office craftsmen re ceive training throughout their careers with the telephone com pany. As new types of equipment and tools are introduced and new maintenance methods are devel oped, these men may be sent to school for short periods of in struction. Usually, it takes at least 6 years for workers to reach the top pay rate for central office repairmen or testboardmen. Many workers move into cen tral office craft jobs from other types of telephone work. For ex ample, some men start as tele phone installers or linemen and many, with additional training, transfer to jobs as central office craftsmen. Promotional opportu nities for central office craftsmen include, in addition to the jobs of central office foremen, jobs such as those of engineering as sistants and adminstrative staff workers. Em ploym ent O utlook Young men will find many op portunities for steady employ ment as central office craftsmen during the 1970’s. The oppor tunities will result from the need OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 768 to replace workers who retire, die, transfer to other telephone jobs, or leave the telephone in dustry. Retirements and deaths alone may result in several thou sand job openings each year. The total number of central of fice craftsmen is expected to in crease moderately during the 1970’s, mainly as a result of the increasing demand for telephone service and data communication systems. However, recent tech nological developments, such as electronic switching and various automatic testing devices, will tend to restrict employment growth. neering assistant jobs can earn a maximum of $211.50 a week after 6 years. Since the telephone industry gives continuous service to its customers, central offices operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Some central office craftsmen, therefore, have work schedules for which they receive extra pay. Central office craftsmen are cov ered by the same provisions gov erning overtime pay, vacations, holidays, and other benefits that apply to telephone workers gen erally. (See discussion earlier in this chapter.) Employees in cen tral offices work in clean and well-lighted surroundings. ployees of private contractors who specialize in large-scale tele phone installation jobs. Central office equipment in stallers generally are assigned to specific areas which may include several States; they must travel to central offices of local tele phone companies within these areas. On a small job, such as installing a switchboard in a cen tral office in a small community, an installer may be teamed with only one or two other installers. On a large job, such as installing a long-distance toll center in a big city, he may work with hun dreds of other installers. Earnings and W orking Conditions Central office craftsmen are among the highest paid skilled workers in the telephone indus try. In December 1967, average basic hourly rates of pay in large telephone companies in the United States were $3.62 for testboardmen and $3.42 for central office repairmen; average basic hourly rates ranged from $3.51 to $4.07 for testboardmen and from $3.25 to $3.60 for central office repairmen, depending on locality and length of service. Earnings increase considerably with length of service in central office jobs. According to a 1968 union-management contract in one of the higher pay scale cities, craft employees start at $90.00 for a 40-hour week. Framemen can work up to a maximum of $154.50 after 4 years and 11 months. If a vacancy occurs and the worker is qualified, a frameman can move into the job of central office repairman or testboardman with a higher pay schedule. Central office repair men and testboardmen can earn a maximum of $172.50 a week after 6 years of periodic increases. Craftsmen who qualify for engi CENTRAL OFFICE EQUIPMENT INSTALLERS N atu re of the W ork Central office equipment in stallers set up complex switching and dialing equipment in central offices of local telephone com panies. They assemble, wire, ad just, and test this equipment making sure that it conforms to the manufacturer’s standards for efficient and dependable service. These jobs may involve installing a new central office, adding equipment in an expanding local office, or modifying or replacing outmoded equipment. About 22,000 installers were employed in 1968. Unlike the other craftsmen discussed in this chapter, most installers work for manufacturers of central office equipment rather than for the telephone companies. A few in stallers work directly for tele phone operating companies, in cluding about 1600 in the New England area, and some are em T rain in g , O ther Q ualificatio ns, and A dvancem ent Young men who wish to be come installers must have a high school or vocational school edu cation. Men with some college education, especially those with engineering training, often are hired for these jobs. Preemploy ment tests generally are given to determine the applicant’s me chanical aptitudes, and a physical examination is required. New employees receive on-thejob training and classroom in struction. They attend classes for the first few weeks to learn basic installation methods and then start on-the-job training under experienced installers. After sev eral years of experience, they may qualify as skilled installers. Training on the job, however, continues even after they become skilled workers. A d d i t i o n a l courses are given from time to time not only to improve their skills but also to teach them new techniques of installing telephone equipment. Installers may ad vance to engineering assistant jobs, especially those workers who have had some technical TELEPHONE INDUSTRY OCCUPATIONS 769 matic dialing equipment for long distance calls will continue at about the current rate; eventual ly, this equipment will be in stalled in all parts of the coun try. Some new central offices will have to be constructed during the years ahead and existing ones modified or enlarged to meet the growing needs of a population that is expanding and shifting to the suburbs. The amount of this work may be somewhat less than in recent years, however, because many new central offices have been built recently and will not need replacement for some time. On the other hand, increasingly complex central office and toll equipment, including advanced types of P B X systems, as well as data and computer networks, will require manpower with more and higher skills in electronic work. Installers, perhaps more than other craftsmen connected with the telephone industry, are sub ject to possible employment fluc tuations in the short rim because of changes in business conditions. When the business outlook is de pressed, there is less likelihood that new central offices will be built or existing ones enlarged or modernized. When business is prospering, installations, addi tions, and modifications of cen tral offices may occur at an above-average pace. Earnings and W orking Conditions Central office installers raise frame for dialing equipment training beyond the high school level. E m ploym ent O utlook During the 1970’s, several hun dred job openings a year are ex pected to become available for young men to replace central of fice equipment installers who transfer to other work, retire, or die. The total number of instal lers, however, will remain at about the present level for sev eral reasons. Installation of auto The straight-time a v e r a g e hourly rate of pay for installers in 1968 was $3.40. According to a major union contract in effect for this occupation in 1968, inex perienced installers start at $2.23 to $2.53 an hour, depending on locality. The contract provides for periodic increases, and em ployees may reach rates of $3.90 to $4.55 an hour after 6 years of experience. Employees also OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 770 may receive merit increases above these rates, based on job per formance plus length of service, raising the top rates up to $4.16 to $4.81 an hour. Time and a half is paid for work in excess of 8 hours a day or 40 hours a week, and double time is paid for work on Sundays and holi days. Travel and expense allow ances also are given. Installers receive 7 to 12 paid holidays a year, depending on locality. Paid vacations are provided according to length of service. The majority of central office equipment installers, including most of those servicing the Bell System, are represented by the Communications W o r k e r s of America. Some installers, em ployed by manufacturers supply ing the non-Bell or independent segment of the telephone indus try, and others, employed by large installation contractors, are represented by the International Brotherhood of Electrical Work ers. Installers employed directly by telephone operating compan ies in the New England area are members of the International Brotherhood of Telephone Work ers, which is affiliated with the Alliance of Independent Tele phone Unions. LINEMEN AND CABLE SPLICERS N atu re of th e W ork The vast network of wires and cables that connect telephone central offices to the millions of telephones and switchboards in customers’ homes and buildings is constructed and kept in good operating order by linemen and cable splicers and their helpers. Telephone companies employed over 40,000 of these workers in 1968— 16,000 linemen, 21,000 cable splicers, and 4,000 helpers, laborers, and other workers. In constructing new telephone lines, linemen (D.O.T. 822.381) place wires and cables leading from the central office to cus tomers’ premises. They use pow er-driven equipment to dig holes and set in telephone poles which support cables. Linemen climb the poles to attach the cables, usually leaving the ends free for cable splicers to connect later. In cities where telephone lines are below the streets, linemen place cables in underground conduits. Construction l i n e m e n usually work in crews of two to five men. A foreman directs the work of several of these crews. Much of the lineman’s work is repairing and maintaining exist ing lines. When wires or cables break or when a pole is knocked down, linemen are sent immedi ately to make emergency repairs. The line crew foreman keeps in close contact with the testboardman who directs him to trouble locations on the lines. Some line men are assigned sections of lines in rural areas which they in spect periodically. During the course of their work, they make minor repairs and line changes. After linemen place cables on poles or in underground conduits, cable splicers (D.O.T. 829.381) generally complete the line con nections. Splicers work on aerial platforms, in manholes, or in basements of large commercial buildings. They connect individ ual wires within the cable by matching colors of wires so as to keep each circuit continuous. Cable splicers also rearrange pairs of wires within a cable when lines have to be changed. At each splice, they either wrap insula tion around the wires and seal the joint with a lead sleeve or cover the splice with some other type of closure. Sometimes, they fill the sheathing with gas under pressure to keep out moisture. Cable splicers also maintain and repair cables. The preventive maintenance work that they do is extremely important because a single defect in a cable may re sult in a serious interruption in service. Many trouble spots are located through electric and gas pressure tests. T rain in g , O th er Q ualificatio ns, and A dvancem ent Telephone companies hire in experienced men to train for jobs as linemen or cable splicers. Ap plicants for these jobs must have a high school or vocational school education and must pass a phy sical examination. Knowledge of the basic principles of electricity, TELEPHONE INDUSTRY OCCUPATIONS and especially electronics, is help ful. Preemployment tests often are given to help determine the applicant’s aptitudes. Some line and cable work is strenuous, re quiring workers to climb poles and lift lines and equipment. Ap plicants for these positions must be physically qualified for such work. Manual dexterity and the ability to distinguish color also are important qualifications. Men who have received telephone training and experience in the armed services frequently are given preference for job openings and may be brought in above the entry level. For these jobs, tele phone companies have training programs which include classroom instruction as well as on-the-job training. Classrooms are equip ped with actual telephone appa ratus, such as poles, cable sup porting clamps, and other fixtures to simulate working conditions as closely as possible. Trainees learn to climb poles and are taught safe working practices to avoid contact with power wires and falls. After a short period of class room training, some trainees are assigned to a line crew to work on the job with experienced men under the supervision of a line foreman. About 6 years are re quired for linemen to reach the top pay for the job. Other trainees acquire the skills of the trade by working with experi enced cable splicers to whom they are assigned. Line construction craftsmen continue to r e c e i v e training throughout their careers to qual ify for more difficult assignments and to keep up with technologi cal changes in the industry. Those having the necessary quali fications find many additional advancement opportunities in the telephone industry. For example, a lineman may be transferred to telephone installer and later to 771 telephone repairman higher rated jobs. or other E m ploym ent O utlook Employment of linemen and cable splicers is expected to in crease only at a slow rate, despite anticipation of a continuing high level of activity in line and cable installation, maintenance, and re pair. However, hundreds of job openings for these craftsmen as a group are expected to become available during the 1970’s be cause of the need to replace work ers who transfer to other jobs, retire, or die. Employment trends will differ among individual occupations. Very small growth is expected in the number of cable splicers be cause of technological develop ments that increase worker effi ciency, such as devices that per mit splicing of cables without the need to remove insulation; in struments for identifying types of wires in cables; and use of gas-filled cables whose failure can be pinpointed by detecting de vices located in the central office. These developments, further more, are expected to reduce drastically the need for cable splicers’ helpers, continuing the rapid decline in employment in this occupation in recent years. The number of linemen is not expected to increase significantly because of the increasing use of mechanical improvements, such as trucks with derricks and pole lifting equipment, earth-boring tools, lightweight ladders, and “ sky buckets,” which have elim inated much of the physical work of the line crews, and is causing a substantial reduction in the regular size of a line crew. Earnings and W orking Conditions Cable splicers have higher earnings than linemen. In De cember 1967, in the United States as a whole, cable splicer’s basic rates averaged $3.49 an hour, and linemen’s rates aver aged $2.78. Average hourly rates ranged from $3.17 to $3.79 for cable splicers and from $2.36 to $3.11 for linemen, with variations in earnings depending on locality. Pay rates within the jobs also depend to a considerable extent upon length of service. For ex ample, according to a 1968 un ion-management agreement, new workers in line construction jobs in one of the higher pay scale cities begin at $90.00 for a 40hour week. Linemen can reach the maximum of $168.50 after 5 years and 6 months of service. The maximum basic weekly rate for cable splicers is $172.50, based upon a combined total of at least 6 years of work in a plantcraft job, as a helper and as a splicer, or in related craft jobs. Linemen and cable splicers are covered by the same contract provisions governing overtime pay, vacations, holidays, length of service, and other benefits that apply to telephone workers gen erally. (See discussion earlier in this chapter.) Linemen and cable splicers work outdoors. They must do a considerable amount of climbing. They also work in manholes, often in stooped and cramped positions. Safety standards, de veloped over the years by tele phone companies with the coop eration of labor unions, have greatly reduced the hazards of these occupations. When severe weather conditions damage tele phone lines, linemen and cable "splicers may be called upon to work long and irregular hours to repair damaged equipment and to restore service. Because of the nature of their work, some line men and cable splicers, by the time they reach their midfifties, transfer to other jobs such as in- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 772 stallers and repairmen or central office craftsmen. TELEPHONE AND PBX INSTALLERS AND REPAIRMEN N atu re of the W ork Telephone and private branch exchange (P B X ) installers and repairmen (sometimes called ser vicemen) install and service tele phone and P B X systems on the customers’ property and make necessary repairs on the equip ment when trouble develops. These workers travel to custom ers’ homes and offices in trucks equipped with telephone tools and supplies. When telephone customers move or request new types of service, installers relo cate telephones or make changes on customers’ existing equip ment. For example, they may in stall a P B X system in an office or change a two-party line to a single-party line in a residence. Installers also may fill a custom er’s request to add an extension in another room or to replace an old telephone with a newer model. Telephone and P B X installers and repairmen are the largest group of telephone craftsmen; about 86,000 were employed in 1968. The bulk of these men mainly install telephones or pri vate branch exchanges, and about 20,000 of them repair and main tain this equipment. The jobs of installing and repairing tele phones and P B X systems are dis cussed below as separate jobs, but many telephone companies combine two or more of these jobs. Telephone installers (D.O.T. 822.381) install and remove tele phones in homes and places of business. They connect newly in stalled telephones to outside ser vice wires which are on nearby buildings or poles. Installers often must climb poles to make these connections. Telephone in stallers are sometimes called sta tion installers. PBX installers (D.O.T. 822.381) perform the same duties as telephone installers, but they spe cialize in more complex switch board installations. They connect wires from terminals to switch boards and make tests to check their installations. Some PBX installers also set up equipment for radio and television broad casts, mobile radiotelephones, and teletypewriters. Telephone repairmen (D.O.T. 822.281), with the assistance of testboardmen in the central of fice, locate trouble on customers’ TELEPHONE INDUSTRY OCCUPATIONS equipment and make repairs to restore service. Sometimes the jobs of telephone repairmen and telephone installers are combined and the workers are called tele phone installer-repairmen. P B X repairmen (D.O.T. 822.281), with the assistance of testboardmen, locate trouble on cus tomers’ P B X systems and make the necessary repairs. They also maintain associated equipment such as batteries, relays, and power plants. Some P B X repair men maintain and repair equip ment for radio and television broadcasts, m o b i l e radiotelep h o n e s , a n d teletypewriters. Sometimes the jobs of PBX in stallers and PBX repairmen are combined into the job of P B X installer-repairmen. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Telephone companies hire in experienced men and train them for telephone and PBX installa tion and repair jobs. Since much of the work requires personal con tact with customers, applicants who have a pleasing appearance and the ability to deal effectively with people are preferred. Appli cants for these skilled jobs must have a high school or vocational school education. Preemployment tests usually are given to help determine applicants’ aptitude. New workers are given class room instruction in addition to on-the-job training. Classrooms are equipped with telephone poles, lines and cables, and term inal boxes, as well as models of typical residential construction to simulate actual working con ditions. Trainees practice install ing telephones and making con nections to service wires just as they would in the field. After a few weeks of such training, new workers accompany skilled instal 773 lers and continue to learn the job of installing by watching and helping these experienced men. Telephone and P B X installers and repairmen continue to re ceive training throughout their careers with the telephone com pany to qualify for more diffi cult and responsible work. Since technological changes in the tele phone industry are occurring constantly, telephone companies send their craftsmen to training schools for further instruction. Well qualified workers will have many additional advancement opportunities in this industry. For example, after a telephone installer has worked a few years, he may be transferred to the higher paying job of P B X in staller. Similarly, a telephone re pairman may be promoted to P B X repairman, one of the high est paying craft jobs. Another new worker may start as a line man and then transfer to the job of installing or repairing telephones, later moving to either P B X installer or PBX repairman. The total number of telephone and P B X installers and repair men is expected to increase at a moderate rate during the 1970’s. Also, some expansion is antici pated in the volume of service handled by these craftsmen be cause of the expanding number of telephones to be serviced and repaired, the growing popularity of extension phones, the in creased use of specialized types of phone equipment, and the de velopment of improved but more complex equipment. The em ployment increase will be limited by recent technological changes which have increased the effici ency of individual installers or repairmen. Examples of such changes include improved de signs for telephone instruments, wires, and cables; the develop ment of removable components which can be returned to factory or service shop for repair. Earnings and W orking Conditions Em ploym ent O utlook Young men will find many op portunities for steady employ ment as telephone and P B X in stallers and repairmen through out the 1970’s. Primarily, these opportunities will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other telephone jobs, leave the industry, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone may result in about 1,800 job openings each year during the 1968-80 period. Some job open ings created by turnover may be filled by workers transferring from other telephone craft jobs, such as linemen and cable splic ers, but many will be open to new employees. In December 1967, the aver age basic hourly rate for PBX repairmen was $3.70 and the rate for telephone and P B X installers was $3.41. Average hourly rates ranged from $3.35 to $3.89 for P B X repairmen and from $3.04 to $3.62 for telephone and PBX installers, with variations in earn ings depending on locality and length of service. The effect of length of service on wage rates is illustrated by a 1966 union— management agree ment in one of the higher pay scale cities. Under this agree ment, telephone installers and re pairmen have a starting rate of $92.50 for a 40-hour week, with periodic pay increases until a maximum of $160.00 a week is reached after about 6 years. 774 P B X installers and repairmen also have a starting rate of $92.50 and progress to $170.50. Instal lers and repairmen are covered by the same provisions governing overtime pay, vacations, holi days, and other benefits that OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK apply to telephone workers gen erally. (See discussion earlier in this chapter.) Telephone and P B X installers and repairmen work indoors and outdoors in all kinds of weather. Outdoor work includes climbing poles to place and repair tele phone wires leading from poles to customers’ premises. Installers and repairmen may be called upon to work extra hours when breakdowns in customers’ lines or equipment occur. WHOLESALE AND RETAIL TRADE Wholesaling and retailing are the final stages in the process of transferring goods from produc ers to consumers. Wholesalers assemble goods in large lots and distribute them to retail stores, industrial firms, and institutions such as schools and hospitals. Re tailers sell goods directly to housewives and other consumers in a variety of ways— in stores, by mail, or through door-to-door selling. A list of the items sold by wholesale and retail businesses would include almost every item produced by American industry — automobiles, clothing, food, furniture, and countless others. In 1968, more than 14 million persons (not counting an esti mated 1.9 million self-employed and unpaid family workers) worked in wholesale and retail trade. Retail trade accounted for the largest number of workers— 10.5 million— or about threefourths of the employment in the broad industry group. The ma jority of these workers are em ployed in department stores, food stores, and in restaurants and other eating places. About 3.6 million persons worked in whole sale trade. Wholesale and retail businesses are a major source of job oppor tunities for women. In 1968, for example, nearly one-half of the workers employed in retail trade were women. They represented about one-fourth of all workers employed in wholesale trade. Many women employed in retail stores work part time. Workers with a wide range of education, training, skill, and ability are employed in whole sale and retail trade. In 1968, white-collar workers accounted for more than 3 out of 5 persons employed in the major industry group, as shown in the accom panying table. Sales workers, the largest single group, make up nearly one-fourth of total indus try employment. Managers and proprietors, the second largest group of workers, account for about one-fifth of the industry’s work force. Many managers and proprietors own and operate small wholesale houses or retail businesses such as food stores and gasoline service stations. Clerical workers account for roughly one-sixth of the work force; many are employed by re tail stores as cashiers, especially in supermarkets and other food stores. Other important clerical occupations in retail trade in clude secretaries, stenographers and typists, office machine oper ators, and bookkeepers and ac counting clerks. Large numbers of shipping and receiving clerks are employed in both wholesale and retail trade. Blue-collar workers (crafts men, operatives, and laborers) ac counted for nearly one-fourth of all employment in the industry group in 1968. Many are em ployed as mechanics and repair men, auto parking attendants, drivers and deliverymen, meat cutters, and materials handlers. Most mechanics and autoparking attendants work for motor ve hicle dealers and gasoline service stations. A large number of meat cutters are employed in whole sale grocery establishments and in supermarkets and other food stores. Service workers, employed mostly in retail trade, accounted for roughly 1 out of 7 workers in the industry group. Food serv ice workers, such as waiters, cooks, and bartenders, made up, by far, the largest concentration of persons employed in their oc cupational group. Other large groups of service workers were janitors, charwomen and clean ers, and guards and watchmen. Estimated. employment, 1968 Major occupation group distribution) All occupation groups.............. Professional, technical, and kindred workers..... Managers, officials, and proprietors .................... Clerical and kindred workers .......................... Sales workers .................. Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers ........... Operatives and kindred’ workers .......................... Service workers ................ Laborers ............................ 100 2 21 16 24 7 12 14 4 N ote.—D ue to rounding sum of individual items may not equal total. Employment in wholesale and retail trade is expected to in crease moderately through the 1970’s. The major factors con tributing to the expected growth of employment in trade are in creasing population and consum er expenditures, continuation of the population movement from rural to urban areas and from city to suburbs, and the trend toward keeping stores open long er hours. Growth in employment requirements is expected to be slowed somewhat by the increas ing applications of laborsaving technology. For example, techno logical change may effect employ ment because of improvements in materials-handling methods, packaging innovations, the grow ing use of computers for inven tory control and billing opera tions, the increasing use of mech anized equipment in supermark ets, and the continued growth in the number of stores using selfservice operations. 775 776 Within retail trade, employ ment in department stores, res taurants, and other eating places and in auto dealers and service stations is expected to rise fast est. Among wholesale establish ments, the rates of employment growth are likely to be highest in businesses that distribute motor OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK vehicles and automobile parts, and in firms selling industrial ma chinery, equipment, and supplies. The statement that follows covers the major occupations in restaurants, where, for example, large numbers of waiters and waitresses, and cooks and chefs are employed. More detailed in formation about occupations that cut across many industries ap pear elsewhere in the Handbook. These include salesmen, office workers, shipping and receiving clerks, maintenance trades, and many others. (See index in the back of the book.) R E S T A U R A N T IN D U S T R Y Millions of people eat in res taurants, cafeterias, snack bars, and other eating places daily. There are about 335,000 estab lishments whose main business is to serve food and beverages, and in 1968, they employed more than 2.2 million persons. Many other food-service workers were employed in establishments that serve meals in connection with some other activity— for exam ple, drug and department stores, hotels, hospitals, schools and col leges operating lunchrooms for students and staff, and factories operating cafeterias for em ployees. Commercial airlines, railroads, and shiplines also em ploy food-service workers. (See statements on the two largest restaurant occupations— Waiters and Waitresses, and Cooks and Chefs.) paid employees; many of these are operated by their owners who have no paid help or have only 1 or 2 part-time workers. An in creasing proportion of all restau rants are run by proprietors or business firms owning more than one restaurant. Although restaurant employ ment is concentrated in the States with the largest popula tions, and particularly in large cities, even very small communi ties usually have coffee shops, luncheonettes, and r o a d s i d e diners. R estaurant W orkers About three-fourths of all res taurant employees prepare and serve food or do other kinds of related service work. The two largest service groups, each with several hundred thousands of workers, are waiters and wait resses, and cooks and chefs. In addition to these two groups, N atu re and Location of the Industry Establishments catering to the custom of “ eating out” range from small diners to luxurious and expensive restaurants. The kind of food offered and the way it is served depend upon the size, location, and financing of the restaurant, as well as the type of customer it seeks to attract. For example, cafeterias, which usu ally are located downtown in of fice buildings or factories, or in a suburban shopping center, em phasize rapid service and inex pensive meals. In contrast, some restaurants cater to customers who have the time to eat in a leisurely m a n n e r and, thus, they serve elaborate meals which may include unusual dishes or “ specialties of the house.” Most restaurants are small businesses with fewer than 10 777 778 there are counter attendants who serve food to customers in cafe terias; bartenders who mix and serve alcoholic drinks to custom ers; busboys and busgirls who clear tables, carry soiled dishes back to the kitchen, and some times set tables; kitchen workers who wash dishes and prepare vegetables; pantrymen and pantrywomen who prepare salads and certain other dishes for serving; and janitors and porters who dis pose of trash and garbage, sweep and mop floors, and do other cleaning jobs. Some of these workers operate m e c h a n i c a l equipment such as powerdriven dishwashers, floor polishers, vege table sheers and peelers, and gar bage disposal equipment. These specialized service jobs, however, are likely to be found only in the largest restaurants. In many small eating places, waiters and waitresses clear and set up tables, sometimes prepare certain kinds of dishes, and help in the kitchen when they are not busy with customers. Another large group of restau rant workers— about one-fifth of the total— are managers and pro prietors. Many are owners and operators of small restaurants and, in addition to acting as man agers, may do cooking and other work. Some are salaried em ployees managing restaurants for others. All other restaurant workers combined account for less than one-tenth of total industry em ployment. They are employed principally in large restaurants. Most are clerical employees— cashiers who receive payments and make change for customers; food checkers who total the cost of the meals selected by cafeteria customers; and bookkeepers, stenographers, typists, and other office workers. Dietitians plan menus, supervise the preparation of meals, and enforce sanitary OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK regulations. Some large restau rants also employ mechanics and other maintenance workers, ac countants, advertising or public relations directors, personnel workers, and musicians or other entertainers. T rain in g , O ther Q ualificatio ns, and A dvancem ent Experience and skill require ments for workers employed in restaurants vary widely, depend ing on the particular occupation and type and size of the restau rant. For example, employees in inexpensive diners and lunch eonettes generally require less training than those employed in expensive restaurants. Entry requirements for some restaurant jobs are minimal. Young people who have less than a high school education and no previous experience often can qualify for employment in jobs, such as kitchen worker, dish washer, or busboy. For other jobs such as cook or chef, waiter or waitress, and for supervisory or managerial jobs, previous ex perience and in some cases spe cial training may be required. (Information on training and other qualifications for cooks and chefs and waiters and waitresses are described in greater detail elsewhere in the Handbook) . Newly hired restaurant work ers often receive on-the-job in struction to learn how to per form the duties required for their work. A kitchen worker, for ex ample, may learn how to operate a dishwasher or other mechanical kitchen equipment. Waiters and waitresses may be taught how to set tables, take orders from cus tomers, and how to serve food in a courteous and efficient man ner. In a great many small res taurants, new employees receive their training under the close su pervision of an experienced em ployee or the proprietor. In larger restaurants and some chain res taurant operations, training pro grams are likely to be more for mal, and beginners may be re quired to attend training sessions for a few days or longer. Many vocational schools— both public and private— p r o v i d e training that is helpful to per sons interested in preparing for restaurant work. Vocational edu cation programs provide course work in subjects such as food preparation and cooking, cater ing, and restaurant management. Similar training programs for a variety of restaurant occupations, ranging from a few months to 2 years or more in length, are available through restaurant as sociations and trade unions, tech nical schools, junior and com munity colleges, and 4-year col leges. Many young people, for example, prepare for supervisory jobs in restaurants by complet ing 2 year programs in food serv ice management offered by junior and community colleges located throughout the country. Training programs for unem ployed and underemployed work ers seeking entry jobs in restau rant occupations are in operation in a large number of cities under provision of the Manpower De velopment and Training Act (M D T A ). Training under M D TA provisions is provided for cooks and cook apprentices, wait ers and waitresses, food service supervisors, and cook helpers. These programs are both institu tional and on the job and last approximately 12 to 15 weeks. Handicapped workers are being trained in a number of programs for employment in the restaurant industry. Recent projects for ex ample have resulted in the em ployment of many mentally re tarded persons in occupations RESTAURANT INDUSTRY such as dishwasher, kitchen help er and busboy. Employers look for certain per sonal qualifications in those seeking restaurant work. Good health and physical stamina are important since restaurant work ers are required to work long hours— often under considerable pressure. Neatness, a pleasant manner, and an even disposition are important, particularly for waiters and waitresses and other employees who must deal with the public. Restaurants, particularly large chain operations, offer promotion opportunities to workers having initiative and ability. A young per son who enters the industry as a busboy or dishwasher can be pro moted to a better paying job such as waiter or cook’s helper. Through additional training, he can advance further into jobs such as cook or chef, baker, or bartender. A restaurant hostess may work her way up to assist ant manager. Experience as a maitre d’ hotel may lead to a position of director of food and beverage services in a large chain organization. Assistant managers, particularly those with college training, may be promoted to manager and eventually manag ing director. Em ploym ent Outlook More than 150,000 openings are expected annually in the res taurant industry through the 1970’s. Although many new jobs will be created by the growth of the restaurant business, most openings will result from turn over. Most job openings will be for waitresses and kitchen help ers— both because of high turn over and because these workers make up a very large proportion of all restaurant employees. Em ployment opportunities also are expected to be favorable for skill 779 ed cooks and salaried restaurant managers. There will be a num ber of openings in clerical jobs such as cashier, bookeeper, stenographer, and typist, and a few in specialized positions such as food manager and dietitian. The volume of restaurant busi ness is expected to increase subtantially over the next decade, and the number of restaurant workers will rise rapidly. A grow ing population, increasing leisure time, and higher income levels will raise the demand for restau rant services. More people will “ eat out” as large numbers of housewives take outside employ ment and more people travel. Restaurants, hotel and motel din ing rooms, school and factory lunchrooms, drugstore fountains, and even vending machines which dispense prepared foods will share in the increased business. Manpower changes taking place within the restaurant in dustry will tend to reduce the number of employees needed to prepare and serve food. Restau rants— particularly those serving hundreds of meals daily— have achieved substantial reductions in manpower requirements dur ing recent years, as managers have centralized the purchase of food supplies, introduced selfservice, made use of precut meats and modern mechanical equip ment, and otherwise increased the efficiency of their operations. Although further improvements of this kind can be expected, the number of restaurant employees is likely to increase rapidly as the volume of business continues to expand to meet the popula tion’s need for restaurant serv ices. Earnings and W orking Conditions The location, size, and type of restaurant affect earnings of res taurant workers. Other signifi cant factors include the tipping practice for some occupations and the degree of unionization. In 1968, average e a r n i n g s of nonsupervisory employees in the restaurant industry (exclud ing tips) were $52.81 a week or $1.61 an hour for a 32.8 hour workweek, compared with $74.95 a week or $2.16 an hour for a 34.7 hour workweek for workers in all retail trade establishments. Limited wage data obtained from union-management con tracts, in effect in 1969 and cov ering eating and drinking places in large metropolitan areas on the East and West Coasts and in the Midwest, provide an indica tion of earnings for various types of restaurant workers. In these contracts, straight-time hourly pay rates generally ranged from $1.89 to $3.97 for bartenders; $1.01 to $2.19 for busboys and girls; $1.52 to $3 for cashiers; $1.32 to $2.44 for dishwashers; $1.54 to $3 for food checkers; $1.32 to $3 for kitchen helpers; $1.40 to $3.25 for pantry men and women; and $1.37 to $2.44 for porters. (For earnings of waiters and waitresses, and cooks and chefs, see statements on these occupations.) Most restau rant workers, however, are not covered by union-management contracts. Salaries of employees in man agerial positions have a wide range, mainly because of differ ences in duties and responsibili ties. Many college graduates who have specialized training in res taurant management received starting salaries ranging from $6,000 to $10,000 annually in 1969. Managerial trainees with out this background often start ed at lower salaries. Many experi enced restaurant managers re ceive salaries between $10,000 and $20,000 a year, depending on size, location, and type of restau- 780 rant. Salaries below this range may be paid to managers of small restaurants. In addition to wages, restau rant employees usually receive at least one free meal a day at their place of work and often are pro vided with uniforms. Waiters, waitresses, and bartenders also receive tips. Paid vacations and holidays are common, and vari ous types of health and insurance programs also are available. Most full-time restaurant workers have work schedules of 40 to 48 hours a week. Many work on split shifts, which means they are on duty for several hours during one meal, take some time off, and then return to work during the next period of heavy activity. Scheduled hours may include work in the late evenings and on holidays and weekends. Many restaurants are air-con ditioned, have convenient work areas, and are furnished with the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK latest equipment and laborsaving devices. In other restaurants— particularly small ones— working conditions may be less desirable. In all restaurants, workers spend long periods on their feet, may be required to lift heavy trays and other objects, or work near hot ovens or steam tables. Work hazards include the possibility of bums; injury from knives, broken glass or china, or mechanical equipment; and slips and falls on wet floors. The principal union in the res taurant industry is the Hotel and Restaurant Employees and Bar tenders International U n i o n (AFL-CIO ). The proportion of workers covered by union con tract agreements, however, varies greatly from city to city. W here To Go fo r M ore In fo rm atio n Additional information about careers in the food service indus try may be obtained by writing to: Educational Director, National Restaurant Association, 1530 North Lake Shore Dr., Chica go, 11 . 60610. 1 A list of public and private schools and colleges offering courses which train restaurant employees may be obtained by writing to: Council on Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional Education, Statler Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. 14850. Information on courses relating to restaurant work may be ob tained from the local Director of Vocational Education, the Super intendent of Schools in the local community, or the State Director of Vocational Education in the Department of Education in the State capital. FINANCE, INSURANCE, AND REAL ESTATE Nearly every individual or or ganization makes extensive use of the diverse and complex serv ices provided by the finance, in surance, and real estate industry. Financial institutions— b a n k s , savings and loan associations, consumer credit organizations, and others— make banking and credit facilities available to in dividuals and businesses. The types of services they offer range from providing simple financial services such as personal check ing and savings accounts to act ing as the broker and salesman in the buying and selling of stocks and bonds needed by giant cor porations for investment capital. Insurance firms provide protec tion against unexpected losses due to fire, accident, sickness, and death, and for many other contingencies. Real estate or ganizations act as the intermedi ary or broker in the sale of houses, buildings, and other prop erty, and often operate and man age large office and apartment buildings. In 1968, nearly 3.4 million workers were employed in the fi nance, insurance, and real estate industry. Finance, employing nearly 1.5 million persons, made up the largest sector. The next largest concentration of em ployment was in insurance where over 1.2 million workers were em ployed. The remaining workers— about one-sxth of the total— were employed in real estate. Finance, insurance, and real estate firms are a major source of job opportunities for women who made up over half of the in dustry’s work force in 1968. Their proportion ranged from about 35 percent in real estate to over 60 percent in banking. This industry employs a very high proportion of white-collar workers. As shown in the follow ing tabulation, more than 9 out of 10 workers in the industry held white-collar jobs in 1968. Clerical workers made up 46 per cent of the industry’s work force and accounted for half of the white-collar employees. Many clerical workers are employed in specialized banking and insur ance occupations such as bankteller, checksorter, and insurance claims adjuster. Other large cler ical occupations include stenog rapher, typist, secretary, and office machine operator— occupa tions also found in most other industries. Sales workers, who account for nearly one-fifth of the workers in this industry, are especially important in the in surance and real estate sectors, where insurance and real estate agents and brokers make up over one-third of the total work force. Stock and bond salesmen and brokers are also an important occupation in the finance sector. Managers and officials— bank of ficials, office managers, and oth ers— made up roughly one-fourth of the industry’s work force in 1968. A majority of the very small number of professional, technical, and related workers in this in dustry are employed by financial institutions. Accountants and auditors, programers, and busi ness research analysts make up M a j o r o c c u p a t io n a l g r o u p Estimated employment, 1968 (percent distribution) All occupational groups Professional, technical, and kindred workers ........... Managers, officials, and proprietors ............................ Clerical and kindred workers .. Sales workers............................ Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers .................. Operatives and kindred workers .................................. Service workers........................ Laborers .................................... 100 5 23 46 18 2 f1) 4 2 1 Less than 0.5 percent. N ote.—D ue to rounding sum of individual items may not equal total. the greater part of these highly trained workers. Employment in the finance, insurance, and real estate indus try is expected to increase mod erately through the 1970’s. Population growth, increasing business activity, and rising per sonal incomes are among the im portant factors expected to gen erate a rapidly expanding demand for financial, insurance, and real estate services. However, the in creasing use of computer tech nology in performing the routine clerical and record-keeping func tions that are so common in this industry may limit employment growth to some extent. In the financial sector, employment is expected to increase more rapidly than in insurance and real estate. In addition to the opportuni ties that will arise because of em ployment growth, many thou sands of job openings will result as women leave the field to as sume family responsibilities. Re781 782 placements also will be needed to fill vacancies created by deaths and retirements and by transfers of workers out of the industry. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK The statements that follow cover major occupations in the banking and insurance fields. More detailed information about occupations that exist in many industries appears elsewhere in the Handbook. (See index in the back of the book.) O C C U P A T IO N S IN B A N K IN G Banks have been described as “ department stores of finance” because of the variety of finan cial services they offer. Their services range from convenient individual checking accounts to letters of credit that may be used to finance world trade. They safe guard money and valuables; ad minister trusts and personal estates; and lend money to busi ness, educational, religious and other organizations. Banks also make loans to individuals for the purchase of homes, automobiles, and household items, as well as to pay for unexpected expenses and other personal financial needs. Banks strive to introduce new services to meet the needs of their customers. In recent years, for example, they have offered customers revolving check credit plans, credit cards, travel services, facilities for handling charge accounts in retail stores, and convenient “ drive-up” win dows. Still others work in the 12 Fed eral Reserve Banks (or “ bankers’ banks” ) and their 24 branches; and in foreign exchange firms, clearing house associations, check cashing agencies, and other or ganizations doing work closely related to banking. In addition to those employed in banking, many people who do similar work are employed in sav ings and loan associations, per sonal credit institutions, and oili er related financial institutions. In 1967, commercial banks processed more than 20 billion checks and handled an enormous amount of other paperwork. The clerical employees who do this work account for nearly threefourths of all bank employees. Banks and T h e ir W orkers B a n k i n g organizations em ployed nearly 875,000 workers in 1968; over half were women. More than 800,000 of these bank employees worked in commercial banks, where a wide variety of services are offered. The banking occupations discussed in this statement are generally those found in b a n k s of this type. Other bank employees, many of whom are in the same occupa tions, work in mutual savings banks, which offer a more limited range of services— mainly savings deposit accounts, safe-deposit rentals, trust management, mort gage loans, money orders, travel ers checks, and passbook loans. 783 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 784 Many of these workers are in jobs which are unique to banks; they are either tellers or bank clerks who process the thousands of deposit slips, checks, and other documents which banks handle daily. Also employed are many secretaries, stenographers, typ ists, telephone operators, recep tionists, and others whose duties are much the same in banks as in other types of businesses. Bank officers are the second largest occupational group with in the industry. Approximately 1 out of 5 bank workers is an offi cer— a president, vice president, treasurer, comptroller, or other official. Much smaller occupa tional groups include account ants, lawyers, personnel directors, marketing and public relations workers, statisticians, econo mists, and other professional workers, as well as guards, ele vator operators, cleaners, and other service workers who protect and maintain bank properties. This chapter describes three large groups of workers in occu pations unique to banking— bank clerks, tellers, and bank officers. Some of the other occupations which are common to banks, as well as other institutions, are de scribed elsewhere in the Hand book. Places of Em ploym ent In early 1968, there were more than 32,000 commercial banks and branch banks, and more than 1,300 mutual savings banks and branches. Bank employment is concentrated, to a considerable extent, in a relatively small num ber of very large banks and their branches. In early 1968, the 450 largest commercial banks in the country, each having total de posits of $100 million or more, employed more than one-half of all commercial bank employees, whereas over 9,000 small com mercial banks (having total de posits of $10 million or less) em ployed only slightly more than 10 percent of all commercial bank workers. Bank employees work mainly in heavily populated areas. Ap proximately half of all bank em ployees are located in five states: New York, California, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and Texas. New York City, the financial capital of the Nation, has far more bank employees than any other city. T rain in g Professional and managerial employees who work for banks usually have completed college. A high school diploma is ade quate preparation for entry into most clerical jobs in banks; other workers, such as building service workers and guards, are in jobs which can be filled by persons who have a high school educa tion or less. Most newly hired employees undergo some form of in-service training so that they may become familiar with bank policies and procedures. Bank employees have numerous oppor tunities which are provided by their employers to broaden their knowledge and skills. Besides the on-the-job training opportunities they may have, employees often are encouraged to further their education off the job. (Addition al information about the educa tional requirements which apply to bank clerks, tellers, and bank officers, and the training given them, is provided in the state ments that follow). Bank employees are encour aged to prepare themselves for better jobs by enrolling in courses offered by the American Institute of B a n k i n g in many cities throughout the country. The In stitute, whichphas 369 chapters and 156 study groups, also offers correspondence study for bank employees. Courses include ac counting, finance and credit, commercial law, investments, bank operations, trusts, public speaking, and English. In addi tion, the Institute assists local banks in conducting cooperative training programs for various bank positions. Many banks encourage their employees to take courses at local colleges and universities. In addi tion, a number of educational programs are sponsored by bank ing associations, sometimes in co operation with colleges and uni versities throughout the country. These programs are designed to assist bank employees at all lev els to assume greater responsi bilities in their banks. Many banks pay for all or part of the costs to those who successfully complete the courses in which they enroll. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment in banks is ex pected to rise very rapidly through the 1970’s. New jobs re sulting from employment growth, as well as jobs that must be filled as employees retire or stop working for other reasons, are ex pected to account for about 65,000 openings each year. Still other openings will occur as em ployees leave their positions to enter other types of employment. Most openings will be in cleri cal occupations. In addition, an increasing number of trainee jobs, which may eventually lead to officer positions, will probably become available for college graduates. Openings for profes sional and specialized personnel, such as lawyers, accountants and auditors, economists, statisti cians, actuaries, and electronic computer personnel also will oc cur in great numbers. OCCUPATIONS IN BANKING Population growth and the ac companying rise in production, sales, and national income are expected to produce a steady growth in the number of business and financial transactions which banks will handle. The number of branch banks has been increas ing for many years and will prob ably continue to do so as banks seek to make their services more accessible both in cities and in new and expanding suburban business centers. More jobs also will be created as banks continue to expand other services. These services include facilities for han dling charge accounts in retail stores, special savings plans for travel and education, estate plan ning and administration, “ inplant” banking facilities for em ployed workers, and the manage ment of employee pension funds. The approximately 2,000 banks which had electronic computer installations in 1969 provided conventional banking services to other banks and financial institu tions without computers. They also provided services such as account reconciliation, payroll preparation, sales analysis, inven tory control, and customer billing for business corporations. The number of additional workers needed to handle the in crease in banking activities may be offset somewhat by the con tinued conversion of many major banking activities to electronic data-processing. Even so, the very rapid growth in employment, which has characterized the banking industry in recent years, is expected to continue but at a somewhat slower pace. Electronic data-processing is likely to bring about important changes in the employment pattern of occupa tions in banking, substantially reducing the number of workers needed in some occupations and at the same time creating other jobs which are new to banks. The 785 effect of these developments will vary from one occupation to an other, as indicated in the state ments on specific banking occu pations which follow. Bank employees can anticipate steadier employment than work ers in many other fields because they are less likely to be affected by layoffs during periods when the general level of business ac tivity is low. Even when a bank is sold or merged with another bank, it usually continues to do business, and there is little like lihood that workers will lose their jobs. When bank officials find it necessary to curtail employment, they usually do so by not replac ing employees who retire or leave their jobs for other reasons. few localities, a workweek of 35 hours is common. Tellers and some other types of employees may work in the evening at least once a week when banks remain open for business; and overtime work may be necessary for some bookkeeping department em ployees during peak periods, often at the end of each month. Workers who do some kinds of check processing may be em ployed on evening shifts, as are many operators of electronic com puting equipment. Generally, bank work is done in modem, clean, well-lighted, and air-conditioned offices. Few jobs require strenuous physical exertion. Sources of A dditional In fo rm atio n Earnings and W orking Conditions Earnings of bank clerks, tellers, and officers are discussed in the statements which follow. In ad dition to their salaries, bank workers receive fringe benefits which are generally somewhat more liberal than those provided by other types of businesses. For example, most banks offer their workers some type of profit shar ing or bonus plan; sick leave; paid holidays ranging from 5 to 12 a year; and vacations with pay, generally 2 weeks for those who have completed 1 year of service, 3 weeks after 10 to 15 years of service, and 4 weeks after 20 to 25 years of service. In addition, group plans that pro vide life insurance, hospitaliza tion and surgical benefits, and retirement income are common place fringe benefits for many bank employees. Sometimes free or preferred banking services, such as checking accounts, safe deposit boxes, installment loans, and traveling services also are provided. Scheduled hours in banks are generally 40 or less a week; in a Local banks and State bankers* associations can furnish specific information about job opportuni ties in local banking institutions. General information about bank ing occupations, training oppor tunities, and the banking indus try itself is available from: American Bankers Association, Personnel Administration and Management Development Committee, 90 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. National Association of Bank Women, Inc., National Office, 60 East 42nd St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Information on career oppor tunities in consumer finance can be obtained from: The National Consumer Finance Association, 1000 16th St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Information about career op portunities as a bank examiner can be obtained from: Federal Deposit Insurance Com pany, Director of Personnel, 550 17th Street, NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20429. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 786 BANK CLERKS N atu re of th e W ork Bank clerks handle the paper work associated with checking and savings accounts, loans to individuals and business firms, and other bank business. Because of the nature of banking, some of their work differs from the work done by clerks in other kinds of business offices. (Secre taries, office machine operators, receptionists, and other clerical workers whose jobs are much the same in banks as in other busi nesses are discussed in the chap ter on Clerical and Related Occu pations.) The specific duties that must be performed in a particular bank depend on the size of the bank and the extent and scope of the services offered. In a small bank, for example, one clerk may be required to perform a variety of work such as sorting checks, totaling debit and credit slips, and preparing monthly state ments for mailing to depositors. However, in a large bank, each clerk usually is assigned one kind of work and frequently has a special job title. Bank clerks known as sorters (D.O.T. 219.388) separate bank documents— checks, deposit slips, and other bank items— into dif ferent groups and tabulate each “ batch” so they may be charged to the proper account; often they use canceling and adding ma chines in their work. Many banks also employ proof machine opera tors (D.O.T. 217.388) who use equipment that, in one opera tion, sorts items and adds and records the amount of money involved. The bookkeeping workers who keep records of depositors’ ac counts and of bank transactions such as loans to business firms or the purchase and sale of secu rities are the largest single group of bank clerks. Bookkeeping ma chine operators (D.O.T. 215.388) use either conventional book keeping machines or electronic posting machines especially de signed for bank work; in most other respects, their work is simi lar to that of bookkeeping ma chine operators in other types of establishments. In banks, these workers are sometimes known as account clerks, posting machine operators, or recording clerks. Bookkeepers (D.O.T. 210.388) are also employed in banks, usu ally to keep special types of fi nancial records. The job titles of many bank bookkeepers are re lated to the kinds of records on which they work— among them, Christmas club bookkeeper, dis count bookkeeper, interest-accru al bookkeeper, trust bookkeeper, and commodity loan clerk. Thou sands of bookkeeping and ac counting clerks (D.O.T. 219.488) are also employed in book keeping departments to do rou tine typing, calculating, and post ing related to bank transactions. Included in this group are recon cilement clerks, who process statements from other banks to expedite the auditing of ac counts; and trust investment clerks who post the daily invest ment transactions of bank cus tomers. Other clerical employees whose duties and job titles are unique to banking include country col lection clerks (D.O.T. 219.388) who sort the thousands of pieces of mail which come in daily to a city bank and determine which items must be held at the ipain office and which should be routed to branch banks or out-of-city banks for collection. Also em ployed are transit clerks (D.O.T. 217.388) who sort bank items such as checks and drafts on OCCUPATIONS IN BANKING other banks, list and total the amounts involved, and prepare the documents so that they can be mailed for collection; ex change clerks (D.O.T. 219.388) who service foreign deposit ac counts and determine charges for cashing or handling checks drawn against such accounts; interest clerks (D.O.T. 219.388) who maintain records relating to in terest-bearing items which are due to or from the bank; and mortgage clerks (D.O.T. 209.388) who type legal papers af fecting title to real estate upon which money has been loaned, and maintain records relating to taxes and insurance on such properties. New clerical occupations which have been created by electronic data-processing and which are unique to banks, include those of the electronic reader-sorter op erator who operates electronic check sorting equipment; the check inscriber or encoder, who operates machines that print in formation on checks and other documents in magnetic ink to prepare them for machine read ing; and the control clerk who keeps track of the huge volume of documents flowing in and out of the computer division. Other occupations, include card-tape converter operator, coding clerk, console operator, data typist, data converting machine opera tor, data examination clerk, high speed printer operator, tape li brarian, teletype operator, and verifier operator. These workers 787 T rain in g , O ther Q ualificatio ns, and A dvancem ent High school graduation is ade quate preparation for most begin ning clerical jobs in banks. For the majority of jobs, courses in bookkeeping, typing, business arithmetic, and office machine operation are desirable. Appli cants may be given short employ ment and clerical aptitude tests to determine their ability to work rapidly and accurately, and to communicate effectively with others. Beginners may be hired as file clerks, bookkeeping clerks, transit clerks, clerk-typists, or for re lated work. Some are trained by the bank to operate proof, book keeping, and other office ma chines. A few start as pages or inside messengers. An employee in a routine cleri cal job may eventually be pro moted to a minor supervisory po sition, to a teller or credit analyst, and eventually to a sen ior supervisor. Opportunities for advancement to bank officer po sitions also exist for outstanding clerical employees, although they are more likely to attain such positions if they have had college training or have taken specialized courses offered by the banking industry. Additional education obtained while employed— par ticularly the courses offered by the American Institute of Bank ing— may be helpful in preparing workers for advancement. (See introduction to this chapter for further information on the Insti tute’s educational program.) are employed only in the rela tively small number of banks that use this kind of equipment. Em ploym ent O utlook Banks employed about 400,000 clerical employees of all kinds in 1968, about 8 out of every 10 of whom were women. Employment of bank clerks is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. New jobs cre ated by growth, as well as jobs that must be filled as employees retire or stop working for other reasons, are expected to result in nearly 30,000 openings each year. Turnover is relatively high in banks, as in other industries which employ many women in clerical positions. Jobs for clerks will arise as established banks expand their services and as new banks and branch banks are opened. In those banks which in stall modem electronic equip ment, however, decreases may be expected in the employment of workers such as check sorters and bookkeeping machine operators. Most employees affected by the changeover will probably be re trained and reassigned, either to new jobs created by the change in equipment and processing methods, or to other duties re lated to the many new functions and services which banks will in troduce. Overall, the growth in the volume of work created by new bank facilities and services is expected to be so great that the total number of clerical work ers will continue to rise for some years to come, although much less rapidly than in the recent past. The sharpest increases in employment are expected in oc cupations related to electronic data processing. Earnings Clerical workers employed in financial institutions, including banks, and real estate and insur ance companies, averaged about $86.00 a week in 1967. Men’s average weekly salaries ranged between $85 and $90; women averaged between $84 and $87 a week. Among men, Class A Account ing Clerks and Class A tabulat ing machine operators— generally experienced employees— received the highest salaries: $110 and $117, respectively. The highest OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 788 paid occupation for women was Class A tabulating machine op erator ($108). The lowest salary among both men and women bank clerks was earned by Class C file clerks. The average weekly salary in this oc cupation was $68.00 for men and $62.00 for women. Clerical workers in banks are covered under provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act, a Fed eral law which provides for a minimum wages. In 1968, the minimum was $1.60 an hour; thus, a clerk who worked a 40hour week would earn at least $64. See introductory section of this chapter for information on Places of Employment and Sources of Additional Information; and for addition information on Train ing, Employment Outlook, and Earnings and Working Condi tions. TELLERS (D.O.T. 212.368) N atu re of th e W ork Every bank, no matter how small, has at least one teller to receive and pay out money and record these transactions. In a very small bank, one teller— often known as an all-around teller— may handle transactions of all kinds, but in large banks usually different kinds of trans actions are assigned to different tellers. A Christmas Club teller accepts and records deposits made to Christmas Club savings accounts, for example, and a note teller handles certain trans actions for clients making loans on securities. Other tellers who have special job titles include passbook, and simultaneously posts the transaction in the bank’s ledger. After public banking hours, the teller counts the cash on hand, lists the currency-received tickets on a settlement sheet, and balances his day’s accounts. He also may perform other in cidental tasks such as sorting checks and deposit slips, filing new account cards, and remov ing closed account cards from files. A paying and receiving teller may supervise one or more clerks assigned to assist him. T rain in g , O th er Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent commercial (or paying and re ceiving), savings, foreign ex change, payroll, discount, and securities tellers. Approximately 230,000 tellers of all kinds were employed in early 1968. A considerable num ber worked only part time, and about 8 out of 10 were women. Commercial tellers are mainly occupied with cashing customers’ checks, and handling deposits and withdrawals from checking and savings accounts during the hours the bank is open to the public. Before he cashes a check, the teller must verify the identity of the person to whom he makes payment, and be certain that the funds in the payee’s account are sufficient to cover the payment. When he accepts a deposit, he checks to see whether the amount of money has been correctly item ized on the deposit slip and en ters the total in a passbook or on a deposit receipt. Tellers may use machines to make change and to total deposits. A teller handling savings accounts may use a “ window” posting machine which prints a receipt or records the transaction in the customer’s In hiring tellers, employers prefer high school graduates ex perienced in related clerical po sitions. They regard personal characteristics such as maturity, neatness, tact, and courtesy as being particularly important be cause customers, who deal with tellers far more frequently than with other bank employees, often judge a bank’s services principal ly on their impressions of the tellers. Since tellers handle large sums of money, they must be able to meet the standards established by bonding companies. In filling new positions, most banks give preference to their employees who have demonstrated the nec essary qualifications. Newly hired tellers usually learn their duties by first observ ing experienced workers for a few days and then, under close super vision, doing the work them selves. Training periods may last from a few days to 3 weeks or longer. A new teller’s first assign ment is usually a combination job as a savings and commercial teller; or, in those banks which are large enough to have a sav ings teller’s “ cage,” the beginner may start as a savings teller. OCCUPATIONS IN BANKING After gaining experience, a competent teller in a large bank may advance to the position of head teller, in which he super vises the bank’s staff of tellers. Eventually, experienced tellers may qualify for promotion to bank officer positions, particu larly if they have had college training or have taken special ized courses offered by the bank ing industry. (See introduction to this chapter for information about the educational program of the American Institute of Bank ing.) Em ploym ent O utlook The number of bank tellers is expected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s, as banks con tinue to expand their services for the growing urban population. An increasing proportion, however, will be part-time tellers em ployed during peak hours to ac commodate those customers who transact business during the noon hour and in the evenings. More than 20,000 openings are ex pected each year as a result of the increase in employment, and the need to replace tellers who retire or stop working for other reasons. Turnover is relatively high among the thousands of women who work as tellers. Although increased use of me chanical and electronic equip ment can be expected to elimi nate some of the routine work done by many t e l l e r s , and to speed other work they now per form, it is unlikely to affect greatly the total number em ployed. Earnings In 1968, the earnings of nonsupervisory workers, including 789 tellers, in banks, averaged about $90 per week. The range between the lowest and highest weekly salaries earned by men and wom en employed as tellers depends on such factors as experience, the specific teller position, and the location and size of the bank. Bank tellers are covered under provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act, a Federal law which provides for minimum wages. In 1968, the minimum was $1.60 an hour; thus, tellers who worked a 40-hour week would earn at least $64. See introductory section of this chapter for information on Places of Employment and Sources of Additional Information; and for additional information on Train ing, Employment Outlook, and Earnings and Working Condi tions. BANK OFFICERS (D.O.T. 186.118, .138, .168, and .288; 161.118; 189.118 and .168) N atu re of the W ork Practically every bank has a president who exercises general direction over all operations; one or more vice presidents who either act as general managers or have charge of bank departments such as trust, credit, and invest ment; and a comptroller or cash ier who (unlike cashiers in stores and other businesses) is an ex ecutive officer generally respon sible for all bank property. Large banks also may have treasurers and other senior officers, as well as assistant officers, to supervise the various sections within differ ent departments. Banking insti tutions employed more than 125,000 officers in 1968; women represented about one-tenth of the total. A bank officer makes decisions within a framework of policy set by the board of directors. His job requires a broad knowledge of business activities, which he must relate to the operations of the particular department for which he is responsible. For example, the loan officers must exercise his best judgment in considering applications for loans, bearing in mind general business conditions and the nature of the collateral offered. He must evaluate care fully the reports of credit analy sis on the individual or business firm applying for a loan, and bal ance the favorable and unfavor able elements in reaching a deci sion. Similarly, the trust officer must have a thorough under standing of the provisions of each trust which he is administering, and the knowledge necessary to manage properly the fund or es tate involved; he must invest wisely in order to manage trust funds which were established for purposes such as supporting fami lies, sending young people to college, or paying pensions to re tired workers. Besides supervising financial services, bank officers are called upon frequently to ad vise individuals and businessmen and to participate in many dif ferent kinds of community projects. Because of the great variety of services offered by banks, a wide choice of officer careers in dif ferent areas of the bank is avail able for those who wish to spe cialize. For example, in the lend ing area, the loan officer must be familiar with the principles of economics, production, distribu tion, and merchandising, as well as the fundamentals of commer cial law. He also must have the ability to analyze financial state ments and have some knowledge 790 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK fields for bank officers are audit ing, economics, personnel admin istration, public relations, and operations research. T rain in g , O th er Q ualificatio ns, and A dvancem ent of tiie operations and customs of businesses to which the bank ex pects to extend credit. Careers in the lending area include: Install ment loan officer, commercial loan officer, credit department loan officer, real estate mortgage loan officer, and agricultural loan officer. In the trust services area, the trust officer is responsible for the management of assets belong ing to individuals, families, cor porations, and charitable and educational institutions. Trust management requires specializa tion in fields such as financial planning, investment, adminis tration, taxes, and business and real estate management. Special ized careers in the trust man agement area include, for exam ple, estate administration, indi vidual and institutional trust administration, and investment research positions. The operations officer plans, coordinates, and controls the work flow, updates systems, and strives for more efficient operations of a bank. He must be able to train and supervise a large number of peo ple, since most of a bank’s staff works in operations. Career op portunities in the bank opera tions area include the following: Customer s e r v i c e s , electronic data processing services, and in ternal services. Other career spe cialities for bank officers include correspondent bank officer, who is responsible for relations with other banks, branch bank man ager, who has full responsibility for all aspects of a branch office; and international officer, who is financial advisor to customers in the United States and abroad. A working knowledge of a foreign language and knowledge of a for eign country’s geography, poli tics, history, and economic growth can be very helpful to those interested in careers in in ternational banking. Other career Bank officer positions may be filled by promoting either experi enced clerical employees or man agement trainees. Outstanding bank clerks may be selected for promotion, even though their academic background is limited, but college graduation is the usual requirement for young peo ple who enter as management trainees. A business administra tion curriculum with a major in finance or a liberal arts curricu lum including accounting, eco nomics, commercial law, political science, and statistics are con sidered excellent preparation for trainee positions. Valuable expe rience may be gained in the summer employment programs recently initiated by some large city banks for college students. Most large city banks have w e 11-organized officer-training programs. Usually, these range from 6 months to 1 year in length. Trainees may start as credit or investment analysts or be rotated among various jobs in several bank departments so that they get the “ feel” of banking; bank officers then are better able to determine the position for which each employee is best suited. Many banks too small to operate formal officer-trainee programs provide some other form of training program which enables trainees to gain an un derstanding of bank operations. Advancement to officer posi tions may come slowly in small banks where the number of these positions is limited. In large city banks having special training programs, initial promotions may 791 OCCUPATIONS IN BANKING come more quickly. For a senior officer position, however, many years of experience are usually necessary before an employee can acquire the necessary knowledge of the bank’s operations and cus tomers and of the community. Although experience, ability, and leadership qualities receive great emphasis when bank em ployees are considered for promo tion to officer positions, advance ment also may be accelerated by special study. Courses in every phase of banking are offered by the American Institute of Bank ing, a long-established, industrysponsored school. (See introduc tion to this chapter for more in formation on the Institute’s pro gram and other training pro grams sponsored jointly by uni versities and l o c a l bankers’ associations.) Em ploym ent Outlook The number of bank officers is expected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s. Many new positions will be created by the expected expansion of banking activities. Others will develop be cause the increasing use of elec tronic computers enables banks to analyze and plan banking op erations more extensively and to provide new kinds of services. In addition, because bank officers are somewhat older, on the av erage, than most e m p l o y e e groups, a large number of addi tional officers will be needed each year to replace those who retire or leave their jobs for other rea sons. About 10,000 workers will be needed annually because of employment growth and the need to replace bank officers who re tire or stop working for other reasons. Many other openings will arise as bank officers trans fer to other types of employment. Most of the officer positions which become available will be filled by promoting people who have already acquired experience in banking operations. Although competition for these promotions is likely to remain keen, par ticularly in large banks, college graduates who meet the stand ards for executive trainees should find good opportunities for entry positions. Earnings According to a private survey conducted in 1968, large banks, insurance companies, and other financial institutions paid salar ies ranging from about $525 to almost $750 a month to new ex ecutive trainees who were col lege graduates having majors in business administration or in the liberal arts. The salaries of senior bank officers may be several times as great as these starting salaries. For officers, as well as for other bank employees, salaries are like ly to be lower in small towns than in big cities. See introductory section of this chapter for information on Where Employed and Sources of Addi tional Information; and for addi tional information on Training, Employment Outlook, and Earn ings and Working Conditions. O C C U P A T IO N S IN T H E IN S U R A N C E B U S I N E S S Insurance is a multibillion dol lar business which offers many employment opportunities for young people recently graduated from high school or college and for experienced workers. There are about 1,800 life in surance companies and more than 3,000 property and liability (sometimes called property and casualty) insurance companies. They conduct their business in main offices, commonly called “ home” offices, and in thousands of local sales offices in cities and towns throughout the country. Local offices may be branches operated by an insurance com pany or they may be operated by independent agents and brokers. N ature of the Business Insurance policies are classified into two broad categories: life insurance, and property and li ability insurance. Most compan ies specialize in one of these types. However, companies in both fields sell health insurance. An increasing number of life in surance companies also sell equ ity products, such as variable annuities and m u t u a l fund shares. Life insurance companies sell policies which provide not only basic life insurance protection, but also several other kinds of protection. Under some policies, for example, policyholders receive an income when they reach re tirement age or if they become disabled and stop working; other life insurance policies may help to pay the costs of educating children when they reach college age, or may give extra financial protection when the children are young. Life insurance companies also may sell accident and health insurance, which assists policy holders in paying medical ex penses, and may furnish other kinds of benefits when they are injured or ill. Life insurance is increasingly used to protect busi ness interests and to assure em ployee benefits. Policies sold by property and liability insurance companies pro vide financial protection against loss or damage to the policyhold ers’ property and protect the policyholder when he is respon sible for injuries to others or damage to other people’s prop erty. This insurance field in cludes protection against hazards such as fire, theft, and wind storm, as well as workmen’s com pensation and other liability in surance. Many policies sold by life in surance and by property and liability insurance companies are written to cover groups of people — anywhere from a few individ uals to many thousands. Group policies usually are issued to em ployers for the benefit of their employees. They most often pro vide retirement income, life in surance, or h e a l t h insurance. Group policies providing life in surance protected more than 68 million workers in 1967, and the number of policies in force was over twice the number 10 years earlier. Insurance W orkers The insurance business pro vided jobs for about 1.3 million people in 1968. The great major ity were clerical and sales work ers. (See chart 36.) Salesmen are a key group of employees in insurance compan ies. About one-third of all insur ance employees are sales workers — chiefly agents, brokers, and others who sell policies directly to individuals and business firms. Agents and brokers usually are responsible for finding their own customers or “ prospects,” and for seeing that each policy they sell provides the special kind of pro tection required by the policy holder. (A statement on Insur ance Agents and Brokers is in cluded in the chapter on Sales Occupations.) 793 794 The various types of insurance policies offered by companies in both the life and property-lia bility fields must be carefully planned so that they are finan cially sound and conform to legal requirements. After a policy is sold, the insurance company must settle claims made by the policy holder. Insurance companies also must keep records of premium payments made by policyholders and services and benefits ren dered to them. Most of the plan ning, record-keeping, and other behind-the-scenes work is done in home offices where the services of company officials, professional and technical employees, and clerical workers are available. About 1 out of 7 insurance workers is in a managerial posi tion. Managers in charge of local offices, through which most in surance policies are sold, often spend part of their time in sales work. Others, who work in home offices, are company officials or administrators in charge of actu arial calculations, policy issu ance, accounting, investments, loans, and additional office work. The large-scale investment activi ties of many insurance compan ies make financial administration a particularly important area of employment. Working closely with the man agerial personnel in insurance companies are specialists who study insurance risks and cover age problems, analyze investment possibilities, prepare financial re ports, and do other professional work. Professional workers, em ployed mainly at home offices, represent about 1 out of 25 in surance workers. Included among them is the actuary (D.O.T. 020.188), whose job is unique to the insurance field. Actuaries make statistical studies relating to vari ous kinds of risks and, on the basis of these studies, determine how large the premium rate on OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK each type of policy should be. Another specialist is the homeoffice underwriter (D.O.T. 169.188), who reviews insurance ap plications to evaluate the degree of risk involved. Underwriters decide whether to accept or re ject the insurance policy; they also determine which premium rate should apply for each policy issued. The work of most other professional employees in insur ance companies is fundamentally the same as in other industries. Accountants, for example, ana lyze insurance company records and financial problems relating to premiums, investments, pay ments to policyholders, and other aspects of the business. Engi neers work on problems con nected with policies covering in dustrial work accidents, damage to industrial plants and machin ery, and other technical matters. Lawyers interpret the regulations which apply to insurance com pany operations, handle the set tlement of some kinds of insur ance claims, and do other legal work. Investment analysts eval uate real estate mortgages and new issues of bonds and other securities, analyze current in vestments held by their compan ies, and make recommendations on when to hold, buy, or sell. As more electronic computers are installed to handle office records, an increasing number of electron ic specialists, including program e d and systems analysts, are being employed. Many companies also employ editorial, public rela tions, sales promotion, and ad vertising specialists. Keeping track of millions of policies involves a vast amount of paperwork and occupies the time of hundreds of thousands of clerical workers. Almost half of all insurance company employees are in jobs classified as clerical— a much larger proportion than in most other industries. The ma jority are secretaries, stenog raphers, and typists; operators of bookkeeping and other kinds of office machines; or general office clerks. They do much the same kind of work in insurance com panies as in other types of busi ness enterprises. Other clerks, employed mostly in home offices, have specialized jobs found only in the insurance business. Among them are typists known as policy writers (D.O.T. 203.588) who copy onto policy forms, from ap proved insurance applications, the name and address of the pol icyholder, amount of the policy, premium rate, and other infor mation. Policy change clerks (D.O.T. 219.388) enter changes in beneficiaries and coverage on policies, according to the instruc tions given by the agents. Insur- OCCUPATIONS IN THE INSURANCE BUSINESS ance checkers (D.O.T. 219.488) check the information entered on policies by other clerical workers to be certain that the work is accurate. Other clerical workers occupy positions of considerable respon sibility which require extensive knowledge of one or more phases of the insurance business. This group includes claim adjusters (D.O.T. 241.168) who decide whether insurance claims are cov ered by the customer’s insurance policy, see that any payment due the policyholder is made on each claim, and when necessary, in vestigate the circumstances which initiated the claim. Claim ad justers for life insurance com panies have home office posi tions; those in the property and liability business are generally field personnel. In addition to the four major clerical occupations discussed above, insurance companies em ploy thousands of repairmen, jan itors, and others who do mainte nance and custodial work similar to that required by other large business organizations. These em ployees account for about 1 out of 50 workers in the insurance business. Additional information about many of these occupations is con tained in this Handbook in the chapter on Clerical and Related Occupations and the statements on Actuaries, Accountants, En gineers, Lawyers, Programers, Systems Analysts, and Mainte nance Electricians. Places of Em ploym ent Relatively large numbers of in surance workers are employed in California, Connecticut, Illinois, Massachuetts, New Jersey, New York, and Texas, where the home offices of some of the largest in surance companies are located. Many insurance workers also are employed in agencies, brokerage firms, and other sales offices in cities and towns throughout the country. Almost all sales person nel work out of local offices, whereas the majority of profes sional and clerical workers are employed in company home offices. More than half of all insurance workers are employed by life in surance companies and agencies; included in this group are some large companies with thousands of employees. Companies which deal mainly in property and li ability insurance, although more numerous than the life insurance companies, generally have fewer employees. Many local agencies and sales offices are also small, regardless of the type of insur ance they handle. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Insurance offers job opportu nities for people having very dif ferent educational backgrounds and talents. Some positions re quire much managerial and ad ministrative experience and abili ty; others require college training in mathematics, accounting, and engineering; but still others in volve only routine duties which can be learned on the job. Graduation from high school or business school is regarded as adequate preparation for most beginning clerical p o s i t i o n s . Courses in typing, business arith metic, and the operation of office machines may be valuable. These special skills often are required for jobs in insurance company offices, and this kind of training provides a background of infor mation which helps employees advance to more responsible po sitions. Some legal training in a college or university also may be helpful for the position of claim adjuster. 795 Engineering, accounting, and other professional positions in in surance companies usually re quire the same kinds of college training as they do in other busi ness firms. College-trained peo ple also are preferred for man agerial positions, many of which are filled by promotion from within. In professional and man agerial work requiring contact with the public, as well as in sales work and claim adjusting, it is important that the employee have a pleasant disposition and outgoing personality. An em ployee whose work requires fre quent contact with policy holders should be able to inspire confi dence in his ability to protect the customer’s interests. Insurance companies and asso ciations of companies and agents offer several kinds of training programs to help employees pre pare for better jobs. The Insur ance Institute of America, for ex ample, furnishes study guides relating to the fundamentals of property and casualty insurance, and awards certificates to those who pass the Institute’s exami nations. Some national, State, and local insurance associations offer home study training or eve ning courses in various aspects of the insurance business. The American College of Life Under writers and the National Associa tion of Life Underwriters offer life insurance courses that stress the services agents may provide to policy holders. Other courses, especially designed to help cleri cal employees gain a better un derstanding of life insurance and life insurance company opera tions, relate to the organization and operation of both home and field offices. They are given un der the auspices of the Life Of fice Management Association which also provides programs for the development of supervisory and managerial personnel. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 796 E m ploym ent O utlook Employment in the insurance industry is expected to rise mod erately through the 1970’s. New jobs to be filled, plus openings that occur as employees retire or stop working for other reasons, are expected to total more than 75,000 a year. Turnover is par ticularly high in this industry because of the many young wom en in clerical jobs who work only for a few years and then leave to care for their families. Still other openings will occur as insurance workers leave their jobs for em ployment in other industries. The expected increase in em ployment will result mainly from a rapidly increasing volume of in surance business. A growing population will purchase more life insurance, as well as more insurance which provides retire ment income and funds for their children’s education. Others who do not presently have insurance may become policyholders; for example, advances in medical sci ence are making life insurance available to persons who were formerly rejected as poor insur ance risks. The need for property and liability insurance also will increase as a rising standard of living enables more individuals and families to own one automo bile or more, buy homes, and make other major purchases which are usually insured. In the business world more insurance of this kind also will be required as new plants are built, new equipment is installed, and more goods are shipped throughout the country and the world. Further more, as the coverage of State workmen’s compensation laws is broadened, more employers may need workmen’s compensation insurance. Insurance employment prob ably will rise at a somewhat slower rate than the volume of business handled by insurance companies. It is becoming more common for companies to issue “ multiple-line” policies, which cover a variety of insurance risks formerly covered in separate policies, thus reducing the work load of sales personnel in local offices and clerical employees in home offices. As more companies install electronic computers and other equipment to process some of the routine paperwork now done by clerks, changes in insur ance company employment will occur. The total number of in surance company clerical jobs probably will continue to rise, especially those jobs that require special training, but the propor tion of routine jobs is likely to decline. Insurance workers have better prospects of regular employment than workers in many other in dustries. Most businessmen re gard property and liability insur ance as a necessity, both during economic recession and in boom periods, and private individuals also attempt to retain as much basic financial protection as pos sible, even when their incomes decline. Earnings and W orking Conditions A 1966-67 survey of nonsupervisory employees in insurance companies, banks, and related businesses showed a wide range of salaries among the individuals in the companies surveyed. Some clerical workers in beginning, routine jobs earned less than $60 a week; some experienced em ployees in more responsible posi tions earned up to twice that amount. Women employed in be ginning jobs as junior file clerks averaged $62.50 a week and of fice girls, $64.00. Switchboard operators, representing a fairly large group of women employees, averaged between $79.50 and $90.00, depending upon skill and experience. General stenograph ers averaged $78.50 a week and senior stenographers averaged $91.50. Typists, the largest of any women’s group covered in the survey, averaged $69.00 for be ginning jobs and $80.50 for ex perienced workers. The average for women accounting clerks ranged from $74.50 to $94.00, de pending on experience and skill. The earnings of men in office oc cupations averaged somewhat higher than those of women do ing similar work. To some extent, these differ ences in salary levels may be due to differences in the specific job duties of the employees involved, and in the firms for which they worked. Salary levels in different parts of the country also vary; earnings are generally lowest in southern cities and highest in the western metropolitan areas. (See chapter on Clerical and Related Occupations for additional infor mation about the earnings of workers in other office occupa tions found in insurance compa nies.) Starting salaries for profes sional workers are generally com parable with these for similar positions in other industries and businesses. It is not uncommon for specialists having several years of experience in the insur ance business to receive annual salaries of well-over $10,000. The earnings of agents and brokers, unlike those of salaried profes sional workers, depend on com missions from the policies they sell. (See the statement on In surance Agents and Brokers.) Except for agents and brokers, who must sometimes extend their working hours to meet with pros pective clients, insurance compa ny employees usually work be tween 35 and 40 hours a week. The number of paid holidays is OCCUPATIONS IN THE INSURANCE BUSINESS somewhat greater than in many other industries. Two-week paid vacations generally are granted employees after 1 year of service; in most companies, vacations are extended to 3 weeks after 10 years and, in some, to 4 weeks after 20 years. Practically all in surance company workers share in group plans providing life and health insurance, as well as re tirement pensions. Sources of A dditional Inform ation General information on em 797 National Association of Insurance Agents, 96 Fulton St., New York, N.Y. 10038. ployment opportunities may be obtained from the personnel de partments of major insurance companies or from insurance agencies in local communities. Other information on careers in the insurance field is available from: For additional information on the salaries of clerical workers in finance industries, including in surance, see: Institute of Life Insurance, 277 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. W a g e s and R e la te d B e n e fits , P a rt 11: M e tr o p o lita n A r e a s , U n ite d S ta te s and R eg io n a l S u m m a ries. Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, N.Y. 10038. (BLS Bulletin 1530-87, 1968). Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Of fice, Washington, D.C. 20402. Price 65 cents. SERVICE AND MISCELLANEOUS The long-term growth in the American economy has created a growing demand for services of all kinds. Thus, in addition to the multitude of goods produced and distributed, a growing share of our national wealth and man power is being devoted to needed services, resulting from greater emphasis on better medical care, quality education, personal serv ices, and recreational activity. In many ways, the rapid growth in the importance of the service in dustries reflects the country’s aspirations for a better and fuller life for all of its citizens. In today’s job market, the serv ice industries represent an im portant source of employment to new as well as experienced work ers, and offer job opportunities to persons having various levels of skill and differing degrees of training and education. In 1968, about 20.5 million workers were e m p l o y e d in one of the various service indus tries. Approximately one-half were wage and salary workers employed by private firms, 5.7 million were government em ployees (mainly in educational and medical services), and 2.1 million were self-employed per sons. The remainder, accounting for 2.0 million persons, were em ployed in private households. Educational services, including public and private elementary and secondary schools and insti tutions of higher education, make up the largest sector of the serv ice industry’s employment. In 1968, educational services ac counted for more than one-fourth of the service work force. Hospi tals and other establishments that provide health services con stitute the next largest industry sector, accounting for roughly 1 out of 5 workers. In both the edu cational service and health serv ice industries, government work ers (mainly local and State) make up a large share of the work force. Other service industries employing many workers are ho tels, laundries, and other personal services, private households, busi ness and repair services, and en tertainment services. The service industries repre sent a major source of job op portunities for women. In 1968, women accounted for about three-fifths of the total employ ment in the service industry. Among the various service indus tries that represent the broad in dustry group, however, their em ployment ranged from less than one-tenth in automobile and other types of repair businesses to virtually all of the workers in private households. Women work ers also accounted for an espe cially high proportion of the to tal employment in hospitals, edu cational services, hotels, and es tablishments that provide per sonal services such as beauty shops and laundries. Workers who have a wide range of education, training, skills, and abilities are employed in the service industries. In 1968, as shown in the accompanying ta ble, white-collar workers (pro fessional, managerial, clerical, and sales workers) accounted for more than one-half of the service industry’s work force. The serv ice industry employs the highest proportion of professional, tech nical, and kindred workers found in any major industry, account ing for nearly one-third of total industry employment. By far, the largest concentration of profes sional and technical workers is represented by teachers em ployed in the educational serv ices industry. Other major em ployers of professional workers are found in the medical and health services industry— where doctors, dentists, and nurses con stitute a large share of the work force, and professional services where large numbers of engineers and archictects are employed. Self-employment is typical for most of the male professional workers in the health service in dustry. By way of comparison, women in this field— typified by the case of professional nurses— are mainly salaried workers. Clerical workers account for about 1 out of 5 workers in the service industry. Most are women who are employed as stenograph ers, typists, secretaries, office machine operators, and general office occupations. Managers, of ficials, and proprietors, including hospital administrators, make up a relatively small fraction of total employment in the service in dustry. Service workers represent about three-tenths of the total industry employment. The major service occupations are private household worker, practical nurse, hospital attendant, char woman, janitor, waiter, waitress, cook, and protective service worker. Blue-collar workers, mainly skilled craftsmen and mainte nance workers, account for a rela tively small share of total indus try employment— only about 1 out of 7 workers. Many of the craftsmen are employed as mechainics and repairmen in auto mobile and other repair service industries or as maintenance workers in hotels, schools, the aters, and other establishments. Motion picture projectionists are 799 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 800 especially important in the enter tainment service industry. Opera tives are employed mainly in laundries, automobile repair shops, and other types of repair businesses. Most of the relatively few laborers in this industry work in auto repair shops, on golf courses, and in bowling alleys. Estimated employment, 1968 Major occupational group distribution) All occupation groups ............. Professional, technical, and kindred workers .... Managers, officials, and proprietors ........................ Clerical and kindred workers .......................... Sales workers.................... Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers ........... Operatives and kindred workers ............. Service workers ............... Laborers ............................ 100 31 7 20 U) 6 6 30 2 (x) Less than 0.5 percent. N ote.— Because o f rounding, individual items may not add to total. Employment in the service in dustry is expected to increase very rapidly through the 1970’s. Major factors contributing to the sharp growth in the demand for services are expected to stem from population growth, expanding business activity, rising personal incomes, and the general aware ness of the benefits that educa tional, health, and other services can provide. The fastest growing components of the service indus try will be educational services, medical health services, and among firms that provide com puter services and laboratory re search facilities. The necessity for extensive person-to-person contact in the performance of many service functions tends to limit the im pact of technological innovations on employment requirements. Al though the adoption of automatic data-processing equipment may moderate employment growth in some areas— for example, in ac counting and bookkeeping serv ices— technological change is not expected to influence greatly or limit the demand for workers in the service industries. The statement that f o l l o w s discusses job opportunities in the hotel industry. More detailed in formation about occupations that cut across many industries ap pears elsewhere in the Handbook. (See index in the back of the book.) H O T E L O C C U P A T IO N S Throughout the United States, travelers find hotels and motels ready to provide them with a “ home-away-from-home.” M o r e than 750,000 people worked in these hotels, motels, and related businesses in 1968. The great ma jority were employed in the Na tion’s hotels and motor hotels, located chiefly in urban areas. Of the remainder, most worked in the large number of motels and tourist courts located on the out skirts of large cities, along major highways, and in resort areas. A few were employed in related businesses such as summer camps and dude ranches. About one-half of the employees in hotels and related businesses were women. Some hotel occupations can be entered with little or no special ized training. In many kinds of hotel work, however, the demand for specially trained people is in creasing. Hotels are complex or ganizations and need specialized personnel to direct and coordi nate operations which may in volve thousands of guests an nually and millions of dollars of property and equipment. This chapter deals with em ployment opportunities in hotels, motels, and related businesses, and includes separate statements on several hotel occupations. The Hotel Business and its W orkers Hotels are of three general types— commercial, residential, and resort. The vast majority are commercial hotels which cater chiefly to travelers seeking a room for a brief stay. A small number are residential hotels, which chiefly accommodate peo ple for long periods, ranging from a few months to many years. Others are resort hotels, which provide lodging for vacationers. Motor hotels, motels, and other establishments cater especially to vacationers and other travelers seeking accommodations for a short time. Commercial and resi dential hotels generally operate the year round. Although many resort hotels, motor hotels, and motels, are open for only part of the year— for example, during the winter season in Florida or the summer months in northern parts of the country— an increasing number are remaining open the year round. Hotels range in size from those which have fewer than 25 rooms and only a few employees to some which have 1,000 rooms or more and many hundreds of workers. In the past few years, an increas ing number of motor hotels have been built, some of which have large staffs. Many motels, how ever, are relatively small, includ ing a sizable number which are run by the owners with few, if any, paid employees. Most hotels have restaurants, ranging from simple coffee shops to vast dining rooms, wine cellars, and elaborate kitchens. L a r g e hotels and motor hotels also may have banquet rooms, ex hibit halls, and spacious ball rooms— to accommodate conven tions, business meetings, and so cial gatherings. Many hotels, es pecially in resort areas, have recreational facilities such as swimming pools, boating facilties, golf courses, and tennis courts. For the convenience of guests, hotels may provide information about interesting places to visit, sell tickets to theaters and sport ing events, and even call in baby sitters. Their facilities often in clude newsstands, gift shops, bar ber and beauty shops, laundry and valet services, and railroad and airline ticket reservation of fices. Although motels and tour ist courts usually offer fewer services than hotels, the number with restaurants, s w im m i n g pools, and other conveniences for guests is steadily increasing. Because of the many services they offer, hotels need workers in a wide variety of occupations. One of the largest groups of hotel employees is in the housekeeping department. Many thousands of maids, porters, housemen, linen room attendants, and laundry room workers are employed by hotels and motels to make beds, clean rooms and halls, move furniture, hang draperies, provide guests with fresh linens and tow els, operate laundry equipment, and mark and inspect laundered items. Women usually are em ployed for the lighter housekeep ing tasks, whereas men have jobs requiring more strenuous physi cal effort such as washing walls and arranging furniture. Large hotels and motor hotels usually employ executive housekeepers to supervise these workers, and some hotels also may have a spe cial manager in charge of laundry operations. In most hotels, a uniformed staff performs guest services in the lobby. This staff includes the bellmen who carry baggage for guests and escort them to their rooms. Doormen are also a part of the uniformed staff, as are ele vator operators. The front office staff work as room clerks, key clerks, mail clerks, and information clerks. Their chief duties are to greet guests, assign rooms, and furnish information. About half of the hotel clerical workers are front office employees. The remainder, mainly women, are employed in a variety of office occupations such as bookkeeper, cashier, telephone operator, and secretary. These occupations are discussed else where in the Handbook. 801 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 802 Hotel managers and their as sistants are a relatively small group with the highly important task of supervising operations and making them profitable. A gen eral manager is in charge of all hotel operations. Some general managers have assistants who are in charge of the front office or help with other phases of hotel management. Some assistants may be responsible for specific operations; for example, foodservice managers who operate the dining rooms and other eating facilities, or sales managers re sponsible for attracting more business to the hotel. In addition, hotels also employ workers who are found in other industries. Among these are ac countants, personnel workers, en tertainers, recreation workers, waiters, chefs, and bartenders. Maintenance workers, such as carpenters, electricians, station ary engineers, plumbers, and painters, also work for hotels. Still other types of workers em ployed in hotels include detec tives, barbers, beauty salon oper ators, valets, seamstresses, and gardeners. Most of these occupa tions are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Em ploym ent O utlook A moderate increase in employ ment is likely in this industry through the 1970’s. In addition, about 30,000 workers will be re quired each year to replace those who retire or die. Many addi tional openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to positions in other in dustries. Most of the anticipated em ployment growth in the industry will stem from the need to staff the new hotels, motor hotels, and motels being built in urban areas, as well as the additional facilities being built in resort areas. Lim ited expansion probably will take place in older hotels that try to meet the challenge of increasing competition for business by mod ernizing their facilties and ex panding their services. Hotels that are unable to modernize their facilities are likely to experience low occupancy rates and may be forced to reduce overhead costs by eliminating services and work ers. Thousands of temporary jobs will continue to be available each year in resort hotels, motels, and other establishments which are open only part of the year or have more business in some seasons than others. The demand for lodging is ex pected to increase through the 1970’s as the country’s popula tion grows and travel for business and pleasure increases. Jet air travel, which permits businessmen and others who travel frequently to make a trip to a distant city, complete their business, and re turn home the same day, may somewhat limit this increase. Employment is likely to rise most rapidly in moteb, motor hotels, and other businesses catering es pecially to motorists. This trend has been evident for some time and will continue, as the Federal highway building program fur ther stimulates both automobile travel and the building of motels and motor hotels. In motels, most of the additional employees (not counting new owners) will be housekeeping and food-service workers. Most of the job openings in hotels will continue to be for workers who need little special ized training such as maids, por ters, housemen, kitchen helpers, and some dining room employees. These jobs account for a large proportion of all hotel workers and have high turnover rates. When general employment con ditions are good, people in such jobs find it relatively easy to shift to other kinds of work. Also, many of the workers are women, who often leave their jobs to care for their families. In a few of these occupations, technological changes may limit the number of openings. For example, the in creased use of automatic dish washers, vegetable cutters and peelers, and other mechanical kitchen equipment is likely to re duce the need for kitchen helpers. A number of people also will be needed every year in front office jobs to replace workers who are promoted to managerial posts, as well as to fill new jobs in the increasing number of hotels and motels. People in these occupa tions are less subject than many other workers in the industry to changes in general economic con ditions. In addition, there will be openings for other clerical work ers, although the increasing use of office machines may affect ad versely clerical employment in some hotels. Opportunities are expected to be favorable for young people who acquire the training and experience necessary to qualify for jobs as cooks and food managers. (Food service workers and office workers are discussed elsewhere in the Hand book.) Earnings and W orking Conditions The location, size, and type of hotel affect earnings of hotel workers. Other significant factors include the tipping practice for the occupation and the degree of unionization. About one-half of all hotel workers are now covered by the Fair Labor Standards Act, a Federal statute which sets minimum wages. In 1968, hotel workers covered by the law re ceived at least $1.30 an hour. In addition, more than half the States have their own wage and 803 HOTEL OCCUPATIONS hour laws that cover hotel work ers among others. Salaries of hotel employees in managerial positions have an es pecially wide range, mainly be cause of great differences in du ties and responsibilities. Hotel manager trainees who are grad uates of specialized college pro grams start out at salaries rang ing from $6,000 to $10,000 and are usually given periodic increases for the first year or two. Experi enced managers may earn several times as much as beginners; a few, in top jobs, earn $50,000 a year or more. In addition to sal ary, hotels customarily furnish managers and their families with lodging in the hotel, meals, park ing facilities, laundry, and other services. According to a mid-1967 survey conducted by the Bureau of La bor Statistics in more than 900 hotels, motels, and tourist courts throughout the country, earnings of bellmen average $.88 an hour. Chambermaids earned an average hourly wage of $1.25. Although earnings for all nonsupervisory workers ip the hotel industry averaged $1.43 an hour, according to the survey, wage rates of hotel workers varied greatly from occupation to occu pation, between men and women, and in different parts of the coun try. For example, nonsupervisory hotel workers in the Western part of the United States earned an average of $1.71 an hour, whereas those working in the South earned an average of $1.16 an hour. In addition to regular earnings, bellmen, maids, and housekeepers may receive tips from hotel or motel guests. One-third of nonsupervisory employees worked fewer than 35 hours a week in mid-1967. Work hours ranging from 35 to 40 a week accounted for another one- third of these workers; the re maining one-third of nonsuper visory hotel employees worked over 40 hours. Scheduled work weeks are usually longest in the South. Since hotels are open round the clock, workers may be employed on any one of three shifts. Usu ally, more people are employed during the day than at night, and additional compensation may be paid for work during late hours. Managers and housekeepers who live in the hotel usually have regular work schedules, although managers may be called on at any time. Waiters and waitresses, cooks, pantry workers, dishwashers, and other kitchen workers commonly receive free meals; in a few ho tels, maids, elevator operators, and room clerks also receive free meals. Almost 90 percent of non supervisory employees are cov ered by paid vacation provisions, the duration of the vacation usu ally being determined by length of service. Paid holidays— rang ing from 1 to 8 days a year— are provided for nearly half of the nonsupervisory hotel employees. The Hotel & Restaurant Em ployees and Bartenders Interna tional Union is the major union in the hotel business. Uniformed personnel, such as bellmen and elevator operators, may be mem bers of the Building Service Em ployees’ International Union. The degree of unionization, how ever, differs sharply from area to area. In Boston, Chicago, Detroit, New York, St. Louis, and San Francisco-Oakland, 50 percent or more of nonsupervisory em ployees, except front desk and of fice, are in establishments with union contract agreements. In New Orleans, Atlanta, and Mem phis the percentage is 20 or below. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information on careers in hotel work may be obtained from: American Hotel and Motel Asso ciation, 221 West 57th St., New York, N.Y. 10019. Additional information on ho tel training opportunities and a directory of schools and colleges offering courses and scholarships in the hotel field may be ob tained by writing to: Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, Statler Hall, Ithaca, N.Y. 14850. Information on housekeeping in hotels, including a list of schools offering courses in house keeping, may be obtained from: National Executive Housekeepers Association, Inc., Business and Professional Building, Gallipolis, Ohio 45631. BELLMEN AND BELL CAPTAINS (D.O.T. 324.138 and .878) N atu re of the W ork Bellmen, also called bellboys or bellhops, carry the baggage of in coming hotel guests while escort ing them to their rooms. The bell man checks to see that every thing is in order in the room. He may suggest the use of various hotel services, including the din ing room and the valet service. Bellmen also handle room serv ice, perform errands for guests, and deliver packages. In 1968, nearly 30,000 such workers were employed in the Nation’s lodging places. In large hotels, special baggage porters usually are em ployed to carry baggage for guests who are checking out. In smaller 804 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ful, and courteous. A knowledge of the attractions and geography of the local community is an as set. They also must be able to stand for long periods and to carry heavy baggage. Em ploym ent O utlook hotels, bellmen carry baggage for outgoing as well as incoming guests, and also may relieve the elevator operator or switchboard operator. Bell captains are employed in large and medium-size hotels to supervise the bellmen. They as sign work to these employees, keep their time records, and in struct new bellmen in their du ties. They also may help guests arrange for transportation by giv ing them information on train and plane schedules and sending a baggage porter or a bellman to pick up the tickets. In addition, they handle complaints from guests regarding the work of their department, and take care of re quests for unusual services. At times, bell captains also may per form the duties of bellmen. Superintendents of service— found in only a few hotels with large service departments— su pervise elevator operators and starters, doormen, and washroom attendants, as well as bellmen and bell captains. Train in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent No specific e d u c a t i o n a l re quirements exist for bellman jobs. Graduation from high school, however, enhances a bell man’s opportunities for promo tion to front office clerical jobs. (See statement on Front Office Clerks in this chapter.) In many hotels, bellman jobs are filled by promoting elevator operators. In the service depart ment of the hotel, the line of pro motion is from bellman to bell captain to superintendent of serv ice. Some of the factors which may affect a bellman’s chances for advancement are a favorable work record showing few com plaints by guests, good work hab its, and leadership qualities. Since there is only one bell cap tain’s position in each hotel, a number of years may pass before an opening occurs. Opportunities for advancement to superintend ent of service are even more limited. Since bellmen are in frequent contact with the public, it is im portant that they be neat, tact Nearly a thousand openings for bellmen are expected each year through the 1970’s, due to growth deaths, and retirements. Many additional openings also will be created as bellmen transfer to other occupations. Since many hotels promote from within by advancing men elevator operators to bellman jobs, chances for out siders to enter year-round jobs as bellmen will be best in hotels which employ women as elevator operators, and in the increasing number of hotels which have au tomatic elevators. Many opportu nities for temporary jobs also will arise in resort hotels which are open only part of the year and hire college students and other young men. Beginners also will be needed in small hotels to replace experienced bellmen who shift to jobs in luxury hotels where earn ings from tips may be higher. Competition among employed bellmen for the relatively few bell captain jobs that will become available in the future is expect ed to remain keen. The number of bellmen em ployed is expected to increase slowly through the 1970’s. Some additional jobs will be created as new hotels and motor hotels are built, and additions are made to existing hotels. The fast growing motel business also will provide some additional jobs; however, because of the type of construc tion and the emphasis on infor mality, relatively few motels em ploy bellmen. See introductory section to this chapter for information on Earn- 805 HOTEL OCCUPATIONS perform bookkeeping functions or assist cashiers with their clerical work. ings and Working Conditions, Sources of Additional Informa tion, and for additional informa tion on Employment Outlook. Train in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent FRONT OFFICE CLERKS (D.O.T. 242.368) N ature of th e W ork Hotels and motels employ front office clerks to greet guests, rent rooms, handle mail, and do other work related to assigning rooms. More than 50,000 such workers were employed in the Nation’s lodging places in 1968. By working “ up front,” they deal directly with the public and help build an establishment’s reputa tion for courteous and efficient service. In small hotels and in many motels, a front office clerk (who may be the owner) may not only rent rooms, issue keys, sort mail, and give information, but also do some bookeeping and act as cashier. On the other hand, large hotels usually employ sev eral front office clerks, who may be assigned to different kinds of jobs. Room or desk clerks rent the available rooms. Customarily, they are the first of the front of fice clerical staff to greet guests. In assigning rooms, they must be aware of advance registrations, consider any preferences guests may express, and at the same time try to obtain maximum reve nues for the hotel. Room clerks give information about rates and the types of services available, and see that guests fill out regis tration forms properly. After reg istration is completed, room clerks signal bellmen to carry guests’ l u g g a g e . Reservationclerks acknowledge room reser vations by mail or telephone, type out registration forms, and notify the room clerk when guests are due to arrive. To keep room assignment records current, rack clerks insert or remove forms indicating the time when rooms become occupied or vacant, or when they are closed for repairs. They also keep housekeepers, telephone operators, and other p e r s o n n e l informed about changes in room occupancy. Other special clerks, such as key, mail, and information clerks, are employed in some hotels. In the largest hotels floor supervisors or floor clerks are assigned to each floor to handle the distribution of mail and packages and per form other incidental duties. In all but the largest hotels and motels, front office clerks may be responsible for a com bination of these various duties. They may have other duties as well, particularly when they work on late evening shifts. For ex ample, the night room clerk may High school graduates who have some clerical aptitude and the personal characteristics nec essary for dealing with the public may be hired for beginning jobs as mail, information, or key clerks. Neatness, a courteous and friendly manner, and ease in dealing with people are impor tant personal traits for front of fice clerks. Typing and bookkeep ing courses given in high school may be helpful, particularly for nightshift work where additional clerical duties often are perform ed, or for jobs in smaller hotels and motels, where the front office clerks often have a variety of duties. Although education be yond high school generally is not required for front office work, ho tel employers are attaching greater importance to college training in selecting personnel who may be advanced later to managerial positions. Front office clerks may improve their oppor tunities for promotion by taking home study courses, such as those sponsored by the Educational In stitute of the American Hotel and Motel Association. Inexperienced workers learn about the front office routine mainly through on-the-job ex perience. They usually have a brief initial training period dur ing which their duties are de scribed, and they are given infor mation about the hotel, such as the location of rooms and the types of services offered. After new employees begin working, they receive help from the assist ant manager or some experienced front office worker. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 806 Front office workers usually start as key clerks or mail clerks, or in other fairly routine jobs. Occasionally, employees in other types of related work— for exam ple, bellmen or elevator operators — may be transferred to front of fice jobs. Most hotels have a promotion-from-within policy for front office workers. A typical line of promotion might be from key or rack clerk to room clerk, to assistant front office manager, and later to front office manager. (See statement on Hotel Man agers and Assistants later in this chapter.) E m ploym ent O utlook Employment in this occupation is expected to increase moderate ly through the 1970’s. Many openings will result from the need to replace workers who are promoted to higher level jobs or transfer to other occupations. In addition, new front office jobs will be created in the hundreds of motels and motor hotels ex pected to open or expand in the next decade. A front office clerk has rela tively stable employment. Em ployment in this occupation does not contract as sharply with changes in general economic con ditions as does employment in many other hotel occupations. However, the introduction of computerized reservation systems may change the duties of some front office clerks. See the introductory section to this chapter for information on Earnings and Working Condi tions, Sources of Additional In formation, and for additional in formation on Employment Out look. HOTEL HOUSEKEEPERS AND ASSISTANTS (D.O.T. 321.138) N atu re of th e W ork Hotel housekeepers are respon sible for keeping hotels clean and attractive. They account for furn ishings and supplies; and hire, train, and supervise the maids, linen and laundry workers, housemen, seamstresses, and re pairmen. In addition, they keep employee records and perform other duties which vary with the size and type of the hotel. Those employed in middle-size and small hotels not only supervise the cleaning staffs but also may do some of their work. In large hotels and smaller luxury-type hotels, the duties of executive or head housekeepers are primarily administrative. Besides supervis ing a staff which may number in the hundreds, they prepare the budget for the housekeeping de partment; make regular reports to the manager on the condition of rooms, needed repairs, and suggested improvements; pur chase or assist in purchasing sup plies; and have responsibility for interior decorating work. Some executive housekeepers employed by large hotel chains may have special assignments such as re organizing housekeeping proced ures in an established hotel or setting up the housekeeping de partment in a new or newly ac quired hotel. In many hotels, executive housekeepers are assisted by floor housekeepers who supervise the work on one or more floors. Large hotels also may employ assistant executive housekeepers. More than 25,000 hotel housekeepers were employed in 1968, most of them women. Housekeepers check linen supplies. 807 HOTEL OCCUPATIONS Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Although no specific educa tional requirements exist for housekeepers, most employers prefer applicants who have at least a high school diploma. Ex perience is also an asset in ob taining a hotel housekeeping job. Specialized training in hotel administration, including courses in housekeeping, was available at several colleges in 1968. Some universities offer short summer courses or conduct evening classes in cooperation with the National Executive Housekeepers Associa tion. In addition, the Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Association also offers housekeeping oriented courses for class or individual home study. The most helpful courses are those emphasizing housekeeping procedures, personnel manage ment, budget preparation, inter ior decorating, and the purchase, use, and care of different types of equipment and fabrics. Em ploym ent O utlook More than 2,000 openings for hotel housekeepers and their as sistants are expected annually through the 1970’s. Most open ings will result from the need to replace workers who retire or leave the occupation for other reasons. However, some new po sitions for housekeepers will be come available in newly built ho tels and the growing number of large motor hotels and luxury motels. In established hotels, most openings for assistant housekeepers will be filled from within by promoting maids. Sim ilarly, vacancies for executive housekeepers often will be filled by promoting assistant house keepers. However, since only one top job as executive housekeeper exists in each hotel, many years may pass before an opening of this kind occurs in a given hotel. Experienced hotel housekeepers also will find employment oppor tunities in hospitals, clubs, col lege dormitories, and a variety of welfare institutions. See introduction to this chap ter for information on Earnings and Working Conditions, Sources of Additional Information, and for additional information on Em ployment Outlook. HOTEL MANAGERS AND ASSISTANTS (D.O.T. 163.118 and 187.118 and .168) Manager checks convention reservations. N atu re of th e W ork Hotel and motel managers are responsible for operating their establishments profitably and at the same time, providing maxi mum comfort for their guests. Of the more than 150,000 hotel and motel managers employed in 1968, about 70,000 were salaried and more than 80,000 were own er-managers. Managers direct and coordinate the activities of the front office, kitchen, din ing rooms, and the various hotel departments, such as housekeep ing, accounting, personnel, pur chasing, publicity, and mainte nance. They make decisions on room rates, establish credit pol icy, and have final responsibility for dealing with many other kinds of problems that arise in operat ing their hotels or motels. Like other managers of business enter prises, they also may spend con siderable time conferring with business and social groups and participating in community af fairs. In small hotels, the manager also may perform much of the front office clerical work. In the smallest hotels and in many mo tels, the owners— sometimes a family team— do all the work necessary to operate the business. The general manager of a large hotel may have several assistants who manage one department or more and assume general admin istrative responsibility when the manager is absent. Because pre paring and serving food is impor tant in the operation of most large hotels, a special manager usually is in charge of this de partment. Managers of large ho tels usually employ a special as sistant, known as a sales man ager, whose job it is to promote maximum use of hotel facilities. The sales manager spends much time traveling about the country explaining to various groups the facilities his hotel can offer for meetings, banquets, and conven tions. 808 Since large hotel chains often centralize activities such as pur chasing supplies and equipment and planning employee training programs, managers of these ho tels may have fewer duties than managers of independently own ed hotels. Hotel chains may as sign managers to help organize work in a newly acquired hotel, or may transfer them to establish hotels in different cities or in foreign countries. T rain in g , O th er Q ualificatio ns, and A dvancem ent Since most hotels promote from within, individuals who have proven their ability, usually in front office jobs, may be pro moted to assistant manager posi tions and eventually to general manager. Although successful hotel ex perience is generally the first con sideration in selecting managers, employers increasingly emphasize a college education. Many believe the best educational preparation is provided by the colleges which offer a specialized 4-year cur riculum in hotel and restaurant administration. Specialized courses in hotel work, available in a few junior colleges, and study courses given by the Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Association, are also helpful. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK In colleges offering a special ized 4-year curriculum in hotel management, the courses include hotel administration, hotel ac counting, economics, food service management and catering, and hotel maintenance engineering. Students are encouraged to spend their summer vacations working in hotel or restaurant jobs— for example, as busboys or bellmen, room clerks, or assistant man agers. The experience gained in these jobs and the contacts with employers may enable young people to obtain better hotel po sitions after graduation. In addi tion, students are encouraged to study foreign languages and other subjects of cultural value such as history, philosophy, and litera ture. College graduates who have majored in hotel administration usually begin their hotel careers as front office clerks; after ac quiring the necessary experience, they may advance to top man agerial positions. An increasing number of employers require some experience in food operations. Hotel chains may offer better op portunities for advancement than independent hotels, since vacan cies may arise in any hotel of the chain, as well as on the central management staff. Some large hotel organizations have established special programs for management trainees who are college graduates or for less highly trained personnel pro moted from within. These pro grams consist mainly of on-thejob training assignments in which the trainee is rotated among jobs in the various hotel departments. In addition, some large hotels provide financial assistance to outstanding employees for college study. E m ploym ent O utlook Well-qualified young people will find favorable opportunities through the 1970’s to obtain en try positions that offer the pos sibility of promotion to manage rial work. Young men applicants who have college degrees in hotel administration will have an ad vantage in seeking such entry positions and later advancement. Many openings for management personnel also will result from the need to fill vacancies resulting from turnover. The number of hotel managers is expected to increase moderate ly during the 1970’s. New posi tions will arise as additional ho tels are built, and as the number of motor hotels and luxury motels expand. See the introductory section of this chapter for information on Earnings and Working Condi tions, Sources of Additional In formation, and for additional in formation on Employment Out look. GOVERNMENT Government service, one of the Nation’s largest fields of employ ment, provided jobs for 12.2 mil lion civilian workers in 1968— about 1 out of 6 persons employ ed in the United States. More than three-fourths of these work ers are employed by State or local governments (county, city, town, village, or other local gov ernment division); and almost one-fourth work for the Federal Government, in the continental United States. In addition, a rela tively small number of U.S. citi zens work for the Federal govern ment overseas. Rapid growth is ex pected in State and local govern ment employment, continuing the trend in the post-World War II period. Only a small increase is expected in Federal employment. Large numbers of job opptunities will arise in Federal, State, and local governments from the need to replace workers who retire, or die, or leave government service. Hundreds of thousands of in dividuals will be needed each year for jobs in a wide variety of occupations. Government employees are a significant part of the nonagricultural work force in every State. Their jobs are found not only in capital cities, county seats, and metropolitan areas, but also in small towns and villages, and even in remote and isolated places such as lighthouse install ations and forest ranger stations. Governm ent Activities and O ccupations More than one-third of all gov ernment workers are engaged in providing educational services (chart 37); the majority are in schools and colleges supported by State and local governments. In addition to teachers, employees in this field include administra tive and clerical workers, mainte nance workers, librarians, dieti tians, nurses, and counselors. The great majority of workers in edu cational services are employed in elementary and s e c o n d a r y schools. M ajor Areas O f G o vernm ent Em ploym ent MILLION EMPLOYEES, 1968 2 3 ________ I EDUCATION NATIONAL DEFENSE & INTERNAT’L RELATIONS HEALTH & HOSPITALS POSTAL SERVICE HIGHWAYS POLICE PROTECTION NATURAL RESOURCES GENERAL CONTROL FINANCIAL ADMIN. ALL OTHER SOURCE: BU REAU OF TH E C EN SUS STATE & LOCAL GOVERNMENTS FEDERAL GOVERNMENT The second largest group of government workers is engaged in national defense activities. This group, numbering more than a million employees, includes ci vilians working in the Depart ment of Defense and a few other defense-related agencies such as the Atomic Energy Commission. Within this group are adminis trative and clerical employees, doctors, nurses, teachers, engi neers, scientists, technicians, and craftsmen and other manual workers. Employees in this group work in offices, research labora tories, navy yards, arsenals, and missile launching sites, and in hospitals and schools run by the military services. Large concentrations of em ployees are found in health serv ices and hospitals, the postal service, and highway work. Work ers are employed also by govern ment agencies in activities such as housing and community devel opment, police and fire protec tion, social security and public welfare services, transportation and public utilities, conservation of natural resources, tax enforce ment and other financial func tions, as well as in general ad ministrative, judicial, and legis lative activities. Most employees in the health and hospital fields, in highway work, and in police and fire pro tection activities work for State and local government agencies. On the other hand, jobs in na tional defense and in the postal service are Federal, as are over half the jobs concerned with nat ural resources, such as those in the National Park and Forest Service. Although the many different governmental activities require a diversified work force having many different levels of educa809 810 tion, training, and skill, the ma jority of government employees are white-collar workers. Among the largest white-collar occupational groups are teachers, administrators, postal clerks, and office workers such as stenog raphers, typists, and clerks. Some important occupations and occupational groups among service, craft, and other manual workers are aircraft and automo tive mechanics and repairmen; policemen; firemen; truckdrivers; skilled maintenance workers (for example, carpenters, painters, plumbers, and electricians); cus todial workers; and laborers. The wide variety of govern OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ment functions requires em ployees in many different occu pations. Because of the special character of many government activities, the occupational dis tribution of employment is very different from that in private in dustry, as shown in the distribu tions of employment in 1968 which follow: Percent of — Gov- Nongov ernment ernment employ- employ ment1 ment Total ................ White-collar workers. . 6 Professional and technical ........... Managers, officials, and proprietors Clerical ................ Sales .................... 100 6 100 37 10 44 6 11 23 (2) 16 7 Percent of — Gov- Nongov ernment ernment employ- employ ment1 ment Blue-collar workers .... 16 Craftsmen, foremen ............ 7 Operatives ........... 5 Nonfarm laborers 4 Service workers............. 18 (2) Farm workers ............ 40 14 21 5 11 5 1 Data excluded overseas Federal employment. 2 Less than 0.5 percent. N ote: Because o f rounding, sums o f individ ual items m ay not equal totals. The following chapters discuss opportunities for civilian employ ment in the major divisions of government and in the various branches of the Armed Forces. A separate chapter gives detailed information on post office occu pations. F E D E R A L C IV IL IA N G O V E R N M E N T The Federal Government, the largest employer in the United States, had about 2.7 million ci vilian workers in 1968. In addi tion, it employed about 60,000 U.S. citizens abroad. Federal em ployees are engaged in occupa tions representing nearly every kind of job in private employ ment, as well as some unique to the Federal Government such as postal clerk, border patrolman, immigration inspector, foreign service officer, and Internal Revenue agent. Practically all Federal employees work for the departments and agencies that make up the executive branch of the government. The others are employed in the legislative and judicial branches. The executive branch includes the Office of the President, the 12 departments with cabinet rep resentation, and a number of in dependent agencies, commissions, and boards. This branch is re sponsible for activities such as administering Federal laws, han dling international relations; con serving natural resources, treat ing and rehabilitating disabled veterans, delivering the mail, conducting scientific research, maintaining the flow of supplies to the Armed Forces, and ad ministering other programs to promote the health and welfare of the people of the United States. The Department of Defense, which includes the Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, is the largest agency; it employed about 1.1 million ci vilian workers in the United States in 1968; the Post Office Department employed about 735,000. The Veterans Adminis tration, the Department of Agri culture, and the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare each had more than 100,000 workers. The remaining em ployees of the executive branch were distributed among more than 80 departments, agencies, commissions, offices, and boards. There were about 28,000 em ployees in the legislative branch, which includes the Congress, the Government Printing Office, the General Accounting Office, and the Library of Congress. Almost 7,000 persons were employed by the judicial branch, which in cludes the Supreme Court and the other United States courts. The Federal Government em ploys almost 2 million whitecollar workers, including postal workers. Entrance requirements for white-collar jobs vary widely. Entrants into professional oc cupations are required to have highly specialized knowledge in a specified field, as evidenced by completion of a prescribed col lege course of study or, in many cases, the equivalent in experi ence. Occupations typical of this group are attorney, physicist, and engineer. Entrants into administrative and managerial occupations usu ally are not required to have knowledge of a specialized field, but rather, they must indicate by graduation from a 4-year college or by responsible job experience that they have potential for fu ture development. The entrant usually begins at a trainee level and learns the duties of the job after he is hired. Typical jobs in this group are budget analyst, claims examiner, purchasing offi cer, administrative assistant, and personnel officer. Technician, clerical, and aidassistant jobs have entry level positions that usually are filled by persons having a high school education or the equivalent. For many of these positions, no prior experience or training is required. The entry level position is usu ally that of trainee, where the duties of the job are learned and skill is i m p r o v e d . Persons having junior college or technical school training or those having specialized skills may enter these occupations at higher levels. Jobs typical of this group are engineer ing technician, supply clerk, clerk-typist, and nursing assistaant. Because of its wide r a n g e of responsibilities, the Federal Government employs white-col lar workers in a great many oc cupational fields. About 145,000 Federal workers are employed in engineering and related fields. In cluded in this total are 80,000 engineers, representing virtually every branch and specialty of the profession. There are also large numbers of technician positions in areas such as engineering, elec tronics, surveying, and drafting. More than 60 percent of all en gineering positions are in the De partment of Defense. Of the 115,000 workers em ployed in accounting and budget ing work, more than 30,000 are professional accountants and In ternal Revenue agents. Among administrative and managerial occupations in the accounting and budgeting field are tax tech nician and budget administrator. There are also large numbers of clerical positions involving spe cialized accounting work. Ac counting workers are employed throughout the Government, par ticularly in the Department of Defense, the Treasury Depart ment, and the General Account ing Office. About 95,000 Federal workers are employed in medical, dental, public health, and hospital work. Professional occupations in this field include medical officer, nurse, dietitian, medical tech nologist, and physical therapist. Among technician and aid jobs are medical technician, medical 811 812 laboratory aid, and nursing as sistant. Employees in this field work primarily in the Veterans Administration; others are in the Defense Department and Depart ment of Health, Education, and Welfare. More than 40,000 workers are employed in the biological and agricultural sciences. Large num bers of professional workers are engaged in forestry and soil con servation work. Others adminis ter farm assistance programs. Technicians and aid-assistant oc cupations include biology tech nician, forest and range fire con trol technician, soil conservation technician, and forestry techni cian. Most of these workers are employed by the Departments of Agriculture and Interior. In the physical sciences, the Federal Government employs pro fessional workers such as physi cians, chemists, meteorologists, cartographers, a n d geologists. Aids and technicians in this field include physical science techni cian, meteorological technician, and cartographic technician. Most of the 42,000 workers in the phys ical sciences are employed by the Department of Defense, National Aeronautics and Space Adminis tration, the Department of Agri culture, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, and the Commerce Department. Within the mathematics field are professional mathematicians and statisticians, and mathemat ics technicians and statistical clerks. There are also a number of administrative positions in the related field of computer pro graming. Mathematics workers are employed primarily by the Defense Department, the Na tional Aeronautics and Space Ad ministration, the Department of Agriculture, the Commerce De partment, and the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Positions in the computer field are found in most agencies. In the field of law are more than 11,000 employees in profes sional positions, such as attor ney, and others in administrative positions such as claims examin er. There are also many clerical positions involving claims exam ining work. Workers in the legal field are employed throughout the Federal Government. In the social science field there are professional positions for economists throughout the gov ernment; psychologists and so cial workers, primarily in the Veterans Administration, and foreign affairs and international relations specialists in the De partment of State. Among social science administrative workers are social insurance administra tors in the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, and in telligence specialists in the De partment of Defense. The Federal Government em ploys approximately 55,000 per sons in investigating and inspec tion work. Large numbers of these workers engage in admin istrative activities such as crim inal investigation and food and customs inspection. These jobs are primarily in the Defense Treasury, Justice, and Agricul ture Departments. Jobs concerned with purchas ing, cataloging, storing, and dis tribution of supplies for the Fed eral Government provide employ ment for about 80,000 workers. This field includes many man agerial and administrative posi tions, such as supply manage ment officer, purchasing officer and inventory management spe cialist, as well as large numbers of specialized clerical positions. Most of these jobs are in the De partment of Defense. Some 450,000 general clerical workers are employed in virtually every department and agency of the Federal Government. Includ ed within this group are office m a c h i n e operator, secretary, stenographer, clerk-typist, mail and file clerk, telephone operator, and other related workers. (In addition, there are several hun dred thousand postal clerks em ployed by the Federal Govern ment. See the following section on Post Office occupations for further information.) Blue collar jobs— service, craft, and manual labor— provided em ployment to over 600,000 work ers in 1968. The majority of these workers were in establishments such as naval shipyards, arsenals, air bases, or army depots; or they worked on construction, harbor, flood-control, irrigation, or reclamation projects. Approx imately three-fourths of these workers were employed by the Department of Defense. Others worked for the Veterans Admin istration, Post Office, General Services Administration, Depart ment of the Interior, Tennessee Valley Authority, and Depart ment of Agriculture. Within this group are a wide range of occupa tions, including many of the serv ice, craft, and manual occupa tions found in industry. The largest single group of blue-collar workers consists of mobile equipment operators and mechanics. Among these jobs are forklift o p e r a t o r , chauffeur, truckdriver, and automobile me chanic. The next largest group of workers are general laborers, who perform a wide variety of manual jobs. The Federal Government em ploys many workers in machin ery operation and repair occupa tions such as boiler and steam plant operator, machinist, ma chinery repairman, maintenance electrician, electronics equipment repairman, and aircraft mechanic. Skilled construction workers also are utilized widely through- FEDERAL CIVILIAN GOVERNMENT out the Federal Government. In cluded in these fields are jobs such as c a r p e n t e r , painter, plumber, steamfitter and pipe fitter, and sheetmetal worker. Other large blue-collar occupa tions include warehouseman, food service worker, and printer. Many skilled occupations may be entered through apprentice ship programs. To qualify, expe rience normally is not required, but a test may be given to indi cate whether an applicant has an aptitude for the occupation. There are also jobs as helpers for skilled workers such as carpen ter’s helper and machinist’s helper. (Detailed descriptions of the work duties of most white-collar, service, craft, and manual labor jobs mentioned above are pro vided in other sections of the Handbook.) Federal employees are sta tioned in all parts of the United States and its territories and in many foreign countries. Although most Government departments and agencies have their head quarters offices in the Washing ton, D.C. metropolitan area, only 1 out of 9 (about 310,000) Fed eral workers were employed in that area in 1968. California had more than 300,000 workers, and New York, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Illinois each had more than 100,000. About 40,000 U.S. cit izens were employed in foreign countries; and about 20,000 worked in U.S. territories. The M e rit System Approximately 9 out of 10 jobs in the Federal Government in the United States are covered by the Civil Service Act, which the U.S. Civil Service Commission admin isters. This act was passed by the Congress to ensure that Fed eral employees are hired on the basis of individual merit and fit ness. It provides for competitive examinations and the selection of new employees from among those who make the highest scores. The Commission, through its network of 65 Interagency Boards of Civil Service Exam iners, is responsible for examin ing and rating applicants and supplying Federal departments and agencies with names of per sons eligible for the jobs to be filled. Some Federal jobs are excepted from Civil Service requirements either by law or by action of the Civil Service Commission. How ever, most of the excepted posi tions are under separate merit systems of other agencies such as the Foreign Service of the De partment of State, the Depart ment of Medicine and Surgery of the Veterans Administration, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Atomic Energy Commission, and the Tennessee Valley Au thority. These agencies establish their own standards for the selec tion of new employees. Civil service competitive exam inations may be taken by all per sons who are citizens of the United States, or who owe per manent allegiance to the United States (in the case of residents of American Samoa). To be eli gible for appointment, an appli cant must meet minimum age, training, and experience require ments for the particular position. A physical handicap will not in itself bar a person from a posi tion if it does not interfere with his performance of the required duties. Examinations vary ac cording to the types of positions for which they are held. Some examinations i n c l u d e written tests; others do not. Written ex aminations test the applicant’s ability to do the job applied for 813 or his ability to leam how to do it. In nonwritten examinations, applicants are rated on the basis of the experience and training described in their applications and any supporting evidence re quired. Applicants are notified as to whether they have achieved eli gible or ineligible ratings, and the names of eligible applicants are entered on a list in the order of their scores. When a Federal ag ency requested names of eligible applicants for a job vacancy, the interagency board sends the ag ency the names at the top of the appropriate list. The agency can select any one of the top three available eligibles. Names of those not selected are restored to the list for consideration for other job openings. Appointments to civil service jobs are made without regard to an applicant’s race, color, reli gion, national origin, politics, or sex. Em ploym ent Trends and O utlook Assuming defense activities ap proximate the level of the early 1960’s, prior to the Vietnam build-up, it is anticipated that Federal employment will grow at a relatively slow rate during the 1970’s. A number of factors will tend to limit employment in many clerical and blue-collar occupa tions. Among these factors are the Federal Government’s in creasing use of laborsaving elec tronic data-processing and materials-handling equipment and the introduction of improved datatransmission and communications systems. The manpower requirements of the Federal Government will, in general, tend to reflect the de mand for services of an increas- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 814 ing population and the country’s domestic and international pro grams. These demands are ex pected to be reflected in rapidly rising requirements for profes sional, administrative, and tech nical workers. Population expansion will lead to an increased employment of workers such as social security claims examiners, accounting and budget workers, and business and industry specialists. Laws pro viding new or expanded services to the public should result in in creased employment of food and drug inspectors, highway engi neers, and education personnel. Employment in legal and kindred occupations also may increase mainly because of the existence of more laws and regulations to interpret, administer, and en force; and more claims to ex amine for payment of retirement, disability, and death benefits. Federal employment gains in science, engineering, and other fields will reflect the demands of vigorous national research and development efforts in a variety of programs such as space ex ploration, urban development, military weapons, nuclear energy, medicine and health, transporta tion, and natural resource de velopment. The employment of engineers and engineering tech nicians will continue to grow rap idly. Employment of scientists, as well as that of technicians work ing with them, also will increase, and the number of medical per sonnel employed also should con tinue to rise. Job openings resulting from retirements and deaths alone are estimated at about 70,000 each year during the 1970’s. In addi tion to new opportunities due to growth in employment, many job opportunities will become avail able because of the need to re place employees who transfer out of the Federal service, retire, or die. Thus, many job opportuni ties will occur in occupations where total employment is rela tively stable, as well as in those in which it is rising. Earnings, A dvancem ent, and W orking Conditions Federal civilian employees are paid under several pay systems. Pay rates of employees under the General Schedule are set by D is t r ib u t io n o f A l l F u l l -T im e F e d e r a l E m p l o y e e s U n d e r t h e G e n e r a l S c h e d u l e b y G r a d e L e v e l , J u n e 30, 1967, a n d S a l a r y S c a l e , E f f e c t iv e J u l y 14, 1968 General schedule grade Em ployees Number Percent T otal........................................................................... 1,251,603 4,039 56,498 157,986 181,367 154,662 59,377 109,044 17,661 134,165 15,623 128,699 101,536 75,090 34,455 17,003 3,129 903 366 .3 4.5 12.6 14.5 12.4 4.7 8.7 1.4 10.7 1.2 10.3 8.1 6.0 2.8 1.4 .2 .1 (*) Salaries Periodic increases Maximum 130 141 152 171 192 209 233 257 282 310 340 406 480 565 659 761 875 $ 5,057 5,501 5,981 6,684 7,456 8,221 9,078 10,012 11,000 12,087 13,263 15,828 18,729 22,031 25,711 28,923 29,764 100.0 1............................................................................................ 2............................................................................................ 3............................................................................................ 4............................................................................................ 5............................................................................................ 6............................................................................................ 7............................................................................................ 8............................................................................................ 9............................................................................................ 1 0 ........................................................................................... 11............................................................................................ 12............................................................................................ 13............................................................................................ 14............................................................................................ 15............................................................................................ 16............................................................................................ 17............................................................................................ 18............................................................................................ Entrance 1 Less than 0.05 percent. Source: U .S. Civil Service Commission. $ 3,889 4,231 4,600 5,145 5,732 6,321 6,981 7,699 8,462 9,297 10,203 12,174 14,409 16,946 19,780 22,835 26,264 30,239 815 FEDERAL CIVILIAN GOVERNMENT Congress and are nationwide. This General Schedule provides a pay scale for employees in pro fessional, administrative, techni cal, and clerical jobs, and for em ployees such as guards and mes sengers. General Schedule jobs are classified and arranged in 18 pay grades according to difficulty of the duties, and the responsi bilities, knowledge, experience, or skill required. The distribution of Federal white-collar employees by grades, the entrance and max imum salaries, and the amount of periodic increases for each grade are listed in the accompanying table. Employees in all grades except GS-18 receive within-grade in creases after they have completed the required service periods, if their work is determined to be of an acceptable level of compe tence. Within-grade increases also may be given in recognition of high-quality service. High school graduates who have no related work experience usually are appointed to GS-2 positions, but some having special skills begin at grade GS-3. Grad uates of 2-year junior colleges and technical schools often can begin at the GS-4 level. Most young people appointed to pro fessional and administrative po sitions enter at grades GS-5 or GS-7, depending on their aca demic record. Those who have a master’s degree or the equivalent in education or experience usual ly enter at grade GS-7 or GS-9. In addition, the Federal Govern ment also appoints very wellqualified, experienced people at the GS-11 level and above. These appointments are for positions such as psychologist, statistician, economist, writer and editor, budget analyst, accountant, and physicist. New appointments usually are made at the minimum rate of the salary range for the appropriate grade. However, appointments in hard-to-fill positions frequently are made at a higher rate. For example, in 1968 engineers, ac countants, mathematicians, cer tain physical scientists, and those in a few other specialized occupations were being recruited at above minimum rates. Advancement depends upon ability, work performance, and generally, upon openings in jobs at higher grades Craft, service, and manual workers employed by the Federal Government in the United States are paid under the Coordinated Federal Wage System. The pay rates for these workers are fixed on the basis of “ prevailing” rates paid for similar work by private employers in the areas where they work. The accompanying tabulation of Army-Air Force Wage Board pay rates for se1 e c t e d occupations illustrates hourly wage rates in late 1968 for workers paid under the wage board system. Employees in agencies with separate merit systems are paid under acts other than those al ready mentioned. Many of the occupations found in the Federal Government are discussed in greater detail else where in the Handbook, and many include data on earnings in the Federal Government. The standard workweek for Federal Government employees is 40 hours, and the pay schedules are based on this workweek. If an employee is required to work overtime, he is either paid over time rates for the additional time worked or given compensatory time off at a later date. Most employees usually work 8 hours a day and 5 days a week, Mon day through Friday, but in some cases, the nature of the work may call for a different work week. Annual earnings for most full-time Federal workers are not affected by seasonal factors. Federal employees earn 13 days of annual (vacation) leave during each of their first 3 years of service, then 20 days each year until they have completed 15 years; after 15 years, they earn 26 days of leave each year. In addition, they earn 13 days of paid sick leave a year. Eight paid holidays are observed annu ally. Employees who are members of military reserve organizations also are granted up to 15 days of paid military leave a year for training purposes. A Federal em ployee who is laid off is entitled to unemployment compensation Army—Air Force Wage Board Hourly Pay Rates, Selected Occupations and Locations, Late 1968 Location j Laborer Atlanta, Ga.................................................................. $2.24 Boston, Mass............................................................... 2.52 Chicago, 11 1.................................................................. 2.86 Denver, Colo............................................................... 2.68 Hampton Roads, Va............................................ 2.24 Houston-Galveston, Texas ....................................... 2.55 Los Angeles, Calif..................................................... 2.89 New Orleans, La.......................................................... 2.50 New York, N.Y. - Newark, N.J................................ 2.87 Pensacola, Fla..................................................... 2.24 Philadelphia, Pa.......................................................... 2.77 Puget Sound, Wash.................................................... 2.87 San Francisco, Calif.................................................... 2.98 St. Louis, Mo.............................................................. 2.79 Washington, D.C......................................................... 2.73 Electrician $3.38 3.45 3.89 3.40 3.30 3.49 3.78 3.58 3.65 3.63 3.51 3.66 3.78 3.76 3.55 Toolmaker $3.81 3.92 4.33 3.73 3.65 3.87 4.13 4.04 4.01 4.03 3.87 4.03 4.34 4.12 3.92 SOURCE: A rm y-Air-Force W age Board, U .S. Department of Defense. Rates are for the second step of a 3-step pay range. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 816 similar to that provided for em ployees in private industry. Other benefits available to most Federal employees include: A contributory retirement sys tem; optional participation in low-cost group life and health in surance programs supported in part by the Government; and training programs to develop maximum job proficiency and help employees achieve their highest potential. These training programs may be conducted in Government facilities or in out side educational facilities at Gov ernment expense. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information on Federal em ployment opportunities is avail able from a number of sources. For college students, the college placement office is often a good source of such information. High school students in many locali ties may obtain information from their high school guidance coun selors. Additional information may be obtained from State em ployment service offices and many post offices. The Interagency Boards oper ated by the U.S. Civil Service Commission are located in popu lation centers throughout the country. These boards announce and conduct examinations and evaluate and refer eligible appli cants to employing agencies for their geographic areas. They also provide a complete one-stop in formation service so that all in terested citizens may learn of local and nationwide employment opportunities in the Federal Gov ernment service. Information about a specific agency also may be obtained by contacting the agency directly. P o st office occupations The mailman, carrying the fa miliar leather pouch over his shoulder, and the clerk standing behind the stamp window in the Post Office, are the two em ployees of the Federal Govern ment most familiar to the gen eral public. Although we all receive or send mail almost every day, few people realize how many workers are employed by the Post Office Department and exactly what they do. In early 1969, more than 720,000 postal service workers— about 17.5 percent of whom were women— were employed in 44,000 separate installations throughout the Nation. These workers col lected and distributed over 82 billion letters, post cards, news papers, magazines, parcels, and other items of mail. They also provided special mail services such as registration (giving evi dence of mailing and delivery), insurance, and c.o.d. (the collec tion of the price of an article, and the cost of postage from a customer upon delivery). Other services performed by these work ers included selling United States savings stamps and money orders. Although many postal jobs are located in small communities and in rural areas, postal employment is concentrated in large centers of population. About 56,000 post al service workers, or 8 percent of all post office employees work in the metropolitan area of New York City. Other large centers of postal employment include the Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., San Francisco, D e t r o i t , and Cleveland metropolitan areas. O ccupations in the Postal Service Clerks are the largest group of postal workers. Day and night, mail moves from unloading plat forms through the workrooms and out to loading platforms. In the workrooms, mail is sorted ac cording to type and destination. Other clerks who work behind the windows in the lobbies of post offices sell stamps and money orders, register and insure mail, and accept parcel post. In early 1969, about 300,000 postal clerks were employed throughout the country. The city carriers, the second largest group of postal workers (about 200,000 in early 1969). These workers collect mail from street boxes and deliver mail to households and businesses. Rural carriers collect and deliver mail in the country and provide some ad ditional services such as selling stamps and money orders. In early 1969, t h e r e were about 31,000 of these workers. Both city and rural carriers cover as signed routes on regular sched ules. Some city carriers may work exclusively delivering parcel post or collecting mail. A detailed de scription of the duties, training, qualifications, employment out look, earnings, and working con ditions for clerks and carriers ap pears in later sections of this chapter. A relatively small num ber of postal employees deliver only special delivery mail. FEDERAL CIVILIAN GOVERNMENT The “ Star” route carrier trans ports mail under contract with the Post Office Department and is not an employee of the Depart ment. There were approximately 12,500 “ Star” route contracts in early 1969. The length of the routes varied considerably. Most of these carriers use trucks to carry the mail, but in certain re mote areas where there are no roads, some use horses or boats. In all post offices, bulk mail in large, heavy sacks must be load ed, unloaded, and moved about. In small post offices, clerks per form this work; in large post of fices, mail handlers do most of it. Besides handling sacked mail, mail handlers separate the mail into parcel post, paper mail, and letter mail, and bring the mail to distribution clerks for proc essing. They also pick up proc essed mail and put it into sacks. In early 1969, there were approx imately 46,000 mail handlers. About 36,000 postal supervis ors and 11,000 postmasters di rected the work of more than a half million clerks, carriers, and mail handlers in large post offices. About 21,000 additional post Mail handlers are employed primarily in large post offices. 817 masters were employed in small post offices. Approximately 24,000 mainte nance service employees were concerned with the operation, maintenance, and protection of post office buildings and equip ment. About 15,000 of these em ployees were janitors, building guards, elevator operators, and laborers. The remainder were me chanics or craftsmen, such as electricians, c a r p e n t e r s , and painters. The Post Office Department employed nearly 7,000 motor ve hicle operators who drove trucks transporting bulk mail. About 5,500 •other employees main tained the trucks driven by the motor vehicle operators as well as the rest of the post office ve hicle fleet, including more than 69,000 trucks and other delivery vehicles driven by carriers. More than 1,000 postal inspec tors are employed in the oldest investigative agency in the Fed eral Government— the Post Of fice Inspection Service. These employees inspect post offices to be sure they are operated effi ciently, that funds are spent properly, and that postal laws and regulations are observed. Other principal duties include the prevention and d e t e c t i o n of crimes, such as theft, forgery, and fraud involving use of the mail. Another important group of employees is made up of the sev eral hundred workers who service semiautomatic and automatic mail processing equipment. As the mechanization of the Post O f f i c e Department continues, many more of these employees will be needed. The post offices are under the supervision of 15 regional offices located in major cities through out the United States. Approxi mately 3,000 employees in these 818 regional offices supervise opera tions, transportation, and person nel and other functions of the post office. In addition, approximately 1,500 employees in 6 Postal Data Centers perform centralized pay roll, time keeping, and other fi nancial functions. Other support installations include the Postal Service Management Institute that trains supervisors and em ployees; the Supply Centers that fill requisitions for supplies; and the mail bag repair center and mail equipment shops that repair mail bags and equipment. The Post Office Department also employs a small number of engineers, accountants, lawyers, and clerical and office workers, such as typists, stenographers, file clerks, a n d p e r s o n n e l assistants. T rain in g , O th er Q ualificatio ns, and A dvancem ent To qualify for a job in the Post Office Department, an applicant must be a citizen, pass a civil service examination, and meet the minimum age requirements. Generally, the minimum age for post office employment is 18. For high school graduates, the mini mum age is 16, except for jobs that may be considered hazard ous or may require operation of a motor vehicle. Post office examinations have no residence requirements. Ap plicants may specify four offices where they would like to work. Before deciding on a permanent career in the Post Office Depart ment, young men and women may apply for summer employ ment by taking the Civil Service Commission’s Summer Jobs ex amination. Applications are ac cepted from November until Jan uary and the examinations are conducted from December until March for the following summer. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK The clerk-carrier and mail han dler civil service examinations do not require formal education or prior experience. As in other civil service exam inations, an h o n o r a b l y dis charged war veteran has 5 extra points added to his passing grade and a disabled veteran receives 10 extra points. Veterans with compensable disabilities a re placed at the top of the list. Cer tain jobs (guards, elevator op erators, laborers, janitors, etc.) are reserved for veterans. The names of applicants who pass an examination are placed on a register in the order of their scores. The appointing officer se lects one of the top three avail able applicants to fill a job va cancy. Those not selected are put back on the list for consideration for the next job opening. Ap pointments to jobs are made without regard to an applicant’s race, color, sex, marital status, national origin, or religion. Postal employees, like all other Federal workers, are subject to an inves tigation of their moral character and loyalty. Before an applicant may be appointed, he must pass a physical examination. Specific physical requirements differ ac cording to the nature of the work in the various jobs. Many jobs in the post office r e q u i r e considerable physical stamina. Mail handler applicants are required to take a special weight-lifting test. T o sort mail rapidly, clerks must have a good memory for streets and numbers. Window clerks and carriers are expected to be pleasant and tact ful when dealing with the public. Distribution clerks in the large post offices have little contact with the public. However, since they work in large groups in close quarters, they are expected to get along well with co-workers. New postal employees serve a probationary period of 1 year. During this period the employee’s conduct and performance are evaluated. If after training and counseling, his performance or conduct is not satisfactory, he may be dismissed. The amount of training given to a new employee varies depend ing on his job and the size of the post office. On-the-job training generally is provided by the su pervisor or an experienced em ployee. The new employee per forms the simpler tasks of his job from the very first day. T o be come proficient in all phases of his work, however, takes much longer. The new clerk or carrier must practice sorting mail to get the necessary speed and accu racy. In addition, he must learn postal regulations, schemes, and routes. (A scheme is a group of places consisting of States, cities, zones, or streets and numbers arranged for the convenient de livery of mail.) Career postal employees are classified as regulars or substi tutes. Most workers begin as sub stitutes. The positions of clerk, city carrier, special delivery mes senger, mail handler, and posi tions in the vehicle service are initially filled by substitute ap pointment from the civil service register. Substitutes replace regu lar employees who are absent and also supplement the regular work force. As vacancies occur, substi tutes advance to regulars accord ing to seniority. Some jobs, even at the same salary level, may be considered more desirable than others be cause of the type of work per formed, the hours of work, or for other reasons. A vacancy is post ed and employees in the occupa tional group may submit “ bids” (written requests for assignment to the vacancy). A preferred as signment is given to the bidder 819 FEDERAL CIVILIAN GOVERNMENT who meets the qualification re quirements and has the most seniority. Bidding also takes place for a few nonsupervisory jobs at higher salary levels. For promotion to most higher level positions, however, merit, not seniority, is the controlling factor. Qualifications for promo tion may include experience, training or education, aptitude as measured by a written examina tion or performance test, work record, and personal character istics. (The last mentioned is par ticularly important in supervis ory positions.) If the leading candidates are equally qualified, length of service also is consid ered. Opportunities for advancement in the postal service are limited. Most employees start as postal clerks and carriers and continue in those categories. However, they can receive preferred assign ments or routes as their seniority increases. Although opportunities for promotion to supervisor in smaller post offices are limited, the Department under its Merit Pro motion Program permits quali fied individuals in an area to apply for promotional vacancies in a larger area. Em ploym ent Outlook The Post Office Department will hire many thousands of young workers each year through the 1970’s. Most job opportuni ties will arise from the need to replace employees who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Deaths and retirements alone should provide more than 17,000 job openings annually. In addition, some job openings will result from an expected mod erate increase in post office em ployment. As in the past, the volume of mail is expected to grow rapidly during the 1970’s, largely as a result of an expanding popula tion and rising business activity. Employment, however, is ex pected to grow at a slower rate than mail volume because of E m p l o y m e n t a n d S a l a r ie s i n the modernization of postal facilities and equipment that increases the amount of mail an individual em ployee can handle. In advanced stages of development and in act ual use at a few post offices, are a variety of electromechanical and electronic devices and con trols that receive, process, and dispatch mail at a considerable saving in postal clerk manpower. Ten optical character readers which read addresses and sort let ter mail are in operation at eight post offices. Earnings and W orking Conditions Almost all postal employees are paid under the Postal Field Service Compensation Act, under which three separate pay sched ules are provided. One schedule determines the salaries of rural carriers and is based primarily on route length. Another sched ule covers fourth-class postmas ters, whose compensation is based on the number of daily work hours. Salaries of all other postal P o s t a l F ie l d S e r v ic e Employment1 Salary schedules * Level Number Total employees under PFS pay schedule 3 ....... 673,374 Percent of total 100.0 Entrance Periodic increases Maximum 848 6,209 35,874 59,524 471,084 0.1 .9 5.3 8.8 70.0 $ 4,522 4,889 5,286 5,735 6,176 $151 163 176 190 206 $ 6,183 6,682 7,222 7,805 8,442 37,138 12,808 18,426 11,087 8,732 5.5 1.9 2.7 1.7 1.3 6,675 7,216 7,802 8,434 9,101 223 241 260 281 303 9,128 9,867 10,402 10,963 11,828 15............................................................................................ 1,233 2,582 1,413 1,347 965 .6 .4 .2 .2 .1 10,110 11,233 12,473 13,864 15,404 337 374 416 462 513 13,143 14,599 16,222 18,022 20,021 18........................................................................................... 19............................................................................................ 20........................................................................................... 593 237 130 58 21 .1 (4) (4) (4) (4) 17,114 19,011 21,122 23,467 26,071 570 634 704 782 869 22,244 24,717 27,458 30,505 32,154 21............................................................................................ 15 < 4> 28,976 966 32,840 1 On June 30, 1968. * In effect July 1969. * Does not include 47,900 rural carriers or 7,200 postmasters of 4th class post offices. 4 Less than .05 percent. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 820 field service employees are de termined under the third sched ule, the Postal Field Service Schedule (P F S ). The grade level of a position under this schedule depends upon the duties and re sponsibilities, and the knowledge, experience, or skill required. In all three pay schedules, em ployees receive periodic “ step” increases, up to a specified maxi mum, if their job performance is satisfactory. A distribution of employees by PFS level, together with the entrance and maximum salary, as well as the amount of the periodic increases for each grade, is shown in the accom panying table. Most regular postal employees work an 8-hour day, 5 days a week. If a regular employee works more than 8 hours in a day or 40 hours in a week, he is paid at times the regular rate for the extra hours worked. A substitute employee receives overtime pay if he works more than 40 hours in a week. Postal employees, both sub stitutes and regular, receive the same vacation, sick leave, and other benefits available to Fed eral employees generally. They earn 13 days’ annual (vacation) leave during each of their first 3 years of service, then 20 days each year until they have com pleted 15 years of service; and after that, 26 days of leave a year. In addition, they earn 13 days of paid sick leave a year. Other benefits include: Retire ment and survivorship annuities, optional participation in low-cost group life insurance and health insurance programs supported in part by the Federal Government, and compensation to employees injured in the performance of duty. Postal workers are covered by the civil service system and en joy a maximum of job security. Most postal employees have fre quent contact with the public or other employees. Prospective em ployees may choose between out door work (carrier) and indoor work (postal clerk). Some of the work requires physical exertion, such as walk ing, reaching, lifting, and carry ing heavy sacks of mail. Much of the work is also of a routine nature. Most postal employees are members of unions. More than a dozen unions represent postal employees. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information on post office em ployment opportunities and civil service competitive examinations for postal jobs may be obtained from the local post office, the regional offices of the Civil Serv ice Commission, or state employ ment service offices. MAIL CARRIERS (D.O.T. 233.388) N atu re of the W ork Most carriers or mailmen, as they are commonly known, travel predetermined routes delivering and collecting mail. Some city carriers (usually new workers), however, only collect mail from street letter boxes and from office mail chutes. Other carriers drive trucks and deliver parcel post; still others— called rural carriers — deliver and collect mail along routes usually located outside the city limits. In addition, rural carriers may sell stamps and money orders and accept parcel post, letters, and packages to be registered or insured. All carriers answer questions about postal regulations and service and pro vide change of address cards and other postal forms when re quested. The carrier begins his work early in the morning. He spends a few hours at the post office and arranges the mail in the order it will be delivered. He readdresses mail to be forwarded and marks the mail of persons who have moved without leaving forward ing addresses to show how it should be handled. He also pre pares reminders for special mail, such as insured mail that requires a signature by the person receiv ing it. He signs receipts for post age due and c.o.d. mail. When the mail has been ar ranged, it is assembled into bun dles. The carrier’s mail is gen erally too heavy for all of it to be carried at one time. (Thirty-five pounds is the maximum carried.) He therefore makes up larger FEDERAL CIVILIAN GOVERNMENT bundles of mail— called “ relays” — which are transported in trucks by other carriers and placed in storage (relay) boxes at intervals along the route. The carrier starts his route with the mail in a large leather bag, which is carried over his shoulder or in a mail cart. In some cities, a carrier who is as signed an outlying residential route may use a light weight mo tor vehicle. On his route, the carrier goes from door to door and places mail in boxes or through door slots. Mail is delivered throughout resi dential areas and office buildings served by elevators; however, in apartment houses, the mail usu ally is deposited in the boxes located near the front entrances. The carrier collects charges on postage-due and c.o.d. mail and obtains receipts for registered and certain insured mail. When the carrier completes his route, he returns to the post of fice and brings with him the let ters left in mail boxes for mailing, and the mail he has collected from street letter boxes. He then arranges the letters he brought back so that stamps can be easily canceled and turns in the money and receipts he has collected dur ing the day. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent T o be considered for a carrier position, an applicant must be a citizen, meet the minimum age requirements, and pass a civil service examination. To be eli gible for employment, most post offices require carrier applicants to be at least 18 years of age and pass a road test. The same written civil service examination is given to appli cants interested in either city carrier or postal clerk jobs. The written test consists of four p a rts. T h e fir s t p a rt te s ts the a p p l i c a n t ’ s reading ac curacy by requiring him to com pare addresses arranged in pairs and to indicate whether they are the same or different. The second part tests the applicant’s ability to follow oral directions. Part three is a test of general intelli gence, including questions on vo cabulary and reading compre hension. The fourth part deter mines the applicant’s ability to do simple arithmetic problems. Sample questions are sent to ap plicant’s with their notices of ad mission to the written tests. Persons being considered for appointment as carriers are given a road test in which they must demonstrate their ability to han dle, under various driving con ditions, vehicles of the type and size they may be required to operate as carriers. At the time of appointment, the applicant must have a valid driver’s license. Applicants must pass a rigor ous physical examination. Unless a Federal medical officer is avail able, applicants are required to obtain a physical examination at their own expense. They must be able to stand for long periods, lift and handle sacks of mail weighing as much as 80 pounds, and walk considerable distances. Applicants who have a history of disability require special review to determine their acceptability. In addition to good health and physical stamina, a carrier should have a good memory to arrange mail on his route. He also must memorize many postal rules and regulations. Other desirable qual ities for a carrier are a pleasant manner and a neat appearance. City carriers begin as substi tutes and become regulars in order of seniority as vacancies occur. New carriers are taught 821 the procedures for casing mail. Substitute city carriers may be assigned to postal-clerk duties and sometimes may be required to pass examinations on schemes of city “ primary distribution” (first sorting by destination). As their seniority increases, carriers may apply for carrier technician, carrier foreman, and route examiner. When they have sufficient service, they may take the supervisory written exami nation. Em ploym ent O utlook Many thousands of job open ings for mail carriers through the 1970’s will result from the need to replace carriers who die, retire, or transfer to other occupations. Deaths and retirements alone are exected to provide about 4,800 job opportunities annually. Ad ditional job openings will result from an expected rapid in crease in mail carrier employ ment. Most job openings will be for city carriers. Employment of city carriers is expected to increase rapidly as population continues to grow and spread out into subur ban areas. However, such innova tions as the increasing use of mo tor vehicles probably will limit employment growth. Employment of rural carriers is expected to show little or no change in future years. Although new rural routes will be estab lished to provide service in areas where fourth-class post offices are discontinued, many rural routes near large cities will be con nected to city routes as the sub urbs continue to spread. Earnings and W orking Conditions Almost all city carriers begin as substitutes and in July 1969 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 822 received $3.07 an hour. They re ceive an increase of 10 or 11 cents an hour each year for the first 6 years, and every 3 years there after, up to a maximum of $4.20 an hour, if their work is satisfac tory. Regular city carriers were paid on an annual basis, begin ning at $6,176 and increasing $206 each year for the first 6 years, and every 3 years there after, up to a maximum of $8,442 after 21 years of service. Approx imately 9,500 carrier technicians were employed at a beginning rate of $6,675 a year with in creases at intervals to a maximum of $9,128. City carriers receive an allowance for the postal uni forms they are required to wear. Rural carriers are paid a salary based on a combination of fixed annual compensation and the number of miles in their routes. In addition, they receive a main tenance allowance of 12 cents a mile for the use of their automo biles. A carrier with a 61-mile route (the average route length) in July 1969 received $6,651 a year in his first year and $7,887 in his seventh year. The allow ance for the use of his automo bile gives him an additional $7.32 a day. A substitute rural carrier re ceives a base pay for the days he works, and, in addition, receives the same mileage compensation and automobile maintenance al lowance as the regular carrier whose route he is covering. The regular city carrier usu ally works an 8-hour day, 5 days a week. If he works more than 8 hours a day or 40 hours a week, he is paid 1% times his regular rate for the extra hours worked. A substitute city carrier receives overtime pay if he works more than 40 hours a week. Both reg ular and substitute city carriers receive 10-percent additional pay for work between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. Most carriers begin work early in the morning. In some cities, carriers with routes in the busi ness district report to the post office at 6 a.m. The carrier must cover his route within a certain time limit. Most carriers have to do a great deal of walking with a mail bag slung over the shoulder. Even the carriers who drive vehicles have to do considerable walking and lift heavy sacks of parcel post when loading their vehicles. They also may carry heavy packages in making deliveries to business establishments or homes. POSTAL CLERKS (D.O.T. 232.368) N atu re of th e W ork Most post office clerks— called distribution clerks— work behind the scenes and are never seen by the public. These workers sort incoming and outgoing mail in post offices. Other clerks— called window clerks— sell stamps and money orders, and provide other services. In small post offices, the same clerks may do both types of work. After the carriers collect the mail, they bring it into the post office workroom and dump it on to long tables. Here distribution clerks (and sometimes mail han dlers) separate the mail into par cel post, paper mail, and letter mail. They then “ face” (stamps down and facing the same direc tion) the letter mail and feed it into stamp canceling machines. (Many large post offices have machines that automatically “ find” and cancel stamps.) Par cel post and paper mail are can celed by hand. After the stamps have been cancelled, the mail is taken to different sections where other clerks begin a series of sort ings according to destination. Clerks who process letter mail separate it into even finer group ings. They begin by making a “ primary distribution” (first sorting by destination) of the letters. The letters are sorted into a “ letter case” (an upright box with compartments) which usu ally has one or two compartments for local mail, a number of com partments for groups of distant States, a compartment for each of the nearby States, one for each of the largest cities in the coun try, and others. The primary distribution is fol lowed by one or more “ second ary” distributions in which the mail from each compartment in the primary case is sorted in greater detail. For example, clerks gather the local mail from the appropriate compartment in each primary case and combine it with the local mail which has come in from outside the city to be sorted in a secondary case. The clerks who sort local mail must know the streets and street numbers that are included in each postal zone, branch, or sta tion. Mail sometimes is separated further by sections within postal zones so that when it arrives at a neighborhood post office, it is almost ready for immediate de livery by carriers. Parcel post is sorted in the same way as letter mail. How ever, clerks use chutes, convey ors, slides, tables, and bags or other containers instead of letter cases when sorting parcels. Distribution clerk ( machines) is a relatively new post office oc cupation. Clerks in this occupa tion are employed in some of the large post offices and operate electronic machines that distrib ute mail automatically. For ex ample, a clerk using an electronic sorting machine merely pushes FEDERAL CIVILIAN GOVERNMENT 823 Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Postal workers sort letters rapidly with high speed machines. buttons to direct letters auto matically to the proper compart ments. These clerks must know distribution schemes, as do the clerks who sort mail by hand. Distribution clerks have to work quickly because mail must be delivered as speedily as pos sible. Accuracy also is important because placing a letter in the wrong compartment of a case will result in delayed delivery. Window clerks weigh letters and parcels and determine the amotint of postage required. They check packages and envelopes to see if their sizes, shapes, and condition are acceptable. They register and insure mail and sell the postage or collect the charges required for the service. Window clerks also sell and cash money orders, distribute general delivery mail and parcels and other undeliverable mail be ing held at the post offices, and rent post office boxes. They an swer questions about rates, mail ing restrictions, and other postal matters. Occasionally, a window clerk helps someone file a claim for mail that has been damaged. In large post offices, a window clerk will perform only one or two of these services. Thus, in these offices there may be regis try, stamp, and money order clerks. Some of the requirements for entry as a postal clerk are the same as for any post office job and are discussed earlier in this chapter. The written civil service examination and physical re quirements are the same as for carrier applicants and are dis cussed on page — . A special type of examination, including a ma chine aptitude test, is given to applicants for distribution clerk (machines). Good health and a good mem ory are essential for those who want to be postal clerks. The work requires much stretching and lifting, walking and standing, and throwing of packages of mail as well as handling of heavy sacks of mail. Clerks have to memorize distribution schemes and many postal rules and regulations. They also need good eye-hand co ordination, and the ability to read rapidly. The distribution clerk works closely with other clerks, fre quently under the tension and strain of meeting mailing dead lines and should, therefore, be even-tempered. The window clerk is in constant contact with the public, and considerable tact may be required in his replies to questions and complaints. Most postal clerks begin as substitutes and become regulars in order of seniority as vacancies occur. New clerks receive orien tation and training needed to carry out their work assignments. Before distribution clerks are as signed a secondary (carrier sta tion) scheme, they are given either a city or State mail dis tribution scheme, which they must learn primarily on their own time. Most large post offices pro vide classroom assistance during official working hours to help employees learn their schemes. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 824 All distribution clerks are re quired periodically to demon strate that they can adequately work the scheme for which they are responsible. As their seniority increases, clerks may apply for preferred assignments such as the day shift or a window clerk job. When they have the required length of serv ice they are eligible to apply for and take the written supervisory examination. In addition, they may apply for certain higher level nonsupervisory positions. They also may apply for any position for which they are qualified under the Merit Promotion Plan. E m ploym ent O utlook There will be many thousands of job openings for postal clerks through the 1970’s. Most of these openings will result from the need to replace clerks who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Deaths and retirements alone should provide nearly 7,500 job opportunities annually. Addition al opportunities will result from an expected rapid increase in pos tal clerk employment. Employment requirements for postal clerks are expected to in crease mainly as a result of a substantial increase in the vol ume of mail, arising from in creases in population and busi ness activity. However, employ ment is expected to grow at a slower rate than the volume of mail because of technological de velopments that are increasing the amount of mail a clerk can handle. Earnings and W orking Conditions Most postal clerks have the same grade level as city carriers and the earnings information for clerks is, therefore, the same as that presented on page — . Clerks working on the night shift receive 10-percent additional pay. The clerks in large post offices receive higher salaries than those in the small (third-class) post offices. The working conditions of post office clerks differ according to the specific work assignment and the amount and kind of laborsav ing machinery in the particular post office. Generally, distribu tion clerks work in close contact with each other and often there is a spirit of friendliness and co operation within a group. Much of the work is routine, however, and may become boring unless the clerk accepts the challenge of improving his speed and accur acy. The clerk has to do consider able walking, throwing, and reaching. He is on his feet much of the time and may handle heavy sacks of mail. The work of the window clerk requires less physical exertion than work on the mailroom floor. This preferred assignment also is more varied, and has frequent contact with the public, because the work is performed during the day. The window clerk is respon sible for his cash drawer and stock of stamps. He also must keep abreast of changes in postal regulations that affect rates, for eign mail, classes of mail, money orders, registry, and other rules governing the mails and special services. ST A T E AND LO CA L G O VERN M EN TS State and local governments provide a very large and growing source of job opportunities in many different o c c u p a t i o n a l fields. In 1968, about 9.5 million workers were employed in State and local government agencies. Three-fourths of these workers were with units of local govern ments, such as counties, munici palities, towns, and school dis tricts, and one-fourth were em ployed in State government agencies. About 4.8 million employees, or over half of all State and local government workers, were em ployed in public schools, colleges, or other educational services in 1968. In addition to more than 2.8 million classroom and college teachers, school systems, colleges, and universities also employ ad ministrative personnel, librarians, guidance counselors, nurses, die ticians, clerks, and maintenance workers. More than 75 percent of employment in the field of education is in elementary and secondary schools, which are ad ministered largely by local gov ernments. State employment in education is concentrated chiefly in institutions of higher learning. The next two largest fields of State and local government em ployment in 1968 were in health and hospital work and highway work. The 935,000 persons em ployed in health and hospital work include physicians, nurses, medical laboratory technicians, and hospital attendants. Nearly 600,000 workers were employed in highway activities such as con struction and maintenance of roads, highways, city streets, toll turnpikes, bridges, and tunnels. Among these employees are civil engineers, surveyors, operators of construction machinery and equipment, truckdrivers, concrete finishers, carpenters, and con struction laborers. In 1968, about 570,000 workers were employed in general and fi nancial control activities— most of them at the local level. Gen eral and financial control func tions include the activities of chief executives and their staffs and legislative bodies; the ad ministration of justice; tax en forcement and other financial work; and general administrative work. These functions require the services of individuals such as lawyers, judges, and other court officials, city managers, property assessors, budget a n a l y s t s , stenographers, and clerks. Protective services, such as those provided by police and fire departments, is another large field of State and local govern ment employment. Almost 465,000 people were employed in po lice work in 1968, principally by local governments. Employment in police work includes adminis trative, clerical, and custodial personnel, as well as uniformed and plainclothes policemen. All of the 255,000 firemen, many of whom are part-time employees, are employed by local govern ments. Other State and local govern ment employees are engaged in a wide variety of fields— local utili ties (such as water, electricity, transportation, and gas supply systems); natural resources; pub lic welfare; parks and recreation; sanitation; correction; local libra ries; sewage disposal; and housing and urban renewal. These activi ties require workers in many diferent occupations such as econ omist, electrical engineer, electri cian, pipefitter, clerk, forester, and busdriver. Clerical, administrative, main tenance, and custodial workers constitute a significant propor tion of all employees in many areas of government activity. Among the larger groups of work ers engaged in these occupations are clerk-typists, stenographers, secretaries, office managers, fiscal and budget administrators, book keepers, accountants, carpenters, painters, plumbers, guards, and janitors. (Detailed discussions of most occupations in State and local governments are given else where in the Handbook, in the sections covering the individual occupations.) Em ploym ent Trends and O utlook The long-range employment trend in State and local govern ments has been steadily upward. (See chart.) Much of this growth has occurred because of the need to provide services for increasing numbers of younger and older per sons, and because of population movements from rural to urban areas. City development has re quired more street and highway facilities; police and fire protec tion; and public health, sanita tion, welfare, and other services. Population growth and increas ing personal income have gener ated demands for more and im proved education, housing, and hospital and other services pro vided by State and local govern ments. Much of the increase in State and local government employ ment in the 1958-68 period was due to increased employment of teachers and other educational personnel. Expansion in health and hospital services, highway programs, and protective (police and fire) services also contributed to the increase. Rapid growth in State and local government employment is ex pected to continue through the 825 826 1970’s. Employment of elemen tary and secondary school teach ers, however, is expected to in crease more slowly than in the past, as the areas of rapid school enrollment growth shift to higher education. This shift will create greater needs for college and uni versity teachers and administra tors. A larger State and local work force also will be needed to pro vide improved public transporta tion systems; more urban plan ning and renewal programs; in creased police protection; better measures to guard against air and water pollution; and expanded natural resource development pro grams and hospital facilities. New or recently expanded Fed eral-State programs in education, vocational training, medicine, and other fields will increase greatly the requirements of local and State governments for profession al, administrative, and technical personnel such as engineers, scien tists, social workers, counselors, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK teachers, doctors, and librarians. In addition to job opportunities resulting from the expected over all growth in State and local gov ernment employment, large num bers of employees will be needed to replace workers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Most positions in State and lo cal governments are filled by permanent residents of the State or locality. Often, however, it is necessary for State and local gov ernments to recruit outside their areas if shortages of particular skills exist in their areas. parable to those of workers in similar occupations in private in dustry. Earnings of administra tive and professional employees in many areas tend to be somewhat lower than those for workers in similar occupations in private in dustry. The Handbook statements for individual occupations often give salary information for State and local government employment. Salary information also can be obtained f r o m the appropriate agency in each State and locality. A majority of State and local government positions are filled through some type of formal civil service test, and personnel are hired and promoted on the basis of merit. In some areas, broad groups of employees, such as teachers, firemen, and policemen, have separate civil service cover age which applies only to their specific groups. Most State and local govern ment employees are covered by re tirement systems or by the Fed eral Social Security program. They usually work a 40-hour week; overtime pay or compen satory time benefits often are granted for hours of work in excess of the standard workweek. Sources of A d ditional Inform ation Earnings and W orking Conditions Earnings of State and local gov ernment employees vary widely, depending upon occupation and locality. Salaries from State to State tend to reflect differences in the general wage level in vari ous localities. Clerical and bluecollar earnings in State and local governments generally are com People interested in working for State or local government agen cies should contact the appropri ate agencies in the State, county, or city. Local school boards, city clerks, school and college coun selors or placement offices, and local offices of State employment services also will have further information. A RM ED F O R C E S When planning their careers, young men must consider their military service obligation. By knowing the choices available for fulfillment of this obligation, they can better fit their service period into their occupational plans. In many instances, the service activi ties provide valuable vocational training which is helpful in ob taining civilian jobs later on. The Armed Forces also offer many op portunities to qualified young men and young women for life time service careers in many occupations. The Armed Forces are main tained through voluntary enlist ment, supplemented by a Selec tive Service System which drafts young men between the ages of 18 ^ and 26. A young man may enlist in any one of a variety of programs involving different com binations of active service and reserve duty; or he may wait to be drafted for a 2-year period of active duty, followed by 4 years in the reserves; or, if qualified, he may enter one of several officer training programs and discharge his obligation in a commissioned status. Additional choices for fulfilling a military obligation are available in reserve programs. One of these choices allows a young man to fulfill his military obligation by enlisting in the reserves for 6 years, at least 4 months of which are spent in active duty training. These enlistment choices and the draft, however, are subject to change at any time by congres sional action. The alternative choices described here in a general way serve only to illustrate a few possibilities. Detailed up-to-date information can be obtained from local Armed Forces recruiting stations or from publications available at high schools, colleges, and State employment service offices. In 1968, military personnel were distributed among the vari ous services as follows: Army, 1,463,000; Air Force, 887,000; Navy, 745,000; Marine Corps, 313,000; and Coast Guard, 37,000. A majority of all enlisted jobs in the Armed Forces require special in-service school training; on-the-job training is given for the remainder. It is possible for a young man, during his military service, to receive training in elec tronics, aircraft maintenance, metalworking, or other skilled work (See chart 40.) In addition to specific on-thejob training, the Armed Forces provide military personnel with a wide choice of voluntary off-duty academic and technical training programs. Military personnel may enroll in (1) the U.S. Armed Forces Institute (U S A F I), (2) the Resident Center Program, (3) the Group Study Program, or (4) the Military Extension Cor respondence Course Program. USAFI offers approximately 200 correspondence courses ranging from elementary school through the second year of college. In ad dition, approximately 6,000 courses are offered by colleges and universities under contract with USAFI. In the Resident Center Program, civilian institu tions offer courses leading to high school diplomas and college de grees. These courses may be tak en either on the military installa tion or on a nearby campus. The Group Study Program is offered on military installations where local civilian classes are not avail able. The Military Extension Correspondence Course Program provides technical courses in military specialties which are de signed to advance career capa bilities. The Armed Forces also offer training to many servicemen dur ing their final 6 months of service to prepare them for job opportu nities in civilian life. The T r a n sition Program provides counsel ing, training, education, and placement services to the combatdisabled, those having no civilian work experience, and those, in cluding many combat veterans, who did not acquire civilian-re- Types O f W o rk Performed. By Enlisted M en In The Arm ed Forces, 1967 PERCENT 0 5 ELECTRICAL/MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT REPAIRMENautomotive, aircraft mechanics, etc. ADMINISTRATIVE SPECIALISTS & CLERKSsupply, communications, personnel workers, etc. ELECTRONICS- electronics equipment repairmen, radio operators, aircraft controllers, etc. GROUND COMBATinfantry, artillery, tank crews, etc. SERVICESfood service, security, motor transport, etc. OTHER TECHNICALmedical specialists, intelligence, draftsmen, etc. CRAFTSMENprinting, metal working, construction, etc. SOURCE: U .S . DEP A R TM EN T OF DEFENSE 827 828 lated skills while in the service or had no opportunities to achieve high school graduation equivalency diplomas during their service. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Each of the services publishes handbooks describing entrance requirements, training, advance ment, and other aspects of their career fields. These publications are available at all recruiting sta tions and at most State employ ment service offices, high schools, colleges, and public libraries. TECHNICAL APPENDIX This appendix is designed for read ers who wish more information on the procedures followed in developing the conclusions on employment outlook than is presented in the preecding reports on individual occupations and industries. Em ploym ent O utlook Conclusions The sections on employment outlook in the occupational reports present conclusions based not only on informa tion compiled from many sources but also on extensive economic and statis tical analyses. Although the sources used and the methods of analysis dif fered among occupations and indus tries, the same general pattern of re search was followed in all of the out look studies. In preparing the employment out look studies, overall projections of the economy to 1980 were developed to insure that individual occupational and industry studies were consistent. This general analytical framework in cluded projections of the population, labor force, gross national product, average weekly hours of work, em ployment in major industries, and re lated economic measures. All studies of separate occupations and industries were tied in with the projections of the entire economy. The projections are based on the assumption of a relatively full-employment economy. Many individual occupational and industry studies were based heavily on an analysis of past and prospective population trends, including the changes expected in population of school and college age, in numbers of older people, in employment of women, and in the concentration of population in urban and suburban areas. In fields such as teaching, the health profes sions, and many personal services, pop ulation factors have a direct and ob vious influence on employment require ments. They are also of great import ance in many industries—for example, residential construction, baking, tele phone communications, apparel, and retail trade. Many factors besides the size and composition of the population may affect the volume of business and em ployment in a given industry. Con sumer purchasing patterns change with shifts as income levels shift and as new products which cut into the market for old ones are developed. Technological developments not only bring changes in the raw materials and equipment needed in production, but also influ ence the size of the required work force and the kinds of occupations and skills needed. Government policies, such as the size of the defense and space pro grams, and expenditures for research and development, also bring about changes in the types of occupations required. In studying the outlook in each in dustry, the factors having the greatest influence were analyzed and projec tions were made of demand for the intry’s products or services. These pro jections were then translated into estimates of the numbers and kinds of workers required to produce the in dicated amounts of products or ser vices. Taken into account were em ployment trends in industry’s total employment and in different occupa tions, productivity trends, possible fur ther reductions in the workweek, and other factors. The basic data on population and labor force trends, used to project over all employment and to study individual occupations and industries, are from the decennial Censuses of Population, and from the monthly labor force sur veys conducted by the Bureau of the Census for the Bureau of Labor Sta tistics. Data also were drawn from the Censuses of Manufactures and Busi ness conducted by the Census Bureau. Information also was utilized from a variety of sources such as licensing agencies, labor unions, professional and trade associations, and special surveys. Equally essential to the studies of employment trends in major industries were the statistics on employment in nonagricultural establishments, com piled by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. These estimates provide monthly data on employment, hours of work, earn ings, and labor turnover, based on re ports from a sample of industrial, com mercial, and governmental establish ments which together employed about 29 million workers in March 1967. They are available for a great number of different industries for the past quarter-century or more.* * S e e Employment and Earnings and Monthly Report on the Labor Force. Another Bureau program which con tributed to the analysis of future em ployment trends was its series of stu dies of productivity and technological developments. In converting the pro jections of demand for the products of a given industry into estimates of the number of workers who will be needed in that industry, allowances were made for anticipated productivity trends and technological changes. Information on employment of scientists and engineers in research and other activities, ob tained from surveys conducted by the Bureau in cooperation with the Na tional Science Foundation, also were utilized extensively. Still another Bureau project which had a major role in the development of estimates of future employment re quirements in different occupations is the Occupational Industry Matrix. The matrix consists of a set of tables for 116 industry sectors which represent the entire economy of the United States. For each industry sector, the tables show a percentage distribution of employment among about 160 of the most important occupations. The ma trix was valuable in appraising the effects of changing employment levels in different industries on employment in specific occupations. It also was useful in estimating the numbers of workers currently employed in each occupation. Conclusions based on the analysis of information from these many sources generally indicate increases in employ ment and, hence, openings for new workers. Expected gains in employ ment, however, are by no means an adequate indication of the total num bers of job openings that will need to be filled. In most occupations, more workers are needed yearly to fill posi tions left vacant by those who leave the occupation (to enter other occupations or because of retirement or death) than are needed to staff new positions cre ated by growth of the field. Conse quently, even occupations which are declining in size may offer employ ment opportunities to many young people. To estimate the number of openings likely to arise in an occupation, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has studied occupational mobility among selected groups of workers, and of tables of working life, also developed by the 829 830 Bureau. The tables, which are similar to the actuarial tables of life expec tancy used by insurance companies, provide a basis for assessing future rates of replacements resulting from deaths and retirements. The lat ter is affected by differences in sex and average age of the workers in vari ous occupations. In occupations where men constitute the great majority of workers, the rate of replacement for death and for retirement is generally between 1.5 and 2.5 percent. The rate is usually somewhat higher in women’s occupations, generally between 3.5 and 4.5 percent, because so many women leave paid employment to get married and assume family responsibilities. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK The types of information mentioned so far in this section all relate to the demand for workers. To appraise pro spective employment opportunities in an occupation, information on the prob able future supply of personnel is im portant. The statistics on high school and college enrollments and gradua tions compiled by the U.S. Office of Education are the chief source of in formation on the potential supply of personnel in the professions and other occupations requiring extensive formal education. Data on numbers of appren tices from the U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training provide some information on new entrants into skilled trades. Many of the statistical sources and analytical approaches referred to above have been developed within compara tively recent years. The reader should bear in mind that economic forecasting is still in an early stage of development and that at best, it is difficult and un certain. It is necessary to keep in mind also the basic assumptions underlying the forecasts (enumerated on p. ). The Bureau believes that, within this general framework of assumptions, the basic trends affecting employment can be discerned with sufficient accuracy to meet the needs of young people pre paring for careers. Index to O ccu p atio n s and Industries Page Page Able seamen, see: Unlicensed merchant seamen ...................................................... Accelerator operators, atomic energy....... Account clerks, see: Bank clerks.... ........... Account executives, advertising................ Account executives, see: Securities sales men ....................................................... Accountants ................................................. See also: Insurance business.............. Accounting-bookkeeping machine service men ............................................................ Accounting clerks, see: Bookkeeping workers ...................................................... Acidizers, petroleum and natural gas....... Acquisition librarians ................................. Actors and actresses..................................... Actuaries........................................................ 728 635 786 30 314 27 794 465 274 594 234 161 130 See also: Insurance business .................... Mathematicians .......................... Adding machine operators.......................... Adding machine servicemen........................ Adjusters, claim, insurance........................ Administrators, hospital ............................ Adult services librarians............................. Advertising artists and layout men............ Advertising copywriters............................... Advertising managers ................................. Advertising production managers.............. Advertising w orkers..................................... Aeronautical engineers, see: Aerospace engineers .................................................... Aeronautical technicians............................ Aerospace engineers..................................... See also: Aircraft, missile, and space craft manufacturing........................ Aerospace products manufacturing, see: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manu facturing ................................................... Agents, see: Insurance agents and brokers........... Real estate salesmen and brokers..... Agents, air traffic, civil aviation................ Agricultural agents, county................ Agricultural economists ............................ Agricultural engineers ................................. See also: Agriculture............................ Agricultural finance workers...................... 794 125 280 464 795 117 234 31 30 30 31 30 67 206 67 604 601 304 308 708 579 583 68 583 585 Agricultural research workers.................... Agricultural workers ................................... Agriculture .................................................... Agriculture, occupations related to ........... Agriculture teachers, vocational................ Agronomists ................................................. See also: Agriculture.......................... Air-conditioning and refrigeration me chanics ...................................................... See also: Electronics manufacturing.. Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigera tion technicians ....................................... Air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heat ing m echanics........................................... Air-route traffic controllers, civil aviation Air traffic controllers, civil aviation......... Air transportation occupations, see: Civil aviation ...................................................... Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufac turing, occupations in.............................. Aircraft mechanics, civil aviation.............. See also: Aircraft, missile, and space craft manufacturing........................ Airframe mechanics, civil aviation.............. Airline dispatchers, civil aviation.............. Airline traffic agents and clerks, civil aviation ...................................................... Airplane mechanics, aircraft mechanics.... See also: Aircraft, missile, and space craft manufacturing ...................... Airplane pilots, civil aviation...................... Airport traffic controllers, civil aviation ... Aluminum industry ..................................... Analysts, chemical, see: Aluminum industry ............................. Paper and allied products.................... Analysts, systems ....................................... Analysts, investment, see: Insurance busi ness ............................................................ Analytical statisticians ............................... Anatomists .................................................... Animal physiologists and animal husband men, see: Agriculture ............................. Annealers, see: Aluminum industry......... Announcers, radio and television................ Anode men, aluminum industry................ Anodizers, electronics manufacturing....... Anthropologists ........................................... 831 585 584 569 579 584 146 583 448 645 206 448 704 704 691 601 700 606 701 703 708 700 606 693 704 611 615 681 244 794 128 147 583 614 740 612 644 181 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 832 Page Apparel industry, occupations in the....... Appliance servicemen ................................. See also: Electric power...................... Appraisers, real estate................................. Arc cutters, see: Welders............................. Arc w elders.................................................... Archeologists, see: Anthropologists............ Architects ...................................................... See also: Interior designers and deco rators .................................................. Architects, landscape................................... Archivists, see: Historians ........................ Armament assemblers, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft ......................................... Armed F o rce s................................................ Art directors, see: Commercial artists....... Art related occupations............................... Artists, see: Advertising workers .......................... Commercial artists............................... Artists, lithographic, printing (graphic arts) .......................................................... Asbestos and insulating workers.............. Assemblers .................................................... 619 451 719 308 562 562 181 221 178 228 188 606 827 173 173 31 173 512 362 517 See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing ........................ Apparel industry ........................ Electronics manufacturing ....... Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ........................ Assemblers, bench ....................................... Assemblers, floor ......................................... Assembly inspectors, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft ......................................... Assembly mechanics, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft ......................................... Assistant engineers, see: Licensed mer chant marine officers............................... Associate-directors, radio and television.... Assorters, iron and steel............................... Astrogeologists ............................................. Astronomers .................................................. Astronautical engineers, see: Aerospace engineers .................................................... Astrophysicists, see: Astronomers ............ Atomic energy field, occupations in the.... Attendants, gasoline service station......... Attendants, hospital ................................... Attorneys ...................................................... Audio-control technicians, radio and tele vision .......................................................... Audiologists ................................................. Auditors, see: A ccountants........................ 605 622 643 671 517 517 Page Automatic pin setting machine mechanics Automatic-rolling-mill attendants, iron and steel .................................................... Automatic screw machine operators, see: Machine tool operators............................. Automatic transmission specialists, see: Automobile m echanics............................. Automobile air-conditioning specialists, see: Automobile m echanics.................... Automobile body repairmen...................... Automobile-glass mechanics, see: Auto mobile m echanics................................... Automobile manufacturing occupations, see: Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ......................................... Automobile mechanics ............................... Automobile painters ................................... Automobile parts countermen .................. Automobile-radiator mechanics, see: Au tomobile mechanics ................................. Automobile salesmen................................... Automobile service advisors .................... Automobile trimmers and installation men ............................................................ Automobile upholsterers ............................. Automotive technicians, see: Mechanical technicians ................................................ Auxiliary equipment operators, see: Elec tronic computer operating personnel.... Auxiliary equipment operators, electric p o w e r.......................................................... Auxiliary nursing workers, see: Hospital attendants ................................................ Aviation occupations, see: Civilaviation 460 661 438 457 458 454 458 667 457 519 296 458 298 301 521 521 208 278 712 340 691 606 605 725 735 662 134 158 604 158 629 535 340 230 742 106 27 Babysitters, see: Private household workers ...................................................... Backtenders, paper and allied products.... Baggage porters, hotel................................. Ballet dancers................................................ Bank clerks.................................................... Bank managers, branch............................... Bank officers ................................................ Bank tellers .................................................. Banking occupations ................................... Bankmen, printing (graphic arts)............ Barbers .......................................................... Barker operators, paper and allied products .................................................... Bartenders, restaurant ............................... Beater engineers, paper and allied products .................................................... Beauticians .................................................... Beauty operators ......................................... 342 679 803 163 786 790 789 788 783 504 321 678 778 679 323 323 833 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Page Page Bell captains, hotel ..................................... Bellboys, hotel ............................................. Bellmen and bell captains, hotel................ Bench assemblers......................................... Benchmen, optical mechanics.................... Bill clerks, see: Cashiers............................... Billing machine operators............................ Bindery workers, printing (graphic arts) Biochemists ................................................. See also: Life scientists........................ Biological aids ............................................. Biological oceanographers, see: Life scientists ............................... Oceanographers .......................... Biophysicists ............................................... Blacksmiths ................................................. Blanking machine operators, electronics manufacturing ......................................... Blockers, printing (graphic arts).............. Blowers, iron and steel................................. Boardmen, general, see: Commercial art ists .............................................................. Boatswains, see: Unlicensed merchant seamen ...................................................... Body repairmen, automobile ..................... Boiler operators, electric power................ Boilermakers ............................................... 804 803 803 517 529 275 280 514 150 147 205 147 142 147 523 644 508 659 173 729 454 712 525 See also: Aluminum industry .................... Iron and steel industry................ Brickmasons ................................................. Bridge and building workers, railroad..... Broadcast technicians, radio and televi sion ............................................................ Broadcasting occupations, radio and tele vision .......................................................... Brokers, insurance ....................................... Brokers, real estate ..................................... Building custodians ..................................... Building laborers ......................................... Building trades............................................. Bulldozer operators, see: Operating engi neers .......................................................... Bundlers, apparel......................................... Bus boys and girls, restaurant.................. Bus mechanics ............................................. Busdrivers, intercity ................................... Busdrivers, local transit ............................ Bushelmen, apparel ..................................... Business administration and related pro fessions ...................................................... Business machine operators ...................... Business machine servicemen.................... Butlers, see: Private household workers ... 615 662 364 762 Cabdrivers ................................................... Cable splicers, see: Electric power industry...................... Telephone industry ............................ Cable-tool dressers, petroleum and natural gas .............................................................. Cable-tool drillers, petroleum and natural gas .............................................................. Calculating machine operators ................ Calculating machine servicemen................ Cameramen, printing (graphic arts), see: Lithographers ....................................... Photoengravers ................................... Captain, see: Licensed merchant marine officers ...................................................... Card-to-tape converter operators, see: Electronics computer operating person nel .............................................................. Caretakers, see: Private household work ers .............................................................. Carmen, railroad s h o p ................................. Carpenters .................................................... See also: Railroad bridge and build ing w orkers....................................... Carpet layers, see: Floor covering in stallers ........................................................ 430 741 733 304 308 344 374 357 392 622 778 489 425 427 622 27 279 462 343 See also: Iron and steel industry.............. Railroad shop trades.................. Boilermaking occupations.......................... Bookbinders and related workers.............. Bookkeepers ................................................. See also: Bank clerks ........................ Bookkeeping and accounting clerks.... 662 758 525 515 273 786 274 See also: Bank clerks ................................. Bookkeepers ................................. Bookkeeping machine operators, see: Bank Clerks ......................................... Office machine operators .................. Bookkeeping machine servicemen ............ Bookkeeping workers ................................. Bookmobile librarians ................................. Boring machine operators, see: Machine tool operators........................................... B otanists........................................................ Bowling-pin-machine m echanics................ Box office cashiers....................................... Brake mechanics, see: Automobile me chanics ...................................................... Brakemen, railroad ..................................... Branch bank managers ............................... Bricklayers ................................................... 786 274 786 280 465 273 234 438 146 460 275 458 753 790 364 716 770 593 593 280 465 512 507 724 277 343 757 367 762 381 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 834 Page Cartographers, see: Geographers .............. Caseworkers, social ..................................... Cash accounting clerks, see: Cashiers....... Cash register servicemen............................ Cashiers ........................................................ Cashiers, restaurant..................................... Casting operators, see: Aluminum indus try .............................................................. Casualty insurance agents ........................ Catalogers, see: Librarians........................ Catholic priests ........................................... Cement finishers ......................................... Cement masons ........................................... Cementers, petroleum and natural gas.... Central office craftsmen, telephone......... Central office equipment installers, tele phone .............. Central office operators, telephone........... Central office repairmen, telephone......... Central office supervisors, see: Telephone operators .................................................... Ceramic engineers ....................................... Certified public accountants .................... Chainmen, see: Surveyors ........................ Chaplains, see: Clergy................................. Charging machine operators, iron and steel ............................................................ Check encoders, see: Bank clerks.............. Check inscribers, see: Bank clerks............ Check-out clerks, see: Cashiers ................ Checkers, apparel industry........................ Checkers, see: D raftsm en.......................... Checkers, insurance policy ........................ Checkers, motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ......................................... Chefs, see: Cooks and chefs........................ Chemical analyst, see: Aluminum industry ............................. Paper and allied products.................. Chemical engineers ..................................... 185 255 275 465 275 778 613 304 234 45 370 370 594 766 768 290 766 291 68 28 258 41 659 787 787 275 622 211 795 672 325 615 681 69 See also: Aluminum industry .................... Atomic energy fie ld .................... Industrial chemical industry..... Paper and allied products indus-. try ............................................. Chemical mixers, see: Photographic labo ratory occupations................................... Chemical oceanographers .......................... Chemical operators, industrial chemical.... Chemical technicians................................... Chemists ........................................................ 615 631 652 681 548 142 650 206 152 See also: Aluminum industry .................... 615 Page Atomic energy field .................... Electronics manufacturing ....... Industrial chemical industry..... Iron and steel industry................ Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ........................ Paper and allied products......... Petroleum and natural gas pro duction and processing............ Petroleum refining...................... Chief cook, see: Unlicensed merchant sea men ............................................................ Chief engineers, see: Licensed merchant marine officers ......................................... Chief engineers, radio and television...... Chief mate, see: Licensed merchant ma rine officers................................................ Chief mechanics, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft .................................................. Chief operators, telephone.......................... Chief steward, see: Unlicensed merchant seamen ...................................................... Child psychologists ..................................... Child welfare workers, see: Social workers Children’s librarians ................................... Chippermen, paper and allied products.... Chiropodists, see: Podiatrists.................... Chiropractors ................................................ Choreographers, see: Dancers.................... Christmas club bookkeepers, see: Bank clerks .......................................................... Christmas club tellers, see: Bank tellers.... Cindermen, iron and steel ........................ City carriers, post office............................... City planners ................................................ Civil aviation occupations........................... Civil engineering technicians .................. Civil engineers ............................................. 634 641 652 663 670 680 591 686 730 725 735 725 606 291 730 250 255 234 678 99 101 164 786 788 659 820 261 691 207 70 See also: Atomic energy fie ld .................... Iron and steel industry.............. Civil service workers, Federal Govern ment .......................................................... Civil service workers, State and local gov ernment ................................ Civilian government, Federal .................. Claim adjusters, insurance ........................ Cleaners, see: Building custodians............................. Thread trimmers, apparel industry.... Clergy, the .................................................. Clerical and related occupations............... Clerk-typists .................................................. Clerks, banking ........................................... 631 663 813 825 811 795 344 622 41 271 289 786 835 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Page Clerks, civil aviation ................................... Clerks, insurance ......................................... Clerks, post office ....................................... Clerks, railroad................................................. Clerks, reservation, civil aviation................. Clerks, shipping and receiving....................... Climatologists, see: Meteorologists............ Clinical pharmacists ....................................... Clinical laboratory workers............................ Clinical psychologists ................................. Clothing industry occupations, see: Ap parel industry.............................................. Coil winders, electronics manufacturing.... Coder operators, aluminum industry....... Collar pointers, apparel ................................ College and university teachers................ College librarians............................................ College placement officers ............................ College professors .......................................... Color technicians, see: Photographic labo ratory occupations...................................... Combination w elders............ ......................... Commercial artists ................................... Commercial photographers............................ Commercial tellers, banking.......................... Commodity loan clerks, see: Bank clerks.... Companions, see: Private household Workers ....................................................... Composing room occupations, printing (graphic arts) ............................................ Composition roofers ................................... Compositors, hand, printing (graphic arts) ............................................................. Compressor-station engineers, petroleum and natural g a s ............................................ Compressor-station operators, petroleum and natural g a s ............................................ Computer operators, see: Electronic com puter operating personnel ....................... Computers, see: Paper and allied products..................... Petroleum and natural gas produc tion and processing ......................... Concrete finishers ....................................... Conductors, railroad ...................................... Conservation occupations .......................... Conservationists, range, see: Range man agers .......................................................... Conservationists, soil .................................... Console operators, see: Electronic com puter operating personnel ....................... Construction..................................................... Construction electricians .............................. Construction laborers and hod carriers.... Construction machinery operators, see: Operating engineers ............................... Construction trades, see: Building trades Continuity directors, radio and television Continuity writers, radio and television ... Contractors, building trades .................... Control clerks, see: Bank clerks................ Control room operators, electric power. .. Controllers, air ro u te ................................... Controllers, airport traffic ........................ Converter operators, see: Electronic com puter operating personnel .................... 619 644 Cook/baker, see: Unlicensed merchant seamen ...................................................... 614 Cooks, see: Private household workers.... 623 201 Cooks and c h e fs ........................................... 234 Cooks’ helpers, see: Private household 223 workers ...................................................... Cooperative extension service workers..... 202 Copilots, civil aviation ............................... 547 Copying machine servicemen .................... 561 Copywriters, advertising............................ 173 Coremakers, see: Motor vehicle and equip 241 ment manufacturing .............................. 788 Com and wheat farmers .......................... 786 Correspondent bank officers, banking..... Corrugator operators, paper and allied 343 products .................................................... Cosmetologists ............................................. 503 Cotton grow ers............................................. 404 Counseling .................................................... Counseling psychologists, see: Psychol 504 ogists .......................................................... See also: Counseling............................ 593 Counselers, see: Employment counselers .................... 593 Rehabilitation counselers .................. School counselers................................. 277 Counter attendants, restaurant................ Counters, paper and allied products......... 681 Country collection clerks, see: Bank clerks ...................... •.................................. 591 County agricultural agents ...................... 370 County home economics agents................ 752 Court reporters............................................. 47 Craftsmen, foreman, and kindred workers Crane operators, see: 51 Motor vehicle and equipment manu 582 facturing ........................................... Operating engineers............................ 277 Cranemen, iron and steel .......................... 597 Credit cashiers, see: Cashiers.................... 376 Crew chiefs, aircraft, missile, and space 373 craft ............................................................ 707 794 822 756 707 284 189 97 108 250 Page 392 357 735 735 357 787 713 704 704 277 730 342 325 342 579 693 466 30 671 575 790 680 332 576 55 250 55 55 58 60 778 680 786 579 579 286 347 672 392 659 275 606 836 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page Crop reporters ............................................. Crop specialty farmers ............................... Crystal finishers, electronics manufactur ing .............................................................. Crystal grinders, electronics manufactur ing .............................................................. Cultural anthropologists ............................ Custodians, building ................................... Customer service occupations, electric p o w e r.......................................................... Customers’ brokers, see: Securities sales men ....................................... .................... Cutters, apparel................. Cutters, fur, apparel ................................... Cutters, m e a t ............................................... Cutters, motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ......................................... Cutting room occupations, apparel........... Cytologists, see: Anatomists...................... Dairy farmers ............................................... Dancers ........................................... Dark-room technicians, see: Photographic laboratory occupations .......................... Data-processing equipment servicemen.... Data typists, see: T y p ists.......................... See also: Electronic computer opera tors .............................................. Day workers, see: Private household workers ...................................................... Deck-engine mechanics, see: Unlicensed merchant seamen ..................................... Deck officers, see: Licensed merchant ma rine officers............................................... Deck utilitymen, see: Unlicensed mer chant seamen ........................................... Decontamination men, atomic energy..... Decorators, interior designers and........... Dehydration-plant operators, petroleum and natural gas ....................................... Deliverymen, see: Routemen .................... Dental assistants .............. Dental hygienists......................................... Dental laboratory technicians.................... Dentists ........................................................ Derrick operators, see: Operating engi neers ................................................ Derrickmen, petroleum and natural gas.... Derrickmen, see: Stonemasons ................ Designers, apparel ............................. Designers, industrial ................................... See also listing under Industrial de signers. Designers, interior ....................................... 585 576 644 644 182 344 718 314 622 623 542 672 621 147 573 163 546 465 289 277 342 730 725 729 635 178 593 422 86 84 88 82 392 592 409 619 175 Page Designers, scenic, television ...................... See also: Interior designers and deco rators .................................................. Designers, tool and machine, see: Me chanical technicians ............................... Designing room occupation, apparel....... Detail men, see: Pharmacists.................... Detailers, see: Draftsmen .......................... Detectives, p o lic e ......................................... Developers, see: Photographic laboratory occupations ................................................ Development engineers, radio and tele vision .......................................................... Developmental psychologists .................... Dictating-machine servicemen .................. Die makers, paper and allied products..... Die makers, tool-a n d ................................... See also listing under Tool-and-die makers. Diesel mechanics ......................................... Deisel technicians, see: Mechanical tech nicians ........................................................ Dietitians ...................................................... See also: Home economists .............. Digester operators, paper and allied prod ucts ............................................................ Directors, art, see: Commercial artists..... Directors, college placement, see: College placement officers ................................... Directors, education, radio and television Directors, program, radio and television.... Directors, public affairs, radio and tele vision .......................................................... Disbursement clerks, see: Cashiers............ Disc jockeys, radio and television.............. Discount bookkeepers, see: Bank clerks ... Discount tellers, banking ........................ Dishwashers, restaurant ............................. Dispatchers, see: Civil aviation ....................................... Railroads ............................................. Dispatchers, load, electric light and power Dispensing opticians and optical me chanics ...................................................... Distribution clerks, post office.................. District representatives, electric power.... Doctors, medical ......................................... Domestic workers, see: Private household workers ...................................................... Doormen, h o te l............................................. Draftsmen .................................................... 737 178 208 619 97 211 333 547 737 250 466 680 439 469 208 115 225 678 173 224 735 735 735 275 740 786 788 778 703 746 715 528 822 718 77 342 801 211 See also: 178 Aluminum industry .................... Atomic energy fie ld .................... 615 631 837 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Page Page Electronics manufacturing ....... Iron and steel industry................ Petroleum and natural gas pro duction and processing............ Petroleum refining...................... Drama teachers, see: Actors and actresses Dressmakers, apparel .................................... Drill press operators, see: Machine tool operators ....................................................... Drillers, petroleum and natural gas......... Driver-salesmen, see: Routemen ................. Drivers, intercity buses............................... Drivers, local transit buses........................ Drivers, local trucks..................................... Drivers, over-the-road trucks...................... Drivers, taxi ................................................. Driving occupations........................................ Druggists .......................................................... Drycleaning and laundry routemen......... Duplicating and copying machine ser vicemen ......................................................... Duplicating machine operators..................... Dynamic meteorologists ................................ Earth-boring machine operators, see: Op erating engineers ........................................ Ecologists, see: Life scientists....................... Economic geographers.................................... Economic geologists........................................ Economists ....................................................... Economists, agricultural ................................ Editors, film, television ................................ Editors, newspaper ........................................ Education directors, radio and television Electric-arc w elders........................................ 642 663 591 686 162 622 438 592 422 425 427 419 415 430 415 97 422 466 280 139 392 147 185 134 183 583 737 215 735 562 See also: Motor vehicle and equip ment manufacturing ......................... Electric power linemen.................................. Electric power industry, occupations in the ................................................................. Electric sign servicemen.................................. Electrical appliance servicemen................... Electrical assemblers, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft ............................................ Electrical engineers ..................................... 671 716 709 472 451 606 71 See also: Aluminum industry ....................... 615 Atomic energy field....................... 631 Electronics manufacturing ........... 641 Industrial chemical industry..... 652 Iron and steel industry................. 663 Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ............................ 670 Paper and allied products in dustry ....................................... Electrical repairmen, maintenance elec tricians ...................................................... Electrical workers, see: Shop trades, rail roads .......................................................... Electricians, construction .......................... Electricians, maintenance.......................... See also listing under Maintenance electricians. Electronic assembly inspectors.................. Electronic computer operating personnel Electronic computer programers................ Electronic reader-sorter operators, see: Bank clerk s............................................... Electronic specialists, see: Oceanogra phers .......................................................... Electronics checkout men, aircraft, mis siles, and spacecraft................................. Electronics engineers, see: Atomic energy field.............................. Electronics manufacturing ................ Electronics manufacturing occupations.... Electronics mechanics, aluminum............ Electronics repairmen, iron and steel....... Electronics technicians .............................. 681 481 758 376 481 645 277 246 787 142 607 631 641 639 614 662 207 See also: Atomic energy field...................... Electronics manufacturing ....... Electroplaters ............................................... 631 641 531 See also: Electronics manufacturing Electrotypers and stereotypers, printing (graphic arts) ..................................... Elementary school teachers........................ Elevator constructors ................................. Elevator mechanics ..................................... Embossing machine operators .................. Embryologists ........... Employment counselors ............................. Engine lathe operators ............................... Engine mechanics, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft .................................................. Engineering .................................................. Engineering aids ......................................... 644 See also: Electronics manufacturing Engineering and science technicians....... Engineering geologists ............................... Engineering psychologists, see: Psychol ogists .......................................................... Engineering technicians ............................. Engineers, aeronautical, see: Engineers, aerospace ................................................. Engineers, aerospace ................................... 642 205 134 509 196 379 379 280 147 55 438 606 63 205 250 205 67 67 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 838 Page See also: Aircraft, missile and space craft manufacturing ...................... Engineers, agricultural ............................... See also: Agriculture............................ Engineers, astronautical, see: Engineers, aerospace .................................................. Engineers, ceram ic....................................... Engineers, chem ical..................................... See also listing under Chemical engi neers. Engineers, c iv il............................................. See also listing under Civil engineers. Engineers, compressor-station, petroleum and natural gas ....................................... Engineers, development, radio and tele vision .......................................................... Engineers, electrical .............. See also listing under Electrical engi neers. Engineers, electronics, see listing under Electronics engineers. Engineers, flight, civil aviation............... Engineers, gasoline-plant, petroleum and natural gas ............................................... Engineers, industrial ............. See also listing under Industrial engi neers. Engineers, locomotive .......... Engineers, m echanical................................. See also listing under Mechanical en gineers. Engineers, metallurgical ...... See also listing under Metallurgical engineers. Engineers, mining ....................................... Engineers, oceanographic, see: Oceanog raphers ............................. Engineers, operating, building trades..... Engineers, packaging, paper and allied products .................................................... Engineers, petroleum ............................. See also listing under Petroleum en gineers. Engineers, stationary ................................. See also listing under Stationary en gineers. Engineers, watch, electric power................ Enginemen, petroleum and natural gas.... Entomologists .................(........................... See also: Agriculture............................ Envelope-machine operators, paper and allied products ......................................... Environmental sciences ............................... Etchers, printing (graphic arts)................ 604 68 583 67 68 69 70 593 737 71 697 593 72 749 73 74 74 142 392 681 593 554 713 592 147 584 680 133 507 Page Etching equipment operators, electronics manufacturing ......................................... Ethnologists, see: Anthropologists............ Exchange clerks, see: Bank clerks............ Exhaust operators, electronics manufac turing ........................................................ Experimental machinists, see: Instrument makers (mechanical) ............................. Exploration geophysicits............................. Extension agents, 4 - H ................................. Extension service workers........................... Extras, see: Actors and actresses................ Extrusions press operators, aluminum in dustry ........................................................ Fabrication inspectors, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft ......................................... Family service workers, see: Social work ers .............................................................. Farm equipment mechanics ...................... Farm housekeepers, see: Private house hold workers ........................................... Farm managers ........................................... Farm service jo b s ......................................... Farmers, see: Agriculture .......................... Fashion illustrators, see: Commercial art ists .............................................................. Fashion models ........................................... FBI Special Agents ..................................... Federal civilian governm ent...................... Federal Government occupations.............. Field technicians, radio and television..... Film editors, television................................. Film librarians, television............................. Film numberers, see: Photographic labo ratory technicians ................................... Film strippers, see: Photographic labora tory technicians ....................................... Final assemblers, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft .................................................. Finance, insurance, and real estate......... Finance workers, agricultural.................... Finishers, crystal, electronics manufactur ing .............................................................. Finishers, fur, apparel................................. Finishers, optical mechanics...................... Finishers, printing (graphic arts).............. Firefighters .................................................... Firemen, petroleum and natural gas......... Firemen, see: Firefighters ........................ Firemen (helpers), railroad........................ Firemen, stationary (boiler) .................... Firemen/watertenders, see: Unlicensed merchant seamen ..................................... 644 181 787 644 441 137 579 579 161 614 606 255 475 342 584 587 569 174 238 330 811 811 742 737 737 547 547 605 781 585 644 623 529 508 338 592 338 750 556 730 839 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Page Page Firers, hydrogen furnace, electronics man ufacturing ................................................. Fitup men, boilermaking occupations....... Flagmen, railroad................... Flame cutters, see : Welders........................ Flight attendants, civil aviation................ Flight checkout occupations, see: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing Flight engineers, civil aviation.................... Flight superintendents, see: Airline dis patchers, civil aviation............................ Floor assemblers ......................................... Floor boys and girls, see: Work distribu tors, apparel industry............................... Floor clerks and supervisors, hotel............ Floor covering installers............................. Floor covering mechanics .......................... Floor layers, see: Floor covering installers Floor managers, radio and television....... Floormen, rotary, petroleum and natural gas ................................................................. Floormen, television ...................................... Food checkers, restaurant ............................ Food service managers, see: Hotels......... Foreign exchange tellers, banking........... Foremen ........................................................... Foresters ............................................................ See also: Air-conditioning, refrigera 644 526 753 562 698 606 697 703 517 622 805 381 381 381 736 592 736 778 802 788 353 47 See also: Agriculture ...................................... Paper and allied products........... Forestry aids .................................................... Forestry technicians, see: Forestry aids.... Forklift truck operators, see: Electronics manufacturing ................ Power truck operators............................ Framemen, telephone central office crafts men ............................................................... Free-lance artists, see: Commercial artists Front-end mechanics, see: Automobile mechanics ................................................. Front office clerks, hotel............................ Fur cutters, apparel........................................ Fur finishers, apparel .................................... Fur machine operators, apparel................... Fur nailers, apparel........................................ Fur shop occupations, apparel....................... Furnace installers (heating mechanics).... Furniture upholsterers .................................. 584 681 49 49 645 549 766 174 458 805 623 623 623 623 623 449 533 Gagers, petroleum and natural gas............ 593 Garage mechanics, see: Automobile me chanics ...................................................... 457 Gas appliance servicemen................................ 451 tion, and heating mechanics............ Gas burner m echanics................................. Gas fitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters Gas plant operators, petroleum and nat ural gas .................................................... Gas welders ................................................. See also: Motor vehicle and equip ment manufacturing ...................... Gas-compressor operators, petroleum and natural gas ............................................... Gasoline-plant engineers, petroleum and natural gas ............................................... Gasoline-plant operators, petroleum and natural gas ............................................... Gasoline service station attendants......... Gasoline station salesmen ........................ Gasoline station servicemen...................... General boardmen, see: Commercial art ists ................................................................. General bookkeepers ...................................... See also: Bank clerks.............................. General maids, see: Private household workers ...................................................... General practitioners, see: Physicians..... Geneticists ....................................................... See also: Agriculture................................ Geochemists, see: Geologists ....................... Geodesists, see: Geophysicists....................... Geodetic surveyors ..................................... Geographers ..................................................... Geological oceanographers ............................ See also: Oceanographers ..................... Geologists ......................................................... See also: Petroleum and natural gas production and processing............ Geomagneticians, see: Geophysicists....... Geomorphologists, see: Geologists............ Geophysicists ................................................... See also: Petroleum and natural gas production and processing................. Glass blowers, electronics manufacturing Glass lathe operators, electronics manu facturing ....................................................... Glaziers ............................................................. Governesses, see: Private household work ers ................................................................. Government occupations, Federal................. See also: Post office............................ Government occupations, State and local Government, occupations in...................... Grain farmers, see: Corn and wheat farm ers ................................................................. 449 449 401 593 562 671 593 593 593 535 535 535 173 273 786 342 77 147 584 134 137 258 185 134 142 133 591 137 134 136 591 644 644 384 343 811 816 825 809 575 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 840 Page Page Gravure pressmen, printing (graphic arts) .......................................................... Grid lathe operators, electronics manufac turing ........................................................ Grinding machine operators, see: Machine tool operators ........................................... Grocery checkers, see: Cashiers................ Ground radio operators and teletypists, civil aviation ............................................. Groundmen, electric power........................ Guidance counselors ..................................... Hairdressers .................................................. Hammermen, see: Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing .................... Hand compositors, printing (graphic arts) Hand cutters, apparel................................. Hand sewers, apparel................................... Hand spreaders, apparel............................... Hand trimmers, apparel ............................. Handymen, see: Private household work ers .............................................................. Health physicists, atomic energy.............. Health physics technicians, atomic energy Health service occupations........................ Heat treaters, see: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing ...................... Heaters, see: Iron and steel industry....... Heating mechanics ..................................... Helpers, iron and steel................................. Helpers, petroleum and natural gas......... High school teachers ................................... High speed printer operators, see: Elec tronic computer operating personnel.... Highway patrolmen, see: State police of ficers .......................................................... Highway surveyors ..................................... Historians ...................................................... Hod carriers .................................................. 511 644 438 275 706 716 60 323 671 504 622 622 621 622 343 634 634 77 605 661 448 659 591 198 335 258 187 373 365 399 225 See also: Cooperative extension service workers ..................................... Dietitians ..................................... Home housekeepers, see: Private house hold workers ............................................. Home office underwriters, insurance....... Horticulturists ............................................. Hospital administrators ............................. Hospital attendants..................................... Hospital nurses............................................. Illustrators, see: Commercial artists......... Illustrators, technical, see listing under Technical illustrators. Industrial chemical industry, occupations in t h e .......................................................... Industrial designers..................................... See also: Electronics manufacturing Industrial engineers ................................... 97 252 746 635 612 659 807 801 342 342 806 343 801 584 147 644 137 84 173 649 175 641 72 See also: 278 See also: Bricklayers ................................... Plasterers ..................................... Home econom ists......................................... Hospital pharmacists ..................................... Hospital recreation workers ...................... Hostlers, railroad......................................... Hot-cell technicians, atomic energy......... Hot metal cranemen, see: Aluminum industry ............................. Iron and steel in du stry...................... Hotel managers ........................................... Hotel occupations ....................................... Household workers, see: Private house hold w orkers............................................. Housekeepers, see: Private household workers ...................................................... Housekeepers and assistants, hotel....... Housemen, see: Private household work ers .............................................................. Housemen, hotel ......................................... Human nutritionists, see: Agriculture..... Husbandry specialists (anim al)................... Hydrogen furnace firers, electronics man ufacturing .................................................. Hydrologists, see: Geophysicists ................. Hygienists, dental ........................................... 579 115 342 794 147 117 340 91 Aluminum industry .................... Electronics manufacturing ....... Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ........................ Industrial machinery repairmen................ Industrial meteorologists ........................... Industrial nurses ......................................... Industrial photographers............................. Industrial production technicians.............. Industrial psychologists ............................. Industrial recreation w orkers.................... Industrial salesmen ..................................... Industrial technicians ................................. Industrial traffic managers ...................... Infants’ nurses, see: Private household workers ...................................................... Informal models ......................................... Infrared oven operators, electronics man ufacturing .................................................. Ingot strippers, iron and steel....................... Inspectors (manufacturing) ........................ 615 641 670 477 139 91 242 208 250 252 306 208 265 342 239 644 660 537 841 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Page Page See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing ........................ Apparel industry ........................ Electronics manufacturing ....... Iron and steel industry................ Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ........................ Paper and allied products indus try ............................................. Installation men, see: Automobile trim mers (automobile upholsterers)............ Installers and repairmen, telephone and P B X ............................................................. Installers, floor covering................................ Installers, meter, electric power................... Installers, telephone central equipment.... Instrument maintenance men, see: In strument repairmen .................................. Instrument makers (mechanical)................. Instrument mechanics, see: Instrument repairmen ..... Instrument men, see: Instrument repair men ............................................................ Instrument repairm en................................. 606 622 645 662 671 681 521 773 381 718 768 479 441 479 479 479 See also: Industrial chemical industry..... 652 Paper and allied products in dustry ....................................... 680 Instrumentation technicians ....................... 208 Instrumentmen, see: Surveyors................... 258 Insulating w orkers.......................................... 362 Insurance agents and brokers....................... 303 Insurance business, occupations in the..... 793 Insurance checkers ........................................ 795 Insurance clerk s.............................................. 794 Intercity busdrivers..................................... 425 Intercity truckdrivers ................................. 415 Interest-accrual bookkeepers, see: Bank clerks ............................................................. 786 Interest clerks, see: Bank clerks................... 787 Interior designers and decorators................. 178 International officers, banking..................... 790 Intertype operators, printing (graphic arts) ............................................................. 504 Interviewers, marketing research.............. 34 330 Investigators, FBI .......................................... Investment analysts, see: Insurance busi ness ............................................................... 794 Iron and steel industry, occupations in the 657 Iron workers, building trades....................... 410 Janitors, see: Building custodians .............................. 344 Restaurant industry .............................. 778 Jewelers and jewelry repairmen................... 539 Jig and fixture builders, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft ......................................... 604 Junior high school teachers, see: Sec ondary school teachers .............................. 198 Keepers, iron and steel................................. 659 Keypunch operators........................................ 280 See also: Electronic computer oper ating personnel .................................. 277 Kindergarten teachers.................................... 196 Kitchen workers, restaurant......................... 778 Laboratory technicians ............................... 205 See also: Aluminum industry .................... Electronics manufacturing ....... Industrial chemical industry..... Iron and steel industry................... Petroleum refining .................... Paper and allied products indus try ................................................ Laboratory technicians, dental .................... Laboratory technicians, optical .................... Laboratory workers, medical.......................... Laborers and hod carriers, building trades Ladle cranemen, iron and steel.................. Land surveyors................................................. Landmen, petroleum and natural gas....... Landscape architects...................................... Larrymen, iron and steel............................ Lathe operators, see: Machine tool oper ators .......................................................... Lathers .......................................................... Laundress, see: Private household work ers ................................................................. Laundry room workers, hotel....................... Lawyers ........................................................... Layout artists, see: Commercial artists.... Layout men, advertising............................ See also: Commercial artists.............. Layout men (machine tools)....................... See also: Boilermaking occupations Leasemen, petroleum and natural gas....... Legal secretaries............................................... Lens grinders, see: Optical mechanics..... Letterers, see: Commercial artists........... Letterpress pressmen, printing (graphic arts) .......................................................... Librarians ......................................................... Librarians, medical record.......................... Librarians, tape, see: Electronic computer operating personnel .................................... 615 642 652 663 686 681 88 528 108 373 660 258 592 228 658 438 385 342 801 230 173 31 173 443 525 592 287 529 173 511 233 113 278 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 842 Page Page Librarians, television film.......................... Library assistants ....................................... Library technicians ..................................... Licensed merchant marine officers......... Licensed practical nurses............................. Licensed vocational nurses........................ Life insurance agents................................... Life sciences .................................................. Life scientists................................................ Lighting directors, television...................... Lighting technicians, television.................. Line-haul truckdrivers................................. Line maintenance mechanics, civil avi ation .......................................................... Linemen, see: Electric power industry...................... Telephone industry ............................. Linemen and cable splicers, telephone..... Linen room attendants, hotels.................... Linotype operators, printing (graphic arts) .......................................................... Lithographic artists, printing (graphic arts) .......................................................... Lithographic occupations, printing (graphic arts) ......................................... Lithographic pressmen, printing (graphic arts) .......................................................... Livestock farmers ....................................... Load dispatchers, electric power.............. Loan officers, banking ............................... Local government occupations.................. Local transit busdrivers............................... Local truckdrivers ....................................... Locomotive engineers, railroad.................. Locomotive firemen (helpers), railroad.... Long distance operators, telephone......... Long-haul truckdrivers ............................ Machine designers, see: Mechanical tech nicians ........................................................ Machine molders, see: Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing .................... Machine movers, see: Riggers and movers Machine spreaders, apparel ...................... Machine tenders, see: Paper machine op erators, paper and allied products....... Machine tool operators............................... 737 237 237 724 93 93 304 144 144 742 742 415 701 716 770 770 801 504 512 512 513 573 715 789 825 427 419 749 750 290 415 208 671 411 621 679 438 See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing ........................ Electronics manufacturing ....... Iron and steel industry................ Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ........................ 604 643 662 670 Machined parts inspectors, aircraft, mis siles, and spacecraft................................. Machinery repairmen, industrial................ Machining occupations ............................... See also: Motor vehicle and equip ment manufacturing ...................... Machinists, all-round ................................. 606 477 433 670 436 See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing ........................ Atomic energy field...................... Electronics manufacturing ........ Instrument makers (mechani cal) ........................................... Railroad shop trades.................. Maids, see: Private household workers.... Maids, hotel ................. Mail carriers, post office........................... Mail clerks, post office............................... Mail handlers, post office......................... Mail preparing and mail handling ma chine operators, office machine op erators ........................................................ Mailing equipment servicemen.................. Mailmen, post office..................................... Maintenance electricians............................. 604 631 643 441 758 342 801 820 816 822 280 466 820 481 See also: Aluminum industry .................... Electronics manufacturing ....... Industrial chemicals industry.... Paper and allied products in dustry ....................................... Railroad shop trades.................. Maintenance machinists, see: Aluminum industry ............................. Electronics manufacturing ................ Industrial chemicals industry............ Paper and allied products industry.... Maintenance mechanics, see: Industrial machinery repairmen ............................. Maintenance technicians, radio and tele vision .......................................................... Maintenance welders, see: Aluminum industry ............................. Electronics manufacturing ................ Makeup artists, television.......................... Makeup men, printing (graphic arts)..... Managerial occupations ............................. Managers, advertising................................. Managers, branch bank............................... Managers, food-service, hotel.................... Managers, industrial traffic........................ Managers, range ......................................... Managers, restaurant ................................. 614 645 651 680 758 614 645 651 680 477 742 515 645 736 504 263 30 790 802 265 51 778 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES 843 Page Managers, sales, see: Hotels .................................................... Radio and television broadcasting. .. Managers and assistants, hotel.................. Manipulator operators, iron and steel..... Manual workers ........................................... Manufacturers’ salesmen .......................... Manufacturing ............................................. Marble setters, tile setters, and terrazzo workers ...................................................... Marine biologists, see: Oceanographers.... Marine geologists, see: Oceanographers ... Marine meteorologists, see: Oceanogra phers .......................................................... Markers, apparel ......................................... Market news reporters................................. Marketing research workers...................... Masons, b r ic k ............................................... See also: Iron and steel industry..... Masons, cement and concrete..................... Masons, stone ................................................ Master, see: Licensed merchant marine officers ......................................................... Material handlers, apparel.............................. Materials handlers, motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ....................... Mathematical assistants, electronics man ufacturing ..................................................... Mathematical statisticians ............................ Mathematicians ............................................... 807 738 807 661 417 305 599 388 142 142 142 621 585 33 364 662 370 409 724 622 672 642 129 125 See also: Actuaries ........................................ Electronics manufacturing ........... Statisticians .................................... Mathematics and related fields..................... Meat cu tters..................................................... Mechanical engineers ................................. 125 641 125 125 542 73 See also: Aluminum industry ....................... 615 Atomic energy field....................... 631 Electronics manufacturing ........... 641 Industrial chemical industry..... 652 Iron and steel industry................. 663 Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ............................ 670 Paper and allied products indus try ................................................ 681 Mechanical technicians .................................. 208 Mechanic-attendants, see: Gasoline ser vice station attendants .............................. 535 Mechanics, see: Air-conditioning mechanics ................. 448 Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft man ufacturing ............................................ 606 Page Aircraft mechanics ............................ Automobile mechanics ...................... Bowling-pin-machine mechanics....... Bus mechanics ..................................... Diesel mechanics ................................. Dispensing opticians and optical me chanics ............................................. Electronics manufacturing ................ Farm equipment mechanics................ Floor covering installers...................... Gas burner mechanics........................ Heating mechanics ............................ Oil burner mechanics.......................... Refrigeration mechanics .................... Truck mechanics ................................. Vending machine mechanics.............. See also listing under Service men and Repairmen. Mechanics and repairmen.......................... Media directors, advertising...................... Medical laboratory assistants.................... Medical laboratory technicians.................. Medical laboratory workers........................ Medical record librarians............................ Medical sales representatives, see: Phar macists ..................................................... Medical secretaries ..................................... Medical social workers................................. Medical technologists .......................... Medical X-ray technicians.......................... Melters, see: Iron and steel industry........................ Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................... Mental health occupations, see: Nurses ................................................... Physicians (psychiatrists) ................ Psychiatric aids (hospital attend ants) .................................................. Psychologists ....................................... Social workers ..................................... Merchant marine occupations.................... Merchant marine officers, licensed............ Messmen, see: Unlicensed merchant sea men ............................................................ Metal cranemen, iron and steel.................. Metal finishers, motor vehicle and equip ment manufacturing ............................... Metal pourers, motor vehicle and equip ment manufacturing ............................... Metal roofers ............................................... Metallurgical engineers............................... 700 457 460 489 469 528 645 475 381 449 448 449 448 489 492 447 31 109 109 108 113 97 287 255 108 112 659 671 90 77 340 240 254 721 724 730 659 672 671 405 74 See also: Atomic energy field.................... 631 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 844 Page Page Iron and steel industry................ Metallurgists, see: Aluminunj industry ............................ Electronics manufacturing ................ Iron and steel industry...................... Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................... Meteorological instrumentation special ists .............................................................. Meteorologists ............................................. Meter installers, electric power.................. Meter readers, electric power.................... Meter testers, electric power...................... Metermen, electric power............................ Microbiologists ............................................. 663 615 641 663 670 139 139 718 718 718 718 146 See also: Agriculture ................................... Life sciences ................................. Milling machine operators, see: Machine tool operators ........................................... Millwrights .................................................... 584 146 438 484 See also: Aluminum industry .................... Iron and steel industry................ Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ........................ Paper and allied products in dustry ....................................... Mineralogists, see: Geologists ................................................. Petroleum and natural gas..................... Mining ............................................................. Mining engineers ......................................... Ministers, Protestant ................................. Missile assembly mechanics, aircraft, mis siles, and spacecraft................................ Missile manufacturing occupations......... Missionaries, see: Clergy............................. Models ............................................................. Modelmakers, see: Instrument makers (mechanical) ............................................... Molders, see: Motor vehicle and equip ment manufacturing .................................. Monitors, radiation, atomic energy............ Monotype caster operators, printing (graphic arts) ............................................ Monotype keyboard operators, printing (graphic arts) ............................................ Mortgage clerks, see: Bank clerks ............................................ Typists ...................................... Mothers’ helpers, see: Private household workers ......................................................... Motion picture projectionists....................... 614 662 673 680 134 591 589 74 41 605 601 41 238 441 671 634 504 504 787 342 544 Motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing occupations......................................... Motor vehicle body repairmen.................... Motor vehicle operators, post office....... Music directors, radio and television....... Music librarians, radio and television..... Musicians and music teachers.................... Nailers, fur, apparel..................................... Natural gas processing occupations.......... Natural sciences........................................... Neon sign servicemen................................. News directors, radio and television....... Newscasters, radio and television............ Newspaper reporters ................................... See also: Technical writers................ Newswriters, radio and television............ Note tellers, banking................................... Nuclear physicists ....................................... Nuclear reactor operators, atomic en ergy ............................................................ Nurse educators, see: Registered nurses.... Nurse maids, see: Private household workers ...................................................... Nurses, industrial ....................................... Nurses, licensed practical.......................... Nurses, licensed vocational........................ Nurses, registered ....................................... Nursing aides, see: Hospital attendants.... Nursing assistants, see: Hospital attend ants ............................................................ Nutritionists .................................................. 667 454 820 736 736 166 623 593 133 472 736 736 215 219 736 788 155 631 91 342 91 93 93 90 340 340 147 See also: Dietitians ..................................... Home econom ists........................ Observers, petroleum and natural gas..... Occupational health nurses........................ Occupational therapists ............................. Oceanographers ........................................... Oceanographic engineers, see: Oceanogra phers .......................................................... Odd-job men, see: Private household workers ...................................................... Office machine operators............................. Office machine servicemen.......................... Office nurses.................................................. Oil burner mechanics ................................. Oilers, see: Unlicensed merchant seamen 289 Operating engineers, construction ma chinery ...................................................... Operations agents, civil aviation.............. Operations officers, banking...................... 115 225 591 91 102 141 142 343 279 463 91 449 730 392 707 790 845 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Page Page Operatives, see: Semiskilled workers, in dustrial ...................................................... Operators, compressor-stationpetroleum and natural gas......................................... Operators, resistance welding.................... See also: Motor vehicle and equip ment manufacturing ...................... Operators, telephone ................................... Optical laboratory technicians.................. Optical mechanics ....................................... Opticians, dispensing................................... Optometrists ............................................... Orderlies, see: Hospital attendants......... Ordinary seamen, see: Unlicensed mer chant seamen ........................................... Ornamental-iron workers, building trades Osteopathic physicians ................................... Outside production inspectors, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft.......................... Over-the-road truckdrivers........................ Oxygen cu tters..... ....................................... Packaging engineers, paper and allied products ............................... Painters, automobile ................................... Painters, production ................................... See also listing under Production painters. Painters and paperhangers........................ Paleontologists, see: Geologists ................................................. Petroleum and natural gas..................... Pantrymen and pantrywomen, restau rants ............................................................. Paper and allied products industries....... Paper inspectors, paper and allied prod ucts ............................................................... Paper machine operators, paper and allied products ................................................... Paper sorters and counters, paper and allied products ......................................... Paper testers, paper and allied products Paperhangers ............................................... Parcel post carriers, post office................ Parole officers, see: Social workers......... Parts changers, electronics manufacturing Parts countermen, automobile.................... Paste-up men, see: Commercial artists.................................. Printing (graphic arts) occupations Pastors, see: C lergy..................................... Pathologists ..................................................... See also: Medical laboratory workers Pathologists, speech ...................................... 350 593 562 671 290 528 528 528 95 340 728 411 80 606 415 562 681 519 550 395 134 591 778 677 681 679 680 681 395 820 256 645 296 173 505 41 147 108 106 Patrolmen, see: Police officers ..................................... State police officers............................ Pattern graders, apparel............................ Patternmakers, apparel ............................ Patternmakers, motor vehicle and equip ment manufacturing ............................... Paying and receiving tellers,banking. .. Payroll tellers, banking.............................. P B X installers and repairmen, telephone PBX operators, see: Telephone operators Peanut growers ........................................... Perforator operators, petroleum and nat ural gas .................................................... Performing arts, t h e .................................... Personal maids, see: Private household workers ...................................................... Personnel workers ....................................... Petroleum and natural gas production and processing ................................................. Petroleum engineers, see: Mining engineers ................................. Petroleum and natural gas................ Petroleum geologists ................................... See also: Petroleum and natural gas production and processing.............. Petroleum refining....................................... Petrologists, see: Geologists...................... Pharmacists ................................................. Pharmacist mates, see: Licensed mer chant marine officers.............................. Pharmacologists ........................................... Photocheckers and assemblers, see: Pho tographic laboratory occupations......... Photo-journalists, see: Photographers..... Photoengravers, printing (graphic arts) Photogrammetric surveyors ...................... Photograph retouchers, see: Photographic laboratory occupations .......................... Photographers ............................................. See also listing under Cameramen, printing (graphic arts). Photographic laboratory occupations..... Photographic models, see: Models............ Phototypesetting machine operators, printing (graphic arts) .......................... Physical anthropologists............................ Physical geographers................................... Physical meteorologists............................... Physical oceanographers ............................ Physical sciences ......................................... Physical therapists ..................................... Physicians ...................................................... Physicists ...................................................... 333 335 620 620 671 788 788 773 291 576 594 161 342 35 590 74 593 134 591 685 134 97 726 148 548 242 507 258 547 241 546 239 505 182 185 139 142 152 104 77 155 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 846 Page Page See also: Atomic energy field.................... Electronics manufacturing ....... Physicists, health, atmoic energy.............. Physicists, radiological, atomic energy.... Physiologists ............................................... Piercer machine operators, iron and steel Pilots and copilots, civil aviation.............. Pinchasers, see: Bowling-pin-machine me chanics ...................................................... Pinsetting machine mechanics, see: Bowl ing-pin-machine m echanics.................... Pipefitters ...................................................... 634 641 634 634 148 662 693 461 460 400 See also: Industrial chemical industry.... Iron and steel industry................ Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ........................ Paper and allied products indus try ............................................. Placement directors, see: College place ment officers............................................. Placement officers, see: College place ment office rs............................................. Plainclothesmen, see: Police officers....... Planetable operators, petroleum and nat ural gas ...................................................... Planners, urban ........................................... Plant quarantine and plant pest control inspectors, see: Agriculture.................... Plant scientists, see: Agriculture................ Plasterers ...................................................... Platemakers, printing (graphic arts)....... Platers, electroplaters ................................. 651 662 673 680 224 223 333 591 260 584 584 398 513 531 See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing ........................ Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ........................ Plumbers and pipefitters............................ 605 672 400 See also: Aluminum industry .................... Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ........................ Podiatrists .................................................... Policemen, see: Police officers............................ State police officers............................ Policewomen ................................................. Policy change clerks, insurance................ Policy writers, see: Insurance business ............................ Typists ................................................. 615 673 99 332 335 332 794 794 289 Polishers, motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ......................................... Political geographers ................................... Political scientists ....................................... Portable equipment operators, see: Track workers, railroad ..................................... Porters, baggage, h o t e l............................... Porters, railroad........................................... Porters, restaurant....................................... Portrait photographers ............................... Post office occupations ............................... Postage and mailing equipment service men ............................................................ Postal clerks ................................................ Postal inspectors ......................................... Posting machine operators, see: Bank clerks .......................................................... Postmasters .................................................. Pot liners, see: Aluminum industry......... Potmen, see: Aluminum industry.............. Poultry farmers ........................................... Pourers, see: Iron and steel industry...................... Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................... Power brake operators, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft ................................... Power dispatchers, electric power.............. Power hammer operators, aircraft, mis siles, and spacecraft ............................... Power linemen, electric power.................. Power truck operators................................. 672 185 189 760 803 746 778 241 816 466 822 817 786 817 612 612 573 660 671 604 715 604 716 549 See also: Motor vehicle and equip ment manufacturing ...................... Powerplant installers, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft ......................................... Powerplant mechanics, civil aviation....... Powerplant occupations, electric power.... Power shear operators, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft ......................................... Practical nurses ........................................... Press feeders, printing (graphic arts)..... Press photographers ................................... Pressers, apparel ......................................... Pressing occupations, apparel.................... Pressmen, printing (graphic arts)............ Priests, Roman Catholic .......................... Print developers, machine, see: Photo graphic laboratory occupations.............. Printer operators, see: Photographic labo ratory occupations ................................. Printer-slotter operators, paper and allied products .................................................... 672 606 701 712 604 93 511 242 623 622 510 45 547 547 680 847 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Page Page Printers, see: Photographic laboratory occupations ................................................. Printers, printing (graphic arts)................. Printing (graphic arts) occupations......... Printing pressmen and assistants, print ing (graphic arts) ...................................... Private duty nurses..................................... Private household workers........................ Private outdoor recreation farmers......... Probation and parole officers, see: Social workers ...................................................... Producers, program radio and television Producer-directors, program, radio and television ....................................................... Production managers, advertising............ Production painters........................................ 547 507 499 510 91 342 576 256 735 735 31 550 See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing ........................ Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ........................ Production planners, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft ......................................... Production technicians, see: Industrial engineering technicians.......................... Professional and related occupations....... Professors, college ....................................... Professors, university ................................. Profile cutting machine operators, air craft, missiles, and spacecraft................ Program assistants, radio and television Program directors, radio and television.... Program, producer-directors, radio and television ................................................. Programers, electronic computer................ 605 672 604 208 23 202 202 604 735 735 735 246 See also: Insurance business .................... Paper and allied products............ Projectionists, see: Motion pictures....... Proof machine operators, see: Bank clerks Proofers, printing (graphic arts).............. Proofreaders, printing (graphic arts)..... Property and liability insurance agents and brokers ............................................. Prospecting drillers, petroleum and nat ural gas ...................................................... Prospecting geophysicists ........................ Protestant clergymen ................................. Psychiatric aids, see: Hospital attend ants ............................................................ Psychiatric social workers.......................... Psychologists ............................................... See also: Counseling............................ 794 681 544 786 508 504 304 591 137 41 340 246 249 250 Public affairs directors, see: Radio and television .................................................... Public health nurses ................................... Public health sanitarians, see: Sanitarians Public librarians ......................................... Public relations workers............................ Public stenographers ................................... Pullman conductors, railroads.................... Pulp testers, paper and allied products.... Pumpers, petroleum and natural gas....... Pumpmen, petroleum refining.................... Punch press operators, see: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft man ufacturing ......................................... Electronics manufacturing ................ Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................... Purchasing agents ........ * .............................. Pursers, see: Licensed merchant marine officers ...................................................... Rabbis ............................................................ Rack clerks, hotel ..................................... Radiation monitors, atomic energy............ Radio and television announcers.............. Radio and television broadcasting occupa tions ................................ Radio officers, see: Licensed merchant marine officers ......................................... Radio operators, ground, civil aviation.... Radio service technicians............................ Radiographers, see: Aluminum in du stry............................. Atomic energy ..................................... Radioisotope-production operators, atom ic energy .................................................... Radiologic technologists ............................. Radiological physicists, atomic energy.... Railroad bridge and building workers..... Railroad clerk s............................................. Railroad conductors ................................... Railroad occupations ................................. Ranchers ........................................................ Range conservationists, see: Range man agers .......................................................... Range managers ......................................... Range scientists, see: Range managers.... Real estate salesmen and brokers............ Realtors ........................................................ Rehabilitation social workers.................... Receiving clerks, see: Shipping and re ceiving clerks ........................................... Receiving inspectors, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft ......................................... 735 91 120 233 37 286 746 681 593 686 604 644 670 268 726 43 805 634 740 733 726 706 486 614 635 635 112 634 762 746 752 745 573 51 51 51 308 308 256 284 606 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 848 Page Page Receiving tellers, banking.......................... 788 Receptionists ................................................ 283 Reconcilement clerks, see:Bank clerks.... 786 Recording clerks, see: Bankclerks............. 786 Recording technicians, radio and tele vision .......................................................... 742 Recreation workers ..................................... 252 Redcaps, railroad ......................................... 746 Reefer engineers, see: Unlicensed mer chant seamen ............................................... 730 Reference librarians..................................... 234 Refinery mechanics, petroleum refining.... 686 Refrigeration mechanics ............................. 448 Regional geographers .................................... 185 Regional planners .......................................... 261 Registered nurses......................................... 90 Registered representatives, see: Securi ties salesmen ............................................... 314 Rehabilitation counselors ........................... 58 Rehabilitation workers, see: Social work ers .............................................................. 256 Reinforcing-iron workers, building trades 411 Remelt operators, see: Aluminum indus try .................................................................. 613 Renderers, see: Commercial artists......... 173 Repairmen, see: Automobile body repairmen.............. 454 Central office repairmen, telephone 766 Industrial machinery repairmen....... 477 Instrument repairmen........................ 479 Jewelry repairmen .................................. 539 Shoe repairmen........................................ 552 Telephone and P B X repairmen....... 772 Television and radio service tech 486 nicians ...... Vending machine operators................ 492 Watch repairmen ................................. 495 See also listings under Mechan ics and under Servicemen. Reporters, newspaper ................................. 215 Reporting stenographers .............................. 286 Research directors, advertising.................. 31 Research workers, agricultural..................... 585 Research workers, marketing.................... 33 Reservation agents and clerks, civil avi ation ............................................................. 707 Reservation clerks, hotel............................. 805 Resilient floor layers, see: Floor covering installers ....................................................... 381 Resistance-welding operators ....................... 562 Restaurant industry ...................................... 777 Retail trade salesworkers................................ 311 Rewrite men, see: Newspaper reporters.... 215 Rig builders, petroleum and natural gas.... 592 Riggers and machine movers, building trades ........................................................ Riveters, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft Rocket assembly mechanics, aircraft, mis siles, and spacecraft ............................... Rodmen, see: Reinforcing-iron workers.... Rodmen, see: Surveyors............................... Rodmen, petroleum and natural gas....... Roll turners, iron and steel......................... Rollers, iron and steel..... ........................... Rolling mill attendants, iron and steel.... Rolling mill operators, see: Aluminum in dustry ........................................................ Roman Catholic Priests............................... Roofers .......................................................... Room and desk clerks, hotel...................... Rotary drillers, petroleum and natural gas Rotary floormen, petroleum and natural gas .............................................................. Roughnecks, petroleum and natural gas Roustabouts, petroleum and natural gas Route salesmen, see: Routemen................ Routemen ...................................................... Routers, printing (graphic arts).............. Rural carriers, post office........................... Rural sociologists, agriculture.................. Sales clerk, retail trade............................... Sales engineer, see: Manufacturers’ sales men ............................................................ Sales managers, see: Hotels .................................................... Radio and television broadcasting.... Sales occupations......................................... Salesworkers, see: Automobile parts countermen......... Automobile salesmen ........................ Automobile service advisors.............. Insurance agents and brokers............ Manufacturers’ salesmen .................. Radio and television............................. Real estate salesmen and brokers..... Retail trade salesworkers.................... Securities salesmen ............................. Wholesale trade salesworkers............ Sample stitchers, apparel............................. Sample-taker operators, petroleum and natural gas ................................................ Sanitarians .................................................... Savings tellers, banking............................... Scalemen, see: Aluminum industry............ Scalper operators, see: Aluminum indus try .............................................................. Scenic designers, television........................ 411 605 605 411 258 591 662 661 661 614 45 404 705 592 592 592 592 422 422 508 820 584 311 306 807 738 295 296 298 301 304 305 738 308 311 314 316 620 594 119 788 613 613 737 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES 849 Page See also: Interior designers and deco rators ................................................. School counselors ....................................... School librarians ......................................... School psychologists ................................... School recreation workers.......................... School social workers................................... School teachers, see: Agriculture................ School teachers, see: Teachers.................. Science aids ................................................. Science information specialists, see: Li brarians ...................................................... Science technicians ..................................... Scientists, environmental .......................... Scientists, l i f e ............................................... Scientists, natural ....................................... Scientists, physical ..................................... Scientists, soil ............................................. Scouts, petroleum and natural gas............ Sealers, electronics manufacturing............ Seat-cover installers, see: Automobile trimmers and installation men.............. Second assistant engineers, see: Licensed merchant marine officers........................ Second mates, see: Licensed merchant marine officers ......................................... Secondary school teachers.......................... Secretaries ................................................... Securities salesmen ..................................... Securities tellers, banking.......................... Sedimentologists, see: Geologists.............. Seismologists, see: Geophysics.................. Semiskilled workers, industrial.................. Service advisors, see: Automobile service advisors ...................................................... Service and miscellaneous.......................... Service occupations ..................................... Service salesmen, see: Automobile service advisors ...................................................... Service station attendants, see: Gasoline service station attendants...................... Service station mechanic-attendants....... Service writers, see: Automobile service advisors ..................................................... Servicemen, see: Appliance servicemen ........................ Business machine servicemen............ Electric sign servicemen.................... Gas appliance servicemen.................... Neon sign servicemen.......................... Telephone and PBX servicemen....... Television and radio service techni cians ................................................. Setup men (machine tools)........................ 178 60 234 250 252 255 584 195 205 234 205 133 144 133 152 580 592 644 521 726 725 198 286 314 788 134 137 350 103 799 319 301 535 535 301 451 463 472 449 472 772 486 443 Page Sewage plant operators............................... Sewers, hand, apparel................................... Sewing machine operators, see: Apparel industry ................................. Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ........................................... Sewing room occupations, apparel............ Shakeout men, see: Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing .................... Shapers, apparel ......................................... Shear operators, electronics manufactur ing .............................................................. Shearmen, iron and steel............................ Sheet-metal workers..................................... 558 622 622 672 622 671 622 644 661 406 See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing ........................ Electronics manufacturing ....... Railroad shop trades.................. Shipping and receiving clerks.................... Ship’s carpenters, see: Unlicensed mer chant seamen ........................................... Ship’s electricians, see: Unlicensed mer chant seamen ........................................... Shoe repairmen ........................................... Shooters, petroleum and natural gas....... Shop trades, railroad ................................. Showroom models ....................................... Signal department workers, railroad....... Signal maintainers, railroad ...................... Signalmen, railroad ..................................... Silk screen printers, electronics manufac turing ........................................................ Singers and singing teachers...................... Skilled and other manual occupations..... Skilled w orkers............................................. Skipmen, iron and steel............................... Slaggers, iron and steel................................. Slate roofers, building trades...................... Slide mounters, see: Photographic labora tory occupations ..................................... Soaking pit cranemen, iron and steel....... Soaking pit operators, aluminum.............. Social caseworkers ....................................... Social psychologists..................................... Social sciences ............................................. Social secretaries ......................................... Social workers ............................................. Sociologists .................................................... Sociologists, rural, see: Agriculture......... Soil conservationists ................................... Soil scientists ................................................ Sorters, see: Bank clerks............................ Sorting machine operators.......................... 604 643 758 284 729 730 552 591 757 239 759 759 759 644 169 347 347 659 659 404 548 661 613 255 250 181 287 254 191 584 582 580 786 281 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 850 Page Page Sound effects technicians, radio and tele vision .......................................................... Spacecraft manufacturing occupations.... Special agents, see: FBI Special Agents.... Special delivery carriers, post office....... Special librarians ......................................... Specialty farm operators.............. Specifications writers, see: Electronics manufacturing ......................................... Speech pathologists ..................................... Sprayers, motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ............. Spreaders, apparel industry........................ Staff officers, see: Licensed merchant ma rine officers ............................................. Stage managers, radio and television....... Star route carriers, post office.................... State and local government occupations State highway patrolmen........................... State police officers..................................... Station agents, civil aviation.................... Station agents, railroad............................... Station installers, telephone...................... Stationary engineers ................................... 737 601 330 816 234 573 642 106 672 621 726 736 817 825 335 335 708 755 772 554 See also: Aluminum industry .................... Paper and allied products.......... Stationary firemen (boiler)...................... Statisticians .................................................. 615 680 556 128 See also: Actuaries ....................................... Electronics manufacturing ....... Mathematicians .......................... Steamfitters, see: Plumbers and pipefit ters ............................................................ Steel industry occupations........................ Steel pourers, iron and steel...................... Stenographers and secretaries.................... Stereotypers, printing (graphic arts)....... Stewardesses, civil aviation........................ Stillmen, petroleum refining...................... Stock chasers, motor vehicle and equip ment manufacturing ............................... Stock clerks, motor vehicle and equip ment manufacturing ............................... Stock house larrymen, iron and steel..... Stock house men, iron and steel................ Stonehands, printing (graphic arts)....... Stonemasons ................................................ Stove tenders, iron and steel.................... Stratigraphers, see: Geologists.................. Stretcher-leveler-operators, aluminum in dustry ........................................................ Strippers, printing (graphic arts)............ 130 641 125 401 657 660 286 509 698 686 672 672 658 658 504 409 659 134 614 512 Structural-iron workers, building trades Structural-, ornamental-, and reinforcingiron workers, riggers, and machine movers ...................................................... Studio supervisors, radio and television.... Substation operators, electric power....... Supercalendar operators, paper and allied products .................................................... Surfacers, optical mechanics...................... Survey statisticians ..................................... Surveyors ...........'.......................................... Switchboard operators, electric power..... Switchboard operators, telephone.............. Switchers, petroleum and natural gas.... Switchmen, railroad ................................... Switchmen, telephone ................................. Switchtenders, railroad ............................. Synoptic meteorologists ............................. Systems analysts ......................................... 410 410 736 716 680 528 129 257 712 291 593 753 766 746 139 244 See also: Insurance business...................... Paper and allied products.......... 794 681 Tabulating machine operators.................... Tailoring occupations, apparel.................. Tailors, apparel ........................................... Tape librarians, see: Electronic computer operating personnel ................................. Tape perforating machine operators, printing (graphic arts) ......................... Tape perforator typists, see: Typists..... Tape-to-card converter operators, see: Electronic computer operating person nel .............................................................. Tappers, see: Aluminum industry............ Taxi drivers .................................................. Teachers, college and university................ Teachers, dancing ....................................... Teachers, drama ......................................... Teachers, high school................................... Teachers, junior high school, see: Sec ondary school teachers............................. Teachers, kindergarten and elementary school ........................................................ Teachers, music ........................................... Teachers, secondary school........................ Teachers, singing ......................................... Teaching ........................................................ Technical illustrators, see: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft man ufacturing ......................................... Electronics manufacturing ................ Technical stenographers ............................. Technical writers ......................................... 281 622 622 278 505 289 278 612 430 201 164 162 198 198 196 166 198 169 195 604 642 286 217 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES 851 Page See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing ........................ Electronics manufacturing ....... Newspaper reporters .................. Technician occupations............................... Technicians, broadcasting, radio and tele vision ........................................................ Technicians, dental laboratory.................. Technicians, engineering and science....... 604 642 216 205 741 88 205 See also: Atomic energy field...................... Dispensing opticians and optical mechanics ................................. Electronics manufacturing ....... Iron and steel industry................ Petroleum refining .................... Paper and allied products in dustry ....................................... Technicians, forestry, see: Forestry aids Technicians, medical X-ray...................... Technicians, optical laboratory................ Technicians, sound effects, radio and television .................................................. Technicians, television and radio service Tectonophysicists, see: Geophysicists....... Telegraphers, telephones, and towermen, railroad ...................................................... Telephone and PBX installers and repair men ............................................................ Telephone central office craftsmen......... Telephone central office equipment in stallers ........................................................ Telephone craftsmen ................................. Telephone industry occupations....... ........ Telephone installers and repairmen....... Telephone linemen and cable splicers..... Telephone operators ................................... Telephone repairmen ................................. Telephone servicemen ................................. Telephoners, railroad ................................. Teletypists, civil aviation............................ Television announcers ................................. Television broadcasting occupations....... Television and radio service technicians Tellers, banking ........................................... Terrazzo workers, building trades............ Testers, electronics manufacturing......... Testboardmen, telephone .......... ............... Therapeutic dietitians ............................... Therapists, occupational .......................... Therapists, physical ................................... Thermal cutters, see: Welders.................. 631 528 641 663 686 681 49 112 528 737 486 137 754 772 766 768 763 763 773 770 290 772 772 754 706 740 733 486 788 388 644 766 116 102 104 562 Page Third assistant engineers, see: Licensed merchant marine officers........................ Third mates, see: Licensed merchant ma rine officers ............................................. Thread trimmers and cleaners, apparel ... Ticket agents, civil aviation...................... Ticket sellers, see: Cashiers...................... Tile roofers, building trades...................... Tile setters, building trades...................... Time salesmen, radio and television....... Tinners, electronics manufacturing......... Tobacco growers ......................................... Tool-and-die makers ................................... 726 725 622 707 275 404 388 738 644 576 439 See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing ........................ Aluminum industry .................... Electronics manufacturing ....... Iron and steel industry.............. Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ........................ Tool designers, see: Mechanical techni cians .......................................................... Tool pushers, petroleum and natural gas Toolmakers, electronics manufacturing.... Topographic surveyors ............................... Towerman, railroad ..................................... Tracers, see: Draftsmen............................ Track workers, railroad............................... Trackmen, railroad ..................................... Traffic agents and clerks, civil aviation.... Traffic controllers, air-route...................... Traffic controllers, airport.......................... Traffic managers, industrial...................... Traffic managers, radio and television.... Traffic representatives, civil aviation..... Train directors, railroad............................. Train dispatchers......................................... Trainmen, see: Brakemen, railroad............ Transcribing machine operators, see: Typists ...................................................... Transit clerks, see: Bank clerks................ Transmission and distribution occupa tions, electric power............................... Transmitter technicians, radio and tele vision .......................................................... Transportation, communication, and pub lic utilities ............................................... 689 Treaters, see: Petroleum and natural gas................ Petroleum refining ............................. Treatment plant operators, wastewater.... Trimmers, apparel ..................................... 593 686 558 622 604 615 643 662 670 208 592 643 258 754 211 760 760 707 704 704 265 735 708 754 746 753 289 786 715 742 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 852 Page Page Trimmers, automobile (automobile up holsterers) ................................................ Trimmers, motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ......................................... Troopers, see: State police officers......... Troublemen, electric p ow er........................ Truck mechanics ................... Truckdrivers, local ..................................... Truckdrivers, motor vehicle operators, post office ................................................ Truckdrivers, over-the-road ...................... Trust bookkeepers, see: Bank clerks....... Trust investment clerks, see: Bank clerks Trust officers, banking................................. Tube benders, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft .................................................. Tune-up men, see: Automobile mechanics Turbine operators, electric power............ Typesetters, hand, printing (graphic arts) Typesetting machine operators, printing (graphic arts) .......................................... Typewriter servicemen ............................... Typists .......................................................... 521 672 335 716 489 419 820 415 786 786 790 605 458 712 504 504 464 288 Understudies, see: Actors and actresses ... Underwriters, insurance ............................. United States Government occupations.... University librarians ................................... University professors................................... Unlicensed merchant seamen.................... University teachers ..................................... Unskilled workers, industrial.................... Upholsterers, see: Automobile trimmers and installa tion men ........................................... Furniture upholsterers ...................... Urban geographers ..................................... Urban planners ........................................... Utilitymen, see: Unlicensed merchant sea men ............................................................ 161 794 809 234 202 728 201 351 Valets, see: Private household workers.... Vending machine mechanics...................... Vending machine routemen, see: Routemen ............................................................ Veterinarians ................................................ See also: Agriculture.......................... Video-control technicians, television....... Video-tape recording technicians, tele vision ........................................................ 343 492 521 533 185 260 730 423 122 583 742 742 Vocational agriculture teachers, see: Agri culture ........................................................ Vocational counselors, see: Employment counselors .................................................. Vocational nurses......................................... Waiters and waitresses............................... Waste disposal men, atomic energy.......... Waste-treatment operators, atomic en ergy ............................................................ Wastewater treatment plant operators.... Watch engineers, electric power................... Watch repairmen ....................................... Watchmakers ................................................ Waybill clerks, see: Typists...................... Weather forecasters, see: Meteorologists Welders and oxygen cutters.......................... 584 55 93 328 635 635 558 713 495 495 289 139 561 See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing ..v./ ................. Iron and Steel industry.............. Natural gas processing................... Welders, electric-arc ................................... See also: Motor vehicle and equip ment manufacturing ...................... Welders, gas .................................................. See also: Motor vehicle and equip ment manufacturing ...................... Welding operators, resistance.................... See also: Motor vehicle and equip ment manufacturing ...................... Well pullers, petroleum and natural gas Wheat farmers .............................................. Wholesale and retail trade........................... Wholesale salesmen ..................................... Window clerks, post office........................... Wipers, see: Unlicensed merchant seamen Wire chiefs, railroad..................................... Wire draw operators, aluminum................ Wire drawers, iron and steel...................... Writers, technical......................................... See also listing under Technical writers. Writing occupations..................................... X-ray technicians, medical............................ Yard foremen, railroad............................... Zoologists ......................................................... 605 662 593 562 671 562 671 562 671 594 575 775 775 822 730 754 614 662 217 215 112 752 146 B L S O ccupational Outlook S e rv ice for C o u n selo rs To help the professional community concerned with youth keep up to date on occupational developments that have significant implications for young people, and to assist counselors in making occupational information available to their clients, the Bureau of Labor Statistics supplements the Occupational Outlook Handbook with the following publications: O C CU PA TIO NA L O U TLO O K QUARTERLY: Handbook users will want to consult the Oc cupational Outlook Quarterly to make sure they have up-to-date, authorita tive occupational information between editions of the Handbook. Published four times a year (spring, summer, fall, winter), the Quarterly presents the latest occupational outlook studies by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and in terprets the guidance implications of Government and other authoritative research in the economic, educational, demographic, and technological fields. A 2-year subscription for the Occupational Outlook Quarterly is $3.00 do mestic, $4 foreign; 1 year is $1.50 domestic and $2 foreign; single copies are 45 cents each. Order from Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. 20402. See order form on back cover. O C CU PA TIO NA L O U TLO O K R E P R IN T SERIES: The reports in the Handbook are repro duced in this series of reprints, each of which covers a single occupation, an industry, or a group of related occupations. The reprints enable counselors to make occupational information available to more students interested in spe cific careers. Teachers can use these reprints as motivational aids in relating school subjects to earning a living. Librarians who keep a file of occupational information will find these reprints helpful in extending their resources to greater numbers of young people. Single reprints of a full set of 128 reprints can be ordered. A list of reprints , with prices is shown on pages 857-859. FREE O C CU PA TIO NA L O U TLO O K P U B LIC A TIO N : These include motivational pamphlets and reprints of articles from the Quarterly. Especially useful for secondary school students, the motivational pamphlets describe the relationship between academic subjects and careers. Reprints from the Quarterly deal with the employment outlook in new occupational areas, the impact of technological changes, and other subjects of interest to young people, counselors, and teachers. Free publications are announced in the Quarterly, and many of these are distributed to schools, organizations, and individuals on the occupa tional outlook mailing list. Write to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. De partment of Labor, Washington, D.C. 20212, to have your name placed on the mailing list. C O U N SE LO R ’S G U ID E TO M AN PO W ER IN FO R M A TIO N , AN A N N O TA TED BIBLIO G R APHY OF SELECTED G O VE R N M E N T PU B LIC A TIO N S: This bibliography lists the major occupa tional and other manpower publications of Federal and State government agencies that will be useful to counselors and others interested in trends and developments that have implications for career decisions. The bulletin, No. 1598 is available from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Print ing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402; $1 a copy. 853 O th er B L S Publications U seful to C o u n se lo rs Information on employment, unemployment, occupation trends, earnings, and other labor force developments can be obtained from the following publications: E M P LO Y M E N T A N D EAR NING S: Monthly reports featuring timely analysis of current developments in employment, unemployment, hours, and earnings for the Nation. Contains statistics on employment, earnings, hours of work, and labor turnover by industry for the Nation and by industry division for each State and 202 metropolitan areas. Also, contains detailed statistics on the labor force including characteristics of the employed and unemployed, such as age, marital status, color, industry, and occupational attachment. Annual subscription, $7.50 domestic, $9.50 foreign. Statistics for earlier years are con tained in Employment and Earnings Statistics for the United States, 1909-69 (BLS Bulletin 1312-6, price $5.75 and Employment and Earnings Statistics for States and Areas, 1939-68 (BLS Bulletin 1370-6) price $5.25. SPECIAL LABOR FORCE REPO RTS: Reports based on special surveys of the labor force are issued several times a year. They include statistics and analysis of selected characteristics of the labor force, such as educational attainment, employment of school dropouts and recent high school graduates, work ex perience during the year, and marital and family status. Published in the Monthly Labor Review, which may be available in your school library, these reports are also available (as long as the supply lasts) without charge, upon written request to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C. 20212. AREA WAGE SURVEYS: These reports include figures on average earnings and employ ment in selected occupations and in major industries and labor market areas. Weekly working hours for some groups of workers and customary practices regarding pensions, vacations, holidays, and sick leave are also reported. A list of surveys, are listed in the Directory of Area Wage Surveys, which may be obtained free from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C. 20212. Individual survey bulletins may be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402. U N IO N WAGE SCALES: Annual bulletins and releases on minimum wage scales and maximum hours of work at straight-time rates for cities of 100,000 or more population— 69 cities in the printing industry, 68 cities in the construction and local trucking industries, and 67 cities in the local transit industry. Quar terly releases on surveys in seven major building trades in 100 cities cover averages and increases in wage scale by trade, and wage trends for the in dustry as a whole. These releases are available from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C. 20212, or any of the regional offices. 854 855 M O N T H L Y LABOR REVIEW : The Bureau of Labor Statistics issues the Monthly Labor Review which contains articles that can help counselors keep abreast of the changing social, economic, and demographic scene. In addition to providing a statistical section on labor force and employment, labor turnover, earnings and hours, consumer and wholesale prices, and work stoppages, the Monthly Labor Review publishes special articles by experts on subjects such as the impact of technological change on employment, occupational counseling, and manpower planning. The Monthly Labor Review can be ordered from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 or from any of the Bureau’s regional offices listed below. Annual subscription $9 domestic; $11.25 foreign. Single issue, 75 cents. Priced publications mentioned above can be ordered from the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. 20402. Both priced and free publications are available (as long as the supply lasts) from the regional offices of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, at the following addresses: 341 Ninth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10001. 1371 Peachtree St. NE., Atlanta, Ga. 30309. 911 Walnut St., Kansas City, Mo. 64106. 1603-A Federal Building, Government Center, Boston, Mass. 02203. 219 S. Dearborn St., Chicago, 11 . 60604. 1 450 Golden Gate Ave., Box 36017, San Francisco, Calif. 94102. 1317 Filbert Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19108. 411 North Akard Street, Dallas, Texas 75201. O C C U P A T IO N A L O U T L O O K R E P R IN T S E R I E S Bulletin No. Price (cents) 1650-1 Tomorrow’s Jobs .......................... 1650-2 1650-3 1650-4 1650-5 Business Administration and Related Professions Accountants ................................. Advertising Workers, Marketing Research Workers, Public Re lations Workers ........................ Personnel Workers ...................... Industrial Traffic Managers, Purchasing Agents .......................... 1650-28 1650-29 10 1650-30 15 10 1650-7 1650-8 1650-9 1650-10 1650-11 1650-12 1650-13 1650-14 1650-15 1650-16 1650-17 1650-18 1650-19 1650-20 1650-21 1650-22 Physicians, Osteopathic Physicians ........................................... Dentists ......................................... Dental Hygienists, Dental Assistants, Dental Laboratory Technicians ............................... Registered Nurses, Licensed Practical Nurses, Hospital At tendants ..................................... Optometrists ................................. Pharmacists ................................... Podiatrists ..................................... Chiropractors ............................... Occupational Therapists, Physical Therapists .......................... Speech Pathologists and Audiologists ....................................... Medical Laboratory Workers....... Radiologic Technologists ............ Medical Record Librarians........ Dietitians ....................................... Hospital Administrators .............. Sanitarians ................................... Veterinarians ............................... 1650-31 10 10 15 15 10 10 10 10 1650-24 1650-25 1650-26 1650-27 Engineers Aerospace, Agricultural, Ce ramic, Chemical, Civil, Electrical, Industrial, Me chanical, Metallurgical, Mining ............................... Environmental Scientists Geologists, Geophysicists, Meteorologists, Oceanogra phers ................................... Life Science Occupations Life Scientists, Biochemists.. Physical Scientists Chemists, Physicists, Astron omers ................................. Technicians Engineering and Science, Draftsmen .......................... 1650-33 1650-34 1650-35 1650-36 1650-37 10 1650-38 1650-39 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 1650-40 1650-41 1650-42 1650-43 1650-44 Scientific and Technical Occupations 1650-23 1650-31 10 Health Service Occupations 1650-6 Other Professional and Related Occupations 15 PROFESSIONAL, MANAGERIAL, AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS 15 1650-45 1650-46 1650-47 15 15 15 15 Price ( cents) Bulletin No. 1650-48 1650-49 Architects ..................................... Clergymen Protestant Clergymen, Rab bis, Roman Catholic Priests ............................... Commercial Artists, Industrial Designers, Interior Designers and Decorators .......................... Conservation Occupations Foresters, Forestry Aids, Range Managers ................................... Counseling and Placement Occupations School Counselors, Rehabilita tion Counselors, Employment Counselors, College Place ment Officers ........................ Home Economists ........................ Landscape Architects .................. Lawyers ......................................... Librarians, Library Technicians.. Mathematicians and Related Oc cupations Mathematicians, Statisti cians, Actuaries ................ Models ........................................... Performing Arts Occupations Actors and Actresses, Danc ers, Musicians and Music Teachers, Singers and Singing Teachers .............. Photographers, Photographic Laboratory Occupations .......... Programers, Systems Analysts, Electronic Computer Operating Personnel ................................... Psychologists ................................. Recreation Workers .................... Social Scientists Anthropologists, Economists, Geographers, Historians, Political Scientists, Soci ologists ................................ Social Workers .............................. Surveyors ....................................... Teachers Kindergarten and Elemen tary School Teachers, Sec ondary School Teachers, College and University Teachers ............................ Urban Planners ............................ Writing Occupations Newspaper Reporters, Tech nical Writers .................... 857 10 15 15 15 15 10 10 10 15 15 10 15 15 15 10 10 15 10 10 15 10 15 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U T L O O K R E P R IN T S E R I E S — (C o n t’d) Price ( cents) Bulletin No. CLERICAL AND RELATED OCCUPATIONS 1650-50 1650-51 1650-52 1650-53 1650-54 1650-55 Bookkeeping Workers, Office Machine Operators ........................ Cashiers ......................................... Receptionists ................................. Shipping and Receiving Clerks Stenographers and Secretaries, Typists ....................................... Telephone Operators .................. 10 10 10 10 10 10 1650-80 10 10 1650-81 1650-82 1650-83 1650-84 15 1650-85 1650-86 SALES OCCUPATIONS 1650-56 1650-57 1650-58 1650-59 1650-60 Automobile Salesmen ................ Insurance Agents and Brokers Retail Trade Salesworkers, Wholesale Trade Salesworkers, Manufacturers’ Salesmen ....... Real Estate Salesmen and Brokers ............................................... Securities Salesmen .................... 10 10 SERVICE OCCUPATIONS 1650-61 1650-62 1650-63 1650-64 1650-65 1650-66 1650-67 Barbers, Cosmetologists .............. Building Custodians...................... Cooks and Chefs, Waiters and Waitresses ................................. FBI Special Agents...................... Firefighters ................................... Police Officers, State Police Officers ........................................... Private Household Workers........ 1650-87 1650-88 1650-89 10 10 10 10 10 15 10 1650-90 1650-91 1650-92 1650-93 SKILLED AND OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS 1650-70 1650-71 1650-72 1650-73 1650-74 1650-75 1650-76 1650-77 1650-78 Building Trades Asbestos and Insulating Workers Bricklayers, Stonemasons, Marble Setters, Tile Setters, Terrazzo Workers ..................................... Carpenters, Painters and Paperhangers, Glaziers ...................... Cement Masons, Lathers, Plasterers ........................................... Construction Laborers and Hod Carriers ..................................... Electricians (Construction) ........ Elevator Constructors, Structural-Ornamental and Reinforcing-Iron Workers, Riggers, Machine Movers.............................. Floor Covering Installers.............. Operating Engineers (Construetion) ........................................... Plumbers and Pipefitters............ Roofers, Sheet-Metal Workers.... 15 1650-95 20 20 20 1650-96 1650-97 1650-98 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 1650-99 1650-100 1650-101 Mechanics and Repairmen 1650-79 Automobile Service Occupations Automobile Body Repairmen, Automobile Mechanics, Truck Mechanics and Bus 858 Mechanics, Automobile Painters, A u t o m o b i l e Trimmers and Installation Men (Automobile Uphols t e r e r s ) , Automombile Parts Countermen, Automobile Service Advisors, Gasoline Service Station Attendants .......................... Air-Conditioning, Refrigeration, and Heating Mechanics............ Appliance Servicemen ................ Bowling-Pin-Machine Mechanics Business Machine Servicemen.... Diesel Mechanics, Farm Equipment Mechanics ...................... Electric Sign Servicemen............ Maintenance Electricians, Industrial Machinery Repairmen, Millwrights ................................ Instrument Repairmen .............. Jewelers and Jewelry Repairmen, Watch Repairmen .................... Television and Radio Service Technicians ................................ Vending Machine Mechanics....... 20 10 10 10 15 10 10 15 10 15 10 10 Other Manual Occupations 1650-94 1650-68 1650-69 Price ( cents) Bulletin No. 1650-102 Blacksmiths ................................... Boilermaking Occupations .......... Dispensing Opticians, Optical Mechanics ................................. Driving Occupations Over-the-road Truckdrivers, Local Truckdrivers, Routemen, Intercity Busdrivers, Local Transit Busdrivers, Taxi Drivers ...................... Factory Operatives Assemblers, Electroplaters, Inspectors, Power Truck O p e r a t o r s , Production Painters .............................. Foremen ....................................... Furniture Upholsterers .............. Machining Occupations All-round Machinists, Machine Tool Operators, Tool and Die Makers, Instrument Makers (Mechanical), Setup Men (Machine Tools), Layout Men Meat Cutters ................................. Motion Picture Projectionists..... Printing Occupations Composing Room Occupations, Photoengravers, Electrotypers and Stereotypers, Printing Pressmen and A s s i s t a n t s , Lithographic Occupations, Bookbinders and Related Workers ....................................... Shoe Repairmen .......................... 10 10 10 20 15 10 10 15 10 10 20 10 O C C U P A T IO N A L O U T L O O K R E P R IN T S E R I E S — (C o n t’d) Bulletin No. Price ( cents) 1650-119 Other Manual Occupations— (Cont’d) 1650-103 1650-104 1650-105 Stationary Engineers, Stationary Firemen (Boiler) ...................... Waste Water Treatment Plant Operators ................................... Welders, Oxygen and Arc Cut ters ............................................. 10 10 1650-107 1650-108 1650-109 1650-110 1650-111 1650-112 1650-113 1650-114 1650-115 1650-116 1650-117 1650-118 Agriculture Cooperative Extension Ser vice Workers, Soil Scien tists, Soil Conservationists, Other Professional Work ers, Farm Service Jobs....... Petroleum and Natural Gas Pro duction and Processing, Petro leum Refining ............................ Aircraft, Missile, and Spacecraft Manufacturing .......................... Aluminum Industry ....................... Apparel Industry ........................... Atomic Energy Field..................... Electronics Manufacturing .......... Industrial Chemical Industry........ Iron and Steel Industry................ Motor Vehicle and Equipment Manufacturing .......................... Paper and Allied Products In dustries ....................................... Civil Aviation Pilots and Copilots, Flight Engineers, Stewardesses, Aircraft Mechanics, Air line Dispatchers, Air Traf fic Controllers, Ground Ra dio Operators and Tele typists, Traffic Agents and Clerks ................................. Electric Power Industry Powerplant Occupations, Transmission and Distri bution Occupations, Custo mer Service Occupations. .. 1650-120 10 SOME MAJOR INDUSTRIES AND THEIR OCCUPATIONS 1650-106 Price (cents) Bulletin No. 1650-121 20 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 1650-122 1650-123 1650-124 Merchant Marine Occupations Licensed Merchant Marine Officers, Unlicensed Mer chant Seamen .................. Radio and Television Broadcast ing Radio and Television An nouncers, Broadcast Tech nicians ............................... 15 15 Railroads Locomotive Engineers, Loco motive Firemen (Helpers), Conductors, Brakemen, Telegraphers, Telephones, Towermen, Station Clerks, Clerks, Shop Trades, Sig nal Department Workers, Track Workers, Bridge and Building Workers ............ Telephone Industry Central Office Craftsmen, Central Office Equipment Installers, Linemen and Cable Splicers, Telephone and PBX Installers and Repairmen .......................... Restaurants ................................... Banking Bank Clerks, Tellers, Bank Officers ................................ 20 15 10 15 Insurance Business ...................... 10 1650-126 Hotels Bellmen and Bell Captains, F r o n t O f f i c e Clerks, Housekeepers and Assist ants, Managers and Assist ants ..................................... 15 1650-127 Government (Except Post Office) Federal Civilian Employ ment, State and Local Gov ernments, ArmedForces.... 15 1650-128 20 1650-125 Post Office Occupations Mail Carriers, Postal Clerks 15 15 ☆ U .S . G O V E R N M E N T P R IN TIN G O F F I C E : 1 97 0 O ----- 3 5 3 - 6 3 0 859 A Visual Aid for Teachers and Counselors LOOKING AHEAD TO A CAREER describes tomorrow’s world of work for young people choosing a career and tells • What changes are ahead in the world of work • What kinds of jobs will be open in the next 10 years • What industries will provide these openings Available with an accompanying narrative in • A set of 36 color slides (2 inch by 2 inch, 35mm.).................................................$10 per set • A filmstrip............................................................................................................................ $ 5 each T o order, fill out order blank below, enclose check or money order, and mail as directed. LOOKING AHEAD TO A CAREER O RDER FORM N AM E____________________________________________________ STR EET A D D R E SS____________________________________________________ CITY, STA TE ____________________________________________________ AND ZIP CODE NUMBER OF filmstrips_______@ $5 each. TO TAL AM OUNT______ NUMBER OF color slide sets_______ @ $10 per set. TO TAL AMOUNT Make check or money order payable to BUREAU O F LABOR STATISTICS. Enclose with order blank and mail to the Bureau of JLabor Statistics Regional Office nearest you: 1603-A Federal Bldg. Boston, Mass. 02203 341 Ninth Ave. New York, N.Y. 10001 406 Penn Square Bldg. 1317 Filbert St. Philadelphia, Pa. 19107 1371 Peachtree St., NE. Atlanta, Ga. 30309 219 S. Dearborn St. Chicago, 11 . 60604 1 911 Walnut St. Kansas City, Mo. 64108 411 N. Akard St. Dallas, Tex. 75201 450 Golden Gate Ave., Box 36017 San Francisco, Calif. 94102 THE OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK * QUARTERLY o O CM cm o Q c 2 LU 0 X 5 £ iJ= „ | 8 5 LL ® ' o z: it ® o o < /> z c < E c £ 1 c © > < D a + -* o o CD c a > £ 3 D O -J .. 8 oa < o fr O ac CD LU 0C CC LU a oL LL L □ □ O o 3 to The Quarterly is an essential companion to the Occupational Outlook Handbook o o CM <0 z CD o P LL 2 1 a cc 5r, 8 U® J Q c S cc c O ®o Z LU < % o K O a a (/) « cc tr < LU >■ < UJ >- CM A □ □ (/ > C ity , S tate, and A TODAY MAGAZINE FOR TOMORROW’S JOBS A TODAY MAGAZINE FOR TOMORROW’S JOBS THE OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK QUARTERLY The Q u a rte rly , an e s s e n tia l companion to the O ccu p atio n al O utlook Handbook • keeps readers up to date on d evelo p ments in the fie ld of manpower and occupational inform ation • reports prom ptly on new occupational research results • te lls about le g is la tiv e , ed u catio n , and tra in in g developm ents th a t w ill help young people w ith th e ir career plans Published four tim es a year by the U .S . D epartm ent o f Labor, Bureau of Labor S ta tis tic s U.S. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR BUREAU O F LA B O R STATISTICS W A S H IN G T O N , D.C. 20212 O F F IC IA L B U S IN ES S P O S TA G E A N D FEES PAID U.S. D EPARTM EN T O F LA BO R TH IR D CLASS M A IL
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