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485 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN ing, and machine shop practice are useful subjects for young men interested in becoming mill wrights. B e c a u s e millwrights often put together and take apart complicated machinery, mechani cal aptitude is important to young men entering the trade. Strength and agility are other important qualifications for m i l l w r i g h t work, which often requires con siderable lifting and climbing. Em ploym ent O utlook industrialized States of Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, New York, and Indiana. T rain in g and O ther Q ualifications Millwrights learn the trade by acquiring the skills informally or through apprenticeship programs. Those workers who pick up the trade informally usually work as helpers to skilled millwrights over a period of years until they ac quire sufficient knowledge and experience to be classified as skilled workers. However, most training authorities agree that apprenticeship p r o g r a m s give young persons a more thorough preparation for this skilled trade. Apprenticeship programs general ly last 4 years. Apprentices in this trade are given shop training in dismantling, moving, erecting, and repairing machinery and other equipment. They also are trained in floor layout, the instal lation of machinery and other equipment, carpentry, welding, rigging, and the use of structural steel, wood, and concrete. The apprenticeship program includes related classroom instruction in shop mathematics, blueprint read ing, hydraulics, electricity, and safety. Many companies require that apprentice applicants be high school graduates between 18 and 26. High school courses in science, mathematics, mechanical draw Employment of millwrights is expected to i n c r e a s e slowly through the 1970’s. The building of new plants, the addition of new machinery, changes in plant lay outs, and the maintenance of in creasing amounts of heavy and complex machinery and other equipment are factors expected to increase employment of mill wrights. In addition to new job openings that will be created by industrial expansion and increased mechani zation, a few thousand workers will be needed annually to re place millwrights who transfer to other lines of work, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone are expected to result in about 1,500 job openings annually. Earnings and W orking Conditions The earnings of millwrights de pend mainly on the area of the country in which they are em ployed and the type of business in which their employer is en gaged. A v e r a g e straight-time hourly earnings of millwrights employed in manufacturing in dustries in 43 metropolitan areas surveyed in 1967-68 ranged from $3.06 in Providence, R. I., to $4.24 in Detroit, Mich. Nearly twothirds of these workers earned $3.60 an hour or more. Straight- 486 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK time hourly earnings for mill wrights in 12 of the 43 metropoli tan areas, selected to present wage data from various areas and regions of the country, during the 1967-68 survey period appear in the accompanying tabulation. City Rate per hour Industrial millwrights ( manufacturing industries) Akron ............................ ............ $3.96 3.40 Boston .......................... Buffalo .......................... 3.91 Fort Worth ................... 3.24 Los Angeles-Long Beach and Anaheim-Santa Ana-Garden Grove ..................................... 4.19 Louisville ....................... 4.10 3.88 Minneapolis-St. Paul ... New Haven ................... 3.08 New Orleans ................. 3.80 Omaha ........................... 3.84 Rockford ....................... 3.80 Trenton ......................... 4.03 Millwrights employed by com panies doing contract installation work and by construction com panies usually have higher hourly wage rates than those employed in manufacturing industries. For example, the minimum average hourly wage rates for millwrights under union-management con tracts doing construction work ranged from $4.35 in Jackson, Miss., and Shreveport, La., to $6.16 in Cincinnati, Ohio, on July 1, 1968, according to a national survey of building trades workers in 68 large cities. Wage rates for apprentices gen erally start at 50 percent or more of the skilled worker’s rate and increase to the journeyman’s rate by the end of the training period. Millwrights, most of whom work in factories, ordinarily work year round. Those who work for construction companies and for companies that manufacture and install machinery, or move and install machinery on a contract basis, may have periods of unem ployment between jobs. In addi tion, these workers may frequent ly be assigned to jobs away from their homes. The work of millwrights in volves certain hazards. For ex ample, there is danger of being struck by falling objects or by machinery that is being moved. There also is the danger of fall ing from high work places. In ad dition, millwrights are subject to the usual shop hazards, such as cuts and bruises. Accidents have been reduced by the use of pro tective devices, such as safety belts, safety hats, eye protection, and shoes with metal tips. Mill wrights must frequently work on dirty, greasy equipment. Most millwrights belong to la bor unions, among which are the International Association of Ma chinists and Aerospace Workers; United Brotherhood of Carpen ters and Joiners of America (con struction millwrights); United Steelworkers of America; Interna tional Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Im plement Workers of America; In ternational Brotherhood of Pulp, Sulphite and Paper Mill Workers; and the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers. Employer-union con tracts covering millwrights usual ly include provisions for benefits such as paid holidays and vaca tions; hospitalization, medical, and surgical insurance; life insur ance; sickness and accident insur ance; and retirement pensions. Sources of Additional Inform ation United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 101 Constitution Ave. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20001. TELEVISION AND RADIO SERVICE TECHNICIANS (D.O.T. 720.281) N atu re of the W ork Skilled television and radio service technicians use their knowledge of electrical and elec tronic parts and circuits to install and repair a growing number of electronic products. Of these, tele vision receivers are by far the most prominent. Other major electronic products are radios (in cluding home, automobile, and two-way mobile radios), phono graphs, hi-fidelity and stereo phonic sound equipment, inter communication equipment, tape recorders, and public address sys tems. Many service technicians specialize in repairing one kind of equipment; for example, color television receivers or automobile radios. Most of the skilled work done by television and radio service technicians involves diagnosing trouble in equipment and making necessary repairs and adjust ments. Equipment may operate unsatisfactorily or break down completely because of faulty tubes, transistors, resistors, and other components; poor connec tions; aging of parts; and dirt, moisture, heat, and other basic troubles that affect all electronic equipment. When service tech nicians turn on television receiv ers or other equipment needing repair, signs of unsatisfactory per formance, such as absence or dis tortion of picture or sound, may indicate what is wrong. Their job is to check and evaluate each pos sible cause of trouble, beginning with the simplest and most com mon cause— tube failure. In other routine checks, they look for loose or broken connections and for MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN parts that are charred or burned, due to excessive current or mis handling. When routine checks do not lo cate the cause of trouble, service technicians use meter and elec tronic test equipment to check suspected circuits. For example, they may measure voltages until an unusual or irregular measure ment indicates that part of the circuitry causing trouble. Com monly used test instruments are vacuum tube voltmeters, multi meters, oscilloscopes, signal gen erators, and other specialized in struments. On service calls, service tech nicians advise customers as to what may be wrong with receiv ers, and whether receivers must be taken to shops for further analysis and repair. If possible, they explain what must be done to repair receivers and estimate 487 the cost of such repairs. After receivers are repaired on the cus tomers’ premises or returned from shops, service technicians explain what has been done. They may adjust the equipment to put it in proper operating condition. Work usually done by televi sion and radio service technicians in homes or other places where equipment is used includes mak ing simple electrical checks with a voltmeter, changing tubes, and making necessary adjustments, including focusing the picture or correcting the color balance on a color receiver. They check high voltage circuits in color TV sets for excessive X-ray radiation. Service technicians who make customer service calls carry tubes and other components that are easily re placed in the customer’s home. Apprentices or less experienced television service technicians may install or repair antennas on roofs or in attics and run lead in wires from antennas to receivers. Radios, television receivers, and other equipment small enough to be carried by customers usually are repaired in service shops. Larger television receivers are repaired in shops when they develop troubles which appear after receivers have been operat ing for a few hours, or when the troubles can be located only with the more complex test equipment available in shops. Television and radio service technicians usually refer to wiring diagrams and service manuals that show connections within re ceivers, provide adjustment infor mation, and describe causes of trouble associated with unusual symptoms. They must know how to use soldering irons, wire cut ters, long-nosed pliers, wrenches, screwdrivers and, sometimes, magnifying glasses when they re move, adjust, or replace parts, components, or complete equip ment such as automobile radios. Places of Em ploym ent About 125,000 television and radio service technicians were es timated to be employed in early 1969, of whom about one-third were self-employed. About threefourths of all service technicians worked in service shops or in stores that sell and service tele vision receivers, radios, and other electronic products. Most of the remaining s e r v i c e technicians were employed by government ag encies and manufacturers, includ ing manufacturers that operated their own service branches. Television and radio service technicians are employed in al most every city because the prod ucts they service are used every where. However, employment of these workers is distributed geo- 488 graphically in much the same way as the Nation’s population. Thus, they are employed mainly in the highly populated States and ma jor metropolitan areas. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Training in electronics is re quired to become a highly skilled television and radio service tech nician capable of working on vari ous types of electronic equipment. Technical, vocational, or high school training in electronic sub jects, mathematics, and physics have helped men to qualify as expert television and radio serv ice technicians. Home study (cor respondence school) courses are also helpful. Young men who enter military service may wish to investigate opportunities for training and work experience in servicing electronic equipment be cause such experience often is val uable in civilian electronics work, including television and radio servicing. From 2 to 3 years’ com bined training and on-the-job ex perience are required to become a qualified television and radio ser vice technician. Men without pre vious training may be hired as helpers or apprentices if they show aptitude for the work or, like the amateur ( “ ham” ) radio operator, have a hobby in elec tronics. An important part of the serv ice technicians’ training is pro vided by many manufacturers, employers, and trade associa tions. These organizations con duct training programs when new models or new products are intro duced, as part of a continuing effort to keep service technicians abreast of the latest technical servicing and business methods. Service technicians also keep up with technical developments by studying manufacturers’ instruc OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tion books and technical maga zines, and by attending training meetings covering electronics service work. Programs to train unemployed and underemployed workers for entry jobs in the television and radio service field were in opera tion in 19 states, in 1968, under the Manpower Development and Training Act. These programs usually lasted from about 6 months to a year. Given addition al experience or training, which may include an apprenticeship, graduates of these programs may become skilled service technicians. Television and radio service technicians must know how elec tronic components and circuits work, and why they function as they do. They also must be able to understand technical publica tions. Other essential qualifica tions include the ability to manip ulate small parts and tools, good hand-eye coordination, normal hearing, and good eyesight and color vision. Television and radio service technicians who work in large re pair shops or service centers may be promoted to assistant foreman, foreman, and service manager. Frequently, they are able to ob tain jobs as electronics mechanic or technician in manufacturing industries or government agen cies. Those who are employed by manufacturers can advance to higher paying occupations such as technical writer, sales engineer, design engineer, and service train ing instructor. In addition, ex perienced men who have sufficient funds, adequate business manage ment training, and ability may open their own sales and repair shops. Persons interested in advancing to positions such as electronic technician can improve their op portunities by taking trade school, correspondence, or tech nical institute courses in elec- gineering, automatic controls, entronic engineering, television en gineering mathematics, and other subjects related to electronics. In 1969, television and radio service technicians were required to be licensed in several States and cities. To obtain a license, applicants are required to pass an examination designed to test their skill in the use of testing equip ment and their knowledge of elec tronic circuits and components. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment of television and radio service technicians is ex pected to increase moderately throughout the 1970’s. In addi tion to the openings that will arise from growth, thousands of job openings will result annually from the need to replace experi enced service technicians who re tire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Death and retirements alone are expected to provide about 1,300 job openings each year through the 1970’s. Employment of service tech nicians is expected to increase over the long run, along with the growing number of radios, tele vision receivers, phonographs, and other home entertainment prod ucts in use throughout the 1970’s. Factors that will contribute to this growth include rising popula tion and family formations, and rising levels of personal income. In 1967, more than 9 out of every 10 households had one television receiver or more. During the next decade, the number of households with two television receivers or more is expected to increase sig nificantly, mainly because of the growing demand for color and lightweight, portable television receivers. Other consumer elec tronics products that are expected to be used increasingly include stereophonic radios, phonographs, 489 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN tape recorders, AM-FM radios, and portable transistor radios. New consumer products, such as home video tape recorders, as well as improved styling and design of existing products, also will stim ulate demand. Greater use of non entertainment products, such as closed-circuit television, two-way radios, and various medical elec tronic devices, also is expected. For example, closed-circuit tele vision is being used increasingly to monitor production processes in manufacturing plants, and to bring educational programs into classrooms. In recent years, technological improvements in television re ceivers and radios (such as the use of transistors in place of tubes) have reduced the amount of service this equipment requires. Technological improvements will continue to reduce servicing re quirements in the years ahead and may tend to slow employ ment growth. However, techno logical developments will increase employment opportunities for those television and radio service technicians who have theoretical as well as practical knowledge of electronic circuits and know how to use the latest test equipment. Servicing television receivers, ra dios, and related electronic equip ment is a complex field because of constant technological ad vances. Service technicians will have to update their training to cope with these changes. Earnings and W orking Conditions National earnings data are not available for television and radio service technicians. However, in formation obtained in major met ropolitan areas from proprietors of independent service shops and manufacturers who operate serv ice centers indicated that, in early 1969, many service tech nicians in entry jobs had straighttime weekly earnings ranging from about $80 to $120; many experienced service technicians had weekly earnings ranging from about $120 to $240. Some “ in side” (shop) service technicians received higher weekly earnings than “ outside” (field) tech nicians. Television and radio service technicians employed in local ser vice shops or dealer service de partments commonly work a 6day, 48-hour week. In large shops, including manufacturers’ service branches, they usually work a basic 40-hour week. Service tech nicians often work more than 8 hours a day and receive higher rates of pay for overtime work. Some employers of television and radio service technicians provide paid vacations and holidays after a specified length of service. Many also provide or help pay for health and life insurance benefits. Some shops are unionized. Service on television, radio, and other home entertainment prod ucts is performed in shops and homes where working conditions are usually pleasant. Inside men work at benches, normally pro vided with stools. Outside men may spend several hours a day driving between shops and cus tomers. Some physical strain is involved in lifting and carrying receivers. Perhaps the greatest hazard is the risk of falling from roofs while installing or repairing antennas. Electrical shock is an other hazard, but it rarely has caused serious injury. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Additional information about jobs in television servicing may be obtained from local service tech nicians, local dealers who sell and service television receivers and other electronic equipment, local television service associations, and manufacturers who operate their own service centers. Tech nical and vocational schools that offer courses in television and ra dio repair, or electronics, can provide helpful information about training. In addition, the local office of the State employment service would be a source of in formation about the Manpower Development and Training Act and other programs that provide training opportunities. Information about the work of television and radio service tech nicians may also be obtained from: National Alliance of Television Associations, 5908 South Troy Street, Chicago, Ili. 60629. TRUCK MECHANICS AND BUS MECHANICS (D.O.T. 620.281) N ature of the W ork Truck and bus mechanics keep the Nation’s trucks and buses in good operating condition. Truck mechanics maintain and repair heavy trucks used for intercity travel and on mining and con struction jobs, and medium and small trucks used for local hauling. Bus mechanics maintain and repair a variety of buses, ranging from small ones used for local transit to large transconti nental buses. Although many me chanical parts of large trucks and buses are similar to automobile parts, truck and bus mechanics repair large engines, complex transmissions and differentials, air-brakes, and other components that are different from those found in automobiles. Mechanics employed in the shops of organizations that main- 490 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK and transmission jacks; and weld ing and flame cutting equipment. They also use various types of testing devices to help locate mal functions. The latter may include relatively simple testing devices such as voltmeters, coil testers, and compression gages, or compli cated analytical equipment such as oscilloscopes and dynamomet ers. Mechanics use hydraulic jacks and hoists to lift and move heavy parts. When performing heavy work, such as removing engines and transmissions, two mechanics may work as a team, or a skilled mechanic may be assisted by an apprentice or helper. Mechanics generally work under the super vision of a shop foreman or serv ice manager. Places of Em ploym ent Truck mechanic repairs fan assembly of large truck. tain and repair their own vehicles may spend much of their time performing preventive mainte nance. During a periodic mainte nance check, mechanics inspect brake systems, steering mechan isms, wheel bearings, universal joints, and many other parts, and make needed repairs or adjust ments. By performing preventive maintenance, mechanics help as sure safe vehicle operation, pre vent wear and damage to parts, and reduce costly breakdowns. When trucks and buses do not operate properly, these workers determine the cause of the trouble and make the necessary repairs. In large repair shops, mechanics may specialize in one or a few kinds of repair. For example, some mechanics specialize in major en gine or transmission repair. If an engine needs to be rebuilt, the mechanic removes it from the ve hicle and disassembles it. He ex amines parts, such as valves, pis tons, rods, and bearings for wear or defects, and replaces or repairs defective parts. Many mechanics specialize in the repair of diesel engines that power trucks and buses. Diesel and gasoline engines are similar but have different fuel and ignition systems. Therefore, a mechanic who has worked only on gasoline engines needs special training before he can qualify as a diesel mechanic. (See statement on Diesel Mechanics elsewhere in the Handbook.) Truck and bus mechanics use common handtools such as screw drivers, pliers, and wrenches; power and machine tools such as pneumatic wrenches, drills, grind ers, and lathes; special purpose tools such as pump seal installers A large proportion of the esti mated 93,000 truck mechanics employed in 1968 worked for firms that own fleets of trucks. Fleet owners include trucking companies and companies that haul their own products such as dairies, bakeries, and construc tion companies. Other employers of truck mechanics include truck dealers, truck manufacturers, in dependent truck repair shops, firms that rent or lease trucks, and Federal, State, and local govern ments. The large majority of the esti mated 17,000 bus mechanics em ployed in 1968 worked for local transit companies and intercity buslines. Bus manufacturers em ployed a relatively small number of bus mechanics. Truck and bus mechanics are employed in every section of the country, but most of them work in large towns and cities where trucking companies, buslines, and other fleet owners have large re pair shops. MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN Train in g , O ther Q ualifications, and Advancem ent Most truck or bus mechanics learn their skills on the job. In shops where fleets of trucks and buses are serviced, beginners usu ally perform tasks such as clean ing, fueling, and lubrication. They may be required to drive vehicles in and out of the shop. As be ginners gain experience and as va cancies become available, they usually are promoted to mechanic helpers. In some shops, young persons— especially those who have prior automobile repair ex perience— are hired as helpers. Helpers learn mechanics’ skills by assisting experienced mechanics in the performance of inspection and repair work. Most helpers are able to make minor repairs after a few months’ experience and are allowed to handle increasingly difficult jobs as they prove their ability. Generally, 3 to 4 years of on-the-job experience is necessary to qualify as an all-round truck or bus mechanic. Additional train ing may be necessary for mechan ics who wish to specialize in re pairing diesel engines. Most training authorities, in cluding joint labor-management committees for the truck trans portation industry, recommend a formal 4-year apprenticeship as the best way to learn these trades. Typical apprenticeship programs for truck and bus mechanics con sist of aproximately 8,000 hours of shop training and at least 576 hours of related classroom instruc tion. Frequently, these programs include training in both diesel and gasoline engine repair. For entry jobs, employers gen erally look for young men who have mechanical aptitude and are at least 18 years of age and in good physical condition. Comple tion of high school is an advan tage in getting an entry mechanic job because most employers be 491 lieve it indicates that a young man can “ finish a job ” and has advancement potential. Where the mechanic’s job du ties include driving trucks or buses on public roads, employers may require applicants to have a State chauffeur’s license. If the employer is engaged in interstate transportation, the applicant also may be required to meet qualifi cations for drivers established by the U.S. Department of Trans portation. He must be at least 21 years of age, able bodied, have good hearing, and have at least 20/40 eyesight with or without glasses. He must be able to read and speak English; have at least 1 year’s driving experience (which may include driving private auto mobiles); and have a good driv ing record. Young men interested in be coming truck or bus mechanics can gain valuable experience by taking high school or vocational school courses in automobile re pair. Courses in science and math ematics are helpful since they give a young man a better understand ing of how trucks and buses op erate. Courses in diesel repair pro vide valuable related training. Practical experience in automo bile repair gained from working in a gasoline service station, train ing in the Armed Forces, and working on automobiles as a hob by also is valuable. Most employers require me chanics to purchase their handtools. Experienced mechanics often have several hundred dollars invested in tools. Employers ordi narily hire beginners who do not own handtools, but they are ex pected to accumulate them as they gain experience. Employers sometimes send ex perienced mechanics to special training classes conducted by truck, bus, diesel engine, and parts manufacturers. In these classes, mechanics learn to repair the latest equipment or receive special training in subjects such as diagnosing engine malfunc tions. Experienced mechanics who have supervisory ability may ad vance to shop foremen or service managers. Truck mechanics who have sales ability sometimes be come truck salesmen. Some me chanics open their own gasoline service stations or independent repair shops. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment of truck mechan ics is expected to increase mod erately through the 1970’s as a result of significant increases in the transportation of freight by trucks. More trucks will be need ed for both local and intercity hauling as a result of increased industrial activity, continued de centralization of industry, and the continued movement of the popu lation to the suburbs. In addition to the job openings expected to occur as a result of employment growth about 1,300 additional openings will occur annually be cause of job vacancies resulting from deaths and retirements. Op portunities to enter this occupa tion also will occur as some me chanics transfer to other lines of work. Hundreds of job opportunities for bus mechanics are anticipated through the 1970’s to replace ex perienced mechanics who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. However the number of bus mechanics employed during this period is expected to remain at approximately the present level. Continued growth in intercity bus travel is expected as a result of increasing population, new and improved highways, and reduc tion of railroad passenger service in many areas. However, the fa vorable employment effect of in- 492 creasing intercity bus travel is expected to be offset by a decline in local bus travel as a result of the growing use of private auto mobiles in city and suburban areas. Earnings and W orking Conditions According to a survey covering metropolitan areas in late 1967 and early 1968, mechanics em ployed by trucking companies, buslines, and other firms that maintain their own vehicles had average straight-time hourly earn ings of $3.54. Average hourly earnings of these workers in in dividual cities ranged from $2.66 in Chattanooga, Tenn., to $4.45 in San Francisco-Oakland, Calif. Apprentices’ wage rates gener ally start at 50 percent of skilled workers’ rates and are increased about every 6 months until a rate of 90 percent is reached during the last 6 months of the training period. Most mechanics work between 40 and 48 hours per week. Be cause many truck and bus firms provide service around the clock, they employ mehanics on evening and night shifts, and on week ends. Mechanics usually receive a higher rate of pay when they work overtime or on evening or night shifts, weekends, or holidays. A large number of employers pro vide holiday and vacation pay; many pay part or all of the cost of financing employee health and life insurance programs and other employee benefits. Laundered uniforms are furnished free of charge by some employers. Truck mechanics and bus me chanics are subject to the usual shop hazards such as cuts and bruises. If proper safety precau tions are not followed, there is danger of injury when repairing heavy parts supported on jacks and hoists. Mechanics handle O C C U P A T IO N A L O U T L O O K H A N D B O O K greasy and dirty parts and may stand or lie in awkward or cramped positions for extended periods of time when repairing vehicles. Work areas usually are well lighted, heated, and venti lated, and many employers pro vide locker rooms and shower fa cilities. Although most work is performed indoors, mechanics oc casionally make repairs outdoors when breakdowns occur. Many truck and bus mechanics are members of labor unions. These include the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; the Amalga mated Transit Union; the Inter national Union, United Automo bile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Transport Workers Union of America; the Sheet Metal Work ers’ International Association; and the International Brother hood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Sources of A dditional Inform ation For further information re garding work opportunities for truck or bus mechanics, inquiries should be directed to local em ployers such as trucking compa nies, truck dealers, or bus lines; locals of unions previously men tioned; or the local office of the State employment service. The State employment service also may be a source of information about the Manpower Develop ment and Training Act, appren ticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. General information about the work of truck mechanics and ap prenticeship training may be ob tained from: American Trucking Associations, Inc., 1616 P St. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20036. VENDING MACHINE MECHANICS (D.O.T. 639.381) N atu re of th e W ork The convenience of automatic, 24-hour merchandising and the great variety of items provided by vending machines have re sulted in a nationwide industry and increasing job opportunities for skilled mechanics who main tain and repair these machines. The familiar gum ball, cigarette, or other mechanical, gravity-op erated dispensing device no long er typifies m o d e r n v e n d i n g machines. Today, vending ma chines include growing numbers of complex, electrically operated machines that dispense hot can ned foods and ready-to-eat din ners, and brew individual cups of coffee flavored to taste. Most vending machine me chanics work both in repair shops and at locations where machines are installed, such as schools, of fice buildings, factories, theaters, transportation terminals, and hospitals. Some work only in re pair shops; others work only in the field and travel by car or small truck from one location to another to make machine repairs. In the repair shops, mechanics repair complex vending machine components, such as water pumps, motors, and relays, and overhaul machines by replacing worn or damaged parts. They also may assemble new machines in the shop, following instruc tional materials supplied by the manufacturer. After the ma chines are assembled, they are filled with products or ingredi ents and test run. When work ing on relatively complex ma chines— for example, beverage dispensing machines— mechanics MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN check to see that the machines dispense proper quantities of in gredients and that their refrig erating or heating units operate properly. On gravity-operated machines, mechanics check springs, plungers, and merchan dise-delivery systems. They also test coin and change-making me chanisms. When installing a ma chine on location, mechanics make the necessary water and electrical connections and re check the machines for proper operation. When a machine on location is reported to be defective, the me chanic first determines the cause of the trouble. He inspects the 493 machine for obvious troubles, such as loose electrical wires, malfunctions of the coin mechan ism, and water and other leaks. He may test the machine’s com ponents to isolate the defective parts. After the mechanic locates the cause of the trouble, he may remove and repair or replace the defective parts, either on loca tion or in his employer’s service shop. Preventive m a i n t e n a n c e — avoiding trouble before it starts— is another major responsibility of the mechanic. For example, he periodically cleans electrical con tact points, lubricates, mechanical points, and adjusts machines to perform properly. Both in the service shop and on location, me chanics use handtools, such as wrenches, screwdrivers, hammers, pliers, pipe cutters, electrical cir cuit testers and soldering irons. In the service shop, they also may use power tools, such as grinding wheels, saws, and drills. Vending machine mechanics use operating and troubleshoot ing manuals to repair machine systems and components. They must know how and when to do soldering or brazing to repair pip ing systems; how to read dia grams of electrical circuits; and how to test electrical circuits and components. Mechanics who in stall and repair food vending ma chines must know State public health and sanitation standards as well as those established un der local plumbing codes. They also must know and comply with safety procedures, especially when working with electricity and gas and when lifting heavy objects. Repairmen are required to do some clerical work. For example, they may fill out reports, prepare repair-cost estimates, keep parts inventories, and order parts. If they are chief mechanics, they prepare work schedules for other mechanics. Mechanics employed by small operating companies fre quently service as well as repair machines. These combination “ repair-routemen” are responsi ble for periodically stocking ma chines, collecting money, filling coin and currency changers, and keeping daily records of merchan dise distributed. (Additional in formation about vending machine routemen is included in the state ment on routemen elsewhere in the Handbook. See index for page numbers.) Places of Em ploym ent In 1968, more than 16,000 me chanics maintained and repaired 494 more than 4.5 million vending machines. Vending machine re pairmen work mainly for opera tors who place machines in se lected locations and provide nec essary services, such as cleaning, stocking, and repairing. Some re pairmen also are employed by beverage companies which have coin operated machines on loca tion. Although vending machine operators are located throughout the country, most mechanics are employed in the major industrial and commercial centers where large numbers of vending ma chines are located. Vending machine manufactur ers employ some highly-skilled mechanics to explain technical innovations and ways to repair new machines to vending ma chine repairmen. Such instruc tion takes place either in manu facturers’ service divisions in ma jor metropolitan areas or in op erator’s repair shops. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Young men usually enter this trade as general shop helpers. If the shop helpers show promise as mechanics, they may become trainees. Some young men are hired directly as trainees. Mechanic t r a i n e e s acquire skills on-the-job— o b s e r v i n g , working with, and receiving in struction from experienced me chanics. Sometimes, trainees at tend manufacturer-s p o n s o r e d training sessions, which empha size the repair of new and com plex machines. Employers usu ally pay the wages and expenses of their trainees during training, which may last from a few days to several weeks. Because vending machines are increasing in complexity, some op erators encourage both trainees OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK and experienced mechanics to take evening courses in subjects related to machine operation and repair— for example, basic elec tricity. At least part of the tuition and book expenses for these courses is paid for by the em ployers. The duration of on-the-job training varies with the individ ual’s capabilities and the extent of his prior education. Although iy 2 to 2 years may be required for a trainee to become skilled in his work, within 6 to 9 months he usually can handle simple re pair jobs and may be sent out alone on trouble calls. Mechanics are generally “ in training” troughout their working lives, since they must constantly in crease their working knowledge to handle new and improved vending equipment. Many beginners in this trade are high school graduates, al though employers generally do not require a high school diploma for employment. High school or vocational school courses in elec tricity and machine repair help beginners to qualify for entry jobs. These courses also may help beginners to skip the lowest rung of the job ladder— general shop helper. Employers require prospective repairmen to demonstrate me chanical ability, either through their work experience or by scor ing well on mechanical aptitude tests. The ability to deal tactfully with people is important to em ployers who are considering ap plicants. A commercial driver’s license and a good driving record are essential for most vending machine repair jobs. Skilled mechanics may be pro moted to senior mechanic or, in large companies, to shop fore man or supervisor. Advancement to service manager, who sched ules repair work, is possible for a few mechanics having adminis trative ability. A few mechanics having initiative and adequate financial backing become inde pendent operators. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment of vending ma chine mechanics is expected to increase moderately throughout the 1970’s. In addition to new jobs created by growth, a few hundred job openings will result each year from the replacement of repairmen who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Some of the factors that stimu lated past growth and increased the demand for the services of qualified mechanics are the in troduction of new and improved machines that dispense a grow ing variety of merchandise; con venient, round-the-clock service; and the rising costs of selling low-priced, s t a n d a r d items through conventional procedures. Improvements in currency-chang ing devices also have stimulated the growth of the industry by making possible a greater variety of merchandise. Other factors that will con tinue to contribute to the indus try’s growth include an expand ing population; rising levels of personal income; movement of in dustrial plants, schools, hospitals, department stores, and other es tablishments to the suburbs where restaurants are often incon venietly located; and the ris ing popularity of light meals and snacks. Earnings and W orking Conditions Wage data for vending ma chine mechanics are available from a number of union-manage ment contracts in effect in early 1969 covering workers employed by operating companies in 24 495 MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN States and the District of Co lumbia. Although these contracts show a very wide range of straighttime hourly pay rates for me chanics, the majority provided for hourly rates ranging between $3.00 and $4.00. Different hourly rates for shop mechanics and for field (street) mechanics were stipulated in several contracts. In a few, mechanics’ rates differed, depending on the complexity of the machines being repaired. Most vending machine repair men work 8-hours, 5 days a week, and receive premium pay for over-time work. Since vending machines can be operated 24 hours a day, mechanics frequently are required to work at night and on weekends and holidays. Some union-management c o n t r a c t s stipulate higher rates of pay for nightwork and for emergency re pair work on weekends and holi days. Many u n i o n - m a n a g e m e n t agreements covering vending ma chine mechanics include health insurance provisions for hospital, medical, and surgical benefits, usu ally financed by the employer. Some contracts provide for em ployer-financed retirement bene fits. Vacation and holiday pay provisions are commonly included. Paid vacations are granted accord ing to length of service— usually, 1 week after 1 year of service, 2 weeks after 2 years, and 3 weeks after 10 years. The majority of contracts provide for 7 or 8 paid holidays annually. Vending machine repair shops are generally quiet, well-lighted, and have adequate work space. However, when working on ma chines on location, mechanics may work in cramped quarters, such as passageways, where pe destrian traffic is heavy. Repair work is relatively safe, although mechanics are subject to shop hazards such as electrical shocks and cuts from sharp tools and metal objects. Many vending machine me chanics employed in the larger operating companies are members of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Ware housemen and Helpers of America. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Further information about work opportunities in this trade can be obtained from local vend ing machine operators and local offices of the State employment service. Additional information about employment in this field is available from the National Automatic Merchandising Asso ciation, 7 South Dearborn St., Chicago, 111. 60603. WATCH REPAIRMEN (D.O.T. 715.281) N ature of th e W ork The skilled craftsmen who clean, repair, and adjust watches, clocks, chronometers, and elec tromechanical and other time pieces are called watch repairmen or “ watchmakers.” When a watch is not operating properly, they diagnose the cause of trouble, of ten difficult to locate in com plicated mechanisms. Their work requires precise and delicate handling of tiny parts. To repair a watch, the crafts man first removes the entire “ movement” of the watch from the case and using a magnifying eye glass called a loupe, examines its working parts, such as the hands, dial, and balance wheel assembly. Depending on the reason for the malfunction, he may replace the mainspring, hairspring, bal ance and other wheels, stems and crowns, and hands or broken jewels and adjust improperly fit ted wheels and other parts. The parts are cleaned and oiled be fore dials, hands, case, crystal, and watch band are reassembled. He then tests the repaired watch for accuracy. The development of inter changeable mass-produced watch parts has decreased the watch repairman’s need to make parts by hand. However, he frequently must adjust factory-made parts for complicated timepieces to in sure a “ true” fit. Watch repairman use timing machines; cleaning machines, in cluding ultrasonic cleaners; and handtools, such as tiny pliers, tweezers, and screwdrivers. Thq repair of electric and electrome chanical watches and clocks re quires the use of electrical meters. Frequently, watch repairmen are proprietors of jewelry stores, and may do minor jewelry repair, and sell watches, jewelry, silver ware, and other items. They also may hire and supervise sales clerks, other watch repairmen, jewelers, and engravers; arrange window displays; purchase goods to be sold; and handle other managerial duties. Places of Em ploym ent About 20,000 watch repairmen were employed in 1968, about half of whom were self-employed Most self-employed watch repair men owned small retail jewelry stores that perform repair work on the premises. Others operated their own trade shops and special ized in repairing watches for jew elry stores. Most of those who were not self-employed worked in retail jewelry stores, and the re- 496 mainder worked in trade shops, wholesale establishments, and plants that manufacture watches, clocks, or other precision timing instruments. A substantial number of in dividuals who received training as watch repairmen used their skill in jobs such as instrument maker, repairman, or assembler; laboratory technician; micromin iaturization specialist in research, development, and engineering laboratories and in Federal, State, and local government agencies. A few watch repairmen were instructors in vocational schools. The Nation’s 20,000 retail jew elry stores are scattered through out the country. The heaviest concentration of these stores is located in large commercial cen ters such as New York City, Chi cago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and San Francisco. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Many young people prepare for this trade through courses given in private watch repair schools, public vocational high schools, or post-high school training. Others are trained through formal ap prenticeship or other on-the-job training programs. There generally are no specific educational requirements for en trance into any of the approxi mately 40 watch repair schools, although most students are high school graduates. The length of time required to complete the course— u s u a 11 y 18 months— is determined by its content, the ability of the individual student, and whether attendance is full or part time. In most watch repair schools, a consider able amount of time is spent tak ing apart and reassembling vari ous kinds of watch movements, truing hairsprings, removing and replacing balance staffs, fitting friction jewels, and learning how to use a watchmaker’s lathe and watch cleaning machines. Some schools offer courses in the repair of unusual types of timepieces, such as chronographs, calendars, and timers. Most schools require students to furnish their own handtools. Training in instrument repair work in the armed services can be helpful for those who wish to become watch repairmen. Students or watch repairmen interested in employment outside of jewelry stores or trade shops may require training in related subjects such as basic electronics, instrument repair, or micromin iaturization technology which is provided on-the-job in many industries. Important qualifications for success in this field are mechani cal aptitude, finger dexterity, a sensitive touch, good vision (with or without glasses), and patience. For those interested in owning or working in retail stores, sales manship and knowledge of busi ness practices, accounting, and public relations are required. A few States— Florida, Iowa, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Minnesota, North C a r o l i n a , North Dakota, Oregon, Michi gan, and Wisconsin— require watch repairmen to obtain a li cense. T o obtain a license, they must pass an examination design ed to test their skill with tools and their knowledge of watch construction and repair. Watch r e p a i r m e n in all States, however, can demonstrate their degree of competence by passing one of two certification examinations given by the Ameri can Watchmakers Institute. Suc cessful examinees receive the title of either Certified Master Watch maker or Certified Watchmaker. MECHANICS AND REPAIRMEN The Certified Master Watchmak ers examination tests those who have truly mastered the craft while the Certified Watchmakers examination is for those who are proficient in the craft but not to the degree of a Certified Master Watchmaker. Annual voluntary up-grading examinations covering some new phase of watchmaking also are offered to those watch repairmen who desire to prove their ability to keep up with the times. Those who pass the up grading examination receive a plaque of recognition. Beginners with sufficient funds — about $2,500 to $3,500 is needed to purchase a watch-tim ing machine and other tools and equipment— may open their own watch repair shops. The usual practice, however, is to work for an experienced watch repairman before starting one’s own busi ness. Some owners of watch re pair shops sell various items of jewelry, and may eventually es tablish retail jewelry stores. These stores require a more sub stantial financial investment. Em ploym ent Outlook Employment of watch repair men is expected to show little or no change through the 1970’s. However, hundreds of job open ings will arise annually from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or trans fer to other fields of work. The supply of qualified watch repairmen who can do all kinds of repair work quickly and ac curately was inadequate in 1968. The number of workers being trained may continue to be in sufficient to meet anticipated employment needs. Some new job openings for watch repairmen will 497 occur in retail stores and trade shops in small cities where busi ness is expanding, and in newly established shopping centers in the suburbs of large cities. In ad dition, there will be a continuing demand for well-trained workers to use their watch repair skills in the production of miniaturized devices, especially in industries making scientific instruments and electronic equipment. Several factors are expected to contribute to the demand for watch repairmen. The number of watches in use will rise as popu lation and family incomes in crease. The trends toward owning more than one watch, wearing watches as costume jewelry, and buying more children’s watches are expected to continue. The popularity of small watches and the increasing use of more com plicated t i m e p i e c e s— chrono graphs, electronic watches, calen dar watches, and self-winding watches— also will help to main tain a large volume of repair work. Increased demand for min iaturized consumer goods, such as transistor radios, television sets, and hearing aids, and the trend in the missile, aircraft, in strument, and computer indus tries toward smaller and lighter weight components and assem blies, are expected to increase further the demand for individ uals having watch repair training to work in establishments manu facturing these kinds of equip ment. On the other hand, the factors that will tend to increase the demand for watch repairmen will be offset by other factors that will operate to decrease it. Sales of inexpensive watches that cost no more to replace than to repair probably will continue to increase, and competition from persons who are employed in other fields, but who repair watches in their spare time, is expected to continue. Earnings and W orking Conditions Earnings of watch repairmen in entry jobs generally ranged from about $90 to $125 a week in 1968 and depended on individual ability and place of employment. Experienced watch r e p a i r m e n employed in retail stores, trade shops, and watch manufacturing establishments received from $120 to $200 for a 40-hour week; supervisors or managers of large retail repair departments earned up to $225 a week. In addition, watch repairmen in retail stores sometimes receive commissions based on sales of watches and other items in the store. Repair men in large retail and manufac turing establishments often par ticipate in life and health insur ance programs and savings and investment plans. Watch repair men who are in business for themselves usually earn consid erably more than those working for a salary. Earnings of the selfemployed depend on the amount of repair work done and, in the case of watch repairmen who own retail jewelry stores, the volume of sales and working hours. Watch repairmen frequently work longer than the standard 40-hour week. Those who are self-employed or located in small communities usually work a 48hour week or longer. The work involves little physical exertion and generally is performed in comfortable, well-lighted sur roundings. This light, sedentary work frequently is recommended to certain handicapped workers. Some watch repairmen are members of the International Jewelry Workers Union or the America Watch Workers Union (Ind.). 498 Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information on t r a i n i n g courses, as well as on watch re pairing as a career, may be ob tained from: OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK American Watchmakers Institute, P.O. Box 11011, Cincinnati, Ohio 45211. Retail Jewelers of America, Inc., 1025 Vermont Ave. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20005. Information on watch repair job opportunities in retail stores can be obtained from: Further information about work opportunities or training in this trade may be available from local offices of the State employ ment service. P R IN T IN G (G R A P H IC A R T S ) O C C U P A T IO N S Printing is an art, a leading in dustry, and one of our chief means of communication. In 1968, it pro vided employment for more than 1 million workers in a wide va riety of occupations. Although these occupations are found prin cipally in the printing, publishing, and allied industries, they also are found in government agencies and in private firms that do their own printing, such as banks, insur ance companies, and manufac turers of paper products and metal containers. About onethird of all printing employees work in printing craft occupa tions. These craft occupations are described in detail later in this chapter. Other occupations in the printing industries include print ing estimator, printing technician, mailer, computer programer, and computer typist, as well as the usual administrative, clerical, maintenance, and sales occupa tions found in all industries. N ature and Location of the industry The printing process is basical ly a means of transferring ink im pressions of words, numerals, sym bols, and photographs or other illustrations to paper, metal, or other materials. The most com monly used methods of printing are letterpress, lithography, grav ure, flexography, and screen printing. Each method has special advantages and requires some special skills. Included in the printing, pub lishing, and allied industries are the printing and publishing of newspapers, magazines, books, and advertising matter; the pro duction of business forms; the production of greeting cards and gift wrappings; commercial or job printing; bookbinding; and the provision of typesetting, photoe n g r a v i n g , platemaking, and other printing services, primarily for printing establishments. In 1968, the largest division in terms of employment was news paper printing and publishing, with over 363,000 employees in approximately 8,000 establish ments. Most daily and many weekly newspapers throughout the Nation do their own printing. Although some major newspapers employ several hundred workers, many smaller dailies and weeklies have fewer than 20 employees. Commercial or job printing es tablishments, the second largest division, employed over 340,700 workers in about 17,000 estab lishments. Establishments in this division produce a great variety of materials such as advertising matter, letterheads, business cards, calendars, catalogs, labels, maps, and pamphlets. They also print limited-run newspapers, books, and magazines. More than half of all workers in commercial shops are in establishments hav ing fewer than 100 workers. A few large plants, each employing a thousand workers or more, ac count for about 8 percent of all commercial printing employees. Printing j o b s a r e f o u n d throughout the country. Almost every town has at least one print ing shop of some kind— frequent ly, a small newspaper plant which also may do other printing. How ever, more than half of the Na tion’s printing employees are in five States— New York, Illinois, California, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. Within these States, most printing activities are in or near manufacturing, commercial, or fi nancial areas such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Phila delphia, San Francisco-Oakland, Cincinnati, and Cleveland. Other leading centers of printing em ployment are Boston, Detroit, Minneapolis-St. Paul, Washing ton, D.C., St. Louis, and Balti more. Employment in book and magazine printing is highly con centrated in these areas. A much larger proportion of employment in newspaper plants, however, is found outside these centers be cause of the great number of small local newspapers. P rinting M ethods All methods of printing have certain common characteristics. A surface of metal, stone, wood, linoleum, rubber, or plastic is pre pared so that part of it can be covered with ink. The ink is then transferred to a sheet of paper or other material which is pressed against the prepared surface. In relief printing, the printing surface stands up from the rest of the surrounding printing plate area. Ink is rolled over the raised surface and then paper is pressed against it. The best known and most widely used example of this method is letterpress printing. Other examples of relief printing are flexography, in which a flex ible rubber plate and rapid dry ing fluid inks are used; linoleum and wood block printing; and re lief engraving on metal or plastic. Flexography is widely used for printing on plastic films and foil bags, milk containers, gummed tape, and bread and candy wrap pers. In lithography (offset print ing), the printing plate surface is smooth, with both image and nonimage areas on the same level. Lithography is based on the prin ciple that grease and water do not mix. The image areas of the plate are coated with a substance to which the greasy printing ink will adhere. On the press, the plate is moistened with water be499 500 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK © Simplified V ie w O f The Flow O f Printing W ork A n d Printing M ethods copy LETTERPRESS photo graphy LITHOGRAPHIC GRAVURE customer fore each inking so that only the image areas take up the greasy ink from the inking roller. The inked image is transferred from the plate to a rubber blanket and then offset to the surface to be printed. The lithographic method can be used to produce practically all items printed by any other method. It is especially satisfac tory for printing on rough-tex tured surfaces because of the flex ibility of the rubber blanket. In gravure printing, the image to be reproduced is etched into the surface of the printing plate. The whole surface is covered with ink and then wiped off, leaving ink only in the sunken or etched areas. When paper or other mate rial is firmly pressed against the surface, the ink is lifted out and appears on the paper. Copper and steel plate engraving also uses this technique. Screen printing is a method in which inks or other materials such as paint, varnish, and liquid plastic are forced by the action of a flexible blade through a stencil mounted on a finely woven screen, generally plastic or stainless steel. The shape of the stencil openings determines the design to be printed. This process may be ap plied to a wide variety of sur faces such as conventional paper, cardboard, wood, glass, metal, plastic, and textiles. Screen print ing is used on irregular surfaces and cylindrical surfaces as well as on flat surfaces. Regardless of the method used, several basic steps are involved in the production of printed mat ter. (See chart 29.) They include layout— planning the composition and content of each page; type setting and composition— produc ing and assembling the text type, headings, illustrations, and other materials into final page form; platemaking— preparing printing plates from the original composi tion for use on the printing presses; printing— transferring an image to a printing surface; and finishing— binding and mailing operations. P rin tin g Occupations Production of printed materials involves workers in a wide variety of occupations. Printing crafts men who in 1968 numbered over 412,300 represent a large segment of these employees. Printing craftsmen usually specialize in one area of printing operations; for example, type composition, photography, platemaking, presswork, or binding. Their training, moreover, is confined largely to only one of the basic printing methods— letterpress, lithogra phy, or gravure. The estimated 191,000 skilled composing room workers em ployed in 1968 were the largest group of printing craftsmen. This group includes hand compositors, typesetting machine operators, makeup men, tape-perforating machine operators (teletypeset ters), and proofreaders. Other large groups of skilled workers are printing pressmen and their as sistants; lithographic craftsmen, including cameramen, artists, strippers, platemakers, and litho graphic pressmen. Bookbinders, photoengravers, electro typers, and stereotypers are other impor tant printing craftsmen. Individ ual occupations are described in detail later in this chapter. Maintenance machinists, who repair and adjust typesetting ma chines, printing presses, or bind ery equipment, are another group of skilled workers employed in large plants. In the skilled occupations, practically all the workers are men. However, many of the less skilled jobs, especially in the bind eries, are held by women. Print ing establishments also employ a great many persons as executives, salesmen, accountants, engineers, stenographers, clerks, and labor ers. Newspapers and other pub lishers employ a considerable number of reporters and editors. These occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. (See index for page numbers.) Because of the increasingly complex and highly mechanized printing equipment in use today, there is a growing need for tech- 501 PRINTING (GRAPHIC ARTS) OCCUPATIONS nically trained people in all areas of printing management and pro duction. For example, an increas ing number of production tech nicians are being employed throughout the printing indus try. These men are responsible for seeing that the standards es tablished for each printing job are met. T o do this, they must be thoroughly familiar with the printing processes, and the many technical instruments used in the plant to judge and control the quality of the printing. The mailroom, chiefly in news paper and periodical plants, is an other area of employment closely related to printing production. Here workers address, bundle, and tie the printed matter for distribution. Modern mailroom processes are mechanized to a considerable extent. Mailers op erate addressing, stamping, stack ing, bundling, and tying ma chines. T rain in g and O ther Q ualifications Apprenticeship is a common method of entry into the printing crafts. In some instances, it is the only means by which one may be trained to become a journeyman (skilled worker) in a unionized shop. Formal apprenticeship also is required for journeyman stat us in many larger establishments not covered by union contracts. At the beginning of 1969, about 11,000 registered apprentices were in training in the skilled printing crafts. A registered ap prentice is an employee who, un der an expressed or an implied agreement, receives instruction in an apprenticeable occupation for a stipulated term and is employed in an apprenticeship program reg istered with a State apprentice ship agency or the U.S. Depart ment of Labor’s Bureau of Ap prenticeship and Training. In ad dition, several thousand appren tices were in nonregistered pro grams. A substantial number of persons also were learning a printing trade while working as helpers, particularly in small printing shops or lettershops, or through a combination of work experience and schooling. Printing trades apprenticeships usually last from 4 to 6 years, de pending on the occupation and the shop or area practices. The apprenticeship program covers all phases of the particular trade and generally includes classroom or correspondence study in related technical subjects in addition to training on the job. As new print ing methods have been developed and introduced, they generally have been incorporated into the duties of the traditional printing crafts and included in the appren tice training programs. Appren ticeship applicants generally are required to be between 18 and 30 years of age and must pass a phy sical examination. However, in many printing crafts, there is no maximum age limit for entry into an apprenticeship. In selecting applicants for printing craft jobs, most employ ers require a high school educa tion or its equivalent. A thorough knowledge of spelling, punctua tion, the fundamentals of gram mar, and basic mathematics is essential in many of the printing trades. A knowledge of the basic principles of chemistry, electron ics, and physics is becoming in creasingly important because of the growing use of photomechani cal and electronic processes in printing. An artistic sense is also an asset since the finished prod uct should be pleasing in balance and design. Most printing crafts require persons with good eye sight, about average physical strength, and a high degree of manual dexterity. Mental alert ness, speed combined with ac curacy, neatness, patience, and the ability to work with others are also necessary. The ability to dis tinguish colors is important in areas of printing where color is used. Many employers require ap plicants to take one or more apti tude tests developed for printing industry occupations by the U.S. Department of Labor. These tests are given in the local offices of State employment services. Ap prentices often are chosen from among the young men already employed in various unskilled jobs in printing establishments who demonstrate the mechanical aptitudes essential for the print ing crafts. About 4,000 schools— high schools, vocational schools, tech nical institutes, and colleges— offer courses in printing. These courses may help a young person to be selected for apprenticeships or other job openings in the print ing and publishing industries. Em ploym ent O utlook There will be many opportuni ties to enter the skilled printing trades through the 1970’s. These opportunities will occur primarily as a result of the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Many of these opportuni ties, however, will be in new types of jobs because of technological changes in production methods. Retirements and deaths alone may provide about 8,000 openings each year during the decade. Slight employment increases in some printing trades also are ex pected to provide a small number of additional job openings an nually. A continued rise in the volume of printed material is expected because of population growth, the increasingly high level of educa tion, the expansion of American OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 502 industry, and the trend toward greater use of printed materials for information, packaging, ad vertising, and various industrial and commercial purposes. How ever, employment in skilled print ing trades occupations is not ex pected to increase significantly because of the continuing intro duction of laborsaving techno logical changes in printing meth ods. These changes, primarily in the areas of type composition, platemaking, and bindery opera tions, include the increasing use of electronic devices such as com puters, electronic etching and color-separating equipment, and electronic controls for highly mechanized bindery equipment. Employment growth will vary among the printing trades. For example, employment of composi tors, the largest group of printing craftsmen, is expected to decrease slightly despite the continued in crease in the volume of printing because of laborsaving technolog ical changes in typesetting and composition. Employment of lith ographic craftsmen, however, is expected to increase because of the growing use of lithography (offset printing). Earnings and W orking Conditions Earnings of production workers in the printing and publishing industry, including the unskilled and semiskilled workers and printing craftsmen, are among the highest in manufacturing in dustries. In 1968, production workers in this industry averaged $133.28 a week, or $3.48 an hour, compared with $122.51 a week, or $3.01 an hour, for production workers in all manufacturing. Earnings of individual printing craftsmen vary from one occupa tion to another. Generally, the wage rates in large cities are high er than in small communities. Average union hourly rate July 1, 16981 Book Newspaper and job Bookbinders .................. Compositors: Hand .......................... Machine operators .... Electrotypers ................ Photoengravers ............ Pressmen (journeymen) Pressmen (cylinder) .. Pressmen (platen) .... Stereotypers .................. Mailers .......................... $4.45 $4.40 4.43 4.44 4.45 4.99 4.71 4.32 4.25 3.98 4.34 3.83 4.64 3.61 1 Average day rates. Wage rates also differ by type of printing establishments. The fol lowing tabulation shows the av erage union minimum hourly wage rates for daywork for se lected printing occupations in 69 large cities on July 1, 1968. These rates are the minimum basic rates for the individual occupational classifications. They do not in clude overtime, other special pay ments, or bonuses. A standard workweek of 3 7 ^ hours was specified in labor-man agement contracts covering about 2 out of 5 of the organized print ing trades workers, although standard workweeks of 36^4 hours and 35 hours were also in effect. A 40-hour workweek was standard in some establishments in the industry. Time and a half generally is paid for overtime. Work on Sundays and holidays is paid for at time and one-half or doubletime rates in most com mercial printing establishments. In newspapers plants, however, the craftsmen’s workweek often includes Sundays. Time and onehalf or double time is paid for these days only when they are not part of the employee’s regular shift. Night-shift workers gener ally receive pay differentials above the standard day rates. The starting wage rates of ap prentices are generally from 40 to 50 percent of the basic rate for journeymen in the shop. Wages are increased periodically, usually every 6 months, until in the final year or half year of training, the apprentice receives from 80 to 95 percent of the journeyman rate. Apprentices who have prior civil ian or military experience some times can obtain credit which will start them above the beginning apprentice pay rate, and also re duce the length of time required to become a journeyman if they successfully pass examinations provided for situations of this na ture. In exceptional cases, these provisions also apply to appren tices with technical school train ing. In some of the trades, appren tices may be upgraded when they show exceptional progress. Paid vacations generally are provided for printing craftsmen. The most common provision in labor-management agreements is 2 weeks’ vacation with pay after 1 year’s employment. Many agreements, however, provide for 3 weeks’ vacation with pay after 1 year or more of employment, and an increasing number pro vide for 4 weeks with pay after 20 or 25 years. Other major bene fits, such as paid holidays, re tirement pay, life and disability insurance, hospitalization, and severance pay, are also common. In addition, a number of printing trade unions have for many years operated their own programs pro viding their members with one type of benefit or more, such as life insurance, retirement, sick ness, or disability payments. The injury-frequency rate in PRINTING (GRAPHIC ARTS) OCCUPATIONS the printing industry is somewhat lower than the average for all manufacturing industries. A large proportion of the print ing trades workers are members of unions affiliated with the AFLCIO. The largest printing trades unions are the International Printing Pressmen and Assist ants’ Union of North America; the International Typographical Union; and the Lithographers and Photoengravers Union. Other printing trades unions include the International Brotherhood of Bookbinders; the International Stereotypers’ and Electrotypers’ Union of North America; and the International M a i l e r s Union (Ind.). The majority of unionized lithographic workers are in plants under contract with the Lithographers and Photoengrav ers International Union, which in cludes both printing craftsmen and other lithographic workers. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information on opportunities for apprenticeship or other types of printing employment in a par ticular locality may be obtained from various sources. Applicants may apply directly to the printing establishments in their areas. The names and locations of local printers usually can be obtained from the classified section of the local telephone directory. In ad dition, the local unions and em ployer associations in the print ing industry often can provide in formation regarding apprentice ship openings. In recent years, there has been an increasing use of local offices of the State em ployment services as information exchanges for apprenticeship op enings. Some of these offices pro vide services such as screening applicants and giving aptitude tests. 503 General information on the printing industry may be ob tained by writing to the following organizations: American Newspaper Publishers Association, 750 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. Education Council of The Graphic Arts Industry, Inc., 4615 Forbes Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. 15213. Graphic Arts Technical Founda tion, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pitts burgh, Pa. 15213. Gravure Technical Institute, 60 East 42d St., New York, N.Y. 10020. International Typographical Union, P.O. Box 157, Colorado Springs, Colorado 80901. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 5223 River Road, Wash ington, D.C. 20016. (See sections on individual printing occupations for names of labor organizations and trade associations which can provide more information on specific printing trades.) COMPOSING ROOM OCCUPATIONS (D.O.T. 650.582, 654.782, and 973.381) Compositors make up page from lines set by machine. The printing process begins in a composing room where manu script copy is set in type, proofed, and checked for errors. Machine and handset type, and other ma terials, such as photoengravings, are assembled there and prepared for the pressroom. In 1968, about half of all print ing craftsmen— about 191,000— were employed in composing room occupations. These occupations offer many opportunities for per sons interested in learning a skilled craft. Compositors usually have year-round employment and 504 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK very good earnings. Composing room workers include compositors who set type by hand; typesetting machine operators who operate semiautomatic typesetting ma chines; tape-perforating machine operators who perforate tapes used to operate some typesetting machines; bankmen who assem ble type in shallow trays called “ galleys’ ’ and make trial proofs of this type; proofreaders who check the galley proofs with the original copy for errors; make-up men who assemble type and pho toengravings in page forms; and stonehands, who arrange the pages in proper sequence. Compositors are employed in newspaper plants, commercial printing shops, in book and peri odical printing plants, and in typographic composition firms that set type for printing estab lishments, advertising agencies, and advertising departments of large business firms. One-third of all compositors work in newspa per plants. A large number are employed in establishments that specialize in setting type for book and magazine publishers. Skilled composing room work ers are employed in almost every community throughout the coun try, but they are concentrated in large metropolitan areas such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Boston, San Fran cisco, Detroit, Minneapolis-St. Paul, Cleveland, and Washington, D.C. be impractical to set the type by machine. In setting type by hand, the compositor, reading from the manuscript copy, first sets each line of type in a “ composing stick” (a device which holds type in place) letter by letter and line by line. When this stick is full, he slides the completed lines onto a shallow metal tray called a “ galley.” Typesetting machine operators are craftsmen who operate semi automatic machines which set type much more rapidly than the hand compositors. The type size used in machine set composition ordinarily is much smaller than that set by hand. Linotype (or Intertype) ma chine operators (D.O.T. 650.582) reading from the copy clipped to the machine’s copy board, select letters and other characters by operating a keyboard which has 90 keys. As they press the keys, the letters, in forms of metal molds called matrices, are as sembled into lines of words. A spaceband key provides the neces- Hand compositors ( typeset ters) (D.O.T. 973.381) make up Monotype keyboard operators (D.O.T. 650.582) operate key boards quite similar to those on a typewriter, but which include about four times as many keys. The keyboard machine produces a perforated paper tape which later is fed into the casting ma chine. The keyboard operator must be able to handle compli cated copy, such as statistical tables. Monotype c a s t e r operators N atu re of the W ork the oldest composing room occu pation. Today the majority of type that is set by hand is for work requiring very fine compo sition, usually larger size type being used for advertising copy, and for small jobs where it would sary spacing between words. As they complete each line, the op erators touch a lever and the ma chine automatically casts the line of type into a solid metal strip called a “ slug.” The slugs are then deposited in a galley and are later assembled into the type forms from which either the printing impressions or the plates are made. Nearly all newspaper plants, large commercial shops, a n d typographic composition firms use these machines and op erators to set type. In the smaller plants, the typesetting machine operator maintains and repairs as well as operates the typesetting machine. In the larger plants, maintenance machinists are em ployed to make all but minor ad justments to the machines. Other typesetting machine op erators work on Monotype ma chines. One machine is called the Monotype keyboard and the other is the Monotype caster. Linotype operator sets copy. (D.O.T. 654.782) operate the casting machines which automat ically cast and assemble the type, guided by the perforations in the paper tape prepared by the key board machine. As the rolls of perforated tape are fed into the machines, the proper matrices for casting letters are selected automatically by means of the perforations in the tape. Molten metal is forced into the matrix to form the individual character. The Monotype casting machine, as the name suggests, casts type PRINTING (GRAPHIC ARTS) OCCUPATIONS 505 film on which the type has been photographed. He also may as semble and arrange developed film into pages. This process, called “ stripping,” corresponds to page makeup in the hot metal type process. The operator also makes minor repairs on the pho totypesetting m a c h i n e . Since much of this equipment has elec tronic controls, the operator needs a basic working knowledge of the principles of electronics. Monotype keyboard operator prepares perforated tape. one letter or character at a time. This permits some corrections to be made by hand without the need to reset an entire line. The principal duties of caster opera tors are to insert the tape, adjust and tend the machine while it is operating, and do necessary main tenance and repair work. Only one caster operator is employed to every two or three keyboard operators. Typographic composi tion firms are the largest employ ers of both Monotype keyboard and caster operators. Phototypesetting machine op erators (D.O.T. 650.582) set type on machines which may be simi lar in appearance or method of operation, or both, to those which cast type in hot metal. In photo typesetting, however, a photo graphic process replaces the func tion of the hot metal, and the final product is a film or photo graphic paper print of the type rather than a metal slug. In one type of machine, as the operator presses the keys, the individual matrices or mats, which contain small film negatives, are assem bled and photographed on film, character by character, to form a line of type. In other phototype setting machines, a perforated paper tape or a magnetic sound tape is fed into a phototypeset ting machine which “ reads” the tapes and photographs the indi vidual characters indicated on the tape. Some typesetters operate pho tolettering machines which pro duce lines or individual characters in large-size type such as that used for newspaper headlines and for advertisements. As in photo typesetting, a photographic proc ess is involved, and the final prod uct is on film or paper. In addition to machine opera tion, the phototypesetter must be familiar with the fundamentals of photography, including dark room procedures, because fre quently he has to develop the Typesetting machine operators also set type by the “ cold type” method. The type is set on paper, using machines that are similar to typewriters. These machines automatically space letters and lines. “ Cold type” composition may be set directly on a paper or even a metal sheet from which the plate is to be made, or the cold type images may be cut from paper and pasted on layout sheets. The process of assembling and pasting this type on layout sheets is called paste makeup, and is somewhat similar to hand composition. The worker who assembles and pastes up all the materials for a page is called a paste-makeup man. Cold type composition frequently is used by newspapers for display adver tising, and by small newspapers to set regular text copy. Typesetters frequently operate tape-perforating machines called teletypesetters. These are ma chines with keyboards similar to those of typewriters. The ma chines are fitted with reels of tape that are perforated as the keys are struck. The perforated tapes are inserted in line casting machines, which set the type as directed by the perforations. After the tape has been punched, it may be sent by teletype to other cities where it is automat ically reperforated and used to control the operation of linecast ing machines. 506 T rain in g and O ther Q ualifications Most compositors acquire their skills through apprenticeship training. In union shops, appren tices often are selected from among the helpers. Some com positors acquire their skills while working as helpers for several years (particularly in small shops and in the smaller communities) or through a combination of trade school and helper experi ence. Tape-perforating machine op erators must be expert typists. They generally acquire their typ ing skill in commercial courses in high school or in business school. It is not necesary for these oper ators to be trained as journeymen compositors to perform their work efficiently; however, they must be familiar with printing terms and measurements. The training period for tape-perforat ing machine operators is gener ally about a year. Journeymen compositors sometimes transfer to this occupation. Generally, apprenticeship cov ers a 6-year period of progressive ly advanced training, supple mented by classroom instruction or correspondence courses. How ever, this period may be short ened by as much as 2 to 2 ^ years for apprentices who have had previous experience or schooling or who show the ability to learn the trade more rapidly. The time and emphasis spent up on any particular phase of train ing varies from plant to plant, depending upon the type of print ing establishment. A typical apprenticeship pro gram for compositors includes in struction in elementary hand composition, page makeup, lock up, lineup, and proofreading. Af ter basic training as a hand com positor, the apprentice receives intensive training in one special ized field or more, such as the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK operation of typesetting ma chines, including phototypeset ting and teletypesetting ma chines, as well as specialized work in hand composition and photocomposition. Applicants for apprenticeship generally must be high school graduates and in good physical condition. They sometimes are given aptitude tests. Important qualifications include training in English, especially spelling, and in mathematics. Printing and typing courses in vocational or high schools are good prepara tion for apprenticeship appli cants, and a general interest in electronics and photography is becoming increasingly useful. Ar tistic ability is an asset for a compositor in layout work. Apprentices are paid accord ing to a predetermined wage scale, which increases as the ap prenticeship period advances. At the beginning of 1969, there were about 3,900 registered appren tices in training for skilled com posing room jobs. ting machines. These machines, which set lines of type in metal or on film, are activated by an elec tronic device into which perfo rated tapes are fed. The perfora tions indicate characters, words, sentences, length of lines, spacing, and hyphenation. The recent in troduction of computers, pro gramed to perforate the codes for spacing, length of line, and hyph enation simplifies the work of the tape-perforating machine opera tor, and increases the speed at which type can be set. Technological changes also will affect significantly the education al and skill requirements for com posing room workers. The greater use of phototypesetting, for ex ample, requires compositors to have some photographic skills. Since much of the new typeset ting equipment is operated by electronic systems, a knowledge of the application of electronic principles to the operation of this equipment is becoming increas ingly i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e compositor. Em ploym ent O utlook Earnings and W orking Conditions A few thousand job openings for composing room workers are expected annually through the 1970’s because of the need to re place experienced workers who retire or die. Retirement and deaths alone should provide ap proximately 4,000 job openings annually. In spite of the anticipated ex pansion in the volume of printing in the United States during the 1970’s, employment of composi tors is expected to decline slowly because of technological changes in typesetting equipment that will make it possible to set type faster using fewer operators. For ex ample, over the past decade there has been an increasing use of automatically operated typeset As is true for most printing crafts, wages of skilled composing room workers are relatively high compared with skilled workers generally. However, there is con siderable variation in wage rates from place to place and from firm to firm. The average union mini mum hourly wage rate for hand compositors on the day shift in 69 large cities was $4.40 in news paper plants and $4.45 in book and job shops on July 1, 1968. Union minimum wage rates for compositors in book and job shops ranged from $2.93 an hour in Tampa, Fla., to $4.93 in San Francisco, Calif. In newspaper establishments, the union mini mum hourly wage rates for dayshift compositors ranged from PRINTING (GRAPHIC ARTS) OCCUPATIONS $3.73 an hour in Lubbock, Tex., to $5.49 in Chicago. Working conditions for com positors vary from plant to plant. Some heat and noise are made by hot metal typesetting machines. In general, the newer plants are well lighted and clean, and many are air conditioned. Composing room jobs require about average physical strength. Hand composi tors are required to stand for long periods of time and to do some lifting. Young men with some types of physical handicaps, such as deafness, have been able to enter the trade and do the work satisfactorily. Many compositors work at night on the second or third shift for which they gen erally receive additional pay. A substantial proportion of compositors are members of the International Typographical Union. 507 in type. The printing surfaces on these plates stand out in relief above the nonprinting spaces, as do the letters and the accompany ing type. Similarly, gravure pho toengravers, a specialized type of photoengraver, m a k e gravure plates in which the image is etched below the surface for use in reproducing pictures and type. In making a photoengraving plate for the letterpress process, the entire job may be done either by one man or by a number of skilled workers, each specializing in a particular operation. Special ists include cameramen, printers, etchers, finishers, routers, block ers, and proofers. In the large shops, the work is divided almost always among a number of these specialists. A cameraman starts the process of making a photoengraving plate by photographing the material to be reproduced. Plates made from line drawings are called line plates and those from photographs are called halftone plates. After the cameraman develops the negative, the printer prints the image on a metal plate by coating the plate with a solution sensitive to light and then exposing it and the nega tive to arc lights. The image areas are protected by chemical means so that when the plate is placed in an acid bath by the etcher, only the nonimage areas are etched away, leaving the image areas to stand out in relief. A number of other photoen graving operations may be per formed, depending on the quality Sources of A dditional Inform ation International Typographical Union, P.O. Box 157, Colorado Springs, Colo. 80901. International Typographic Com position Association, Inc., 2233 Wisconsin Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20007. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 5223 River Road, Wash ington, D.C. 20016. See page 503 for additional sources of information. PHOTOENGRAVERS (D.O.T. 971.381 and .382) N ature of the W ork Photoengravers make metal printing plates of illustrations and other copy that cannot be set up Cameraman photographs material to be reproduced. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 508 of the printing required. Photoen gravings for very high quality books or periodicals, for example, require more careful finishing than those for newspapers. The finisher carefully inspects and touches up the plate with handtools; the router cuts away metal from the nonprinting part of the plate to prevent it from touching the inking rollers during printing; the blocker mounts the engraving on a suitable base to make it reach the right height; and the proof er prints a sample copy on a proof press. The operations involved in gravure photoengraving are much like those in letterpress photoen graving, except that the image areas rather than the background are etched away. Places of Em ploym ent About 18,000 journeymen pho toengravers were employed in 1968. The great majority of pho toengravers (about 12,000) are employed in commercial service shops where the main business is making photoengravings for use by others. Newspaper and roto gravure shops employ several thousand photoengravers. In ad dition, book and periodical shops and the U.S. Government Print ing Office also employ photoen gravers. Many of these craftsmen have their own shops. Photoen gravers’ jobs are highly concen trated in the largest printing centers, particularly New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Los Angeles. Gravure photoengravers work mainly in independent gravure plants. Most of them work for the small number of big firms which handle a large proportion of all gravure work. A few large news paper and commercial plants also have departments where this work is done. Gravure plants are con centrated in a few States, par ticularly New York, Pennsyl vania, Illinois, and Kentucky. Train in g and O ther Q ualifications The most common way to be come a photoengraver is through apprenticeship training. At the beginning of 1969, there were over 560 registered apprentices in training for skilled photoengrav ing occupations. The apprentice ship program generally covers a 5 year period and includes at least 800 hours of related classroom in struction. Besides the care and use of tools, the apprentice is taught to cut and square nega tives, make combination plates, inspect negatives for defects, mix chemicals, sensitize metal, and op erate machines used in the photo engraving process. A p p r e n tic e s h ip applicants must be at least 18 years of age and generally must have a high school education or its equivalent, preferably with courses in chem istry and physics and training in art. Credit for previous experi ence acquired in photoengraving work may shorten the required apprenticeship time. Many em ployers require a physical exam ination for prospective photoen gravers; the condition of the ap plicant’s eyes is particularly im portant because a photoengrav er’s duties involve constant close work and color discrimination. the total number of these crafts men is anticipated over the next decade despite the growing use of photographs and other illus trations, and the increasing use of color. The introduction of more rapid etching techniques, the ap plication of electronics to engra ving and to color separation, and the increasing use of offset print ing, which requires no photoen gravings, will limit the number of photoengravers needed. Earnings and W orking Conditions Photoengravers are among the highest paid printing craftsmen. The average union minimum hourly wage rate for photoen gravers in 69 large cities on July 1, 1968, was $4.99 in book and job shops and $4.71 for the day shift in newspaper plants. Union average minimum hourly rates ranged from $3.51 an hour in New Orleans, La., to $5.51 an hour in New York. The great majority of photoen gravers are union members. Near ly all unionized photoengravers are represented by the Lithogra phers and Photoengravers Inter national Union. Sources of A dditional Inform ation American Photoplatemakers Asso ciation, 166 West Van Buren St., Chicago, 1 1 60604. 1. Lithographers and Photoengravers International Union, 233 West 49th St., New York, N.Y. 10019. Em ploym ent Outlook A few hundred job openings are expected each year through the 1970’s because of the need to replace photoengravers who retire or die. However, no increase in Printing Industries of America, Inc., 5223 River Road, Wash ington, D.C. 20016. See page 503 for additional sources of information. PRINTING (GRAPHIC ARTS) OCCUPATIONS ELECTROTYPERS AND STEREOTYPERS (D.O.T. 974.381 and 975.782) N ature of the W ork Electrotypers (D.O.T. 974.381) and stereotypers (D.O.T. 975.782) make duplicate press plates of metal, rubber, and plastic for letterpress printing. These plates are made from the metal type forms prepared in the composing room. Electrotypes are used main ly in book and magazine work. Stereotypes, which are less dur able, are used chiefly in news paper work. Electrotyping and stereotyping are necessary be cause most volume printing re quires the use of duplicate print ing plates. When a large edition of a book, magazine, or newspaper is printed, several plates must be used to replace those which be come too worn to make clear im pressions. Also, by means of dup licate plates, printers can use sev eral presses at the same time, and thus finish a big run quickly. This is especially important in publishing daily newspapers. Fur thermore, the rotary presses used in many big plants require curved plates which can be made by either electrotyping or stereo typing processes from the flat type forms. Several steps are required to produce a duplicate, curved metal plate ready for use in the press room. In electrotyping, the first step is making a wax or plastic mold of the type form, coating it with special chemical solutions, and then suspending it in an electrolytic solution containing metal. This leaves a metallic shell on the coated mold; this shell then is stripped from the mold, backed with metal or plastic, and carefully finished. The stereotyping process is much simpler, quicker, and less expensive than electrotyping, but it does not yield as durable or as fine a plate. Stereotypers make molds or mats of paper-mache (a 509 strong material composed of paper pulp) instead of wax or plastic. This involves placing the mat on the type form and cover ing it with a cork blanket and sheet of fiberboard. The covered form is run under heavy powerdriven steel rollers to impress the type and photoengravings on the mat. Then the mat is placed in a stereotype casting machine which casts a composition lead plate on the mold. In many of the larger plants, stereotype plates are cast in automatic machines. In many of the larger plants, electrotypers and stereotypers perform only one phase of the work, such as casting, molding, finishing, or blocking. However, journeymen must know how to handle all the tasks involved in their respective trades. Many electrotypers work in large plants that print books and periodicals. The majority of ster eotypers work in newspaper plants, but some are employed in large commercial printing plants. Electrotypers and stereotypers also are employed in independent service shops which do this work for printing firms. Train in g and O ther Q ualifications Stereotyper makes mat. Nearly all electro typers and stereotypers learn their trades through apprenticeship. Electro typing and stereotyping are sep arate crafts, and there is little transferability between the two. The apprenticeship program of each trade covers all phases of the work and almost always in cludes classes in related techni cal subjects as well as training on the job. Apprenticeship training for electrotypers and stereotypers usually covers a 5- or 6-year pe riod of reasonably continuous employment. Apprenticeship applicants must be at least 18 years of age and, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 510 ample, the increasing use of auto matic plate casting eliminates many steps in platemaking, and plastic and rubber plates are being made increasingly outside electrotyping and stereotyping shops. Furthermore, the increas ing use of offset printing reduces the need for electrotypers and stereo typers, since this type of plate is not required in offset printing. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 5223 River Road, Wash ington, D.C. 20016. See page 503 for additional sources of information. PRINTING PRESSMEN AND ASSISTANTS (D.O.T. 651.782, .885, and .886) Earnings and W orking Conditions N atu re of the W ork Stereotypers place mat into casting machine. in most instances, must have a high school education or its equiv alent. If possible, this education should include mechanical train ing and courses in chemistry. Phy sical examinations and aptitude tests often are given to prospec tive apprentices. The emphasis placed upon different phases of training varies from plant to plant, however, depending upon the type of printing establish ment. Em ploym ent O utlook There will be some opportuni ties for new workers to become electrotypers and stereotypers through the 1970’s because of re tirements, deaths, or transfers of workers to other occupations. However, the total number of electrotypers and stereotypers is expected to continue to decline moderately. This decline will occur in spite of the anticipated increase in the total volume of printing because of technological changes. For ex On July 1, 1968, the union minimum hourly wage rates in 69 large cities averaged $4.45 an hour for electrotypers, $4.64 an hour for stereotypers in book and job shops, and $4.25 an hour for stereotypers on day shift in news paper plants. Union minimum hourly wage rates for electrotyp ers in book and job plants ranged from $3.60 an hour in Baltimore, Md., to $5.05 an hour in New York. In newspaper plants, rates for day-shift stereotypers ranged from $3.57 an hour in Springfield, Mass., to $5.99 an hour in Chicago. Much of the work requires little physical effort since the prepa ration of duplicate printing plates is highly mechanized. However, there is some lifting of relatively heavy, hot press plates. Nearly all electro typers and stereotypers are members of the International Stereotypers’ and Electrotypers’ Union of North America. Sources of A dditional Inform ation International Stereotypers’ and Electrotypers’ Union of North America, 10 South La Salle St., Chicago, 11 . 60603. 1 International Association of Elec trotypers and Stereotypers, Inc., 758 Leader Building, Cleveland, Ohio 44114. The actual printing operation is performed in the pressroom. Printing pressmen “ makeready” (prepare) type forms and press plates for final printing and tend the presses while they are in operation. The object of makeready, which is one of the most delicate and difficult parts of the press man’s work, is to insure printing impressions that are distinct and uniform. This is accomplished by means such as placing pieces of paper exactly the right thickness underneath low areas of the press plates to level them, and by at taching pieces of tissue paper to the surface of the cylinder or flat platen which makes the impres sion. Pressmen also have to make many other adjustments— for ex ample, those needed to control margins and the flow of ink to the inking roller. In some shops, they are responsible not only for tend ing the presses but also for oiling and cleaning them and making some minor repairs. On the larger presses, pressmen have assistants and helpers. Pressmen’s work may differ greatly from one shop to another, mainly because of differences in the kinds and sizes of presses used. Small commercial shops generally have small and relative ly simple presses that often are PRINTING (GRAPHIC ARTS) OCCUPATIONS fed paper by hand. At the other extreme are the enormous web rotary presses used by the larger newspaper, magazine, and book printing plants. These giant presses are fed paper in big rolls called “ webs,” up to 50 inches or more in width. They print the paper on both sides by means of a series of cylinders; cut, assem ble, and fold the pages; and, fi nally, count the finished newspa per sections which emerge from the press ready for mailing. These steps are accomplished automat ically by means of many different mechanisms, each of which calls for constant attention while a run is being made. Presses of this kind are operated by crews of journey men and less skilled workers under the direction of a pressman- 511 trade while working as helpers or press assistants or through a combination of work experience in the pressroom and vocational or technical school training. The length of apprenticeship and the content of training de pend largely on the kind of press used in the plant. The appren ticeship period in commercial shops is 2 years for press assist ants and 4 years for pressmen. In newspaper establishments the apprenticeship period is 5 years. The apprenticeship period for pressmen operating web presses is generally 5 years. On-the-job training includes the care of press room equipment, makeready, run ning the job, press tending and maintenance and working with various types of inks and papers. In addition to on-the-job instruc tion, the apprenticeship involves related classroom or correspond ence schoolwork. At the beginning of 1969, about 3,500 registered apprentices were in training. Individual companies generally choose apprentices from among press assistants and others al ready employed in the plant. Young men often may work for 2 or 3 years in the pressroom be fore they are selected to begin 2to 4-year training periods leading to journeyman status. A high school education or its equivalent generally is required. Because of technical developments in the printing industry, a year of chem istry and a year of physics should be included. Mechanical aptitude is important in making press ad- in-charge. Although the basic duties of lithographic ( offset) pressmen are similar to those of letterpress and gravure pressmen, a number of differences exist, principally because of the specialized char acter of lithographic presses. (See p. 512 for further details.) The duties of press assistants range from feeding sheets of paper into hand-fed presses to helping pressmen makeready and operate large and complicated rotary presses. Workers whose main re sponsibility is feeding often are called press feeders. The ratio of assistants to pressmen differs from one establishment to an other, depending on the size of the plant, the type of press used, and other factors. Many shops are too small to have pressroom assistants. T rain in g and O ther Q ualifications As in other printing crafts, the most common way of learning the pressman’s trade is through ap prenticeship. Some workers have been able to learn the skills of the Pressman adjusts stereotype plate on newspaper press. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 512 justments and repairs. An ability to visualize color is essential for work on color presses, which are being used increasingly. Physical strength and endurance are neces sary for work on some kinds of presses, where the pressmen have to lift heavy type forms and press plates and stand for long periods. E m ploym ent Outlook Employment of pressmen is ex pected to increase moderately throughout the 1970’s. The total amount of printing and the use of color are expected to increase, re quiring larger and more complex presses. However, continued im provements in the speed and effi ciency of printing presses will limit the need for additional pressmen. The need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work also will re sult in job opportunities for new workers. Retirements and deaths alone may result in about 1,600 job openings each year. pressroom to wear ear protectors. There are also the usual occupa tional hazards associated with machinery. Pressmen often have to lift heavy type forms and print ing press plates. At times, they work under pressure to meet deadlines, especially in the print ing of newspapers and magazines. Many pressmen work night shifts for which the rate of pay is higher than the basic day rate. A majority of pressroom work ers are covered by union agree ments. Practically all of the or ganized letterpress and gravure pressmen are members of the In ternational Printing Pressmen and Assistants’ Union of North America. Sources of A dditional Inform ation International Printing Pressmen and Assistants’ Union of North America, Pressman’s Home, Tenn. 37850. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 5223 River Road, Wash ington, D.C. 20016. See page 503 for additional sources of information. Earnings and W orking Conditions The earnings of pressmen de pend upon the kind of press op erated, the type of printing plant, and the geographical area of em ployment. A survey of union mini mum hourly wage rates for day work in 69 large cities shows that the average minimum hourly rate in effect on July 1,1968, for news paper pressmen-in-charge was $4.62, for newspaper pressmen (journeymen), $4.32; for book and job cylinder pressmen, $4.34; for book and job platen pressmen, $3.83, and for book and job press assistants and feeders, $3.69. Pressrooms are unavoidably noisy— one State, California, now requires newspaper pressmen working in certain areas of the LITHOGRAPHIC OCCUPATIONS N ature of the W ork Lithography (offset printing) is one of the most rapidly grow ing methods of printing. Prac tically all items printed by other processes also are produced by lithography— including books, calendars, maps, posters, labels, office forms, catalogs, folding car tons, and newspapers. Lithog raphy has special advantages when the copy to be reproduced includes photographs, drawings, or paintings, since the rubber blanket which transfers the image from the plate to the surface to be printed permits greater flexi bility in the type of paper that can be used. Several operations are involved in lithography, and each is per formed by a specialized group of workers. The main groups of lith ographic workers are cameramen, artists and letterers, strippers, platemakers, and pressmen. The camerman (D.O.T. 972.382) starts the process of making a lithographic plate by photo graphing the copy. He generally is classified as a line camerman (black and white), halftone cam eraman (black and white), or color separation photographer. After the negatives have been made, they frequently need re touching to lighten or darken cer tain parts. Thus, it is often neces sary for a lithographic artist (D.O.T. 972.281) to make cor rections by sharpening or reshap ing images on the negatives. Highly skilled workers perform this work by hand, using chemi cals, dyes, and special tools. To qualify as journeymen, these artists must be adept in one or more of the various retouch ing methods. Like cameramen, they are assigned to only one phase of the work and may cus tomarily be known, for example, as dot etchers, retouchers, or let terers, depending on their par ticular job. The stripper (D.O.T. 971.381) makes layouts on paper, glass, or film. He arranges and pastes film or prints of type, pictures, and other art work on the layout sheets called flats or “ stripups,” from which photographic impres sions are made for the lithograph ic press plates. The job of the stripper in the lithographic proc ess corresponds to that of the makeup man in the letterpress process. PRINTING (GRAPHIC ARTS) OCCUPATIONS 513 it to the paper, adjusts water and ink rollers for correct operation, mixes inks, and operates the presses. Basically, the duties of these workers are similar to those of letterpress and gravure press men. Some differences exist, how ever, because of the chemical means used to separate image and nonimage areas on lithographic presses. In large plants, press feeders and helpers are employed; their duties are similar to those of assistants and helpers to letterpress and gravure pressmen. (See p. 511.) T rain in g and O ther Q ualifications Camerman adjusts lens before making printing plate. In lithography, employees in the platemaking department ex pose press plates to photographic films which are made by the cam eramen and corrected by artists. The platemaker (D.O.T. 972.781) may cover the surface of the metal plate with a coating of photosen sitive chemicals, or the metal plate may come to him with the photosensitive layer applied. The platemaker exposes the sensitized plate through the negative or pos itive to strong arc lights; this is commonly done in a vacuum printing frame. When a large number of the same images are to be exposed on a single plate, however, the operation is done in a photocomposing machine. The plate then is developed and chemically treated to bring out the image. The lithographic pressman (D.O.T. 651.782) makes ready and tends the lithographic (off set) printing presses. He installs the plate on the press, adjusts the pressure for proper printing, cares for and adjusts the rubber blanket which takes the impres sion from the plate and transfers A 4- or 5-year apprenticeship covering the basic lithographic process usually is required to be come a well-rounded lithographic craftsman. Training emphasis is on the specific occupation in which journeyman status is being sought, although generally, an at tempt is made to make the ap prentice familiar with all litho graphic operations. At the begin ning of 1969, there were about 1,900 registered apprentices in training for skilled lithographic occupations. Usually, apprenticeship appli cants must be in good physical condition, high school graduates, and at least 18 years of age. Ap titude tests are sometimes given to prospective apprentices. Voca tional school training and train ing in photography, mathematics, chemistry, physics, and art are helpful in learning these crafts. Em ploym ent O utlook A slow rise in the n u m b e r of lithographic workers is ex pected through the 1970’s. In ad dition, the need to replace work ers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work will provide 514 some job openings. Employment growth and replacement needs together are expected to provide about 1,800 job opportunities for new workers each year on the av erage through the 1970’s. Offset printing has expanded considerably in recent years, par ticularly in the commercial print ing field, and a large number of letterpress concerns have estab lished offset departments. Offset presses are used increasingly in small and medium size newspaper establishments. In 1968, an esti mated 73,000 journeymen litho graphic workers were employed. Offset printing employment should show continued growth because of the greater use of pho tographs, drawings, and illustra tions in printed matter, and be cause of the more widespread use of color in many printed products. However, new technological de velopments, particularly in the camera, platemaking, and press departments, are expected to slow the increase in lithographic em ployment. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Francisco area. In many plants, top grade cameramen earn as much as the highly skilled artists, and cameramen who do multi color work are paid more than those who do only black and white work. Minimum hourly rates of platemakers ranged from $2.81 an hour in San Antonio to $5.14 an hour in Los Angeles and San Diego. The wide range of rates for lithographic pressmen— from $2.53 an hour for small multilith press operators in Little Rock to $7.12 an hour for first pressmen on a large eight-plate roll-fed offset press in Chicago— is due largely to the many dif ferent types and sizes of presses operated. A substantial proportion of all lithographic workers are members of the Lithographers and Photo engravers International Union. A considerable number of offset pressmen and other offset workers are members of the International Printing Pressmen and Assist ants’ Union of North America. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Earnings and W orking Conditions Union minimum hourly wage rates for lithographic occupations vary within each occupation, de pending upon the degree of skill required, the type and size of equipment, and the part of the country in which the worker is employed. For example, accord ing to information on union mini mum hourly wage rates in 69 large cities as of July 1, 1968, wage rates for dot etchers or proc ess artists and letterers ranged from $3.32 an hour in Little Rock, Ark., to $5.55 an hour in Boston, Mass. Rates for cameramen, which generally are below those for skilled artists, ranged from $3.13 an hour in San Antonio, Tex., to $5.35 an hour in the San Lithographers and Photoengravers International Union, 233 West 49th St., New York, N.Y. 10019. International Printing Pressmen and Assistants’ Union of North America, Pressmen’s Home, Tenn. 37850. Graphic Arts Technical Founda tion, 4615 Forbes Ave., Pitts burgh, Pa. 15213. National Association of PhotoLithographers, 230 West 41st St., New York, N.Y. 10036. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 5223 River Road, Wash ington, D.C. 20016. See page 503 for additional sources of information. BOOKBINDERS AND RELATED WORKERS (D.O.T. 977.781) N atu re of the W ork Many printed items, such as books, magazines, pamphlets, business forms, and calendars, must be folded, sewed, stapled, or bound after they leave the printing shops. Much of this work is done by skilled bookbinders (D.O.T. 977.781) who numbered about 30,000 in 1968. Many book binders are employed in shops whose chief business is bookbind ing. However, a considerable num ber are employed in the bindery departments of large book, peri odical, and commercial printing plants and large libraries. There are several different kinds of binderies. Edition and pamphlet binderies bind books, magazines, and pamphlets print ed in large quantities. Trade or job binderies do bindery work on contract for printers, publishers, or other customers. Blankbook and looseleaf binderies bind vari ous types of blank books such as ledgers and bookkeeping and ac counting volumes. They also pro duce looseleaf binders and bind books in looseleaf form. Edition b i n d i n g — making books in quantity from big, flat printed sheets of paper— is by far the most complicated. The first step in the process is to fold the printed sheets into one unit or more, known as “ signatures,” so that the pages will be in the right order. The next steps are to insert any illustrations that have been printed separately, to gather and assemble the signa tures in proper order, and to sew them together. The resulting book bodies are shaped with pow er presses and trimming ma- PRINTING (GRAPHIC ARTS) OCCUPATIONS chines, and fabric strips are glued to the backs for reinforcement. Covers are glued or pasted onto the book bodies, after which the books undergo a variety of finish ing operations and, frequently, are wrapped in paper jackets. Ma chines are used extensively throughout the process. Skilled bookbinders seldom perform all the different edition bindery tasks, although many journeymen have had training in all of them. In large shops, skilled bookbinders may be assigned to one or a few operations, most often to the operation of compli cated machines. In many binderies, especially large ones, much of the work is done by workers trained in only one operation or in a small num ber of relatively simple, related tasks. Most of these workers, often classified as bindery work ers or bindery hands, are women (hence the common designation, bindery women). Their work closely resembles assembly line factory work. T rain in g and O ther Q ualifications A 4- or 5-year apprenticeship which includes on-the-job train ing as well as related classroom instruction generally is required to qualify as a skilled bookbinder. Apprenticeship programs may vary considerably among the vari ous types of bookbinding shops. When large quantities of books are bound on a mass production (edition) basis, emphasis is on the most modem machine meth ods. In fine hand binding, em phasis is mainly on hand meth ods, including artistic designing and decorating of leather covers. For many years, hand bookbind ing has been declining in impor tance. 515 for bindery hands, the majority of whom are women, because of the considerable turnover among this group. However, some de crease in the total number of bookbinders and bindery hands is expected, despite the antici pated growth in the amount of bound printed materials, because of the increasing mechanization of bindery operations. Earnings and W orking Conditions Bookbinder marbles book edges. Apprenticeship applicants usu ally must have a high school education and be at least 18 years of age. Mechanical aptitude is helpful to the person entering this trade. In the course of the apprenticeship, trainees learn, among other things, to assemble signatures, renovate old, worn bindings, and use various binding machines such as punches, fold ers, perforators, stitchers, and power cutters. For the less skilled bindery oc cupations, the training period may last from several months to 2 years. In union shops, appren ticeship programs for women bindery workers generally last 2 years. These formal programs in clude classroom instruction as well as on-the-job training. Wage rates for skilled book binders tend to be below the av erage of other printing crafts. A survey of union minimum hourly wage rates in 69 large cities, as of July 1, 1968, showed that the minimum hourly wage rate for bookbinders in book and job es tablishments averaged $4.20 an hour, and rates ranged from $4.87 in the San Francisco area to $3.20 in Shreveport, La. The wage rates for bindery women are consider ably lower and are among the lowest for printing industry workers. They ranged from $1.93 an hour in Little Rock to $3.30 in the San Francisco area. The majority of bindery work ers are union members. Most skilled bookbinders are repre sented by the International Brotherhood of Bookbinders. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Em ploym ent Outlook A few hundred job openings for skilled bookbinders are expected each year during the next decade because of the need to replace ex perienced workers who retire or die. Many openings are expected International Brotherhood of Bookbinders, 1612 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20016. Printing Industries of America, Inc., 5223 River Road, Wash ington, D.C. 20016. See page 503 for additional sources of information. S O M E O T H E R M A N U A L O C C U P A T IO N S ASSEMBLERS N atu re of the W ork Many of the products and parts made in factories must be assembled during various steps in the manufacturing process, as well as in the final assembly of the product. For example, tele vision sets, automobiles, and re frigerators are typical of the products which undergo many as sembly operations. The workers who put together parts or fin ished products, nearly 911 of whom are semiskilled workers, are known as assemblers. Some assemblers, known as floor assemblers, put together large, heavy machinery or equip ment on shop floors, often fasten ing parts with bolts, screws, or rivets. Others, known as bench assemblers, put together small parts to make subassemblies or small complete units while work ing at a bench. Many assemblers work on products or parts which move automatically past their work stations on conveyors. These workers must complete their assembly job within the time period it takes the part or product to pass their work station. The job duties of assemblers depend upon the product being manufactured, and the manufac turing process being used. In air craft and missile production, these workers may assemble and install parts into subassemblies. In the automobile industry, one assembler may start nuts on bolts, and the next worker on the assembly line tightens the nuts with power-driven tools. Assem blers in electronic plants may connect parts with electrical wire. The kinds of tools assemblers use depend upon the work they are doing and the product on which they are working. Pliers, screwdrivers, soldering irons, power drills, and wrenches are among the common tools used by semiskilled assemblers. Skilled assemblers work on the more complex parts of subassem blies with little or no supervision and are responsible for the final assembly of complex jobs. These skilled workers must know how to read blueprints and other en gineering specifications and use a variety of tools and precision measuring instruments. In rela tively new fields such as elec tronics, instrumentation, and missiles, subassembly work may require a high degree of skill. Places of Em ploym ent Assembler wires safety component in missile. Assemblers work in plants that mass-produce products such as automobiles, aircraft, television sets, c a m e r a s , refrigerators, watches, and electrical motors. In early 1968, approximately 785,000 assemblers were em ployed in manufacturing plants; the great majority were in elec trical machinery and other metal working plants. The majority of 517 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 518 assemblers were employed in California, New York, Michigan, Illinois, Ohio, Indiana, and Penn sylvania. About half of all assemblers were women, who worked pri marily as bench assemblers. The largest proportion of women as semblers worked in the electrical machinery, equipment, and sup ply industry. Large numbers of women assemblers also were em ployed in other industries— fabri cated metals; machinery, except electrical; transportation equip ment; and instruments and re lated products. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Inexperienced workers who are hired to do assembly work are usually trained on the job in a few days or weeks. The new worker may have his job duties explained to him by his super visor and then be placed under the supervision of an experienced employee. The trainee observes the experienced employee at work or directly assists him in his work. When the learner develops sufficient speed, he is placed “ on his own” and is responsible for the work he does. Employers generally want ap plicants for assembly jobs to be physically fit, dependable, and have some aptitude for mechani cal work. High school graduates or workers who have taken voca tional school courses, such as blueprint reading, are preferred by many employers although a high school diploma is not usu ally required. Generally, for pro duction-line assembly jobs, em ployers look for applicants who can do routine work at a steady and fast pace. For other types of assembly jobs, applicants may have to meet special require ments. For example, in plants producing electrical and elec tronic products, which may con tain many different colored wires, applicants often are tested for color blindness. Many women are employed in bench assembly jobs because such work is relatively light and often requires the ability to work with small and delicate objects. This is particularly true in the electrical and electronic equip ment industry. Male workers are usually employed as floor or line assemblers, where the work is physically hard. Final automobile assembly, for example, is gener ally done by men. A relatively small number of workers who learn to perform a variety of assembly work and who have a knowledge of blue print reading and shop mathe matics are able to become skilled assemblers. A few workers also may become skilled inspectors or foremen. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment of assemblers is expected to increase slowly through the 1970’s, creating sev eral thousand job openings an nually. Most job openings, how ever, are expected to result from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Deaths and retire ments alone will account for about 20,000 openings each year. Most of the industries that em ploy assemblers, especially the electrical machinery industry, are expected to increase their em ployment during this period; however, technological changes are expected to limit the growth of this occupation. For example, the increasing use of printed elec trical circuits reduces the wiring work required in assembling ra dio and television sets, thus af fecting the employment of assem bly workers in plants producing these products. Further increases in the use of automatic assembly processes are expected to slow the growth of assemblers. Employment in metalworking manufacturing plants, which have many assemblers, is particu larly sensitive to changes in busi ness conditions and national de fense needs. Therefore, assem blers in those industries will be subject to occasional layoffs. Earnings and W orking Conditions Earnings of assemblers in manufacturing industries vary widely, depending on their skill, the type of product assembled, and factors such as the size and location of the plant in which they are employed. Assembly jobs are commonly classified as A, B, and C, to re flect the level of skill and respon sibility involved. The following table presents average straighttime hourly earnings of assem blers in the nonelectrical machin ery industry: Average straight-time hourly earnings of class A, B, and C assemblers in nonelectrical machinery, mid-1967 Area Class A Class B Class C United States1..... $3.08 New England .. 2.98 Middle Atlantic 3.03 Border States .. 2.97 Southeast ......... 2.45 Southwest ....... 2.65 Great Lakes .... 3.18 Middle West .... 3.27 Pacific ............ 3.10 $2.68 2.60 2.60 2.64 1.95 2.16 2.87 2.71 2.60 $2.32 2.34 2.17 2.23 1.79 1.84 2.45 2.47 2.23 1Includes data for Mountain States. The working conditions of as semblers differ, depending on the particular job performed. Assem blers of electronic equipment may put together small components at a bench in a room which is clean, well lighted, and free from dust. Floor assemblers of indus trial machinery, on the other hand, may install and assemble SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS heavy parts and are often ex posed to contact with oil and grease. Assemblers on assembly lines may be under pressure to perform their assignments in the time the conveyor moves the parts or subassemblies past their work stations. Assemblers paid incen tive or piecework rates are en couraged to work more rapidly by the prospect of higher earnings. Many assemblers in manufac turing industries are members of labor unions. These unions in clude the International Associa tion of Machinists and Areospace Workers; the International Un ion of Electrical, Radio and Ma chine Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aero space and Agricultural Imple ment Workers of America; and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. Most labormanagement contracts in the manufacturing plants in which assemblers are employed provide for fringe benefits, such as holi day and vacation pay, health in surance, life insurance, and re tirement pensions. AUTOMOBILE PAINTERS (D.O.T. 845.781) N atu re of the W ork Automobile painters make old and damaged motor vehicles “ look like new.” These skilled workers repaint vehicles that have lost the luster of their origi nal paint, and the repaired por tions of vehicles damaged in traf fic accidents. (Production paint ers who work for motor vehicle manufacturers are discussed else where in the Handbook.) To prepare an automobile for painting, the painter or his helper rough sands the vehicle to re move original paint. He then uses a spray gun to apply primer coats to the automobile surface. After the primer dries, he sands the surface until it is smooth enough to be painted. For rough sanding, he usually uses a pneumatic or electric sander and a coarse grade of sandpaper; final sanding may be done by hand using a fine grade of sand paper. Small nicks and scratches that cannot be re moved by sanding are filled with automobile-body putty. Masking tape and paper cover areas not to be painted. Before painting repaired por tions of an automobile, the paint er may mix paints to match the existing color of the car. Before applying the paint, he adjusts the nozzle of the spray gun according to the kind of lacquer or enamel being used and, if necessary, ad justs the air-pressure regulator to acquire the needed amount of pressure. He must handle the spray gun skillfully so that the paint is applied evenly, rapidly, and thoroughly. To speed drying, he may place the freshly painted automobile under heat lamps or in a special infrared oven. After the paint dries, the painter or his helper may polish the newly 519 painted surface to bring out its luster. Places of Em ploym ent Almost two-thirds of an esti mated 30,000 automobile paint ers employed in 1968 worked in repair shops that specialize in automobile-body repairs and painting, and in shops that make general automobile repairs. Most of the others were employed in the service departments of auto mobile and truck dealers. Some painters were employed by or ganizations that maintained and repaired their own fleets of mo tor vehicles, such as trucking companies and bus lines. Although automobile painters are employed in every section of the country, about half of them work in the eight States with the largest number of motor vehicles: California, New York, Texas, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, and Florida. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Most automobile painters start as helpers and acquire their skills informally by working for sev eral years with experienced painters. Usually, beginners re move automobile trim, clean and sand surfaces to be painted, and polish painted surfaces. As help ers gain experience, they pro gress to more complicated tasks such as using spray guns to apply primer coats and paint small areas. Three to four years of in formal on-the-job training are re quired to become a fully quali fied automobile painter. A small number of automobile painters learn their trade through apprenticeship. Apprenticeship programs for automobile paint ers, which generally last 3 years, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 520 consist of on-the-job training supplemented by related class room instruction. Young men considering this work as a career should have good health, keen eyesight, a discern ing color sense, and a steady hand. Courses in automobilebody repair offered by high schools and vocational schools provide helpful experience. Com pletion of high school generally is an advantage though not a re quirement for getting a job as a painter’s helper, because too many employers high school gradution indicates that a young man can “ complete a job.” An experienced automobile painter with supervisory ability may advance to shop foreman. Many experienced painters who acquire the necessary capital open their own shops. E m ploym ent O utlook Employment of automobile painters is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. In addition to the few hundred job openings anticipated annually as a result of employment growth, hundreds of job openings are expected to result each year because of the need to replace ex perienced painters who retire or die. Opportunities also will occur as some painters transfer to other lines of work. Employment of automobile painters is expected to increase primarily as a result of the in creasing number of motor vehi cles damaged in traffic accidents. The accident toll is expected to increase as the number of motor vehicles in use grows, despite new and improved highways, driver training courses, added safety features on new vehicles, and stricter law enforcement that may slow down the rate of in crease. Despite the increasingly durable paint used on new cars, the number of motor vehicles that need to be repainted because the original finish has deterior ated also is expected to increase as a result of the growth in the number of motor vehicles in use. The employment effect of in creasing numbers of motor vehi cles and traffic accidents may be offset slightly by improve ments that make automobile bod ies more resistant to rust, and new developments in painting equipment that should enable painters to complete jobs in less time. Earnings and W orking Conditions A number of union-manage ment agreements indicate that most automobile painters em ployed by automobile dealers in 1968 earned between $3.45 and $4.60 an hour. Those employed in large metropolitan areas gen erally earned more than painters employed in small towns. Many painters employed by au tomobile dealers and independent repair shops are paid a percentage of the labor cost charged to the customer. Under this method, a painter’s earnings depend largely on the amount of work he is as signed and how fast he completes it. Earnings also may be based on other methods of wage payment— for example, a weekly salary plus a commission on jobs completed, or an hourly rate. Painters em ployed by trucking companies, buslines, and other organizations that repair their own vehicles usually receive an hourly rate. Most painters work 40 to 48 hours a week. Many employers of automobile painters provide holiday and va cation pay, and addditional bene fits such as life, health, and ac cident insurance, and contribute to retirement plans. Some shops furnish laundered uniforms free of charge. Automobile painters are ex posed to fumes from paint and paint-mixing ingredients. How ever, in most shops, the painting is performed in special ventilated booths that protect the painters. Shops not having such booths furnish masks that cover the nose and mouth. Painters must be agile because they often bend and stoop while working. Only average physical strength is needed. Many automobile painters be long to unions, including the In ternational Association of Ma chinists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, A e r o s p a c e and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the Sheet Metal Workers’ International Associa tion; and the International Brotherhood of T e a m s t e r s , Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Most painters who are union members are employed by the larger auto mobile dealers and by trucking companies and buslines. Sources of A dditional Inform ation For further information re garding work opportunities for automobile painters, inquiries should be directed to local em ployers, such as automobile-body repair shops and automobile dealers; locals of the unions pre viously mentioned; or the local office of the State employment service. The State employment service also may be a source of information about the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962, apprenticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. General information about the work of automobile painters may be obtained from: SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS Automotive Service Industry As sociation, 168 North Michigan Ave., Chicago, 1 1 60601. 1. Independent Garage Owners of America, Inc., 624 South Michi gan Ave., Chicago, 1 1 60605. 1. AUTOMOBILE TRIMMERS AND INSTALLATION MEN (AUTOMOBILE UPHOLSTERERS) (D.O.T. 780.381 and .884) N atu re of the W ork Automobile trimmers, fre quently assisted by installation men, replace and repair uphols tery and other automobile fab rics. (Workers who upholster automobiles in factories are not included in this statement.) Trimmers and installation men together are called “ automobile upholsterers.” Automobile trimmers (D.O.T. 780.381) are skilled upholsterers who custom make coverings for automobile seats, floors, and door panels; convertible tops; and other items. To make these items, they first determine the dimen sions of each piece of vinyl, leatherette, broadcloth, or other material to be used and mark the material for cutting, after al lowing for pleats, seams, shrink age, and stretching. Although trimmers often follow standard designs to make most items, they may follow original designs speci fied by customers or create origi nal designs. After cutting and fit ting, they use heavy-duty sewing machines to stitch the pieces. Finished pieces are stretched and pulled to fit snugly; glued, tacked, stapled, or fastened in other ways; and then trimmed of excess material. In addition to making automobile upholstery and convertible tops, trimmers may make items such as truck seat cushions and tarpaulins, boat covers, and seats for buses and small airplanes. Automobile upholsterers also repair uphol stery that has been torn, cut, burned, or damaged. They may repair power-window and con vertible top mechanisms, and cut and install automobile glass. Automobile trimmers often are assisted by installation men, sometimes called seat-cover in stallers (D.O.T. 780.884), who 521 remove worn seat covers and con vertible tops and install new ones. Trimmers and installation men use a variety of handtools includ ing shears, knives, screwdrivers, special pliers, various type of wrenches, tack hammers, mallets, and tape measures. They also use heavy-duty sewing machines and power tools such as airpowered staplers and wrenches. In some shops, they use electric steaming machines to shrink fabrics, and special electronic welders to bind synthetic materials. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 522 Places of E m ploym ent An estimated 8,300 automobile trimmers and installation men were employed in 1968. Most worked in shops that specialize in the fabrication and replace ment of automobile upholstery and convertible tops. Others worked in automotive repair and accessories sections of depart ment stores, in automobile-body repair shops, and in automobile dealer shops. Most automobile upholstery specialty shops em ploy from 1 to 5 trimmers. In small shops, the number of in stallation men generally equals the number of trimmers. How ever, installation men outnumber trimmers in many of the larger shops, particularly those that specialize in the installation of factory-made seat covers and tops. Although automobile uphol sterers are employed throughout the country, most work in the larger cities. Train in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Most trimmers and installation men learn their skills on the job. Beginners usually are hired as in stallation men trainees. They are first taught to remove seats and upholstery and install seat cov ers, and gradually learn to do more difficult jobs such as in stalling convertible tops. After qualifying as installation men, they progress to making seat cov ers, tops, and other upholstery. Although a capable beginner can become a fully qualified installa tion man in 3 to 6 months, 3 to 4 years usually are required to become a skilled trimmer. A small number of automobile trimmers begin as apprentices. Apprenticeship programs for au tomobile trimmers, generally last 3 or 4 years, and consist of on- the-job training supplemented by related classroom instruction. Applicants for entry jobs should be mechanically inclined and in good physical condition. Employ ers are interested in hiring those who enjoy working creatively with their hands. A high school education is desirable but not es sential. High school and vocacational school courses in furni ture upholstery provide valuable training. Courses in mathematics are useful in laying out and plan ning automobile upholstery work. Experienced trimmers who have supervisory ability may ad vance to foremen in large shops. Many automobile trim shops are owned by trimmers who acquired the necessary experience, skill, and capital to establish their own businesses. Em ploym ent O utlook Hundreds of job openings for automobile trimmers and instal lation men are expected to be available through the 1970’s. Most openings will result from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or trans fer to other lines of work. M od erate growth of the occupations is expected to provide a small number of job opportunities an nually, primarily because the op eration of more automobiles is expected to increase the demand for custom-made automobile up holstery and other fabric prod ucts. However, the demand is not expected to grow as rapidly as the number of automobiles, be cause of the use of more durable fabrics. Other factors that may stimulate employment growth in clude an increasing demand for truck cushions and tarpaulins as a result of the anticipated in crease in the number of trucks in operation, and an increasing demand for custom-made boat covers and seat as a result of the growing popularity of boating. Earnings and W orking Conditions Most trimmers and installation men are paid a weekly salary or hourly wage and work from 44 to 48 hours per week. Many receive commissions or bonuses based on sales, in addition to their regular pay. Some trimmers are paid on a straight commission basis. In formation from a limited number of automobile dealers indicated that most installation men and trimmers earned between $2.75 and $4.25 an hour in 1968. Indi vidual earnings often depend on experience and geographic loca tion. Trimmers earn more than installation men, and earnings generally are higher in large met ropolitan areas than in small towns. Trimmers and installation men receive holiday and vacation pay and all, or part, of the cost of life, health, and accident insur ance. Some employers also con tribute to retirement plans. Trimmers and installation men generally work in shops that are clean, well-lighted, and relatively quiet. Their work often involves being in awkward and uncom fortable positions for short pe riods. Automobile upholstery work is not hazardous, although these workers are subject to cuts, bruises, and other minor injuries. A small percentage of these workers are members of the In ternational B r o t h e r h o o d of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Ware housemen and Helpers of Amer ica (Ind.). Sources of A dditional Inform ation For further information re garding work opportunities for automobile trimmers and instal lation men, inquiries should be SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS directed to local automobile trim shops or the local office of the State employment service. The State employment service also may be a source of information about the Manpower Develop ment and Training Act of 1962, apprenticeship, and other pro grams that provide training opportunities. General information about the work of automobile trimmers and installation men may be obtained from: National Association of Auto Trim Shops, 129 Broadway, Lynbrook, L.I., N.Y. 11563. BLACKSMITHS (D.O.T. 356.381 and 610.381) N ature of the W ork Blacksmiths are skilled crafts men who make and repair various metal articles such as tools, fix tures, machine and structural parts, and other agricultural and industrial implements. They also sharpen hand and machine tools such as chisels, drills, bits, picks, and similar tools. Blacksmiths join pieces of glowing hot metal by hammering them together, a process called forge or fire weld ing. They use several basic tools and pieces of metalworking equipment to fabricate or repair metal articles, including a special furnace called a forge to heat the metal, an anvil on which the heated metal is placed to ham mer it into shape, presses and power hammers to shape the metal, and a variety of handtools such as hammers, chisels, and tongs. After a metal article or tool has been fabricated, repaired, or sharpened, a blacksmith may heattreat (temper or anneal) the forg 523 ed metal for certain desired prop erties. To harden the metal, he first heats the metal to a high tem perature in the forge, and then he cools it quickly in an oil or water bath. T o temper the metal (to make it more durable and less brittle), he also heats it, but to a lower temperature than is needed for hardening. The metal is kept at this lower tempera ture for a specified time and then removed to cool gradually at air temperature. An ancient skill practiced by many blacksmiths is that of shoe ing horses; blacksmiths who spe cialize in this activity often are called farriers. To shoe a horse, a blacksmith removes the old shoe from the horse’s hoof and exam ines the hoof for bruises and de fects. He then cleans, trims, and shapes the hoof to receive the new shoe. The blacksmith then heats a metal bar cut to hoof measure ments, hammers this bar into the shape of the shoe, punches nail holes, and positions and nails the shoe on the horse’s hoof. Finally, he uses a rasp to trim the hoof flush to the new shoe. Today, most blacksmiths or horseshoers use ready-made horse shoes, but they may be required to make minor adjustments to achieve a proper fit. Job duties of industrial black smiths are similar to those of many forge shop workers who op erate heavy machinery to shape and form articles from heated metal. For a detailed discussion of jobs and job opportunities in forge shops, see the section on Forge Shop Occupations. Places of Em ploym ent In 1968, about two-thirds of the 15,000 blacksmiths employed in the United States worked as in dustrial blacksmiths, primarily performing maintenance and re pair duties. Nearly half of the industrial blacksmiths worked in manufacturing industries, espe cially in the basic iron and steel industry, and also in the ma chinery, transportation equip ment, and fabricated metal prod ucts industries. The railroad, construction, and mining indus tries also employed relatively large numbers of blacksmiths. Where oil wells are being drilled, for example, blacksmiths sharpen and temper drill bits, repair tools, and assist drillers in the opera tion and maintenance of drilling equipment. About one-third of all black smiths worked in small shops repairing farm implements, tools, and other mechanical equipment. Blacksmiths in these shops often perform other services such as welding, brazing, or tool sharpen ing. In addition, a few of these craftsmen specialized in the shoe ing of horses. The vast majority of the blacksmiths in these small shops were self-employed. Blacksmiths work in all parts of the country, in small rural communities as well as in large industrial centers. However, em ployment is concentrated in Penn sylvania, Texas, California, Illi nois, Ohio, and New York. Horse shoers are found in all States and, especially, where there are numerous horses, horse farms, and race tracks. Train in g and O ther Q ualifications Most workers enter the occu pation by obtaining jobs as help ers in blacksmith shops, where they gradually learn the trade through on-the-job experience. Others enter through formal ap prenticeship training programs, which generally last 3 or 4 years. Apprenticeship programs custom arily provide training in blueprint reading, proper use of tools and equipment, heat-treatment of metal, and forging methods, in- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 524 men. In addition, it is often cheaper to replace many small parts than to have them repaired by a blacksmith. However, the skills of all-round blacksmiths will continue to be required in the maintenance departments of large industrial estalishments, in many small metalworking and repair shops, and to shoe horses. Earnings and W orking Conditions Em ploym ent O utlook eluding forge welding. Most ap prentices are found in large in dustrial firms rather than in small repair shops. Vocational school or high school courses in metalworking, blueprint reading, and mathematics are helpful to young persons interested in be coming blacksmiths. Employment of blacksmiths is e x p e c t e d to decline slowly through the 1970’s. However, a few hundred job openings will arise each year to replace experi enced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Blacksmiths must have a skilled touch to shape metal parts to specified dimensions. They also must be in good phy sical condition. Pounding metal into shape and handling heavy tools and metal parts require considerable strength and stam ina. The use of power hammers and hoists, however, reduces the physical demands of the work. The employment of black smiths is expected to decline in the years ahead because forge shops are producing a growing variety of small metal articles formerly made by blacksmiths. Metalworking operations once performed only by blacksmiths are being done increasingly by other specialized workers such as welders and forge shop crafts National earnings data are not available for blacksmiths. How ever, earnings data are available from union-management con tracts in effect in 1968 covering a large number of blacksmiths employed in steel plants, railroad shops, and in the shipbuilding and petroleum industries. Al though these contracts show a wide range of earnings for experi enced blacksmiths, the majority of the contracts called for straight-time hourly earnings ranging from about $3.25 to more than $4.25. Contracts covering blacksmiths in the petroleum in dustry specified hourly rates ranging from about $3.60 to slightly more than $4.00. Indus trial blacksmiths generally work the same number of weekly hours and have the same holi days, vacations, and other bene fits as other plant workers in those industries in which they work. Blacksmith shops tend to be hot and noisy because of the closeness of furnaces and ham mers, although heat and noise have been decreased in recent years by the introduction of large ventilating fans and the re duction of machine vibration. Blacksmiths are subject to a num ber of job hazards such as burns from forges and heated metals and cuts, bruises, and other in juries from manual handling of materials. Increased use of per- SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS sonal protective equipment, such as safety glasses, metal helmets, metal-tip shoes, instep guards, face shields, ear plugs, and leath er aprons, has helped to decrease the number of injuries. Many blacksmiths belong to unions. One important union is the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Help ers. Other unions representing blacksmiths include the United Steelworkers of America, the In dustrial Union of Marine and Shipbuilding Workers of Americe, and the International Union of Journeymen Horseshoers. Sources of A dditional Inform ation General information about the work of blacksmiths may be ob tained from: International Brotherhood of Boil ermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Help ers, Eighth at State Ave., Kan sas City, Kans. 66101. 525 are employed in manufacturing new boilers and heavy tanks. The repair work performed by boiler makers requires these workers to have all-round skills; fitup men and layout men have more spe cialized duties. B o i l e r m a k e r s (D. O. T. 805.281). These craftsmen as semble and erect prefabricated parts and fittings at construction sites where boilers or other pres sure vessels are used. After in stallation is completed, they con duct tests to check for defects. Boilermakers also repair all kinds of boilers. After first determining the cause of trouble, they may dismantle the boilers or other units and make repairs, such as patching weak spots with metal stock, replacing defective sections with new parts, or strengthening joints. In addition to those work ing at construction sites, a large number of boilermakers maintain and repair boiler and other pres sure vessels in the powerplants of industrial firms. Installation and repair work performed by boiler makers often must meet stand ards set by State and local laws covering boilers and other pres sure vessels. Many large boilers are assem bled in manufacturing plants and shipped as complete units. Boiler makers often perform this assem bly work, using the same skills for plant work as for field work. Boilermakers use a variety of tools and equipment in their work. They cut and shape metal plate to size with power shears, power rolls, power presses, or oxyacetylene torches. They also use welding or riveting equip ment. When assembling and erecting steel plate units at a con struction site, they may use rig ging equipment such as, hoists, jacks, and rollers. Layout Men (D.O.T. 809.381 and .781). Metals used in the m a n u f a c t u r e of b o i l e r s , tanks, vats, and other pressure BOILERMAKING OCCUPATIONS N ature of the W ork Boilermakers, layout men, and fitup men are skilled craftsmen who specialize in the repairing, fabricating, and assembling and disassembling of boilers, tanks, vats, pressure vessels, heat ex changers, and similar structures made of metal plate. These boil ers and other metal vessels are used throughout industry to hold liquids and gases under pressure. Boilermakers are engaged pri marily in erecting and repairing boilers and pressure vessels; lay out men and fitup men usually Boilermakers erect steam generating boiler. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 526 vessels initially are prepared for fabricating operations by layout men. These workers mark curves, lines, points, and dimensions on metal plates and tubes that serve as guides to other workers who cut or shape the parts required for fabrication of the pressure vessel. They lay out parts to scale as outlined on b l u e p r , i n t s , sketches, or patterns. Layout men use compasses, dividers, scales, surface gages, hammers, and scribers in their work. Fitup Men (D.O.T. 819.781). Before the various parts of boil ers, tanks, vats, and other pres sure vessels finally are assem bled, fitup men temporarily as semble and fit them together in the shop. They bolt or tack-weld parts together and correct irregu larities. Fitup men also fit to gether nozzles, pipes, fittings, and other parts. Fitup men read and interpret blueprints and drawings used in the manufacturing process, check parts for accuracy, and make cer tain the parts meet specifica tions. They use handtools such as hammers, sledges, wrenches, and punches, and equipment such as welding machines, portable drills, and grinding tools. Places of Em ploym ent About 25,000 boilermakers, layout men, and fitup men were employed in the United States in 1968. Several thousand were em ployed in the construction indus try, mainly to assemble and erect boilers and other pressure vessels. Boilermakers also were employed in the maintenance and repair departments of industries such as iron and steel manufacturing, petroleum refining, railroad transportation, and electric and gas utilities. Large numbers worked in Federal Government installations, principally in Navy shipyards and Federal powerplants. Layout men and fitup men were employed mainly in es tablishments that fabricate firetube and water-tube boilers, heat exchangers, heavy tanks, and similar boiler-shop products. Boilermakers are employed in every State because of the wide spread need for their skills in repair and installation work. Large numbers are employed in the Middle Atlantic and East North Central regions where met alworking industries are concen trated. Most layout men and fit up men also work in these two regions. Pennsylvania, California, Texas, Illinois, Ohio, New York, and New Jersey are among the leading States in the employment of boilermaking craftsmen. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Many men have become boiler makers by working for several years as helpers to experienced boilermakers, but most training authorities agree that a 4-year apprenticeship is the best way to learn this trade. In the ap prenticeship program, the ap prentice works under the close supervision of a journeyman boil ermaker who instructs him in the skills of the craft, including the proper way to use the tools and machines of the trade. Appren ticeship programs usually pro vide about 8,000 hours of rela tively continuous employment and training, supplemented by about 600 hours of related tech nical instruction. Some of the technical subjects studied are blueprint reading, shop mathe matics, welding techniques, and shop metallurgical science cover ing stress and strain of metals. Many layout men and fitup men acquire their skills on the job. They usually are hired as helpers and learn the craft by working with experienced work ers. It generally takes at least 2 years to qualify as an experi enced layout or fitup man in a fabricating shop where boilers and other pressure vessels are produced on a mass-production basis. In shops where products are custom made, layout and fit up jobs generally are filled by men who already qualify as skill ed boilermakers. Most employers prefer to hire beginning workers who have a high school education. Prior training in mathematics, blue print reading, and shopwork is helpful to young men interested in becoming boilermakers, layout men, or fitup men. Most firms require prospective employees to pass a physical examination be cause good physical health and the capacity to do heavy work are necessary in these occupa tions. Mechanical aptitude and manual dexterity also are impor tant qualifications. Some boilermakers may be come foremen for contractors specializing in boiler installation and repair work. A few may go into business for themselves. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment of boilermakers, layout men, and fitup men is ex pected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. Most job op enings will arise from the replace ment of experienced workers who retire, transfer to other fields of work, or die. Retirements and deaths alone are expected to re sult in approximately 600 job openings annually. The expected moderate in crease in employment of boiler makers, layout men, and fitup men in the decade ahead will oc cur mainly because of the expan sion in industries that use boiler 527 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS products— particularly the elec tric and gas utilities, chemical, petroleum, steel, and construction industries. In addition to in creased demand for boiler prod ucts, the trend toward very large, increasingly complex, custommade boilers is expected to spur employment of skilled boilermak ers to erect this equipment on the construction site. For example, development of atomic energy fa cilities may create a need for many more boilermakers, lay out men, and fitup men, either to manufacture or in stall boilers and related products. In shops that fabricate boiler products, however, growth in the number of boilermakers, layout men, and fitup men may be lim ited by the increasing use of more efficient production techniques and equipment, including im proved materials handling meth ods and welding equipment. Earnings and W orking Conditions Wage rates of skilled boiler making workers compare favor ably with those of other crafts men. Layout men generally are paid more than boilermakers or fitup men, although wages vary widely in each occupation be cause of differences in factors such as the experience and skill of the worker, the kind of indus try in which he is employed, and the geographical region in which he works. Boilermakers in field assembly and installation (construction) work generally receive higher hourly wage rates than boiler makers, layout men, and fitup men employed in industrial es tablishments, although they may not be employed as steadily. Ac cording to a national survey of building trades workers in the construction industry, union minimum hourly wage rates for boilermakers in 57 large cities averaged $5.58, on July 1, 1968. Among individual cities surveyed, the union minimum hourly wage rates for boilermakers ranged from $4.85 in Atlanta, Ga., Jack sonville and Tampa, Fla., and Knoxville and Memphis, Tenn., to $6.53 in New York City. Straight-time hourly earnings, excluding fringe benefits or pay ments to health, insurance, or pension funds, for boilermakers in 12 of the 57 cities selected to show wage information from vari ous areas and regions of the country, on July 1, 1968, appear in the accompanying tabulation. City Rate per hour Baltimore .............. .............. Boston .................... .............. Chicago .................. .............. Cleveland................ .............. Denver .................... .............. Fresno .................... .............. Houston .................. .............. Kansas City .......... .............. Los Angeles .......... .............. New Orleans .......... .............. Phoenix .................. .............. Syracuse ................ .............. $5.30 5.55 6.30 6.51 5.10 6.00 5.00 5.10 6.00 5.00 6.00 5.55 Comparable data were not available covering boilermakers employed in industrial estab lishments. However, information on minimum hourly wage rates was available from union-man agement agreements, in effect in mid-1968, covering a large num ber of boilermakers, layout men, and fitup men employed in fabricated plate work, petroleum, and shipbuilding industries. The majority of these agreements called for minimum hourly wage rates ranging from $4.00 to about $5.00 for layout men; from about $3.75 to $4.75 for boilermakers; and from about $3.50 to $4.60 for fitup men. Boilermakers, layout men, and fitup men in industrial establish ments usually work the same number of weekly hours as other plant workers, generally 40 hours. Most union-management agree ments covering these workers provide fringe benefits such as hospitalization, and medical and surgical insurance; paid vaca tions; life insurance; sickness and accident insurance; and retire ment pensions. When engaged in boiler repair and assembly work, boilermakers often are required to work in cramped quarters or at great heights. Some work also must be done under conditions of dampness, heat, and poor ven tilation. Boilermaking is more hazard ous than many other metalwork ing occupations. Employers and unions attempt to eliminate in juries in boilershops by promot ing safety training and the use of protective equipment, such as safety glasses and metal helmets. Most boilermakers, layout men, and fitup men belong to labor unions. The principal un ion in these trades is the Inter national Brotherhood of Boiler makers, Iron Shipbuilders, Black smiths, Forgers and Helpers. Some boilermaking craftsmen are members of industrial unions, such as the Industrial Union of Marine and Shipbuilding Work ers of America; the Oil, Chemi cal and Atomic Workers Interna tional Union; and the United Steelworkers of America. Sources of A dditional Inform ation General information about the work of boilermakers may be ob tained from: International Brotherhood of Boil ermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Help ers, Eighth at State Ave., Kan sas City, Kansas 66101. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 528 DISPENSING OPTICIANS AND OPTICAL MECHANICS (D.O.T. 713.251, .381, .884, and 299.884) N a tu re of the W ork Dispensing opticians and opti cal mechanics (also called opti cal laboratory technicians) make and fit eyeglasses prescribed by eye physicians (oculists or oph thalmologists) and optometrists to convert defective vision. Opti cal mechanics grind and polish lenses to the specifications of prescriptions and assemble lenses in frames. Dispensing opticians then fit and adjust the finished glasses to the customer’s facial features. In some States, dis pensing opticians also fit contact lenses. These lenses are worn in contact with the eyes and are used as a substitute for or sup plement to conventional eye glasses. Occasionally, both the fabricating and fitting of glasses are performed by the same per son. The dispensing optician works in a retail optical establishment. He makes certain that the glasses follow the prescription and fit the customer properly. The op tician determines exactly where the lenses should be placed in relation to the pupils of the eyes by measuring the distance be tween the centers of the pupils. He also assists the customer in selecting the proper eyeglass frame by measuring the custom er’s facial features and giving consideration to the various styles and colors of the eyeglass frames. Before prescription eyeglasses are fitted, the dispensing optician prepares a work order which gives the optical mechanic the information he needs to interpret the prescription properly, grind the lenses, and insert them in a frame. The work order consists of the lens prescription; informa tion on the size, tint (where ap propriate), optical centering of the lens, and other optical re quirements; and the size, color, style, and shape of the frame. After the eyeglasses are made, the optician adjusts the frame to the contours of the cus tomer’s face and head to make sure they fit properly and com fortably. He uses small handtools, such as optical pliers, files, and screwdrivers, and also uses a precision instrument to check the power and surface quality of the lenses. In some shops, he may do lense grinding and finishing, and sell other optical goods such as binoculars, magnifying glasses, and nonprescription sunglasses. In fitting contact lenses, the dispensing optician, following the physician’s or optometrist’s pre scription, measures the cornea of the customer’s eye and then pre pares specifications to be follow ed by a firm specializing in fin ishing such lenses. The dispenser uses precision instruments to measure the power and curvature of the lenses and the curvature of the cornea of the eye. Contact lens fitting requires considerably more skill, care, and patience than conventional eyeglass fit ting. The dispensing optician in structs the customers in the in sertion, removal, and care of the contact lenses during the intial period of adjustment, which may last several weeks. The physician or optometrist rechecks their fit, as needed. If minor adjustments are necessary, the dispensing op tician makes them; if major changes are needed, he returns the lenses to the contact lens manufacturer. The optical mechanic performs the shop or laboratory work re quired to make prescription eye glasses; but he does not make contact lenses, which involve somewhat different operations. The two principal types of optical mechanics are the surfacer (or Dispensing optician fits glasses for proper functioning and attractive appearance. SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS prescription lens grinder) and the henchman (or finisher). The surfacer, starting with standard or stock size lens blanks, lays out the work, grinds and polishes the surfaces of the lenses, and makes sure that the ground lenses con form to the prescription require ments. In small laboratories, one man may perform all of these op erations and benchwork too. In large laboratories, the work is di vided into separate operations which are performed mainly by workers who operate power grind ing and polishing machines. The surfacer uses precision instru ments to measure the power of the lenses. The benchman marks and cuts the ground and polished lenses to fit the frame, bevels or smooths the edges of the lenses, and as sembles the lenses and frame parts into the finished eyeglasses. In large laboratories, these duties are divided into several operations which are performed mainly by semiskilled workers. The benchman uses small handtools, such as lens cutters, chippers, pliers, files, protractors, and diamond point glass drills. He also uses precision instruments to deter mine, for example, if there are any imperfections in the lenses. Places of Em ploym ent An estimated 7,000 dispensing opticians and 15,000 optical me chanics were employed through out the country in 1968. A few thousand women are employed in these trades— most as dispensing opticians. About 70 percent of all dis pensing opticians were employed by retail optical shops or the op tical departments of department stores and other retail establish ments; about 20 percent were employed by eye physicians or optmetrists who sell eyeglasses directly to their patients. Most 529 T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Optical laboratory mechanic surface grinds. of the remainder worked in the prescription d e p a r t m e n t s of wholesale optical laboratories that did work for retail optical firms; in special prescription shops in large ophthalmic goods factories; or were employed by hospitals. Nearly 70 percent of the mechanics worked in whole sale optical laboratories, and about 25 percent worked in re tail optical shops; the rest worked for the same types of employers as did opticians. In addition to the dispensing opticians and optical mechanics mentioned above, many others are proprietors of retail optical establishments. Although opticians and me chanics are found in all States, more than half are located in the following States; New York, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Texas, California, and Illinois. Most optical mechanics and dispensing opticians learn their skills through informal, on-thejob training. On-the-job training in dispensing work may last sev eral years and usually includes instruction in optical mathe matics, optical physics, the use of precision measuring instru ments, and other related subjects. Trainees start in jobs requir ing simple skill and dexterity and gradually work into the more dif ficult jobs. For example, they may begin by processing lenses through a lens grinding machine. After they have become skilled in this operation, the trainees per form other production operations, such as polishing, edging, lens cutting, and eyeglass assembly. Their training may include instruction in the measurement and curvature of lens surfaces, the measurement of lenses, and other subjects related to their work. When the trainees have acquired experience in all types of eyeglass production work, which usually takes about 3 years, they are considered all round optical mechanics. Some trainees become specialists on one type of work performed by optical mechanics, such as sur facing or bench work. The train ing time required to become a specialist generally is less than that needed to become an all round mechanic. High school graduates also can prepare for both optical dispens ing and mechanical work through formal apprenticeship programs. Some optical firms have 4- or 5year apprenticeship programs. Apprentices having exceptional ability may complete their train ing in a shorter period. Most training authorities agree that optical mechanics and dispensing opticians who learn as appren- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 530 tices have more job opportunities, improved job security, and more opportunities for advancement than those without such training. Formal institutional training for the dispensing optician is be coming increasingly common. As of 1968, five schools offered 2year full-time courses in optical fabricating and dispensing work leading to an associate degree. In addition, a number of vocational schools offered full-time courses lasting nine months in optical mechanics. Graduates from such schools often go to work for re tail optical stores where they re ceive additional on-the-job train ing. Large manufacturers of con tact lenses offer nondegree courses of instruction in contact lens fitting that usually last a few weeks. Employers prefer applicants for entry jobs as dispensing op ticians and optical mechanics to be high school graduates who have had courses in the basic sci ences. A knowledge of physics, algebra, geometry, and mechani cal drawing is particularly valu able. Interest in, and ability to do, precision work are essential. Because dispensing opticians deal directly with the public, they must be tactful and have a pleas ing personality. In 1968, 17 States had licens ing requirements governing dis pensing opticians: Arizona, Cali fornia, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, K e n t u c k y , Massachusetts, Nevada, New Jer sey, New York, North Carolina, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and Wash ington. Some of these States also require licenses for optical me chanics in retail optical shops or for the retail optical shop itself. Some States permit dispensing opticians to fit contact lenses whereas others prohibit them from doing so. T o obtain a li cense, the applicant generally must meet certain minimum standards of education and train ing and also pass a written or practical examination, or both. For specific requirements, the li censing boards of individual States should be consulted. Optical mechanics can become supervisors, foremen, and man agers. Many of them have be come dispensing opticians, al though there is a trend to train specifically for dispensing optic ian jobs. There are opportunities for workers in both occupations to go into business for them selves, especially for those having all-round training in both shop and dispensing work. Dispensing opticians also may become man agers of retail optical stores. Some dispensing opticians may become salesmen for wholesale optical goods companies or for manufacturers of conventional eyeglasses or contact lenses. and educational level of the pop ulation; a large increase in the number of older persons (a group most likely to need eyeglasses); and the growing emphasis on good vision (more than half the population over 6 years of age now wear eyeglasses). In addi tion, the many different styles and colors of eyeglass frames now available have increased the number of pairs of eyeglasses pur chased by individuals and en couraged the wearing of eye glasses. The increase in production of prescription lenses will result in the growing employment of dis pensing opticians. However, prin cipally as a result of more effi cient methods of production and improved equipment, employ ment of optical mechanics is not expected to increase. Earnings and W orking Conditions Em ploym ent O utlook Employment of dispensing op ticians is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. In addition to the opportunities resulting from e m p l o y m e n t growth, about 200 job openings will result annually from the need to replace experienced workers who retire or die. Some additional job openings will be come available as workers trans fer to other occupations. Little or no change in the num ber of optical mechanics is ex pected during the 1970’s. Several hundred job openings, however, will be available annually because of the need to replace experienced mechanics who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. The production of prescription lenses is expected to increase considerably during the period. Factors that will contribute to this growth include the increas ing size, and the rising literacy According to information ob tained from union-management contracts covering optical labora tory mechanics in 1968, minimum hourly rates ranged from $2.40 to $3.80 an hour. Foremen earned up to 20 percent more than opti cal mechanics, depending on their experience, skill, and responsi bilities. Dispensing opticians usually earn about 10 to 20 percent more than optical mechanics. Opticians who have their own businesses may earn much more. Apprentices start at about 60 percent of the skilled worker’s rate; their wages are increased periodically so that upon com pletion of the apprenticeship pro gram, they receive the beginning rate for journeymen. Optical laboratory mechanics at wholesale establishments usu ally have a 5-day, 40-hour work week. Dispensing opticians and optical mechanics at retail shops 531 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS generally work a 5 ^ - or 6-day week. Workers in these occupations usually have year round employ ment. The work of the dispensing op tician requires little exertion and is generally performed in pleas ant, well-lighted, and well-venti lated surroundings. Optical me chanics may work under fairly noisy conditions because power grinding and polishing machines are used. New machines are much quieter, however. Physically handicapped per sons who have full use of their eyes and hands and can do seden tary work can perform some of the more specialized jobs in the larger laboratories. Some optical mechanics and dispensing opticians are members of unions. One of these unions is the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Optical Wholesalers Association, 222 West Adams St., Chicago, 11 . 60606. 1 International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Guild of Prescription Opticians of America, 1250 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. American Board of Opticianry, 821 Eggert Rd., Buffalo, N.Y. 14226. ELECTROPLATERS (D.O.T. 500.380, .782, and .884) N atu re of the W ork Electroplaters (platers) use plating solutions and electric cur rent (electrolysis) to coat metal articles with a layer of chormium, nickel, silver, gold, or other metal to give them a protective surface or a more attractive ap pearance. Metal products that often are electroplated include items as widely different as auto mobile bumpers, cigarette light ers, silverware, costume jewelry, plumbing fixtures, electrical ap pliances, bearings, electronic components and jet engine parts. Electroplaters also form objects by a process known as electro forming. These include items such as spray paint masks, search light reflectors, and a variety of molds used in the manufacture of plastic items. Platers’ skills vary broadly among plating shops. All-round platers who work in job shops that do small lot plating of great variety may mix and analyze plating solutions, calculate the time and electric current needed for various types of plating, and perform other duties requiring a technical knowledge of the plat ing process. Platers who work in production shops, where large lots of metal parts of the same type are plated, usually carry out less difficult, more specialized assignments that require only limited technical knowledge. An article to be electroplated is scoured or dipped into a cleans ing solution. Any surface not to be plated is covered with lacquer, rubber, or plastic tape. The plat er or his foreman determines the amount of current needed, time required, and the best type of solution to assure a good finish. The article may be removed from the solution at intervals to make sure the work is progressing sat isfactorily. Platers must be ob servant because unnoticed errors can be costly. Many types of plating require inspection for visible defects. On jobs that require close tolerance, the plater may use micrometers, calipers, and electronic devices to determine the quality of the work. Helpers frequently assist electroplaters by placing objects on racks before plating, removing them afterwards, and then clean ing tanks and racks. In some shops, platers order chemicals and other supplies for their work. Places of Em ploym ent An estimated 13,000 electro platers were employed in 1968. About 3 out of 5 worked in inde pendent job shops specializing in metal plating and polishing for other manufacturing firms and for individuals. The remaining platers were employed in plants primarily engraved in the manu facture of plumbing fixtures, heating and cooking utensils, lighting fixtures, wire products, electric control apparatus, elec tric appliances, radio and tele vision products, motor vehicles and parts, mechanical measuring instruments, miscellaneous hard ware items, and other metal products. Electroplaters are employed in almost every part of the country, although most work in the North east and Midwest near the cen ters of the metalworking indus try. Large numbers of electro platers work in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago, New York, Detroit, Cleveland, Providence and Newark (New Jersey). Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Most electroplaters learn the trade on the job as helpers by working with experienced platers. Three years or longer are re quired to become an all-round plater in this way. Platers em ployed in production shops who 532 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Em ploym ent O utlook Employment of electroplaters is expected to increase moderate ly through the 1970’s. Most open ings however, will result from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or trans fer to other fields of work. Continuing mechanization of the electroplating process and the assigning of some of the plat er’s technical responsibilities to chemists and foremen will limit employment growth in this occu pation. However, these factors will be more than offset by the long-run expansion in the ma chinery and metalworking indus tries and the application of the electroplating processes to a broadening group of metals and plastics. Earnings and W orking Conditions Electroplater inspects batch of plastic items immersed in nickel solution. are not required to have an all round knowledge of plating can learn their jobs in much less time. A small percentage of elec troplaters have received all-round preparation by working 3 or 4 years as an apprentice. The program for apprentices combines on-the-job training and related classroom instruction in the properties of metals, chem istry, and electricity as applied to plating. The apprentice does progressively more difficult work as his skill and knowledge in crease. By the third or fourth year, he determines cleaning methods, does plating without supervision, makes solutions, ex amines plating results, and super vises helpers. Qualified journey men may advance to foremen. High school and vocational school courses in chemistry, elec tricity, physics, mathematics, and blueprint reading will prove valuable to young persons inter ested in becoming electroplaters. Some colleges, technical insti tutes, and vocational high schools offer 1- or 2-year courses in elec troplating. In addition, many branches of the American Elec troplaters Society conduct basic courses in electroplating. Wage rates of electroplaters ranged from $1.75 to $3.50 an hour in 1968, according to the National Association of Metal Finishers. All-round platers, gen erally earned more than $2.50 an hour. During apprenticeship or on-the-job training, a worker’s wage rate starts at 60 to 70 per cent of an experienced worker’s rate and progresses to the full rate by the end of his training period. Almost all plants, pay shift premiums for night work. Many employers provide paid holidays and vacations and pay part or all of additional benefits such as life, health, and accident insurance. Plating work involves some hazards because acid, alkaline, or poisonous solutions are used. Humidity and odor also are prob lems in electroplating plants. However, most plants have in stalled systems of ventilation and other safety devices which have considerably reduced the occupa- SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS tional hazards. Protective cloth ing and boots provide addi tional protection. Mechanical de vices generally are used to handle most of the lifting required, but at times the worker must lift and carry objects weighing up to 100 pounds. Some platers are members of the Metal Polishers, Buffers, Platers and Helpers Interna tional Union. Other platers have been organized by the Interna tional Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Im plement Workers of America, and the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Work ers. Some of the labor-manage ment contracts covering electro plating provide health insurance and other benefits. Sources of A dditional Inform ation For educational information concerning electroplating and other metal finishing methods, write to: American Electroplaters Society, Inc., 56 Melmore Gardens, East Orange, N.J. 07017. For information on job oppor tunities, training, and other questions, write to: National Association of Metal Fin ishers, 248 Lorraine Ave., Upper Montclair, N.J. 07043. FURNITURE UPHOLSTERERS (D.O.T. 780.381) N ature of the W ork Upholstered furniture that has become old and worn is recondi tioned by furniture upholsterers. These craftsmen replace worn furniture fabric, repair broken frames, or replace or repair bent springs, webbing, and other worn parts of furniture. The upholst erer usually places the piece of furniture on padded wooden horses so that he may work at a convenient level. Using a tack puller or chisel and mallet, he pulls out the tacks that hold the fabric in place and removes the fabric. He also may remove pad ding and burlap that cover the springs. He examines the springs and removes the broken or bent ones. If the webbing that holds the springs in place is worn, all of the springs and the webbing may be ripped out. The uphol sterer then repairs the frame by regluing loose sections and refin ishing worn wooden arms. To reupholster the furniture, the upholsterer first tacks strips of webbing to the frames. Next, he sews new springs to the web bing and ties each spring to the adjoining ones, securing the out side springs to the frame. He then uses burlap, filling, and pad ding to cover the springs, and sews the padding to the burlap. Finally, after covering the pad ding with muslin and new fabric, he attaches these materials to the frame and makes sure that they are smooth and tight. He com pletes the job by sewing or tack ing on fringe, buttons, or other ornaments ordered by the cus tomer. Upholsterers use a variety of handtools in their work, includ ing tack and staple removers, pliers, hammers, and shears. They also use special tools such as webbing stretchers and uphol stery needles. Upholsterers who work in small shops lay out pat terns and use hand shears or ma chines to cut the upholstery fab ric. They also operate sewing ma chines to form new upholstery covers. In large shops, however, 533 seamstresses u s u a l l y perform these tasks. Sometimes upholster ers pick up and deliver furniture. These who own their shops order supplies and equipment, keep business records, and perform other managerial and administra tive tasks. (This statement does not include furniture upholsterers who manufacture upholstered furniture.) Places of Em ploym ent More than one-half of the esti mated 32,000 furniture uphol sterers employed in 1968 worked in small upholstery shops, fre quently having fewer than eight employees. Many upholsterers also were employed by furniture stores, and a few worked for or ganizations— movie theatres, ho tels, motels , and others— that maintain their own furniture. Employment of furniture up holsterers is distributed geo graphically in much the same way as the Nation’s population. Thus, they are employed mainly in major metropolitan areas and in the more populated States. Almost one-half of the upholster ers employed in 1968 worked in New York, California, Pennsyl vania, Texas, Illinois, and Ohio. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent The most common way to learn this trade is to complete an informal on-the-job training pro gram in an upholstery shop. Prospective upholsterers are hir ed as helpers to perform simple jobs, such as removing old fabric, padding, and springs from furni ture. As they gain experience, they perform more complex tasks, such as installing webbing and springs and sewing on upholstery fabric and trimming. Inexperi- 534 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Em ploym ent O utlook Overall employment of uphol sterers is expected to show little or no change through the 1970’s. Most job openings will result from the replacement of experi enced workers who die, retire, or transfer to other fields of work. Deaths and retirements alone are expected to provide more than 600 job openings annually. There have been many unfilled job openings in this trade in recent years because the supply of quali fied workers has been insufficient to meet the demand. Moreover, this shortage may continue for several years, because the num ber of people currently being trained is still insufficient to meet anticipated future require ments. Among the factors tending to increase requirements for furni ture upholsterers are the growing expenditures for furniture, the growth in family formation, and the higher levels of personal in comes. However, these factors will be offset by the rising cost of reupholstering furniture rela tive to replacing it. enced helpers who have initiative may become skilled upholsterers after about 3 years of on-the-job training. Upholsterers can learn their skills while employed as plant workers in furniture factories by performing a variety of plant jobs that are closely related to furni ture upholstering. They also may learn upholstering through voca tional or high school courses that include chair caning, furniture making, textile fabrics, and up holstery repair. However, on-thejob training usually is required before these workers qualify as journeymen upholsterers. A few people acquire the skills of the trade through formal ap prenticeship programs that last from 3 to 4 years and include re lated classroom instruction. Young people interested in be coming furniture upholsterers should have good manual and fin ger dexterity and be able to do occasional heavy lifting. An eye for detail, ability to distinguish between colors, and a flair for cre ative work are helpful. Furniture upholsterers usually purchase their handtools but em ployers provide power tools. Almost 1 out of every 3 uphol sterers is self employed— a higher proportion than in most other trades. Opening an upholstery shop usually requires a moderate investment. Earnings and W orking Conditions Earnings data for furniture up holsterers are not available on a national basis. However, limited information obtained in 1968 generally indicated that through out the country rates for helpers ranged from $1.60 to $2.25 an hour, and for experienced uphol sterers, from $3 to $5 an hour. A few upholsterers were paid on a piecework basis. The hourly rates for upholsterers depended on fac tors such as their level of skill, the length of time they had been employed, and the type and geo graphic location of the establish ment in which they worked. Hourly rates for upholsterers in SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS the South were generally lower than those in the North and West. Furniture upholsterers usually receive little direct supervision. They generally work 40 hours a week, although overtime is com mon during the weeks before ma jor holidays. Many upholsterers receive paid vacations and sick leave, and some are covered by health insurance plans. Upholstery shops often are spacious, adequately lighted, and well ventilated and heated. How ever, dust from padding and stuffing sometimes is present. Upholsterers stand while they work and do a considerable amount of stooping and bending They may work from awkward positions for short periods of time. Upholstery work generally is safe, although minor cuts from sharp tools and back strain from lifting and moving heavy furni ture are not uncommon. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Upholsterers International Union of North America, 1500 North Broad St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19121. GASOLINE SERVICE STATION ATTENDANTS (D.O.T. 915.867) N atu re of the W ork Almost all of the more than 95 million motor vehicles in the United States are serviced at one time or another in a gasoline service station. When a car or truck is driven into a station, the service station attendant (also called gasoline station salesman or serviceman) greets the customer and inquires about his needs. The attendant may perform a variety of services for the customer, ranging from di recting the customer to a street address to making a minor repair. When servicing a car, he dis penses gasoline, cleans the wind shield, and, with the customer’s permission, checks the water level in the radiator and battery, the oil level in the crankcase and automatic transmission, and the air pressure in the tires. He also may check the tires, fan belt, and other parts of the car for excessive wear. The attendant also has other responsibilities besides servicing cars. He sells and installs items such as tires, batteries, fan belts, and windshield wiper blades. When a customer pays his bill, he makes change or prepares a charge slip if the customer uses a credit card. He also may dis pense trading stamps. In small stations, particularly, he may perform minor maintenance and repair work, such as lubrication, changing the engine oil, rotating tires, repairing tires, or replacing a muffler. Some attendants, called mechanic-attendants, per form more difficult repairs. Be fore and after doing maintenance and repair work, the attendant may drive the customer’s car be tween a convenient parking place and the service area. He also may keep the service areas, building, and restrooms clean and neat. In some stations, he helps the stat ion manager take inventory, set up displays, and perform other duties associated with the opera tion of a small business. If a gasoline service station provides emergency road service, the attendant may drive a tow truck to a stalled car and change a flat tire or perform other minor repairs needed to fix the custom er’s vehicle. If more extensive repairs are needed, he tows the 535 vehicle back to the service station. In doing maintenance and re pair work, gasoline service sta tion attendants may use simple handtools such as screwdrivers, pliers, and wrenches; and power tools such as p n e u m a t i c wrenches. Mechanic-attendants frequently use more complex equipment such as motor analy zers and wheel alignment ma chines. Places of Em ploym ent An estimated 410,000 service station attendants, more than one-third of whom were parttime workers, were employed in gasoline service stations in 1968. In addition to attendants, about 220,000 gasoline service station managers and owners did similar work. Gasoline service station at tendants are employed in every 536 section of the country, in the largest cities, the smallest towns, and outlying areas. About 40 per cent, however, are employed in the seven States that have the largest number of motor vehicles: California, Texas, New York, Ohio, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and Michigan. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent An applicant for a job as gaso line service station attendant should have a driver’s license, a general understanding of how an automobile works, and some sales ability. He should be friendly and able to speak well, present a generally neat appearance, and have self-confidence. He should know simple arithmetic so that he can make change quickly and accurately and help keep busi ness records. An applicant should be familiar with local roads, high ways, and points of interest in order to give directions to strang ers and to locate vehicles whose owners have called for road serv ice. Although completion of high school is not generally a require ment for getting an entry job, it is an advantage because it indi cates to many employers that a young man can “ finish a job.” A high school education generally is required for attendants to qualify for service station man agement training programs con ducted by oil companies, and to advance to the position of serv ice station manager. Gasoline service station at tendants usually are trained on the job, although there are some formal training programs. At tendants, who are trained on the job first are given relatively sim ple work assignments. They may OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK be required to keep the station clean, wash cars, dispense gaso line, clean windshields, and oth erwise make themselves useful. Gradually, they progress to more advanced work such as making sales, writing credit charge slips, doing simple maintenance work, installing accessories on cars, and helping to keep the station rec ords. It usually takes from sev eral months to a year for a gaso line service station attendant to become fully qualified. Formal training programs for young people who want to do gasoline service station work are offered in many high schools around the country. In this cur riculum, known as distributive education, students in their last 2 years of high school take busi ness education courses and work part-time in a gasoline service station where they receive in struction and supervision in all phases of service station work. Some attendants are enrolled in formal training programs for service station managers, which are conducted by most major oil companies. These programs usu ally last from 2 to 8 weeks and emphasize subjects such as sim ple automobile maintenance, salesmanship, and business man agement. Several avenues of advancment are open to gasoline service station attendants. Additional training qualifies attendants to become automobile mechanics; those having business manage ment capabilities may advance to station manager. Many experi enced station managers and auto mobile mechanics go into busi ness for themselves by leasing a station from an oil company, the most common means, or by buy ing their own service station. Some service station attendants are hired by oil companies as salesmen or district managers. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment of gasoline serv ice station attendants is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s, creating several thou sand full-time and part-time job openings annually. An even greater number of job openings will result from the need to re place attendants who transfer to other fields of work, are promoted, retire, or die. Deaths and retire ments alone are expected to pro vide an estimated 4,700 full-time job opportunities annually. Employment of service station attendants is expected to increase as a result of the growing con sumption of gasoline and other service station products. The number of motor vehicles regis tered is expected to rise because of growing population, income, multiple car ownership, and the continuing movement to the sub urbs. Also, greater use of cars as families have more leisure time is expected and as the highway systems continue to be improved. More attendants also may be needed to perform additional maintenance on newer, more complex cars. For example, more cars will have devices that reduce exhaust fumes, and these devices must be serviced periodically. On the other hand, more cars that require oil changes and lubrication less frequently will offset partially the servicing re quirements of additional, more complex vehicles. Earnings and W orking Conditions Hourly earnings of gasoline service station attendants vary considerably. According to in formation from 30 gasoline dealer associations across the country, average straight time hourly earnings in 1968 ranged from $1.25 to $1.50 in Tuscon, Ari- 537 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS zona, to $2.85 in Chicago, Illi nois. More than one half of the gasoline dealer associations re ported average weekly earnings of at least $100 for full-time gasoline service station attend ants. The remainder of the asso ciations reported average weekly earnings of between $65 and $98. In many stations, employers provide fringe benefits such as accident and health insurance and paid vacations. Some employ ers furnish uniforms and pay for their cleaning; others require the attendants to pay for these ex penses. More than one-half of the attendants work over 40 hours a week; many work more than 48 hours. Attendants frequently work at night and on weekends and holidays. A gasoline service station at tendant works outdoors in all kinds of weather. He must be in good physical condition because he does considerable lifting and stooping and spends much time on his feet. Possible injuries in clude cuts from sharp tools and burns from hot engines. The at tendant frequently gets dirty be cause he dispenses gasoline, han dles oil and grease, and works with tools and around cars. For many attendants, however, the opportunity to meet new people and the possibility of someday managing their own service sta tions more than offset these dis advantages. For others, the op portunity to get part-time em ployment is important. Some high school and college students have been able to work their way through school by working as gasoline service sta tion attendants after school, and on vacations and holidays. Some workers also supplement their in come from regular jobs by work ing part time as attendants. Sources of A dditional Inform ation For further information re garding work opportunities for gasoline service station attend ants, inquiries shoud be directed to local gasoline service stations or the local office of the State employment service. INSPECTORS (MANUFACTURING) N atu re of the W ork Almost everything manufac tured must be carefully inspected during the manufacturing proc ess. The millions of automobiles, sewing machines, television sets, production machines, and other mass-produced items must be tested and inspected to make sure they operate properly. The workers who see that the size and quality of raw materials, parts, assemblies, and finished products meet specifications are known as inspectors. Inspectors use a variety of methods in order to be certain that the products they examine conform to specifications. They may merely look for scratches and other defects in products or parts; or they may use gages, mi crometers, and other measuring devices to check the accuracy of the parts. Semiskilled inspectors may be required to read simple work orders, and do arithmetic involving decimals and fractions when reading measuring instru ments. Inspectors often keep rec ords of the number of parts they have accepted, and rejected. When they find a large number of faulty pieces, they notify their supervisors so that corrections can be made on the production line. Some inspectors use handtools, such as screwdrivers or pliers, in their work. In some in dustries, inspectors may make minor repairs and adjustments, and grade products for quality. The kinds of products that in spectors check vary widely by in dustry. For example, in radio and television manufacturing plants, many inspectors test tubes and circuits to determine if they meet specifications. In the automobile industry, they examine raw ma terials and parts during the var ious stages of manufacturing, as well as the complete automobile. Skilled inspectors work under general supervision, w h e r e a s semiskilled inspectors usually work under close supervision. Skilled inspectors often use a much wider variety of testing in struments. In the metalworking industries they are often required to read blueprints and interpret complex specifications. They gen erally have greater discretion in accepting or rejecting products and usually are responsible for inspecting the most critical parts of mass-produced goods. Places of Em ploym ent In early 1968, approximately 585,000 inspectors (most of whom were semiskilled) were employed in a wide variety of manufactur ing industries. Most of these in spectors worked in plants pro ducing durable goods such as electrical and nonelectrical ma chinery, fabricated metal prod ucts, transportation equipment, and aerospace products. Others were employed in plants produc ing non-durable goods such as chemicals, textiles, apparel, and food products. Large numbers of inspectors were employed in Ohio, New York, Michigan, Illi nois, Pennsylvania, California, and New Jersey. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 538 skilled inspectors. A few inspec tors, after acquiring sufficient experience and knowledge, may advance to foremen jobs. Em ploym ent O utlook The employment of inspectors is expected to increase slowly through the 1970’s, creating sev eral thousand job openings an nually. However, most opportu nities will result as workers re tire, die, or transfer to other fields of work, and as women leave their jobs to marry or rear a family. Deaths and retire ments alone will account for about 15,000 openings each year. Inspector checks precision drilling. About one-half of all inspectors were women. Many of these wom en were employed in the food, textile, and apparel industries. Others were employed through out the metalworking industries, especially in plants that produce small electrical and electronic components. T rain in g , O th er Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Inspectors generally are train ed on the job for a brief period — from a few hours or days to several months, depending upon the skill required. Many employers look for ap plicants who have good health and eyesight, can follow direc tions, and are dependable. Some employers prefer experienced production workers for inspection jobs. A few large companies give aptitude tests in selecting new employees for inspection work. For example, in the electronics industry, new workers may be given tests to determine their ability to work with numbers. Employers also look for em ployees who can do work requir ing constant attention. Employ ers may hire applicants who do not have a high school diploma if they have qualifying aptitudes or related job experience. Some semiskilled inspectors in the metal products industries who supplement their work ex perience with formal educational courses, such as blueprint read ing, shop mathematics, and elec trical theory, may advance to Most of the industries that em ploy these workers, especially the electrical machinery industry, are expected to increase their em ployment in the long run. The growing complexity of the prod ucts manufactured in our factor ies, and rising quality standards, should also result in a need for more inspectors. These factors will be partially offset, however, by the increasing use of mecha nized and automatic inspection equipment. Earnings and W orking Conditions Inspectors’ earnings vary con siderably, depending on their skill, the type of product in spected, the method of wage pay ment, and the size and location of the plant in which they are employed. Inspector jobs are commonly classified as A, B, and C, to reflect the level of skill and responsibility involved. The fol lowing tabulation presents aver age straight-time hourly earnings of inspectors in the nonelectrical machinery industry: SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS Average straight-time hourly earnings of class A, B and C inspectors in nonelectrical machinery, mid-1967 Class A Class B Class C Area United States1 ..... $3.20 $2.87 $2.44 2.23 2.76 New England .. 2.97 2.39 2.82 Middle Atlantic 3.12 2.24 2.77 Border States .. 3.20 1.77 2.13 Southeast ........ 2.79 2.09 2.65 Southwest ....... 2.97 2.65 2.99 Great Lakes..... 3.28 2.48 2.80 Middle West .... 3.20 2.80 2.51 Pacific.............. 3.47 ’ Includes data for Mountain States. Working conditions also vary considerably for inspectors. For example, some may work in welllighted, air-conditioned work places in an aircraft or missile plant; others, who may work on the production floor of a machin ery or metal fabricating plant, often are exposed to high tem peratures, oil, grease, and noise. Many inspectors employed in manufacturing industries are members of labor unions. The In ternational Union, United Auto mobile, Aerospace and Agricul tural Implement Workers of America; the International Asso ciation of Machinists and Aero space Workers; the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers; and the Inter national Brotherhood of Electri cal Workers are among the large unions to which these workers belong. Most of the labor-man agement contracts in manufac turing plants employing inspec tors provide for fringe benefits, such as paid holidays and vaca tions, health insurance, life insur ance, and retirement pensions. JEWELERS AND JEWELRY REPAIRMEN (D.O.T. 700.281 and .381) N ature of the W ork Jewelers are skilled craftsmen who make or repair rings, pins, necklaces, bracelets, and other precious jewelry. They create jewelry from metal such as gold, silver, and platinum, and set precious or semiprecious stones. To repair jewelry, they solder broken parts, make new parts, enlarge or reduce the size of rings, reset stones, and restyle old jewelry. The jewelers’ work is very delicate and must be done with care and precision, as the materials used usually are expen sive. An eye “ loupe,” or magnify ing glass held over the eye, often is used when working to close tolerances. To make jewelry, jewelers may follow their own design or one prepared by a de sign specialist. The metal is formed to follow the design in one of several ways. Special-order work may involve shaping metal stock with hand and machine tools or melting and casting met al in a mold. When jewelry is prodced in volume, the metal usually is formed either by the casting or the stamping process. 539 Shaping metal stock by hand may involve the following metal working operations: outlining, cutting, drilling, sawing, filing, shaping, engraving, and electro plating. Individual parts are pol ished and then joined by solder ing. After the article has been assembled, surface decorations are made and jewels or stones are mounted. When jewelry is made in this manner, tools such as files, saws, drills, dapping, carv ing, and chasing tools; jewelers’ lathes; soldering irons; and pol ishing machines are used. To cast gold and platinum jew elry, a model is made by a jew elry modelmaker, a craftsman who has a thorough knowledge of the casting process. A rubber mold is produced from the model, and into this mold wax or plastic is injected under pressure. The pattern produced is placed in a plasterlike material and burned out, leaving a cavity in the material. The precious metal then is cast into this cavity by cen- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 540 trifugal force. After cooling, the cast piece is removed. Articles produced by the process re quire a minimum of finishing. Jewels or stones then may be set in the cast piece and it may be engraved. Cast costume jewelry is pro duced similarly, except that the metal is cast directly into a rub ber or metal mold, and either tumbled and plated or finished on a polishing machine. In the stamping process, which is used to make costume and some precious jewelry, the metal piece is formed in a stamping machine that brings together, un der tremendous force, a die and metal from which the piece is to be made. The die has a cavity shaped to the exact contour and dimension of the desired article. As a rule, jewelers specialize in making a particular kind of jew elry, or in a particular operation, such as making models and tools, engraving, polishing, or setting diamonds and other stones. After years of experience, some become all-round jewelers capable of making and repairing any kind of jewelry. Costume jewelry and some kinds of precious jewelry are mass produced by factory workers using assembly line methods. However, skilled jewel ers are needed to make the mod els and tools for this large-scale production. They also may per form finishing operations, such as stone setting and engraving, on stamped or cast pieces. Many jewelers make and repair jewelry in their own stores where they also may sell jewelry, watches, and other merchandise, such as silverware, china, and glassware, and repair watches. Other jewelers operate trade shops that specialize in making jewelry and in doing repair work for jewelry stores owned or oper ated by merchants who are not jewelry craftsmen or who take in more repair work than they can handle. Places of Em ploym ent About 25,000 jewelers and jewelry repairmen were employed in 1968. Most of those who were self-employed owned either retail jewelry stores or trade shops. More than half of those who were not self-employed worked in jew elry manufacturing establish ments; others worked in retail jewelry stores. The Nation’s 20,000 retail jew elry stores are located throughout the country. The heaviest con centration of these stores, as well as the thousands of small trade shops that service them, is lo cated in large commercial cen ters, such as New York City, Chi cago, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. Nearly three-fourths of all precious jewelry manufacturing plants are located in New York, New Jersey, Rhode Island, and California. The New York City metropolitan area is the center of precious jewelry manufactur ing. Train in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Young persons generally learn the jewelry trade either by serv ing a formal apprenticeship or through informal o n-t h e-j o b training while working for an ex perienced jeweler. Jewelry repair, which usually is less complicated than jewelry making, can be learned in a short time by in dividuals already trained in fil ing, sawing, drilling, and other basic mechanical skills. Courses in jewelry repair are given in sev eral trade schools. Other trade schools offer courses in specific types of jewelry work, such as diamond setting, jewelry design, and engraving. Formal apprenticeship in this trade, depending on the type of training, takes from 3 to 4 years. For example, 3 years are re quired to become a colored-stone setter and 4 years to qualify as a diamond setter. Throughout the apprenticeship, training on the job is supplemented by trade school instruction in design, qual ity of precious stones, chemistry of metals, and other related sub jects. Initial work assignments may be to set up work for solder ing or to do simple soldering or rough polishing. As an appren tice gains experience, he advances to more difficult work. After com pletion of the apprenticeship, he becomes a qualified journeyman jeweler. A high school education is de sirable for young people seeking to enter the trade. Courses in chemistry, physics, mechanical drawing, and art are particularly useful. Personal qualifications chanical aptitude, finger and hand dexterity, and good eyehand coordination. Artistic abil ity is necessary for work in jew elry design. For those planning to become retail jewelers or to open trade shops on manufacturing es tablishments, the ability to deal with people and manage a busi ness is a necessity. Because peo ple in this trade work with prec ious stones and metals they must be bonded. Bonding requires an investigation of one’s personal background for honesty, trust worthiness, and respect for the law. Jewelry manufacturing estab lishments in the major produc tion centers offer the best op portunities for a young person to acquire all-round skills, even though the number of trainees accepted is small. Trade shops also offer training opportunities, but their small-size— many are 541 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS one- or two-man shops— limits the number of trainees. Jewelry workers may advance in several ways. In manufactur ing, they can advance from pro duction jewelers to shop foremen. In retail stores, jewelers may be come heads of sales departments or store managers. Those crafts men employed in jewelry making and repair departments operated by large retail establishments may advance to department man agers. Some jewelry workers es tablish their own retail stores or trade shops. A substantial financial invest ment is required to open a retail jewelry store and the field is highly competitive in most parts of the country. Jewelers inter ested in going into business for themselves will find it advantage ous to work first in an establish ed retail jewelry store, trade shop, or jewelry manufacturing plant. Persons planning to open their own jewelry stores should have experience in selling jew elry. Those craftsmen who can repair watches have an advan tage over those who can repair jewelry only, since watch repair work is a substantial part of the business in many small jewelry stores. Talented and experienced jewelers of recognized integrity can establish their own trade shops or small manufacturing shops with a more moderate fi nancial investment. The location of these shops is limited to areas that have a large volume of jew elry business. For manufacturing, this means the major production centers. Trade shops have best chances for success in moderate or large cities where there are many retail jewelry stores. Em ploym ent Outlook Employment requirements for jewelers and jewelry repairmen are expected to show little or no change though the 1970’s. How ever, hundreds of job openings will arise annually because of re tirements and deaths among ex perienced workers. Most job openings are expected to be filled by people trained in only one or two specialties of the trade such as stone setting, engraving, mod elmaking, casting, or polishing. Nevertheless, all-round jewelers will continue to be in demand, and have been in short supply in recent years. Rising levels of personal in comes are expected to result in a substantial increase in the de mand for precious and costume jewelry, and an expected increase in family formations will spur de mand for engagement and wed ding rings. However, the employ ment effect of an increased de mand for jewelry will be offset by more efficient means of pro ducing and repairing jewelry. The demand for jewelry crafts men during the 1970’s is ex pected to differ by place of em ployment. In jewelry manufac turing, most job openings will be filled by specialized craftsmen as mass-production techniques are adopted increasingly. In trade shops, where a large volume of repair work permits job specializ ation, job openings also will be filled mainly by specialized Occupation craftsmen. In retail jewelry stores, however, there will be job opportunities for both all-round jewelers and specialized crafts men. Earnings and W orking Conditions Beginning pay for jewelry re pairmen employed in retail stores and trade shops ranged from $90 to $125 a week in 1968; ex perienced workers in these es tablishments earned up to $225 weekly. Wages were highest for jewelry repairmen who worked in large metropolitan areas. Jew elers who own retail stores or trade shops earn considerably more than jewelers working as employees in these establish ments. One union-management agree ment, covering about 2,600 jew elry workers employed in plants manufacturing precious jewelry in New York City, provides the minimum hourly rates shown in the accompanying tabulation for inexperienced workers (including apprentices) and for journeymen in selected crafts, in 1968. Aver age hourly earnings for journey men covered by this agreement in 1968 also are shown in the tabu lation. Under this agreement, all in experienced workers, including Average hourly earnings 1968 Starting rate— all inexperienced workers .............................................. Journeyman’s rate: Production jewelers.................................................................... $3.65 Jewelers—handmade work ......................................................... 4.12 Modelmakers ............................................................................... 4.66 Stone setting: Diamond ................................................................................... 4.39 Colored stones......................................................................... 3.92 Handmade work................................................................................ Chasers........................................................................................... 3.82 Engravers ................................................................................... 3.42 Polishers ..................................................................................... 3.30 Casters ........................................................................................... 3.66 Lappers ......................................................................................... 4.09 Toolmakers ................................................................................. 4.71 Hub Cutters ............................................................................... 5.55 Minimum hourly job rate 1968 $1.66 2.80 3.30 3.35 3.30 3.00 3.55 2.80 2.80 2.80 2.60 2.75 3.05 3.50 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 542 (D.O.T. 316.781, 316.884) divide animal carcasses, from which the hide, head, and en trails have been removed, into steaks, roasts, chops, and other serving sized portions. They also prepare meat products such as sausage, corned beef, and meat loaf. Meat cutters who work in retail food stores may set up at tractive counter displays and wait on customers. In cutting a beef carcass, the meat cutter divides it into halves with a band saw, and then quar ters it by cutting each half be tween the ribs with a knife and sawing through the backbone. He uses special meat cutting saws to divide the quarters into major (primal) cuts, such as rib or chuck, and then uses a butcher knife and a smaller boning knife to divide the primal cuts into re tail cuts such as T-bone steak or rib roast. The meat cutter may divide the retail cuts into individually sized portions. He uses a butcher knife or sheer to divide boneless cuts, and a band saw or cleaver to divide cuts containing bones. He removes any chips that may remain on the meat either by scraping it with his butcher knife or placing the meat on a machine that has a small revolving brush. Meat trimmings and some less expensive cuts are ground into hamburger. In addition to cutting meat, the meat cutter may pickle or “ corn” meat by pumping a brine solution into the arteries. He may place some of the cuts on a tenderizer machine which increases tenderness by injecting an en zyme into the meat. N atu re of the W ork Places of Em ploym ent Meat cutters prepare meat, fish, and poultry for sale in su permarkets or wholesale food outlets. Their primary duty is to The 200,000 meat cutters em ployed in 1968 were located in al most every city and town in the Nation. Only a small proportion apprentices, receive increases of 15 cents an hour after 30 days of employment and 15 cents an hour every 3 months until they reach the minimum journeyman rate for their particular job, which is con siderably lower than average hourly earnings in the trades. Skilled workers in the precious jewelry manufacturing union shops in the New York City area have a 35-hour workweek and are paid time and one-half for all work done before or after the regular workday. Retail jewelers and jewelry repairmen work 40 to 48 hours a week, and may work longer hours during the holiday seasons. Sources of A d ditional In fo rm atio n Information on employment opportunities for jewelers and jewelry repairmen in retail jew elry stores may be obtained from: Retail Jewelers of America, Inc., 1025 Vermont Ave. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20005. Information on employment opportunities in manufacturing establishments may be obtained from: Manufacturing Jewelers and Sil versmiths of America, Inc., Sheraton-Biltmore Hotel, Room S-75, Providence, R.I. 02902. International Jewelry Workers’ Union, Local No. 1, 133 West 44th St., New York, N.Y. 10036. MEAT CUTTERS were women. Most meat cutters worked in retail food stores. A large number also worked in wholesale food outlets; a few worked in restaurants, hotels, hospitals, and other institutions. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Meat cutters acquire their skills either through apprentice ship programs or by means of on-the-job experience. Under the guidance of skilled journeymen meat cutters, trainees learn the identity of various cuts and grades of fresh meats and cold cuts and the proper use of tools and equipment. They learn to use scales, make counter displays, slice luncheon meats and cheese, wrap meat, and wait on custom ers. Carcass breaking, boning, and portion cutting are a major part of the meat cutter’s training. To perform carcass breaking— the successive division of the carcass into halves, quarters, and primal cuts— trainees learn to use the band saw, rotary saw, and butch er knife. During the boning oper ation, in which the excess skin, bones, and fat are removed and the primal cuts are divided into retail cuts, they learn to use the boning knife and to increase their skill with the butcher knife. Gen erally, the last cutting function trainees learn is portion cutting. During this phase, they learn to operate the sheer, grinder, and small band saw, and to use the revolving brush that removes bone chips. In addition to cutting opera tions, beginning meat cutters learn to dress fish and poultry, roll and tie roasts, grind ham burger, prepare sausage, cure and corn meat, and may learn to use the vacuum and tenderizer machines. During the latter SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS Meat cutter uses band saw to cut chuck. stages of training, they may learn marketing operations such as inventory control, meat buy ing and grading, and record keep ing. Meat cutters who learn the trade through apprenticeship generally complete 2 to 3 years of supervised on-the-job training which may be supplemented by some classroom work. A meat cutting test is given at the end of the training period that is ob served by the employer, and if the shop is unionized, usually by a union member. If the appren tice passes the test, he becomes a fully qualified journeyman meat cutter. In many areas of the country, the apprentice may become a journeyman in less than the usual training time if he is able to pass his meat cut ting test at an earlier date. The most common method of entering this occupation is to be 543 hired and trained by an individ ual retail or wholesale outlet. A few meat cutters have gained en try by attending training pro grams sponsored under the Man power Development and Training Act or by attending vocational schools that offer courses in meat cutting. Employers prefer entrants who have a high school diploma and also have the potential to de velop into meat department or retail store managers. Employers look for applicants who have had training in mathematics, since the meat cutter may be called on to weigh and price meats and to make change; in English, since many outlets want their meat cutters to wait on and advise customers; and in the use of power tools, since power tools are used frequently in the daily work of the occupation. Manual dexterity, good form and depth perception, color dis crimination, and good eye-hand coordination are important in cutting meat. Better than aver age strength is necessary since meat cutters often must lift heavy loads and stand on their feet much of the day. In some communities, a health certificate may be required for employment. Meat cutters may progress from journeyman to first cutter and then to meat department manager of a retail food store. Some become meat buyers, and those who learn the operation of the grocery section of a retail outlet can become retail store managers. In a few instances, ex perienced meat cutters have opened their own meat markets or retail food stores. Em ploym ent O utlook Demand for meat is expected to increase substantially in the future due to population growth OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 544 and increased personal income. However, little or no increase in the total number of meat cutters is anticipated through the 1970’s, since increasing worker produc tivity is expected to offset larger output. Nevertheless, thousands of entry jobs for meat cutters will be available during the next dec ade to replace meat cutters who retire, die, or transfer to other occupations. Deaths and retire ments alone are expected to cre ate about 4,000 job openings each year. A number of technological ad vances are expected to limit the growth of the total number of meat cutters employed in future years. Technological advances that are now available and ex pected to be used more widely include a greater use of power tools, such as electric saws, elec tronic scales, and wrapping ma chines that can weigh, package, and stamp prices automatically; and machines that tie strings on roasts or other boneless cuts. In the future, power assisted knives may be used for boning and por tion cutting, and processes that separate meat from bones by means of centrifugal force or other means are being tested. Central cutting, which estab lishes one point from which meat for a given area is cut and wrap ped, may limit the employment growth of meat cutters. As a re sult of central cutting, fewer meat cutters will be needed in individual retail stores to cut or package meat. Central cutting also permits meat cutters to spe cialize in both the type of meat cut and the type of cut per formed. Thus, the job content of many meat cutters may change from that of a generalist capable of performing all meat cutting operations to that of a specialist who performs a few cuts on one kind of meat. Central cutting also tends to reduce the amount of training necessary to achieve a sufficient degree of cutting skill. In many wholesale outlets, a significant degree of specializa tion similar to central cutting is already in effect. Many wholesale outlets perform “ portion cutting” for restaurants, hotels, and oth er institutions. Rather than keep ing a meat cutter on the prem ises, the hotel or restaurant or ders a desired number of servingsize portions from the wholesaler. The effect has been to displace some meat cutters formerly em ployed by hotels, restaurants, and other institutions. Earnings and W orking Conditions In 1968, average ings of journeymen working a standard selected cities were Meat cutters often are exposed to sudden temperature changes when entering and leaving re frigerated areas and may be ex posed to unpleasant odors. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information on training and other aspects of the trade may be obtained from: American Meat Institute, 59 East Van Buren Street; Chicago, Illi nois 60605. Amalgamated Meat Cutters and Butcher Workmen of North America, 2800 North Sheridan Road, Chicago, Illinois 60657. weekly earn meat cutters workweek in as follows: Further information about lo cal work opportunities and man power development and training programs can be obtained from Boston ............................................. $143 local employers or by contacting Chicago ............................................ 144 local offices of the State employ Kansas City................................... 139 ment service. Philadelphia................................... St. Louis......................................... Cleveland ........................................ Houston .......................................... New York....................................... San Diego....................................... Washington, D.C............................ 149 160 143 124 138 153 144 Beginning apprentices usually receive between 60 and 70 per cent of journeymen wages and generally receive increases every 6 to 8 months until they achieve the journeyman level. Most meat cutters are union members of the Amalgamated Meat Cutters and Butcher Workmen of North America. Meat cutters generally work in a well-lighted and well-ventilat ed environment. They must ex ercise care since sharp instru ments, such as knives, grinders, saws, cleavers, scrapers, and shears, are used. To prevent ac cidents, most machinery is equip ped with protective devices, and safety gloves often are worn. MOTION PICTURE PROJECTIONISTS (D.O.T. 960.382) N atu re of the W ork The projectionist is an impor tant man behind the scenes in the motion picture theater. From an elevated room at the back of the theater, he operates the pro jection machines and audio equipment, assuring high quality screen and sound presentation for the audience. In showing a feature length movie, the projectionist uses two projectors, audio equipment, a film rewinding machine, and sev en reels or more of film. Before SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS the first feature is scheduled to begin, he checks the equipment to see that it operates properly and loads the two projectors with the first and second reels to be shown. T o load a projector he threads the film through a series of sprockets and guide rollers, and attaches it to a take-up reel. Most projectors burn a carbon rod to provide light for the screen. After igniting and adjust ing the carbon rod, the projec tionist starts the projector con taining the first reel. When the real has reached proper running speed, he opens a shutter and the picture appears on the screen. If the picture is out of focus or un steady, he makes the necessary adjustments on the projector. A film reel lasts approximately 20 minutes. When the first reel is near completion, the projec tionist; watches for cue marks (small circles in the upper right hand corner of the screen) which indicate that it is time to start the second projector. When a second series of cue marks ap pears, he simultaneously closes the shutter on the first projector and opens the shutter on the sec ond projector. This changeover happens so quickly that the view er in the audience does not no tice an interruption on the screen. Next, the projectionist re moves the used reel, and rewinds it on the rewinding machine. The projectionist repeats the process described above until all the rods have been used. If the film breaks the projectionist must work rap idly to rethread it so that the show may continue. In addition to operating the equipment, the projectionist cleans and lubricates it, checks for defective parts and damaged film, and makes minor repairs and adjustments. By keeping his equipment in good operating con dition, the projectionist reduces the possibility of malfunctions 545 perform the duties of the projec tionist. T rain in g and O ther Q ualifications and breakdowns. For example, he may replace a badly worn projec tor sprocket which could eventu ally cause film damage or an un steady picture. Major repairs are made by servicemen who special ize in projection and audio equip ment. Places of Em ploym ent An estimated 16,000 full-time motion picture projectionists— nearly all of them males— were employed in 1968. More than three-fourths of them were em ployed in indoor theaters; most of the remainder were employed in drive-in theaters. Other em ployers of projectionists included large manufacturers, television studios, and Federal, State, and local governments. Most theaters employ one projectionist per shift; few employ more than two. Projectionists work in cities and towns of all sizes throughout the country. In a theater located in a small town, the theater own er or a member of his family may Most motion picture theaters in urban areas are unionized, and young people who aspire to work as motion picture projectionists in these theaters must complete a period of apprenticeship. Ap prenticeship applicants must be at least 18 years of age, and high school graduates usually are preferred. The length of time a person must serve as an apprentice be fore taking an examination for union membership may vary from 1 to 2 years, depending on the policies of union locals. However, if he is capable of performing the work, an apprentice may be as signed to a full- or part-time job at journeyman’s pay before be coming a member. In a few cities and States, projectionists must be licensed. An apprentice learns the trade by working full- or part-time with experienced projectionists. He first learns simple tasks, such as threading and rewinding film, and, as he gains experience, pro gresses to more difficult assign ments such as adjusting and re pairing equipment. He may work in several theaters to become fa miliar with different types of equipment. Many apprentices re ceive no pay while being trained. In a non-union theater, a young man may start as an usher or helper and learn the trade by working with an experienced projectionist. Young men interested in be coming projectionists should have good eyesight, including normal color perception and good hear ing. They should be tempera mentally suited to working alone in close quarters. Manual dex terity and mechanical aptitude OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 546 are also important personal quali fications. Practical experience gained from operating small movie projectors at home, at school, or in the Armed Forces also is helpful. E m ploym ent O utlook Employment of motion picture projectionists is expected to in crease slowly through the 1970’s. Most job opportunities will arise as experienced workers retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Retirements and deaths alone may result in several hun dred job openings annually, but competition for the available openings is likely to continue to be keen. Some of these openings will be filled by experienced pro jectionists who are unemployed or underemployed. Employment of projectionists is closely related to the number of motion picture theaters. Fol lowing a rapid decline in the 1950’s and early 1960’s, the number of theaters has leveled off in recent years but is expected to increase slightly d u r i n g the 1970’s. Among the factors which may contribute to this increase are the growing population, ris ing personal incomes, increased leisure time, and the continued movement of people to suburban areas. Earnings and W orking Conditions Motion picture projectionists had average straight-time hourly earnings of more than $3.00 in 1968. In some large cities, aver age hourly earnings of these workers were $5.00 or more. Gen erally, downtown theaters pay higher hourly rates than subur ban or drive-in theaters. Most projectionists work eve nings. Generally, those employed on a full-time basis work 4 to 6 hours, 6 evenings per week. They may work more than 6 hours on Saturday in a theater which fea tures Saturday matinees. Some projectionists work at several theatres. For example, a projec tionist’s weekly schedule may call for 2 evenings in each of three theaters. Projectionists em ployed in drive-in theaters, par ticularly those in Northern States, may be laid off for sev eral months during the winter. Many projectionists receive 2 or 3 weeks of paid vacation and premium pay for weekend or holi day work. Some projectionists are covered by hospitalization and pension plans. The motion picture projection ist works in a room called a pro jection booth. In most theaters, these booths have adequate light ing, ventilation, and work space. Many booths are air conditioned. The work is relatively free of hazards, but there is danger of electrical shocks and burns if proper safety precautions are not taken. The motion picture pro jectionist’s work is not physically strenuous. He frequently lifts and handles film reels, but most of these weigh no more than 35 pounds. Although he must be on his feet much of the time, he can sit for short periods while the equipment is in operation. Most projectionists work without di rect supervision and have infre quent contact with other theater employees. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Further information about ap prenticeship programs and em ploy opportunities may be ob tained from any local union of the International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees and Moving Picture Machine Opera tors of the United States and Canada. PHOTOGRAPHIC LABORATORY OCCUPATIONS (D.O.T. 970.281; and 976.381, .687, .782, .884, .855, .886, and .887) N atu re of the W ork Photographs, such as those contained in books, magazines, and newspapers and amateur snapshots and home movies, re quire the skills of thousands of people employed in photographic laboratories. These workers de velop film, make prints and slides, and perform related tasks such as enlarging photographs. (This chapter does not discuss employees of laboratories that specialize in processing profes sional motion picture film.) All-round darkroom techni cians (D.O.T. 976.381) perform all tasks necessary to develop and print film. Although these work ers may use some mechanized processing equipment, they rely chiefly on manual methods. The darkroom technician develops film in tanks and trays contain ing chemical solutions. He varies the developing process according to the type of film— black and white negative, color negative, or color positive. For example, a de veloping process for black and white negative film covers five steps; developer, stop bath, fix ing bath, washing, and drying. The first three steps are per formed in darkness. After un winding a roll of film, the dark room technician places it in the developer, a chemical solution that brings out the image on ex posed film. After the film has 547 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS remained in the developer for a specified period of time, the dark room technician transfers it to a stop bath to prevent over-devel opment. Next, he places the film in a fixing bath that makes it in sensitive to light, thus preventing further exposure. He then washes the film to remove the fixing so lution and places it in a drying cabinet. If a developed negative has flaws, such as scratches or bare spots, the darkroom techni cian may retouch these areas us ing an ink-like substance. Devel oping processes for color negative and color positive films are more complex than those used in black and white negative film. Thus, some laboratories employ color technicians (D.O.T. 976.381)— highly skilled workers who spe cialize in processing color film. The darkroom t e c h n i c i a n makes a photograph by transfer ring the image from a negative to photographic paper. Printing fre quently is performed on a projec tion printer, which consists of a fixture for holding negatives and photographic paper, an electric lamp, and a magnifying lens. The darkroom technician places the negative between the lamp and lens, and the paper below the lens. When he turns on the lamp, light passes through the negative and lens and records a magnified image of the negative on the paper. During printing, the dark room technician may vary the contrast of the image or remove unwanted background by using his hand or paper patterns to shade parts of the photographic paper from the lamp light. After removing the exposed photo graphic paper from the printer, he develops it in much the same way as the negative. If the cus tomer desires, the darkroom tech nician mounts the finished print in a frame or on a paper or card board back, using cement or a hand-operated press. In addition to working in the laboratory, darkroom technicians may set up lights and cameras or otherwise assist experienced photographers. Many darkroom technicians, particularly those employed in portrait studios, di vide their time between taking pictures and processing them. In some laboratories, helpers assist darkroom technicians. They also may be assisted by workers who specialize in a particular activity, such as d e v e l o p e r s (D.O.T. 976.381), printers (D.O.T. 976.381), and photograph retouchers (D.O.T. 970.281). In large, mechanized photo graphic laboratories, darkroom technicians may be employed to supervise semiskilled workers. Most semiskilled workers per form specialized assignments that require only a limited knowledge of developing and printing proc esses. Included are film numberers (D.O.T. 976.887), who sort film according to the type of process ing needed and number each roll for identification purposes; film strippers (D.O.T. 976.887), who unwind rolls of film and place them in developing machines; printer operators (D.O.T. 976.782), who operate machines that expose rolls of photographic pa per to negatives; print develop ers, machine (D.O.T. 976.885), Darkroom technician examines finished print. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 548 who operate machines that devel op these rolls of exposed photo graphic paper; chemical mixers (D.O.T. 976.884), who measure and combine the various chemi cals that make up developing so lutions; slide mounters (D.O.T. 976.885), who operate machines that cut, insert, and seal film in cardboard mounts; and photo checkers and assemblers (D.O.T. 976.687), who inspect the fin ished slides and prints and pack age them for customers. Places of Em ploym ent In 1968, an estimated 30,000 workers were employed in photo graphic laboratory occupations. Almost half of them were dark room technicians; the remainder worked in semiskilled photofin ishing occupations. Although most darkroom technicians are men, women predominate in many of the semiskilled occupa tions. For example, most printer operators, slide mounters, photo checkers, and assemblers are women. A large proportion of darkroom technicians are employed in photographic laboratories oper ated by portrait and commercial studios and by business and gov ernment organizations. The latter include manufacturers, newspap er and magazine publishers, ad vertising agencies, and Federal, State, and local governments. Darkroom technicians also are employed in small commercial laboratories that specialize in processing the work of free-lance photographers, advertising agen cies , magazine publishers, and others. Most semiskilled workers are employed by large commer cial photographic laboratories that specialize in processing film for amateur photographers. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Most darkroom technicians learn their skills through informal on-the-job training. Beginners start as helpers and gradually learn to develop and print film by assisting experienced techni cians. It generally takes 3 or 4 years to become a fully qualified darkroom technician. Some help ers become specialists in a par ticular activity such as printing or developing. Generally, the training time required to become a specialist is less than is needed to become an all-round darkroom technician. Employers prefer to hire dark room technicians’ helpers who have a high school education. Courses in chemistry, physics, and mathematics are helpful to young people interested in this trade. Some high schools and trade schools offer courses in photography that include train ing in film processing. Experience gained through processing film as a hobby also is helpful. Some darkroom technicians have re ceived training and experience in the Armed Forces. Two-year curriculums leading to an associate degree in photo graphic technology are offered by a few colleges. Completion of col lege level courses in this field is helpful to people aspiring to su pervisory and managerial jobs in photographic laboratories. Many darkroom technicians eventually become professional photographers. Others advance to supervisory positions in labora tories. Darkroom technicians who acquire their experience in small laboratories need additional training before they can qualify for supervisory positions in large laboratories where mechanized equipment is used. Training requirements for workers in semiskilled occupa tions range from a few weeks to several months of on-the-job training. For example, film numberers and slide mounters usually can learn their jobs in less than a month, but printer operators and chemical mixers need several months or longer. For many semi skilled jobs, manual dexterity, good vision including normal col or preception, and good eye-hand coordination are important quali fications. However, some labora tories employ blind workers as film numberers and film strip pers, since these jobs may be per formed in the dark to prevent damage to exposed film. Comple tion of high school generally is not required for semiskilled jobs, but it frequently is needed for ad vancement to supervisory jobs. E m ploym ent O utlook Employment in photographic laboratory occupations is expect ed to increase m o d e r a t e l y throughout the 1970’s. Most job opportunities, however, will result from the need to replace experi enced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Retirements and deaths alone will create an estimated 850 job openings annually. The need for semiskilled work ers is tied closely to the growth of amateur photography. Film purchases by amateur photog raphers are expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s as a result of rising population and personal income, more leisure time, and increased travel. Im provements in still and movie cameras that make them easier to load, unload, and operate also should contribute to increases in the use of film. However, the more widespread use of mecha nized film processing equipment and improvements in this type of equipment will tend to increase 549 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS the efficiency of laboratory work ers, thus keeping employment from growing as fast as the vol ume of film processed. The need for all-round dark room technicians is expected to increase as a result of the grow ing demand for photography in business and government. A ma jor factor contributing to this de mand will be the increasing va riety of printed matter, such as sales brochures, cataloges, and public relations literature that is illustrated with photographs. The growing use of photography in research and development activi ties also will contribute to the demand for darkroom techni cians. However, the generally fa vorable employment effects of these factors will be partially off set by the greater use of mecha nized film processing equipment in small laboratories. Earnings and W orking Conditions Information obtained from sev eral employers in 1968, indicates that earnings of workers in pho tographic laboratory occupations vary greatly, depending on fac tors such as skill level, experi ence, and geographic location. Beginning pay for inexperienced darkroom technician’s helpers generally ranged from $1.65 to $2.25 an hour. Most of the ex perienced all-round darkroom technicians earned between $2.50 and $5.00 an hour. In addition to all-round darkroom techni cians, color technicians and print ers generally had the highest earnings. Workers in semiskilled occupa tions earned from $1.60 to $3.50 an hour. Among these workers, printer operators and chemical mixers generally had the highest earnings. In the Federal Government, photographic laboratory techni cians earned between $5,100 and $9,100 annually. Many photographic laborator ies provide paid holidays, vaca tions, and other benefits such as medical-surgical insurance. Work ers in photofinishing laboratories operated by business and govern ment organizations receive the same fringe benefits as their fel low employees. The majority of photographic laboratory employees have a standard workweek of 40 hours and receive premium pay for overtime. In laboratories that specialize in processing film for amateur photographers, em ployees may work a considerable amount of overtime during the summer and for several weeks af ter Christmas. Many laboratories employ additional workers tem porarily during these seasonal peaks. Most photographic laboratory jobs are not physically strenuous. In many semiskilled occupations, workers perform their jobs while sitting, but the work is repetiti ous and the pace is rapid. Some of these workers (for example, printer operators and photo checkers and assemblers) are subject to eye fatigue. Photofin ishing laboratories are generally clean, well lighted, and air con ditioned. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Additional information about employment opportunities in pho tographic l a b o r a t o r i e s and schools that offer degrees in pho tographic technology may be ob tained from: Master Photo Dealers’ and Finish ers’ Association, 603 Lansing Ave., Jackson, Mich. 49202. POWER TRUCK OPERATORS (D.O.T. 892.883; 921.782 and .883; and 922.782 and .883) N atu re of the W ork In the past, manual workers in factories usually did the hard physical labor of moving raw ma terials and products. Today, many heavy materials are moved by workers who operate various types of self-powered trucks, which can easily carry tons of material and lift it to heights of many feet. A typical truck operated by these workers has a hydraulic or electric lifting mechanism with attachments, such as forks to lift piles of cartons or other contain ers, and scoops to lift coal or other loose material. Some power trucks are equipped with tow bars used to pull small trailers. Power truck operators start the truck, drive it forward or back ward, stop the truck, and control the lifting mechanism and attach ments by moving pedals and lev ers. Power truck operators may be required to keep records of materials moved, do some man ual loading and unloading of ma terials, and maintain their trucks in good working condition by cleaning, ' oiling, checking the water in batteries, and making simple adjustments. The driver must use care and skill in driving his truck. For ex ample, in driving through aisles where materials are stored, or when loading or removing mate rials from stock, which may be stacked from floor to ceiling, he must be able to judge distance so that no damage occurs. The operator also must know how much the truck can lift and carry and the kinds of jobs it can do. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 550 Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Most workers can learn to op erate a power truck in a few days. It takes several weeks, however, to learn the physical layout and operation of a plant or other es tablishment, and the most effi cient way of handling the mate rials to be moved. Large companies generally re quire applicants for a power truck operator job to pass a physical examination. Many large compa nies also have formal training programs for new employees. In these training programs, the em ployee learns to operate the pow er truck, to do simple mainte nance work, principles of loading and handling materials, plant lay out and plant operation, and safe driving practices and rules. There are some opportunities for advancement. A few operators may become materials movement foremen or supervisors. Em ploym ent O utlook Places of Em ploym ent In 1968, more than 100,000 power truck operators were em ployed in manufacturing plants throughout the country. About half of these operators worked in the North Central States. Al though semiskilled power truck operators were employed in all types of manufacturing indus tries, many were employed in metalworking plants that manu factured automobiles and auto mobile parts, machinery, fabri cated metal products, and iron and steel. In addition to working in factories, large numbers of power truck operators were em ployed in warehouses, depots, dock terminals, mines, and other places where great quantities of materials must be moved. Employment of power truck operators is expected to increase slowly through the 1970’s. Most job openings will result from the need to replace workers who will retire, die, or transfer to other jobs. Because of the need to move the increasingly huge amounts of manufactured goods demanded by the Nation’s growing popula tion and rising standard of living, most of the industries which em ploy large numbers of these work ers are expected to have a longrange upward trend in employ ment. In addition, the increasing use of containers and pallets for moving goods will increase the need for power truck operators. The favorable effects of these two factors on employment, how ever, will be partially offset by the continued development of more efficient power trucks and other mechanized materials-handling equipment. Earnings and W orking Conditions Power truck operators em ployed in manufacturing indus tries generally are paid an hourly rate. The following table presents average straight-time h o u r l y earnings for such workers: Average straight-time hourly earnings of power truck operators in manufacturing, 1968 Hourly Area rate United States ................................$2.92 Northeast....................................... 2.88 South ............................................. 2.48 North Central................................ 3.06 West ............................................... 3.08 Power truck operators are sub ject to several hazards— such as falling objects and collisions be tween vehicles. Safety instruction is an important part of the job training in power trucking work. The driver may operate his truck inside buildings or outdoors where he is exposed to various weather conditions. Some opera tors may handle loose material that may be dirty or dusty. Power truck operators have somewhat varied work in moving materials throughout a plant. Their work is likely to be less repetitive and routine than that of workers who do semiskilled machine operator work. Many power truck operators are members of labor unions. Most labor-management contracts in manufacturing plants employ ing power truck operators pro vide for fringe benefits such as paid holidays and vacations, health insurance, life insurance, and retirement pensions. PRODUCTION PAINTERS N atu re of th e W ork Almost every metal or wood product manufactured by Ameri- 551 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS can industry is given a coating of paint or other protective mate rial. In mass-production indus tries, this painting is done by workers known as production painters. Most of these workers use spray guns to apply paint, lacquer, varnish, or other finishes to parts or finished manufactured products. Some production paint ers use brushes to apply paint and others operate semiauto matic paint spraying machines, dipping tanks, or tumbling bar rels. The work done by produc tion painters in factories is dif ferent from that performed by skilled painters who are employed in constuction and maintenance work. (See statement on Paint ers.) Production painters who oper ate spray guns pour paints into a spray gun container that is at tached to an air-compressor unit. They adjust the nozzle of the spray gun and the air-compressor so that the paint will be applied uniformly. The objects being sprayed may be stationary or at tached to a moving conveyor. Production painters who operate semiautomatic painting machines may load items into the machine or onto conveyors before apply ing paint. When working on ob jects requiring more than one color, production painters may apply masking tape to prevent overlapping of colors. Although the duties of most production painters are simple and repetitive, the jobs of some may be varied. These production painters may make decisions in volving the application of fin ishes, thinning of paint, and the adjustment of paint spray equip ment. Production painters also may clean the surface to be painted before painting. When production painters are required to mix paints and figure the size of the area to be painted, they use simple arithmetic involving decimals and fractions. Produc tion painters may replace nozzles and clean guns and other paint equipment when necessary. Some production painters may operate specialized spray guns such as those operated at high tempera tures and used to spray powdered plastics. In addition to their painting equipment, production painters use tools, such as mixing paddles, pliers, wrenches, rules, and gages, that indicate the con sistency of liquid paint. woman. Two-thirds of all produc tion painters were in industries making durable items such as au tomobiles, refrigerators, furni ture, electrical measuring meters, and transformers. About half of all production painters were em ployed in New York, Michigan, Ohio, California, Illinois, Pen nsylvania, Indiana, North Caro lina, and New Jersey. Places of Em ploym ent Most production painters learn their jobs through on-the-job training. The length of training may vary from 2 weeks to several months. The new worker may have his job duties explained to him by About 160,000 production painters were employed in 1968, nearly three-quarters in manu facturing. Approximately 1 out of 8 production painters was a Train in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Production painters apply acrylic enamel to automobile body. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 552 his supervisor and then work un der the guidance of an experi enced employee. The trainee may observe the experienced employee at work or assist him in his work. A person going into this work should be in good health, be able to stand for long periods of time, have a steady hand, and have good eyesight so that he can dis tinguish between colors and see whether the paint is applied even ly. High school graduation is not generally required of applicants for these jobs. There are some opportunities for advancement in this field of work. A small number of workers have become inspectors or fore men. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment of production painters is expected to show little or no change through the 1970’s. However, several thousand job opportunities are expected to arise annually as workers retire, die, or transfer to other lines of work. Deaths and retirements alone will result in almost 3,000 openings each year. Employment of production painters is expected to remain relatively stable, primarily be cause of the increasing develop ment and use of mechanized and automatic painting equipment. For example, even though the number of automobiles produced is expected to increase substan tially, the greater use of auto matic sprayers will very likely offset any need for additional production painters. Earnings and W orking Conditions Production painters generally are paid on an hourly basis. An examination of selected 1968 la bor-management contracts in the machinery industries indicates that production painters earned from about $2 to $4 an hour. Production painters are expos ed to fumes from paint and paint mixing ingredients. Some paint ers wear protective goggles and masks which cover the nose and mouth. When working on large objects, they may work in awk ward and cramped positions. Many production painters are members of unions. Among the labor organizations to which they belong are the International Un ion, United Automobile, Aero space and Agricultural Imple ment Workers of America; the United Furniture Workers of America; and the United Steel workers of America. Many labormanagement contracts in the plants in which these workers are employed provide for fringe bene fits, such as holiday and vacation pay, health insurance, life insur ance, and retirement pensions. SHOE REPAIRMEN (D.O.T. 365.381) N atu re of the W ork Shoe repairmen repair worn heels and soles, broken straps, and torn seams of all types of shoes. These craftsmen also re style shoes by attaching orna ments such as buckles and bows. Highly skilled shoe repairmen may design, make, or repair or thopedic shoes in accordance with the prescription of orthopedists and podiatrists. They also may mend handbags, luggage, tents, boat covers, and other items made of leather, rubber, or canvas. The most frequent tasks per formed by shoe repairmen are re placing worn heels and soles. To resole a shoe, the repairman pre pares the shoe by removing the worn sole and old stitching, and roughing the bottom of the shoe on a sanding wheel. Next, he se lects a new sole or cuts one from a piece of leather and cements, nails, or sews it to the shoe. Fi nally, he trims the sole. T o reheel a shoe, the repairman first pries off the old heel. He then selects a replacement heel or cuts one to the required shape, and cements and nails the new heel in place. The heel is then trimmed. After the heels and soles have been re placed, the shoe repairman stains and buffs them so that they match the color of the shoes. Sometimes he cements leather tips or nails metal heels and toe plates to the new heels and soles to increase their durability. Be fore completing the job, the re pairman may replace the insoles, restitch any loose seams, and pol ish and buff the shoes. In large shops, shoe repair work often is divided into a num ber of specialized tasks. For ex ample, some shoe repairmen may remove and replace heels and soles only; others only restitch torn seams. Shoe repairmen use handtools and power and manually operated machines in their work. For ex ample, they may use power oper ated sole stitchers and heel nailing machines, and manually operated sewing machines, cement presses, and shoe stretchers. Among the handtools they use are hammers, awls, and nippers. Self-emloyed shoe repairmen have managerial, sales, and other responsibilities in addition to their regular duties. They make estimates of repair costs, prepare sales slips, keep records, and re ceive payments for work perform ed. They also may supervise the work of other repairmen. SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS 553 ienced repairmen with simple tasks, such as staining, brushing, and shining shoes, and progress to more difficult duties as they gain experience. Helpers having an ap titude for the work and initiative can become qualified shoe repair men after 2 years of on-the-job training. Some repairmen learn how to repair shoes in vocational schools that offer such training. Others receive their training under the provisions of the Manpower D e velopment and Training Act; still others enter the occupation through apprenticeship training programs. Skilled shoe repairmen who work in large shops can become foremen or managers. Those who have the necessary funds can open their own shops. Em ploym ent O utlook Places of E m ploym ent Over 60 percent of the estima ted 30,000 shoe repairmen em ployed in 1968 were proprietors of small, one-man shoe repair shops Most of the remaining craftsmen were employed in large shoe repair establishments. Many of these large shops offered clean ing and laundering services in ad dition to shoe repairing. A few shoe repairmen worked in shoe re pair departments of department stores, variety chain stores, shoe stores, and cleaning establish ments. Almost every community in the United States has at least one shoe repairman. However, most repairmen work in urban areas. States having large numbers of shoe repairmen include New York, California, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Texas. Train in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Most shoe repairmen are hired as helpers and receive on-the-job training in large shoe repair shops. Helpers begin by assisting exper Employment of shoe repairmen is expected to show little or no change through the 1970’s. How ever, hundreds of job openings will arise each year from the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to oth er fields of work. Retirements and deaths alone are expected to pro vide nearly 1,500 job openings an nually. In addition, many jobs currently are unfilled because of a shortage of qualified shoe repair men. Moreover, the number of re pairmen currently being trained is insufficient to fill present or prospective job openings. Several factors will tend to limit the growth in requirements for shoe repairmen. In recent years, the popularity of canvas foot wear, loafers, sandals, and cush ion-soled shoes has increased. Be cause of the construction of these types of shoes, they often cannot be repaired. In addition, many shoes are being made of more dur able, long-wearing materials and OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 554 need repair less frequently. Also, as personal income rises, many people buy new shoes rather than repair old ones. Earnings and W orking Conditions In 1968, shoe repairmen in me tropolitan areas generally earned between $90 and $100 for a 40 hour week. Some skilled repair men earned up to $150. Those who were managers of shoe repair shops earned more than $150 a week and trainees generally earn ed about $65 a week. Earnings of self-employed shoe repairmen varied considerably, depending on the size and location of the shop and the owner’s mana gerial ability. Shoe repairmen who operated clean, modern shops of ten earned more than $7,500 a year. On the other hand, those who owned shops in small com munities often earned less. Shoe repairmen generally work 8 hours a day, 5 or 6 days a week. The workweek for the self-em ployed, however, is often longer, sometimes 10 hours a day, 6 days a week. Although shoe repair es tablishments are busiest during the spring and fall, work is steady with no seasonal layoffs. Employ ees in large shops receive from 1 to 4 weeks’ paid vacation, depend ing on the length of time employ ed. Usually, at least 6 paid holi days a year are provided. Working conditions in large re pair shops, shoe repair depart ments of shoe stores and depart ment stores, and in the more mod em shoe service stores are gener ally good. However, some repair shops may be crowded and noisy and have poor light or ventilation. Strong odors from leather goods, dyes, and stains may be present. Shoe repair work is not stren uous, but does require physical stamina, since shoe repairmen must stand a good deal of the time. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information on training and other aspects of the trade may be obtained from: Shoe Service Institute of America, 222 West Adams St., Chicago, 11 . 60606. 1 Information about local work opportunities and manpower de velopment and training programs can be obtained from local offices of the State employment service. STATIONARY ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 950.782) N atu re of the W ork Stationary engineers operate and maintain equipment in indus trial plants and other buildings that is essential to power gener ation, heating, ventilation, humid ity control, and air conditioning. These workers are needed whereever steam boilers, diesel and steam engines, refrigeration and air-conditioning machines, gener ators, motors, turbines, pumps, compressors, and similar equip ment are used. They must operate and maintain the equipment ac cording to State and local laws, since the safety of many people depends upon its proper function ing. The most important duty of stationary engineers is to make certain that the equipment for which they are responsible is op erating properly. They must de tect and identify any trouble that develops by analyzing their read ings of meters, gages, and other monitoring instruments, and by watching and listening to the ma chinery. They operate levers, throttles, switches, valves, and Stationary engineer takes reading. other devices to regulate and con trol the machinery so that it works efficiently. They also record such information as the amount of fuel used, the temperature and pressure of boilers, the number and pieces of equipment in use, and any repairs that are made. Stationary engineers usually re pair the equipment they operate, using handtools of all kinds, in cluding precision tools. Common repairs involve reseating valves; replacing gaskets, pumps, pack ings, bearings, and belting; and adjusting piston clearance. Oc casionally, stationary engineers make mechanical changes so that the equipment will operate more efficiently or conform to the re quirements of a different process. The duties of stationary engi neers depend on the size of the es tablishment in which they work and the type and capacity of the machinery for which they are re sponsible. However, their primary SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS responsibilities are very much the same for all kinds of plants— safe and efficient operation of their equipment. In a large plant, the chief stationary engineer may have charge of the entire opera tion of the boilerroom and direct the work of assistant stationary engineers and other employees, including turbine operators, boiler operators, and air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics. As sistant stationary engineers may be responsible for the operation of all the equipment during a shift or they may be in charge of a specific type of machinery such as air-conditioning equipment. In relatively small establishments, stationary engineers may be re sponsible for the operation and maintenance of all mechanical and electrical equipment. Places of E m ploym ent In 1968, more than 260,000 sta tionary engineers were employed in a wide variety of establish ments, such as power stations, fac tories, breweries, food-processing plants, steel mills, sewage and water-treatment plants, office and apartment buildings, hotels and hospitals. Federal, State, and lo cal governments also employed large numbers of these workers. The size of establishments in which the engineers worked ranged from giant hydroelectric plants and large public buildings to small industrial plants. Most plants which operate on three shifts employ from 4 to 8 station ary engineers, but some have as many as 60. In many establish ments, only one engineer works on each shift. Because stationary engineers work in so many different kinds of establishments and industries, they are employed in all parts of the country. Although some are employed in small towns and in rural areas, most work in the more 555 This on-the-job training is sup plemented by classroom instruc tion and home study in such re lated technical subjects as prac tical chemistry, elementary phy sics, blueprint reading, applied electricity, and theories of refrig eration, air conditioning, ventila tion, and heating. Persons who become stationary Training , O ther Q ualifications, engineers without going through and A dvancem ent a formal apprenticeship program Many stationary engineers start usually do so only after many as helpers or craftsmen in other years of experience as assistants trades and acquire their skills to licensed stationary engineers largely through informal on-the- in such occupations as boiler, re job experience. However, most frigeration, or turbine operator. training authorities recommend This practical experience usually formal apprenticeship as the best is supplemented by technical or way to learn this trade because other school training or home of the increasing complexity of the study. Eight States, the District of machines and systems. In selecting apprentices, most Columbia, and more than 50 large joint labor-management appren and medium-size cities have li ticeship committees prefer high censing requirements for station school or trade school graduates ary engineers. Although require between 18 and 25 years of age ments for obtaining a license dif who have received instruction in fer from place to place, the fol such subjects as algebra, geom lowing are typical: (1) The ap etry, trigonometry, shop mathe plicant must be over 21 years of matics, mechanical drawing, ma age; (2) he must have resided in chine-shop practice, physics, and the State or locality in which the chemistry. Mechanical aptitude, examination is given for a speci manual dexterity, and good phy fied period of time; and (3) he sical condition also are important must demonstrate that he meets the experience requirements for qualifications. A stationary engineer appren the class of license requested. A ticeship customarily lasts 3 to 4 license is issued to applicants who years. Through on-the-job train meet these requirements and pass ing, the apprentice learns to op an examination which may be erate, maintain, and repair sta written, oral, or a combination tionary equipment, such as blow of both types. Generally, there are several ers, generators, compressors, boil ers, motors, and air-conditioning classes of stationary engineer li and refrigeration machinery. He is censes, which specify the steam taught how to use a variety of pressure or horsepower of the ehand and machine tools, such as quipment the engineer may oper chisels, hammers, electric grind ate. The first-class license permits ers, lathes, and drill presses. He the stationary engineer to operate also learns to use precision-meas equipment of all types and capa uring instruments, such as cali cities without restriction. The pers and micrometers. In addition, lower class licenses limit the capa he may be taught how to move city of the equipment the engineer machinery by the use of blocks, may operate. However, engineers chain hoists, or other equipment. having lower class licenses may heavily populated areas where large industrial and commercial establishments are located. New York, Texas, California, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Ohio, New Jersey, and Michigan employ well over half of these workers. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 556 operate equipment other than their license class, provided they are under the supervision of a higher rated engineer— usually one having a first-class license. Stationary engineers advance to more responsible jobs by being placed in charge of larger, more powerful, or more varied equip ment. Generally, the engineer ad vances to these jobs as he obtains higher grade licenses. Advance ment, however, is not automatic. For example, an engineer having a first-class license may work for some time as an assistant to an other first-class engineer before a vacancy requiring a first-class li censed engineer occurs. In gener al, the broader his knowledge of the operation, maintenance, and repair of various types of equip ment, the better are his chances for advancement. Stationary en gineers also may advance to jobs as plant engineers and as building and plant superintendents. E m ploym ent O utlook Employment of stationary en gineers is expected to grow slowly through the 1970’s. In addition, an average of about 6,000 new workers will be required each year to replace workers who retire or die. Promotions and transfers to other fields of work also will create job openings. A rise in employment of station ary engineers is expected main ly because of the continuing in crease in the use of large station ary boilers and refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment in fac tories, powerplants, and other buildings. Job opportunities may arise because of the continued growth of pipeline transportation and saline water conversion. How ever, improved efficiency from more powerful, automatic, and more centralized equipment and better utilization of workers may limit the growth in the employ ment of these workers. Earnings and W orking Conditions According to a number of unionmanagement contracts in effect in 1969 covering brewery, laundry, hotel, bakery, printing and other industries located in 20 States and the District of Columbia, the average straight-time hourly rate for stationary engineers was ap proximately $3.90. Stationary en gineers in charge of large boilerroom operations often earn con siderably more than the average straight-time hourly rate; some earn more than $200 a week. Stationary engineers generally have steady year-round employ ment. They usually work a straight 8-hour day and 40 hours a week. In plants or institutions that operate around the clock, they may be assigned to any one of three shifts— often on a rotat ing basis— and to Sunday and holiday work. Many stationary engineers are employed in plants which have union-employer contracts. Most of these contracts provide fringe benefits, which may include hos pitalization, medical and surgical insurance; life insurance; sickness and accident insurance; and re tirement pensions. Similar bene fits also may be provided in plants which do not have union-employer contracts. Among the unions to which these workers belong are the International Union of Oper ating Engineers and the Interna tional Union; United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Im plement Workers of America. Most engine rooms, powerplants, or boilerrooms where sta tionary engineers work are clean and well-lighted. However, even under the most favorable condi tions, some stationary engineers are exposed to high temperatures, dust, dirt, contact with oil and grease, and odors from oil, gas, coal, or smoke. In repair or main tenance work, they may have to crawl inside a boiler and work in a crouching or kneeling position to clean or repair the interior. Because stationary engineers often work around boilers and electrical and mechanical equip ment, they must be alert to avoid bums, electric shock, and injury from moving machinery. If the equipment is defective or is not operated correctly, it may be haz ardous to them and to other per sons in the vicinity. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information about training or work opportunities in this trade may be obtained from local offices of State employment services, lo cals of the International Union of Operating Engineers, and from State and local licensing agencies. Information about the occupa tion also may be obtained from: International Union of Operating Engineers, 1125 17th St., NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. National Association of Power En gineers, Inc., 176 West Adam St., Chicago, 1 1 60603. 1. STATIONARY FIREMEN (BOILER) (D.O.T. 951.885) N ature of the W ork Stationary firemen are semi skilled workers who operate and maintain steam boilers used to power industrial machinery, and to heat factories. Some experi enced stationary firemen may be responsible for inspecting boiler 557 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS equipment, for lighting boilers, and building up steam pressure. On the other hand, the responsi bilities of some stationary firemen may be limited to maintaining equipment in good working order by cleaning, oiling, and greasing moving machinery parts. In most plants, stationary fire men operate mechanical devices that control the flow of air, gas, oil, or powdered coal into the fire box in order to keep proper steam pressures in the boilers. Duties of these workers may include read ing meters and other instruments to be certain that the boilers are operating efficiently and according to safety regulations. Fully qualified stationary fire men should be able to detect mal functions without relying entirely on safety devices. In some plants, stationary firemen may be expec ted to know how to make minor repairs. Stationary firemen often are supervised by stationary en gineers. (The stationary engineer is a skilled worker who is respon sible for the operation and main- tenance of a variety of equipment, including boilers, diesel and steam engines, and refrigeration and airconditioning equipment. See statement on Stationary Engi neers.) Places of Em ploym ent About 73,000 stationary fire men were employed in 1968, more than one-half in manufacturing. Generally, these workers are em ployed in industries which are large users of power generating equipment. Leading industries in the employment of stationary firemen are lumber, food, iron and steel, paper, chemicals, and trans portation equipment. Because stationary firemen work in so many different indus tries, they are employed in all parts of the country. Although some are employed in small towns and even rural areas, most work in the more heavily populated areas where large manufacturing plants are located. The States of Ohio, New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan, New Jersey, and California accounted for about 45 percent of the total num ber of firemen. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent stationary fireman opens vaive in gas line to burner. Some large cities and a few States require stationary firemen to be licensed. Applicants can ob tain the knowledge and experi ence to pass the license examina tion by first working as a helper in a boilerroom, or working as a stationary fireman under a con ditional license. License requirements differ from city to city and from State to State. However, the applicant usually must prove that he meets the experience requirements for the license and pass an examina tion testing his knowledge of the job. For specific information on licensing requirements, consult your State or local licensing au thorities. There are two types of station ary firemen licenses— for low and high pressure boilers. Low pres sure firemen operate low pressure boilers generally used for heat ing. High pressure firemen oper ate the more powerful high pres sure boilers and auxiliary boiler equipment used to power ma chinery and equipment in addi tion to heating buildings. Both high and low pressure operators, however, may operate equipment of any pressure class, provided a stationary engineer is on duty. Stationary firemen should un derstand the operation of ma chinery and must have normal vision and good hearing. (Be cause of the mechanization of equipment, physical strength is no longer a major requirement for this type of work.) Stationary firemen may ad vance to jobs as stationary engi neers. To become stationary en gineers, firemen sometimes sup plement their on-the-job training by taking courses in subjects such as practical chemistry; elemen tary physics; blueprint reading; applied electricity; and theory of refrigeration, air conditioning, ventilation, and heating. Station ary firemen also may advance to jobs as maintenance mechanics. E m ploym ent O utlook Employment of stationary fire men is expected to decline mod erately through the 1970’s. Many hundreds of openings for new workers, however, will result each year from the need to replace workers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Although an increase in the use of stationary boilers and auxili- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 558 ary equipment is expected dur ing the next 10 to 15 years, the trend to automatic, more power ful, and more centralized equip ment is expected to result in a decline in employment of station ary firemen. In large plants, how ever, where turbines and engines are housed under a separate roof and where there is a need for con stant surveillance of boilers, fire men will continue to be needed. Earnings and W orking Conditions In 1967, stationary firemen in manufacturing plants located in 85 metropolitan areas across the country had average straighttime hourly earnings of $2.90. Average hourly earnings in these areas ranged from about $1.71 in Little Rock, Ark., to $3.68 in Detroit, Mich. Most stationary firemen, even under the most favorable condi tions, are at times exposed to noise, high temperatures, dirt, dust, contact with oil and grease, odors and fumes from oil, gas, coal, or smoke. In repair or maintenance work, these workers may have to crawl inside a boiler and work in a crouching or kneel ing position. Stationary firemen are subject to bums, falls, and injury from moving machinery. Boilers and auxiliary equipment that are not operated correctly, or are defec tive, may be dangerous to these workers and to other persons in the work vicinity. However, mod ern equipment and safety pro cedures have reduced accidents considerably in recent years. Many stationary firemen are employed in plants that have la bor-management contracts, most of which provide benefits that may include paid holidays and vacations, hospitalization, medi cal and surgical insurance, sick ness and accident insurance, and retirement pensions. Among the unions to which these workers belong are the International Brotherhood of Firemen and Oil ers and the International Union of Operating Engineers. WASTE WATER TREATMENT P U N T OPERATORS (SEWAGE-PUNT OPERATOR) (D.O.T. 955.782) N ature of the W ork Clean water is essential for the health and recreational enjoy ment of the population and for the existence of fish and other wildlife. Waste water treatment plant operators work to secure America’s water resources by eliminating water p o l l u t i o n through the removal of domestic and industrial waste from water. Domestic and industrial waste is carried by water through sew ers and arrives at treatment plants in a diluted state. Where storm sewers flow through waste water treatment plants, nonorganic matter in the form of sticks, boards, sand, rags, and grit also is present. The primary task of waste water treatment plant operators is to supervise the op eration and control of equipment and facilities designed to remove these materials or render them harmless to human, animal, and fish life. Operators test and cor rect the level of chlorine and oxygen in the water to assure maximum efficiency in the elimi nation of harmful bacteria that is responsible for most water pol lution. Operators also must pre vent the concentration of sludge (solid waste) at the bottom of water treatment tanks (sedimen tation tanks). By operating pumps and opening and closing valves that connect a system of pipes to the sedimentation tanks, operators remove excess sludge. Operators perform routine tasks according to a regular schedule. These routine tasks in clude reading meters and gages and entering the information on log sheets. For example, an op erator may monitor meters that record the volume of flow of waste water (sewage) into a plant or he may read gages that measure the level of water in a well and provide information needed to ascertain normal pump action. Other tasks may include operating screening devices for removing sand, gravel, and larger objects; making minor repairs on valves, pumps, and other equip ment; opening and closing of valves; and sampling waste water at various stages of treatment for laboratory analysis. Operators also may paint pipes and equip ment and hose down walls and tanks to breakup scum and sludge. In the performance of their duties, operators may be required to use wrenches, pliers, hammers, and other hand tools. Operators occasionally must work under emergency conditions — for example, a pump may breakdown due to a violent storm and suddenly increase the flow of sewage and storm water into a plant. Under these circum stances, an operator may have to make emergency repairs or, at the very least, be able to locate the source of trouble, disengage the defective mechanism, and re port the malfunction to a fore man or supervisor. The range of duties of an op erator depend largely on the size of the treatment plant. In smaller plants, the operator may have sole responsibility for the entire system, including making repairs on equipment, filling out forms, SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS 559 to work under the direction of an operator. They learn by helping in routine tasks, such as record ing meter readings; taking sam ples of waste water and sludge; and doing simple maintenance and repair work on pumps, elec tric motors, valves, and pipes. They also are expected to per form housekeeping tasks such as cleaning and maintaining plant equipment and property. Young people who are inter ested in obtaining an entry posi tion in the field should have some mechanical aptitude and be able to perform simple arithmetic calculations. Most municipalities accept men with less than a high school education, however, in a number of large municipalities— particularly those having formal civil service structures— appli cants generally must have a high school diploma or its equivalent. Some treatment operators, par ticularly in larger municipalities, are covered by civil service regu lations, and applicants may be required to pass written exami nations covering elementary Waste water treatment plant operator enters readings on record sheet. mathematics, mechanical apti and handling complaints, as well plants, and 20,000 were employed tude, and general intelligence. as patrolling and housekeeping in municipal plants throughout Operators must be agile, since they have to be able to climb up duties such as cleaning the plant the Nation. The geographical distribution and down ladders and move easily and cutting grass. Since many small plants are semiautomatic, of treatment plants parallels the around heavy machinery and frequently a single or part-time population pattern of the United equipment. Most State water pollution operator only is required. In States. About one-half of all larger plants, the staff may in waste water treatment plant op control agencies offer some short clude helpers, foremen, and chief erators worked in the following term course training to improve operators. The responsibilities of 8 states: California, New York, the skills of water treatment these workers range from those Illinois, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tex plant operators. These courses of helpers, who perform primar as, Florida, and New Jersey. cover subjects such as principles of digestion, odors and their con ily housekeeping duties, to those trol, chlorination, sedimentation, of chief operators who supervise Train in g , O ther Q ualifications, biological oxidation, and flow the entire operation. and A dvancem ent measurements. In some cases, op erators take advantage of corre Places of Em ploym ent Entry jobs generally do not spondence courses on subjects re There were approximately 23,- require specific training, and lated to waste water treatment. 500 waste water treatment plant most operators learn their skills Some large municipalities will operators in 1968— about 3,500 through informal on-the-job ex pay part of the tuition for courses of these operators worked in in perience. New workers usually leading to a college degree in sci dustrial waste liquid treatment start as helpers and are assigned ence or engineering. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 560 Operators having experience and on-the-job training may be promoted to levels of more re sponsibility such as foremen and chief operators. The extent of educational and on-the-job ex perience required for advance ment varies considerably, de pending primarily on the size of the waste water treatment plant. Chief operators of large and com plex plants, for example, may be expected to have a bachelor’s degree in science or engineering. On the other hand, a high school diploma or its equivalent, and successively responsible experi ence is usually sufficient to quali fy as chief operator of a small or medium-sized plant. A limited number of operators may become technicians employed by local or State water pollution control agencies or consulting engineers. These technicians are employed in a variety of tasks, including the collection and preparation of water and biological samples for laboratory examinations. Some technical-vocational school or junior college training is gener ally preferred for technician jobs. All but 5 of the 50 States have certification programs that issue qualification standards for oper ators. By certifying operators on the basis of demonstrated profi ciency, these programs are de signed to improve treatment plant operations and raise em ployee stature. Sixteen States (Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, M a r y l a n d , Michigan, Montana, New Hamp shire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, Texas, West Virginia, and Wisconsin) have adopted mandatory certification laws providing for the examina tion of operators and certifica tion of their competence to su pervise the operation of treat ment plants. In addition to re quiring the certification of super visory operators, these States en courage other operators to be come certified. Voluntary certi fication programs are in effect in 29 States, and municipalites in these States are urged to employ certified operators. Under a typical licensing pro gram, there are four classes of certification that relate as near ly as possible to corresponding classifications for waste water treatment plants. For example, to be certified a Class I operator (corresponding to a Class I plant serving a population of less than 2,000), an applicant may be re quired to demonstrate general knowledge of treatment opera tions by passing a written exami nation, be a high school graduate, and have completed 1 year of ac ceptable employment at a treat ment plant. Requirements for certification as a Class IV oper ator (corresponding to a Class IV plant-serving a population in excess of 40,000) may be a col lege degree or completion of 2 years of college in science or en gineering; 5 years of treatment plant experience at a Class III plant or higher, 2 years of which were in a position of major re sponsibility; and specific knowl edge of the entire field of waste water treatment as demonstrated through a written examination. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment of operators is expected to rise rapidly through the 1970’s, mainly as a result of the construction of new treat ment plants to manage the in creasing amount of domestic and industry waste water. Employ ment growth also should result from expansion of existing plants to include secondary treatment operators to cope more effective ly with water pollution. In addi tion to the new jobs that will result from growth, approximate ly 1,100 job openings are ex pected each year due to death and retirement of experienced workers. The construction of larger and more complex municipal and in dustrial treatment plants and the consolidation of smaller plants is expected to increase through the 1970’s. In 1968, about 4 out of 5 communities having sewer systems had waste water treat ment plants. By 1980, it is ex pected that almost all communi ties will provide for the treat ment of waste water. A larger proportion of small plants are expected to use full-time oper ators as a result of increases in the quantity of waste water from population and industrial growth. Earnings and W orking Conditions Earnings of operators in small plants ranged from $3,600 to $8,500 per year in 1968; in large treatment plants earnings were higher. Foremen earned up to $9,000 per year and chief oper ators as much as $14,000. Sala ries for trainees were roughly 80 percent of the operators’ salaries in most cities. These data reflect information collected from a number of municipalities in vari ous parts of the United States. Fringe benefits provided for plant operators usually are similar to those received by other municipal civil service employees. Many operators receive paid va cations and holidays, overtime, shift differential pay, sick leave, paid life insurance, paid hospi talization, and retirement bene fits. Because pollution control is a continuous operation, operators work in different shifts and in event of an emergency may have to work overtime. When working outdoors, operators are exposed to all kinds of weather. Operators 561 SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS also may be exposed to unpleas ant odors and toxic conditions, dust, and fumes in the atmo sphere, as well as noise from the operation of electrical motors, pumps, and gas engines. How ever, odor is kept to a minimum by the use of chlorine. Many plants are modern buildings that have good lighting, clean wash rooms equipped with showers, and a room set aside for the com fort of the operator. The site is usually landscaped with well groomed lawns and shrubbery. For the most part, the pipes and sludge digestion tanks are be neath the ground or covered. Young people interested in a career in water treatment should contact their local or State water pollution control agencies. Addi tional information may be ob tained from: Water Pollution Control Federa tion, 3900 Wisconsin Ave., NW., Washington, D.C. 20016 Office of Manpower and Training Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Department of the Interior, 633 Indiana Ave., NW., Washington, D.C. 20242. other products are joined by this process. Structural metal used in the construction of bridges, build ings, storage tanks, and other structures is often welded. Weld ing also is used widely to repair broken metal parts. Welding is a method of joining pieces of metal by applying heat, pressure, or both, with or with out filler metal, to produce a permanent bond. Although there are more than 40 different weld ing processses, most of the proc esses fall under three basic cate gories: arc, gas, and resistance welding. Arc and gas welding can be performed manually or by ma chine. Resistance welding is mainly a machine process. Closely related to welding is oxygen and arc cutting (often re ferred to as flame cutting). Oxy gen and arc cutters cut or trim metal objects to a desired size or shape. They also remove excess metal from castings and cut scrap metal into pieces of manageable size. Most manual welding is done by arc welders, gas welders, and combination welders who do both arc and gas welding. Manual welders may be either skilled or semiskilled. The skilled, all-round manual welder is able to plan and lay out work from drawings, blueprints, or other written speci fications. He has a knowledge of the welding properties of steel, stainless steel, cast iron, bronze, aluminum, nickel, and other met als and alloys with which he may be required to work. He also is able to determine the proper se quence of work operations for each job and to weld all types of joints held in various positions (flat, vertical, horizontal, and overhead). The semiskilled man ual welder usually performs re petitive work; that is, production work which, more often than not, does not involve critical safety and strength requirements. The surfaces welded by him are pri marily in only one position. Consumer Protection and Envi ronmental Health Services, De partment of Health, Education, and Welfare, 200 C St., SW., Washington, D.C. 20204. WELDERS AND OXYGEN AND ARC CUTTERS (D.O.T. 810. through 819.887) N atu re of the W ork Welding is one of the most common and dependable methods of joining metal parts. Many of the parts used in the manufacture of automobiles, missiles and spacecrafts, airplanes, household appliances, and thousands of Welder strikes arc with electrode. 562 The principal duty of the weld er using the manual technique is to control the melting of the metal edges by directing heat to the edges, either from an electric arc or from a gas-welding torch, and to add filler metal where necessary to complete the joint. In one of the most commonly used manual arc welding proc esses, the welder obtains a suit able electrode and adjusts the electric current. The welder first “ strikes” an arc (creates an elec tric circuit) by touching the metal with the electrode. After the arc is made, the welder guides the electrode at a suitable dis tance from the edges to be weld ed. The intense heat caused by the arc melts the edges and the electrode tip. The molten metal from the electrode is deposited in the joint and, with the molten metal edges, solidifies to form a solid connection. During the past two decades, there has been a considerable increase in the use of arc-welding processes that employ inert gas for shielding the weld area. This type of welding was developed for joining hardto-weld metals, such as alumi num, magnesium, stainless steel, and titanium, and is now usable with plain carbon steel. Many welders now specialize in this process. In the late 1950’s, the semiau tomatic C 0 2 gas shielded welding processes were developed. These processes feed a continuous elec trode wire into the arc and the gun may be guided by the oper ator or may be fully automated. The fine wire C 0 2 process has almost no spatter or slag and is an all position method. The large wire C 0 2 process has a high de position rate and is very good for fully automatic applications. In addition, the flux cored arc weld ing procedure has the double ad vantage of special flux com pounds in the center of the wire OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK and also the C 0 2 gas shielding. Flux cored wire is also available which requires no external shield ing gas. All the necessary fluxing ingredients are contained inside the center core. Before consider ing himself up-to-date, a welder should be able to use the semi automatic welding processes. In gas welding, the welder uses a gas welding torch to apply an intensely hot flame (obtained from the combustion of a mixture of fuel gas— most commonly acetylene and oxygen) to the metal edges. After the welder ob tains the proper types of welding rods and welding torch tips and adjusts the regulators on the oxygen and acetylene cylinders, he lights his welding torch. He then adjusts the oxygen and acetylene valves on the torch to obtain the proper size and qual ity of flame. The kind of flame selected depends on the type of metal to be joined and the type of joint to be made. The welder heats the metal by directing the flame against the metal until it begins to melt. He then applies the welding rod to the molten metal to supply additional metal for the weld. In production processes, es pecially where the work is re petitive and the items to be welded are relatively uniform, the welding may be done by semi skilled workers who operate welding machines. In resistance welding, the most common type of machine welding, resistance welding operators (D.O.T. 813.885) feed and aline the work and remove it after the welding oper ation is completed. Occasionally, they may adjust the controls of the machine for the desired elec tric current and pressure. Workers other than welders frequently use welding in their work. In the construction indus try, for example, the structural steel worker, plumber and pipe fitter, and sheet-metal worker may at times do manual arc and gas welding. Also, maintenance and repair work provide many welding opportunities for other metalworking and related occu pations. (See Index for individ ual statements on these occupa tions.) Semiskilled oxygen cutters (D.O.T. 816.782 and .884) and arc cutters (D.O.T. 816.884), sometimes called flame or ther mal cutters, usually use handguided torches to cut or trim metals. In the oxygen-cutting process, for example, the oxygen cutter directs a flame of fuel gas burning with oxygen on the area to be cut until the metal begins to melt. He then releases an addi tional stream of oxygen which cuts the metal. The oxygen cut ter prepares for the cutting job by attaching the proper torch tip for the particular job, connecting the torch to the gas and oxygen hoses, and regulating the flow of gases into the torch for the de sired cutting flame. He then cuts through the metal, manually guiding the torch along previous ly marked lines or following a pattern. He may mark guidelines on the metal by following blue prints or other instructions. Arc cutting differs from oxygen cut ting because an electric arc is used as the source of heat. How ever, as in oxygen cutting, an additional stream of gas may be released in cutting the metal. An arc with a hollow electrode through which oxygen passes is used in underwater cutting. Other special forms of the arc, such as the plasma arc, are used for cutting ferrous and nonferrous metals. Oxygen and arc cutters also may operate a torch or torches mounted on an electrically or mechanically controlled machine SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS which by electrical or mechanical control automatically follows the proper guideline. Places of Em ploym ent In 1968, an estimated 480,000 welders and oxygen and arc cut ters were employed throughout the country. About 360,000 of these workers were employed in manufacturing industries. Their main employers were firms manu facturing durable goods, such as transportation equipment, fabri cated metal products, machinery, primary metals, and electrical machinery. Of the approximately 120,000 welders and cutters em ployed in other industries, the greatest number were found in construction firms and establish ments performing miscellaneous repair services; the remainder were widely scattered among other nonmanufacturing indus tries. The widespread use of the welding and cutting processes in industry enables welders and cut ters to find jobs in every State. Most of these jobs, however, are found in the major metalworking areas. Slightly more than 50 per cent of the jobs were concen trated in seven States— Pennsyl vania, California, Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, Texas, and New York. Large numbers of welders and cutters are employed in Detroit, Chicago, Philadelphia, Los An geles, and other important metal working centers. T rain in g , O th er Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Generally, it takes several years of training to become a skilled manual arc or gas welder, and somewhat longer to become a combination welder (an in dividual skilled in both arc and gas welding). Some skilled jobs may require a knowledge of blue print reading, welding symbols, metal properties, and electricity. Some of the less skilled jobs, how ever, can be learned after a few months of on-the-job training. Training requirements for the resistance-welding machine oper ator’s job depend upon the par ticular type of equipment used; most of these operators learn their work in a few weeks. Little skill is required for most oxygen and arc-cutting jobs; generally, they can be learned in a few weeks of on-the-job training. However, the cutting of some of the newer alloys requires a knowledge of the properties of metals as well as greater skill in cutting. Welding and oxygen- and arc cutting work require manual dex terity, a steady hand, good eyehand coordination, and good eye sight. For entry in manual weld ing jobs, most employers prefer to hire young men who have high school or vocational school train ing in welding methods. Courses in mathematics, physics, me chanical drawing, and blueprint reading also are valuable. A formal apprenticeship gen erally is not required for manual welders. However, a few large companies (for example, automo bile manufacturers) offer appren ticeship programs that run as long as 8,000 hours for the weld ing occupations. Also, the U.S. Department of the Navy, at sev eral of its installations, conducts 4-year welding apprenticeship programs for its civilian em ployees. Programs to train unemployed and underemployed workers for entry level welding jobs or to up grade welding skill requirements 563 have been operating in many cit ies throughout the United States since 1962, under the provisions of the Manpower Development and Training Act. The training, which may be in the classroom or on-the-job and last from several weeks up to 1 year, stresses the fundamentals of welding. Addi tional work experience and fur ther on-the-job training may qualify graduates of M D TA pro jects as skilled welders in a rela tively short time. Young persons entering the welding trade often start in sim ple manual welding production jobs where the type and thickness of metal, as well as the position of the welding operation, rarely change. Occasionally, they are first given jobs as oxygen or arc cutters; they later move into manual welding jobs. Some large companies employ general help ers in maintenance jobs who, if they show promise, may be given opportunities to become welders by serving as helpers to experi enced welders and learning the skills of the trade on the job. Before being assigned to work where the strength of the weld is a highly critical factor, welders may be required to pass a quali fying examination. The test may be given by an employer, a mu nicipal agency, a private agency designated by local government inspection authorities, or a naval facility. Certification tests also are given to welders on some con struction jobs or to those who may be engaged in the fabrica tion or repair of steam or other pressure vessels where critical safety factors are involved. In ad dition to certification, some lo calities require welders to obtain a license before they can do cer tain tvnes of outside construction work. New develonments in some manufacturing industries are in- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 564 creasing the skill requirements of welders. This is particularly true in fields such as atomic energy or missile manufacture, which have high standards for the re liability of welds and require more precise work. After 2 years’ training at a vo cational school or technical insti tute, the skilled welder may qualify as a welding technician. Generally, workers in this small but growing occupation interpret the engineers’ plans and instruc tions. Occasionally, welders may be promoted to jobs as inspectors, where they check welds for gen eral conformance with specifica tions and for quality of workman ship. Welders also may become foremen who supervise the work of other welders. A small num ber of experienced welders estab lish their own welding and repair shops. E m ploym ent O utlook The number of welding jobs is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s as a result of the generally favorable longrun outlook for metalworking indus tries and the wider use of the welding process. In addition to jobs created by employment growth, about 7,000 job openings will occur each year because of vacancies resulting- from retire ments and deaths. Opportunities also will result as some welders transfer to other lines of work. Many more manual welders will be needed for maintenance and repair work in the growing metalworking industries. The number of manual welders en gaged in production work is ex pected to increase in plants man ufacturing structural-metal prod ucts, such as metal doors, boilers, storage tanks, and sheet-metal Welder operates CO 2 gas shielded welding equipment. products. The construction in dustry will need an increasing number of welders as the use of welded steel structure expands. Employment prospects for re sistance welders are expected to continue to be favorable because of the increased use of the ma chine resistance-welding process in activities such as the manufac ture of motor vehicles, aircraft and missiles, and the production of light, streamlined railroad cars. The use of faster and more high ly automatic welding machines, however, will slow down the growth in the number of these welders. The number of jobs for oxygen and arc cutters is expected to rise somewhat during the years ahead as the result of the general ex pansion of metalworking activity. The increased use of oxygen- and arc-cutting machines, however, will tend to restrict the growth of this occupation. Earnings and W orking Conditions The earnings a welder can ex pect depend to a great extent on the skill requirements of his job and on the industry or activity in which he is employed. Earnings SOME OTHER MANUAL OCCUPATIONS of highly skilled manual welders generally compare favorably with those of other skilled metalwork ing occupations. Machine weld ers, such as resistance welders, who require little training, gen erally earn less than skilled man ual welders. Average straight-time hourly earnings for skilled and semi skilled welders in machinery man ufacturing industries in 21 cities and metropolitan areas in late1968 appear in the accompanying tabulation. In about three-fourths of the cities, average hourly earn ings for skilled welders were $3.50 or more. Welders who are cov ered by union contracts may earn considerably more than these average earnings. City Rate per hour Skilled Semiskilled welder welder Baltimore ................ $3.50 Boston ...................... 3.21 Buffalo .................... 3.64 Chicago .................... 3.75 Cleveland ................ 3.39 Dallas ...................... 2.98 Denver...................... 3.43 Detroit...................... 3.92 Hartford-New Britain-Bristol ..... 3.74 Houston .................. 3.54 Los Angeles-Long Beach and Anaheim-Santa 3.63 Ana-Garden Grove 3.70 Milwaukee .............. 3.44 Minneapolis-St. Paul Newark and Jersey City .......... 3.72 New York................ 3.69 Philadelphia .......... 3.55 Pittsburgh................ 3.57 Portland .................. 3.99 St. Louis .................. 3.98 San FranciscoOakland................ 4.17 Worcester ................ 3.55 $3.00 3.25 3.81 3.38 2.59 3.11 3.43 2.88 3.04 3.08 3.51 3.01 3.34 2.74 3.15 2.97 3.50 3.24 Many welders and cutters are union members. Among the labor organizations which i n c l u d e welders and cutters in their mem bership are the International As sociation of Machinists and Aero space Workers; the International Brotherhood of Boilermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Helpers; the Inter national Union, United Automo bile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America; the United Assocation of Jour neymen and Apprentices of the Plumbing and Pipe Fitting In dustry of the United States and Canada; and the United Electri cal, Radio and Machine Workers of America (Ind.). Only one la bor organization— the Interna tional Union, United Weldors (Ind.), is known to be composed entirely of welders, employed largely in the aircraft industry on the west coast. Labor-management contracts covering welders and oxygen and arc cutters provide employees with benefit programs which may include paid holidays and vaca tions, hospitalization, medical and surgical insurance, life insur ance, sickness and accident in surance, and retirement pensions. Safety precautions and protec tive devices are extremely impor tant for welders because of the many hazards associated with welding. Welders and cutters use protective clothing, goggles, hel mets with protective lenses, and other devices to prevent burns and eye injuries. Although light ing and ventilation are usually adequate, welders occasionally work in the presence of toxic gases and fumes generated by the melting of some metals. Welders are often in contact with rust, grease, paint, and other elements found on the surface of the metal parts to be welded. Operators of resistance-welding machines are 565 largely free from the hazards as sociated with hand welding. A clear eyeshield or clear goggles generally offer adequate protec tion to these operators. Sources of A dditional Inform ation For further information re garding work opportunities for welders, inquiries should be di rected to local employers or the local office of the State employ ment service. The State employ ment service also may be a source of information about the Manpow er Development and Training Act, apprenticeship, and other programs that provide training opportunities. General informa tion about welders may be ob tained from: The American Welding Society, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017. International Brotherhood of Boil ermakers, Iron Shipbuilders, Blacksmiths, Forgers and Help ers, 8th at State Ave., Kansas City, Kans. 66101. International Association of Ma chinists and Aerospace Workers, 1300 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. International Union, United Auto mobile, Aerospace and Agricul tural Implement Workers of America, 8000 East Jefferson Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48214. United Association of Journeymen and Apprentices of the Plumb ing and Pipe Fitting Industry of the United States and Canada, 901 Massachusetts Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20001. State Supervisor of Trade and In dustrial Education or the local Director of Vocational Educa tion in the State or city in which a person wishes to receive train ing. SOME MAJOR INDUSTRIES AND THEIR OCCUPATIONS AGRICULTURE The United States is in the midst of an agricultural revolu tion that is having a tremendous impact on the employment out look in agriculture. In brief, fewer and fewer farm ers are producing more and more of America’s farm products. Em ployment on U.S. farms has de clined from 9.9 million in 1950 to 4.9 million in 1967. Agricul tural economists predict that by 1980, U.S. farms will employ only 3 million to 3 ^ million persons. The reason is simply that each farmer today can produce far more than his predecessors. A modern corn farmer, for instance, will use 6-row or 8-row field equipment, including tractors, costing a total of about $20,000, trucks and field implements cost ing about $15,000; a self-pro pelled combine harvester worth $15,000, and grain drying equip ment valued at about $15,000. To make this high-capacity equipment profitable, he may need to grow 600 to 1,000 acres of corn. His father, using 2-row equipment, probably earned a good living from 320 acres. His grandfather, using horsedrawn equipment, could work only about 120 acres. There has been a vast reduc tion in the man-hours needed to produce most of the major farm commodities. It used to take 135 man-hours to produce 100 bush els of corn in 1910; today it takes 9. Man-hours needed to produce 100 bushels of wheat dropped from 106 to 11 in the same pe riod. It took 31 hours to produce 100 pounds of turkey in 1910 but takes only 1.6 today. O P P O R T U N IT IE S O N F A R M S Since the demand for farm products is growing much more slowly than productivity, the number of opportunities in farm ing declining steadily. The county that once had 1,000 320-acre farms now may have only 500 640-acre farms. Tomorrow, with ever-larger and faster machinery, there will be even fewer farms and farmers. The increasing productivity of our farmers has been a boon to consumers and the nonfarm econ omy— but today farmers find themselves in an industry that requires ever-larger farms, more investment, and better manage ment to stay in business. Management is the key to suc cess in modern farming. Today’s farmer needs a much higher level of knowledge and skills than his predecessor. For example, the dairy farmer used to feed each cow an amount of grain based on the amount of milk she had pro duced the previous day or week. The modern dairyman feeds his cows on the basis of their po tential— “ p u s h in g ” p o te n tia l high-performance cows to their limits, cutting back on expensive feed for cows that already have peaked out. Figuring the poten tial is a much more difficult tech nique than weighing milk. Similar management problems face the modem farmer in most areas— which is why college training is becoming the rule rather than the exception for the young commercial farmer. It gives him the technical basis he needs to keep up with research and technology and to apply them intelligently on his own farm. Biology, engineering, soil science, and agronomy— not to mention economics and account 570 ing— are part of the necessary kit of tools for a successful farm er today. Capital requirements are an other barrier the beginning farm er must overcome. The average commercial farm in 1967 had 550 acres, with a value of more than $100,000 in land and buildings alone. Regionally, the value of commercial farms vary from an average of $46,000 in Appalachia to nearly $300,000 in the Pacific region. For the person who has the training, the capital, and the management ability, the modern farm can offer much higher in comes than the old-style farm ever did. About 180,000 farms in the United States sold $4,000 worth of farm products or more during 1967. These large farms averaged $23,754 in net income. Another 320,000 farms sold an average of $20,000 to $39,999 worth of farm products in 1967. These medium sized farms averaged $9,792 in net income. Together, these two groups make up nearly 16 percent of U.S. farms and accounted for nearly 68 percent of U.S. farm sales in 1967. These two groups represent the expanding sector of U.S. agriculture. Although an additional one-half million farms had gross sales of $10,000 to $19,999 in 1967, these farms averaged only $6,266 in net income. Most of these farmers would need to expand their op erations or supplement their incomes with off-farm work to equal the income they could get in some other type of employ ment. Agriculture still offers challeng ing and rewarding careers, with larger incomes and better living conditions than it used to— but it offers them to fewer and fewer people. Many people, of course, prefer living in the country, and modem transportation and communica tions, public services, and house hold and farming appliances have eliminated most of the disadvan tages that attended rural living a generation or two ago. Although the number of oppor tunities in farming is shrinking, the number of jobs in farm-re lated industries is not. There are many industries that supply products and services to the farmer and which handle market ing activities for farm products. They have a continuing need for young people who have a farming background— plus training for their specialized functions. Train in g O pp ortun ities Available fo r Farm ing A good initial background in farming is obtained by growing up on a farm. Necessary experi ence also may be gained by work ing as a closely supervised tenant or hired worker on a successful farm. College training in agricul ture and in agricultural business management are of substantial value to the modem farmer. Several types of vocational training are available under fed erally assisted programs of vo cational education. Training is offered in the following ways: 1. High school courses in agriculture are taught by teach ers who are agricultural college graduates. 2. Short courses for young farmers at schools of agriculture, including intensive training in farm planning, farm structures, construction, welding and related shop and repair work, as well as construction in crop production, OPPORTUNITIES ON FARMS The most significant general livestock feeding and manage ment, record keeping, and other sources of information and guid ance available to farmers are the aspects of farming. 3. Adult farmer programs in services provided by the landevening classes (or day classes in grant colleges and universities off-seasons) providing intensive and the U. S. Department of instruction in subjects such as Agriculture. These services in research, publications, land and soil management, crop clude and livestock production, new teaching, and extension work. technology and equipment, and The county agricultural agent is often the best contact for the financial management. 571 young person seeking advice and assistance in farming. The Farm ers Home Administration system of supervised credit is one ex ample of credit facilties combined with a form of extension teach ing. Organized groups, such as the Future Farmers of America and the 4-H Clubs, also furnish valuable training to young farm people. O P P O R T U N IT IE S O N S P E C I F I C T Y P E S O F FARM S Although the number of farms and farm jobs are decreasing, de sirable and rewarding opportuni ties occur from time to time. The decision to enter farming may be made simply because an opening exists on the family farm or on a farm nearby. To be successful, a young man should appraise carefully the requirements in spe cific types of farm operations, and the prospects for success in them, taking into consideration his aptitude, interests, prefer ences, experience, knowledge, and skills in directing labor and handling livestock and machin ery. He also must consider his family labor supply and his fi nancial resources, as the labor and capital requirements for an oper ation of adequate size vary widely from one type of farm to another. A realistic decision to go into farming can be made only in terms of a particular area or com munity. This section evaluates from an occupational standpoint some of the more common farm types. The accompanying table gives illustrative data on size of farm, labor and capital require ments, and net farm incomes re ceived by operators of typical or representative farms in various parts of the country. Many farms are larger than these and offer more return than is shown here. Some are smaller and offer the operator little income or oppor tunity to improve his status with out major changes. On most of the farms, the major part of the work is done by the farm oper ator and his family. Whereas, some of the smaller farms hire workers only during the peak la bor season, large ones often use hired labor the whole year. The figures in the table on capital invested mean that the operator controls or uses re sources valued at that amount. Many farmers supplement their own capital with borrowed funds; others rent part or all of the land they use, thus allowing more of their funds for the purchase of livestock, feed, machinery, and equipment. Still others have partners who provide most of the working capital. For example, many farmers who raise broilers are in partnership with a feed dealer. No brief general statement can be made about specialization versus diversification in farm op erations that would apply in all parts of the country. The general trend is for more specialized farm ing. Farms that produced many products a generation ago now may produce only two or three. Efficient production of most farm products requires a substan tial investment in specialized equipment. If the farm operator is to receive the full benefit from his investment, he must produce on a large scale. Two other fac tors contributing to specialization are the increased emphasis on quality of farm products, and the greater knowledge and skill re quired for effective production. Few farmers, however, find it ad vantageous to produce only one product. The main reasons for producing more than one product are the desirability of spreading price and production risks, the more effective use of labor (par ticularly family labor), and the fuller utilization of other re sources than can be realized in a one-product system. Dairy Farm s Dairy farms are located in most parts of the country. D e spite modern methods of process ing and transporting milk, pro duction is still concentrated near the large population centers par ticularly in the Northeast and the Great Lakes States. However, many areas in the Far West and the South are becoming large producers of dairy products. Many of the newer type large dairy farms are “ drylot” or barn operations with little or no pas ture land. However, on typical dairy farms in the Lake States, and to a lesser extent in the Northeast, crops are important, often requiring operators to hire or exchange later at harvest time. There is work every day through out the year on dairy farms, so that effective use can be made of labor, and a regular force can be occupied most of the time. Although most people do not like to be “ tied down” 7 days a week, this obstacle presents no great hardship for the man who enjoys working with cattle. Dairying is also a good choice for the man who likes to work with mechanical equipment. Dairy farmers who produce much of their own feed find variety in the many different jobs that must be done. The dairyman’s sales and in come are distributed evenly throughout the year. Moreover, the prices he receives are less sub ject to year-to-year fluctuations than are prices received by op erators in most other types of farming. The accompanying table shows the average net farm in come on dairy farms in the Cen tral Northeast and Eastern Wis consin from 1964 to 1966. Compared with farmers in most other areas, dairy farmers in the more concentrated milksheds of the Northeast (such as the dairy farms in the Central Northeast shown in the table) 573 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 574 generally have larger herds, pur chase a larger proportion of their feed, and buy rather than raise their herd replacements. In the most highly specialized produc ing area near Los Angeles, dairy farms are dry lot operations. They are quite small in acreage but large in milk production and number of cows milked. No crops are produced; these dairy oper ators buy their entire feed re quirements from outside the area. Most of the cows are bought at freshening time and are replaced when their lactation period is completed. Net farm income represents the return to the farm operator and his family for their labor and the capital invested in the farm business— provided the operator owns his land and is free from debt. If he rents part or all of his farm, not all of net farm income is available for family living; part of it must be used for rent. Sim ilarly, the farmer who is in debt must deduct interest costs and payments on the principal. Livestock Farm s and Ranches A general livestock farm is a good choice for the farmer who is interested and skilled in working with livestock and mechanical equipment. Many farmers prefer general livestock farms— such as the hog-fattening or beef-raising farms, and hog-beef fattening farms in the Corn Belt— be cause much the year they require fewer chores than dairy farms. (See table.) The timing of daily hog and beef cattle chores also is more flexible than the milk ing schedule on dairy farms. Practically all of the regular labor on most general livestock farms is provided by the operator and his family. During some seasons of the year, there is full-time or part-time work for several mem- Rancher shears sheep. bers of the family, but there are usually slack labor periods when there is time for leisure or non farm activities. The livestock farmer’s income is not as well distributed through out the year as the dairyman’s, and it is less likely to be uniform from year to year. Financial and management problems result, in creasing the risks of operation. Moreover, on farms of limited acreages— often found in the Eastern States— the level of in come from general livestock farming is usually lower than from a dairy herd on similar acre age. Most hog producers have their own breeding stock and raise the pigs they fatten for market. Some farmers who fatten cattle and sheep also raise their calves and lambs. But most of the cattle and sheep fattened and marketed by the livestock farmer are bred and raised originally by someone else — usually the livestock rancher of the West. The accompanying table includes data for five types of Western livestock operations: Northern Plains and Northern Rocky Mountain cattle ranches, sheep ranches in Utah and Ne vada, and sheep and cattle ranches in the Southwest. In these areas of low rainfall, the main source of feed is range grass, and several acres are re quired to support one animal. Except where irrigation is avail able, feed crops usually are not grown. Some ranchers, particu larly those in the Northern Plains, own only a small part of the land on which they graze their livestock. Most of the land on which they buy grazing rights is public. Large acreages are re quired to provide enough pasture for their stock; ranchers spend much of their time in the saddle, truck, or jeep managing their herds. Poultry Farm s One-third of the farmers in the United States raise some poultry, but in 1964, fewer than 3 percent were classified as poultry farm ers. Many poultry farms concen trate on egg production. Most of the larger and more specialized of these farms are in the North east and in California; others produce broilers. Many highly concentrated centers of broiler production are east of the Mississppi River, and a few are on the West Coast. Turkey produc ers also are specialized. A con centration of specialized produc ers of ducks is located in Suffolk County, Long Island, New York. A few poultrymen produce some crops for sale and purchase special poultry feeds and laying mash. Crops are not grown by most specialized poultry produc- OPPORTUNITIES ON SPECIFIC TYPES OF FARMS 575 Size of Farm, Labor Used, Capital Invested, and Net Farm Income on Commercial Farms, by Type, Size, and Location, 1964-66 Average Size of farm in 1966 as measured by — Type of farm and location Dairy farms: Central Northeast .................................. 34 milk cows ........................ Total labor used (hours) Capital invested in Land Machinery and and buildings equipment Livestock Crops Total Net farm income1 4,570 4,630 4,960 1,660 $26,900 44,460 37,100 14,220 $ 8,600 13,580 2,310 4,180 $ 9,500 11,810 7,370 700 $ 3,000 6,520 0 160 $48,000 76,370 46,780 19,260 5,004 3,138 3,022 1,383 289 acres of cropland ......... 3,570 4,140 2,400 52,830 94,550 159,950 7,390 11,460 16,150 7,970 17,600 370 3,600 12,880 360 71,790 136,490 176,830 6,773 13,089 14,155 501 acres of cropland ......... 22,750 3,620 269,330 82,600 45,940 11,000 7,500 680 1,830 310 324,600 94,590 34,554 8,554 15,913 Egg-producing farms, New Jersey .............. Broiler farms, Georgia .................................. Com Belt farms: Hog-beef raising ..................................... 5,300 layers ........................ 37,160 produced annually.... Cash g r a in ............................................... Cotton farms: Nonirrigated: High Plains, Texas ........................ Irrigated: High Plains, Texas ........................ Tobacco farms: North Carolina Coastal Plain .............. Kentucky bluegrass: 168 acres of cropland ......... 444 acres of cropland ......... 5,220 134,950 18,080 740 430 154,200 50 acres of cropland ........... 5,100 37,380 4,660 520 560 43,120 5,962 Tobacco-dairy, outer area ............ Pentiroval area, Kentucky-Tennessee: 44 acres of cropland ........... 4,250 4,800 100,130 38,140 5,570 6,490 7,550 4,710 2,300 1,990 115,550 51,330 8,232 5,991 Tobacco-dairy .................................. Wheat farms: 180 acres of cropland ......... 4,390 5,030 77,450 56,530 7,960 7,620 9,660 6,260 3,800 2,770 98,870 73,180 5,945 6,496 Wheat-fallow, Pacific Northwest ......... Cattle ranches: 1,114 acres of cropland ..... 2,780 3,150 3,850 55,150 103,830 156,600 10,490 10,210 20,530 4,370 8,250 4,690 1,650 2,710 1,200 71,660 125,000 183,020 9,993 10,113 16,711 303 c o w s ................................ 148 c o w s ................................ 4,560 6,660 3,690 57,160 187,580 157,530 7,930 15,400 5,710 25,170 57,790 28,390 3,560 9,190 2.050 93,820 269,960 193,680 7,064 13,857 4,916 2,420 sheep .......................... 1,278 sheep .......................... 11,300 5,230 124,420 208,450 11,810 5,280 61,440 23,000 2.050 970 199,720 237,700 13,869 8,281 Sheep ranches: Southwest................................................. 1 The information presented here is on an owner-operated basis, primarily for comparability between types of farms. Net farm income is the return to operator and unpaid members of the family for their labor and management on the farm and return to total capital. No ers, particularly those who pro duce broilers or large laying flocks. Commercial poultry farm ers in New Jersey, for example, buy all their feed. The typical broiler producer in Maine, the Delmarva (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia) peninsula, and Georgia devotes almost all of his capital and labor to the production of broilers. Poultry farming requires spe cialized skill in handling birds, chiefly on the part of the oper ator. Bulk handling of feed and mechanical feeding is widespread and requires little p h y s i c a l strength. For these reasons, poul try farms can use available fam ily help. Data on average capital invest ment and net farm income for representative egg producers in New Jersey and broiler operators in Georgia from 1964 to 1966 are allowances has been made for payment of rent, interest, or mortgage. N ote. Prepared in the Farm Production Economics Division, Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. given in the table. These averages do not reveal the sharp year-toyear fluctuations in income that occur. Because they have a high proportion of cash costs and a thin margin of profit, relatively small changes in prices of feed, broilers, and eggs can produce sizable fluctuations in net farm income. The incomes of most broiler producers, however, are fairly stable because they produce “ un der contract.” Contract produc tion is more widespread in broiler production that in any other ma jor type of farming. Under these arrangements, the financing agen cy (usually a feed dealer) furn ishes the feed, chicks, and techni cal supervision— almost every thing except the buildings, equip ment, and direct production labor. The grower receives a stipulated amount per 1,000 birds marketed, and often a bonus for superior efficiency. Many turkey produc ers operate under similar con tracts, but these arrangements are not nearly so universal for the production of turkeys as for broilers. Corn and W heat Farm s For the man who likes working with crops and farm machinery, cash grain farming (growing soy beans, corn or wheat) has much to offer. Many people dislike be ing tied down with daily respon sibilities the year around such as with livestock chores. They prefer, instead to work long days with large laborsaving equipment during the busy seasons, such as in soil preparation, planting, and harvesting, and then having some free time in slack periods. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 576 The table shows the invest ment required and the recent in come experience of some repre sentative cash grain farms. Farms of this type include cash grain farms in the Corn Belt, spring wheat farms in the Northern Plains, winter wheat farms in the Southern Plains, and wheat-pea and wheat-fallow farms in the Pacific Northwest. Some of these farms— particularly in the North ern Plains— raise some beef cat tle for sale as feeders, and a small number keep a few milk cows. However, this livestock produc tion is usually of secondary im portance. Many of these cash crop farmers do not raise any livestock. Two of the main risks faced by the commercial wheat grower are unfavorable weather and low prices. However, crop insurance has reduced the risk of low yields, and Government price support programs have lessened the risk of low prices. Cotton, Tobacco, and Peanut Farm s In terms of numbers of farm ers, the production of cotton, to bacco, and peanuts makes up a large part of the agriculture in the Southeastern and South Cen tral States. These products are grown on farms that range from very small operating units to comparatively large ones. Market competition in these crops has been keen, and many growers have been forced to diversify and enlarge their farms— adjustments which require capital investment. Competition from cotton growers in the irrigated areas of the West and Southwest have forced many farmers in the Southeast to dis continue cotton production. Some of them have diversified their op erations, and others have found better opportunities in Southern Industrial expansion. Annual returns from these spe cialty farms usually vary greatly from year to year because of the vagaries of nature and the changes in prices. Operators of these farms who keep abreast of production and marketing con ditions are usually well rewarded for their ability to manage, pro duce, and market their products. Private Outdoor Recreation Farm s Farm worker harvests apricots. Crop Specialty Farm s Many farmers throughout the country have unique background, skills, resources, or other advan tages for particular kinds of farming chiefly because of their location, home training, or neigh borhood practices. They may spe cialize in the production of a sin gle crop— such as grapes, oranges, potatoes, sugarcane, or melons— or a combination of related spe cialty crops. Operators of these enterprises usually employ many seasonal workers and require relatively ex pensive specialized equipment. They need specific skills, many of which can be obtained only through experience. Enterprises of this kind should be under taken only by persons with con siderable experience and some of the special skills and techniques required. An individual having an aptitude for these skills usu ally can earn them by working a few years as a hired hand on such a specialty farm or as a tenant for a landlord who can give di rection and assistance. Public demand for outdoor rec reation is far in excess of the existing and projected supply of public facilities. The public sec tor is not flexible enough to sup ply the specialized types of rec reation or services demanded by smaller groups. The privately owned outdoor recreation enter prise, particularly the farm-base type, is in a unique position to supply these types of recreation services and activities to the public. The 1964 Census of Agricul ture reported over 3 million farms in the United States. Of this to tal, about 28,000 earned money from some type of recreation activity. Many farm operators in the vi cinity of national, State, and lo cal parks, or near wildlife reser vations have taken advantage of the location in establishing rec reation businesses. The average amount received from this ac tivity was about $1,500 per farm reporting. These farmers sell hunting or fishing rights to individuals, form hunting clubs, or establish pri vate campgrounds. They absorb the overflow from public camp grounds or cater to the individ uals who want more privacy in their camping. Vacation farms cater to family groups during the summer and allow hunting later in the year when children are in OPPORTUNITIES ON SPECIFIC TYPES OF FARMS school. Many farmers enlarge and improve their ponds or irrigation reservoirs. They stock ponds for fishing and have swimming areas in the summer and skating areas in the winter. Old farm buildings, sheds, and barns are converted into riding stables or horse board ing stables, or a combination of both. Shore and backwater areas are used to dock privately owned craft. In so doing, many farmers have converted a liability into an asset. Farmers become guides for hunters during the game sea son and mechanics and service engineers for watercraft. Guides are also in demand for nature trails and scenic tours. 577 vested and income, the venture is often rewarding to individuals who have the ability and the resources. O ther Specialties Other highly specialized oper ations, such as fur farms, apiar ies, greenhouses, nurseries, and flower farms, require special knowledge and skilled manage ment. Special skills and equip ment are required, and risks are high. Even with the high risk, from the standpoint of capital in Sources of A dditional Inform ation Additional information may be obtained from the U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250; the Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. 20230; and from State Land Grant Colleges and Universities. O C C U P A T IO N S R E L A T E D T O A G R IC U L T U R E an increasing number of area agents who work on specialized problems in several counties. T rain in g and O ther Q ualifications Because of the increased scale and complexity of modern farm ing, farmers are buying a greater range and volume of production inputs and services from off-farm sources. Thus, larger numbers of people are needed in occupations related to agriculture. These oc cupations are many and diverse and offer a wide range of choice to the person who is interested in agriculture but does not have the opportuity, resources, or de sire to enter agriculture directly. The salary range in occupations related to agriculture vary wide ly, depending on education, ex perience and type of job. Salaries of $10,000 a year or more are not uncommon. The professional and technical vocations usually re quire college training; however, other vocations may be learned on the job. Some of these occupa tions are discussed below. COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE WORKERS (D.O.T. 096.128) N ature of the W ork Extension Service workers are engaged in educational work in agriculture, home economics, youth activities, and community resource development. They are employed jointly by State landgrant universities and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Ex tension workers must be profi cient in both subject matter and teaching methods. County Agricultural agents are interested in improving the efficiency of agricultural produc tion and marketing, including the development of new market out lets. County home economics agents work closely with women in home management, nutrition, and other phases of family living. There are 4-H extension agents who work with youth. In some counties, special agents concen trate on community resource de velopment. Extension workers help people analyze and solve their farm and home problems and aid in com munity improvement. Much of this educational work is carried on in groups, through meetings, tours, demonstrations, and local voluntary leaders. Individual as sistance is given on problems that cannot be solved satisfactorily by group methods. Extension work ers rely heavily on mass com munication media such as news papers, radio, and television. The county extension staff is supported by State extension specialists in s u b j e c t-m a 11 e r fields such as agronomy, live stock, marketing, agricultural economics, home economics, hor ticulture, and entomology. Each of these specialists keeps abreast of the latest research in his par ticular field and works with agents in applying this informa tion to local needs and problems. Places of Em ploym ent Extension agents are located in nearly every county in the United States. Counties having many farmers who produce a variety of crops may have as many as 10 agents or more, each specializ ing in a particular field such as dairying, poultry production, crop production, or livestock. There is Extension agents must have a bachelor’s degree in agriculture, home economics, sociology, or other training that equips them for the particular type of audi ences with whom they work. In most States, the Extension Ser vice maintains an in-service train ing program to keep agents in formed of the latest developments in agricultural research, of new programs and policies that affect agriculture and of new teaching techniques. To be successful, ex tension workers must like to work with people. In most instances, specialists on the State staff are expected to have a master’s degree and special training in their particular lines of work. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment of Extension Ser vice workers had grown to 15,000 in 1968. The demand for addition al workers is expected to con tinue, especially in depressed rural areas. As agricultural tech nology becomes more compli cated, and as farm people become more aware of the need for or ganized activity, more help will be sought from trained Extension Service personnel. The Extension Service also is being extended to new segments of the popula tion, as residents recognize the value of their assistance, partic ularly in helping the disadvan taged. Counterparts of the Cooperative Extension Service are being estab lished in many countries, and Ex tension Service personnel often are recruited to help initiate and organize these programs. 579 580 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250. (Also see statement on Home Econ omists.) SOIL SCIENTISTS (D.O.T. 040.081) N ature of the W ork County agricultural agent and farmer discuss methods for improving pasture. Earnings and W orking Conditions The salaries of extension agents vary from State to State and county to county. In 1968, start ing salaries for new agents aver aged about $7,200. Ordinarily, the assistant agent is promoted rapidly to a more re sponsible job, either in the county where he works or in another county in the State. In 1968, sal aries for experienced agents av eraged about $10,500. Extension specialists’ salaries averaged about $12,500. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Additional information may be obtained from County Extension Offices; State Director of the Co operative Extension work located at each Land-Grant University; or the Federal Extension Service, Soil scientists study the phy sical, chemical, and biological characteristics and behavior of soils. They investigate the soils both in the field and the labora tory and grade them according to a national system of soil classifi cation. From their research, scientists can classify soils in terms or response to management practices and capability for pro ducing crops, grasses, and trees, as well as their utility as e n g i neering materials. Soil scientists prepare maps, usually based on aerial photographs, on which they plot the individual kinds of soil and other landscape features sig nificant to soil use and manage ment in relation to land lines, field boundaries, roads, and other conspicuous features. Soil scientists also conduct re search to determine the physical and chemical properties of soils and their water relationships, in order to understand their behav ior and origin. They predict the yields of cultivated crops, grasses, and trees, under alternative com binations of management prac tices. Soil science offers opportunities for those who wish to specialize in soil classification and mapping, soil geography, soil chemistry, soil physics, soil microbiology, and soil management. Training and experience in soil science also will prepare persons for positions as 581 OCCUPATIONS RELATED TO AGRICULTURE management agencies. A few are independent consultants, and oth ers work for consulting firms. An increasing number are employed in foreign countries as research leaders, consultants, and agricul tural managers. Train in g and Advancem ent Training in a college or uni versity of recognized standing is important in obtaining employ ment, as a soil scientist. For Fed eral employment, the minimum qualification for entrance is a B.S. degree with a major in Soil Sci ence or in a closely related field of study, and having 30 semester hours of course work in the bio logical, physical, and earth sci ences, including a minimum of 15 semester hours in soils. Those having graduate training— espe cially those with the doctor’s degree— can be expected to ad vance rapidly into a responsible and high paying position. This is particularly true in soil re search, including the more respon sible positions in soil classifica tion, and in teaching. Soil sci entists who are qualified for work with both field and laboratory data have a special advantage. Many colleges and universities offer fellowships and assistantships for graduate training or em ploy graduate students for parttime teaching or research. Soil scientist conducts test on barley roots with aid of ionization detector. Em ploym ent O utlook farm managers, land appraisers, and many other professional positions. Places of Em ploym ent Most soil scientists are em ployed by agencies of the Federal Government, State experiment stations, and colleges of agricul ture. However, many are employ ed in a wide range of other public and private institutions, including fertilizer companies, private re search laboratories, insurance companies, banks and other lend ing agencies, real estate firms, land appraisal boards, State high way departments, State and city park departments, State conser vation departments, and farm The demand is increasing for soil scientists to help complete the scientific classification and evalu ation of the soil resources in the United States. One of the major program objectives of the Soil Conservation Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture is to complete the soil survey of all rural lands in the United States. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 582 This program includes research, soil classification and correlation, interpretation of results for use by agriculturists and engineers, and training of other workers to use these results. Also, demand is increasing for both basic and applied research to increase the efficiency of soil use. Earnings The incomes of soil scientists depend upon their education, pro fessional experience, and individ ual abilities. The entrance salary in the Federal service for gradu ates having a B.S. degree was $5,732 since July 1968. They may expect advancement to $6,981 af ter 1 year of satisfactory per formance. Futher promotion de pends upon the individual’s abil ity to do high-quality work and to accept responsibility. Earnings of well-qualified Federal soil sci entists with several years’ exper ience range from $10,203 to $16,946 per year. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Additional information may be obtained from the U.S. Civil Ser vice Commission, Washington, D.C. 20415; Office of Personnel, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250; or any office of the Department’s Soil Conservation Service. Also see statements on Chem ists and Biologists. SOIL CONSERVATIONISTS (D.O.T. 040.081) N atu re of the W ork Soil conservationists supply farmers, ranchers, and others with technical assistance in planning, applying, and maintaining meas ures and structural improvements for soil and water conservation on individual holdings, groups of holdings, or on watersheds. Farmers and other land managers use this technical assistance in making adjustments in land use; protecting land against soil de terioration; rebuilding eroded and depleted soils; stabilizing runoff and sediment-producing areas; i m p r o v i n g cover on crop, forest, pasture, range, and wildlife lands; conserving water for farm and ranch use and reducing dam age from flood water and sedi ment; and in draining or irriga ting farms or ranches. The types of technical services provided by soil conservationists are as follows: Maps presenting inventories of soil, water, vege tation, and other details essential in conservation planning and ap plication; information on the proper land utilization and the treatment suitable for the plan ned use of each field or part of the farm or ranch, groups of farms or ranches, or entire watersheds; and estimates of the relative cost of, and expected returns from, var ious alternatives of land use and treatment. After the landowner or operator decides upon a conservation pro gram that provides for the land to be used within its capability and treated according to the plan ned use, the conservationist re cords the relevant facts as part of a plan which, together with the maps and other supplemental information, constitute a plan of action for conservation farming or ranching. The soil conserva tionist then gives the land man ager technical guidance in apply ing and maintaining the conser vation practices. OCCUPATIONS RELATED TO AGRICULTURE W here Employed Most soil conservationists are employed by the Federal Gov ernment, mainly by the U.S. De partment of Agriculture’s Soil Conservation Service and the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the Department of the Interior. Some are employed by colleges and State and local governments; others work for banks and public utilities. T rain in g and A dvancem ent A Bachelor of Science degree and a major in soil conservation or a related agricultural science constitute the minimum require ment for professional soil con servationists. Those who have un usual aptitude in the various phases of the work have good chances of advancement to higher salaried technical administrative jobs. year. Advancement to $6,981 could be expected after 1 year of satisfactory service. Further ad vancement depends upon the in dividual’s ability to accept greater responsibility. Earnings of wellqualified Federal soil conserva tionists with several years’ exper ience range from $10,203 to $16,946 a year. Sources of A dditional In fo rm atio n Additional information on em ployment as a soil conservationist may be obtained from the U.S. Civil Service Commission, Wash ington, D.C. 20415; Employment Division, Office of Personnel, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250; or any office of the Department’s Soil Conservation Service. OTHER PROFESSIONAL WORKERS Em ploym ent O utlook Employment opportunities for well-trained soil conservationists were good in 1968. Opportunities in the profession will expand be cause government agencies, public utility companies, banks, and other organizations are becoming interested in conservation and are adding conservationists to their staffs. Other new openings will occur in college teaching, par ticularly at the undergraduate level. In addition, some openings will arise because of the normal turnover in personnel. Earnings Since July 1968, soil conser vationists having a bachelor’s de gree and employed by the Federal Government received $5,732 a N ature of the W ork The discussion that follows deals primarily with job cate gories that are generally termed professional fields. These occupa tions generally require at least a bachelor’s degree, and master’s and Ph. D. degrees are becoming increasingly valuable both from the standpoint of salary and of executing the functions required on the job. Some of these jobs are discussed more fully else where in the Handbook. (See index.) Agricultural economists deal with problems related to pro duction, financing, pricing, and marketing of farm products both in the United States and in sev eral foreign countries. They are factfinders, evaluators, analysts, 583 and interpreters who provide eco nomic information to farmers, policymakers, and other inter ested persons. They provide costbenefit analyses for evaluating farm programs at the National, State, and farm level. They study the effects of mechanization, technological advances, and other developments that influence the supply and demand for farm pro ducts and its accompanying ef fects on costs and prices of farm products. Agricultural engineers develop new and improved farm machines and equipment, deal with the physical aspects of soil and water problems in farming; design and supervise installation of irrigation systems, watershed protection, flood prevention, and related works; devise new techniques for harvesting and processing farm products; and design more effi cient farm buildings. Agronomists are concerned with growing breeding, and im proving field crops such as cereals and grains, legumes and grasses, tobacco, cotton, and others. They also do research in the funda mental principles of plant and soil sciences and study and de velop seed propagation and plant adaption. Animal physiologists and ani mal husbandmen study the en vironmental influences in relation to efficient management of farm animals; they also are concerned with the breeding, growth, nutri tion, and physiology of livestock. Veterinarians inspect livestock at public stockyards and points of entry into the U.S.; inspect es tablishments that produce veter inary biological supplies; admin ister tests for animal diseases; conduct programs for the control and eradication of animal disease; research livestock diseases and vaccines for disease control; work directly with farmers in protec tion or restoration of livestock OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 584 Animal physiologist conducts research on heat tolerance of cattle. health; and provide services for the care of small animals and pets. Geneticists try to develop strains, varieties, breeds, and hy brids of plants and animals that are better suited than those pre sently available to the production of food and fiber. Microbiologists study bacteria and the relation of other micro organisms to human, plant, and animal health and the function of these micro-organisms in the making of products such as vita mins, antibiotics, amino acids, sugars, and polymers. Plant scientists study plant diseases and their nature, cause, and methods of control. They also study the structure of plants and the growth factors in plants. Methods of improving fruits, veg etables, flowers, and ornamentals, and means by which improve ments may be made by better management, environment, and propagation are also of concern. Plant quarantine and plant pest control inspectors, who are train ed in the biological sciences, sup ervise and perform professional and scientific work in enforcing plant quarantine and pest control laws. Plant Quarantine Inspectors inspect ships, planes, trucks, and autos coming into the country to keep out dangerous insect pests. Plant Pest Control Inspectors conduct programs to protect the crops of the country by prompt detection, control, and eradica tion of plant pests. Entomologists study insects, both beneficial and harmful to farming. They particularly are concerned with identifying the populations and distributions of insects that injure growing crops and animals, harm human beings, and damage agricultural commod ities in shipping, storage, process ing, and distribution and in find ing means by which these insects may be controlled. Foresters are concerned with the protection, production, pro cessing, and distribution of our timber resources. They also study means by which wood may be seasoned, preserved, and given new properties. Human nutritionists study the means by which the human body utilizes food substances. Rural sociologists study the structure and functions of the social institutions (customs, prac tices, and laws) that are a part of and/or affect rural society. School teachers in vocational agriculture and related fields su pervise and give instructions in farm management, communica tions, mechanics, engineering, and related fields. Farm managers supervise and coordinate the production, mar keting, and purchasing activities of one farm or a group of farms. Places of Em ploym ent Persons trained in these spe cialties work in various capacities that relate to agriculture. Govern ment agencies, colleges, agricul tural experiment stations, and private businesses that deal with farmers hire many research work ers. They also hire people to take technical and administrative re sponsibilities in public agencies involving farmers or programs af fecting farmers. Agri-business and farmer cooperatives, private busi ness, commercial, and financial companies that buy from, sell to, or serve farmers also employ many people. State, county, and municipalities hire many who serve as vocational agriculture teachers and workers in agricul- OCCUPATIONS RELATED TO AGRICULTURE tural communications, in farmers’ organizations, or in trade associ ations whose members deal with farmers. The number of research activ ities related to agriculture has in creased very rapidly. The largest agencies in this field are the State experiment stations connected with the land-grant colleges and the various research branches of the U.S. Department of Agri culture. Other research organi zations include some engaged in independent research, and some connected with companies that finance farming operations, mar ket farm products, or produce chemicals, equipment, and other supplies or services for farmers. The U.S. Department of Agri culture employs workers in re search positions in various parts of the country: in Washington, D.C., at the Agricultural R e search Center at Beltsville, Md.; and at land-grant colleges. Other Government departments also have many agricultural research jobs. Various independent research organizations, foundations, and private business groups in many parts of the country recently have initiated research related to agri culture. They tend to be located either in industrial centers or in areas of high agricultural activity, and include producers of feed, seed, fertilizer, farm equipment; and insecticides, herbicides, and other chemical dusts and sprays. Public and private lending in stitutions, which make loans to farmers, employ men with broad training in agriculture and busi ness. These workers ordinarily are required to have had practical farm experience, as well as aca demic training in agriculture, eco nomics, and other subjects. Mak ing financially sound loans in volves careful analysis of the farm business and proper evaluation of farm real estate and other farm property. These workers are em ployed by the cooperative Farm Credit Administration in its banks and in associations oper ating under its supervision throughout the country; by the Farmers Home Administration in its Washington and county offi ces; by rural banks; and by in surance companies that have sub stantial investments in farm mortgages. The Federal and State Govern ments also employ various spe cialists in activities relating to ag riculture. These specialists have technical and managerial respon sibilities in activities such as pro grams relating to the production marketing, inspection, and grad ing of farm products; prevention of the spread of plant pests, ani mal parasites, and diseases; and management and control of wild life. Large numbers of profession ally trained persons are employed by cooperatives and business firms that deal with farmers. Em ployment in these organizations may be expected to expand, as farmers rely increasingly on them to provide farm supplies, ma chinery, equipment, and services, and to market farm products. The size of the organization and the types of services it offers deter mine the number of its employees and the nature of their jobs. Large farm supply cooperatives and businesses, for example, may have separate divisions for feed, seed, fertilizer, petroleum, chem icals, farm machinery, public re lations, and credit, each super vised by a department head. In smaller businesses and coopera tives, such as local grain-market ing elevators, the business is run almost entirely by the general manager who has only two or three helpers. Agricultural communications is another expanding area of spe cialization. Crop reporters and 585 market news reporters are em ployed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in field offices throughout the United States. Crop reporters gather information on crop production during all stages of the growing season. Mar ket news reporters collect infor mation on the movement of agri cultural produce from the farm to the market. Radio and TV farm directors are employed by many radio and TV stations to report prices, sales, grades, and other agricultural information to farm people. Agricultural re porters and editors compile farm news and data for farm journals, bulletins, and broadcasts. Closely related to agricultural communi cations is employment in farmers’ organizations or in-trade associa tions whose members deal with farmers. The Nationwide, federally aided program of vocational edu cation offers employment for per sons technically trained in agri culture and related subjects. Teachers of vocational agriculture not only teach high school stu dents interested in farming, but provide organized instruction to assist young farmers in becoming satisfactorily established in farm ing and in becoming community leaders. They also provide organ ized instruction for adult farmers, giving individual consultation on their farms to keep them abreast of modem farm technology. The qualifications of workers in all of these fields ordinarily in clude a college education and spe cial training in a particular line of work. In most of these fields, the demand for workers exceeds the supply. In recent years, the demand has been increased be cause of the need to recruit pro fessional personnel to staff agri cultural missions and to give technical aid to agricultural in stitutions and farmers in other countries. 586 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Sources of A dditional Inform ation Opportunities With Coopera tives. Farmer cooperatives are lo Opportunities in Research. Ad ditional information on research opportunities at land-grant col leges may be obtained from the dean of agriculture at the State land-grant college. Information on employment in the U.S. De partment of Agriculture is avail able from the USD A recruitment representatives at land-grant col leges and from the Office of Per sonnel, U.S. Department of Agri culture, Washington, D.C. 20250. The following publications will be valuable: cated in every State. Information relating to job opportunities in farmer cooperatives may be ob tained from local or regional co operatives. If no jobs are avail able with these cooperatives, they may be able to make referrals to others which have openings. Other sources of information are the county agent and the Agricultural Economics Department of State Agricultural Colleges. General in formation may be obtained from the American Institute of Coop eration or the National Council of Farmer Cooperatives, both lo cated at 1200 17th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036, and the Cooperative League of the U.S.A., 59 East Van Buren St., Chicago, 111. 60605. “Profiles-Careers in the U.S. De partment of Agriculture,” U.S. Department of Agriculture, Oc tober 1968. Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. 20402. Price $2. “Rewarding Careers in the Dy namic Industry — Agriculture,” American Association of LandGrant Colleges and State Uni versities, Washington, D.C., 1966. Copies can be obtained free from your State Agricul tural College. “Scientific Careers in the Agricul tural Research Service,” U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1967. Superintendent of Docu ments, Washington, D.C. 20402. Price 35^. Opportunities in Agricultural Finance. Inquiries on employment opportunities in agricultural fi nance may be directed to the following: Farm Credit Administration, Washington, D.C. 20578. Farm Credit District—Springfield, Mass.; Baltimore, Md.; Colum bia, S.C.; Louisville, Ky.; New Orleans, La.; St. Louis, Mo.; St. Paul, Minn.; Omaha, Nebr.; Wichita, Kans.; Houston, Tex.; Berkeley, Calif.; Spokane, Wash. Farmers Home Administration, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250. Agricultural Director, American Bankers Association, 90 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. In cow testing and artificial breeding, an association of farm ers employs one worker or more on a monthly basis to conduct the operations. Supervisors who do cow testing are employed by dairy herd improvement associa tions. They must have a high school education, and a farm background is almost essential. Artificial breeding associations employ inseminators who must have at least a high school edu cation. Agricultural college train ing is desirable but not essential for employment in these occupa tions. Brief periods of approxi mately a month of specialized training are available through the associations. Other services for farmers are more seasonal. These include the following: Fruit spraying (2-3 months), airplane dusting (4-6 months), grain combining (2 months) hay and straw baling (2-8 months), tractor plowing and cultivating (4-6 months), and sheep shearing (2-3 months). These and many other services often are done by farmers who en gage in custom work as a sideline to keep their equipment busy. In areas where the growing season is long, however, the period when these services can be carried on is long enough to permit individuals to specialize in them. Closely associated but some what more remote from farm op eration are such activities as re pairing and servicing farm ma chinery; feed grinding and mix ing; maintaining storages and warehouses of agricultural prod ucts; operating nurseries and greenhouses; and packing, grad ing, and processing farm products. Although these activities are sometimes performed on the farm, the current trend is to conduct them as specialized lines of busi ness away from the farm. An ag ricultural background is helpful to people who enter these lines of work. The agricultural aspects, however, can be learned more readily than the required special ized skills. Opportunities for Agricultural Economists. For additional infor mation about opportunities in ag ricultural economics, check with the Department of Agricultural Economics at State land-grant colleges. For information on Fed eral employment opportunities, applicants may get in touch with USD A recruitment representa tives at the State land-grant col lege or write directly to the Office of Personnel, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250. Opportunities as Vocational Agriculture Teachers. As salaries, travel, and programs of vocational agriculture teachers vary slightly among States, prospective teach ers should consult the Head Teacher Trainer in Agriculture Education at the land-grant col lege or the State Supervisor of Agricultural Education at the OCCUPATIONS RELATED TO AGRICULTURE State Department of Public In struction in their respective States. FARM SERVICE JOBS In almost every type of agri culture, farmers require special ized services which readily can be earned and performed by other workers. A person can enter many of these services, either as an in dependent operator or as an em ployee. Some services require an extensive outlay of capital, and others require very little. Some are highly seasonal; others are 587 performed year round. These ser vices and the operation of a small farm can sometimes be combined. Services that provide yearround employment include the following: Cow testing, artificial breeding, livestock trucking, whitewashing, well drilling, fenc ing, and tilling. MINING The mining industry is a major supplier of the basic raw materials and energy sources required for industrial and consumer use. Metal mines provide iron, copper, gold, and other ores. Quarrying and other non metallic mining pro duce many of the basic materials such as limestone, gravel, and fire clay needed to build the country’s schools, offices, homes, and high ways. Petroleum, natural gas, and coal are the primary sources of nearly all our energy, both for in dustrial and personal use. Few of the products that are extracted from mines reach the consumer in their natural state. Nearly all require further processing in one or several of the manufacturing industries. face mining, are truck and tractor drivers. Skilled craftsmen and foremen account for the second largest occupational group. Mechanics and repairmen maintain the com plex equipment and machinery used throughout the various min ing industries. Many heavy equip ment operators, such as excava ting, grading, and power shovel operators, are employed in open pit mining operations. Large num bers of pumpers, gagers, and enginemen are needed in the extrac tion and transportation of petro leum and natural gas. Foremen, needed to supervise the mine work crews, also constitute an important part of the industry’s work force. Mining is the smallest major industry division, employing 610,000 wage and salary workers in 1968. Nearly one-half of these workers are employed in the ex ploration and extraction of crude petroleum and natural gas. Coal mining, and quarrying and nonmetallic mineral mining each ac count for about one-fifth of the in dustry’s work force; the remaining workers, about 1 out of 7, are em ployed in mining metal ores. The industry’s white-collar workers are divided nearly equal ly among three major occupation al groups— professional and tech nical, clerical, and managerial. Taken together, these three groups account for the remaining three-tenths of overall industry employment. Professional, tech nical, and kindred workers are concentrated largely in the crude petroleum and natural gas extrac tion industry. Most are employed in occupations such as engineer, geologist, and technician, and are engaged in the exploration and research activities that are so important to the discovery of oil and gas fields and new uses of petroleum products. Two out of three clerical employees work in the petroleum and gas extraction industry. Most are secretaries, of fice machine operators, and typ ists needed to support profession al, technical, and managerial workers. The following tabulation shows the estimated distribution of occupational employment in the mining industry: The mining industry employs only a small number of women workers; most are in clerical posi tions. Seventy percent of all workers in mining are employ ed in blue-collar jobs, primarily as operatives and kindred work ers. Included in the operative group are miners and mine labor ers; mining machinery operators such as drilling and cutting ma chine operators, crusher opera tors, conveyor operators, and oil well drillers; and most other workers engaged in underground mining operations. Also included, and especially important in sur Estimated. employment, 1968 Major occupational group distribution) All occupational groups 100 Professional, technical, and kindred workers.............. 10 Managers, officials, and proprietors ............................ 8 Clerical and kindred workers .. 9 Sales workers...................... 1 Craftsmen, foremen, and 26 kindred workers .................. Operatives and kindred workers1 ................................ 44 Service workers ........................ 1 Laborers ............................................. 1 Includes mine laborers. N ote.—Because of rounding, sums of individ ual items may not equal total. Employment in the mining in dustry is expected to decline mod erately through the 1970’s, de spite an anticipated substantial increase in mining output. The in creased demand for mining prod ucts will be met largely through the use of more and improved equipment that will be operated by a more highly skilled work force. Even though employment in the industry as a whole is ex pected to decline, different growth patterns are likely within the in dustry. For example, employment in coal mining has declined steadily throughout the 1950’s and 1960’s, and further decreases are expected during the 1970’s, although at a slower pace than in the past. Employment in pe troleum and natural gas extrac tion also is expected to decline through the 1970’s. On the other hand, employment in quarrying and nonmetallic mining has been growing and is expected to con tinue to rise over the 1970’s. Pop ulation growth, rising incomes, and business activity, together with the increasing need for con struction materials are likely to bring about a growing demand for manpower in quarrying and nonmetallic mining. 589 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 590 Employment in metal mining is expected to increase slightly through the 1970’s, reversing a downward trend. The statement that follows pro vides information on employment opportunities in the petroleum and natural gas extraction indus try. More detailed information about occupations that are found in mining as well as other indus tries appears elsewhere in the Handbook. (See index in back of book.) PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING N ature and Location of the Industry Petroleum is one of the fossil fuels, having been formed from the decay of once living matter. It is extracted mainly in the form of crude oil and natural gas. Thousands of companies are in the petroleum business, most of them specializing in a single ac tivity, such as exploring for gas or oil, drilling wells, operating wells, transporting petroleum in crude form or as finished prod ucts, processing gas, and refining crude oil. Others operate gasoline service stations or supply natural gas for heating and cooking. Much of the petroleum business, however, is done by a small num ber of large firms that are in volved in many of the industry’s activities— from exploring for oil and gas to selling finished petro leum products. These firms pro vide a large share of the indus try’s jobs. This chapter deals with the activities and jobs involved in (1) finding oil and gas and bringing it to the surface of the earth, and (2) converting natural gas to useable products. It excludes petro leum refining, and the trans porting and marketing of petro leum products. Occupations in pe troleum refining are discussed in a separate chapter in the Handbook. Petroleum Production. Because the processes involved in finding and extracting crude oil and nat ural gas are the same, the jobs and activities involved are similar up to the point where the gas or oil well starts producing. In this chapter, references to “ petroleum production” also cover the dis covery and extraction of natural gas. Petroleum production in cludes three broad fields of work; exploration, drilling and oilfield servicing, and well operation and maintenance. Firms that special ize in performing one or more of these activities under contract to oil companies employ almost onehalf of all the workers in petro leum production. Major oil com panies also engage in all of these production activities. Since oil is difficult to find— only rarely are there any signs on the earth’s surface of its presence underground— an important part of petroleum production activity involves using scientific methods to search for oil. After scientific tests are made which indicate the possible presence of oil beneath the surface of the earth, a site is selected and the drilling process begins. Before a well can be drilled, a towerlike steel drilling rig is in stalled to support the tools and pipes that must be lowered into the well. Most rigs used today are portable ones brought to the drill ing site, but some rigs are built at the site. Although a few large firms do some of their own drill ing, over 90 percent of this work is performed by specialized drill ing contractors. A number of other services are performed in connection with oil field drilling. These include build ing access roads, hauling supplies, cementing wells, cleaning and treating wells, and other special operations. Much of this work is handled by contractors. When oil is reached and the well is completed, the job of the drilling crew is finished and that of the well-operating crew begins. About half of all petroleum pro duction workers operate or main tain approximately 685,000 oil and gas producing wells in the United States. These wells are op erated by thousands of companies which range in size from large firms with wells all over the world to small firms with only a single well. After oil or gas is brought out of the ground, it is trans ported to refineries or processing plants by pipelines, ships, barges and trucks. Because natural gas, as it flows from the ground, is difficult to transmit through pipelines for long distances due to the various liquid compounds dissolved in it, natural gas processing plants, which remove these liquids, usu ally are located at or near gas fields. The natural gas liquid compounds — propane, butane, ethane, and natural gasoline— have important uses; for example, as raw materials for the chemical industry and oil refineries, and as a fuel for rural areas. In addition, natural gas may be compressed for delivery to pipeline trans portation companies, or for use by oil well operators to force oil out of the ground. In 1968 about 280,000 wage and salary workers were employ ed in the United States in petro leum production, including the production and processing of nat ural gas. Although drilling for oil and gas is done in about threefourths of the States, nearly 90 percent of the workers are em- MINING ployed in 10 States. Texas is the leading State in the number of oilfield jobs, followed by Louisi ana, Oklahoma, California, Kan sas, Illinois, New Mexico, W yo ming, Mississippi, and Colorado. About 7,000 additional American workers are employed in foreign countries by United States oil companies, particularly in the Middle East, Africa, Western Europe, and South America. Occupations in the Industry Workers in the petroleum pro duction branch of the oil industry explore for crude oil and natural gas, drill wells, and operate and maintain them. These activities require workers having a wide range of education and skills. (In this section, references to oil in clude natural gas.) Exploration. Exploring for oil is the first step in petroleum pro duction. Small crews of special ized workers travel to remote areas to search for geological for mations likely to contain oil. Ex ploration parties, led by a petro leum geologist (D.O.T. 024.081), study the surface and subsurface composition of the earth. Geolo gists seek clues to the possibility of oil traps by examining types of rock formations on and under the earth’s surface. Besides making detailed, foot-by-foot surveys, pe troleum geologists depend on aerial exploration for a broad picture of the surface and sub surface features of the area being explored. They also may obtain rock samples from the bottom of the sea in their search for clues to oil-bearing formations. Geol ogists can determine the age of rocks by measuring their radio activity. Sub-surface evidence is collected by making test drills and bringing up core samples of the rocks, clay, and sands that form the layers of the earth. 591 men (D.O.T. 018.587) assist in surveying and mapping opera tions. Another way of searching for oil is through the science of geo physics— the study of the inner characteristics of the earth’s structure. More than 95 percent of geophysical exploration is done by seismic prospecting. The seis mograph is a sensitive instrument which records natural and man made earthquakes. Manmade earthquakes in petroleum explor ation are commonly made by ex ploding small charges of dynamite in the ground. The time it takes for sound waves to reach an un derground rock layer and return indicates the depth of the layer. The seismograph records such as formation by wavy lines on a chart. Increasingly, this informa tion is recorded on magnetic tape which is then placed in a compu ter and analyzed automatically. By setting off explosions at a number of points, underground Geologists and petroleum engineers formations can be mapped with inspect core sample. considerable accuracy, thus pro From these examinations, geol viding a clue to the whereabouts ogists can draw a cross-section of traps which may contain oil. map of the underground forma A seismograph crew generally tions being surveyed to pinpoint includes 10 persons, led by a par areas where oil may be located. ty chief who is usually a geophys Many geologists work in dis icist (D.O.T. 024.081). Other trict offices of oil companies or members of the seismograph exploration firms where they pre crew may include computers pare and study geological maps. (D.O.T. 010.168), who prepare They also study core samples col maps from the information re lected by exploration parties to corded by the seismograph; ob find any clue to the presence of servers (D.O.T. 010.168), who op oil. erate and maintain seismic equip Exploration parties may in ment; prospecting drillers (D.O.T. clude, in addition to the geologist, 930.782) and their helpers paleontologists (D.O.T. 024.081), (D.O.T. 930.886), who operate who study fossil remains in the portable drilling rigs to make earth to locate oil-bearing sands; holes into which explosive charges and chemists (D.O.T. 022.081) are placed; and shooters (D.O.T. and mineralogists (D.O.T. 024.- 931.381), who are in charge of 081), who study physical and placing and detonating explosive chemical properties of minerals charges. and rock samples. Planetable op Once the oil company has de erators (D.O.T. 018.188), drafts cided where to drill, it must ob men (D.O.T. 010.281), and rod- tain permission to use the land. 592 The landman or leaseman (D.O.T. 191.118) makes the nec essary business arrangements with owners of land in which his company is interested. Another important job in oil exploration is that of the scout (D.O.T. 010.168). He keeps his company informed of all explor ing, leasing, drilling, and pro duction activity in his area. Drilling. Despite all the petroleum exploration methods that have been developed, there is no device that actually will locate petrole um. Only by drilling can the pre sence of oil be proved. Overall planning and supervision of drill ing are usually the responsibilities of the petroleum engineer (D.O.T. 010.081). He helps to pre pare drilling sites and to select the methods of drilling. He directs workers in installing the drilling rig and machinery. He advises drilling personnel on technical OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK matters and may stay on the site until drilling operations are completed. There are two methods of drill ing a well— rotary drilling and cable-tool drilling. No matter which method is used, all wells are started in the same way. Rig builders (D.O.T. 869.884) and a crew of helpers (D.O.T. 869.887) install a drilling rig, the main purpose of which is to sup port the machinery and equiment which raise and lower the drilling tools. The rotary method is used for drilling deep wells through rock and clay formations. In rotary drilling, a revolving steel drill bit, with cutting teeth at its lower end, bores a hole in the ground by chipping and cut ting rock. The bit is attached to a string of jointed pipe (drill stem), which is rotated by a steam, diesel, or gasoline engine or an electric motor. As the bit cuts through the earth, the drill stem is lengthened by the addi tion of more pipe which is screwed on at the upper end. A stream of mud is continuously pumped through the hollow pipe. This mixture of clay and water cools the drill bit, plasters the walls of the hole to prevent cave-ins, and floats the cuttings to the surface. A typical rotary drilling crew consists of a rotary driller and four or five helpers. From 15 to 20 workers, divided into three crews, generally are required to operate a rig 24 hours a day and 7 days a week. A rotary driller (D.O.T. 930.782) is in charge of the work of the crew during his tour of duty. His major duties in clude operating the drilling ma chinery which controls drilling speed and pressure. He also se lects the proper drill bit and keeps a record of operations. He must be ready to meet any emer gency, such as breakdown of equipment or problems caused by unusual geological formations. A derrickman (D.O.T. 930.782), se cond in charge of the crew, works on a small platform high on the rig. When a drill bit becomes dull and has to be replaced, he catches the upper ends of the pipe sec tions and guides them over to a rack beside his platform. He may have several miles of drill pipe racked up before the worn bit is brought to the surface. Other members of a typical ro tary drilling crew include rotary floormen (D.O.T. 930.884), who guide the lower end of the pipe to and from the well opening and connect and disconnect pipe joints and drill bits. Helpers, called roughnecks (D.O.T. 930.884), assist floormen in their du ties. A fireman (D.O.T. 951.885) (if steam is used) or engineman (D.O.T. 950.782) (if diesel or electric power is used) operates the engines which provide power for drilling and hoisting. An important oilfield worker is the tool pusher (D.O.T. 930.130), who acts as foreman of one or more drilling rigs. He also is in charge of supplying rig builders and drilling crews with needed ma terials and equipment. Rousta bouts (D.O.T. 869.884), or gen eral oilfield laborers, or not con sidered part of drilling crews but are used to do odd jobs, such as cleaning derrick floors and pipes or constructing and maintaining roads in oilfields. In cable-tool drilling, a hole is broken through rocks by contin uously raising and dropping a heavy, sharpened bit attached to the end of a cable. Cable-tool drilling is used mainly to drill shallow wells in soft rock forma tion. Most of it is done in Ken tucky, Ohio, West Virginia, Penn sylvania, and certain areas of Texas and Oklahoma. Cable-tool drilling, however, is becoming ob solete as deeper holes are drilled 593 MINING each year in order to reach the new oil reserves. A cable-tool drilling crew usu ally consists of a driller and a tool dresser. The cable-tool driller (D.O.T. 930.280) is in charge of all operations during his tour of duty and maintains a detailed record of drilling activity. He controls the force with which the drilling bit strikes the rocks at the bottom of the well. He also supervises and helps in setting up the machinery and derrick. The cable-tool dresser (D.O.T. 639.781) , whose job is related to that of a blacksmith, assists the driller and maintains the equipment. Well Operation and Mainte nance. Production is ready to be gin when oil is found and the producing equipment installed. Drill pipe and bit are pulled from the well and casing and tubing are lowered. The upper end of the tubing is fastened to a system of valves and controls, called a “ Christmas tree.” Pressure in the well forces crude oil to the sur face, through the Christmas tree, and into storage tanks. If natural pressure is not great enough to force the oil to the surface, pump ing or other methods are used to produce an artificial flow. Petroleum engineers generally have charge of overall planning and supervision of the operation and maintenance of wells. One of their principal duties is to pre vent waste by deciding which production method to use and how fast the oil should flow. Some companies hire assistants for the petroleum engineer. These engineering aides perform routine duties such as making elementary calculations, running tests, and keeping records. The job of pumper is numeri cally the largest occupation in the oilfield. Pumpers (D.O.T. 914. 782) and their helpers (D.O.T. 914.887) operate and maintain motors, pumps, and other equip ment used to force an artificial flow of oil from wells. Their chief duty is to regulate the flow of oil according to a schedule set up by the petroleum engineer. Generally, a pumper operates a group of wells. Switchers work in fields where oil flows under nat ural pressure and does not re quire pumping. They open and close valves to regulate the flow of oil from wells to tanks or into pipelines. Gagers (D.O.T. 914.381) keep track of the amount of oil flowing into tanks or pipe lines. They measure and record the contents of storage tanks and take samples of the oil to check its quality. Treaters (D.O.T. 541.782) make tests of crude oil for water and sediment. They remove these impurities from oil by opening a drain at the base of the tank or by using special chemical or electrical equipment. In many fields, pumping, switch ing, gaging, and treating opera tions are performed by automatic controls. Installation of computer systems at a central site now en ables an operator to control the flow of oil from a large number of wells into several pipelines. Many workers are employed in maintenance operations in oil fields. Welders, carpenters, elec tricians, and machinists repair and install pumps, gages, pipes, and other oilfield equipment. Roustabouts perform various field and well-maintenance jobs which require little skill but often involve heavy, hazardous work. Natural Gas Processing. Oper ators have duties very similar to those of the oil refinery workers. The dehydration-plant operator (D.O.T. 541.782) tends an auto matically controlled treating unit which removes water and other impurities from natural gas. The gasoline-plant operator, or gaso line-plant engineer (D.O.T. 950.782), operates equipment which removes natural gasoline and sul fur from natural gas. The com pressor-station operator, or com pressor-station engineer (D.O.T. 914.132), operates a compressor which raises the pressure of the gas for transmission in the pipe lines. The gas-compressor oper ator (D.O.T. 950.782), assists either of the last two employees named above. As in oil refineries, many work ers in the larger natural gas proc essing plants are employed in maintenance activities. However, the equipment in such plants is subject to less corrosion and wear than that in oil refineries, and it is generally more automated. As a result, the instrument repair man and the electrician are two key workers needed to maintain the instruments that control the automatic equipment. The wel der and his helper also do much maintenance work in the process ing plant. Other workers, whose jobs include maintenance func tions, are engine repairmen and laborer. Clerical, administrative, profes sional, and technical workers are a smaller proportion of employ ment in the larger gas processing plants than in oil refineries. In the numerous smaller natu ral gas processing plants, many workers have multiple skills— usually combining the skills of operator and maintenance man. In addition, there are many very small plants which are so highly automated that they are virtu ally unattended. Either they are checked by maintenance workers or operators at periodic intervals, or they are monitored continu ously by instruments which auto matically report malfunctions and shut down the plant if an emergency develops. Other Oilfield Services. Compa nies which offer oilfield services (other than exploration and drill ing) on a contract basis provide OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 594 another important source of em ployment. Employees in these companies perform many serv ices, including cementing and cleaning wells, and building foundations at well locations. Among these employees are skill ed workers such as cementers (D.O.T. 930.281), who mix and pump cement into the space be tween steel casings and side walls of the well to prevent cave-ins; acidizers (D.O.T. 930.782), who force acid into the bottom of the well to increase the flow of oil; perforator operators (D.O.T. 931.782), who pierce holes in drill pipes or casings by using sub surface “ guns” to make passages through which oil can flow; sample-taker operators (D.O.T. 931.781), who obtain samples of soil and rock formations from wells to help geologists determine the presence of oil; and well puller (D.O.T. 930.883), who re move pipes and casings from wells for cleaning and repairing or for salvaging. Offshore Operations. Most ex ploration, drilling, and producing activities are done on land, but an increasing amount of this work is done offshore, particularly in the Gulf of Mexico off the coasts of Louisiana and Texas. Some ad ditional offshore work is being done in the Pacific Ocean off California, Oregon, Washington, and Alaska. Some wells have been drilled more than 100 miles from shore and in water more than 1,000 feet deep. These off shore operations require the same types of drilling crews as are em ployed on land operations. In ad dition, offshore operations require employment of radio men, ablebodied seamen, cooks, mess boys, and pilots for work on drilling platforms, crewboats, barges, and helicopters. (Detailed discussions of profes sional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations found not only in the petroleum and natural gas production industry, but in other industries as well, are given else where in the Handbook, in the sections covering the individual occupations. See index for page numbers.) T rain in g , O th er Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Exploration. Most workers in nonprofessional jobs with an ex ploration crew begin as helpers and advance into one of the spe cialized jobs after gaining experi ence. Their period of training on the job may vary from several months to several years. New workers usually are hired in the field by the party chief or by local company representatives. For many nonprofessional jobs, companies hire young men who have a high school or vocational school education, including train ing or aptitude in mathematics, drafting, and mechanics. College students majoring in physical or earth sciences or in engineering often are hired for part-time or summer work with an exploration crew. This may be a means of working into a full-time job after graduation. For entry into professional oc cupations, such as geologist, geo physicist, chemist, or engineer, college training with at least a bachelor’s degree is required. Pro fessional workers usually start at junior levels and after several years of experience in field sur veys, are eligible for promotion to the job of party chief. After much field survey experience they may get a position of responsibility in an area or division office and then perhaps in the central office. Sci entists and engineers having re search ability, preferably those with advanced graduate degrees, may transfer to research or con sulting work. Drilling. Members of drilling crews usually begin work in the industry as roughnecks. As they acquire experience, they may advance to more skilled jobs. In rotary drilling, for ex ample, a worker may be hired as a roughneck, advance to the job of floorman, and eventually to derrickman. After several years, he may become a driller. He then may be promoted to the job of tool-pusher, in charge of one or more drilling crews. Some drill ing companies hire high school and college students for jobs dur ing the summer months. Drilling requires men capable of performing heavy physical la bor. Drilling crew members usu ally are between the ages of 20 and 40. Some companies, how ever, report that their best drill ers are over 50 and even in their sixties, for the job of driller re quires good judgment combined with practical experience. Well Operation and Maintenance. Companies generally hire persons who live near operating wells for well operation and maintenance jobs. They prefer men who have mechanical ability and a knowl edge of oilfield processes. Because this type of work is less strenuous and offers the advantage of a fixed locale, members of drilling crews or exploration parties who prefer not to travel often trans fer to well operation and mainte nance jobs. New workers may start as roustabouts and advance to jobs as switchers, gagers, or pumper helpers, and later to pumpers. Training usually is acquired on the job; at least 2 years of ex perience are needed to become a good all-round pumper. The preferred educational qualification for a petroleum en gineer is a college degree with specialization in courses on the 595 MINING petroleum industry. However, college graduates having degrees in chemical, mining, or mechani cal engineering, or in geology or other related sciences, sometimes are hired for petroleum engineer ing jobs. Petroleum engineering aids frequently are former roust abouts or pumpers who are given several months of specialized onthe-job and classroom training. Information on occupational training, qualifications, and ad vancement in natural gas proc essing plants is similar to that for occupations in petroleum re fining, discussed on page 687. E m ploym ent Outlook Employment in petroleum and natural gas production during the 1970’s is expected to continue the slow decline which began during the late 1950’s, despite antici pated increases in oil and gas production. The use of data-processing equipment and improved seismic techniques is expected to reduce the number of crews needed in petroleum exploration. The employment level in oil and gas field production also should decline because of the increasing use of automatic equipment to control production activities. About 2,700 new workers in crude petroleum production op erations will be hired each year during the next decade. These job openings will result primarily from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Although some untrained workers will be hired for less skilled jobs, the greatest demand will be for work ers having electrical and me chanical training and/or experi ence. These skills are becoming more necessary to maintain and repair the increasingly complex equipment used in oil and gas field production. Most of the job opportunties created by replacement needs will be in the 10 States which to gether account for 90 percent of oilfield jobs— Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, California, Kansas, Il linois, New Mexico, Wyoming, Colorado, Mississippi. And in ad dition, a substantial number of job opportunities should occur as new oilfields are opened in Alaska. Offshore activities have ac counted for only a small portion of total production employment. However, offshore drilling activi ties are expected to continue to increase during the 1970’s par ticularly off the coasts of Texas, Louisiana, C a l i f o r n i a , and Alaska; and off short drilling ac tivities may be extended to Washington, Oregon, Florida and to the Atlantic seaboard. Earnings and W orking Conditions In 1968, earnings of non-supervisory employees in oil and gas ex traction averaged $137.71 a week, or $3.21 an hour for a 42.9 work week. This compares with aver age earnings of $122.51 weekly or $3.01 an hour for all production workers in manufacturing estab lishments. The work schedule for most oilfield workers is 40 hours a week. Drilling operations are per formed 24 hours a day, with a complete crew for each 8 hour shift. Generally, workers in these crews receive 15 cents more an hour for work on the second shift and 30 cents an hour more for the third shift. Most establish ments provide 8 paid holidays annually. Paid vacations are granted according to length of service— generally 2 weeks after 1 year of service, 3 weeks after 5 years, and 4 weeks after 10 years. The majority of oilfield em ployees do most of their work outdoors and are exposed to all kinds of weather. Although some fields may be near cities, they are more often far from sizeable com munities and are sometimes lo cated in swamps or deserts. Drill ing employees may expect to move from place to place since their work in a particular field may be completed in less than a year. Exploration personnel move even more frequently. They may be away from home for weeks or months at a time, living in a trailer or tent. Workers in well operation and maintenance often remain in the same locaton for long periods. Most workers in natural gas processing plants and oil refin eries have similar working condi tions. Only a moderate amount of physical effort is involved. Some workers are required to open and close valves, to climb stairs and ladders to considerable heights, and to work 1 of 3 shifts. The plants are relatively safe places in which to work. Some workers in particular natural gas processing plants have unusual working conditions. They are responsible for main taining several small, unattended automated plants in widely sepa rated, isolated locations. They make periodic trips, of 1-day duration or more, to check these automated plants. They travel over rough, unpaved terrain and are exposed to all kinds of weath er. These maintenance jobs may be very satisfying to those who like working outdoors and alone. In offshore operations, earnings usually are higher than those in land operations. Except for drill ing activity that is close to shore, workers living quarters are on platforms held fast to the ocean bottom or on ships anchored nearby. 596 Sources of A dditional Inform ation Further information concern ing jobs, processes, and working OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK conditions in the petroleum in dustry can be obtained from the public relations department of in dividual petroleum companies and from: American Petroleum Institute, 1271 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10020. Washington, D.C. 20036. National Petroleum Refiners As sociation, 1725 DeSales St. NW., CONSTRUCTION The activities of the construc tion industry touch nearly every aspect of our daily lives. The houses and apartments we live in; the factories, offices, and schools in which we work; and the roads we travel upon are examples of some of the products of this im portant industry. The industry encompasses not only new con struction projects but also in cludes additions, alterations, and repairs to existing structures. In 1968, about 3.3 million per sons were employed in the conAn additional 1.4 million work ers are estimated to be either self-employed— mostly o w n e r s of small building firms— or are State and l o c a l government employees engaged in building and maintaining our Nation’s vast highway system. The contract construction in dustry is divided into three major segments. About half of the work force is employed by electrical, air conditioning, plumbing, and other special trade contractors. Almost one-third work in the gen eral building sector where most residential, commercial, and in dustrial construction occurs. The remaining one-fifth, are engaged in building dams, bridges, roads, and similar heavy construction projects. As illustrated in the accom panying tabulation, on p. — workers in all blue-collar occupa tions made up nearly four-fifths of the construction industry em ployment in 1968. Craftsmen and foremen alone account for more than one-half of the total employ ment in this industry— a much higher proportion than that of any other major industry. Most of these skilled workers are em ployed as carpenters, painters, plumbers and pipefitters, con struction machinery operators, and bricklayers, or in one of the other construction trades. Labor ers are the next largest occupa tional group and account for 1 out of 6 workers. They provide material, scaffolding, and general assistance to the craftsmen at the worksite. Semiskilled work ers (operatives and k i n d r e d workers), such as truck drivers, welders and apprentices, repre sent about one-tenth of the in dustry’s total work force. Man agers, officials, and proprietors— mostly self-employed— also ac count for about the same share of employment. Professional and technical workers make up slight ly less than 5 percent of the work force employed in construction. Engineers, together with engi neering technicians, draftsmen, and surveyors account for most of the employment in this occu pational group. Clerical workers, largely women working as stenog raphers, typists, and secretaries, and in general office work, con stitute another 6 percent of the industry’s employment. Through the 1970’s, employ ment requirements are expected to rise rapidly in the construction industry. As the national econ omy expands, as population in creases, and as personal and corp orate incomes rise, the demand for contract construction activi ties are expected to undergo a substantial increase. Likewise, the number of construction workers employed by State and local highway departments also is ex pected to increase because of the need to meet the demands of the country’s expanding highway sys tems. Even though employment in the construction industry is likely to grow, the increasing ap plication of the latest technology in tools, material, and work meth ods, together with the rising skill level of the work force, will make it possible to increase the level of construction activity without a correspondingly large increase in employment. Estimated. employment, 1968 (percent distribution) Contract construction is the major source of employment for skilled craftsmen such as brick layers, painters, carpenters, and others who are discussed more fully elsewhere in the Handbook. For information on these and similar construction occupations, see the Building Trades chapter of the Handbook. For informa tion on occupations which are found in many other industries, see the index in back of the book. Major occupational group All occupational groups .... 100 Professional, technical, and kindred workers .................. 5 Managers, officials, and proprietors ............................ 12 Clerical and kindred workers .. 6 Sales workers .......................... (x) Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers .................. 52 Operatives and kindred workers ................................. 10 Service workers.................... 1 Laborers ................................... 16 1 Less than 0.5 percent. 597 MANUFACTURING Manufacturing is the activity around which our Nation’s econ omy revolves. From factories flow the goods that have provided a standard of living unmatched elsewhere in the world. The prod ucts of the manufacturing indus tries range in complexity from a simple plastic toy to an intricate electronic computer, and in size from miniature electronic compo nents to gigantic nuclear pow ered aircraft carriers. Many di verse processes are carried out in manufacturing. Workers refine ores and petroleum, process foods and chemicals, print books and newspapers, spin and weave tex tiles, fabricate clothing and foot wear, and produce the thousands of products needed for our per sonal and national benefit. Our society, as we know it today, could not have reached its pres ent level of prosperity without the goods provided by the manu facturing industries. Nearly 20 million persons worked in manufacturing— the largest of the major industries— in 1968. Within manufacturing, durable goods industries account ed for three-fifths of all workers. The largest employers in the dur able goods industries were the machinery, transportation equip ment, and electrical equipment industries, and the primary met als and fabricated metal indus tries. Each of these industries ac counted for at least 1 million workers and ranged from 1.3 mil lion in primary metals to more than 2 million in transportation equipment. Producers of nondur able goods account for another two-fifths of total employment in manufacturing. The food proc essing industries had the largest single work force within this group— 1.8 million workers— more than one-fifth of all non durable goods employment. Oth er large employers in the non durable goods industries are the apparel, printing, chemicals, and textile industries. E m p l o y i n g fewer than 100,000 workers, to bacco manufacturers are the smallest industry in manufactur ing. In 1968, 55 million women were employed in manufacturing, and accounted for more than 1 out of every 5 women who work ed. Large numbers are employed as secretaries, typists, office machine operators, and in many other office clerical occupations. In some industries, such as ap parel, tobacco, electrical equip ment, textiles, and instrument in dustries, women are increasingly being employed in production occupations. They account for a growing proportion of the work force. Thousands of women hold jobs as assemblers, sewers, bind ery workers, checkers and sort ers, inspectors, and other types of production workers. In heavy industries such as primary met als, transportation equipment petroleum refining, and lumber and wood products, women are employed almost exclusively in white-collar occupations and con sequently make up only a small part of the total work force. As illustrated in the following table, blue-collar jobs made up over two-thirds of the employ ment in manufacturing in 1968. Operatives and kindred workers alone accounted for 44 percent of the work force. Most of these semiskilled workers were spinners and weavers (textile industry), sewing machine operators (ap parel and leather industries), ma chine tool operators and welders (metalworking industries), fur- nacemen and heaters (primary metals), or operators of the spe cialized processing equipment used in the food, chemical, paper, and petroleum industries. Craftsmen, foremen, and kin dred workers make up the next largest group of workers and ac count for nearly one-fifth of the employment in manufacturing in 1968. Many of these skilled work ers install and maintain the wide assortment of machinery and equipment required in all manu facturing industries. Others are employed in skilled production occupations and are engaged di rectly in the manufacturing proc ess. Machinists, for example, are especially important in the metal working industries, as are skilled inspectors and assemblers. In the printing and publishing indus tries, compositors and typeset ters, photoengravers and litho graphers, and pressmen make up a large share of the work force. Bakers, millers, stillmen, tin smiths, millwrights, and tool and diemakers are a few of the other important skilled occupations in manufacturing. Clerical workers represented the third highest concentration of workers— approximately 1 out of every 8— and in manufacturing were the largest white-collar oc cupational group. Professional, technical, and kindred workers accounted for 1 out of every 10 workers employed in manufacturing. Engineers, sci entists, and technicians represent a large share of the professional workers employed in manufactur ing. These highly trained workers are required not only to oversee and guide the production proc esses, but also to carry out the extensive research and develop ment activities needed in the 599 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 600 aerospace, electronics, chemical, petroleum, and other industries. Other important professional oc cupations in manufacturing are editor and reporter, accountant, and personnel and labor relations worker. Major occupation group Estimated Employment, 1968 ( percent distribution) AH occupational groups........... Professional, technical, and kindred workers .... Managers, officials, and proprietors .................... Clerical and kindred workers .......................... Salesworkers...................... Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers............ Operatives and kindred workers .......................... Service workers................ Laborers ............................ 100 10 6 12 2 19 44 2 5 N ote.—Because of rounding, sums of individ ual items may not add to total. Population growth, rising per sonal income, and expanding business activity will stimulate a substantial increase in the de mand for manufactured products through the 1970’s. Employment in manufacturing, however, is ex pected to increase at a slower pace or about 11 percent be tween 1968 and 1980. The in creasing application of modem technology to manufacturing processes, together with the ris ing skill level of the work force, will make possible substantial in creases in production of goods without a corresponding increase in the work force. Although the average rate of employment growth will be slow, employment trends of individual industries within manufacturing will vary widely. Rubber and miscellaneous plastics products manufacturing employment may increase more than one-third and furniture and f i x t u r e s employment may in crease about 30 percent, far above the average increase. Sev eral industries including: machinery stone, clay and glass; and apparel; and instruments are expected to about double the average employment growth rate for all manufacturing. On the other hand, some manufacturing industries expect employment to decline. Petroleum refining, ord nance, transportation equipment, lumber and wood products, to bacco, food, leather, and textiles all may decrease in employment during the 1970’s. The statements that follow provide information on employ ment opportunities in several of the manufacturing industries. More detailed information about occupations that are found in many industries appears else where in the Handbook. (See in dex in the back of the book.) O C C U P A T IO N S IN A IR C R A F T , M IS S IL E , A N D S P A C E C R A F T M A N U F A C T U R IN G Known generally as the “ aero space” industry, the manufacture of aircraft, missiles, and space craft is among the largest and most rapidly changing industries in the country. Some 1.5 million persons were employed in the in dustry in 1968, many of whom were engaged in work concerned with developments such as super sonic flight and space explora tion. These and other activities in research and development have made the industry somewhat dif ferent than most manufacturing industries. Sometimes, the manu facture of a particular item is only incidental to discovering new fields of knowledge. Because of these priorities, intensive effort has been required to develop the materials, products, and the con cepts necessary for activities such as space travel. Continued efforts to improve and develop aerospace products and technology are ex pected to ensure the country’s defense capability and further advances in space exploration. Because this industry’s prod ucts are complex and changing, scientists, engineers, and techni cians represent a larger propor tion of total employment than in most other manufacturing indus tries. These workers probably will account for an even higher proportion of the industry’s work force through the 1970’s. How ever, employment of certain skilled, semiskilled, and unskilled workers is expected to decline. N ature and Location of the Industry Aircraft, missiles, and space craft have the same main com Electronics technician performs systems test. ponents: A frame to hold and support the rest of the vehicle, an engine to propel the vehicle, and a guidance and control sys tem. A major difference among them is that missiles and space craft can reach into space and attain speeds many times that of sound, whereas aircraft fly in the earth’s atmosphere and at slower speeds. Another difference is that aircraft are manned and missies and some spacecraft are not. Types of aircraft vary from small personal planes, costing not much more than an automobile, to multi-million-dollar giant transports and supersonic fight ers. Aircraft plants also produce smaller planes for business and personal use, and helicopters. Approximately one-half to twothirds of aircraft production in dollar value is manufactured for military use; the rest is for com mercial passenger and freight traffic, private business and pleasure use, and civilian flying instruction. Missiles and spacecraft also vary greatly in the purposes for which they are made, and in their size and capabilities. Missiles are produced chiefly for military use and generally carry destructive warheads. Some can travel only a few miles and are intended for purposes such as the support of ground troops and d e f e n s e against low flying aircraft. Oth ers, such as the Atlas, Titan, and Minuteman, have intercontinen tal ranges of 7,000 miles or more. Some missiles are designed for launching from land or under ground sites; others, for firing from aircraft, submarines, or ships. Spacecraft are sent aloft car rying instruments which can measure and record conditions in space and transmit the data to receiving stations on earth. Man ned spacecraft also include a cabin capsule for astronauts. The first American space vehicles had payloads (useful cargo) weighing only 20 to 30 pounds or less; the Saturn V launch vehicle is able to lift almost 150-ton payloads into near-earth orbit, or send 50 tons to the moon. Some space ve hicles probe the space environ ment and then fall back to earth. Others are put into orbit and be come artificial satellites around the earth, sun, or other celestial bodies. Nearly all of this country’s missiles and spacecraft are built for the Air Force, Navy, Army, or the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (N A SA ). Because the aerospace industry makes many kinds of finished products, it uses many kinds of engines, electronic systems, and other components. Aircraft en gines may be reciprocating (pis ton), jet, or rocket. Missile en gines may be jet or rocket. Space601 602 Precision assembler measures and recesses computer recording heads. craft are always rocket powered because rockets are the most pow erful type of engine and can operate in airless space, whereas other engine types need oxygen from the air for combustion. T o day’s rocket engines are powered by chemical propellants, either liquid or solid. New sources of rocket propulsion, such as nu clear or electric energy, are being investigated and may be available in the future. Guidance, control, and instrument payload systems are largely electronic. Missies and spacecraft generally have more complex guidance and control systems than aircraft. An aircraft, missile, or space craft is manufactured usually un der the technical direction of a prime contractor. He manages and coordinates the entire proj ect, subject to periodic inspec tions by the Federal agency or the airline ordering the vehicle. His engineering department pre pares design drawings, blueprints, and other specifications. These go to the production department, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK where planners work on the many details regarding machines, ma terials, and operations needed to manufacture the vehicle in the numbers required. Decisions must be made as to what part of the production work will be done by the prime contractor, and what part will be subcontracted to outside firms. Special tools, dies, jigs, and fix tures are required in manufactur ing the vehicle. Many sheet-metal workers, machinists, machine tool operators, and other metal proc essors produce these tools and the thousands of parts and com ponents which make up into the craft. All parts and equipment must be inspected and tested many times, both before and af ter they are assembled, and all assembly work must be thorough ly inspected and checked. In ev ery stage of the production proc ess, assemblers and installers are needed to fit together, hook up, and install systems and compo nents. After its final assembly, the vehicle is checked out by a team of mechanics, flight tested if an aircraft, and then prepared for delivery. Many thousands of subcontrac tors participate in the production of parts and subassemblies that make up aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft. Some subcontractors make individual parts or supplies such as metal forgings, bearings, plastic material, rocket fuels, or special lubricants. Others produce subassemblies, such as communi cations or telemetry equipment, guidance instruments, or jet en gines, and may depend on other subcontractors to supply parts for the subassemblies. The prime con tractor, too, may manufacture components of a craft and may do the final assembly work. Aerospace plants range in size from the large factories of major manufacturers, each with thou sands of employers, to the shops of small subcontractors and sup pliers that employ only a few workers each. Jobs in aerospace work may be found in practically every State, although roughly one-third are concentrated in California. Other States with large numbers of aerospace jobs include New York, Washington, Connecticut, Texas, Florida, Ohio, Missouri, Pennsylvania, Massa chusetts, Kansas, Alabama, Mary land, and New Jersey. An estimated 1.5 million peo ple— about one-fifth of them women— were working on aero space products in 1968. Aero space employment has risen sharply since 1966, reflecting, in part, increased requirements as sociated with the Vietnam build up. About half a million of these workers were producing missiles and spacecraft; more than 700,000 were making aircraft, , air craft engines, and propellers; and more than 240,000 worked in the electronics field producing equip ment for aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft. The remainder, ap proximately 85,000 were mostly civilian employees of the Federal Government working in the aero space field, primarily in the De partment of Defense and NASA. In addition to those employed di rectly in the aerospace field, thousands of other Federal Gov ernment workers were engaged in the negotiation, administration, and supervision of related con tracts. Workers with many different kinds of educational backgrounds and job skills are needed to de sign and manufacture aircraft, missies, and spacecraft. For ex ample, engineers and scientists who have advanced degrees, as well as plant workers who can learn their jobs after a few days or weeks of training, are emp loyed. Occupational n e e d s v a r y among establishments in the in- OCCUPATIONS IN AIRCRAFT, MISSILE, AND SPACECRAFT MANUFACTURING dustry, depending on the work being done. Research and devel opment laboratories e m p l o y mainly engineers, scientists, and supporting technicians and crafts men. Manufacturers, universities, independent research organiza tions, and Government agencies, such as the Air Force, Navy, Army, and NASA, run these laboratories. Factories engaged in production, on the other hand, employ mostly plant workers such as assemblers, inspectors, tool and die makers, sheet-metal workers, machinists, and machine tool operators. Some of the more important jobs found in aerospace-products manufacturing are described be low under three major categories: Professional and technical occu pations; administrative, clerical, and related occupations; and plant occupations. (Many of the jobs in this industry are found in other industries as well and are discussed in greater detail elsewhere in theHandbook in the sections covering individual occu pations.) Professional and Technical Occu pations. Before production of an aircraft, missile, or spacecraft can begin, a design must be approved. This requires many experiments and “ feasibility” studies to deter mine how well various design pos sibilities meet the conditions un der which the vehicle will be op erating. A scale model is made from the approved design. It is tested in wind, temperature, and shock tunnels, on ballistic ranges, and in centrifuges where actual Research engineers solve complex problems of modern aircraft systems. 603 flight conditions are simulated. The next step is to develop a fullsize experimental model or proto type, which is thoroughly tested in the air and on the ground. If test results are satisfactory, pro duction may begin. Many modi fications in the craft normally are made during the course of design and development, and often even after production has started. The pace of discovery and change is so rapid that much equipment b e c o m e s obsolete while still in the experimental stage or soon after being put into operation. Research and develop ment are vital in the industry, particularly in the missiles and spacecraft field. An intensive ef fort is being made to develop aerospace vehicles with greater speeds, ranges, and reliability; en gines with more power; and met als and plastics with wider capa bilities. The industry’s research and development capability has encouraged aerospace firms to ap ply their abilities to other new areas of exploration such as oceanographic research and hy drofoil ocean vessels. Increasing emphasis on re search and development makes the aerospace industry an impor tant and growing source of jobs for engineers, scientists, and technicians. It is estimated that in 1968, about one-fourth of all employees in plants making aerospace products were engnieers, scientists, and technicians, a considerably higher proportion than in most other manufacturing industries. Many kinds of engineers and scientists are employed in aero space work. For example, over 30 different college degree fields are represented among the engi neers and scientists employed by NASA. Among the more important types of engineers working in the industry are electronics, electri- 604 cal, aerospace, chemical, nuclear, mechanical, and industrial engi neers. Some of the type of scien tists employed in the industry include physicist, mathematician, chemist, metallurgist, psycholo gist, physiologist, and astrono mer. Aerospace engineers and scientists work in a wide and var ied range of applied fields such as materials and structures, en ergy and power systems, fluid and flight mechanics, measure ment and control systems, com munications and data systems, life sciences and systems, and space sciences. Engineers and scientists are as sisted by many types of workers such as draftsmen, mathematics aids, laboratory technicians, elec tronics technicians, research me chanics, and research electricians. They also work with production planners (D.O.T. 012.188), who plan the layout of machinery, movement of materials, and se quence of operations so that manufacturing processes will flow efficiently from one step to the next; and they work with technical writers (D.O.T. 139.288) and technical illustrators (D.O.T. 017.281), who produce technical manuals and other lit erature used to describe the op eration and maintenance of air craft and spacecraft and their many parts. Administrative, Clerical, and Re lated Occupations. Managerial and administrative jobs generally are comparable with similar jobs in other industries, except that they are related most closely to engineering because of the impor tance of research and develop ment in the aerospace field. Per sonnel in these jobs include ex ecutives, responsible for the di rection and supervision of re search and production; and offi cials in departments such as sales, purchasing, accounting, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK group of workers engaged in shaping and finishing metal parts with machine tools are machin ists (D.O.T. 600.280 and .281) and machine tool o p e r a t o r s (D.O.T. 609.885). The most skilled of these are the all-round Plant Occupations. About half of or general machinists who can all workers in the aircraft, missile, lay out the work and set up and and spacecraft field were em operate several types of machine ployed in plant jobs in 1968. tools. They perform machining Plant jobs can be classified in the operations of a highly varied and following groups: Sheet-metal nonrepetitive nature. They are work; machining and tool fabrica employed most frequently in de tion; other metal processing; as partments engaged in experi sembly and installation; inspect mental and prototype production. Machine tool operators are em ing and testing, flight checkout; and materials handling, mainte ployed in the large-volume pro duction of metal parts. They gen nance, and custodial. erally specialize in the operation Sheet-Metal Occupations. Sheet- of a single type of machine tool metal workers shape parts from such as a lathe, drill press, or sheet metal by hand or machine milling machine. The more skilled methods. When hand methods machine tool operators are able are used, the workers shape the to set up the work on a machine part by pounding them with mal and handle difficult and varied lets and by bending, cutting, and jobs. The less skilled operators punching them with handtools. usually do more repetitive work. Machinists and machine tool Machine methods involve the use of power hammers and presses, operators represent a higher pro saws, tube benders, and drill portion of the work force in en presses. The all-round sheet-met gine and propeller plants, which al worker (D.O.T. 804.281) lays are basically metalworking estab out the sequence of operations lishments, than in plants perform on the basis of blueprints and ing the final assembly of air and other engineering information. space vehicles. Among engine He then fabricates complicated plants, those manufacturing recip metal shapes, using handtools or rocating engines do relatively machines. Less complex parts, as more machining and less sheetwell as those produced in large metal work than those producing numbers, are fabricated by less jet or rocket engines. skilled sheet-metal workers or Many of the plants in the aero workers who specialize in oper space industry make a large pro ating a single machine. They portion of the jigs, fixtures, tools, have titles such as power brake and dies they use. Fabrication of operator (D.O.T. 617.380), pow these items requires skilled met er hammer operator (D.O.T. al-processing workers, chiefly jig 617.782) , power shear operator and fixture builders (D.O.T. (D.O.T. 615.782 and 615.885), 761.381) and tool and die makers punch press operator (D.O.T. (D.O.T. 601.280). Jig and fixture 615.782) , and profile cutting ma builders make the workholding chine operator (D.O.T. 816.782). and tool-guiding devices used in production and assembly opera Machining and tool fabrication tions. On the basis of information occupations. Another important received from the engineering depublic relations, advertising, and industrial relations. Many thou sands of clerks, secretaries, stengraphers, typists, tabulating ma chine operators, and other office personnel also are employed. OCCUPATIONS IN AIRCRAFT, MISSILE, AND SPACECRAFT MANUFACTURING 605 processing jobs have titles such as heat treater (D.O.T. 504.782), painter (D.O.T. 845.781), and plater (D.O.T. 500.380). Assembly and installation occu pations Assembly and installa partment, they plan the sequence of metal machining operations in volved in making a jig and carry the job through to completion. Tool and die makers make the cutting tools and fixtures used in machine tool operations, and the dies used in forging and punch press work. They must be ex perts in the use of machine tools. Other metal-processing occupa tions. Other metalworkers, such as tube benders, riveters, and welders also are employed. Tube benders (D.O.T. 709.884) form tubings used for oil, fuel, hy draulic, and electrical conduit lines. Riveters (D.O.T. 800.884) and welders (D.O.T. 810.782 and .884; 811.782 and .884; 812.884 and 813.380 and .885) join fabri cated parts by hand or machine tion workers are a major occupa tional group, employed in prac tically all plants in the industry. Many work in factories produc ing engines, electronic equip ment, and auxiliary components, but the majority are found in plants that assemble air or space craft into completed form. They perform final assembly work such as the fitting together of major subassemblies and the in stalling of major components. In aircraft, for example, this work involves joining wings and tail to the fuselage and installing the engine and auxiliary equipment such as the fuel system and flight controls. In the course of their duties, assemblers perform oper ations such as riveting, drilling, filing, bolting, soldering, cement ing, and gluing. A large proportion of assem blers are semiskilled workers do ing repetitive work, but some are riveting and by electric arc, gas, skilled mechanics and installers. Many of the latter perform di or electric resistance welding. Additional metal fabricating is versified assembly or installation performed by skilled foundry operations, and often work on ex workers such as patternmakers, perimental, prototype, or special molders, and coremakers. Drop craft. They assemble, take apart, hammer operators and other inspect, and install complex me forge shop workers are employed chanical and electronic assemblies. They read blueprints and inter in the forging departments. Many aircraft, missile, and pret other engineering specifica spacecraft parts are chemically tions. They may be called final and heat-treated during several assemblers of complete aircraft (D.O.T. 806.781), missile assem stages of their manufacture to bly mechanics or rocket assembly clean, change, or protect their surface or structural condition. mechanics (D.O.T. 625.281). Sheet-metal parts are heattreated Some skilled assemblers are to keep the metal soft and malle employed in plants which produce able while it is being worked into relatively large numbers of air the required shape. Many proc craft and missiles rather than a esses, such as painting and plat few experimental types. These ing, are used on the surfaces of assemblers usually specialize in parts. Workers in these metal one field of work or more. They OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 606 heating and ventilating, and rig ging and controls. Inspecting and testing occupa tions. Because aircraft, missies, Engine installer makes propeller adjustments. often are assisted by less skilled assemblers who do the more rou tine work. For example, a class A armament assembler (D.O.T. 801.381) typically doesworksuch as assembling, installing, and alining power turrets, weapons, gun cameras, and related acces sories. Lower rated armament as semblers typically do work such as uncrating and cleaning weap ons, loading ammunition, instal ling armor plate, and placing parts in jigs. Power plant install ers (D.O.T. 621.381), sometimes known as engine mechanics, in stall, aline, and check the various types of engines and accessories. Skilled electrical a s s e m b l e r s (D.O.T. 728.884), sometimes called electricians, install, hook up, and check major units in elec trical or radio systems. They are assisted by less skilled assem blers, who do the more routine installations and wire routings by following standard wiring dia grams and charts. Assemblers also specialize in other systems such as plumbing, hydraulic, parts and materials purchased from different sellers. In the production department, machined and spacecraft are extremely complex, thousands of painstak ing inspections and tests must be made as each component and part moves toward final assembly of the whole system. Inspections are made not only by employees of the manufacturers but also by civilian employees of Federal agencies which have contracted for the equipment. Some inspectors specialize in examining materials and equip ment purchased from the out side; others inspect components during fabrication and subassem bly within their own plants; still others inspect completed craft af ter their final assembly. Many in spection jobs require highly skilled workers. On the other hand, some tests are made by automatic equipment which can be run by relatively unskilled per sons. Such equipment not only checks the component or assem bly under test but may run simul taneous checks on itself. Some of the most skilled in spections, especially in final as sembly plants, are outside pro duction inspectors (D.O.T. 806.381). They examine machined parts, subassemblies, and tools and dies which have been ordered from other firms. They also serve as liaison men between their own engineering departments and supplying companies. Other in spectors, frequently known as receiving inspectors (D.O.T. 806.384), with less responsibility than outside production inspec tors, check purchased materials and parts for conformity with b l u e p r i n t s , armed services requirements, and other estab lished standards. They operate testing equipment and must be familiar with specifications of the parts inspectors (D.O.T. 609.381) determine, by the use of precision testing in struments, whether or not a part has been machined properly to conform to blueprint specifica tions. They also may test for hardness and porosity and deter mine the “ machineability” of castings and forgings. Fabrication inspectors (D.O.T. 807.381) are generally skilled sheet-metal workers. They inspect fabricated sheet-metal work and complex parts which have required num erous fabricating operations. As the parts are fitted togeth er, they undergo numerous in spections by assembly inspectors (D.O.T. 806.381). These inspec tors are employed, for the most part, in the later stages of the assembly process. They usually inspect complete major assem blies and installations, such as fuselage, wing, and nose sections, to insure their proper final fitting. They also check the functioning of systems such as hydraulics, plumbing, and controls. Less skilled assembly inspectors usu ally check subassemblies. Flight c h e c k o u t occupations. Checking out an aircraft or space craft before its first flight re quires a team of mechanics hav ing different levels and types of skills. Sometimes the checkingout process involves making re pairs or returning the craft to the plant for repairs. The chief me chanic or crew chief, who is the most skilled worker of the team, is responsible for the entire checking-out operation, including repair work. He usually directs the work of a crew of mechanics, each of whom specializes in one field or more. For example, engine me chanics specialize in checking out the powerplant, including the en- OCCUPATIONS IN AIRCRAFT, MISSILE, AND SPACECRAFT MANUFACTURING 607 T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Production mechanic tightens small bolt in forward cockpit area. gine, propellers, and oil and fuel systems. They use handtools, testing equipment, and precision measuring instruments. The elec tronics checkout men perform or supervise the final operational checkout of systems such as ra dio, radar, automatic pilot, fire control, and complete electronic guidance systems. Other skilled workers may specialize in check ing out and repairing armament, instruments, rigging and controls, plumbing, and hydraulic systems. In some cases, less skilled me chanics help conduct tests and make repairs. Materials handling, maintenance, and custodial occupations. Aero space plants employ large num bers of materials handlers such as truckdrivers, crane operators, shipping clerks, stock clerks, and tool crib attendants. Mainten ance workers, who keep equip ment and buildings in good oper ating condition and make changes in the layout of the plant, include maintenance me chanics, millwrights, electricians, carpenters, plumbers, painters, and welders. Guards, firemen, and janitors make up a major portion of the plant’s protective and custodial employees. A college degree in engineering or in one of the sciences usually is the minimum requirement for engineering and scientific jobs in the aerospace industry. A few workers may get jobs as profes sional engineers without a college degree, but only after years of semiprofessional work experience and some college-level training. Since many kinds of engineers and scientists are employed in aerospace work, college graduates in many different degree fields may qualify for professional jobs in the industry. Regardless of his degree field, the undergraduate student preparing for professional aerospace work is well advised to get as solid a background as pos sible in fundamental concepts and basic general areas of engi neering and science. Mathematics and physics courses are especially important, since these sciences provide the necessary language understood by the variety of engi neers and scientists working on any given project. Education or training in the more specialized fields of the aerospace industry generally is received in graduate school or on the job. An increasing number of semiprofessional workers, such as electronics technicians, engineer ing aids, draftsmen, production planners, and tool designers, re ceive training for their jobs through 2 years of formal educa tion in a technical institute or junior college. Others qualify through several years of diversi fied shop experience. Training requirements for plant jobs vary from a few days of on-the-job instruction to sev eral years of formal apprentice ship. Apprenticeship programs develop craftsmen such as ma- 608 chinists, tool and die makers, sheetmetal workers, patternmak ers, aircraft mechanics, and elec tricians. These programs vary in length from 3 to 5 years, depend ing on the trade; during this time, the apprentice handles work of progressively increasing difficulty. Besides on-the-job experience, he receives classroom instruction in subjects related to his craft. Such instruction for a machinist ap prentice, for example, would in clude courses in blueprint read ing, mechanical drawing, shop mathematics, trade theory, phys ics, safe working practices, and other subjects. Many levels of skill are re quired for other factory jobs. Workers who have little or no pre vious training or experience are hired for the less skilled assembly jobs. On the other hand, skilled assemblers may need 2 to 4 years of plant experience in addition to a high school or vocational school education or its equiva lent. Skilled assemblers must be able to read and interpret e n g i neering blueprints, schematic dia grams, and production illustra tions. Skilled inspectors often have several years of machine shop ex perience. They must be able to install and use various kinds of testing equipment and instru ments, read blueprints and other engineering specifications, and use shop mathematics. New work ers who have little or no experi ence in shop trades also may be hired and trained for jobs re quiring less skilled inspectors. Mechanics who perform the fi nal checkout of aircraft and spacecraft qualify for their jobs in several ways. Many gain exper ience as mechanics by working in the earlier stages of the plant’s production line before final check out of the craft. Others receive all their training in checkout work, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK or come from “ line maintenance” jobs with commercial airlines. Chief mechanics usually need 3 to 5 years of experience in the manufacture of aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft, including at least 1 year as a checkout mechanic. Specialized mechanics, working under the supervision of the chief mechanic, usually are required to have at least 2 years’ experience. Workers having less experience serve as helpers or assistants and learn the mechanic’s skills on the job and through plant training courses. Because the manufacture of their complex and rapidly changing products requires work ers who are highly trained and aware of new developments, the majority of aerospace plants sup port some kind of formal worker training. Instruction of this type supplements day-to-day job ex perience and helps workers ad vance more rapidly to higher skills and better paid work. Many of the industry’s major producers conduct educational and training classes themselves; others pay tu ition and related costs for outside courses taken by their employees; and some do both. Some classes are held during working hours, in which case trainees are paid for class time; other classes are con ducted after working hours. Courses are available for practi cally every occupational group and cover many skills and areas of knowledge. Examples of sub jects typically offered include blueprint reading, drafting, weld ing, aircraft maintenance and re pair, electronic data processing, shop mathematics, supervisory practices, and safe working prac tices. Most trainees take short term courses designed to meet immediate skill needs. Only a relatively few employees are en rolled in long-term programs scheduled to run for several years, such as apprenticeship. Em ploym ent Outlook Employment in the aerospace industry is expected to approxi mate current (1968) levels or de cline slightly by the late 1970’s. However, there still will be tens of thousands of job opportunities annually in this large field, stem ming primarily from the need to replace workers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone will result in roughly 25,000 job openings each year during the next decade. Products of the aerospace in dustry have been developed pri marily to assure our national se curity and to advance our goals in the conquest of space. The in dustry’s future, therefore, de pends largely on the level of Fed eral expenditures. Changes in these expenditures usually have been accompanied by sharp fluc tuations in aerospace employ ment. In the past, many workers, including some scientists, engi neers, and technicians, have been laid off during production cut backs. The outlook in this indus try is based on the assumption that defense expenditures (in constant dollars) in the late 1970’s will be somewhat higher than the level prior to the Viet nam buildup, approximating the level of the early 1960’s. If they should differ substanti ally, the demand for workers in the aerospace industry wil be af fected accordingly. Changes in the relative impor tance of various segments of aero space activity may be expected during the next decade. Employ ment levels in aircraft manufac turing by the late 1970’s may be below the current level. Employ ment in the industry has in creased substantially between 1966 and 1968, reflecting the con tinually increasing demand for civil aircraft superimposed upon OCCUPATIONS IN AIRCRAFT, MISSILE, AND SPACECRAFT MANUFACTURING the critical demands of the Viet Nam conflict. Jobs in the space craft field may increase moderate ly because of space exploration. Relatively stable employment is anticipated in plants that produce electronic units for this industry. Expenditures for research and development should continue at the current high level or rise slightly. Employment opportunities will be relatively more favorable for workers such as engineers, sci entists, draftsmen, electronics technicians, mathematics aids, and research craftsmen. Many job openings in these occupations will become available not only in manufacturing but also in univer sity laboratories and independent research organizations working on aerospace contracts, and in Federal agencies such as the Air Force, Navy, Army, and NASA. Some job openings also will be come available for skilled plant personnel such as machine re pairmen. Because of the contin uing emphasis on custom produc tion of many diversified products, employment of semiskilled and unskilled assembly line workers is expected to decrease. Earnings and W orking Conditions Plant workers’ earnings in the aerospace industry are higher than those in most other manu facturing industries. In 1968, for example, production workers in plants making aircraft and parts earned on the average $152.04 a week or $3.62 an hour; production workers in all manufacturing in dustries as a whole averaged $122.51 a week or $3.01 an hour. Production workers in the Depart ment of Defense and other Fed eral agencies receive wages equal to prevailing rates paid for com parable jobs by local private em ployers. Earnings of professional and technical workers in the aero space field are higher than those for similar workers in most other industries because of the rapid growth of research and develop ment activity for missiles and spacecraft, which has created an urgent need for well-qualified en gineers, scientists, and techni cians. (General information on earnings of professional and tech nical personnel may be found in the sections on individual occu pations in the Handbook.) The following tabulation indi cates an approximate range of hourly wage rates for selected oc cupations in mid-1968, obtained from the collective bargaining agreements of a number of major aerospace companies; these rates do not include incentive earnings. The ranges in various jobs are wide, partly because wages within an occupation vary according to workers’ skills and experience, and partly because wages differ from plant to plant, depending upon type of plant, locality, and other factors. Aircraft mechanics ...........$2.45 - $3.80 Assemblers ........................ 2.40 - 3.50 Electronics technicians..... 2.90 - 3.95 Heat treaters ..................... 2.40- 3.65 Inspectors and testers....... 3.35 - 4.10 Jig and fixture builders .... 2.50 - 4.10 Laboratory technicians..... 2.40 - 3.95 Machine tool operators..... 2.40 - 3.70 Machinists ......................... 2.45- 3.90 Maintenance craftsmen .... 2.40- 3.95 Riveters ............................. 2.50 - 3.90 Tool and die makers......... 2.85 - 4.10 Welders ............................. 2.45- 3.70 Fringe benefits are common in the industry. Workers usually get 2 weeks of paid vacation after 1 or 2 years of service, and 3 weeks after 10 or 12 years. They gener ally get 8 to 10 paid holidays a year and 1 week of paid sick 609 leave. Other major benefits in clude life insurance; medical, sur gical, and hospital insurance; ac cident and sickness insurance; and retirement pensions. Fringe benefits in Federal aerospace em ployment are comparable with those in the rest of the industry. Most employees work in mod ern factory buildings which are clean, light, and airy. Some work is done outdoors. Operations, such as sheetmetal processing, riveting, and welding, may be noisy, and some assemblers may work in cramped quarters. Aero space plants are comparatively safe working places; the injuryfrequency rate in 1967 averaged only about one-third of that for manufacturing as a whole. Most plant workers in the aero space field are union members. They are represented by several unions, among them the Inter national Association of Machin ists and Aerospace Workers; the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agri cultural Implement Workers of America; and the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers. Some crafts men, guards, and truck drivers are members of unions which re present their specific occupational groups. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Additional information about careers in the aerospace field may be obtained from: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C. 20546. Aerospace Industries Association of America, Inc., 1725 DeSales St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. 610 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK International Association of Ma chinists and Aerospace Workers, 1300 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. tural Implement Workers of America, 8000 East Jefferson Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48214. International Union, United Auto mobile, Aerospace and Agricul International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers, 1126 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Electronics Industries Association, 2001 Eye St. N.W., Wahington, D.C. 20006. EM PLO YM EN T O U TLO O K AND O C C U P A T IO N S IN T H E A LU M IN U M IN D U S T R Y About 93,000 workers were em ployed in the aluminum industry in 1968. Employment was con centrated mainly in the rolling and extruding sector, although in dividual primary reduction plants in some cases employed more workers than rolling and extrud ing plants. Considered a specialty metal having limited application only a short time ago, aluminum today is mass-produced in quantities second only to iron and steel. It is used in products ranging from appliances and cooking utensils to automobiles and aircraft and aerospace applications. Alumi num siding, containers, and elec trical cables are among the more recent applications of this versa tile metal. During 1968, the in dustry produced about 6.5 bil lion pounds of primary aluminum — over twice the output of only 10 years earlier. The use of aluminum is growing rapidly because of its natural properties, the industry’s strong research and development activi ties, and its aggressive marketing program. Some of aluminum’s qualities are its light weight, good corrosion resistance, high strength to weight ratio (in alloy form), good heat reflectivity, electrical conductivity and ductility. The major aluminum consuming in dustries are construction and building supplies, transportation equipment (autos, trucks, rail, aircraft, ships), electrical and communications, consumer dur ables (refrigerators, washing ma chines, and others), containers and packaging, and machinery and equipment. This chapter describes occupa tions in the primary aluminum industry which comprises plants engaged in producing aluminum and aluminum alloys from alumi num oxide (alumina). It also de scribes occupations in plants en gaged in rolling, drawing, and ex truding aluminum and aluminumbase alloys. The so called secon dary aluminum industry, which produces aluminum primarily from aluminum scrap, is excluded as are the mining of bauxite, fluor spar, and other raw materials, and the refining of bauxite to alumina. Occupations concerned with cast ing, stamping, forging, machining, and fabrication of aluminum are discussed separately in the Hand book chapters dealing with forg ing and machining occupations. Some companies that produce aluminum are integrated com pletely— that is, they operate bauxite mines; maintain a fleet of ships to transfer the ore to proc essing plants; refine the ore into alumina; reduce alumina to alu minum; and form aluminum into semifinished and finished prod ucts by rolling and a wide variety of fabricating methods. Other companies fabricate metal that they produce but buy alumina from other sources. The great ma jority of companies do not pro duce the basic metal, but pur chase aluminum from primary or secondary (scrap) sources and form the metal into semifinished and finished products. The South Central area of the country, which includes Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, Tennessee, and Texas leads in the production of primary aluminum, although the State of Washington is the Nation’s largest producer. Plants within its borders represent about one-fifth of national primary alu minum capacity. The North Cen tral area, consisting of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio, is the center for aluminum rolling, drawing, and extruding plants. Occupations in the Industry Employment in the aluminum industry falls into several cate gories. First, there is a wide assortment of jobs directly con cerned with smelting and trans forming aluminum into industrial and consumer products. Another group of occupations maintain and service the complex machin ery and equipment used in the manufacturing process. In addi tion, a fairly large group of cleri cal, sales, professional, technical, administrative, and supervisory positions is needed to facilitate the production process and to op erate the companies. About 4 out of 5 workers em ployed in the industry work in production and maintenance oc cupations. They produce alumi num from alumina and form the metal, maintain plant machinery and equipment, and facilitate the flow of materials throughout the plant. The remaining one-fifth are in clerical, sales, professional, technical, administrative, re search, managerial, and supervis ory occupations. Due to the relatively high tem peratures associated with alumi num reduction and the strenuous nature of some tasks necessary for its production, women make up only about 3 percent of the work force in primary aluminum plants. Although most women employed in the industry work in clerical, secretarial, and other office jobs, they constitute about 9 percent of the work force in rolling and drawing plants and are found in jobs such as graders, sorters, and inspectors. 611 612 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Tapper breaks hole in electrolytic crust with automatic pot puncher. Processing O ccupations The largest proportion of em ployees in the alumium industry are in factory jobs processing the metal. To illustrate the types of processing occupations found in the industry, a description of the major steps in the production (re duction) and fabricating of alu minum follows. To produce aluminum, the metal is separated from the ox ygen with which it is combined in alumina by smelting. This process involves mixing alumina and other additives in a bath of cryolite (sodium aluminum fluoride) and occurs in deep retangular cells or “ pots” of thermally insulated steel, lined with carbon. The cells or furnaces are generally about 20 feet long, 10 feet wide, and about 3 feet deep. Reduction— The cells contain ing molten cryolite are lined with carbon which serve as the cathode or one electrode. Depending on the type of cell used, either one large block of carbon (Soderberg) or a number of small blocks of carbon (prebaked) suspended from the top of the cell acts as the anode or other electrode. D i rect electrical current is intro duced, and the alumina is reduced to aluminum and accu mulates at the bottom of the cell. The oxygen is deposited on the anode and is oxidized to carbon dioxide. Anode men (D.O.T. 630.884) are responsible for maintenance of the anodes on the reduction cells. Among their duties are pull ing pins from the anodes by means of hydraulic pullers and cleaning scales from the pins using a sandblasting device. They may replace the pins using a steel driver. Pot liners (D.O.T. 519.884) rebuild the Soderberg type anode and reline the reduction furnaces when they burn out. To line the pot, the pot liners pour water into it to loosen the sediment. They then dig out the material using jackhammers or diggers. Next, they lay a brick base in the pot floor and drop carbon mix into the cell. The potliners line the walls and floor with carbon blocks and tamp carbon paste into cracks using a pneumatic hammer. Potmen (D.O.T. 512.885) tend the reduction pots and are re sponsible for their continuous op eration. Each potman attends a number of different cells. During the operation of the pot, the alu mina gradually is consumed. When the dissolved alumina con tent of one of the cells decreases from approximately 5 percent to 2 percent of the electrolyte, the electrical resistance of the pot rises suddenly from about 5 to 30 volts or more causing an electric bulb on the side of the pot to lightup. This development, known as “ anode effect,” signals the pot man to break the crust of the electrolyte bath and stir in hot alumina which has been lying on the surface. This operation causes the voltage to return to normal levels and the crust reforms. In operating the pots, operators try to reduce anode effects by adding specified amounts of materials at designated time intervals. Every 24 to 72 hours, part of the molten aluminum is syphoned from the bottom of the reduction cells into huge cast-iron crucibles which have airtight lids. The tap per (D.O.T. 514.884) and tapper helper (D.O.T. 514.887) signal the hot-metal crane operator EMPLOYMENT OUTLOOK AND OCCUPATIONS IN THE ALUMINUM INDUSTRY (D.O.T. 921.883) to place the ov erhead crane near the pot to be tapped. They then break a hole in the electrolytic crust using an automatic pot puncher. One end of a curved cast iron tube is in serted into the pot, the other into a crucible of up to 8,000 pounds capacity. A compressed air hose is attached to the siphon and the molten metal is drawn into the crucible. After the completion of several tappings, an overhead crane removes the loaded crucible to a remelting furnace. A scaleman (D.O.T. 502.887) weighs and takes samples of the molten metal for laboratory analysis and separates grades and types of alloys to be blended with the molten aluminum. The molten metal in the crucibles is poured into a “ charging hearth” or re melt furnace. A remelt operator (D.O.T. 512.885) adds specified portions of aluminum scrap and molten metal from other cruci bles. Other metals are added (al loying) to the furnace to obtain desired properties. Final steps in the preparation of the metal are fluxing and de gassing. A compound is added to flux the molten metal, forcing oxides of aluminum to the surface for a hand skimmer to remove. Before the molten metal is re moved from the charging furnace, nitrogen or chlorine gas is added to eliminate the hydrogen gas. After the alloying and fluxing processes, the metal is transferred to the second compartment of the furnace, the “ holding” section, until a sufficient supply is ob tained for pouring. The d.c. cast ing operator (D.O.T. 514.782) has charge of the pouring station in which the molten metal is cast into ingots. He controls the cool ing condition of the casting unit by maintaining a constant level of metal in the molds and operates a series of instruments which spray water against the molds to produce ingots of uniform crystal line structure. Rolling— Over half of aluminum wrought products consist of plate, sheet and strip, which are pro duced by rolling. The first step in rolling operations is to remove sur face impurities from the ingot. The scalper operator (D.O.T. 605.782) manipulates levers of a scalper machine and cuts approxi mately one-fourth inch layers of metal from the ingots. T o improve corrosion resistance of the surface, ingots are sometimes clad with thin layers of pure aluminum. These layers which are clamped 613 on the sides of the ingot join with the central layer of the sheet dur ing the rolling process. The ingots are brought to proper working temperatures for rolling by heat treating. Overhead cranes lower the ingot vertically into furnaces, or “ soaking pits” where they are sealed hermetically for 12 to 18 hours. The soaking pit operator (D.O.T. 613.782) manages the furnace and sets controls to ad just temperature and heating time. The huge rolling ingots are po sitioned on the “ breakdown” or hot rolling mill where they are Aluminum is tapped into crucible. 614 converted into elongated slabs of aluminum. Reduction operations are controlled by trained rolling mill operators (D.O.T. 613.782) who manipulate the ingots back and forth between powerful roll ers of a large tandem hot revers ing mill until they are reduced in thickness to about 3 inches. The slabs then move down the line on rollers to additional hot mills where they are worked down to about one-eighth of an inch thick. At the end of the hotline, a coiler operator (D.O.T. 613.885) tends a coiler which automatically winds the metal onto reels. Coiled aluminum is cooled at room temperature and then cold rolled to a still thinner size. Cold rolling assures a better surface finish and increases the metal’s strength and hardness. Since con tinual cold rolling could make the metal too brittle, intermediate steps of heat treating are neces sary. Heat treating or annealing takes place in furnaces under the control of an annealer (D.O.T. 504.782). After annealing, the metal may be further cold rolled to a speci fied thickness and then heat treated again to soften it for fu ture fabrication. T o relieve in ternal stress from rolling and an nealing or contour defects, the finished sheet or plate may be placed in large stretchers which pull the metal from end to end. Stretcher-leveler-operators (D.O.T. 619.782) and stretcherleveler-operator helpers (D.O.T. 619.886) position the metal in a stationary vise, determine stretch requirements to meet production specifications, and operate the machine. During both production and fabricating processes inspections of the metal are conducted to assure quality and consistency of the product. Radiographic test ing and ultrasonic testing are two processes used for inspection. Ra OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK diographers (D.O.T. 199.381) op erate various types of X-ray equipment to take radiographs of the metal. Computers monitor op erations and adjust any differ ences that may occur between scheduled temperatures, diameter of metals, and speed of operations. Fabrication of Rods, Bars, and Structural's— In rod and bar mills, square castings called “ blooms” are heated to make them softer and then rolled through pairs of openings, each progressively smaller, until the proper size is reached. To produce wire, hot rolling is continued until the rod is about three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Then it is coldworked and drawn through dies which have openings smaller than the rod to reduce cross-sectional dimensions. Wire draw operators (D.O.T. 614.782) operate ma chines which draw the wire through the series of dies and au tomatically coil it on revolving reels. Structural shapes such as I beams and angles may be hot rolled or extruded. Hot rolled structural are made by passing a square bloom with rounded corners between rolls having a series of grooves. As the grooves become smaller, the bloom is re duced in cross section and elong ated. The shape of the structural is determined by the contour of the grooves in the rolls. Extrusion. Extruding of metal often is compared with squeezing toothpaste from a tube. Extruded aluminum shapes are produced by placing heated billets (alumi num logs) in an enclosed cylinder in a powerful press. A hydraulic ram which has a force of several million pounds pushes the metal through a hole cut in a die at the other end of the cylinder. The metal takes the contour of the die in cross-section and then may be cut into desired lengths. By de signing different dies, almost any shape of aluminum product may be formed. The press is operated by an extrusion press operator (D.O.T. 614.782) who regulates the rate of extrusion to prevent metal rupture and adherence of metal to contour walls. Another type of extrusion is im pact extrusion, a combination of extrusion and forging. Shapes of aluminum are inserted in dies of powerful presses, some up to three stories high. A punch gives the slug a forceful downward blow, and the metal of the slug is forced around the punch. The produc tion process is basically complete in the one blow. M ainten ance, Tran spo rtation and Plant Service O ccupations Large numbers of workers are employed in the aluminum indus try to keep machines and equip ment operating properly. Others are engaged in moving materials, supplies, and finished products throughout the plants; still others are employed in service occupa tions such as guard, policeman, and custodian. Many of these oc cupations also are common to other industries. (See index to the Handbook.) The critical importance of elec tricity to the reduction process requires a relatively large number of electricians to install electrical wiring and maintain electrical fix tures, apparatus, and control equipment. Electronics mechanics repair computers, industrial con trols, radiography equipment, and other complex electronic gear. Millwrights move, maintain, and repair mechanical equipment. They take apart and restore to operating use machinery essential to aluminum production and fab rication. Maintenance machinists are employed in plant machine shops to make and repair me chanical parts used in the plant EMPLOYMENT OUTLOOK AND OCCUPATIONS IN THE ALUMINUM INDUSTRY and determine policy decisions. Middleline managers and super intendents direct individual de partments, offices, and operations. Other administrative personnel function in staff positions such as accountants, lawyers, statisti cians, economists, and mathema ticians. machinery and equipment. Sta tionary engineers operate and maintain the powerplants, tur bines, steam engines, and motors used in aluminum plants. Diemakers lay out, assemble, and repair dies used in aluminum metalworking operations. Brick layers build, rebuild, and reline boilers, furnaces, soaking pits, and similar installations. Plumb ers and pipefitters lay out, install, and maintain piping and piping systems for steam, water, and in dustrial materials used in alumi num manufacture. Maintenance welders join metal parts by hand or machine riveting and by resist ance welding and electric arc and gas welding. Professional, Technical, and Related Occupations Engineers, scientists, and tech nicians make up a significant pro portion of nonproduction worker employment in the industry. Quality control is essential in producing aluminum. Companies in the industry employ chemists to control the quality by making chemical analyses of aluminum and the raw materials used in its production. Process metallurgists study the reduction process to determine the most efficient methods of producing aluminum from raw materials. Physical met allurgists conduct microscopic, X-ray, spectroscopic, and physical and mechanical property tests of aluminum and alloys to determine their physical characteristics. They also develop new alloys and new uses for aluminum and alloys. Chemical engineers and me chanical engineers design and supervise the construction and op eration of reduction and fabricat ing facilities. Most mechanical engineers are employed in the fab ricating sectors of the industry, where they may design, regulate, 615 C lerical and Related O ccupations A large group of clerical work ers, including bookkeepers, secre taries, stenographers, clerk typ ists, and keypunch and computer operators keep records for the company and transact everyday business. Chemical engineer and potroom supervisor discuss reduction operations. and improve rolling mills and re lated equipment. Electrical engineers plan and oversee the installation, opera tion, and maintenance of the elec tric generators, transmission, and distribution systems used in the manufacture of aluminum. Industrial engineers conduct work measurement studies, de velop management control sys tems to aid in financial planning and cost analysis, and, in general, determine the most effective methods of using the basic factors of production: manpower, ma chines, and materials. Engineering technicians, labo ratory technicians, and chemical analysts assist engineers and chemists in research and develop ment work. Draftsmen prepare the working drawings that are re quired for the manufacture and repair of reduction and fabricat ing machinery. A wide range of other profes sional and administrative occupa tions is needed to facilitate the manufacture of aluminum. Top executives manage the companies Train in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Aluminum companies generally hire and train inexperienced work ers for processing and mainte nance jobs. For most professional occupations, the minimum re quirement is a bachelor’s or first professional degree. For research and development work, most companies prefer graduate de grees. Administrative and man agement positions usually are filled by people who have engi neering or other specialized back grounds and have been promoted to such jobs. Sales positions often are filled by people having engi neering or related technical back grounds. Applicants and employees who demonstrate a capacity for tech nical work have opportunities to qualify as technicians, laboratory assistants, and other semiprofes sionals. Some college background in science or graduation from a technical institute or community college is required for many tech nical jobs. Some jobs in the industry can be learned in a few days; craft, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 616 engineering, and scientific posi tions require years of prepara tion. New, unskilled workers often begin their careers in labor pools from which they are as signed to fill in for regular workers who are absent. After working in the pool for a specified period, they become eligible for a perma nent position in a shop or depart ment. As workers acquire addi tional skills and seniority with the company, they usually move to more responsible and better paying positions. Former produc tion and maintenance workers fill many foremen and supervisory positions. Craftsmen are trained most often on the job. A number of companies, particularly the larger ones, have formal apprentice training programs. Under these programs, apprentices take relat ed instruction courses in class rooms or at home and also work with experienced craftsmen to obtain practical on-the-job expe rience. The length of the appren ticeship varies according to the requirements of the particular craft, although most require 3 or 4 years. The following crafts are included among the apprentice ship programs currently in force in the industry: Electrician, welder, brickmason, carpenter, pyrometer man, machinist, main tenance mechanic, pipefitter, diemaker, roll grinder, sheet-metal worker, and automotive me chanic. The method of selecting candidates for apprentice pro grams varies by company, but generally they are chosen from promising young men already em ployed by the company. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment in the industry is expected to rise moderately through the 1970’s, although the amount of aluminum produced annually is likely to increase sharply. Most job opportunities will stem from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or leave the industry for other reasons. Openings arising from deaths and retirements alone are expected to average about 2,000 a year. Demand for aluminum is ex pected to continue to grow at a fast rate because industries that represent major markets for alu minum are growing industries with potential for new product development. For example, motor vehicle manufacturers are ex panding the use of the metal in automobile components, and vir tually the entire bodies of many trucks and buses are made of alu minum. Today’s aircraft average 75 to 85 percent aluminum. Alu minum is being used widely in the construction of large office and institutional buildings and for residential construction and re modeling. Space applications for aluminum include components for manned space vehicles and scientific s a t e l l i t e s , rockets, launch facilities, guidance sys tems, and powder for rocket pro pellant. To take advantage of this potential, the aluminum industry supports a strong research and development p r o g r a m which should continue to develop new alloys, processes, and products. As a result, the number of engi neers, scientists, and technical personnel is expected to increase as a proportion of total employ ment. On the other hand, larger cell and plant capacities and techno logical developments, such as con tinuous casting and computer controlled rolling operations, will limit employment growth among some production occupations. Earnings and W orking Conditions Earnings of plant workers in the aluminum industry are higher than the average for other manu facturing industries. For example, in 1968, earnings of production workers in primary aluminum plants averaged $155.45 a week or $3.71 an hour. Production workers in aluminum rolling and drawing plants averaged $149.70 a week or $3.41 an hour. This compares with average earnings of $122.51 per week or $3.01 an hour for production workers in all manufacturing. Skilled operators and skilled maintenance and craft workers hold the highest paying plant jobs. Standard hourly rates ef fective in 1967 for selected occu pations in a number of plants of a large aluminum producer are shown as follows: Occupation Hourly wage rate Reduction: Laborer .............................. Scaleman ............................ Industrial trucker ............ Soaking pit operator ......... Annealing furnace operator Potman................................ Pourer ................................ Tapper ................................ $2.97 3.22 3.29 3.42 3.55 3.56 3.55 3.82 Fabricating: Mill helper ........................ Stretcher-leveler operator .. Scalper operator................ Inspector ............................ Hot mill operator.............. Continuous mill operator .. 4-Hi mill operator ............ 3.03 3.42 3.42 3.48 3.94 4.00 4.00 Maintenance: Boiler fireman .................. Carpenter............................ Welder, pipefitter, millwright ...................... Layout man........................ Electrician, machinist, pyrometer man.............. 3.81 4.07 4.13 4.26 4.33 In addition to the above rates, premium pay is given for over time work and for work on Sun days and holidays. Aluminum workers also receive other bene fits, such as paid vacations and holidays; retirement benefits; life, sickness and accident, hospi tal, medical and surgical insur- EMPLOYMENT OUTLOOK AND OCCUPATIONS IN THE ALUMINUM INDUSTRY ance; shift differentials; supple mental jury pay; and supplement al unemployment benefits. Most workers receive vacation pay ranging from 1 to 4 weeks, de pending on length of service. In addition, an extended vacation plan that is in effect in the in dustry provides 13-week vaca tions (including regular vacation time) every 5 years. Salaried personnel generally re ceive employee benefits compar able to those for hourly employees in the plant. The salary of em ployees varies considerably from very high paying executive posi tions to relatively low paying clerical jobs. Starting salaries are determined by a number of fac tors, some of which are the job being filled, the applicant’s quali fications, comparable area and in dustry wage scales, and the struc ture of the hourly pay scale at the plant. Graduates of accredited colleges receive good starting sal aries, and engineering graduates usually receive the highest offers. The reduction of alumina to aluminum requires high temper atures and makes the potroom an uncomfortable place to work. The workplace is often dusty and smoky, although aluminum com panies have improved working conditions in recent years in re duction plants through extensive fume control programs and other projects. The fabricating side of the industry offers more favorable work conditions. Workers in cer tain jobs are subject to high tem peratures, noises, and other dis comforts; however, the plant wide conditions are more pleasant than those found in reduction op erations. Maintenance shops offer a favorable working atmosphere. Because aluminum reduction is a continuous operation, some work ers are required to work at night and on weekends. The industry stresses safe working conditions and conducts intensive programs of worker safety education. For example, reduction plants have had a con 617 sistently lower frequency rate of injuries per man-hour than in other primary nonferrous metal reduction and refining plants. Most process and maintenance workers in the aluminum industry belong to labor unions. In addi tion, labor organizations repre sent some office, technical, and security personnel. The unions having the greatest number of members in the industry are United Steelworkers of America; Aluminum Workers International Union; and International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural I m p l e m e n t Workers of America. Sources of A dditional Inform ation The Aluminum Association, 420 Lexington Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. O C C U P A T IO N S IN T H E A P P A R E L IN D U S T R Y Over a million workers are em ployed in making clothing for the Nation’s population. The appar el industry produces about $170 worth of clothing annually for every man, woman, and child. The industry is an important source of jobs for workers who have widely different skills and interests. Many of the jobs in this industry can be learned in a few weeks; others take several years. The apparel industry is the Na tion’s largest employer of women in manufacturing. Four out of five garment workers are women. Most sewing machine operators are women. However, many oth ers work in jobs such as hand sewer, bookkeeper, and designer. Men usually predominate in jobs such as cutter and marker, presser, production manager, engineer, and salesman. N ature and Location of the Industry About 1.4 million men and women were employed in the ap parel industry in 1968. Approxi mately 633,000 produced women’s and children’s apparel; and about 505,000 produced men’s clothing. About 430,000 workers made dresses, skirts, blouses, suits and coats and 124,000 produced un dergarments for women and chil dren. In the men’s apparel indus try, 133,000 workers produced tailored clothing (suits, overcoats, topcoats and sportcoats) for men and boys and 372,000 made men’s and boys’ shirts, slacks, work clothes, separate trousers, night wear, undergarments and other furnishings. Another 104,000 were employed in shops which made miscellaneous apparel, such as fur goods, raincoats, gloves, and dressing gowns. About 176,000 workers classified in the apparel industry produced curtains and draperies. Although apparel factories are located in nearly all States, ap proximately 7 out of every 10 of the workers are employed in 10 States: New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Tennessee, Cali fornia, North Carolina, Georgia, Massachusetts, Texas, and South Carolina. New York City is the Nation’s fashion center and most large a p p a r e l manufacturers maintain sales offices there. Store buyers visit these showrooms to see the latest styles, especially “ high fashion” women’s apparel, including dresses, coats, and suits. As a result, many of the jobs which have to do with designing, sample making, and selling are in New York City. In women’s apparel manufac turing, almost one-half of the workers were employed in plants located in the New York-North eastern New Jersey metropolitan area and in areas of Pennsylvania such as Wilkes-Barre-Hazelton, Allentown - Bethlehem - Easton, and Philadelphia. However, many jobs for workers manufacturing women’s apparel also are found in Los Angeles-Long Beach and San Francisco, California; Fall RiverNew Bedford, Massachusetts; Chicago, Illinois; Miami, Florida; Dallas, Texas; and St. Louis, Missouri. In the men’s and boy’s tailored clothing industry the major man ufacturing centers are: New York City, Philadelphia, C h i c a g o , Rochester - Buffalo, AllentownReading-Easton, Baltimore, Bos ton, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Los Angeles-Long Beach, and St. Louis. Most of the factories mak ing men’s, youths’ and boys’ fur nishings such as trousers, work clothing, shirts, and nightwear are located in small communities pri marily in the South and South west. Most apparel factories are small. Although plants have been growing larger in recent years, only about 20 percent of them employ more than 100 workers. Many of the large plants make men’s and boys’ apparel. Plants that manufacture garments that are subject to rapid style change tend to be smaller than those making standard type garments such as work pants. O ccupations in the Industry The major operations in mak ing apparel are designing the gar ment, cutting the cloth, sewing the pieces together, and pressing the assembled garment. General ly, high-grade apparel and styleoriented garments are more care fully designed and involve more handwork and fewer machine op erations than the cheaper, more standardized garments. For ex ample, much hand detailing goes into a woman’s high-priced fash ionable cocktail dress or into a man’s high priced suit or coat. In contrast, standardized garments such as men’s undershirts, over alls, and work shirts usually are sewn entirely by machine. To make the many different types, styles, and grades of garments, workers with various skills and educational backgrounds are em ployed in the apparel industry. Designing Room, Occupations. Typically, the manufacturing process begins with the designer (D.O.T. 142.081) who creates original designs for new types and styles of apparel. The design er usually works with one type of apparel, such as men’s suits or women’s dresses. Women predom inate as the designers of women’s dresses; some men design 619 620 women’s coats and suits. For women’s apparel, the designer may get ideas by visiting mu seums, libraries, and major fash ion centers in both the United States and Europe. The designer makes sketches of his designs and presents them to the manage ment and sales staff of his com pany for approval. The sketches include information about the type of fabric, trim, and color. In designing women’s or children’s garments, he may make an ex perimental garment in muslin from approved sketches. He cuts, pins, sews, and adjusts the muslin on a dress form or on a live model until the garment matches his sketch. In large manufacturing plants, a sample stitcher (D.O.T. 785.381) prepares these sample garments by following the de signer’s sketch and performing all necessary machine and hand sew ing operations. Since designing is a creative job, designers usually work with out close supervision, but they must produce a satisfactory num ber of successful styles during a season, especially when designing women’s fashion garments. A large garment manufacturer gen erally has one designer and sev eral assistants who often have specialized designing responsibili ties of their own. Many small plants and plants making stand ardized garments do not employ designers but purchase ready made designs or patterns. When the sample garments or sketch has been approved, it is sent to a patternmaker (D.O.T. 781.381) who constructs a fullsize master pattern. Working closely with the designer, the pat ternmaker translates the sketch or sample garment into paper or fiberboard pattern pieces to be used as guides for cutting fabric. In drawing and cutting pattern pieces, the patternmaker must make allowances for pleats, tucks, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK yokes, seams, and shrinkage. In some shops designers or all-round tailors make patterns; in other shops the assistant designer per forms the patternmaking tasks. The master pattern serves as a guide for the pattern grader (D.O.T. 781.381) who makes a wide range of sizes in each gar ment style. In a sense, the pattern grader is a specialized draftsman. He measures the pieces that make up the master pattern and modi fies them to fit all sizes. The pat tern grader then outlines each re vised pattern piece on fiberboard and cuts out the pieces by follow ing the outlines. After he com pletes a set of pattern pieces for each garment size, he attaches a label to identify the part and size of the garment. Some large plants Hand spreader lays out cloth. 621 OCCUPATIONS IN THE APPAREL INDUSTRY board. Machine spreaders (D.O.T. 781.884) are aided by machines in laying the cloth even ly back and forth across the table. In most plants, m a r k e r s (D.O.T. 781.484) trace the fiberboard pattern pieces on large sheets of paper and make several carbons of these tracings. Some plants that make men’s and boys’ suits and coats trace the pattern pieces with chalk directly on the cloth itself, rather than on paper. To get the greatest number of cuttings from a given quantity of cloth, markers arrange pattern pieces so that there is just enough distance between them for the cutter to work. Plaids, stripes, and other patterned fabrics must be marked so that adjoining gar ment parts will match when the garment is assembled. Before Marker traces outlines of pattern. use computers to reduce the length of time required to draw up the pattern for each garment size from the master pattern. C u t t i n g Room Occupations. Workers in the cutting room pre pare cloth for sewing into articles of wearing apparel. There are five basic operations in the cut ting department: s p r e a d i n g , marking, cutting, assembling, and ticketing. Small shops may com bine two or more of these opera tions into a single job. Most jobs in the cutting room are held by men. Hand spreaders (D.O.T. 781.887) lay out neat bolts of cloth into exact lengths on the cutting Cutter directs electrically powered cutting knife through layers of cloth. 622 making the full-size paper mark ers, larger plants may photograph miniature patterns which have been arranged in acceptable po sitions to minimize fabric waste. A cutter (D.O.T. 781.884) cuts out the various garment pieces from the layers of cloth which are spread on the cutting table. He follows the outline of the pattern on the cloth with an electrically powered cutting knife which cuts through all the layers at once. Sometimes layers of cloth are as high as 9 inches. The work of a cutter and a marker fre quently is combined into a single job of cutter-marker. Other types of cutters are em ployed in shops making highquality garments. Hand cutters or shapers (D.O.T. 781.887) trim and cut the pieces for these gar ments to make them conform ex actly to the original pattern. Sometimes cutters sit in sewing rooms so that they can trim and shape garments as they advance through sewing operations. The pieces of cloth that have been cut are prepared for the sew ing room by another group of specialized workers. Assemblers, sometimes called bundlers or fit ters, (D.O.T. 781.687) bring to gether and bundle garment pieces and accessories (linings, tapes, and trimmings) needed to make a complete garment. They match color, size, and fabric design and use chalk or thread to mark lo cations for pockets, buttonholes, buttons, and other trimmings. They identify each bundle with a ticket, which is also used to figure the earnings of workers who are paid for the number of pieces they produce. The bundles are then routed to the various sections of the sewing room. Sewing Room Occupations. Al most half of all apparel workers are sewers and stitchers. Most of the employees in these jobs are women. Sewers stitch garment OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK cuttings together either by ma chine or by hand. The quality and style of the finished garment usu ally determine how much hand work is involved. Generally, high er priced clothing, such as suits and coats, require more hand work than do standardized gar ments. In the average plant, how ever, the work is broken down into a large number of machine operations. Some handwork is done when the garment nears completion. Sewing m a c h i n e operators (D.O.T. 787.782) use sewing ma chines that are generally heavier and capable of faster speeds than the sewing machines found in the home. Special devices or attach ments that hold buttons, guide stitches, or fold seams are often used. Some sewing machine op erators specialize in a single op eration such as sewing shoulder seams, attaching cuffs to sleeves, or hemming blouses. Others make garment sections such as pockets, collars, or sleeves. Still others as semble and join these completed sections to the main parts of the garment. Some sewing machine operators employed in shops mak ing high priced dresses and women’s coats and suits perform all the machine operations on a garment. Sewing machine operators gen erally are classified according to the type of machine they use, such as single-needle sewing machine operator or blindstitch machine operator. Others are known by the type of work performed, such as collar stitcher, sleeve finisher, cuff tacker, or coat baster. Hand sewing is done on better quality or highly styled dresses, suits, or coats to produce gar ments which are superior in fit and drape. Hand sewers (D.O.T. 782.884) use needle and thread to perform various operations ranging from simple sewing to complex stitching. Many hand sewers specialize in a single opera tion, such as buttonhole making, lapel basting, or lining stitching. In a typical apparel plant, bundles of cut garment pieces move through the sewing depart ment, where the garments take form as they pass through a series of sewing operations. Each opera tor performs one or two assigned tasks on each piece in the bundle and then passes the bundle to the next operator. Some plants employ material handlers (D.O.T. 929.887) often called floor boys or floor girls who move garment bundles from one sewing opera tion to another. At various stages of the sewing operations, inspectors and check ers (D.O.T. 789.687) examine garments for proper workman ship.. They mark defects such as skipped stitches or bad seams, which are repaired before the gar ments are passed on to the next sewing operation. Inspectors sometimes make minor repairs. Trimmer, hand (D.O.T. 781.887) often called thread trimmers and cleaners remove loose threads, basting stitches, and lint from gar ments. This is called “ in-process inspection.” Tailoring Occupations. Tailors (D.O.T. 785.381 and .261) and dressmakers (D.O.T. 785.361) are able to make garments from start to finish by hand or by ma chine. Some skilled tailors who are employed in plants to make men’s, women’s, and children’s outer garments may make up sample garments from the design er’s specifications. Bushelmen (D.O.T. 785.281), repair defects in finished gar ments that were rejected by the inspector. They alter garment parts that have not been sewn correctly, rearrange padding in coats and suits, and do other sew ing necessary to correct defects. Pressing Occupations. The OCCUPATIONS IN THE APPAREL INDUSTRY 623 specialize in one type of pressing ishes sewing the various sections or ironing. For example, in a shirt together to make the complete factory, a collar pointer (D.O.T. garment. Fur finishers (D.O.T. 583.885) operates a pressing ma 783.381) sew in the lining, tape chine that shapes and presses edges, make pockets, and sew on buttons and loops. points of shirt collars. Administrative, Sales and Main There are two basic types of pressers— underpressers and fin tenance Occupations. The major ish pressers. Underpressers spe ity of the adminstrative positions cialize on particular garment in an apparel plant are in the parts, such as collars, shoulders, production department. The pro seams, or pockets. Their duties duction manager occupies a vary from simple smoothing of strategic position in apparel cloth and flattening of seams to firms. He is responsible for esti skillful shaping of garment parts. mating production costs, sched Finish pressers generally do final uling the flow of work, hiring and pressing and ironing at the end training workers, c o n t r o l l i n g quality, and supervising the over of the sewing operations. Fur Shop Occupations. The ap all production activities of the parel industry includes plants plant. The industrial engineer advises that manufacture garments made of fur. Because furs are expensive management about the efficient and difficult to work with, each use of machines, materials, and operation in making a fur gar workers. (Further discussion of ment requires skilled handwork industrial engineers is included by an experienced craftsman. elsewhere in the Handbook.) Clerks, bookkeepers, stenogra Many of these workers have spe Presser finishes slacks. cial skills not found in plants that phers, and other office workers make up payrolls, prepare in make other types of apparel. shape and appearance of the fin The most skilled job in a fur voices, keep records, and attend ished garments depend to a large garment manufacturing plant is to other paperwork, required in extent on the amount of pressing that of a cutter who sometimes this industry. In some larger that is done during and after sew is also the foreman in the shop. plants, many clerical functions ing operations. Pressing is par A fur cutter (D.O.T. 783.781) are being done by computers. ticularly important in making selects and matches enough fur This requires keypunch opera high-quality garments. For exam skins to make a single garment, tors, computer programers and ple, from time to time during the such as a fur coat or jacket. He operators, and systems analysts. sewing of suits, coats, and better arranges and cuts the skins on Salesmen, purchasing agents, quality dresses, seams are pressed pattern pieces so that the choice models, credit managers, and ac open in order to produce a better sections of fur are placed where countants are among other types fitting and neater garment and they will show. Following the of workers in the apparel indus to make it easier to assemble the sewing instruction given by the try. Sewing machine mechanics garment. This is called “ under- cutter, fur machine operators are responsible for keeping the pressing.” In the manufacture of (D.O.T. 787.782) stitch these industry’s large number of sewing lighter weight garments, on the pelts together to form the major machines in good running order. other hand, pressing is done only garment sections. A fur nailer (Discussions of many of these after completion of all the sewing (D.O.T. 783.884) wets the sewn jobs can be found elsewhere in operations. garment sections, stretches them the Handbook.) Pressers (D.O.T. 363.782, .884, by hand, and nails them on a and .885) use various types of board so that they will cover the steam pressing machines, includ pattern. When the sections are T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, ing manikins and body forms, or dry, the nailer removes the nails and A dvancem ent hand irons to flatten seams and and trims the fur exactly along to shape garment parts and fin the outline of the pattern. The Training requirements for pro ished garments. Pressers may fur machine operator then fin duction (plant) jobs in the ap- 624 parel industry range from a few weeks of on-the-job training to several months of training and experience. The difference in training time needed before an employee can reach his maximum speed and efficiency depends on the type of job, the worker’s apti tude, and the employers training program. Many plant workers pick up their skills while work ing as helpers or assistants to ex perienced workers. Apprentice ship is infrequent and is limited mainly to designing, cutting, or tailoring jobs. Some private and public schools in garment manu facturing centers offer instruction in occupations such as designing, patternmaking, and cutting as well as machine and hand sewing. Good eyesight and manual dex terity are essential for most pro duction jobs in the apparel in dustry. Many occupations are well suited for handicapped work ers since most jobs are performed while the worker is seated. Little physical exertion is required. Older workers and women also perform well in a variety of jobs. Many workers in their fifties and sixties are among the industry’s most skilled and productive. Women are employed in most of the occupations in this industry, although men hold most of the cutting, tailoring, and pressing jobs. Designers enter the industry in various ways. Many receive their training by working on the job with experienced designers, by advancing from cutting or pat ternmaking jobs, or through ap prenticeship. There is an increas ing tendency for apparel firms to recruit designers from colleges that offer specialized training in design. Some young people with a background in designing may take jobs as designers with small firms, and once their reputations have been established, transfer to jobs in larger, better paying OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK firms. In large firms, young peo ple may start as assistant de signers. A designer should have artistic ability, including a talent for sketching, a thorough knowledge of fabrics, a keen sense of color, and the ability to translate de sign ideas into a finished gar ment. He should also be ac quainted with garmentmaking techniques which he may learn by working briefly at various op erative jobs, such as machine sewing, draping, sample making, and cutting. The production manager usu ally begins as a management trainee, and the industrial engi neer as a junior engineer. A col lege education is increasingly be ing required for these jobs. For those without this educational background, many years of onthe-job training in all production processes ranging from selection of fabrics to shipment of finished apparel are often required to qualify as a production manager. Most patternmakers pick up the skills of the trade by working for several years as helpers to ex perienced patternmakers. Pattern graders and cutters are occasion ally promoted to patternmaking jobs. Patternmakers must have the ability to visualize from a sketch or model furnished by the designer the size, shape, and number of pattern pieces re quired. Patternmakers must also have a detailed understanding of how garments are made as well as a knowledge of body propor tions. Like the designer, they must also have a thorough knowl edge of fabrics. Pattern graders usually are se lected from employees working in the cutting room or in other plant jobs. Training in drafting is helpful since much of the work requires the use of drafting tools and techniques. Most workers enter the cutting room by taking jobs as assem blers (bundlers or fitters). Pati ence and the ability to match colors and patterns are necessary qualifications for these jobs. As semblers (bundles, or fitters), may be promoted to jobs such as spreader. Several years of experi ence in the cutting room are re quired before an employee can become a skilled marker or cut ter. A small number of the larger plants have apprenticeship pro grams which usually last 4 years and include training in spreading, cutting, marking, and pattern making. Entry into beginning hand- or machine-sewing jobs is relatively easy for young women, since there are few restrictions regard ing educational, and physical con dition. Some previous training in sewing operations is preferred, but many apparel plants hire workers who have had no experi ence in sewing. Generally, train ing is informal and received on the job. New workers usually start by sewing straight seams, under the supervision of a section foreman or experienced worker. Some large companies have formal on-the-job training pro grams for sewing machine opera tors. Training usually consists of learning how to perform a single operation with minimal finger, arm, and body movements. Most sewing jobs require the ability to do routine work rapid ly. The same sewing operation is repeated on each identical gar ment piece. Since almost all these workers are paid on the basis of the number of pieces produced, any clumsiness of hand may re duce the worker’s earnings. Good eyesight and ability to work at a steady and fast pace are essential for both hand- and machine-sew ing jobs. The average sewing machine operator has little opportunity for promotion beyond section OCCUPATIONS IN THE APPAREL INDUSTRY 625 learn the trade through vocation al training in day or evening schools. Graduates from voca tional schools frequently are hir ed and given additional train ing on the job. Others learn the trade informally, on the job, first doing relatively easy sewing op erations and progressively ad vancing to more difficult opera tions. It requires several years of experience to become an all round tailor or dressmaker. Tailors and dressmakers may qualify for jobs as fitters or alter ation tailors in department stores, clothing stores, and clean ing and dyeing shops. Pressers usually begin as underpressers working on simple seams and garment parts. This job can be learned in a very short time. After the pressers gain ex perience, they work on more dif ficult operations and eventually may be promoted to the job of finish presser. Pressing, like tail oring, is one of the few needle trades in which workers can find similar employment in stores and in cleaning and dyeing shops. There is some transferring back and forth between pressing jobs inside and outside the apparel industry. Em ploym ent O utlook Clipper cuts loose threads from finished garment. forelady, although some sewing machine operators have worked their way up to production man ager. Most sewers stay on the same general type of operation throughout most of their working lives. However, some workers may be moved from simpler sew ing operations to more compli cated tasks that pay higher piece rates. Some tailors and dressmakers Employment in the apparel in dustry is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. In addition to the thousands of job opportunities expected to re sult from employment growth, a considerable number of opportu nities for young people will occur because of the tens of thousands of experienced workers who will leave the industry. About threefourths of the industry’s workers are women, a large number of whom leave the industry each year to marry or to raise families. Also, this industry employs more 626 older workers than many indus tries. It is estimated that deaths and retirements alone will pro vide 70,000 job openings annu ally. Demand for apparel in the years ahead is expected to in crease rapidly. The increased de mand for apparel will result mainly from a growing, more af fluent, and younger population. For example, the number of peo ple in their teens and twenties will rise greatly in the years ahead, and these are the age groups in which spending for ap parel is greatest. The trend tow ard more workers in clerical, sales, professional, and other white-collar occupations will in crease the demand for apparel, since these workers spend more for apparel than other workers. Increasing numbers of working women, particularly those in sec retarial and other office jobs that require “ dressing up,” will stimu late apparel purchases. Men, also, are buying more clothing, includ ing highly styled garments as well as sports and leisure wear. Em ployment in the apparel industry is not expected to increase as rap idly as this demand. Gradual in creases in the use of mechanized equipment and other labor saving devices resulting from anticipated increases in research and devel opment expenditures are expect ed to result in greater output per worker. Examples of such equip ment include sewing machines that can position needles and trim threads automatically; de vices that automatically position fabric pieces under the needle and remove and stack completed pieces; equipment that auto matically spreads fabrics on cut ting tables; and the more wide spread use of computers and con veyor systems for controlling and improving the movement of fab rics and apparel. The major im pact of mechanization is expected OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK to be in reducing the time an operator must spend in position ing and removing work done at each stage of a production proc ess. Most sewing, pressing, and cutting operations are expected to continue primarily as manual operations through the 1970’s. Most employment opportuni ties will be in sewing machine op erator jobs because this occupa tional group is the largest and is made up mostly of women who have a high turnover rate. Some job openings also will occur in tailoring occupations in which a large proportion of the employees are older workers. Designers will have many opportunities because this group also is composed largely of women. There also will be several thou sand job opportunities, each, for industrial and mechanical engi neers, salaried managers, and skilled machine mechanics. Short ages of these workers probably will continue due to the expected growth in the size of individual apparel establihments, in the number and size of companies operating more than one estab lishment, and in the installation of new mechanical equipment. Opportunities for tailors, sam ple makers, and other skilled oc cupations in the apparel indus try will continue to be mainly in the metropolitan centers where plants manufacturing dresses, women’s suits and coats, or men’s and boys’ suits and coats are lo cated. There will be a small num ber of new employment opportu nities in men’s clothing design ing, patternmaking, and cutting room jobs. Earnings and W orking Conditions In 1968, average earnings of production workers in the apparel industry were $79.78 a week or $2.21 an hour, compared with $122.51 a week or $3.01 an hour for those in all manufacturing in dustries. Production workers in Most sewing machine operators are women. 627 OCCUPATIONS IN THE APPAREL INDUSTRY Estimated, average hourly earnings New York City Miami Boston Women’s and Misses’ dresses All production workers .............................. ... $2.60 Cutters and markers (almost all men) ............... ... 3.62 Pressers, hand (women) ...................................... ... 2.75 Pressers, hand (men) ............................................ ... 4.72 Sewing machine operators, section system (almost all women) ............................................ ... 2.36 Sewing machine operators, single hand (tailor) system (almost all women) .............................. ... 2.84 this industry generally worked fewer hours per week than those in manufacturing as a whole. Pro duction workers have much high er earnings in some kinds of gar ment factories than in others. For example, those making women’s suits and coats averaged $91.46 a week in 1968, whereas those producing men’s work clothing averaged $69.17 a week. Earn ings of apparel workers also vary by occupation and geographical area. For example, average hour ly earnings of cutters and pressers in almost all areas are higher than those of sewing machine op erators; and average hourly earn ings generally are lower in the South than in the Middle At lantic States. The following tabu lation gives estimated average hourly earnings for selected oc cupations and geographical areas in one segment of the apparel in dustry in August 1968. Because most production work ers in the apparel industry are paid on the basis of the number of pieces they produce, their to tal earnings depend upon speed as well as skill. Sewing machine operators, hand sewers, and pressers generally are paid on a piecework basis. Cutters are paid either piecework rates or hourly wages, depending upon the prac tice in the area or shop in which they work. Most of the other workers, including tailors, pat ternmakers, graders, inspectors, and work distributors, are paid by the hour or week. In most metropolitan areas, most apparel employees work in $1.91 2.89 2.01 2.65 $3.28 4.25 3.53 5.88 1.85 2.75 1.94 3.46 shops that have union contracts. New employees in plants which have these agreements are re quired to join the union after 30 days of employment. These agreements deal with such sub jects as wages; hours of work; vacation and holiday pay; senior ity; health, insurance, and pen sion plans; and other employ ment matters. Among the unions to which apparel workers belong are the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America (A C W A ), International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union (ILG W U ), and United Garment Workers of America (U G W ). The ILGWU sponsors vacation resorts for un ion members and their families. Both the ACWA and the ILGWU operate health centers for gar ment workers in major producing areas. Workers in the apparel indus try can expect to lose very little work time as a result of strikes or other work stoppages because the industry has had many years of peaceful labor-management re lations. However, workers mak ing certain type of garments may have layoffs of several weeks dur ing slack seasons. Generally, such layoffs occur more often in plants making seasonal garments, such as women’s coats and suits, than in plants producing standardized garments, such as pajamas and men’s shirts, which are worn all year long. In many plants, the available work during slack pe riods is divided so that workers can be assured of at least some earnings. Old buildings, whose surround ings and facilities may frequently leave much to be desired, con tinue to house many apparel es tablishments, especially those in metropolitan areas. Newly con structed plants usually have am ple space, good lighting, and air conditioning. Some of the new plants have cafeterias, and health clinics with a registered nurse on duty. Most sewing jobs arc per formed while sitting and are not physically strenuous. The work ing pace is rapid because work ers’ earnings depend on their pro duction. In addition, many tasks are extremely monotonous. Seri ous accidents among sewers are rare, although a sewer may oc casionally pierce a finger with a needle. On the other hand, press ing may be strenuous work and involves working with hot steam. Working conditions in cutting and designing rooms are pleasant. In manufacturing establishments, designing and cutting are often performed in a separate area away from the main sewing and pressing operations. Jobs in de signing and cutting operations are more interesting and less monotonous than most other ap parel jobs. Moreover, since ac curacy, skill, individual talent, and judgment are valued more than speed in these jobs, the work pace is less rapid. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Information relating to voca tional and high schools that offer training in designing, tailoring, and sewing may be obtained from the Division of Vocational Edu cation of the Department of Edu cation in the State capital. Information concerning ap prenticeships may be obtained from the Apprenticeship Coun cil of the State Labor Depart- 628 ment or the local office of the U.S. Employment Service. Some local Employment Service offices give tests to determine hand-eye coordination, which is important for many apparel industry jobs. Information of a general nature may be obtained from the follow ing sources: Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America, 15 Union Square, New York, N.Y. 10003. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK American Apparel Manufacturers Association, Inc., 2000 K St. N W , Washington, D.C. 20006. Associated Fur Manufacturers, Inc., 101 West 30th St., New York, N.Y. 10001. Clothing Manufacturers Associa tion of U.S.A., 135 West 50th St., New York, N.Y. 10020. National Outerwear and Sports wear Association, Inc., 347 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union, 1710 Broad way, New York, N.Y. 10019. United Garment Workers of America, 31 Union Square, New York, N.Y. 10003. International Association of Cloth ing Designers, 125 12th Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19107. National Board of the Coat and Suit Industry, 450 Seventh Ave. New York, N.Y. 10001. National Dress Manufacturers’ Association, Inc., 570 Seventh Ave. New York, N.Y. 10018. O C C U P A T IO N S IN T H E A T O M IC E N E R G Y F IE L D Atomic energy is a very com pact source of enormous heat and radiation that can be used in many ways for peaceful as well as military purposes. Peaceful applications of atomic energy are still in the early stages of devel opment, and continuing research and development programs will be needed during the next several decades to find new and more efficient ways of utilizing this force. In 1968, about 200,000 work ers were employed in a variety of atomic energy activities. Large numbers were engaged in re search and development work. Others were in activities such as the manufacture of nuclear weap ons and other defense materials, the design and manufacture of nuclear reactors, and the produc tion of nuclear fuels. Most atomic energy workers are scientists, en gineers, technicians, or craftsmen. Employment opportunities for these workers will continue to be especially favorable through the 1970’s. large quantities of sea water to produce fresh water— a process known as desalinization. Plans are already being developed to build combination power genera tion and desalinization plants. Nuclear reactors provide power for naval and commercial ships. By virtually eliminating the need for refueling, nuclear propulsion greatly extends the range and mobility of our naval forces. Re search towards developing nu clear propulsion for space vehi cles hold excellent promise for extending space flights beyond lunar range by eliminating the need to carry great quantities of conventional fuel. Although existing reactors gen erate tremendous amounts of power from a small amount of uranium, research is continuing to develop even more efficient re actors. Still further in the future, we can hope to generate power through controlled fusion. Scien tists already have produced un controlled fusion in the hydrogen bomb, but have not yet produced a controlled fusion reaction on a relatively small scale. Research also is being conducted in the “ Plowshare” program to develop peaceful uses for nuclear explo sives. The program has many po tential applications in areas such as gas and oil recovery, other mining operations, and the ex cavation of harbors, canals, and mountain passes. Another significant application of atomic energy is in the use of radioisotopes which decay or dis integrate spontaneously, by emit ting radiation that special instru ments, such as thickness gages, can detect. Radioisotopes are very valuable as research tools in agriculture, medicine, and indus try and for use in industrial in spection and control devices. Nuclear radiation also has good potential as an aid in the preser vation of food. One of the major causes of food spoilage is the ac tivity of micro-organisms. When food is treated with radiation, these organisms are killed, and the spoilage is greatly inhibited. This treatment makes possible the long term storage of certain foods without refrigeration, and extends the time for marketing certain perishable refrigerated items as fresh fruits and fish. A pplications of A tom ic Energy One of the most significant uses of atomic energy is in the production of commercial elec tricity, by using nuclear reactors as the heat source. (See chart 30). Steam produced by such re actors is now generating electric ity for several communities. In many areas, these reactors have become competitive with systems using fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, and it is anticipated that many more than 150 nuclear fa cilities will be built by 1980. Since reactors are an efficient source of thermal energy, they also can be used to evaporate 629 630 How A tom ic Energy Is Produced Atomic energy, or more accu rately nuclear energy, may be produced through several proc esses, the two most important of which are fission and fusion. In fission, the nucleus of a heavy atom is split, and energy released in the form of heat and radiation produces two or more lighter ele ments. In fusion, energy is re leased by combining the nuclei of two light atoms into a heavier atom. The detonation of atomic bombs is an application of the explosive release of enormous amounts of atomic energy. Non weapon applications require that release of this energy be carefully controlled and regulated so that it proceeds at a manageable rate. Controlled fission is the essen tial feature of a nuclear reactor. The reactor, being a furnace, re quires fuel to operate. The prin cipal source material for reactor fuel is uranium 235. Uranium in its natural state contains less than 1 percent of readily fission able material, uranium U-235. Al though natural uranium is some times used as reactor fuel, a more concentrated and enriched fuel can be produced and used by in creasing the proportion of U-235 isotopes through a process called gaseous diffusion. U-235 under goes fission readily, but manmade fissionable materials, such as plutonium, also can be used as reactor fuel. Under proper conditions, in a nuclear reactor, the fuel will sus tain a “ chain reaction” — the con tinuous fissioning (or splitting) of the nuclei of atoms— resulting in the release of energy in the form of heat and radiation. When the fissionable atoms in the fuel split, they release neutrons (socalled “ atomic bullets” , that cause other fissionable atoms to split. These, in turn, release ad ditional neutrons that similarly OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK split more atoms. The level of the chain reaction is carefully con trolled, usually by inserting spe cial neutron-absorbing rods into the fuel chamber or “ core,” of the reactor. In this way, the rate of the fission reaction and of the energy produced can be regulated or stopped completely. Thus, harnessed atomic energy is produced in a nuclear reactor in the form of heat and radiation. However, if reactors are to be used for power, the heat must be removed from the reactors and converted to electricty by conven tional equipment. The major dif ference between nuclear and con ventional thermal electric power stations is that the heat needed to generate steam to drive tur bines comes from a nuclear re actor rather than from a conven tional steam-generating boiler fueled with coal, gas, or oil. During the fission process, nu clear radiation is released. This radiation, identifiable only by sensitive instruments, can be ruinous to equipment and can be highly dangerous to unprotected personnel. Therefore, special ma terials, resistant to damage by radiation, are used in reactors and great care is taken to protect personnel. N ature of the A tom ic Energy Field Many different kinds of re search and industrial activities are required for the production and application of nuclear en ergy. Included in the various in dustrial processes are the mining, milling, and refining of uranium bearing ores; the production of nuclear fuels; the manufacture of nuclear reactors, reactor compo nents, and nuclear instruments; the production of special mate rials for use in reactors; the de sign, engineering, and construc tion of nuclear facilities; the op eration and maintenance of nu clear reactors; the disposal of ra dioactive wastes; the processing and packaging of radioistopes; the production of nuclear weap ons; and research and develop ment work. These activities are performed in plants in several different in dustries, as well as in laboratories and other types of facilities. Much of this work, such as ore mining and milling, manufacture of heat transfer equipment, and con struction of facilities, differs lit tle from similar nonatomic en ergy work. Other activities, such as manufacture of the fuels needed to run reactors, are unique to the atomic energy field. The Federal Government sup ports most of the basic atomic en ergy activities. The U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) di rects the Federal Government’s atomic energy program and regu lates the use of nuclear materials by private organizations. The op eration of AEC-owned facilities, including laboratories, uranium processing plants, nuclear reac tors, and weapon manufacturing plants, is contracted out to pri vate organizations. More than half of all workers in atomic en ergy are employed in these gov ernment owned facilities. In their own installations, private firms are engaged in many types of atomic energy activity, except de velopment and production of military weapons and certain nu clear fuel-processing operations. A large amount of research and development work is done in the atomic energy field. Much of this work is carried on by the AECowned laboratories and by uni versity and college laboratories, other nonprofit institutions, and industrial organizations under Commission contracts. OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD O ccupations in the A tom ic Energy Field Engineers, scientists, techni cians, and craftsmen account for a higher proportion of total em ployment in this field than in most other fields, largely because of the importance of research and development. Office personnel in administrative and clerical jobs represent another large group. Most of the remaining employ ment consists of semiskilled and unskilled workers in production work, and plant protection and other service workers. Although many engineers in atomic energy are highly trained in nuclear technology, engineers in all major engineering fields are employed. Mechanical engineer ing is the largest single engineer ing occupation, but large num bers of electrical and electronics, nuclear and reactor, chemical, civil, and metallurgical engineers also are employed. Many of these engineers do research and devel opment work; others design nu clear reactors, nuclear instru ments, and other equipment used in atomic energy, and in the op eration of production plants. Research laboratories and oth er organizations engaged in atomic energy employed a large number of scientists to perform basic and applied nuclear re search. Physicists and chemists predominate, but included are many types of scientists, such as mathematicians, biological scien tists, and metallurgists. A large number of technicians assist engineers and scientists in research and development and in designing and testing equipment and materials. These workers in clude draftsmen; electronics, in 631 strument, chemical, and other en gineering and physical science technicians; and radiation moni tors. The atomic energy field em ploys many highly skilled work ers to fabricate special parts and equipment to use in experimental and pilot work and to maintain the considerable amount of com plex equipment and machinery. Maintenance mechanics (e.g., machinery repairmen and mill wrights) and all-round machin ists are employed extensively in most atomic energy activities, as are electricians, plumbers, pipe fitters, and other craftsmen and chemical process operators. Activities in the A tom ic Energy Field A brief description of some im portant atomic energy activities and the types of workers employ ed in them follows. Uranium Exploration and Mining. The 5,100 persons employed in uranium exploration and mining in 1968 had jobs similar to those in the mining of other metallic ores. Their jobs are largely con centrated in the Colorado Pla teau area of the Far West, in the States of New Mexico, Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, and Arizona. A relatively few mines account for the bulk of production and em ployment. Most workers in ura nium mines are in production jobs, such as miner and driller in un derground mines; and as truckdriver, bulldozer operator, and machine loader in open pit mines. About 1 out of 10 employees in uranium exploration and mining is in a professional job, such as mining engineer and geologist. Chemist prepares proton bombardment test. Uranium Ore Milling. In uranium mills, metallurgical and chemical processes are used to extract ura- 632 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK nium from mined ore. Uranium mills, located primarily in the Colorado Plateau, employed about 2,000 workers in 1968. These mills employ skilled ma chinery repairmen, millwrights, pipefitters, carpenters, electri cians, and chemical process oper ators. A small proportion of the employees in milling operations are scientists and engineers. Uranium Refining and Enriching. Milled uranium is chemically processed to remove impurities and then converted to metal or intermediate chemical products for reactor fuel preparation. Con ventional chemical and metal lurgical processes are used, but they must meet more exacting standards than in most other in dustries. The output of refining plants may be further processed to obtain enriched uranium. Activity in this segment of the atomic energy field is centered in Ohio, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Illinois. In 1968, uranium refin ing and enriching plants em ployed about 5,300 workers. Maintenance craftsmen, par ticularly in the high automated uranium enriching plants, ac count for a large proportion of skilled workers. Large numbers of chemical process operators also are employed. Chemical engineers and chemists accounted for al most half of the engineers and sci entists. Many of the technicians worked in chemical analytical laboratories associated with pro duction processes. Reactor Manufacturing. About 16,500 workers were employed in 1968 to design and manufacture nuclear reactors and unique re actor components. Reactor manu facturers do extensive develop ment work on reactors and aux iliary equipment, design the re actor, and generally fabricate some of the intricate components, Skilled workers manufacture special electromagnets needed for research studies. such as fuel elements, control rods, and reactor cores. About one-half of the em ployees in firms that design and manufacture reactors are scien tists, engineers, and technicians. Engineers alone represent about one-quarter of the employment; mechanical engineers and reactor engineers, who are specialists in reactor technology, predominate. Among scientists, the largest group of workers are physicists, but many chemists, mathemati cians, and metallurgists also are employed. Assisting these engi neers and scientists are many draftsmen, engineering aids, and physical science technicians. Skilled workers are employed by reactor manufacturers in ex perimental, production, and maintenance work. All-round ma chinists account for a large pro portion of these craftsmen. Other craftsmen such as sheet metal workers, instrument makers, ma chinery repairmen, instrument repairmen, and electricians also are employed. Reactor manufac turers employ nuclear reactor op erators to operate experimental and test reactors. Reactor Operation and Mainte nance. About 1,300 workers op erated and maintained nuclear reactors producing commercial OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD electricity in 1968. Some of the occupations found in the opera tion of a nuclear power station are mechanical engineer, electri cal and electronics engineer, in strument technician, electronics technician, radiation monitor, re actor operator, and other power plant operators and attendants. Among the employees needed to maintain and repair reactors are machinery repairmen, instrument repairmen, electricians, and pipe fitters. Research and Development Fa cilities. A number of research and development laboratories and other research facilities are owned by the Atomic Energy Commission and are operated for the AEC by universities and in dustrial concerns. These facilities are major centers for basic and applied nuclear research in the physical, engineering, and life sciences and in the development of nuclear reactors and other nu clear equipment. In 1968, these facilities employed more than 52,000 workers. More than half of the employees in AEC research and development facilities are engineers, scientists, and support ing technicians. Among the engi neers and scientists are phy sicists, mechanical engineers, electrical and electronics engi neers, chemists and chemical en gineers, mathematicians, reactor engineers, metallurgists and metallurgical engineers, biologi cal scientists, and health phys icists. Assisting scientists and engineers are many physical sci ence and engineering aids; drafts men; electronics, instrument, and biological technicians; and radia tion monitors. Administrative and clerical workers together account for a large proportion of employment. The skilled worker group in cludes large numbers of all-round machinists, electricians, machin ery repairmen, and millwrights, as well as substantial numbers of tool and die makers instrument makers, and pipefitters. Nuclear reactor operators are employed to operate research and test reac tors and many service workers are employed in plant protection and security operations. Although most nuclear energy research is performed in AEC re search and development facilities, additional research is performed in the privately owned research laboratories of educational insti tutions, other nonprofit institu tions, and industrial concerns. Like the AEC facilities, these laboratories employ a large pro portion of workers in scientific, engineering, and other technical jobs. Production of Nuclear Weapons and Other Defense Materials. More than 25,000 workers were employed in 1968 in establish ments producing nuclear weapons and weapon components, pluto nium, and other defense materials. About 1 out of every 4 workers in these defense production fa cilities is a skilled worker in a production or maintenance job. Included among these skilled workers are large numbers of ma chinery repairmen and mill wrights, chemical process opera tors, all-round machinists, electri cians, instrument repairmen, pipefitters, tool and die makers, and instrument makers. Among the large number of scientists and engineers employed at these facilities are many chem ists, physicists, and mechanical, chemical, and electrical and elec tronics engineers. Many engi neering and physical science aids, draftsmen, radiation monitors, and electronics technician, are employed to assist scientists and engineers. Other Atomic Energy Activities. 633 About 1,800 workers were em ployed in 1968 to produce special materials such as beryllium, zir conium, and hafnium for use in reactors. About 3,500 workers were em ployed by companies that manu facture reactor control instru ments, radiation detection and monitoring devices, and other in struments for the atomic energy field. Production of these instru ments involves work similar to that in instrument manufactur ing in general. Engineers and technicians represent a substan tial proportion of employment in this field. About 800 persons were em ployed in companies which spe cialize in the manufacture of par ticle accelerators or their spe cialized components. These ma chines enable scientists to study the structure and properties of the elementary particles that make up the nucleus of an atom. Workers employed in the design and manufacture of these ma chines include electrical and elec tronics engineers, mechanical en gineers, physicists, draftsmen, electronics technicians, and ma chinists. Other workers in the atomic energy field are engaged in activi ties such as processing and packaging radioisotopes, manu facturing radiography units and radiation gages, packaging and disposing of radioactive wastes, and industrial radiography. Government Employment. The Atomic Energy Commission, which directs the Federal Gov ernment’s atomic energy pro gram, employed about 7,500 workers in its headquarters and field offices in 1968. Over 1,300 engineers and scientists were em ployed by the Commission, in cluding personnel in nearly every major engineering and scientific occupation. Since the AEC is pri- 634 marily an administrative and reg ulatory agency, approximately two-thirds of Commission em ployees are in administrative and other professional positions or in clerical jobs. This proportion of administrative and clerical per sonnel is much larger than in most other activities in the atomic energy field. In addition to those employed by the Atomic Energy Commis sion, several thousand govern ment employees are engaged in atomic energy work in other Fed eral agencies and in regulatory and promotional activities of State and local governments. Their responsibilities involve atomic energy research and appli cation, and establishment of radi ation health and safety measures. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK for people in surrounding com munities. In 1968, more than 900 health physicists were employed in radiation protection work, re search, or teaching. Health physicists are responsi ble for planning and organizing radiological health programs at atomic energy facilties. They es tablish standards of inspection and determine procedures for protecting employees and elimi nating radiological hazards. They supervise the inspection of work areas with potential radiation hazards and prepare instructions covering safe work procedures in these areas. Health physicists also plan and supervise training programs deal ing with radiation hazards and advise others on methods of deal ing with such hazards. In some cases, they are employed on re search projects dealing with the effects of human exposure to radiation and may develop pro cedures to be followed in using radioactive materials. Radiation monitors (also called health-physics technicians) gen erally work under the supervision Unique Atomic Energy Occupa tions. Most of the occupations discussed in the preceding sec tions are similar to those found in other industrial activities, al though they may have job titles unique to the atomic energy field (such as nuclear engineer, radia tion chemist, and nuclear reactor operator) and require some spe cialized knowledge of atomic en ergy. A detailed discussion of the duties, training, and employment outlook for most of these occupa tions appears elsewhere in the Handbook. The health physics occupations, which are unique to the atomic energy field, and some other oc cupations that are unique in that they require training in the han dling and use of radioactive mate rials or radiation-producing equipment, are discussed briefly in the following sections. Health physicists (sometimes called radiation or radiological physicists or chemists) are re sponsible for detecting radiation and applying safety standards to control exposure to it for workers in atomic energy installations and Health physicist positions can of paint under gamma scintillation counter before monitoring its radiation content. OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD of health physicists. An estimated 1,300 radiation monitors were employed in the atomic energy field in 1968. They use special instruments to monitor work areas and equipment to detect radioactive contamination. Soil, water, and air samples are taken frequently to determine radiation levels. Monitors may also collect and analyze radiation detectors worn by workers, such as film badges and pocket detection chambers. Radiation monitors in f o r m their supervisors when a worker’s exposure to radiation or the level of radiation in a work area ap proaches specified maximum per missible limits and they recom mend work stoppage in poten tially unsafe areas. They calcu late the amount of time that per sonnel may work in contaminated areas, considering maximum radi ation exposure limits and the radiation level in the area. Moni tors also may give instructions in radiation safety procedures and prescribe special clothing require ments and other safety precau tions for workers entering radia tion zones. Nuclear reactor operators per form work in nuclear power sta tions similar to that of boiler op erators in conventional power stations; however, the controls operated are different. In addi tion, reactor operators may as sist in the loading and unloading of reactor cores. Nuclear reactor operators who work with research and test reactors check reactor control panels and adjust controls to maintain specified operating conditions within the reactor, such as power and radiation lev els. About 900 persons were em ployed as nuclear reactor opera tors in 1968. Accelerator operators set up and coordinate the operation of particle accelerators. They adjust machine controls to accelerate electrically charged particles, in accordance with instructions from the scientist in charge of the ex periment, and set up target mate rials which are to be bombarded by the accelerated particles. They also may assist in the mainte nance of equipment. Radiographers take radio graphs of metal castings, welds, and other objects by adjusting the controls of an X-ray machine or by exposing a source of radio activity to the object to be radio graphed. They select the proper type of radiation source and film to use and apply standard mathe matical formulas to determine ex posure distance and time. While taking radiographs, they use radi ation detection instruments to monitor the work area for poten tial radiation hazards. Radiog raphers also may remove and de velop the film or plate and assist in its analysis. Hot-cell technicians operate re mote-controlled equipment to test radioactive materials that are placed in hot cells— rooms that are enclosed with radiation shielding materials, such as lead and concrete. By controlling “ slave manipulators” (mechanical devices that act as a pair of arms and hands) from outside the cell and observing their actions through the cell window, these technicians perform standard chemical and metallurgical opera tions with radioactive materials. Hot-cell technicians also may en ter the cell wearing protective clothing to set up experiments or to decontaminate the cell and e q u i p m e n t . Decontamination men have the primary duty of decontaminating e q u i p m e n t , plant areas, and materials ex posed to radioactive contami nants. They use radiation-detec tion instruments to locate the contamination; eliminate it by the use of special equipment, de tergents, and chemicals; and then 635 verify the effectiveness of the de contamination measures. Wastetreatment operators operate heat exchange units, pumps, compres sors, and other equipment to de contaminate and dispose of radio active waste liquids. Waste-dis posal men seal contaminated wastes in concrete containers and transport the containers to a bur ial ground or arrange for sea bur ial. Radioisotope-production oper ators use remote control manipu lators and other equipment to pre pare radioisotopes for shipping and to perform chemical analyses to ensure that radioistopoes con form to specifications. Train in g and O ther Q ualifications Training and educational re quirements and advancement op portunities for most workers in atomic energy activities are gen erally similar to those for com parable jobs in other fields and are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook under the specific oc cupation. However, specialized training is required for many workers because the atomic en ergy field is relatively new, re quires rigorous work standards in both its research and production activities, and has unique health and safety problems. Engineers and scientists at all levels of professional training are employed in the atomic energy field. Many of them have had ad vanced training, particularly those engaged in research, devel opment, and design work. Of the scientists and engineers employed in research and development by major AEC contractors about one-fourth have a Ph. D. degree. The proportion of engineers with Ph. D. degrees is smaller than the proportion of scientists with such degrees. However, graduate train ing is preferred for an increasing number of engineering jobs. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 636 Waste disposal men bury canisters containing fission products. Training in nuclear engineering, although increasing at the under graduate level, is predominately at the graduate level. Specialized knowledge of nu clear energy, which is essential for most scientific and engineer ing positions in atomic energy, may be obtained at a university or sometimes on-the-job. Colleges and universities have expanded their facilities and curriculums to provide training in nuclear energy. Engineers and scientists who plan to specialize in the atomic energy field gener ally take graduate work in nu clear energy, although introduc tory or background courses may be taken at the undergraduate level. Some colleges and universi ties award graduate degrees in nuclear engineering or nuclear science. Others offer graduate training in these fields, but award degrees only in the traditional engineering or scientific fields. Craftsmen in some atomic en ergy jobs need more training than most caftsmen in compar able nonatomic jobs. High skill requirements are often needed because of the extreme precision required to insure efficient opera tion and maintenance of complex equipment and machinery. For example, pipefitters may have to fit pipe to tolerances of less than one ten-thousandth of an inch and work with pipe made from rare metals costing more than $1,000 a foot. Welding also may have to meet higher reliability standards than in most non atomic fields. Craftsmen in atomic energy generally obtain the required special skills on-thejob. Many AEC installations also have apprentice training pro grams to develop craft skills. Health physicists should have at least a bachelor’s degree in physics, chemistry, or engineer ing, and a year or more of grad uate work in health physics. A Ph. D. degree often is required for teaching and research. To qualify for on-the-job train ing as a radiation monitor, a high school education with courses in mathematics, physics, and chem istry usually is sufficient. Radia tion monitors must become fa miliar with characteristics of radiation, maximum permissible radiation exposure levels, and methods of calculating exposure periods. They also must learn how to calibrate the instruments they use. Nuclear power reactor opera tors need a basic understanding of reactor theory and a working knowledge of reactor controls. Most operator trainees have a high school education. Trainees usually are selected from conven tional power plant personnel hav ing experience as operators of boiler, turbine, or electrical ma chinery. Preference sometimes is given to those who have com pleted courses in science and en gineering at the college level. Workers who operate the con trols of private nuclear reactors must be licensed by the AEC. To qualify for a license, the trainee must pass an operating test, a written test given by the AEC, and a medical examination. To qualify for on-the-job train ing as an accelerator operator, a high school education that in cludes courses in mathematics and physics usually is required. Accelerator operators receive sev- OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD eral months of on-the-job train ing covering operating, repair, and safety procedures. To qualify for on-the-job training as a radiog rapher, a high school education, including courses in mathematics, chemistry, and physics, usually is sufficient. High school graduates with some mechanical experience usu ally can qualify for on-the-job training as hot-cell technicians and decontamination men. They may be given in-plant training lasting several months. For the job of radioisotope-production op erator, a high school education, with courses in chemistry, usu ally is required. High school grad uates can qualify as waste-treat ment operators, but experience in reading electronic instruments or in a chemical laboratory is de sirable. High school graduates also can qualify for employment as waste-disposal men. They re ceive on-the-job training in the operation of equipment and the avoidance of radiation hazards. Other workers in the atomic energy field also need special training because of the presence of potential radiation hazards. Employees who work in the vi cinity of such hazards are always given on-the-job training in the nature of radiation and the pro cedures to follow in case of its accidental release. Individuals who handle classi fied data (restricted for reasons of national security) or who work on classified projects in the atomic energy field must have a security clearance, based on an investigation of a person’s char acter, loyalty, and associations. The Atomic Energy Commis sion, at its contractor-operated fa cilities, supports on-the-job and specialized training programs to help prepare scientists, engineers, technicians, and other workers for the atomic energy field. The AEC also offers graduate fellow ships in specialized nuclear fields. About 600 fellowships were awarded for the 1967-68 academic year. In addition, other Federal agencies also gave a number of fellowships for graduate work in nuclear science and technology. The prerequisite for consideration for a fellowship is a bachelor’s de gree in engineering or physical science. Fellowships in health physics provide for 9 months’ training at a university, followed by 3 months’ training at a Commis sion laboratory. Approximately 70 such fellowships are available each year to students with de grees in biology, chemistry, engi neering, or physics. Additional educational and training opportunities are offered in cooperative programs arranged by AEC laboratories with col leges and universities. Temporary employment at AEC-owned lab oratories is available to faculty members and students. Engineer ing undergraduates may work at laboratories and other Commis sion facilities on a rotation basis with classroom studies, and many graduate students do their thesis work at AEC laboratories. Many Commission contractors provide employees with training at their own plants or at nearby colleges and universities. Em ploym ent O utlook Total employment in the atomic energy field is expected to increase moderately during the 1970’s as commercial activities in atomic energy expand, and as new applications of this energy form are developed. Many factors point to a long term expansion in this field. Ex penditures for atomic energy re search and development should lead to further employment 637 growth in production activities; the use of nuclear reactors in elec tric power generating stations is becoming increasingly wide spread; and the use of reactors in conjunction with power genera tion to desalinate sea water also is expected to increase. Growth in the use of nuclear reactors for propulsion of surface ships is an ticipated, although progress in this area may not be as rapid as in electric power generation. Expan sion also is expected in the “ Plow share” program to develop peace ful uses for nuclear explosives, in programs to further develop ra dioisotope technology, and in the use of nuclear power in space. Employment opportunities are expected to rise significantly for workers who design and manufac ture nuclear power reactors and instruments, and who process and package radioisotopes. As more nuclear reactors are built and put into operation, employment will further increase both in the oper ation and maintenance of reac tors, and in related activities such as the fabrication and re processing of reactor fuel ele ments and the disposal of radio active wastes. Employment in mining, milling, refining, and en richment of uranium will increase as the demand for nuclear fuel increases. As the use of nuclear power becomes more widespread, there also will be an increase in employment of regulatory work ers in both the Atomic Energy Commission and in State agencies to insure safe use of atomic en ergy. Expansion in these areas of atomic energy will create very good employment opportunities for trained professional and tech nical workers and for skilled craftsmen. In addition to the employment opportunities created by expan sion in atomic energy activities, other job openings will occur be cause of the need to replace work- 638 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ers who retire, die, or transfer to other industries. Earnings and W orking Conditions In 1968, blue-collar workers employed by contractors at AEC laboratories and other installa tions had average straight-time hourly earnings of $3.65; bluecollar workers in all manufactur ing industries had average earn ings of $3.01 an hour. Professional workers employed at AEC installations averaged $13,200 a year in base pay in 1968, and other white-collar workers (largely clerical and oth er office personnel) averaged about $7,000 a year. (Earnings data for many of the occupations found in the atomic energy field are included in the statements on these occupations elsewhere in the Handbook.) Working conditions in uraniufti mining and milling, instrument and auxiliary equipment manu facturing, and facilities construc tion are generally similar to those in comparable nonatomic energy activities, except for radiation safety precautions. Nearly all uranium mines are equipped with mechanical ventilation systems that reduce the concentration of radioactive radon gas— a sub stance that can cause lung injury if inhaled over a number of years. Technician works inside leaktight glove-boxes. Efforts to eliminate this hazard are continuing. In other atomic energy activities, in which the major proportion of workers in the field are employed, working conditions generally are very good. Buildings and plants are well lighted and ventilated. Equipment, tools, and machines are modern and sometimes the most advanced of their type. Only a small proportion of em ployees in the atomic energy field actually work in areas where di rect radiation hazard dangers ex ist. Even in these areas, shield ing, automatic alarm systems, and other devices and clothing give ample protection to the workers. In some cases, plants are located in remote areas. Extensive safeguards and op erating practices ensure the health and safety of workers, and the AEC and its contractors have maintained an excellent safety record. The AEC regulates the possession and use of radioactive materials, and AEC personnel in spect nuclear facilities to insure compliance with the AEC’s health and safety requirements. Con stant efforts are being made to provide better safety standards and regulations. Most plant hourly paid work ers belong to unions that repre sent their particular craft or in dustry. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Additional information about the atomic energy field may be obtained from: U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, D.C. 20545. O C C U P A T IO N S IN E L E C T R O N I C S M A N U F A C T U R IN G The science of electronics has contributed greatly to the spec tacular achievements of the age in which we live. Electronic in struments guide unmanned mis siles for our Nation’s defense and control the flights of our astro nauts as they rocket into outer space. Other electronic instru ments make it possible for man to see, hear, and communicate over vast distances. Electronic devices direct, control, and test production processes in industries such as steel, petroleum, and chemicals. Electronic data-processing equipment enables busi ness and Government to handle tons of paper work with great ac curacy and speed. Hospitals use electronic instruments to perform laboratory tests and to check body functions. In individual homes, television and radio re ceivers provide information and entertainment. Indications are that electronics will play an even greater role in the future. In 1968, an estimated 1.1 mil lion workers were engaged in manufacturing electronic prod ucts. Throughout the 1970’s, a moderate increase in employment is anticipated. Job opportunities are expected to be particularly favorable in plants producing in dustrial electronic equipment, output of which is expected to grow more rapidly than other electronic products. N ature and Location of Electronics M an ufacturing The heart of every electronic product is a circuit or system that includes electron > tubes, semiconductors, and other elec tronic devices which regulate, control, or direct the flow of small, active particles of negative electricity (electrons) through the circuit. Because of their unique functions, electronic de vices are finding many applica tions. Electronic products may be grouped into four major categor ies: (1) Government products, (2) industrial products, (3) con sumer products, and (4) compo nents. In 1968, government prod ucts accounted for half of total electronic sales. Industrial prod ucts accounted for about onefourth, and consumer products ac counted for about one-fifth; com ponents produced as replacement parts were only a small percentage of total sales. (Components pro duced as original equipment for end products are included in the shipments value of the end proucts.) Government products include electronic guidance and tele-met ering systems for missiles and spacecraft; radar and other de tection devices; automatic com munications and computing sys tems; gyroscopes and other navi gational equipment; and fire con trols (such as air-to-air target seeking and detonating equip ment. Government products are also used in the fields of medicine, education, crime detection, and traffic control. Important industrial electronic products include computers; commercial radio and television broadcasting equipment; com mercial and private aircraft com munications and navigational ap paratus; and industrial testing, measuring, and production con trol equipment. Principal con sumer products include television sets, radios, phonographs, tape recorders, and hearing aids. Electronic components fall into three broad classifications: tubes, semiconductors, and “ other com ponents.” Tubes include receiv ing tubes, power tubes, television picture tubes, and special purpose tubes. Principal semiconductor devices are transistors, diodes, rectifiers, and microelectronic de vices, which include combinations of miniaturized semiconductors. “ Other componets” include items such as capacitors, antennas, re sistors, transformers, relays, con nectors, and electronic switches. Of the estimated 1.1 million workers employed in electronics manufacturing establishments in 1968, about three-fifths— 683,000 worked in plants producing end products. About 366,000 of these workers produced military and space equipment; 189,000 pro duced industrial and commercial products; and 128,000 produced consumer items. The remaining 434,000 workers were in plants making electronic components. E l e c t r o n i c s manufacturing plants are located in nearly every State, but the majority of elec tronics manufacturing workers in 1968 were employed in seven States: California, New York, New Jersey, Illinois, Massachu setts, Pennsylvania, and Indiana. Metropolitan areas with large numbers of electronics manufac turing workers included Chicago, Los Angeles, New York, Philadel phia, Newark, Boston, Baltimore, and Indianapolis. In addition to the employees in electronics manufacturing plants, about 79,000 electronics workers were employed by the Federal Government, universities, and nonprofit researach centers in activities such as research, de velopment, and the negotiation and administration of contracts. How Electronic Products Are M ade Many plants manufacturing electronic products specialize in 639 640 one type of end product, such as television sets, radios, or elec tronic computers; or one type of component, such as television pic ture tubes, power tubes, or semi conductors. In plants which pro duce several types of end prod ucts or components, each type generally is made in a separate department. Subassemblies, such as tuners and record changers, often are made in plants specializing in these products. Research and de velopment activities are perform ed in establishments specializing in such work or in separate de partments of manufacturing plants. A large proportion of workers in plants manufacturing end products are engaged in assembly operations. Inspecting and test ing of subassemblies and end products are also important activi ties. Some end-product plants have fabricating and processing departments in which workers do Engineers develop new products. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK machining, sheet-metal work, and cleaning and coating of metals such as painting, plating, and plastic molding. In assembling radios, television sets, and other end products pro duced in large quantities, major subassemblies, such as circuit boards or panels, transformers, tuners, tubes, and speakers, are attached mainly by hand onto a chassis. A moving conveyor often is used to transport the chassis from one work station to another. Assembled units are placed into metal, plastic, or wooden cab inets. Where complex electronic products are made in small lots, as in the case of scientific and re search devices and electronic equipment used in space explora tion, a small number of highly trained specialists may assemble a complete unit by hand. Semiautomatic and automatic machinery are being used more frequently to perform processing and assembly operations, particu larly where products are massproduced. For example, in the manufacture of circuit boards, many plants use automatic punch presses to make holes in thin sheets of plastic (one or both sides of which is coated with a thin layer of copper) so that com ponents can be attached. Ma chines are used to etch electrical circuits, which replace wires on the circuit boards. Machines also position components into the proper holes in the circuit boards. Mechanical devices bend the wires or metal “ ears” on the bot tom of the components, locking them into place on the board. Wire leads on the components are commonly soldered to the etched circuits in one continuous opera tion (called “ dip” or “ wave” soldering). Parts used in end products usu ally are brought to the assembly line by hand truck since most electronic parts are not bulky. They may be loose in boxes, fed from hoppers (receptacles for parts), or held in special containters or jigs. During assembly op erations, components and subassemblies are inspected and tested to locate and replace or repair faulty parts or connections or other defects. In components manufacturing plants, most assembly work is “done by machine. Some types of components usually are assem bled by hand, such as experi mental parts, special purpose tubes, and extremely tiny semi conductors used in military and space equipment. Electronic com ponents are inspected and tested many times, beginning with vis ual inspection of raw materials as they enter the plant and con tinuing through all stages of manufacture. Electronics M an u fac tu rin g O ccupations A wide variety of occupations, requiring a broad range of train ing and skills, is found in plants manufacturing electronic prod ucts. About half the workers in electronics manufacturing are in plant jobs (production, mainte nance, transportation, and serv ice); the rest are in white-collar jobs (engineering, scientific, fi nance, administrative, clerical, and sales). The proportions of plant and white-collar workers differ from one establishment to another, de pending mainly on the products being manufactured. For exam ple, the proportion of plant work ers is generally higher in estab lishments producing consumer products than in establishments manufacturing government prod ucts. More than two-fifths of the workers employed in electronics manufacturing plants are women. 641 OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING In some plants, particularly those producing electron tubes and semiconductors, women account for half or more of total employ ment. Most women are employed as semiskilled plant workers, chiefly as assemblers, inspectors, and testers, and as office work ers. However, opportunities for women exist in nearly all types of jobs in electronics manufactur ing. Professional and Technical Occu pations. A large proportion of electronics manufacturing work ers are in engineering, scientific, and other technical jobs. Engi neers and scientists alone repre sent about 1 out of every 9 elec tronics workers. Generally, they account for a much larger propor tion of employment in plants making military and space equip ment than in those producing other types of electronic products. The largest group of engineers is electrical or electronics engi neers. They generally are em ployed in research and develop ment, although many work in production operations as design engineers or as test methods and quality control engineers. Elec tronics engineers also work as field engineers, sales engineers, or engineering liaison men. Substantial numbers of me chanical engineers and industrial engineers also are employed in electronics manufacturing plants. Mechanical engineers work as de sign engineers in product devel opment and in tool and equip ment design. They work also as plant engineers— chiefly con cerned with the maintenance lay out and operation of plant equip ment. Most industrial engineers work as production engineers or as efficiency, methods, or timestudy engineers. Other engineers employed in electronics manufac turing include chemical, metal lurgical, and ceramic engineers. Physicists make up the largest Precision assembler works in surgically clean room. group of scientists in electronics manufacturing. Now that smaller package circuitry has been achieved through the develop ment of microminiaturization, physicists are working to produce the complete circuit. This process is accomplished by integrating elements that duplicate the func tions formerly performed by dis crete components such as capaci tors, resistors, and inductors, to gether with transistors. Many sci entists in electronics manufac turing are chemists and metal lurgists, employed mainly in re search work and in materials preparation and testing. Mathe maticians and statisticians work with engineers and scientists on complex mathematical and statis tical problems, especially in the design of military and space equipment and computers. Statis ticians also are employed in the fields of quality control, produc tion scheduling, and sales analy sis and planning. Industrial de signers work on the design of electronic products and the equipment used to manufacture them. Technicians— such as electron ics technicians, draftsmen, engi neering aids, laboratory techni cians, and mathematical assist ants— represent about 1 out of every 15 electronics manufactur ing workers. Many electronics technicians are engaged in research and de velopment work, helping engi neers in the design and construc tion of experimental models. 642 They also are employed by manu facturers to work on electronic equipment in customers’ estab lishments. Other electronics tech nicians work in highly technical inspecting, testing, and assem bly jobs in the engineering labor atories of firms manufacturing electronic products. Draftsmen usually are employ ed in engineering departments to prepare d r a w i n g s from sketches or specifications furn ished by engineers. Manufactur ers of military and space equip ment generally employ a higher proportion of draftsmen than do manufacturers of other types of electronic products. Engineering aids are another important group of technicians. They assist engineers by making calculations, sketches, and draw ings, and by conducting perform ance tests on components and systems. Laboratory technicians help physicists, chemists, and en gineers by performing duties such as setting up apparatus and as sisting in laboratory analyses and experiments. Some laboratory technicians themselves may con duct analyses and experiments, usually of a standardized, routine nature. Mathematical assistants help to solve mathematical prob lems, following procedures out lined by mathematicians. They also operate test equipment used in the development of electronic computers. Technical writers work closely with engineers, particularly in plants making military-space and industrial-commercial products, and in establishments doing re search and development work. They prepare training and techni cal manuals describing the opera tion and maintenance of electron ic equipment. They also prepare catalogs, product literature, and project reports and proposals. Specifications writers compile lists of required measurements OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK and materials. Technical illustra tors draw pictures of electronic equipment for technical publica tions and sales literature. Administrative, Clerical, and Re lated Occupations. About 1 out of 4 workers in electronics manufac turing plants are in administra tive or other office jobs. Adminis trative workers include purchas ing agents, sales executives, per sonnel workers, advertising per sonnel, and marketing research specialists. Clerks, secretaries, stenographers, typists, and busi ness machine operators, many of whom are women, are among the thousands of other office workers employed by electronics manu facturing firms. A small but grow ing proportion of these office workers operate electronic com puters and auxiliary equipment. Most of these computers are used to process office records, includ ing payroll, production, costs, sales, and inventory data. Plant Occupations. About half of electronics manufacturing em ployees work in assembly, in specting and testing, machining, fabricating, processing, mainte nance, and other plant opera tions. The proportion of workers Most assemblers are women. OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING in each of these operations differs among electronics plants, depend ing largely on whether end prod ucts or components are produced and the types manufactured. For example, the proportion of assem blers is higher in plants making components and consumer end products than in plants produc ing military space equipment and industrial-commercial products. The proportion of machining and fabricating workers is higher among manufacturers of military space equipment and industrialcommercial products than among manufacturers of other types of products. Assembly occupations (D.O.T. 729.884; 720.884; 726.781 and .884). Assemblers make up the largest group of electronics plant workers. Both end-product and component manufacturing firms employ assemblers with many different skills. However, most as semblers are semiskilled workers. Most end products are assem bled mainly by hand, using small handtools, soldering irons, and light welding devices. Assemblers use diagrams, models, and colorcoded parts and wires to help them in their work. Some assem bly work is done by following in structions presented on color slides and tape recordings. Color slides flash a picture of an assem bly sequence on a viewing screen, while the assembler listens to re corded directions. Precision assemblers install components and subassemblies into end products in which mov ing parts and mechanisms must operate within clearances meas ured in thousandths, or even mil lionths, of an inch. Some of these assembly workers do repair work, experimental and developmental work, and model assembly work. Most precision assemblers are employed in the manufacture of military space and industrialcommercial electronic equipment. Machines are used in some as sembly work on end products. For example, in putting together subassemblies such as circuit boards, automatic machines often are used to position components on the boards and to solder connec tions. Here the assemblers work as machine operators or loaders. Most components are assem bled by machines, since their as sembly involves many separate but simple and repetitive opera tions. Even some types of minia turized semiconductors and other components, made with parts small enough to pass through the eye of a needle, now are assem bled on highly complex machines. Some of these machines are auto matically controlled. Hand assembly is needed for some components such as receiv ing tubes, special purpose tubes, and some types of transistors, diodes, capacitors, and resistors. Hand assemblers only may per form a single operation on these components as they move down the assembly line, but some may assemble completely a particular type of component. Tiny compo nents often are hand-assembled under magnifying lenses or pow erful microscopes. Hand assemblers sometimes may use machines to assist them in performing assembly opera tions on components. For exam ple, precision welding equipment may be used to weld connections in microminiature components and circuit assemblies. Some cir cuit assemblies are so small that hundreds of components may be precision welded in a cubic inch of space. Machines also may be used to position and hold compo nent parts during assembly oper ations. Hand assemblers also are em ployed in electronics research laboratories and in the research and development departments of electronics manufacturers. These 643 workers— frequently called elec tronics technicians— generally do difficult assembly work on small quantities of complex, often ex perimental, equipment. They also may work on the development of new ways to assemble large quan tities of components or subassem blies by machine. Some electron ics technicians install subassem blies into complex systems such as those in guided missiles. These hand assemblers usually must know enough electronics theory to understand the operation of the items being assembled. Most assemblers are women. They are employed mainly as ma chine operators or tenders, and as hand assemblers of items made in large quantities. Men are em ployed chiefly in experimental as sembly work, in model assembly, and in assembly jobs requiring relatively heavy work. Men also are employed in assembly depart ments as “ trouble shooters.” These workers analyze end prod ucts and subassemblies, which have failed routine performance tests, to pinpoint the exact cause of faulty operation. Machining occupations. Metal machining workers are employed in most electronics manufactur ing plants, particularly those making military-space and indus trial-commercial products. Ma chine-tool operators and machin ists operate power-driven ma chine tools to produce metal parts of electronic products. Toolmak ers construct and repair jigs and fixtures used in the fabrication and assembly of parts. Diemakers specialize in making metal forms (dies) used in punch and power presses to shape metal parts. Fabricating occupations. Fabri cating workers are employed in many electronics manufacturing plants, but the largest proportion is in establishments producing industrial products. Among the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 644 fabricating workers are sheetmetal workers who make frames, chassis, and cabinets. Glass blowers and glass lathe op erators (D.O.T. 674.782) are em ployed chiefly in electronic tube experimentation and develop ment work; in the manufacture of special purpose tubes, which are made in small numbers; and in rebuilding television picture tubes. Other fabricating workers include punch press operators, blanking machine operators and shear operators. Some fabricating jobs involvethe molding, firing, and glazing of ceramics used as insulating materials in many components. Workers also may operate ma chines that mold plastic compo nents. In electron tube manufac turing, special fabricating work ers are employed. For example, grid lathe operators (D.O.T. 725.884) make grids (devices in electronic tubes which control the flow of electrons) by winding fine wire around two heavy parallel wires. Other fabricating workers include spot welders and coil winders (D.O.T. 724.781 and .884), and crystal grinders and finishers (D.O.T. 726.884). Processing occupations. A rela tively small but important group of electronics manufacturing workers is engaged in processing activities, chiefly in plants pro ducing electronic components. Electroplaters a n d t i n n e r s (D.O.T. 501.885) coat many parts with metal. Anodizers (D.O.T. 501.782) treat parts in electrolytic and chemical baths to prevent corrosion. Silk screen printers. (D.O.T. 726.887) print patterns on circuit boards and on parts of electronic components. Etching equipment operators (D.O.T. 590.885) do chemical etching of c o p p e r on circuit boards. Processing workers also im pregnate or coat coils and other electronic components with waxes, oils, plastics or other ma terials. Some operate machines which encase microminature com ponents in plastic resin to join and insulate them in circuits, seal out moisture, and reduce chances of connection failure caused by heat and vibration. Another group of processing workers operate furnaces, ovens, and kilns, used chiefly to harden ceramics, bake on coatings, and eliminate contamination by gases and foreign materials. Operators of infrared ovens and hydrogen furnace fires (D.O.T. 590.885) rid tubes of foreign deposits. In tube manufacturing, exhaust op erators (D.O.T. 725.884) and sealers (D.O.T. 692.885) operate gas flame machines which seal the mount (the part of an elec tronic tube consisting of a Bakelite base and stem) in the tube, clear the tube of impurities, ex haust the gas, and seal the tube. Testing and inspection. Test ing and inspection in electronics manufacturing begin when raw materials enter the plants and continue throughout fabricating operations. Finished components and end products undergo thor ough testing and inspection, fre quently including operation for a period of time, before shipment. In end-product manufacturing plants, testers use voltmeters, os cilloscopes, and other test meters to make certain that components, subassemblies, and end products conform to specifications. Many of these workers have job titles that indicate the type of work they do, such as analyzer, final tester, tuner tester, and opera tional tester. Some testing jobs require tech nically trained workers who have had several years of experience in electronic testing. These jobs are commonly found in research and development work, where elec Inspector tests power supply module. tronics technicians test, adjust, and aline circuits and systems as part of their overall responsibili ty. These jobs also found in com plex production work, such as the manufacture of missiles and spacecraft. In component manufacturing plants, components are checked manually by testers using various types of test meters or routed me chanically through automatic test equipment. Some automatic equipment can check a large number of component character istics, produce a punched tape of test results, and sort the compo nents into batches for shipping. Although many of these workers simply are called c o m p o n e n t testers, others have job titles which reflect the type of compo nents they test, such as trans former tester, coil tester, and magnetic component t e s t e r . Workers who feed or monitor au tomatic test equipment often are called test-set operators or test ing-machine operators. The work of inspectors in end- OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING product plants varies from check ing incoming materials to inspect ing subassemblies and final prod ucts for flaws in circuit assembly, etching, plating, painting, and labeling. Electronic assembly in spectors (D.O.T. 722.281) ex amine assembled electronic units to make certain that they con form to blueprints and specifica tions, and check wire routing, electrical connections, and qual ity of units. Mechanical and pre cision inspectors check mechani cal assemblies and precision parts. Inspectors in end-product plants may use tools such as measuring scales, micrometers, calipers, and magnifying glasses in their work. Inspectors in component manu facturing plants check incoming raw materials and subassemblies before, during, and after fabricat ing and processing operations. They may inspect wire leads on diodes for straightness or length, wire winding on coils for evenness or breakage, and completed tubes for loose wires, scratched paint, corrosion, defective etches, and identifying labels. Some inspec tors make repairs on defective components. Tools used by inspectors in components plants may include magnifying lenses, micrometers, calipers, tweezers, and, in some circumstances, m i c r o s c o p e s . These inspectors may have job titles that indicate the work they do, such as incoming materials inspector, plating inspector, pow er tube inspector, coil inspector, machine parts inspector, and pre cision inspector. Maintenance o c c u p a t i o n s . Many maintenance workers who have different types of training are employed in electronics manu facturing plants to maintain ma chinery and equipment. Skilled electricians are responsible for the proper operation of electrical equipment. Machine and equip ment repairmen perform me chanical repairs. Hydraulic me chanics specialize in maintaining hydraulic equipment. Mainte nance machinists and welders build and repair equipment, jigs, and fixtures. Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics are em ployed in electronics plants which are air-conditioned and have spe cial refrigerated and dust-free rooms. Painters, plumbers, pipe fitters, carpenters, sheet-metal workers, and other building main tenance craftsmen also are em ployed in electronics plants. Other plant occupations. Parts changer (D.O.T. 729.381) is an other important occupation in electronic manufacturing plants. These workers repair assembled electronic products which have been tagged for replacement of defective parts. Women frequent ly are employed as parts changers. Many workers are employed in materials movement and han dling. These workers include op erators of plant trucks and trac tors; forklift operators who stack crates and load and unload trucks and boxcars; and truckdrivers who handle transportation out side the plant. Other occupations include boiler operator and stat ionary engineer. (Detailed discussions of profes sional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations, found not only in electronics manufacturing plants but also in other indus tries, are given elsewhere in the Handbook in sections covering the individual occupations.) Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Electronic m a n u f a c t u r i n g plants employ many engineers, scientists, and technicians be cause of the technical nature of plant production operations and the great emphasis on research 645 and development work. Begin ning engineering jobs usually are filled by recent graduates of en gineering colleges (some with ad vanced degrees). A small num ber of workers without college de grees are upgraded to professional engineering classifications from occupations such as engineering assistant and electronics techni cian. Workers who become engi neers in this way usually have taken advanced electronics courses in night school or in other training programs. T o keep up with new developments in their fields and to help them qualify for promotion, professional and technical personnel obtain addi tional training, read technical publications, and attend lectures and technical demonstrations. Almost all mathematicians, physicists, and other scientists employed in electronics manufac turing plants have college de grees, and many have advanced degrees. Job prospects are usu ally better for scientists who have at least a master’s degree than for those with only a bachelor’s degree. Technicians generally need some specialized training to qualify for their jobs. Most elec tronics technicians have attended either a public, private, or Armed Forces technical school. Some have obtained their training through apprenticeships, usually of 3 or 4 years’ duration. Appli cants with a high school educa tion, including courses in mathe matics and science, are preferred for these apprenticeships. Some workers become electronics tech nicians by being upgraded from jobs such as tester and experi mental assembler, after they have developed required skills on the job and acquired the necessary knowledge in basic electronics theory, mathematics, drafting, and reading of schematic dia grams. This knowledge usually is 646 obtained by taking courses in company-operated classes, night school, junior college, technical school, or by correspondence. Electronics technicians need color vision, manual dexterity, and good eye-hand coordination. As in the case of other technical workers, they must be able to un derstand technical publications. Some technicians who do final testing that requires the opera tion of radio transmitting equip ment must hold licenses from the Federal Communications Com mission as first- or second-class commercial radiotelephone opera tors. Laboratory technicians, engi neering and scientific aids, and mathematical assistants frequent ly have had 1 year of college training or more in a scientific or engineering field, but have not completed course requirements for a degree. In other cases, these workers have been upgraded from jobs as lower grade assistants in engineering laboratories or as high-grade testers in production departments. In hiring lower grade assistants, electronics firms give preference to high school graduates who have completed high school courses in mathe matics, physics, and chemistry. Draftsmen usually enter their trade by taking a course in draft ing at a trade or technical school; a few have completed a 3- or 4year apprenticeship. Some quali fy for their jobs under an in formal arrangement with their employers which provides for both on-the-job training and parttime schooling. Because many draftsmen must understand the basic principles of electronic cir cuits to do their work, they should study basic electronic theory and circuits and the read ing of electronic schematic dia grams. Technical writers must have a flair for writing and are usually OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK required to have some technical training. Electronics firms prefer to hire those who have had some technical institute or college training in science or engineering. Some have college engineering de grees. Many have college degrees in English and journalism and have received their technical training on the job and by at tending company-operated eve ning classes. Technical illlustrators usually have attended special schools of art or design. Many tool and die makers, ma chinists, electricians, pipefitters, carpenters, and other craftsmen in electronics manufacturing learn their trades by completing a 4- or 5-year apprenticeship. Some enter these trades through upgrading from helpers’ jobs. Some take courses at vocational schools. Formal training in electronics usually is not necessary for work ers entering plant jobs, but com pletion of high school frequently is required. Job applicants may have to pass aptitude tests and demonstrate skill for particular types of work. On-the-job train ing, usually for a short period, generally is provided for workers who have had no previous experi ence. Assemblers, testers, and in spectors need good vision, good color perception, manual dexter ity, and patience. Requirements for filling ad ministrative and other office jobs are similar to those in other in dustries. Certain beginning ad ministrative jobs in electronics manufacturing generally are open only to college graduates having degrees in business administra tion, accounting, or engineering. More and more employers are re quiring college training for ad ministrative jobs in advertising, personnel, accounting, and sales. For clerical jobs, employers usu ally prefer applicants who are high school graduates with spe cial training in stenography, typ ing, bookeeping, and office ma chine operation. Em ploym ent O utlook Electronics manufacturing will provide tens of thousands of job opportunities annually through out the 1970’s. A moderate rate of growth in electronics employ ment is expected over this pe riod, assuming relatively full em ployment is in the Nation’s econ omy and the high levels of eco nomic activity needed to achieve this goal. In addition to the many thousands of job opportunities resulting from e m p l o y m e n t growth, large numbers of job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone will provide an estimated 31,000 job openings annually. The rate of employment growth in electronics manufacturing will vary by major product category. The most rapid increase is ex pected for industrial products. Businessmen are expected to spend increasing amounts for electronic equipment to automate and mechanize data processing and production processes, espe cially for items such as com puters and numerical controls for machine tools. Demand also is expected to grow for navi gational, test, educational, and radio communications equipment. Production of electronic equip ment for the medical and atomic energy fields also will expand greatly. In addition, many new fields are being explored for ap plications of electronics devices, including automated highways and railways, and water desalini zation and purification. The demand for consumer items also is expected to increase rapidly as population, family for- 647 OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING mations, and personal spendable incomes rise over the period. The demand for government equip ment is expected to continue to grow over the period. This projec tion is based on the assumption that in the late 1970’s the level of defense expenditures, an im portant determinant of output in this product category, will be somewhat higher than the level prior to the Vietnam buildup; ap proximately the level of the early 1960’s. Moreover, it assumes that expenditures for programs to ex plore outer space and the ocean depths will continue at approxi mately current levels. If these as sumptions should not be realized, employment levels in this sector of the industry will be affected. The increase in electronics em ployment in all product categor ies probably will not be as great as the expansion in output, how ever, because technological im provements in production meth ods are expected to increase out put per worker. For example, in creasing mechanization of opera tions formerly done by hand will tend to reduce labor require ments, particularly in plants where products are mass-pro duced, such as television and ra dio sets, and components. How ever, mechanized manufacturing processes are difficult to adapt to the fabrication of many types of highly complex electronic products. Although employment in elec tronics manufacturing is expected to grow at a moderate pace through the 1970’s, the rates of growth will vary among occupa tional groups and individual oc cupations. For example, the de mand for skilled maintenance personnel, particularly instru ment repairmen, is expected to rise at a rapid rate, because of the need to maintain and repair the increasing amounts of com plex machinery. On the other Average hourly earnings Type of product All manufacturing industries ......................................... Major electronics manufacturing industries: Military-space and industrial-commercial electronics end products ............................................................................. Electron tubes....................................................................... Radio and television receiving sets, and phonographs....... Semiconductors and other components, except tubes...... hand, employment of semiskilled workers is anticipated to rise slowly because of the growing me chanization and automation of assembly line operations. The overall demand for engi neers, scientists, and technicians is expected to increase because of continued high expenditures for research and development, and the continuing trend toward the production of complex equip ment. Among professional and technical workers, the greatest demand will be for engineers hav ing advanced degrees, particular ly those who have a background in certain specialized fields, in cluding quantum mechanics, sol id-state circuitry, product de sign, and industrial engineering. The demand for engineers pos sessing selling ability will rise rapidly because the increasing complexity of industrial and com mercial equipment will require salesmen with highly technical backgrounds. The demand for mathematicians and physicists will be particularly great because of expanding research in com puter and laser technology. Earnings and W orking Conditions Average hourly and weekly earnings of production workers in electronics manufacturing in dustries vary considerably by type of product produced. As shown in the accompanying tabu lation, production workers in in dustries making military-space and industrial-commercial prod ucts had higher average earnings Average weekly earnings $3.01 $122.51 3.21 2.51 2.77 2.51 132.25 97.64 108.86 99.40 in 1968 than those in industries producing other types of elec tronic products. Earnings of individual produc tion workers may differ from the averages shown above, since such earnings depend not only on the type of plant in which they work but also on factors such as skill level and experience, length of service, geographic location, and amount of overtime. Electronics workers generally receive premium pay for overtime work and for work on Sundays and holidays. Virtually all plants provide extra pay for evening and night shift work. Many workers in electronics manufacturing plants receive 2 or 3 weeks’ vacation with pay, de pending on their length of serv ice, and from 6 to 8 paid holidays a year. Almost all electronics workers are covered by health and life insurance plans; many are covered by pension plans and other fringe benefits. Working conditions in elec tronics manufacturing compare favorably with those in other in dustries. Plants are usually well lighted, clean, and quiet. Many plants are relatively new and are located in suburban and semirural areas. Most plant depart ments are air conditioned where dust-free conditions or air tem perature control is necessary for the manufacture of certain types of electronic equipment. The work in most electronics occupa tions is not strenuous. Many as sembly line operations are re petitious. Music during working 648 hours, cafeterias, recreational fa cilities, and social programs are provided for employees by some electronics manufacturing firms. The frequency of injuries in electronics manufacturing is far below the average in manufactur ing as a whole, and injuries are usually less severe. Many workers in electronics manufacturing are covered by la OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK bor-management a g r e e m e n t s . The principal unions involved are the International Union of Elec trical, Radio and Machine Work ers; International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; and the United Electrical, Radio and Ma chine Workers of America (Ind.). Sources of A dditional Inform ation Further information concern ing careers in electronics manu facturing can be obtained from the public relations department of individual electronics manufac turing companies and from: Electronic Industries Association, 2001 Eye St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. O C C U P A T IO N S IN T H E IN D U S T R IA L C H E M IC A L IN D U S T R Y The industrial chemical indus try has grown, in just a few dec ades, into one of the great manu facturing industries of our Na tion. An important reason for this growth has been the industry’s huge expenditures for research and development activities, which have provided many new and im proved products for its customers — mainly other manufacturing industries. A wide variety of in dustrial chemical products con tribute to our everyday needs and comforts, e.g., synthetic fibers are used in clothing and rugs, and plastics in dinnerware and furni ture. Also, they are essential for the manufacture of missile and space equipment, rocket propul sion fuels, and for other national defense and space materials. In 1968, about 530,000 wage and salary workers were em ployed in the industrial chemical industry in a wide range of occu pations. Job requirements varied from graduate college degrees for some scientists and engineers to a few days of on-the-job training for some plant workers. N ature of the Industry The industrial chemical indus try is made up of plants which manufacture industrial inorganic and organic chemicals, plastic materials and synthetic resins, synthetic rubber and synthetic and other man-made fibers, ex cept glass. These chemicals are used mainly by other companies in the chemical industry, and by other manufacturing industries as raw materials or as processing agents to make their own prod ucts. Industrial chemicals are un like other chemical products, such as drugs, soaps, detergents, cosmetics, perfumes, paints, and fertilizers, which are sold directly to the consumer without further processing. The latter are not dis cussed in this statement. Industrial chemical p l a n t s make organic chemicals from raw materials obtained from the re mains of prehistoric life such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas, or from living materials such as agricultural and forest products. Some products of organic chemi cals such as synthetic fibers, syn thetic rubber, and plastics are well known. Among those less well known to the public are coal tar crudes, benzene, acetone, and formaldehyde. The principal us ers of organic chemicals include the textile, plastics products, rub ber, and food-processing indus tries. Inorganic chemicals come from nonliving matter, such as salt, sulfur, mineral ores, and lime stone. They are basic materials for making, or helping to make, other chemicals as well as fin ished products, such as steel, glass, paper, and gasoline. In at least one respect, the manufac ture of chemicals differs from the manufacture of most other prod ucts— the ingredients which are used to make chemicals undergo reactions which produce com pounds vastly different in nature and appearance from those of the original raw materials. For ex ample, by rearranging and com bining the molecules of coal, air, and water, the chemists can pro duce nylon, a product having no similarity to its raw materials. A modern chemical plant is made up of huge towers, tanks, and buildings linked together by a network of pipes. These struc Operator descends after completing maintenance inspection of reactor unit. tures contain the various types of equipment needed to process raw materials into chemical prod ucts. Raw materials go through several processing operations such as drying, heating, cooling, mixing, evaporating, and filtering. Between each operation, the ma terials, which may be liquid, sol id, or gas, are transported by pipes or conveyors. Throughout these operations, automatic con trol devices regulate the flow of materials, the combination of chemicals, and the temperature, pressure, and time needed for each operation. These control de vices make it possible for tons of material to be processed in one continuous operation with very little manual handling of mate rials. Approximately 2,800 plants in the United States make indus trial chemicals. About two-thirds of the plants have fewer than 50 649 650 employees each. However, more than one-half of industrial chemi cal workers are employed in very large plants of 500 or more em ployees each. Chemical plants are usually located on the outskirts of industrial centers. Sometimes plants are built near the sources of raw material; for example, plants which produce chemicals made from petroleum and natural gas are located near the oilfields and refineries of Texas, Califor nia, and Louisiana. Although industrial chemical workers are employed in most States, more than 60 percent of the employees and more than one-half the plants are in the fol lowing 10 States: New Jersey, Texas, New York, Tennessee, Virginia, Pennsylvania, Dela ware, West Virginia, Michigan, and Ohio. O ccupations in the Industry Workers with many different levels of skills and education are employed in the plants, offices, and laboratories of industrial chemical firms. More than 3 out of every 5 employees are engaged in processing operations, mainte nance duties, or other plant-re lated activities. A large number of scientists, engineers, and other technical personnel are also em ployed because of the highly technical nature of chemical products and the methods used to produce them. Administrative and professional employees, such as purchasing agents, salesmen, accountants, lawyers, and person nel officers, make up another siz able segment of the industry’s work force. In addition, large numbers of clerical workers, such as bookeepers, stenographers, typists, and office machine opera tors, are employed. About 1 out of every 8 workers in the industrial chemical indus OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK try is a woman. Most women in this industry work in clerical jobs, although some work in chemical laboratories as research chemists or as laboratory technicians and assistants. In a few industrial chemical plants, women are em ployed as chemical operators or as packers. Plant Occupations. Plant work ers, who represent 3 out of every 5 employees in the industrial chemical industry, can generally be divided into three major occu pational groups: Processing work ers, who operate the chemical processing equipment; mainte nance workers, who maintain, install, and repair machinery, pipes, and equipment; and other plant workers, such as stock clerks, material handlers, and truckdrivers. Process equipment operators and their helpers are the largest occupational group in the indus trial chemical industry. Many of these operators are highly skilled workers. C h e m i c a l operators (D.O.T. 558.885 and 559.782) control the various pieces of equipment which convert raw materials into chemical products. Operators are responsible for carrying out instructions given to them by the supervisor in charge. Operators set dials on devices that measure the exact amount of ma terials to be processed and con trol temperature, pressure, and flow of materials. They keep a record of operations and report any sign of breakdown of equip ment. They may use instruments which measure and test chemicals or they may send samples of chemicals to laboratory techni cians in the testing laboratory. They may be assisted by chemi cal operators of less skill, as well as by helpers. Sometimes chemi cal operators are classified accord ing to the type of equipment they operate, such as filterer, grinder, or mixer. The industry employs many skilled maintenance workers to prevent interruptions of its high ly automated production proc- Operator monitors control of process reactors. OCCUPATIONS IN THE INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 651 workers, such as guards, watch men, and janitors, whose duties are similar to those of such work ers in other industries. Scientific and Technical Occupa tions. The industrial chemical in dustry is one of the Nation’s largest employers of scientific and technical personnel. About 1 out of every 6 employees in this in dustry is in some activity requir ing scientific, engineering, or tech nical training. About 40 percent of these employees work in lab oratories, developing new chemi cal products and new methods of production as well as performing basic research. About one-third are involved in the production of chemicals and in other plant op erations. The remaining scientific and technical personnel are in analysis and testing work, and in Technician examines manmade fiber during production process. esses. Maintenance skills are also very important because of the ex tremes of temperature, pressure, and corrosion to which pipes, vats, and other plant equipment are subjected. Included among main tenance workers are pipefitters, who lay out, install, and repair pipes and pipefitting; mainte nance machinists, who make and repair metal parts for machines and equipment; electricians, who maintain and repair wiring, mo tors, switches, and other electrical equipment; and instrument re pairmen, who install and repair electrical and electronic instru ments and control devices. In some chemical plants, the duties of several maintenance jobs may be combined into a single job and performed by one maintenance man. Plant workers who do not op erate or maintain equipment per form a variety of other tasks in industrial chemical plants. Some drive trucks and tractors to make deliveries to various parts of the plant; some load and unload ma terials on trucks, trains, or ships; and other workers keep inventory records of stock and tools. The industry also employs custodial Chemist conducts research on polymers. 652 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK administrative or sales positions requiring technical background. Chemists and chemical engi neers make up the largest propor tion of scientific and technical personnel in the industrial chemi cal industry. Many chemists work in research and development lab oratories. A large number work in production departments, an alyzing and testing chemicals in order to control their quality during processing. Some chem ists are supervisors of plant work ers; others are technical salesmen, technical writers, or administra tors whose positions require tech nical knowledge. Chemical engineers apply their knowledge of both chemistry and engineering to the design, con struction, operation, and improve ment of chemical equipment and plants. They convert processes developed in a laboratory into large-scale production methods, by using the most economical manufacturing techniques. Some chemical engineers are employed in production departments and others are in selling, customer service, market research, and writing jobs which require tech nical knowledge and skill. Other types of engineers are also employed in industrial chem ical firms. Mechanical engineers design and lay out power and heating equipment, such as steam turbines. They often supervise the installation, operation, and main tenance of chemical processing equipment. Electrical engineers design and develop electrical and electronic machinery and equip ment, such as control devices and instruments, as well as facilities for generating and distributing electric power. In addition to the large number of such professional personnel, the industry employs many technical assistants such as laboratory tech nicians, draftsmen, and engineer Chemical engineer checks plant designer's calculations. ing aids. Laboratory technicians assist chemists and engineers in research and development work and in quality control. They may perform simple routine tests or experiments, or do highly tech nical testing and analyses of chemical materials, depending on their training and experience. Much of the work of laboratory technicians consists of conduct ing tests and recording the results — often in the form of simple re ports, charts, or graphs— for inter pretation by chemists and chem ical engineers. OCCUPATIONS IN THE INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL INDUSTRY Administrative, Clerical and Re lated Occupations. About 1 out of every 5 employees in the indus trial chemical industry is an ad ministrative, clerical, or other white-collar worker. Many highlevel administrative and manage ment positions are filled by men with training in chemistry or chemical engineering. At the top of the administrative group are the executives who make policy decisions concerning matters of finance, types of products to man ufacture, and location of plants. To make such decisions, execu tives require the help of a large body of specialized personnel in the company. Some of these work ers are accountants, purchasing agents, sales representatives, law yers, and personnel employed in activities such as industrial rela tions, public relations, transpor tation, advertising, and market research. Other workers are re quired to assist these specialized administrative workers. For ex ample, clerical employees keep records on personnel, payroll, raw materials, sales, shipments, and plant maintenance. (Detailed discussions of pro fessional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations found not only in the industrial chemical in dustry but in other industries as well are given elsewhere in this Handbook in the sections cover ing the individual occupations. See index for page numbers.) T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and Advancem ent The industrial chemical indus try generally hires inexperienced workers for processing and main tenance jobs and trains them on the job. Companies in the indus try prefer to hire young workers who are high school graduates. In many plants, a new worker is sent to a labor pool from which he is assigned to jobs such as filling barrels and moving mate rials. After several months, he may be transferred to one of the processing departments when a vacancy occurs. As he gains ex perience, he moves to more skill ed jobs in his department. Thus, he may advance from laborer to chemical operator helper, to as sistant chemical operator, and then to skilled chemical operator. Skilled processing workers are rarely recruited from other plants. Many industrial chemical com panies have on-the-job training programs, which may last from their maintenance shops. These programs, which may last from a few months to several years, in clude some classroom instruction related to the trainees’ particular work. Instrument repair trainees often learn how to assemble and repair instruments in the factories which manufacture them. Many companies encourage s k i l l e d maintenance workers as well as trainees to take courses related to their jobs in local vocational schools and technical institutes, or to enroll in correspondence courses. Upon the successful com pletion of these courses, workers are reimbursed for part or all of the tuition. A bachelor’s degree in engi neering, chemistry, or one of the other sciences is the minimum educational requirement for en try into scientific and engineer ing jobs in the industrial chemi cal industry. For jobs in research laboratories, applicants with ad vanced degrees are generally pre ferred. Some companies have formal training programs for young college graduates with en gineering or scientific back grounds. These men work for brief periods in the various divi sions of the plant to gain a broad knowledge of chemical manufac turing operations before being as 653 signed to a particular depart ment. Other firms immediately assign junior chemists or engi neers to a specific activity such as research, process development, production, or sales. Technicians in the industrial chemical industry qualify for their jobs in many different ways. Companies prefer to hire men and women who have obtained a formal education in technical in stitutes or junior colleges. How ever, most workers become tech nicians through on-the-job train ing and experience. Generally, in dustrial chemical firms select young men from their labor pool and give them training while they work at one of the technician jobs. Sometimes, technicians may be sent to a technical institute for training, usually at company expense. Students who have not completed all requirements for a college degree, especially those who have received some educa tion in mathematics, science, or engineering, are often employed in technician jobs. Laboratory technicians begin their work in routine jobs as as sistants and advance to jobs of greater responsibility after they have acquired additional experi ence and have shown their ability to work without close supervision. Inexperienced draftsmen usually begin as copyists or tracers. With additional experience and train ing, they may advance to more skilled and responsible jobs as draftsmen. Administrative positions fre quently are filled by men and women who have college degrees in business administration, mar keting, accounting, economics, statistics, industrial relations, or other specialized fields. Some companies have advanced train ing programs in which they give their new employees additional training in their chosen special ties. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 654 Clerks, bookkeepers, stenog raphers, and typists in industrial chemical firms generally have had commercial courses in high school or business school. Al though the qualifications and duties of administrative sales, clerical, and related occupations in this industry are similar to those in other industries, a knowledge of chemistry is of ten helpful. This is especially true of those sales jobs in which it is necessary to give technical assistance to customers. E m ploym ent O utlook The growing industrial chemi cal industry is expected to pro vide many thousands of job op portunities for new workers each year through the 1970’s. In addition to a moderate growth in employment in the in dustry, large numbers of job openings will be created by re tirements, deaths, or transfers to jobs in other fields of work. R e tirements and deaths alone prob ably will provide, on the aver age, more than 10,000 openings each year through the 1970’s. The industrial chemical indus try’s emphasis on research and development is expected to con tinue to stimulate the growth of this dynamic industry, which has far outstripped most other major industries in the development of new products. Some of these prod ucts, such as plastics and syn thetic fibers, have not only cre ated completely new markets, but also have competed successfully in markets previously dominated by wood, natural textile fibers, and metals. They are expected to continue to make inroads into these markets. A plentiful sup ply of the raw materials used in chemical manufacturing is also favorable to the industry’s future growth. The atomic energy field is an area where continued growth, in civilian as well as military appli cations, will favorably affect the demand for industrial chemicals. These chemicals are used in vari ous aspects of atomic energy work, such as the processing and purification of uranium ores and the development and operation of nuclear reactors. Although industrial chemical production has grown rapidly, employment has increased at a much slower rate. Since 1958, the number of industrial chemical workers has grown about 26 per cent in contrast with output, which has more than doubled. The major reason for this differ ence is the industry’s emphasis on improved methods of making chemicals. The widespread use of automatic processing and con trol equipment has enabled the industry to increase its produc tion considerably with a relative ly small increase in labor. In creases in output per worker are expected to continue in the years ahead, as new plants with the latest equipment are constructed and more modern devices are in stalled in the older plants. Some occupational groups in the industry are expected to grow faster than others. For example, the number of professional and ad ministrative jobs is expected to increase more rapidly than the number of plant (processing and maintenance) workers if recent trends in this industry continue. Emphasis on research and devel opment and greater complexity of products and processes are ex pected to increase the need for chemists, engineers, technicians, and other technical personnel. Most of the demand for addi tional plant workers will be for skilled maintenance workers, such as instrument repairmen, pipefitters, electricians, and maintenance machinists, because of the increasing use of instru mentation and automatic equip ment in processing operations. Process equipment operators will continue to be the largest occupa tional group in the industry, al though employment of these workers is not expected to in crease as much as employment of maintenance workers. Earnings and W orking Conditions Production workers in the in dustrial chemical industry are among the higher paid factory workers. Average earnings are relatively high because of the large proportion of workers in skilled occupations. In 1968 pro duction workers in plants produc ing industrial inorganic and or ganic chemicals had average earn ings of $152.76 a week or $3.62 an hour and those in plants pro ducing plastics materials and syn thetic rubber, resins, and fibers had average earnings of $136.53 a week or $3.22 an hour. In com parison, average earnings in 1968 for production workers in manu facturing industries as a whole were $122.51 a week or $3.01 an hour. Entry salaries for inexperi enced chemists and chemical en gineers in the industrial chemical industry are among the highest in American industry, according to a 1968 survey conducted by the American Chemical Society. In this industry, the median start ing salary was $725 a month for chemists with a bachelor’s de gree and $800 a month for chemi cal engineers with a bachelor’s degree. Chemists and chemical engineers with graduate degrees received higher starting salaries. Paid vacations are universal in this industry and are generally based on length of service. For example, workers in many plants receive a 1-week vacation after OCCUPATIONS IN THE INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL INDUSTRY 1 year of employment, 2 weeks after 3 years, 3 weeks after 10 years and 4 weeks after 20 years. Most workers are covered by insurance plans. These plans in clude life, sickness, accident, hos pitalization, and surgical insur ance. Practically all plants have pension plans. Many chemical workers are employed in plants that operate around the clock— three shifts a day, 7 days a week. Owing to the widespread industry practice of rotating shifts, processing work ers can expect to work the sec ond or third shift at one time or another. Nearly all workers re ceive extra pay for shift work, about 10 cents more an hour for the second shift, and about 15 cents more an hour for the third or night shift. Very few mainte nance workers are employed on these shifts. Work in the industry has little seasonal variation and regular workers have year-round jobs. Except for work performed by laborers and material handlers, most industrial chemical jobs re quire little physical effort. Much of the plant work involves tend ing, inspecting, repairing, or maintaining m a c h i n e r y and equipment, since most of the process operations are controlled automatically or semiautomatically. Duties require some work ers to climb stairs and ladders to considerable heights. Other jobs are performed out of doors in all kinds of weather. In some plants, workers may be exposed to dust, disagreeable odors, or high temperatures. Chemical companies, however, have reduced the discomforts arising from these conditions by installing ventilating or air-con ditioning systems. Safety meas ures, such as protective clothing and eye glasses (usually provided by the company), warning signs, showers and eye baths near dan gerous work stations, and firstaid stations, have also reduced hazards. These measures have helped to make the injury-fre quency rate (number of disabling injuries for each million man hours worked) in the industrial 655 chemical industry less than half that for all manufacturing in dustries. Most production workers in the industrial chemical industry are members of labor unions. The leading unions are the Interna tional Chemical Workers Union; Oil, Chemical and Atomic Work ers International Union; and Dis trict 50, United Mine Workers of America (Ind.). Sources of A dditional Inform ation Further information concern ing careers in the industrial chemical field may be obtained from the public relations depart ment of individual industrial chemical manufacturing compa nies and from: American Chemical Society, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Manufacturing Chemists’ Associa tion, Inc., 1825 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20009. O C C U P A T IO N S IN T H E IRO N A N D S T E E L IN D U S T R Y Steel is the backbone of any industrialized economy. There is hardly a product in daily use that has not been made from steel or processed by machinery made of steel. In 1968, United States steelmakers produced approxi mately 130 million tons of steel— about one-fourth of the world’s output. The iron and steel industry is one of the Nation’s largest em ployers. About 630,000 wage and salary workers were on the pay rolls of the industry’s more than 700 plants in 1968. Employees work in a broad range of jobs requiring a wide variety of skills — from unskilled to technical and professional jobs. Many of these jobs are found only in iron and steelmaking or finishing. The iron and steel industry, as discussed in this chapter, con sists of blast furnaces, steelmak ing furnaces, and rolling mills, in cluding mills engaged in finishing and rolling steel products from purchased sheets, strips, bars and rods, and other materials. The production of iron and steel con sists of a closely related series of production processes. First, iron ore is converted to molten iron in blast furnaces. The molten iron is poured into “ hot metal cans” and either transported directly to the steelmaking furnace or cast into “ pigs” (iron in rough bar form) for use by foundries or by steel mills that do not produce their own iron. See chart 31.) Molten iron or pig iron is then converted into steel in various types of steelmaking furnaces, in cluding open hearth, basic oxy gen, and electric furnaces. The steel then is rolled into basic products, such as plates, sheets, strips, rods, bars, rails, and struc tural shapes. Many plants carry the manufacturing processes be yond the primary rolling stage to produce finished products such as tinplate, pipe, and wire prod ucts. (This chapter does not de scribe the mining of coal, iron ore, limestone, and other raw ma terials used to make steel, or the casting, stamping, forging, ma chining, or fabrication of steel. These activities are not consid ered to be in the iron and steel industry. Employment opportu nities in foundry, forging, and machining occupations are dis cussed elsewhere in the Hand book.) Steel companies differ in the number of operations they per form. Many of them, known as integrated companies, produce their own coke from coal, reduce ore to pig iron, make steel, and form the steel into products by rolling and other finishing meth ods. These companies account for the bulk of total steel production and employ most of the industry’s workers. Another group of com panies make various types of steel from steel scrap and pig iron purchased from other companies. A third group rolls and finishes purchased raw steel. A fourth type makes only pig iron to be sold to small steel plants and foundries. Most of the basic products made by steel mills are shipped to the plants of other industries, where they are made into thou sands of different products. Some steel mill products, however, such as rails, pipe, and nails, are produced in their final form at the mills. The leading steel con suming industries are automobile, construction and building mate rials, machinery and machine tools, containers, and household appliances. Steel sheets are made into au tomobile bodies, household appli ances, and metal furniture. Steel bars are used to make parts for automobiles and machinery and to reinforce concrete in building and highway construction. Steel plates become parts of ships, bridges, heavy machinery, rail road cars, and storage tanks. Strip steel is used in the manu facture of items such as pots and 657 658 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK pans, automobile body parts, razor blades, and toys. Tin coat ed steel, known as “ tinplate,” is used primarily to make “ tin” cans. Individual plants in this indus try typically employ a large num ber of workers. About 70 percent of all the industry’s employees work in plants which have more than 2,500 wage and salary workers. A few plants have more than 20,000 employees. However, many plants employ fewer than 100 workers, particularly those plants which make highly spe cialized steel products. Iron and steel producing plants are located mainly in the north ern and eastern parts of the United States. There are large plants located on the south shore of Lake Michigan; at Cleve land and Youngstown, Ohio; Buf falo, N.Y.; and Pittsburgh, Johnstown, Bethlehem, and Morrisville, Pa. The Nation’s largest steel plant is located at Sparrows Point near Baltimore, Md. Much of the steelmaking in the South is in the vicinity of Birmingham, Ala., and Houston, Tex. Impor tant steelmaking facilities also are located in the Far West. About 7 out of 10 of the indus try’s workers are employed in five States— Pennsylvania, Ohio, In diana, Illinois, and New York. Nearly 3 out of 10 are in Pennsyl vania. other equipment which move raw materials and steel products about the plants, or perform other kinds of work. In addition, many workers are needed to do the clerical, sales, professional, technical, administrative, and su pervisory work connected with the operation of steelmaking plants. Four-fifths of all employees in the iron and steel industry in 1968 were production and main tenance workers. These workers were directly concerned with the production and finishing of iron and steel, the maintenance of plant equipment, and movement of materials within and among plant departments. The remain ing employees were employed in clerical, sales, professional, tech nical, administrative, research, managerial, and s u p e r v i s o r y occupations. Men constitute 96 percent of all employees in the iron and steel industry, and an even higher pro portion of the industry’s produc tion workers since much of the production work is strenuous. However, the physical labor in volved in steelmaking has been reduced through mechanization. About two-thirds of all the wom en employed in the industry work in clerical and other office jobs, including research and other technical work. Women employed in production departments are in jobs such as a s s o r t e r and inspector. O ccupations in the Industry Processing Occupations. The ma jority of the workers in the iron and steel industry are employed in the many processing operations involved in converting iron ore into steel and then into semifin ished and finished steel products. To provide a better understand ing of the types of jobs in this industry, brief descriptions of the major steelmaking and finishing operations and of the more impor Workers in the iron and steel industry hold more than 1,000 different types of jobs. Some workers are directly engaged in making iron and steel and con verting it into semifinished and finished products. Others main tain the vast amount of machin ery and equipment used in the industry, operate cranes and tant occupations connected with them are given below. Blast furnaces. The blast fur nace is used to reduce iron ore to molten iron. Calculated mixtures or iron ore, coke, and limestone are fed into the top of the fur nace. Hot air, blown in from the bottom of the furnace, rises through the mass of material and causes combustion. The gases formed by the burning of the coke combine with and remove the oxygen from the ore. Molten iron trickles down through the charge and collects in a pool at the bottom of the fur nace. At the same time, the in tense heat calcines the limestone which combines with silica and other impurities in the iron ore and coke and forms molten “ slag,” a useful byproduct. This, too, trickles down through the charge and floats on top of the heavier molten iron. The slag and molten iron ore are separately tapped or “ cast” from the blast furnace. A blast furnace operates con tinuously, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, unless it has to be shut down for repairs or other reasons. Molten iron is removed every 3 to 4 hours; slag is removed more frequently. The charging of iron ore, coke, and limestone into the furnace is a continuous operation. A single blast furnace may pro duce up to 4,500 tons of molten iron in a 24-hour period. Output can be increased to over 5,000 tons per day if pre-reduced iron pellets are used. The raw materials used in blast furnaces are stored in a stock house below furnace level. Here stockhouse men or stockhouse larrymen. (D.O.T. 919.883) load traveling stock or larry cars with raw materials from storage bins. They weigh all raw materials ac cording to a prearranged sched ule, determined by the kind of hot metal desired. The loaded stock 659 OCCUPATIONS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY cars are emptied into waiting “ skip cars,” which carry the ma terials up tracks to the top of the blast furnace where they are au tomatically dumped. Other stockhouse men or skipmen (D.O.T. 921.883), stationed on the ground below, control the skip cars through electric and pneumatic controls. Stove tenders (D.O.T. 512.782) and their assistants op erate huge, bricklined stoves which heat air for the blast fur nace. They regulate valves to con trol the heating cycle of the stoves and regulate the flow of heated air to the furnace. The men responsible for the quantity and quality of iron pro duced are called blowers (D.O.T. 519.132). They direct the opera tion of one or more blast furnaces, including loading and tapping the furnace, and regulating the air blast and furnace heat. Blowers carefully check the metal pro duced, periodically sending sam ples of the molten iron and slag to the laboratory where quality tests are made and the results reported to the blower. Keepers (D.O.T. 502.884), under the di rection of the blower, are respon sible for tapping the furnace. They direct their helpers and cindermen or staggers (D.O.T. 519.887) in lining (with special refractory sand) the troughs and runners through which the mol ten iron and slag are run off into waiting cars. Steel furnaces. The second ma jor step in steelmaking is to con vert the iron into steel. This is done in several types of furnaces: Open hearth; basic oxygen; and electric. Open-hearth steel, which ac counts for slightly over half of all steel produced in the United States, is produced by adding molten pig iron to previously charged and heated steel scrap and limestone and melting the mixture in furnaces. It is possible Blower takes sample of molten pig iron for quality tests. to make from about 125 to more than 600 tons of steel per load or “ heat” , depending upon the size of the furnace. Most of the open-hearth steelmaking facilities now use oxygen in the refining operation to speed up the process. A melter (D.O.T. 512.132) is in charge of one open-hearth fur nace or more and is responsible for the quality and quantity of the steel produced. The melter makes the steel to the desired specifications by varying the pro portions of limestone, iron ore, scrap steel, and molten pig iron in the furnace, and by adding small amounts of other materials such as manganese, silicon, or copper. He supervises three grades of helpers—first (D.O.T. 512.782), second (D.O.T. 502.- 884), and third (D.O.T. 519.887). These helpers prepare the fur naces for the heat, regulate fur nace temperatures, take samples of molten steel for laboratory tests, direct the adding of various alloying materials, and tap the molten steel from the furnace into a ladle. One first helper is respon sible for each open-hearth furnace. The charging machine operator (D.O.T. 512.883) runs an elec trically controlled machine with a long steel arm which picks up, one by one, long steel boxes full of limestone, scrap, and other ma terials. The machine pushes each box through the open furnace doors, turns it upside down to discharge its contents, and then withdraws it. The hot metal craneman (D.O.T. 921.883) oper- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 660 ates a large overhead crane that picks up ladles of molten iron and pours the contents into the openhearth furnaces. When the heat of steel is ready to be tapped, the furnace crew knocks out a plug at the back of the furnace with a “ jet tapper” (small explosive charge which is fired into the plug) which allows the molten metal to flow into a ladle. The slag, which floats to the top of the ladle, overflows into a smaller ladle called a slag pot. The molten steel then is teemed from the ladle into ingot molds (hollow cast iron forms). A ladle craneman (D.O.T. 921.883) operates an overhead crane which picks up the ladle and moves it over a long row of ingot molds resting on flat-bottom cars. The steel pourer (D.O.T. 514.884) operates a stopper on the bottom of the ladle to let the steel flow into the molds. As soon as the steel in the molds has solidified sufficiently, an ingot stripper (D.O.T. 921.- Molten metal is poured into basic oxygen furnace. 883), operates an overhead crane, which removes the molds from the still hot blocks of steel, called ingots, and places them on “ ingot buggies” (four-wheel carts run ning on rails) for movement to the soaking pits. Over one-third of all steel pro duced in 1968 was made in basicoxygen furnaces (B O F ), and the proportion is expected to increase rapidly in the years ahead. Basic oxygen furnaces can make steel faster than any other type of fur nace currently in use, and con tinual displacement of the openhearth steelmaking process by the basic oxygen method is expected. Some basic oxygen furnaces can produce more than 6,000 tons of steel in a 24-hour period. In this steelmaking process, oxygen is “ blown” into the furnace through vertical pipes, or “ lances,” after it has been loaded with steel scrap and molten pig iron. Limestone and other slag forming materials are added to remove impurities from the steel. The use of oxygen speeds the steelmaking process because it is blown directly onto the molten metal forcing a faster chemical reaction and a higher bath temperature. BOF’s are often computer controlled to in crease the quality of the steel pro duced and to speed up the steel making process. Electric furnaces accounted for about 12 percent of all steel pro duced in 1968. In electric fur naces, steelmaking can be con trolled very closely. Consequent ly, such furnaces are used to pro duce high quality and high alloy steel, such as tool and stainless steels, as well as the more com mon steels. Rolling and finishing. The three principal methods of shaping metal in steel plants are rolling, casting, and forging. About threefourths of all steel products are shaped by the rolling process. In this method, heated steel ingots OCCUPATIONS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY are squeezed longer and flatter be tween two cylinders or “ rolls.” Before ingots of steel are rolled, they are heated to the tempera ture specified by the plant’s met allurgist. The heating is done in large furnaces called “ soaking pits,” located in the plant floor. A heater (D.O.T. 613.782) con trols the soaking pit operation. He directs helpers in heating the ingots to the specified temper ature and, with the help of control equipment, determines when they are ready for rolling. A soaking pit craneman (D.O.T. 921.883) operates an overhead crane, by means of electrical controls, to lift the stripped ingots from an ingot car and place them into the soak ing pit. When the ingots are suf ficiently “ soaked” with heat, the heater opens the furnace covers and the craneman removes the ingots and places them on an ingot buggy, which carries them to the rolling mill. Here, the in gots are rolled into semifinished shapes— blooms, slabs, or billets. Blooms are generally more than 6 inches wide and 6 inches thick. Slabs are much wider than blooms. Billets are the smallest of these three shapes. The rolling of blooms illustrates the semifinishing process. In the blooming mill, as in other rolling mills, the ingot moves along on a roller conveyor to a machine which resembles a giant clothes wringer. A “ two-high” blooming mill has two heavy grooved rolls which revolve in opposite direc tions. The rolls grip the approach ing ingot and pull it between them, squeezing it thinner and longer. When the ingot has made a “ pass” through the rolls, the rolls are revolved in the opposite direction, and the ingot is fed back through them. Throughout the rolling operation, the ingot is periodically turned 90 degrees by mechanical devices called “ ma nipulators,” and passed between the rolls again so that all sides are rolled. Guides, located on each side of the roll table, properly po sition the ingot for entry into the rolls. This operation is repeated until the ingot is reduced to a bloom of the desired size. The bloom then is ready to be cut to specified lengths. A blooming mill roller (D.O.T. 613.782), the man in charge of the mill, works in a glass-enclosed control booth, or “ pulpit,” located above or beside the roller line. His duties, which appear to con sist principally of moving levers and pushing buttons, look rela tively simple. However, the qual ity of the product and the speed with which the ingot is rolled de pend upon his skill. The roller regulates the opening between the rolls after each pass. Long experi ence and a knowledge of steel characteristics are required for a worker to become a roller. A ma nipulator operator (D.O.T. 613.- Mill operator controls cold reducing process. 661 782) sits in the pulpit beside the roller and coordinates his con trols over the ingots direction with those of the roller. Upon leaving the rolling mill, the red-hot bloom moves along a roller conveyor to a place where a shearman (D.O.T. 615.782) controls a heavy, hydraulically operated shear which cuts the steel into desired lengths. In a blooming mill with auto matic (electronic) process con trols, a rolling mill attendant is given a card which has been punched with a series of holes. The holes represent coded infor mation and directions as to how the ingot is to be rolled. The at tendant inserts the card into a card “ reader,” then presses a but ton that starts the rolling se quence. The information in punched-card form governs the setting of the roll opening, the speed of the rolls, the number of passes to be made, and the num ber of times the ingot must be turned. When the automatic proc ess is used, the roller’s function is shifted from operating the rolling controls to directing and coordi nating the entire rolling process. This consists of heating, rolling, and shearing. Of increasing use in steel shap ing is the continuous casting process. In this process, which eliminates the necessity of con ventional pouring pits to produce large ingots that in turn must be put through huge blooming and slabbing mills, molten steel is poured into a water-cooled mold of the desired product shape lo cated at the top of a tower. As the mold is filled, the steel solidi fies along the bottom and lower sides. The mold bottom is then withdrawn and the slab or billet starts its descent through the tower. As the ribbon emerges from the mold, additional molten steel is continuously added at the top. Continuing downward, it 662 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK passes through a spray chamber where it is further cooled by a water spray to solidify the still liquid core. Pinch rolls control its descent and support its weight. Finally, the slab or billet is cut into lengths as it emerges from the rolls. In some continuous cast ing installations, a curved mold is used so that the product comes out horizontally rather than ver tically. After the steel is rolled into semifinished s h a p e — blooms, slabs, or billets— most of it is put through “ finishing” operations. For example, steel slabs may be reduced and shaped into plates and sheets. Even after additional rolling, some steels must be worked further. Some rods, for instance, are reduced to wire by drawing. Wire can be further processed into wire rope, nails, fencing, or other end products. Much sheet steel is reduced fur ther by cold-rolling, and then it may be run through galvanizing or tinplating lines. product. In making welded pipe, the flat steel is fed into a machine which through a series of forming rolls converts it into tube shape; then the edges of the pipe are fused by continuous welding. Seamless pipe and tubing are formed from a solid billet of steel, called a tube round. In the seam less operation, the piercer-ma chine operator (D.O.T. 613.885) passes a preheated tube round be tween two barrel-shaped rolls. The revolving rolls spin the tube round and force one end against a piercing plug or “ mandrel.” The combined rolling action and the pressure of the rolls tend to make the steel draw apart providing space for the mandrel to enter. The mandrel smooths the inside walls and makes the diameter of the hole uniform. Tinplate is another important steel product. To make tinplate, thin gauge steel in coil form is fed continuously through an elec trolytic bath where a coat of tin is deposited on the steel. Equipment operator, inspector, Maintenance, Transportation, and Plant Service Occupations. and assorter are among the major occupations in finishing opera tions; women frequently are em ployed in these jobs. An important occupation in wire making is the wire drawer (D.O.T. 614.782). This worker pulls the pointed end of a steel rod through a die (a block of hard steel or sintered carbide with a tapered hole in it). The rod end then is attached to a reel which, while revolving, pulls the rest of the rod through the die. As the rod passes through the die it is made thinner and longer and be comes wire, which is coiled auto matically around the revolving reel. If extensive reduction of the rod is required, it is passed through a series of dies, each die reducing the diameter of the wire slightly. Pipe, both welded and seamless, is also an important steel mill Large numbers of workers are re quired in steel plants to support processing activities. Some main tain and repair machinery and equipment, and others operate the equipment which provides power, steam, and water. Other groups of workers move material and sup plies and perform a variety of service operations. In the machine shops, machin ists and machine tool operators make and repair metal parts for machinery or equipment. Diemakers use machine tools to form dies, such as those used in wire drawing units. Roll turners (D.O.T. 613.780) use lathes, grinders, and other machine tools to finish steel rolls to desired shapes and sizes for use in the rolling mills. Millwrights in this industry maintain mechanical equipment. They overhaul machinery and re pair and replace defective parts. Electricians install electric wiring and fixtures and “ hook up” elec trically operated equipment. Elec trical repairmen (motor inspec tors) keep wiring, motors, switches, and electrical equip ment in good operating condition and make repairs when electrical equipment breaks down. Electronic repairmen install, re pair, and adjust the increasing number of electronic devices and systems used in steel manufac turing plants. Typically, this equipment includes communica tion systems such as public ad dress systems; closed-circuit tele vision installations; electronic computing and data recording systems; and measuring, process ing, and control devices such as X-ray measuring or inspection equipment. Bricklayers repair and rebuild the brickwork in furnaces, soak ing pits, and coke ovens, as well as mill buildings and offices. Pipe fitters lay out, install, and repair piping that is used to carry the large amount of water, gas, steam, oil, air, oxygen, and acetylene used in the steelmaking process. Boilermakers test, repair, and re build heating units, storage tanks, stationary boilers, and conden sers. Locomotive engineers and other train crew members operate diesel or electric trains used to transport materials and products in the vast yards of iron and steel plants. Welders operate welding equipment to join metal parts in repairing and rebuilding plant machinery and in fabricating steel products. Skilled workers run the various boilers, turbines, and switchboards in the powerplants which provide the large amounts of electric power needed in steel making. Other types of maintenance and service workers found in steel plants include carpenters, oilers, OCCUPATIONS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY painters, instrument repairmen, scale mechanic, loaders, riggers, greasers, janitors, and guards. Many laborers are employed to load and unload materials and do a variety of cleanup operations. Administrative, Clerical, and Technical Occupations. Profes sional, technical, administrative, clerical, and sales workers ac counted for one-fifth of the in dustry’s total employment in 1968. Of these, the majority were clerical workers, such as secre taries, stenographers, typists, ac counting clerks, and general of fice clerks. Engineers, scientists, and tech nicians made up a substantial proportion of the industry’s “ white-collar” employment. Sev eral thousand of these workers were engaged in research and de velopment to improve existing iron and steel products and proc esses, and to develop new prod ucts and processes. The technical specialists in iron and steel plants also include me chanical engineers, whose prin cipal work is the design, construc tion, and operation of mill ma chinery and material handling equipment. Many mechanical en gineers work in operating units where their jobs include, for ex ample, determination of roll size and contour, rolling pressures, and operating speeds. Others are responsible for plant and equip ment maintenance. Metallurgists and metallurgical engineers work in laboratories and production de partments where they have the important task of testing and con trolling the quality of the steel during its manufacture. They also develop and improve the indus try’s products and processes through research. Civil engineers are engaged in the layout, con struction, and maintenance of steel plants, and the equipment used for heat, light, and transpor tation. Electrical engineers de sign, lay out, and supervise the operation of electrical generating distribution facilities that provide the power essential in modem steel mill operation. These engi neers also are concerned with the operation of electrical machinery and electrical and electronic con trol equipment. Chemists work in the labora tories, making chemical analyses of steel and raw materials used in steel manufacture. Laboratory technicians do routine testing and assist chemists and engineers. Draftsmen prepare working plans and detailed drawings required in p l a n t c o n s t r u c t i o n and maintenance. Among the employees in ad ministrative, managerial, and su pervisory occupations were office managers, labor relations and personnel managers, purchasing agents, plant managers, and in dustrial engineers. Working with these personnel were several thousand professional workers, other than scientists and engi neers. By far, the largest group of these professional employees were accountants, but there were also many nurses, lawyers, eco nomists, statisticians, and mathe maticians. In addition, the indus try employed several thousand workers in sales positions. (Detailed discussions of profes sional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations found in the iron and steel industry, as well as in many other industries, are given elsewhere in the Hand book.) Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent New workers in processing op erations usually are hired at the unskilled level as laborers. Open ings in higher rated jobs usually are filled by promoting workers from lower grade jobs. Factors 663 considered when selecting work ers for promotion are ability to do the job, physical fitness, and length of service with the com pany. Training for processing occupa tions is done almost entirely on the job. Workers move to opera tions requiring progressively greater skill as they acquire ex perience. A craneman, for exam ple, first is taught how to operate relatively simple cranes, and then he advances through several steps to cranes much more diffi cult to run, such as the hot-metal crane. In selecting workers for proc essing jobs, steel companies gen erally give preference to high school graduates. T o help them advance in their work, many workers take part-time courses in subjects such as chemistry, physics, and metallurgy. In some cases, this training is provided by the steel companies and may be given within the plant. Other workers take evening courses in high schools, trade schools, or universities in their communities or enroll in correspondence courses. Workers in the various operat ing units usually advance along fairly well-defined lines of pro motion within their department. Examples of possible lines of ad vancement in the various operat ing units are described in the next paragraph. T o become a blast furnace blower, a worker generally starts as a laborer, advancing to cinderman or slagger, keeper’s helper, keeper, blower’s helper, and fin ally, to blower. In the openhearth department, a man may begin by doing general cleanup work around the furnace and then advance to third helper, sec ond helper, first helper, and eventually, to melter. A possible line of job advancement for a roller in a finishing mill might be OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 664 pitman, roll hand, manipulator, rougher, and finish roller. Work ers can be trained for skilled jobs, such as blower, melter, and roller (which are among the highest rated steelmaking jobs), in a minimum of 4 or 5 years, but usually they have to wait a much longer time before openings occur. Most companies conduct some type of apprenticeship program to meet the needs of their mainte nance shops. There are appren tice training programs for more than 20 different crafts in the steel industry. The apprentice ship programs for maintenance workers usually are of 3 or 4 years’ duration and consist main ly of shop training in various aspects of the particular jobs. In addition, classroom instruction in related technical subjects usually is given, either in the plant or in local vocational schools. Steelmaking companies have different qualifications for ap prentice applicants. Generally, employers require applicants to be high school or vocational school graduates. In most cases, the minimum age is 18 years; sometimes an upper age limit is specified. Some companies give aptitude and other types of tests to applicants to determine their suitability for the trades. Appren tices generally are chosen from among qualified young workers already employed in the plant. The following occupations are among those most often included in apprentice training programs in iron and steel plants: Black smith, boilermaker, bricklayer, coremaker, carpenter, electrician, instrument repairman, lead burn er, m achinist, molder, pattern maker, pipefitter, rigger, roll turner, sheet-metal worker, tool and die maker, and welder. Applicants for jobs as helpers to skilled maintenance workers usually are given aptitude tests. Helpers receive on-the-job train ing and may be promoted to jobs requiring greater skill as open ings occur. However, vacancies in these higher grades may not oc cur for several years, depending on the rate of turnover. The minimum requirement for engineering and scientific jobs is usually a bachelor’s degree with an appropriate major. Practically all the larger companies have for mal training programs for col lege-trained technical workers in which the trainees work for brief periods in various operating and maintenance divisions to get a broad picture of steelmaking operations before they are as signed to a particular depart ment. In other companies, the newly hired scientist or engineer is assigned directly to a specific research, operating, maintenance, administrative, or sales unit. En gineering graduates frequently are hired for sales work, and many of the executives in the industry have engineering back grounds. Engineering graduates, as well as graduates of business administration and liberal arts colleges, are employed in jobs in sales, accounting, and labor-man agement relations, as well as in managerial positions. Completion of a business course in high school, junior col lege, or business school usually is preferred for entry into most of the office occupations. Office jobs requiring special knowledge of the steel industry generally are filled by promoting personnel al ready employed in the industry. Em ploym ent O utlook A moderate increase in the production of iron and steel is ex pected during the decade ahead. The growing population and ris ing levels of personal disposable income will result in greater de mand for products that require large amounts of steel such as automobiles, houses, household appliances, and highways. New machinery also will be needed to produce the growing quantity of goods needed to feed, clothe, and otherwise satisfy the require ments of an expanding popula tion. Because of the expected in crease in output per worker, and the fact that in recent years im ports of steel have absorbed much of the growth of the market for steel, total employment in the in dustry is expected to decrease slowly below the 1968 level of approximately 630,000. Never theless, the iron and steel in dustry will hire many thousands of workers through the 1970’s. Retirements and deaths alone in this large industry should pro vide about 13,000 job openings annually. Despite the expected decline in overall employment, employ ment in some occupations, or oc cupational groups, still is ex pected to rise. Among white-col lar workers, for example, employ ment of engineers, chemists, phy sicists, mathematicians, labora tory aids, and other technical personnel will increase, because of the industry’s expanding re search and development pro grams. Job opportunities for electronic technicians, electronic computer programers, and other personnel trained in the prepara tion of data for use in these ma chines also are expected to in crease. Among skilled plant per sonnel, maintenance workers (particularly instrument and electronic repairmen) are ex pected to be needed in greater numbers, because of the increas ingly complex machinery, instru ments, and other equipment used. In contrast, the number of less skilled processing jobs is ex pected to decline. 665 OCCUPATIONS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY Average Straight-time Hourly Earnings1 of Workers In Selected Occupations in Basic Iron and Steel Establishments, September 1967____ Median hourly earnings ____ Blast furnaces: Larrymen .............................................. ..................... Stock unloaders ..................................... ..................... Open hearth furnaces: Charging machine operators ............... ..................... First helpers .......................................... ..................... Basic oxygen furnaces: Steel pourers.......................................... ..................... Furnace operators ................................ ..................... Bloom, slab, and billet mills: Soaking pit cranemen........................... ..................... Manipulators ........................................ ..................... Continuous hot-strip mills: Assorters ............................................... ..................... Coders ................................................... ..................... Maintenance: Bricklayers ............................................ ..................... Millwrights ............................................ ..................... Middle range $3.69 $3.10 $3.39-$3.84 $2.93-$3.21 $4.60 $5.61 $4.25-$4.86 $5.08-$5.94 $4.85 $5.02 $4.12-$5.26 $4.61-$5.74 $4.38 $4.48 $4.03-$4.73 $4.15-$4.77 $2.89 $4.15 $2.75-$2.90 $3.80-$4.57 $4.10 $3.83 $3.57-$4.39 $3.50-$4.08 E xcludes premium pay for overtime and for work on weekends, holidays, and late shifts. Incentive payments, such as those resulting from piecework or production bonus systems and cost-of-living allowances, are included. Earnings and W orking Conditions Earnings of production workers in iron and steelmaking establish ments are among the highest in manufacturing. In 1968, their earnings averaged $154.16 a week or $3.76 an hour. This com pares with average earnings of $122.51 weekly, or $3.01 an hour, for all production workers in manufacturing establishments. Agreements between most steel companies and the United Steel workers of America include pro visions for various fringe benefits such as vacation pay, shift dif ferentials, paid holidays, retire ment pensions, and supplemental unemployment benefits. Most workers receive vacation pay ranging from 1 to 4 weeks, de pending on length of service. In addition, the top 50 percent of the workers, ranked on the basis of seniority, receive 13-week va cations (including regular vaca tion time) every 5 years; and the remaining 50 percent receive 3 extra weeks vacation once in a 5year period. Professional and executive personnel in a few com panies receive similar benefits. Workers may retire on full pen sion after 30 years of service, re gardless of age. Retiring workers are eligible for a company-paid pension, in addition to social se curity benefits for which they may be eligible. Employees hav ing 2 years or more of service are eligible to receive supplemental unemployment benefits for up to 52 weeks. Other important provi sions include accident and sick ness, hospitalization, surgical, and life insurance benefits financed by the companies. The American Iron and Steel Institute estimates wage supple ments in 1967 as 28.4 percent of total employment costs or $1.35 per hour worked. Working conditions depend upon the particular plant depart ment in which the worker is employed. Maintenance shops generally are clean and cool. Roll ing mills, however, generally are hot and noisy. Some plants are developing methods to reduce job discomfort. For example, the use of remote control enables em ployees to work outside the im mediate vicinity of processing op erations. In other instances, the cabs in which the men work, while operating mechanical equip ment are air conditioned. Some of the workers near blast and steel furnaces are exposed to consider able heat. Because certain proc esses are operated continuously, some workers are on night shifts or work on weekends. The iron and steel industry is a leader in the development of safe ty programs for workers, empha sizing the use of protective clothing and devices on machines to prevent accidents. In recent years, steel plants had an aver age injury frequency rate (injur ies per million hours of work) that was about one-third the rate of all manufacturing. Most plant workers in the iron and steel industry are members of the United Steelworkers of America. Sources of A dditional Inform ation American Iron and Steel Institute, 150 East 42nd St., New York, N.Y. 10017. United Steelworkers of America, 1500 Commonwealth Building, Pittsburgh, Pa. 15222. i M O T O R V E H I C L E A N D E Q U IP M E N T M A N U F A C T U R IN G O C C U P A T IO N S Few products have had as great an impact on everyday life as the automobiles, trucks, buses, and other vehicles manufactured by the motor vehicle and equipment industry (automobile industry). In 1968, 4 out of 5 families owned at least one automobile, and 1 family out of 4 owned two or more. Altogether, 100 million pas senger cars, trucks, and buses traveled the Nation’s streets and highways. In addition, the wide spread use of motor vehicles has made significant contributions to the Nation’s economy by helping to create new industries and de velop existing ones. Many busi nesses, including automotive re pair shops, gasoline service sta tions, and truck and bus trans portation facilities have been cre ated as a result of the motor ve hicle. Moreover, the automobile industry is a major consumer of many basic commodities such as steel, rubber, and plate glass. To manufacture the nearly 10.8 million motor vehicles (mainly automobiles) produced in 1968, the motor vehicle industry (SIC 371) employed approximately 868,000 employees. (In addition, thousands of people, whose em ployment is not included in this chapter, are employed outside motor vehicle plants in the pro duction of components for the motor vehicle industry. These are persons engaged in the produc tion of tires and tubes, automobile glass, vehicular lighting systems, storage batteries, and many other items.) Like other large indus tries, the automobile industry offers employment to men and women having widely different backgrounds of education and training. Job requirements vary from the college degree necessary for engineers and other profes sional and technical personnel to the few hours of on-the-job train ing necessary for assemblers, material handlers, and custodial employees. The largest number of employees work in factory (plant) occupations. Plant occu pations range from the skilled tool and die maker, millwright, and electrician, to those requiring little skill such as machine tender, assembler, material handler, and custodial worker. A great number of automotive employees also work in office and administrative jobs as clerks, business machine operators, stenographers, pur chasing agents, and personnel assistants. Worker places weatherstrip around windshield. N ature and Location of the Industry This industry’s ability to pro duce millions of complex motor vehicles is due mainly to mass production of standardized parts and assembly-line manufacturing methods. Thousands of identical parts are produced by employees whose jobs are divided into a lim ited number of operations on high-speed machinery. T h e s e mass-produced parts then are put together by other employees to form the completed vehicle. As a result, new cars can be driven off assembly lines at the rate of more than one a minute. The motor vehicle industry in 1967 consisted of approximately 2,700 plants that manufactured parts or assembled these parts into cars, trucks, buses, and spe cial-purpose vehicles such as am bulances, fire engines, and taxi cabs. The plants ranged in size from huge assembly plants em ploying thousands of workers to parts plants employing a small number. About 85 percent of the industry’s workers are employed in establishments with 500 em ployees or more. In 1968, about 14 percent of the employees in the industry were engaged in the manufacture of bodies for passenger cars, trucks, and buses, and in the pro duction of truck trailers and truck trailer chassis. The remaining 86 percent were almost equally di vided between plants that supply parts for new motor vehicles, and plants that assemble components into the final product. Hundreds of firms supply parts for new vehicles and also produce replacement parts necessary to keep the millions of vehicles al ready on the road in operation. These firms often specialize in producing individual parts— for instance, brakes, axles, and trans missions. Relatively few compan ies assemble complete vehicles. Seven out of eight workers in the motor vehicle industry are employed in 10 States. Michigan alone accounts for more than 40 percent of the industry’s employ ment; Ohio, Indiana, and New 667 668 York account for another 25 per cent. The six other leading States are California, Missouri, Wisconsin, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. The center of the industry is the Detroit metropolitan area where 1 out of 4 motor vehicle workers is employed. Several other cities in the Great Lakes region employing large numbers of motor vehicle workers are Flint, Lansing, and Saginaw, Michigan; Cleveland, Lorain, T o ledo, and Cincinnati, Ohio; In dianapolis and Fort Wayne, Ind.; Chicago, 111.; Buffalo, N. Y.; and Milwaukee and Kenosha, Wis. Much of the motor vehicle manufacturing o n t h e E a s t Coast is centered in the New York-Northeastern New JerseyPhiladelphia industrial area in lo calities such as Newark, Paterson, Linden, and New Brunswick, N.J.; and New York, N.Y. Leading automobile manufac turing centers in the Pacific Coast region are Los Angeles and San Francisco, California. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK prints, from which skilled modelmakers make clay, wood, and plaster models. From these mod els, refinements in styling and de sign of the new car are developed. In order to mass-produce the car, master dies based on the finally accepted model are made. In recent years, computers have played an increasingly im portant role in engineering and have been linked with numer ically controlled drafting ma chines. These machines, auto matically operated by a tape con taining instructions prepared on a computer, produce engineering drawings. Another recent tech nique is the use of photographic equipment to record points on a clay model which the computer then converts into full scale draw ings. These methods have enabled the manufacturers to shorten the lead time required to prepare new models for production. Production of Motor Vehicle Parts. After the design and engi neering phases have been com pleted, thousands of component parts that later will later be as sembled into a complete motor vehicle must be produced. A large variety of materials are used, the most common being steel, aluminum, copper, zinc, plastic, rubber, fabric, glass, iron, and lead. How M otor Vehicles Are M ade Automobiles and other motor vehicles are produced in three steps; preliminary designing and engineering, production of motor vehicle parts and subassemblies, and final assembly of parts into complete vehicles. Preliminary Designing and En gineering. Approximately 2 to 3 years of designing, planning, and testing often precede the actual production of each year’s model. Stylists constantly strive to im prove the appearance of the au tomobile. They work closely with engineers and other technical per sonnel concerned with improving mechanical operation, design, and safety. The stylists’ creative de signs are transferred to blue Operator monitors machine that checks accuracy of cylinder bores. 669 MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT The large number of metal parts are shaped by several dif ferent methods, depending on the purpose and size of the part and the metal being used. The casting process is used to produce bulky parts such as engine blocks. Parte which must withstand great stress, such as axles and wheel spindles, are produced by the forging process. Huge presses form the sheet metal and alum inum that compose the exterior body. Metal parte requiring pre cise dimensions, such as pistons and engine blocks, undergo fur ther machine processing. These various processes are explained more fully under plant occupa tions. The production of parte does not entirely consist of metalwork ing operations. Many parts are painted; seat cushions are pre pared; engines are test run; and parts are stored or shipped to other plants. Throughout the pro duction of parts, numerous in spections are made to insure that the quality of assembled vehicles will meet established standards. line. Finally the headlights and wheels are alined, and after the finished vehicle is inspected, it leaves the factory. As the chassis moves along the assembly line, “ banks” of parts and subassemblies located in aisles along the line are contin ually fed to assemblers according to a careful system of scheduling arranged by the production con trol departments. Behind the movement of parts and subassem blies to the assembly line is the work of materials control men who, months before, coordinated the delivery of parts from sup pliers with a planned production schedule. The sequence of models to be built may be transmitted to the various stations along the line by either teletype or telautograph. Information on color and special equipment desired in each car is obtained from orders placed by automobile dealers. By this sched uling program, cars of different colors and types follow each other on the assembly line— for exam ple, a blue sedan may be followed by a beige station wagon. Assembling the Final Product. The last stage of motor vehicle manufacturing occurs on the final assembly line. Final assembly is the process of putting together in sequence the individual parte and subassemblies, after which the completed vehicle is driven off the line. A conveyor carries the motor vehicle forward while men at work stations attach the necessary parts and subassemblies in proper sequence. Generally, large and heavy subassemblies, such as the engine and body, are lowered by hoists into position on the chassis as it is moved forward. Near the end of the assembly line, acces sories, such as hubcaps and floor mats, are added; gasoline is pumped into the fuel tank; and the new vehicle is driven off the O ccupations in the Industry The motor vehicle industry’s 868,000 employees in 1968 worked in hundreds of occupa tions. Semiskilled plant workers, such as assemblers, inspectors, and material handlers, made up about one-half of all employees. An additional one-quarter were employed as foremen, mechanics and repairmen, machinists, tool and die makers, and in other skilled occupations. Clerical em ployees made up about one-tenth of the total. The remaining workers were employed in pro fessional, technical, sales, and managerial occupations, and as unskilled workers and guards. More than 90 percent of the in- Employees cut, sew, and fit upholstery. dustry’s employees are men. Of the women employed about half are in production jobs in which the work is not physically strenu ous, such as assembling, inspect ing, machine operating, and sew ing and stitching; the rest are in clerical and other office jobs, in cluding research and technical work. The duties and training re quirements of some of the im portant occupations are described briefly below. (Detailed discus sions of professional, technical, mechanical, and other occupa tions found in the automobile in dustry, as well as in many other industries, are given in the sec tions of the Handbook covering individual occupations.) Professional and Technical Occu pations. The modern automobile is a product of the research, de sign, and development work of thousands of engineers, chemists, metallurgists, physicists, mathe- 670 maticians, draftsmen, and other professional, scientific, and tech nical personnel employed by the motor vehicle companies. About 26,000 scientists and engineers were employed in the motor ve hicle industry in 1968. Engineers make up the largest group of pro fessional and technical workers in the industry. Motor vehicle com panies hire engineers specializing in mechanical, electrical, indus trial, and other fields. The me chanical engineer seeks ways of improving the engine, transmis sion, or other parts of the auto mobile through research and development. The electrical engi neer designs electrical parts, such as ignition systems, voltage regu lators, and generators. The indus trial engineer concentrates on the layout of plant equipment, im proved processes, and production scheduling. The industry also em ploys civil, chemical, and ceramic engineers, and metallurgists. About two-fifths of the scien tists and engineers are engaged pricipally in research and develop ment. Others may supervise tech nical production jobs. For exam ple, metallurgists may supervise the melting operations in the pre cision casting and forging depart ments, and chemists may head the testing and analytical laboratory. The industry also employs thousands of technicians, such as draftsmen, engineering aids, and laboratory assistants, to assist professional engineers and scien tists. Administrative, Clerical, and Re lated Occupations. Various skills are necessary to perform a great variety of administrative func tions. Executives determine how many vehicles to produce, what styles to make, what prices to charge, which parts the company should produce or buy, and where to locate plants. Other adminis trative personnel, such as person OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK nel managers and purchasing ag ents, direct individual depart ments or special phases of opera tions. Among those assisting the administrators are accountants, lawyers, market analysts, econo mists, statisticians, and industrial relations experts. Many supervise specific groups of office or plant employees. The large staff of clerical work ers, many of whom are women, in eludes secretaries, stenographers, bookkeepers, clerk-typists, key punch operators, and business ma chine operators. Plant Occupations. More than three-fourths of the employees in the motor vehicle industry work in production operations. Most plant employees make parts and assemble them into complete ve hicles. Other plant employees service and maintain the vast amount of machinery and equip ment needed for automobile man ufacturing. Machining Occupations. Machin ing is the metalworking process generally best adapted for the production of parts to precise sizes. It is a process of cutting or chipping away excess metal from a part or piece of metal by the use of power-driven machine tools such as lathes; boring, grinding, and milling m a c h i n e s ; drill presses; and gear cutters. One of the largest metalwork ing occupations in the automobile industry is the machine tool op erator. These workers operate power-driven machines which hold both the piece of metal to be cut and an instrument, or “ tool,” that cuts, shapes, drills, or grinds the metal. The job titles of em ployees, such as engine lathe op erator, drill press operator, and milling machine operator, depend on what type of machine tools they operate. Among the most highly skilled machining workers are tool and die makers. Toolmakers make cut ting tools and the jigs, fixtures, and other accessories that hold the metal being machined. Diemakers construct the dies used in stamping, pressing, forging, and other metalforming operations. Tool and die makers read blue prints, set up and operate ma chine tools, use precision-measur ing instruments, and make shop computations. The motor vehicle industry has taken the lead in developing con tinuous automatic production for many machining operations. This approach to production depends on a variety of instruments to di rect and control manufacturing processes. As a step in the auto mation of machining processes, automobile manufacturers have linked automatic machine tools to perform various operations. Less labor is required because the parts or pieces being machined are not handled manually. For example, in an automated engine plant, a rough engine block goes through hundreds of differ ent cutting, drilling, and grinding operations using little direct man ual labor. The engine block is moved into and out of work sta tions mechanically and is ma chined automatically by a battery of machine tools. Much of the inspection is automatic. The ma chine tools, conveyors, and in spection equipment often are con trolled by electronic, hydraulic, or air control mechanisms. Workers tend the automated lines by watching control panels for inter ruptions of the machines’ normal functioning. Other Metalworking Occupations. Large numbers of workers are employed in other metalworking occupations. These include punch press operators who run powerdriven presses that vary in size from small presses used for form- MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT ing brackets, clips, or other small parts to massive presses which form, trim, and pierce holes in automobile doors, body panels, and frames. Automobile plants employ thousands of welders to join metal parts. Some manual electric-arc welders and gas welders work in production jobs in parts and body manufacturing plants, and others work in maintenance jobs repair ing and rebuilding machinery and equipment. Machine (resistance) welders are employed on assem bly lines to weld separate parts of bodies and subassemblies. Foundry Occupations. Castings for automobile parts, such as en gine blocks, are produced by pour ing metal into molds where it cools and hardens in the shape of the molds. Patternmakers make a wood or metal pattern in the shape of the final casting desired. Coremakers shape the bodies of sand, or “ cores/’ which are placed inside molds to form hollow spaces needed in castings. Machine molders make the sand mold into which the metal is poured. Many other workers in the foundries are in less skilled occu pations. Melters operate electric furnaces and cupolas used to melt metal for castings. The actual pouring is done by metal pourers. After the casting cools, shakeout men remove it from the mold. Other workers clean the castings and remove excess metal. Forging Occupations. Parts which m u s t withstand great stress, such as axles, are shaped by forging hammers and presses in the forge shop. Hammermen operate drop hammers which pound metal into various shapes between closed dies. The ham mermen are assisted by heaters who heat the metal stock in a furnace to prepare it for forging and then pass the stock to the 671 hammermen. Other forge shop workers are engaged in cleaning, finishing, heat treating, or in specting forgings. Inspection Occupations (D.O.T. 806.281; 283; 381; 382; 387; 684 and 687). Automobiles can be massproduced because parts and subassemblies for the same make of automobile are interchange able. These parts are made to exact measurements and are sub ject to close quality control and inspection. (The industry em ploys statisticians and engineers in quality control departments who use statistical techniques de signed to control the quantity of the product.) Inspectors check incoming raw materials, examine parts during the manufacturing stages, and make quality and conformity checks during the subassembly and assembly operations. Microm eters, specially designed gages, and other measuring and testing instruments are used by inspec tors and testers in performing their duties. Assembling Occupations (D.O.T. 806.887). Assemblers, who make up the largest occupational group in the automobile industry, put together small parts to form subassemblies or parts and subassem blies to form the complete motor vehicle (line assemblies). Most Painters spray truck. 672 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK assembly jobs are repetitive and require little skill; however, they do require coordination and may be strenuous. Each employee is assigned a job to be done when the vehicle passes his work station. For example, one employee may start nuts on bolts and the next worker may tighten the nuts. Finishing Occupations. Many fin ishing operations must be per formed before a car is completed. For example, metal surfaces must be readied for finshing, the exter iors painted, the interiors covered, the seats upholstered, and finally, the finished product must under go a thorough inspection. Among those employed in finishing de partments are metal finishers, platers, sprayers, polishers, Sand ers, trim cutters, sewing machine operators, and trimmers. Metal finishers (D.O.T. 705.884) file and polish rough surface areas of metal parts in preparation for painting. Platers (D.O.T. 500.885) put a thin coat of chrome on bumpers and on other parts such as grills, mirrors, and hubcaps. Sprayers (D.O.T. 741.887) oper ate spray guns to apply paint or other finishes to the metal parts. Polishers (D.O.T. 705.884) rub the finished surfaces by hand or polish them with a portable mo tor-driven buffing wheel. Cutters, sewing machine opera tors, and trimmers combine their skills to provide comfortable and attractive interiors. With hand shears or an electric knife, the cutter (D.O.T. 781.884) cuts fab ric or leather to the specific shape according to a pattern. The sew ing machine operator (D.O.T. 787.782), using a power-driven machine, sews together the up holstery s e c t i o n s . Trimmers (D.O.T. 780.884) arrange and fasten springs and padding or foam rubber for the seats and other upholstered areas, and in stall the covering material. Employees lower front and subassembly into place. Materials Handling, Custodial, and Plant Protection Occupa tions. The production of motor vehicles by the assembly-line process requires an elaborate sys tem of materials movement to supply the assembly lines and to move finished products. Many power truck operators deliver parts or subassemblies to the as sembly line or move materials between plants. Materials han dlers load and unload parts from trucks or into and out of contain ers. Overhead crane operators use machines to move raw steel stock, heavy dies, and other materials that cannot be lifted by hand. Many employees are needed to keep the production employees supplied with tools, parts, and materials, and to keep records of materials. Factory clerks, such as checkers, stock chasers, and stock clerks, coordinate the delivery of parts to the proper location on the assembly line. They check, re ceive, and distribute materials MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT and keep records of incoming and outgoing shipments. The industry also employs many workers in plant protection and custodial work. These include workers such as plant patrolmen, gatemen, janitors, and porters. Maintenance Occupations. A large staff is required to keep ma chines and equipment in good op erating condition and to make changes in the layout of automo bile plants. Because breakdowns in assembly lines and highly mechanized machining lines are costly, many skilled maintenance employees service this compli cated production system. The maintenance and repair of com plex electrical, electronic, and hy draulic equipment require welltrained electricians, electronic technicians, and machinery re pairmen. Millwrights move, in stall, and maintain heavy ma chinery and mechanical equip ment. Plumbers and pipefitters lay out, install, and repair piping, valves, pumps, and compressors. Other maintenance employees in clude carpenters, stationary engi neers, and sheet metal workers. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent The training requirements for jobs in the motor vehicle industry range from a few hours of on-thejob training to years of prepara tion. Many plant workers can learn their jobs in a day or two. On the other hand, engineering and scientific jobs, as well as craft jobs, are filled by people who have spent many years in training for their occupations. The industry’s emphasis upon new designs and mechanical im provements has made it an im portant employer of persons with engineering and scientific back grounds. The minimum require ment for professional engineering jobs is a bachelor of science or a bachelor of engineering degree from a recognized college. Ad vanced degrees often are required for scientists, particularly those engaged in research and develop ment. Newly hired engineers and scientists often are offered spe cialized training courses. Many of the industry’s top executives have been selected from this pro fessional group. The requirements for other technical employees vary accord ing to their specialities. For ex ample, many engineering aids, laboratory assistants, and drafts men are technical institute or junior college graduates. Some au tomobile companies train their technical employees at companyrun schools or subsidize students at local junior colleges or techni cal institutes. These employees also may take advanced training and acquire engineering degrees. Administrative positions usual ly are filled by men and women who have college degrees in busi ness administration, marketing, accounting, industrial relations, or other specialized fields. Some companies have advanced train ing programs for employees in these specialties. Most of the top administrative jobs are filled by promotion from within the organization. Most motor vehicle firms hire people who have had commercial courses in high schools or busi ness schools for office jobs such as clerk, bookkeeper, keypunch operator, stenographer, and typ ist. These people usually have not been trained specifically for jobs in this industry. Applicants for most plant jobs must be physically able, depend able, and have aptitude for me chanical work. For semiskilled jobs, the industry seeks employees who can do routine work at a steady and fast pace. Assembling 673 jobs can be learned in a few hours or days. Some of the less skilled machine operating jobs can be learned in a few weeks. Extensive periods of training are required for craft jobs in the motor vehicle industry. Tool and die makers, patternmakers, elec tricians, millwrights, and machin ery repairmen are some of the highly skilled workers who gen erally require at least 4 years of training before they can perform their specialized jobs. Although many craft workers acquire the skills of their trade by working for many years with experienced workers, most training authori ties agree that apprenticeship is the best way to learn a skilled trade. Automobile firms, in coperation with labor unions, con duct apprenticeship programs for many of the skilled trades. Applicants for apprenticeship training generally are required to be graduates of a high school, trade, or vocational school. Train ing authorities stress that young people interested in apprentice ship training should prepare themselves by taking courses in mathematics and other sciences. Apprentice applicants are given physical examinations, mechani cal aptitude tests, and other qualifying tests. Apprenticeship training in cludes both on-the-job and class room instruction. Mathematics, blue print reading, shop theory, and specialized subjects are stud ied in the classroom, and the op eration and use of tools of a par ticular trade are learned in the shop. Motor vehicle companies se lect most foremen from among workers already employed. Fre quently, persons who have com pleted apprentice training in a company are selected for super visory jobs after they have ac quired further experience. Appli cants for foreman jobs, if select- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 674 Assembly line employee mounts wheels and tires with impact wrench. ed, go through a training period when promoted to the foreman level. Em ploym ent O utlook The motor vehicle industry is expected to provide thousands of job openings annually through the 1970’s, mainly to replace ex perienced workers who transfer to other industries, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone should provide about 15,000 job openings annually. On the other hand, because of laborsaving technological advances, employ ment in the industry is expected to show little change from the 1968 level of 868,000, despite an ticipated large increases in the production of motor vehicles and parts. Production of motor vehicles and parts, and therefore employ ment, have fluctuated sharply since the end of World War II, reflecting the industry’s sensitivi ty to changes in general busi ness conditions, consumer prefer ence, availability of credit, and defense production needs. In the future, assuming relatively full employment and the high rates of economic growth necessary to achieve this goal, the demand for motor vehicles and equipment is expected to increase substantially. Other factors that will stimulate demand include a large increase in the driving age population and number of households, growth of multicar ownership, higher in comes, a continuing shift of fami lies from cities to the suburbs, and the need to replace vehicles that wear out. As noted earlier, employment is not expected to keep pace with demand because of technological innovations that increase output per man hour. In the decade ahead, the industry’s continued emphasis upon highly technical production methods, such as elec trical discharge, electrochemical, and numerically controlled ma chining, is expected to continue to increase output per worker. The emphasis on research and development of new materials is also likely to continue. Recent ex amples of innovations resulting from research and development include the use of metal powders to manufacture certain precision parts that reduce the amount of machining formerly required, and the substitution of plastics for many metal parts. New and mod ernized plants also are expected to lead to further efficiencies in production. However, some of the increased production efficiency will be offset by the greater num ber of man-hours required to pro duce an increasing variety of models and to provide additional equipment, such as improved safety devices, air conditioners, power brakes, and exhaust con trol devices. The occupational distribution of employment in the motor ve hicle industry has been changing as a result of the industry’s em phasis upon research and devel opment, and its increasing use of automatic manufacturing opera tions. Following recent occupa tional trends, the number of en gineers, scientists, and other pro fessional and technical personnel is expected to increase because of the anticipated expansion in re search and development activi ties. Moreover, this emphasis up on research and development will create more job opportunities MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT for engineers and scientists hav ing advanced degrees. The indus try is expected to expand its use of electronic data-processing equipment in the future, and sys tems analysts and programers will be employed in greater numbers. Employment of clerical and ad ministrative workers is expected to remain at about the present level. Although the introduction of data-processing equipment may reduce the number employed in some clerical occupations, a slight increase in the number of stenoggraphers and typists is antici pated. The employment of skilled workers, as a group, may decline very slightly. Although some skilled occupations, including millwright, pipefitter, and ma chinery repairman, are expected to increase, others, including ma chinist and upholsterer, are ex pected to decline. The number of semiskilled workers is expected to remain relatively stable. Earnings and W orking Conditions The earnings of production workers in this industry are among the highest in manufac turing. In 1968, production work ers in the motor vehicle industry earned, on the average, $167.66 for 43.1 hours a week, or $3.89 an hour. This compares with average earnings of $122.51 for a 40.7 hour week, or $3.01 an hour, for production workers in all manu facturing industries. In addition to wages and sala ries, employees in the industry receive a wide range of benefits, most of which are paid for en tirely by employers. These in clude life insurance; accidental death and dismemberment bene fits; and hospitalization, surgical, and medical benefits. Most employees also receive paid vacations (or payments in lieu of vacations) ranging from 2 to 4 weeks, depending on length of service; and an average of 10 paid holidays a year. Most com panies provide for automatic in creases in hourly wages when the cost of living rises beyond a given amount. Employees are paid at one and one-half their normal rate for working more than 40 hours a week or for working on Saturdays. They receive double the hourly rate for working on Sundays or holidays. Supplemental unemployment benefit plans (paid for solely by the employers) cover the majority of workers. These plans also pro vide supplementary pay benefits (short workweek benefits) to help stabilize the income of hour ly rated employees and some sala ried employees when they are required to work less than a nor mal week. In addition, during layoff, provisions are included for hospitalization, surgical, and medical benefits; life and accident insurance; survivor income bene fit coverage; separation payments for those laid off 12 continuous months or more; and relocation allowances. A great majority of the motor vehicle workers are covered by pension programs, almost all of which are paid for entirely by the employer. Retirement benefits vary with length of service. In a typical case, an employee, age 65, and having 30 years’ service, who retires in 1969, will receive a monthly company pension of $180, in addition to Federal so cial security benefits. Many pen sion programs also include pro 675 visions for voluntary retirement as early as age 55. Usually within 40 days of their hiring date, most hourly rated workers and some salaried work ers in the industry are required to join a specific union as a con dition of continued employment. The great bulk of the production and maintenance workers in as sembly plants, and a majority employed in the parts plants be long to the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural I m p l e m e n t Workers of America. In some parts plants, the International Union, Allied Industrial Workers of America is the bargaining agent for the employees. Other unions with membership in the automobile industry include the International Association of Ma chinists and Aerospace Workers; the Pattern Makers’ League < ?f North America; the International Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Un ion of North America; the Metal Polishers, Buffers, Platers and Helpers International Union; the International Union, United Plant Guard Workers of America (Ind.); the Mechanics Educa tional Society of America; the In ternational Brotherhood of Elec trical Workers; and the Interna tional Die Sinkers’ Conference (Ind.) Most motor vehicle workers are employed in plants which are relatively clean and free from dust, smoke, and fumes. Some work surroundings, however, par ticularly in the foundry and forge departments, may be hot, and the worker may be exposed to noise, dust, and fumes. Working condi tions in foundries and forge de partments have been greatly im proved by the introduction of larger, more efficient ventilation systems. Motor vehicle plants are, on the whole, comparatively safe 676 places to work, although safety conditions vary somewhat among the individual departments or facilties. The rate of disabling in juries in motor vehicle plants has been less than half that of all manufacturing industries in re cent years. Some automobile plants have fully equipped hospi tal facilties with doctors and nurses in attendance. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Sources of A dditional In fo rm atio n Further information on specific employment opportunities in mo tor manufacturing can be ob tained from local offices of the State employment service; per sonnel departments of individual motor manufacturing firms; lo cals of the labor unions noted above; and from: International Union, United Auto mobile, Aerospace and Agricul tural Implement Workers of America, 8000 East Jefferson Ave., Detroit, Mich. 48214. Automobile Manufacturers Asso ciation, Inc., 320 New Center Building, Detroit, Mich. 48202. O C C U P A T IO N S IN T H E P A P E R , A N D A L L IE D P R O D U C T S IN D U S T R IE S In 1968, the paper and allied products industry employed al most 700,000 people to produce thousands of paper products such as newsprint, business forms, facial tissue, building board, paper bags, writing paper, and paperboard containers and boxes. Con sumption of paper and paperboard in 1968 averaged approxi mately 530 pounds for each per son in the Nation. The industry employs workers in occupations ranging from unskilled to highly specialized technical and profes sional jobs, many found only in the paper industry. More than 150,000 women were employed in this industry in 1968. Many worked in plant jobs, main ly as machine operators and in spectors in paper finishing and converting plants; others worked in office jobs. Few women were employed in the actual production of pulp or paper. N ature and Location of the Industry The paper industry is highly mechanized. Pulp, paper, and many finished paper products are manufactured by machines— some as long as a football field— in a series of nearly automatic op erations that require very little handling of material by workers. Manufacturing plants in the pa per industry are engaged in one or more of three different opera tions. The production of pulp (the basic ingredient of paper) from wood, reused fibers, or other raw materials; the manufacture of pa per or paperboard (thick paper) from pulp; or the conversion of rolls of paper or paperboard into finished products. The largest group of employees in the industry in 1968 worked in mills that produced pulp, paper, or paperboard. The next largest group was employed in plants that produced paperboard boxes and containers; the remainder worked in plants that produced a variety of other paper products. More than 80 percent of the paper and allied products em ployees worked in factories em ploying 100 workers or more. Workers in this industry are located throughout the country, although more than half are em ployed in eight States: New York, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Ohio, Illinois, Massachusetts, Cali fornia, and New Jersey. Other States having large numbers of paperworkers are Michigan, Min nesota, Georgia, Washington, Maine, Alabama, Florida, and Louisiana. Occupations in the Industry Workers in the paper industry are employed in a wide variety of occupations, requiring a broad range of training and skills. Many workers operate and control spe cialized papermaking, finishing, and converting machines. Some workers install and repair equip ment such as papermaking ma chinery, converting equipment, motors, pumps, pipes, and meas uring instruments. Truck and tractor drivers make deliveries to and from plants, and other work ers load and unload trucks, trains, and ships. Guards, watchmen, and janitors do custodial work. Other workers keep inventory records of stock and tools. The industry employs many workers in clerical, sales, and ad ministrative occupations. For ex ample, it employs purchasing ag ents, personnel managers, sales men, office clerks, stenographers, bookkeepers, and business ma chine operators. Also, because of the complex processes and equip ment used, the industry employs many people in professional and technical occupations such as chemical and mechanical engi neers, chemists, laboratory tech nicians, and pulp and paper test ers. (Detailed discussions of pro677 678 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK cylinder known as a “ drum bark er.” Logs are fed mechanically into this machine by a semiskilled worker called a barker operator (D.O.T. 533.782). The machine cleans bark from the logs by tumbling them against each other and also against the rough inner surface of the drum. Next, pulp fibers in the logs are separated from other substances not used in papermaking. This is done by a chemical or mechanical process, or both, depending on the type of wood used and the grade of paper desired. In the mechanical process, pulpwood is held against a fast-re volving grindstone that sepa rates the fibers. In the more com monly used chemical process, pulpwood is carried on conveyor belts to a chipper machine op erated by a chipperman (D.O.T. 668.885). The machine cuts the pulpwood into chips about the size of a quarter. These wood chips are “ cooked” with chemicals under high temperature and pres sure in a “ digester,” a kettlelike vat several stories high. The di gester is operated by a skilled worker called a digester operator (D.O.T. 532.782) (also known as a “ cook” ). He determines the amount of chemicals to be used, the c o o k i n g temperature and pressure, and directs the loading of the digester with wood chips and chemicals. By checking an in strument panel, he makes certain that proper conditions are being Women are frequently employed as carton inspectors. fessional, technical, and mechani cal occupations, found not only in the paper industry but in other industries, are given elsewhere in the Handbook in sections cover ing individual occupations. See index for page numbers.) Production Jobs. More than three-fourths of all employees in the industry in 1968 worked in production jobs. The simplified description of papermaking occu pations and processes that follows applies to a plant which combines the production of pulp, paper, and finished paper products into one continuous operation. (See chart 32.) After pulpwood logs are re ceived at the pulp mill, the bark is removed. One machine used for this operation is a large revolving Barker operator controls machine that removes bark from logs. OCCUPATIONS IN THE PAPER, AND ALLIED PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES 679 maintained. When the pulp fibers flow of pulp and the speed of the either for shipment or conversion are removed from the digester, machine are coordinated. The pa into finished products. He con they are washed to remove chem per machine operator also deter trols the pressure and tempera icals, partially cooked chips, and mines whether the paper meets ture of the rolls that dry and fin other impurities. These fibers, required specifications by inter ish the paper and give it the cor called pulp, resemble wet, brown preting laboratory tests or, in rect thickness, inspects the paper some instances, by visually check for imperfections, and makes sure cotton. T o turn pulp into paper, the ing or feeling the paper. He sup that it is being wound tightly and pulp is mixed thoroughly with ervises the less skilled workers of uniformly into rolls. The backwater and further refined in a ma the machine crew and, with their tender also adjusts the machinery chine operated by a skilled work help, keeps the paper moving that cuts the rolls into smaller er called a beater engineer smoothly through the machine. rolls and, with the help of assist (D.O.T. 530.782). The kind and The paper machine operator and ants, may weigh and wrap the amount of chemicals and dyes he his crew also may replace worn rolls for shipment. Paper mills that produce a fine uses and the length of time he felts and wire screens. The backtender (D.O.T. 532.885), who is grade of paper for books, maga “ beats” the solution determines the color and strength of the supervised by the paper machine zines, or stationery usually main operator, controls the “ dry-end” tain finishing departments. Most paper. The pulp solution, now more of the papermaking machine, workers in these departments are than 99 percent water, is turned where paper is dried and prepared either semiskilled or unskilled. into paper or paperboard by ma-. chines which are among the larg est in American industry. The ma chines are of two general types. One is the Fourdrinier machine, by far the most commonly used; the other is the cylinder machine used to make particular type of paper such as building and con tainer board. In the Fourdrinier, the pulp solution pours into a continuously moving and vibrat ing belt of fine wire screen. As the water drains, millions of pulp fibers adhere to one another, forming a thin wet sheet of paper. After passing through presses that squeeze out more water, the new ly formed paper passes through the dryer section of the paper making machine to evaporate re maining water. Papermaking machines are op erated by a paper machine opera tor (D.O.T. 539.782) (also called a “ machine tender” ). The quality of the paper produced largely de pends on the skill of this worker. His principal responsibility is to control the “ wet-end” of the pa permaking machine, where paper of a specified thickness, width, and physical strength is formed. He checks control-panel instru ments to make certain that the Paper machine operator and helper inspect and adjust flow of wet stock. 680 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK One semiskilled worker, the super calender operator (D.O.T. 534.782), aided by several helpers and by mechanical handling equipment, places huge rolls of paper onto a machine that gives the paper a smooth and glossy finish. He also inspects the fin ished paper to make sure that specifications have been met. An other semiskilled worker in the finishing department, the paper sorter and counter (D.O.T. 649.687), inspects sheets of paper for tears, dirt spots, and wrinkles, counts them, and may fill custom er orders. In converting plants, machines operated by semiskilled or skilled workers convert paper and paperboard into p r o d u c t s such as envelopes, napkins, corrugated shipping containers, and folding or rigid boxes. Occupations in converting plants differ widely, depending largely on the product being manufactured. An example of a semiskilled worker in an en velope-making plant is the enve lope machine operator (D.O.T. 641.885) who feeds and tends an automatic machine that makes envelopes from either rolls of pa per or prepared envelope blanks. An example of a skilled worker in a converting plant is the corrugator operator (D.O.T. 643.782) who regulates the speed of the machine that glues together pieces of paperboard into corru gated paperboard (paperboard with alternate ridges and grooves) used for shipping containers. An other of the few skilled workers in a converting plant is the printer-slotter operator (D.O.T. 651.782) who sets, adjusts, and op erates a machine that cuts and creases corrugated or paperboard sheets and prints designs or letter ing on them. He also positions the printing plates and cutting de vices and turns keys to control the distribution of printing ink, pressure of rollers, and speed of ment and examine paper machine rolls, bearings, and pumps to in sure that they are in good work ing condition. They also take apart and reassemble machines and equipment when they are moved about the plant. Instrument repairmen install and service electrical, electronic, and mechanical instruments that measure and control the flow of pulp, paper, water, steam, and chemical additives. The job of in strument repairman is becoming increasingly important with the greater use of automatic control equipment in pulp and paper manufacturing. Backtender and assistant remove new roll of paper from dry end of paper machine. the machine. Another skilled worker is the die maker (D.O.T. 739.381) who makes cutting dies used on machines that produce folding cartons (the familiar col lapsible cartons used by clothing stores to pack purchases). Converting plants employ thou sands of workers to print text, de signs, and lettering on paper products, such as cartons, bags, labels, wallpaper, and envelopes. Among these are skilled composi tors who set type, and pressmen who prepare and operate printing presses. Maintenance Jobs. The paper in dustry employs many skilled maintenance workers to care for its complex machinery and elec trical equipment. Millwrights maintain, install, and repair machinery and equip Other important maintenance employees include electricians, who repair wiring, motors, control panels, and switches; mainte nance machinists, who make re placement parts for mechanical equipment; and pipefitters, who lay out, install, and repair pipes. Stationary engineers are em ployed to operate and maintain powerplants, steam engines, boil ers, air compressors, motors, and turbines. Professional and Technical Occu pations. The complexity of pulp and paper manufacturing requires thousands of workers who have engineering, chemical, or other technical training and education. More than 15,000 scientists and engineers and 6,000 technicians were employed by the paper in dustry in 1968. Many chemists are employed to control the quality of the product by supervising the testing of pulp and paper. In research laborator ies, chemists study the influence of various chemicals on pulp and paper properties. In addition, some chemists and engineers are employed as salesmen, supervisors of plant workers, or as administra tors in positions requiring tech nical knowledge. OCCUPATIONS IN THE PAPER, AND ALLIED PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES Chemical and mechanical engi neers design, construct, operate, control, and improve pulp and pap e r m a k i n g equipment. They transform new pulp and paper making techniques, developed in the laboratory, into practical pro duction methods. Some chemical engineers are employed in plant jobs to supervise the application of pulp and paper technology to the production process. Electrical engineers are em ployed to supervise the design, de velopment, and operation of elec trical and electronic instruments and power-generating and dis tributing equipment. Packaging engineers (D.O.T. 019.187) design and supervise the production of paper and paperboard containers and packages. A few box manufacturers also em ploy artists who develop letter ings, designs, and colors for con tainers. Professionally trained foresters manage large areas of timberland and assist in the wood-buying op erations of pulp and paper com panies. They map forest areas, plan and supervise the harvesting and cutting of trees, and seed or plant new trees to assure continu ous production of timber. or paper to determine whether size, weight, strength, color, and other properties of the material meet specified standards. Some testing is done by machine op erators, but in many mills, testing technicians are employed. These employees, who have job titles such as laboratory technician, pa do highly skilled technical or analytical work. Technicians working in laboratories conduct tests and record results on charts or graphs for interpretation by engineers and chemists. per tester, pulp tester, paper in spector, and chemical analyst, dustry employs many administra tive, clerical, and other office per sonnel. Executives, many of whom are technically trained, plan and administer company policy. To work effectively, executives re quire information from a wide variety of personnel, including ac countants, purchasing agents, sales representatives, lawyers, and personnel employed in activities work in plant laboratories. They use chemicals and laboratory test ing equipment when performing tests. They also assist professional engineers and chemists in re search and development activi ties. Depending on their training and experience, technicians may perform simple, routine tests or Administrative, Clerical and Re lated Occupations. The paper in Systems analysts and computer programers are becoming increas ingly important to this industry. They analyze business and pro duction problems and convert them to a form suitable for solu tion by automatic data-processing equipment. Computers are used to coordinate portions of the com plex papermaking process by col lecting and analyzing data on chemical mixtures, pulp flows, temperatures, pressures, and ma chine speeds. Computers also are used to perform quality control tests. Much accounting and man agement statistical data are proc essed by computers. Frequent tests are performed during the manufacture of pulp 681 Technician tests bursting strength of paper sample. 682 such as industrial relations, public relations, transportation, adver tising, and market research. Cler ical employees, such as bookkeep ers, secretaries, and shipping clerks, keep records of personnel, payroll, inventories, sales, ship ments, and plant maintenance. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Training for new workers in the paper and allied products in dustry ranges from a few days to years. Many operating jobs can be learned in a few days of on-thejob training. On the other hand, maintenance jobs, some machine operating jobs, and, particularly, engineering and scientific jobs re quire years of specialized training. Paper and pump companies generally hire inexperienced work ers for processing and mainte nance jobs and train them on the job. Many companies prefer to hire high school graduates be tween the ages of 18 and 25. Pro duction workers usually start as laborers or helpers and advance along fairly well-defined paths to more skilled jobs. Maintenance jobs generally are filled by men trained in the plant. When no qualified workers are available, however, jobs are filled by hiring experienced men from outside the plant. Most companies in this indus try do not have formal appren ticeship proprams to meet the needs of their own maintenance shops. In recent years, however, some large plants that make pulp, paper, and paperboard have started formal apprenticeship pro grams that require 3 to 4 years or more of training. Under these programs, young men are trained for skilled maintenance jobs such as machinist, electrician, mill wright, and pipefitter. Generally, OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK an applicant is given a physical examination, mechanical aptitude tests, and similar qualifying tests. Apprentice training includes both on-the-job training and classroom instruction related to the occupa tion. For example, the machinist apprentice receives classroom in structions in mathematics, blue print reading, shop theory, and specialized subjects. During shop training, the apprentice learns the use and care of the tools of his trade. A bachelor’s degree from a rec ognized college is usually the minimum educational require ment for scientists, engineers, for esters, and other specialists. For research work, persons with ad vanced degrees are preferred. Many engineers and chemists (called process engineers and pa per chemists) have specialized training in paper technology. A list of schools offering such train ing is available from the Ameri can Paper Institute, 260 Madison Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. Many companies hire students specializing in papermaking for summer work, and upon gradua tion, frequently hire them on a permanent basis. Some associa tions, colleges, universities, and individual companies offer schol arships in pulp and papermaking technology. Some companies have formal training programs for college graduates having engineering or scientific backgrounds. These em ployees may work for brief periods in various plant operating divi sions to gain a broad knowledge of pulp and paper manufacturing before being assigned to a par ticular department. Other firms immediately assign junior chem ists or engineers to a specific re search operation or maintenance unit. Generally, no specialized educa tion is required for laboratory as sistants, testing technicians, or other kinds of technicians. Some employers, however, prefer to hire those who have had training in a technical institute or junior col lege. Training usually is given on the job. Laboratory assistants, for example, begin in routine jobs and advance to positions of greater re sponsibility after they have ac quired experience and demon strated ability to work with mini mum supervision. Administrative positions are filled frequently by men and women who have college degrees in business administration, mar keting, accounting, industrial re lations, or other specialized busi ness fields. A knowledge of paper technology is helpful for adminis trative, sales, and related occu pations. This is true especially for sales jobs, where customers often require technical assistance. Most pulp and paper companies employ clerks, bookkeepers, stenogra phers, and typists who have had commercial courses in high school or in business school. Factors affecting advancement of plant workers include the length of time a worker has held a plant job, how well he performs his job, and his physical condi tion. Promotion generally is lim ited to jobs within a “ work area,” which may be a department, sec tion, or an operation on one type of machine. To become a paper machine tender, for example, the worker may start as a laborer, wrapping and sealing finished rolls of paper as they come off the papermaking machine. As he gains experience and skill, he moves to more difficult assign ments, finally becoming a ma chine tender in charge of operat ing a machine. These promotions may take years, depending on the availability of jobs. Experience gained within a work area usually is not transferable; unskilled or semiskilled workers who transfer to jobs outside their seniority 683 OCCUPATIONS IN THE PAPER, AND ALLIED PRODUCTS INDUSTRIES area or to other plants usually must start in entry jobs. Many plant foremen and super visors are former production workers. In some plants, quali fied workers may be promoted di rectly to foreman or other super visory positions. In others, work ers are given additional training before they are eligible for pro motion to higher level jobs. This training often is continued after the worker is promoted— through conferences, special plant training sessions, and sometimes by tak ing courses at universities or trade schools. Most firms provide some financial assistance for employees who take training courses outside their plant. Em ploym ent Outlook Employment in the paper and allied products industry is ex pected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. In addition to the thousands of jobs that will arise from industry growth, thou sands of additional job opportuni ties will occur annually to replace experienced workers who retire, transfer to other fields of work, or die. Deaths and retirements alone are expected to provide about 15,000 job openings annually. Employment in this industry is expected to continue to grow fastest in the South and West. Employment prospects, however, will remain good in the Northeast and North Central areas because of the need to replace large num bers of experienced workers. Production of paper is expected to increase substantially during the 1970’s to meet increased de mand resulting from population growth, business expansion, and new uses of paper. For example, rising population will create a greater demand for textbooks, writing papers, periodicals, and newspapers. Business expansion will increase the need for paper products, such as business forms and packaging. The greater use of paper products, such as dis posable garments, stretchable gro cery bags, carpet backing, and refuse bags also is expected to stimulate paper production. Em ployment will increase at a slower rate than production, however, because of the increasing use of more efficient, labor-saving ma chinery and automatic control equipment. Occupational groups in the in dustry are expected to increase at different rates. The numbers of engineers, scientists, technicians, and skilled workers, such as elec tricians, machinery repairmen, in strument repairmen, pipefitters, and millwrights, are expected to increase faster than other occupa tional groups in the industry. Scientific and technical personnel will be needed as research and development activities increase, and more skilled maintenance and repair men will be required to ser vice the growing inventory of complex machinery. The employ ment of administrative and cleri cal workers also is expected to increase at a faster pace than total employment. On the other hand, employment of semiskilled workers will grow more slowly, while the number of helpers, la borers, and other unskilled plant workers is expected to remain about the same or decline slightly as more automatic machinery is introduced. Earnings and W orking Conditions Production workers in the pa per and allied products industry had average earnings of $3.05 an hour, or $130.85 for a 42.9 hour workweek in 1968. In the same year, earnings of production work ers in all manufacturing indus tries averaged $3.01 an hour or $122.51 for a 40.7 hour workweek. Average straight-time hourly earnings of production workers in a number of occupations in pulp, paper, and paperboard mills in late 1967 are shown in the accom panying table. These rates are based on the Nation as a whole, whereas local wage rates may differ, depending on geographic location, type and size of mill, and kinds of machines used. Pulp plants hourly rates Woodyard and wood preparation occupations: Crane operator...................... $3.48 Barker, drum ......................... 2.68 Chipperman ........................... 2.82 Pulpmaking occupations: Digester operator (cook) ...... 3.62 Grinderman............................ 2.78 Screenman ............................. 3.13 Bleacherman.......................... 3.43 Pulp tester.............................. 2.86 Paper and paperboard, plants Stock preparation occupations: Head stock preparer (beater engineer) ............. Beaterman ............................ Hydrapulper operator........... Machine room occupations: Paper machine tender........... Backtender ............................ Third hand ............................ Fourth hand .......................... Paper tester............................ Finishing occupations: Supercalendar operator ....... Rewinder operator................ Rewinder helper.................... Cutters ................................... Miscellaneous occupations: Pipefitter ................................ Machinists.............................. Electrician.............................. Oiler ....................................... Truck, power ........................ Janitor ................................... 3.22 2.71 2.63 3.62 3.27 3.00 2.80 2.82 3.12 2.87 2.64 2.80 3.56 3.50 3.56 2.92 2.74 2.50 Most workers in pulp and paper producing operations work in plants that operate around the clock— three shifts a day, 7 days a week. Owing to the widespread industry practice of rotating shifts, production workers can ex pect to work on evening or night shifts from time to time. Mainte- 684 nance workers, for the most part, are employed on the regular day shift. Many plants pay between 5 and 11 cents more an hour for work on the evening shift and be tween 9 and 15 cents extra an hour for the night shift. Most workers have year-round employ ment because paper production is not subject to seasonal variations. A work schedule of 40 hours a week is in effect in most mills. A few plants have a standard work week of 36 hours or less. Paid vacations almost always are provided and generally are based on length of service. In most mills, workers receive 1 week of vacation after 1 year of em ployment, 2 weeks after 3 to 5 years, and 3 weeks after 8 to 10 years. Many companies give 4 weeks’ vacation to employees who have been wth them 20 years and 6 weeks after 30 years. Nearly all workers receive 6 to 11 paid holi days annually. Insurance or pension plans, fi nanced completely or partially by employers, are in effect in most plants. These plans generally in clude life, sickness, accident, hos pitalization, and surgical insur ance benefits for the employee and, in some cases, his depend ents. Employee stock-purchase and savings plans, to which the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK company makes contributions, are in effect in some firms. Most pulp and papermaking jobs do not require strenuous phy sical effort. Some employees, how ever, work in hot, humid, and noisy areas. They also may be ex posed to disagreeable odors from chemicals used in the papermak ing process. Pulp and paper com panies have made intensive efforts in recent years to improve work ing conditions. The rate of disabling injuries in this industry in recent years has been about the same as the rate for all manufacturing. Pro tective clothing, warning signs in danger areas, locking devices on potentially dangerous equipment, guards and rails around moving machinery, and instruction in safe practices have been impor tant in reducing the accident rate. Some of the more hazardous jobs are located in converting plants where many cutting tools and moving equipment are used. A majority of production work ers in this industry are members of trade unions. A large number belong to the International Broth erhood of Pulp, Sulphite and Pa per Mill Workers, the United Papermakers and Paperworkers, or the Association of Western Pulp and Paper Workers. Many print ing workers in the industry belong to the International Printing Pressmen and Assistants’ Union of North America. Some mainte nance workers and other crafts men belong to various craft unions. Sources of A d ditional In fo rm atio n Further information about job opportunities and working condi tions in the paper and allied prod ucts industry is available from local offices of the State employ ment service and from: American Forest Institute, 1835 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. American Paper Institute, 260 Madison Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. Fibre Box Association, 224 South Michigan Ave., Chicago, 1 1 1. 60604. International Brotherhood of Pulp, Sulphite, and Paper Mill Workers, Department of Re search and Education, Box No. 247, Port Edward, N.Y. 12828. National Paper Box Manufactur ers Association, Inc., 121 North Broad St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19107. P E T R O L E U M R E F IN IN G The petroleum industry pro vides about 75 percent of all the energy fuels consumed in this country. Products refined from crude oil supply the fuels and lubricants used for nearly all cars, trucks, buses and trains; military and civilian aircraft; and ships. Oil and gas provide much of the heat for homes, factories, and commercial establishments, as well as the fuel for over one-quar ter of the electric power generated in this country. In addition, basic petroleum compounds are essen tial in the manufacture of hun dreds of products in every day use, such as synthetic rubber, plastics, and fertilizer. In 1968, about 150,000 workers, who have a wide range of educa tional backgrounds and skills, were employed in the various ac tivities that make up the petro leum refining industry. This chap ter deals with the jobs and activi ties involved in refining oil. The Handbook discusses in a separate chapter occupations concerned with petroleum and natural gas production and processing. going through the pipes and tanks. Manual handling of mate rials is virtually eliminated in the modern refinery. Briefly, the first step in petro leum refining consists of heating crude oil as it flows through a series of pipes in a furnace. The vapors from the heated oil pass into a tower where the various “ fractions,” or parts, of crude oil are condensed. The heaviest parts (for example, asphalt) are drawn off along the bottom of the tower where temperatures are highest; lighter parts (kerosene) are drawn off along the middle of the tower; and the lightest (gasoline and gases) are taken off at the top where temperatures are low est. Further processing, by more complicated methods combines or modifies compounds obtained through fractionating. About 260 refineries were in op eration in this country in 1968. They ranged in size from small N ature and Location of the Industry Petroleum refining changes crude oil into gasoline, kerosene, fuel oil, lubricants, and other products for use in homes and in dustry. The modem refinery is a complicated structure made up of tanks and towers connected by a maze of pipes. From the time crude oil enters the refinery to the shipment of finished products, the flow of production is continu ous. The refining process is highly automated and is controlled by instruments which measure and regulate the flow, temperature, and pressure of liquids and gases Operators regulate processing of crude oil from central controls. 685 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 686 plants which employed fewer than 50 employees to plants which employed several thousand em ployees. Although refineries are located in most states, approxi mately 9 out of every 10 barrels of crude oil were refined in only 10 states: Texas, California, Lou isiana, Illinois, Pennsylvania, In diana, Oklahoma, Ohio, Kansas, and New Jersey. Refineries usual ly are located near oil fields, con suming centers, and deepwater ports where tankers can dock. Occupations in the Industry About one out of every four workers in refineries are opera tors. A key worker in converting crude oil into usable products is the Stillman (D.O.T. 542.280), or chief operator. He is responsible for the efficient operation of one distillation unit or more. The op erator watches instrument read ings for any changes in tempera ture, pressure, and oil flow. In the more modern refineries, the op erator can watch instruments on graphic panels which show the entire operation of all distillation units in the refinery. He regulates the instruments so that oil prod ucts will meet specifications. From time to time, the operator patrols all units for which he is responsible to check their operat ing condition and to take sam ples for testing. He may have one assistant or more (D.O.T. 542.782), depending on the number and size of the units he directs. Other plant workers whose jobs are related to the processing of crude oil i n c l u d e pumpmen (D.O.T. 549.782) and their help ers (D.O.T. 549.884), who main tain and operate power-driven pumps which circulate petroleum products, chemicals, and water through units during processing; and treaters (D.O.T. 549.782), who operate equipment to remove impurities from gasoline, oil, and other petroleum products. In many refineries, a large per centage of the plant workers re pair, rebuild, and clean the high ly complicated refinery equip ment. In other plants, mainte nance work is contracted to com panies outside the petroleum in dustry. A large number of main tenance workers are needed be cause high heat and pressure and corrosion quickly wear out equip ment. Included among these are skilled boilermakers, carpenters, electricians, instrument repair men, lead burners, machinists, masons, painters, pipefitters, in sulators, riggers, sheetmetal work ers, and welders. Many helpers and trainees are also in these trades. Some skilled workers have a primary skill in one craft as well as the ability to handle the duties of closely related crafts. For example, a pipefitter also may be able to do boilermaking and welding repair work on a piece of equipment. Maintenance workers who have such combined jobs are sometimes called refinery me chanics. Plant workers who do not oper ate or maintain equipment do a variety of other tasks in refiner ies. Some workers are employed in the packaging and shipping de partment; some load and unload materials on trucks, trains, or ships; some drive trucks and trac tors to deliver materials to vari ous parts of the plant; and others keep inventory records of stock and tools. The industry also em ploys custodial workers such as guards, watchmen, and janitors. About 13 percent (slightly less than 20,000), of the workers in petroleum refining are scientists, engineers, and technicians, com pared with about one-tenth in petroleum production. Among these professional and technical refinery workers are chemists, chemical engineers, mechanical Research technician views special purposes greases developed from petroleum. engineers, petroleum engineers, l a b o r a t o r y technicians, and draftsmen. Chemists and labora tory technicians control the qual ity of petroleum products by making tests and analyses to de termine chemical and physical properties. Some chemists are en gaged in research and develop ment activities to discover new products and to improve those al ready produced. Laboratory tech nicians also assist chemists in re search projects or do routine test ing and sample taking. Some en gineers design chemical proc essing equipment and plant lay out and others supervise refining processes. Draftsmen prepare de tailed plans and drawings needed in refinery construction and main tenance. Many administrative, clerical, and other white-collar personnel 687 PETROLEUM REFINING are employed by refining compan ies. A large number of top admin istrative and management posi tions are filled by technically trained men, many of whom are chemists or engineers. Sales engi neers also are technically trained. Other specialized workers in the field of administration include ac countants, purchasing agents, lawyers, and personal training specialists. Many typists, stenog raphers, secretaries, bookkeepers, and business machine operators are employed to assist these spe cialized workers. (Detailed dis cussions of professional, technical, mechanical, and other occupa tions found not only in the petro leum refining industry but also in other industries are given in the section of this Handbook covering the individual occupations. See index for page numbers.) Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Petroleum refineries typically require new plant workers to have a high school or vocational school education. In large refin eries, aptitude and psychological testing and interviewing are used in selecting employees. Usually, a new worker begins in a labor pool where he does such jobs as moving materials, packing cartons, or fill ing barrels. Depending on his par ticular aptitudes and seniority he may be transferred to the proc essing department or mainte nance shop when a vacancy occurs. A worker newly assigned to a processing department learns to operate processing equipment un der the supervision of experienced workers. As he gains experience and know-how, he moves to the more skilled jobs in his depart ment. For example, one line of advancement for a processing worker may be from helper to as sistant operator to chief operator. Formal training courses frequent ly are provided to assure thorough and current knowledge in a vari ety of operations. An inexperienced worker who is assigned to a maintenance shop receives training on the job under the supervision of the foreman. In some refineries, he also may re ceive classroom instruction relat ed to his particular work. Over a period of 3 or 4 years, he may ad vance from helper to skilled craftsman in one of the mainte nance jobs. Some large refineries have programs under which work ers are given training in several related maintenance crafts. For example, a qualified instrument repairman may be given addition al training as electrician or machinist. For scientists and engineers a bachelor’s degree in science or en gineering usually is the minimum educational requirement. For re search jobs, scientists and engi neers with advanced degrees are preferred. Laboratory assistants begin their work in routine jobs and advance to positions of great er responsibility as they acquire additional experience and demon strate ability to work without close supervision. Inexperienced draftsmen begin as copyists or tracers. With additional experi ence and training, they may ad vance to more skilled and respon sible drafting positions. Adminis trative positions generally are filled by men and women who have college degrees in business administration, marketing, ac counting, industrial relations, or other specialized fields. For posi tions as clerks, bookkeepers, ste nographers, and typists, most re fineries employ persons who have had commercial courses in high school or business school. Em ploym ent O utlook Only a few thousand job open ings each year are expected for new workers in petroleum refin eries through the 1970’s. These will result from the need to re place workers who retire, die, or transfer to other industries. N ot all job vacancies created by turn over may be filled, since it is ex pected that in the future total employment in petroleum refin ing will continue the moderate de cline which began during the early 1950’s. This decline is expected despite the continued expansion of refin ery output and anticipated in creases in consumption of petro leum products in the years ahead. The lower employment level is expected to result from improved methods of refining crude oil and the trend toward fewer but larger and more highly automated re fineries. Most of the job opportunities created by turnover in petroleum refining will be for professional, administrative, and technical workers, particularly chemists, chemical engineers, and techni cians, who are needed for the in dustry’s research and develop ment activities. Among plant workers, most job opportunities will be in maintenance occupa tions, such as those of instrument repairman, pipefitter, machinist, and maintenance electrician, be cause of the increasing use of au tomated equipment and complex control instruments. Earnings and W orking Conditions Refinery workers are among the highest paid employees in American industry. In 1968, pro duction workers in petroleum re fining averaged $166.27 a week, or $3.94 an hour for a 42.2 hour workweek. This salary compares 688 with an average for all manufac turing industries of $122.51 a week, or $3.01 an hour. The high er average earnings of production workers in refineries reflect the relatively large proportion of workers in skilled occupations. Entry salaries for chemical en gineers in the petroleum refining industry were among the highest in American industry, according to a survey conducted by the American Chemical Society in 1968. The survey showed that in this industry the average start ing salary for chemists who have a bachelor’s degree and no ex perience was $700 a month and for chemical engineers, $815 a month. Most petroleum refinery work ers receive a 2-week vacation with pay after 1 year of service; 3 weeks, after 5 years; 4 weeks, after 10 years; and 5 weeks after 20 years. Most refineries have OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK adopted some type of insurance, pension, and medical and surgical plans for their employees. Em ployee stock-purchase and sav ings plans, to which the employer makes contributions, are in effect in many firms. Because petroleum refining is a continuous round-the-clock opera tion, operators may be assigned to one of the three shifts, or they may be rotated on various shifts and be subject to Sunday and hol iday work. Employees usually re ceive 15 to 30 cents an hour ad ditional pay when they work on the second or third shift. Most maintenance workers are on duty during the day shift; only a few work at night to handle emer gencies. Work in the industry has little seasonal variation and reg ular workers have year-round jobs. Most refinery jobs require only moderate physical effort. A few workers, however, have to open and close heavy valves and climb stairs and ladders to considerable heights in the course of their du ties. Others may work in hot places or may be exposed to un pleasant odors. Refineries are rela tively safe places in which to work. The injury-frequency rate is about half that of manufactur ing as a whole. A majority of refinery plant workers are union members. A large number of refineries have been organized by the Oil, Chemi cal and Atomic Workers Interna tional Union. Some refinery workers are members of other AFL-CIO unions or of various lo cal unions not affiliated with the AFL-CIO. See petroleum and natural gas production and processing chap ter for Sources of Additional In formation. TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATION, AND PUBLIC UTILITIES The transportation, communi cation, and public utilities indus tries make possible the smooth functioning of our society and produce most of the energy that powers, heats, and lights our fac tories and homes. The transporta tion industry moves goods and people about the country by air, rail, water and highway; the com munications industry provides communication systems such as telephones and radio and TV broadcasting. Other public utili ties supply the Nation with elec tricity and gas, and with sanita tion services. Transportation, communication, and public utility firms are all semipublic in char acter. Some State and local gov ernments operate their own tran sit lines or electric companies as well as other types of utilities. Privately owned transportation and public utility firms are regu lated closely by commissions or other public authorities to make sure they operate in the public interest. In 1968, 4.3 million persons were employed in the transporta tion, communication, and public utilities industry group. In addi tion, more than one-half million persons were employed by State and local governments in publicly owned transit and utility systems. Almost half of the workers in this major industry group were em ployed in two industries— motor freight (1.0 million workers) which includes local-and long-dis tance trucking, and the communi cations industries (1.0 million workers) which includes tele phone, telegraph, and radio and TV broadcasting. Railroads em ployed over 660,000 workers in 1968; and about the same number were employed by electric, gas, and sanitary services companies. Other industries with significant employment included local and interurban passenger transit and air transportation. The remaind er of the workers were employed by firms that provided water and pipeline transportation and trans portation services. Nearly one-fifth of the persons employed in transportation, com munication, and public utilities are women— a ratio somewhat less than for the economy as a whole. Employment of women varies greatly among the indus tries that make up the major in dustry group. For example, they make up only 9 percent of employ ment in local and interurban pas senger transit; however, in the communications industry, where many work as telephone opera tors, women account for over onehalf of the work force. White-collar workers account for about 2 of 5 workers in trans portation, communication, and public utilities, mostly in com munications, and electric, gas, and sanitary services. White collar jobs in these industries reflect the many clerical workers in the tele phone industry, technicians and managers in radio and T V broad casting, and engineers and tech nicians employed throughout the various transportation and public utility industries. Clerical work ers make up 1 of 4 workers in the major industry division; over onehalf are employed in the com munications industry. Profession al and technical workers account for about 7 percent of the employ ment in the industry. Most of these workers are concentrated in the communications industry, where, in addition to large num bers of engineers and technicians, many actors, entertainers, and writers are employed. Craftsmen account for 1 of 5 workers, and operatives, 1 of 4. Skilled craftsmen are needed to install, maintain, and repair the large amount of mechanical, elec trical, and other types of equip ment that are used throughout this industry. Among the major blue-collar occupations are air plane mechanic, motor vehicle me chanic, and telephone lineman; other important skilled occupa tions are locomotive engineer and fireman, stationary engineer, and foreman. This major industry di vision is the chief employer of workers in a number of semi skilled occupations such as bus and truck driver, taxi driver, brakeman and switchman, and sailor and deckhand. Estimated employment, 1968 Major occupational group distribution) All occupational groups........... 100 Professional, technical, and kindred workers ........... 7 Managers, officials, and proprietors .................... 9 Clerical and kindred workers .......................... 25 Sales workers.................... 1 Craftsmen, foremen,and kindred workers ........... 21 Operatives and kindred workers .......................... 27 Service workers................ 3 Laborers ............................ 8 N ote.—D ue to rounding, sum of individual items may not add to total. Employment in transportation and public utilities is expected to increase slowly through the 1970’s. In addition to opportuni689 690 ties resulting from growth in em ployment, many thousands of job openings are expected each year because of the need to replace workers who die or retire. Trans fer of employees to other indus tries will provide still additional job opportunities. Replacement needs will be particularly high in clerical positions because many women leave the work force each year to take on family respon sibilities. The rising levels of business and consumer income in the years ahead should increase significant ly the overall demand for services in this sector and the need for workers to provide them. Employ ment growth in the individual in dustries, however, will vary con siderably. Rising population, ur banization, and the growth of sub urban areas will continue to stim ulate employment in local truck ing. Although employment in long-distance trucking will con tinue its long-term growth, com petition from rail and air trans portation may slow down the rate of growth relative to the recent OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK past. The increasing popularity of air transportation for both passen gers and cargo will continue into the 1970’s as rising business ac tivity and more leisure time for travel spur continued rapid growth in this area. On the other hand, not all of the transporta tion industries will experience rapid employment growth. For example, little e m p l o y m e n t change is expected in local and interurban passenger transporta tion (buses, taxis, and subways) because consumers likely will con tinue to rely heavily on private automobiles. Employment in communica tions is expected to grow slowly through the 1970’s. Although de mand for the services of the com munication industry will increase rapidly, rapid advances in tech nology are expected to limit em ployment growth. Technological changes are expected to be par ticularly significant in telephone communications. The computer and other electronic equipment are expected to be applied in creasingly to functions that have been performed by workers. Employment in electric and gas utilities also will be affected strongly by advancing technology and employment will grow slowly despite rapid increase in output. Substantial improvements in elec tric g e n e r a t i n g equipment through the increasing use of nu clear power, the growing use of electronic controls, improved coal-handling techniques, and more efficient techniques of con structing and maintaining trans mission lines will limit the growth of employment in this important tion industry. By 1968 about industry. The statements that follow cov er major occupations in the trans portation, communication, and public utility fields. More detailed information about occupations that cut across many industries— for example, stenographers and typists, drivers, and others— ap pear elsewhere in the Handbook. (See index in the back of the book.) C IV IL A V IA T IO N O C C U P A T IO N S The rapid development of air transportation in the past two decades has increased greatly the mobility of the population and has created many thousands of job opportunities in the civil avia tion industry. By 1968 about 500,000 persons were employed in a variety of interesting and responsible occupations in this field. N atu re and Location of Civil Aviation Activities Civil aviation services are pro vided by many different types of organizations for a variety of purposes. The scheduled airlines (those which operate regularly scheduled flights over prescribed routes) provide transportation for passengers, cargo, and mail. Other airlines, called supplemen tal airlines, provide charter and non-scheduled flight service for passengers and cargo. A wide range of other civil aviation activ ities are conducted in the field of general aviation, including the use of company-owned aircraft to transport employees or cargo (business flying); spraying insec ticides, fertilizers, or seed on land, crops, or forest (aerial ap plication) ; charter service in small aircraft, scheduled routes to small airports, mail and light cargo services (air-taxi opera tions); and inspection of pipe lines and powerlines for breaks (industrial flying). In addition to these flying activities, general aviation includes maintenance and repair activities conducted by repair stations licensed by the Government to work on general aviation aircraft (certified repair stations). Civil aviation activities also in- elude the regulatory and accident investigation functions of the Federal Aviation Administration (F A A ), the Civil Aeronautics Board (C A B ), and the National Transportation Safety Board (N T S B )— all part of the Federal Government. The FAA develops air safety regulations, inspects and tests aircraft and airline fa cilities, provides ground electron ic guidance equipment, and gives tests for licenses to personnel such as pilots, copilots, flight en gineers, dispatchers, and aircraft mechanics. The CAB establishes policy concerning matters such as airline rates and routes. The NTSB investigates all airlines ac cidents and aircraft accidents in volving fatalities. The 40 scheduled airlines were the largest employers of air trans portation workers in 1968, with about 300,000 workers. Of these, about 80 percent (240,000) were employed to fly and service air craft and passengers on domestic routes— between cities in the United States. Nearly 54,000 other workers handled the oper ations of the scheduled airlines which flew international routes. The remaining workers were em ployed by airlines that handled only cargo. More than half of all scheduled airline employees worked for the four largest do mestic airlines. In addition to scheduled air line employees, several thousand workers— all in ground occupa tions— were employed in the United States by foreign airlines that operate between overseas points and the United States. An additional 5,800 workers were employed by 13 supple mental airlines. These workers were in many of the same occu pations as scheduled airline workers. An estimated 25,000 pilots and 50.000 mechanics were employed full-time in general aviation op erations in 1968. In addition to full-time workers, 35,000 pilots and a small number of mechanics were employed on a part-time basis. The FAA employed about 45.000 people and the CAB about 650 in 1968. The largest group of FAA employees worked mainly in occupations relating to the direction of air traffic and the installation and maintenance of mechanical and electronic equip ment used to control traffic. CAB workers were employed mainly in administrative and clerical jobs concerned with the economic regulation of the air lines, supervision of international air transportation matters, pro motion of air safety, and investi gation of accidents. Civil aviation workers are em ployed in every State, but an es timated half work in five States; New York, California, Florida, Illinois, and Texas. Some of the reasons for the employment con centration in these States are their large populations and geo graphic areas; their large num bers of airports and aircraft regi strations; and the existence of major airline aircraft overhaul bases. Civil Aviation O ccupations In addition to employing the largest number of air transporta tion workers, the scheduled air lines employ workers in a variety of occupations. Of the 300,000 employed by the scheduled air lines in 1968, about 4 out of 5 worked in ground occupations. Mechanics and other aircraft maintenance personnel was the largest occupational category, representing 18 percent of sched uled airline employment. About 14 percent of all scheduled airline workers were traffic agents and 691 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 692 clerks, and only about 2 percent worked at airline ground stations as communications personnel and dispatchers. The remaining work ers in ground occupational cate gories (about 47 percent) were employed as cargo and freight handlers, custodial and other air craft-servicing personnel, and of fice, administrative, and profes sional personnel. Flight occupations accounted for the other one-fifth of airline employment. Stewardesses and stewards represented the largest flight occupation, including over 9 percent of all airline workers; pilots and copilots constituted another 8 percent; and flight en gineers accounted for the remain der (3 percent). More than 50 percent of gen eral aviation workers were pilots or copilots, and about 45 percent were aircraft mechanics. The great majority of the mechanics were employed in certificated re pair stations. The remaining gen eral aviation workers were em ployed in clerical or administra tive jobs. In the Federal Government, the largest group of civil aviation workers were in air traffic serv icing work. About 19,000 workers were employed in this category. Most of these workers— about 14,600— were air traffic control lers. Another group of about 4,500 workers were flight service station specialists. A detailed description of the duties, training, qualifications, employment outlook, earnings, and working conditions for each of the following air transporta tion jobs appear in the later sec tions of this chapter: (1) Pilots and copilots, (2) flight engineers, (3) stewardesses, (4) aircraft me chanics, (5) airline dispatchers, (6) air traffic controllers, (7) ground radio operators and tele typists, and (8) traffic agents and clerks. Em ploym ent O utlook The total number of workers in civil aviation occupations is ex pected to increase very rapidly during the 1970’s, but the rates of growth among the major civil aviation divisions will differ. General aviation employment is expected to show a rapid rise, mainly because the anticipated greater demand for general avia tion services will lead to an in crease in the number of aircraft. About 215,000 general aviation aircraft may be flying by 1980— an increase of about 100,000 over the number in 1967. A significant employment increase will occur in business flying, which will re quire about 35,500 new em ployees, mainly well qualified pi lots. Even more new job openings will occur in air-taxi operations, largely because of the demand for air transportation in cities not serviced by the scheduled air lines. These jobs will be about equally divided between qualified pilots and copilots and aircraft mechanics. An estimated 52,000 job openings— practically all for aircraft mechanics— will occur in certificated repair stations be cause of the need for additional maintenance and repair services by a larger general aviation fleet. The number of operators who give flight instruction and engage in patrol and survey flying will grow very rapidly by 1980, re quiring thousands of additional pilots. Use of aircraft for aerial ap plication, which includes the dis tribution of chemicals or seeds in agriculture, fire fighting, and the restocking of fish and other wild life, will require a few thou sand additional employees, main ly pilots. A slow increase is expected in the employment of civil aviation workers by the Federal Govern ment. Openings that occur will be primarily those resulting from retirements, deaths, and transfers to other fields of work. Although employment declines may occur in some occupations, increasing employment opportunities are ex pected for those who maintain and repair the increasing array of visual and electronic aids to air traffic. Airline employment growth will result from anticipated increases in passenger and cargo traffic. By 1980, the scheduled airlines will fly about three times the number of revenue passenger miles flown in 1963. An even larger increase is expected in air cargo traffic which, however, rep resents a relatively small percent of total traffic. Among the factors which will contribute to in creased air travel are a larger population, increased consumer purchasing power, the trend tow ard longer vacations, the greater use of air travel by businessmen, faster flights on jet aircraft which will save considerable time in long-distance travel, and more economy-class passenger services. As in the past, airline occupa tions will grow at different rates. Occupations, such as stewardess and cargo and baggage handler, which provide services for pas sengers and cargo directly, will grow very rapidly. However, em ployment in these occupations is not expected to increase as fast as the increases in air traffic for several reasons. For example, more widespread installation of mechanical equipment, such as conveyors, will permit airlines to move greatly increased amounts of baggage and cargo without comparable growth in employ ment of baggage and cargo han dlers. Economy flights, which of fer fewer in-flight services than first-class flights, will permit air lines to fly greatly increased numbers of passengers without a CIVIL AVIATION OCCUPATIONS corresponding rise in employment of flight attendants. The rapid growth in some air line occupations, particularly those concerned with the opera tion and maintenance of aircraft, will result from a substantial in crease in the number of aircraft in service. Continuing replace ment of present equipment by faster, larger capacity jet planes and the eventual introduction of supersonic aircraft will accomo date part of the increased traffic, but a significant increase in the total number of aircraft in service also will be necessary. In addition to the growth of the industry in creating jobs, replacement needs will remain high throughout the 1970’s because of retirements and deaths. Earnings and W orking Conditions Earnings among various civil aviation occupations vary greatly because of factors such as skill requirements, length of experi ence, and amount of responsibil ity for safe and efficient opera tions. Within particular occupa tions, earnings vary according to the type of civil aviation activity. The statements on individual oc cupations which follow contain detailed discussions of earnings. As a rule, airline employees and their immediate families are entitled to a limited amount of free or reduced-fare transporta tion on their companies’ flights, depending on the employees’ length of service. In addition, they may fly at greatly reduced rates with other airlines. Flight personnel may be away from their home bases about one-third of the time or more. When they are away from home, the airlines provide either living accomoda tions or pay expenses. Airlines operate flights at all hours of the day and night. Per sonnel in some occupations, 693 therefore, often have irregular work schedules. Maximum hours of work per month for workers in flight occupations have been es tablished by the FAA as a safe ty precaution against fatigue. In addition, u n i o n - m a n a g e m e n t agreements often stipulate pay ment for a minimum number of hours each month to guarantee a substantial proportion of normal earnings. Ground personnel who work as dispatchers, mechanics, traffic agents, communications opera tors, and in administrative jobs usually work a 5-day, 40-hour week. Their working hours, how ever, often include nights, week ends, or holidays. Air traffic con trollers work a 5-day, 40-hour week; they are periodically as signed to night, weekend, and holiday work. Ground personnel generally receive extra pay for overtime work or compensatory time off. In domestic operations, airline employees usually receive 2 to 4 weeks’ vacation with pay, de pending upon length of service. Most flight personnel in interna tional operations get a month’s vacation. Employees also receive paid sick leave, retirement bene fits, life insurance, and long-term disability hospitalization bene fits. FAA and CAB employees are entitled to the same benefits as other Federal personnel, in cluding from 13 to 26 days of annual leave and 13 days of sick leave a year, as well as retire ment, life insurance, and health benefits. Many of the workers in air transportation are union mem bers. These unions are identified in the statements covering the in dividual occupations. qualifications required may be obtained by writing to the per sonnel manager of the company. Addresses of individual compa nies are available from the Air Transport Association of Ameri ca, 1000 Connecticut Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Inquiries regarding jobs with the Federal Aviation Administra tion should be addressed to the Personnel Officer, Federal Avia tion Administration, at any of the following addresses: Sources of A dditional Inform ation N atu re of th e W ork Information about job openings in a particular airline, and the The men who have the respon sibility for flying a multimillion Eastern Region. Southwest Region. Southern Region. Central Region. Western Region. Alaskan Region. Pacific Region. Federal Building, John F. Kennedy International Air port, Jamaica, Long Island, N.Y. 11430. P.O. Box 1689, Fort W orth, Tex. 76101. P.O. Box 20636, At lanta, Ga. 30320. 601 E. 12th St., Kansas City, Mo. 64106. 5641 West Manches ter Ave., Box 90007, Airport Station, Los An geles, Calif. 90009. 632 Sixth Ave., An chorage, Alaska 99501. P.O. Box 4009, Honolulu, Hawaii 96812. Information concerning FAAapproved schools offering train ing for work as an aircraft me chanic, pilot, or in other technical fields related to aviation may be obtained from the Information Retrieval Branch, Federal Avia tion Administration Library, HQ630, Federal Aviation Adminis tration, Washington, D.C. 20553. PILOTS AND COPILOTS (D.O.T. 196.168, .228, .268, and .283) 694 dollar plane and transporting safely as many as 200 passengers or more are the pilot and copilot. The pilot (called “ captain” by the airlines) operates the con trols and performs other tasks necessary for flying a plane, keep ing it on course, and landing it safely. He supervises the copilot, flight engineer, and flight attend ants. The copilot is second in command. He assists the captain in air-to-ground communications, monitoring flight and engine in struments, and in operating the controls of the plane. Both captain and copilot must do a great deal of planning before their plane may take off. They confer with the company mete orologist about weather condi tions and, in cooperation with the airline dispatcher, they pre pare a flight plan along a route and at altitudes which offer the OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK best weather and wind conditions so that a safe, fast, and smooth flight may be possible. This flight plan must be approved by Fed eral Aviation Administration (FAA) air traffic control person nel. The copilot plots the course to be flown and computes the fly ing time between various points. Prior to takeoff, both men check the operation of each engine and the functioning of the plane’s many instruments, controls, and electronic and mechanical sys tems. During the flight, the captain or copilot reports by radio to ground control stations regarding their altitude, air speed, weather conditions, and other flight de tails. The captain also supervises the navigation of the flight and keeps close watch on the many instruments which indicate the plane’s fuel load and the condi tion of the engines, controls, elec tronic equipment, and landing gear. The copilot assists in these duties. Before landing, the captain or the copilot recheck the opera tion of the landing gear and re quest landing clearance from air traffic control personnel. If visi bility is limited when a landing approach is being made, the cap tain may have to rely primarily on instruments such as the alti meter, air speed indicator, arti ficial horizon, and gyro compass and instrument landing system. Both men must complete a flight report and file trip records in the airline office when the flight is ended. Some pilots, employed by air lines as “ check pilots,” make at least two flights a year with each captain to observe his proficiency and adherence to FAA flight regulations and company policies. Airlines employ some pilots to fly planes leased to private cor porations. Airlines also employ pilots as instructors to train both new and experienced pilots in the use of new equipment. Although pilots employed in general aviation usually fly planes smaller than those used by the scheduled airlines, their pre flight and flight duties are sim ilar to those of airline pilots. These pilots seldom have the as sistance of flight crews. In addi tion to flying, they may perform minor maintenance and repair work on their planes. In some cases, such as in business flying, they may mingle with and act as host to their passengers. Pilots who are self-employed, such as airtaxi operators, in addition to flying and doing some mainte nance work, have duties similar to those of other small business men. 695 CIVIL AVIATION OCCUPATIONS Places of Em ploym ent The scheduled airlines em ployed over 24,000 pilots and co pilots in 1968. In addition, ap proximately 1,600 pilots were employed by the certificated sup plemental airlines (airlines that provide charter and nonscheduled service). An estimated 25,000 pilots and copilots were employed full-time in general aviation in 1968. Sev eral thousand worked in business flying and air-taxi operations. About 1,500 pilots were employed in aerial application flying. The Federal Government employed approximately 1 , 2 0 0 p i l o t s (about half in the FAA) to per form a variety of services such as examining applicants for pi lots’ licenses, inspecting naviga tion facilities along Federal air ways, testing planes that are newly designed or have major modifications, enforcing game laws, fighting forest fires, and patrolling national boundaries. In addition, State and local gov ernments employed about 800 pi lots. Several thousand pilots were employed by companies to in spect pipelines and installations for oil companies, and to provide other aerial services such as pri vate flight instruction, and flights for sightseeing and aerial photog raphy. A small number worked for aircraft manufacturers as test pilots. In addition, an estimated 35,000 pilots were employed on a part-time basis. These workers were distributed among all the various general aviation activities. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent T o do any type of commercial flying, pilots or copilots must be licensed by the FAA. Airline cap tains must have an “ airline trans port pilot’s” license. Copilots, and most pilots employed in general aviation, must have a “ commer cial airplane pilot’s” license. In ad dition, pilots who are subject to FAA instrument flight regula tions or who anticipate flying on instruments when the weather is bad, must have an “ instrument rating.” Pilots and copilots also must have a rating for the class of plane they can fly (single-en gine, multi-engine, or seaplane), and for the specific type of plane they can fly, such as DC-6 or Boeing 707. T o qualify for a license as a commercial pilot, applicants must be at least 18 years old and have at least 200 hours of flight ex perience. T o obtain an instru ment rating, applicants must have at least 40 hours of instru ment time, 20 hours of which must be in actual flight. Appli cants for an airline transport pi lot’s license must be at least 23 years old and have a total of 1,200 hours of flight time during the previous 8 years, including night flying and instrument fly ing time. Before a person may receive any license or rating, he must pass a physical examination and a written test given by the FAA covering subjects such as prin ciples of safe flight operations, Federal Aviation Regulations, navigation principles, radio oper ation, and meterology. He also must submit proof that he has completed the minimum flight time requirements and, in a prac tical test, demonstrate flying skill and technical competence. His certification as a professional pilot remains in effect as long as he can pass an annual physical examination and the periodic tests of his flying skills required by Government regulation. An airline transport pilot’s license expires when the pilot reaches his 60th birthday. A young man may obtain the knowledge, skills, and flight ex perience necessary to become a pilot through military service or from a private flying school. Graduation from flying schools approved by the FAA satisfies the flight experience require ments for licensing. Applicants who have appropriate military flight training and experience are required to pass only the Federal Aviation Regulations examina tion if they apply for a license within a year after leaving the service. Those trained in the armed services have the added op portunity to gain experience and accumulate flying time on large aircraft similar to those used by the airlines. As a rule, applicants for a co pilot job with the airlines must be between 20 and 35 years old, although preference is given to ap plicants who are between ages 21 and 28. They must be 5 feet 6 inches to 6 feet 4 inches tall and weigh between 140 and 210 pounds. All applicants must be high school graduates; some air lines require 2 years of college and prefer to hire college gradu ates. Physical requirements for pilots, especially in scheduled air line employment, are very high. They must have at least 20/100 vision corrected to 20/20, good hearing outstanding physical stamina, and no physical handi caps that would prevent quick reactions. Since flying large air craft places great responsibilities upon a pilot, the airlines use psy chological tests to determine an applicant’s alertness, emotional stability and maturity, and his ability to assume responsibility, command respect, and make quick decisions and accurate judgments under pressure. Men hired by the scheduled airlines (and by some of the larger supplemental airlines) usu ally start as flight engineers, al though they may begin as co- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 696 pilots. An applicant for a flight crew member job with a sched uled airline often must have more than the FAA minimum qualifi cations for commercial pilot li censing. For example, although the FAA requires only 200 flying hours to qualify for such a li cense, the airlines generally re quire from 500 to 1,000 flying hours. Airlines also require a “ restricted” radio-telephone op erator permit, issued by the Fed eral Communications Commis sion, which allows the holder to operate the plane’s radio. Pilots employed in business flying are required to have a com mercial pilot’s license. In addi tion, some employers require their pilots to have instrument ratings, and some require pilot applicants to have air transport pilot ratings. Because of the close relationship between pilots and their passengers, employers look for job applicants who have pleasant personalities. All newly hired airline copilots go through company orientation courses. In addition, some airlines give beginning copilots or flight engineers from 3 to 10 weeks of training on company planes be fore assigning them to a sched uled flight. Trainees also receive classroom instruction in subjects such as flight theory, radio oper ation, meteorology, Federal Avia tion Regulations, and airline oper ations. The beginning copilot gener ally is permitted only limited re sponsibility, such as operating the flight controls in good weath er over a route that is easy to navigate. As he gains experience and skill, his responsibilities are increased gradually, and he is promoted to copilot on larger, more modem aircraft. When he has proved his skill, accumulated sufficient experience and senior ity; and passed the test for an airline transport pilot’s license, a copilot may advance to captain as openings arise. A minimum of 2 or 3 years’ service is required for promotion but, in actual prac tice, advancement often takes at least 5 to 10 years or longer. The new captain works first on his airline’s smaller equipment and, as openings arise, he is advanced to larger, more modem aircraft. A few opportunities exist for captains who have administrative ability to advance to chief pilot, flight operations manager, and other supervisory and executive jobs. Most airline captains, how ever, spend their entire careers flying. As they increase their sen iority, they obtain a better selec tion of flight routes, types of air craft, and schedules which offer higher earnings. Some pilots may go into business for themselves if they have adequate financial re sources and business ability. They may operate their own fly ing schools or air-taxi and other aerial services. Pilots also may shift to administrative and in spection jobs in aircraft manu facturing and Government avia tion agencies, or become dis patchers for an airline when they are no longer able to fly. Em ploym ent O utlook A rapid rise in the employment of airline pilots is expected through the 1970’s. In addition to those needed to staff new po sitions, several thousand job openings will result from the need to replace pilots who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Although larger, faster, and more efficient jet planes are like ly to be used in the years ahead, increased passenger and cargo miles may exceed substantially the increase in capacity realized from the new equipment. There fore, employment of pilots is like ly to increase to the extent that increased growth of traffic ex ceeds increased capacity. Employment of pilots in gen eral aviation activities is ex pected to continue to grow very rapidly, particularly in business flying, aerial application, air-taxi operations, and patrol and survey flying. Growth in these areas will result from the greater use of air craft to perform these general aviation activities. Earnings and W orking Conditions Captains and copilots are among the highest paid wage earners in the Nation. Those em ployed by the scheduled airlines averaged about $21,000 a year in domestic air transportation and nearly $25,000 in interna tional operations in 1967. Most of the senior captains on large aircraft earned well over $25,000 a year; those assigned to jet air craft may earn as much as $37,000. Pilots employed by the scheduled airlines generally earn more than those employed else where, although pilots who work for supplemental airlines may earn almost as much. Some ex perienced copilots were earning as much as $21,000 a year in do mestic flying and more than $23,000 in international flying in 1967. The earnings of captains and copilots depend on factors such as the type, size, and speed of the planes they fly, the number of hours and miles flown, and their length of service. They re ceive additional pay for night and international flights. Captains and airline copilots who have at least 3 years of service are guar anteed minimum monthly earn ings which represent a substan tial proportion of their earnings. Under the Federal Aviation Act, airline pilots cannot fly more than 85 hours a month; some un- 697 CIVIL AVIATION OCCUPATIONS ion-management contracts, how ever, provide for 7 5-hour a month maximums. Though pilots and co pilots, in practice, fly approxi mately 60 hours a month, their total duty hours, including be fore- and after-flight activities and layovers before return flights, usually exceed 100 hours each month. Some pilots prefer shorter dis tance flying usually associated with local airlines and commer cial flying activities, such as airtaxi operations, because they are likely to spend less time away from their home bases and fly mostly during the daytime. These pilots, however, have the added strain of making more takeoffs and landings daily. Although flying does not in volve much physical effort, the pilot often is subject to stress be cause of his great responsibility. He must be constantly alert and prepared to make decisions quickly. Poor weather conditions also can make his work more difficult. Most airline pilots are mem bers of the Airline Pilots Asso ciation, International. The pilots employed by one major carrier are members of the Allied Pilots Association. FLIGHT ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 621.281) N ature of the W ork and Places of Em ploym ent The flight engineer monitors the operation of the different me chanical and electrical devices aboard the airplane. Before take offs, he may inspect the tires and other outside parts of the plane and make sure that the plane’s fuel tanks have been filled prop erly. Inside the plane, he assists the pilot and copilot in making preflight checks of instruments and equipment. Once the plane is airborne, the flight engineer watches and operates many in struments and devices to check the performance of the engines and the air-conditioning, pres surizing, and electrical systems. In addition, he keeps records of stationed in or near large cities engine performance and fuel con where long-distance flights origi sumption. He reports any me nate and terminate. chanical difficulties to the pilot and, if possible, makes emergency repairs. Upon landing, he makes T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, certain that mechanical troubles and A dvancem ent that may have developed are re paired by a mechanic. Flight en All flight engineers must be li gineers employed by the smaller censed by the FAA. A man can airlines may have to make minor qualify for a flight engineer’s cer repairs themselves at those few tificate if he has had 2 years of airports where mechanics are not training or 3 years of work ex stationed. perience in the maintenance, re Flight engineers or second of pair, and overhaul of aircraft and Sources of A dditional Inform ation ficers are required by the Federal engines, including a minimum of Aviation Administration (FAA), 6 months’ training or a year of to be on almost all three- and experience on four-engine piston four-engine aircraft and some and jet planes. He also may Air Line Pilots Association, Inter two-engine jet aircraft. An evalu qualify with at least 200 hours of national, 1329 E St., NW., ation of the aircraft and the func flight time as a captain of a fourWashington, D.C. 20004. tions to be performed by the engine piston or jet plane, or with (See the introductory section crew determines the need for a 100 hours of experience as a flight for additional sources of informa flight engineer. In 1968 about engineer in the Armed Forces. tion and for general information 8,000 workers were employed to The most common method of on supplementary benefits and perform flight engineers’ duties. qualifying is to complete a course working conditions.) Most of them worked for the ma of ground and flight instruction jor scheduled airlines and were approved by the FAA. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 698 In addition to such experience or training, an applicant for a license must pass a written test on flight theory, engine and air craft performance, fuel require ments, weather as it affects en gine operation, and maintenance procedures. In a practical flight test on a four-engine plane, he must demonstrate his skill in per forming preflight duties and nor mal and emergency in-flight du ties and procedures. He also must pass a rigid physical examination every year. Most scheduled air lines now require applicants for flight engineer positions to have a commercial pilot’s license. This qualification generally is not re quired by the nonscheduled air lines. Young men can acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to qualify as airline flight engi neers through military training as aircraft pilots, mechanics, or flight engineers. They also may attend a civilian ground school and then gain experience as an airplane mechanic. For jobs as flight engineers, airlines generally prefer men 21 to 35 years of age, from 5 feet 6 inches to 6 feet 4 inches tall, and in excellent physical condi tion. They require a high school education but prefer men who have 2 years of college or more. Airlines prefer to hire young men who already have a flight engi neer certificate and a commercial pilot’s license, although they do select applicants who have only a commercial pilot’s license and give them additional training. A flight engineer can become a chief flight engineer for his air line. Advancement possibilities usually depend on his qualifica tions and the seniority provisions established by airline union-man agement agreements. The flight engineer with pilot qualifications, generally called the second offi cer, advances on the basis of his seniority to copilot, and then fol low the regular line of advance ment open to other copilots. Flight engineers without pilot qualifications can advance from less desirable to more desirable routes and schedules as they gain seniority. E m ploym ent O utlook Employment of flight engineers is expected to increase rapidly during the 1970’s as the number of heavier jet-powered aircraft, requiring flight engineers, in creases. This development will contribute to employment growth in this field, since, in most cases, the third required crew member will be a qualified pilot serving as a flight engineer until his pro motion to copilot. (See also the Handbook statement for Pilots and Copilots.) month. Flight engineers in inter national operations are limited to 100 hours a month, 300 hours ev ery 90 days, or 350 hours every 90 days, depending on the size of the flight crew. Most flight engineers who are not qualified pilots belong to the Flight Engineers’ International Association or the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers. Those who are qualified pilots (Second Offi cers) are represented by the Air Line Pilots Association, Interna tional. Sources of A dditional Inform ation Flight Engineers’ International Association, 100 Indiana Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20001. (See the introductory section for additional sources of informa tion and for general information on supplementary benefits and working conditions.) Earnings and W orking Conditions The earnings of flight engineers in 1968 ranged from $600 to $625 a month for new employees to approximately $2,200 for experi enced flight engineers on jet air craft on international flights. Many flight engineers earned be tween $1,200 and $1,800 a month. Average monthly earnings for all flight engineers in domes tic operations was nearly $1,500; those employed on international flights averaged nearly $1,800. The earnings of flight engineers depend upon factors such as size, speed, and type of plane; hours and miles flown; length of serv ice; and the type of flight (such as night or international). Engi neers are guaranteed minimum monthly earnings, which represent a substantial proportion of their total earnings. Their flight time is restricted, under the Federal Aviation Act, to 85 hours a STEWARDESSES (D.O.T. 352.878) N atu re of the W ork and Places of Em ploym ent Stewardesses or s te w a r d s (sometimes called flight attend ants) are aboard almost all pas senger planes operated by the commercial airlines. Their job is to make the passengers’ flight safe, comfortable, and enjoyable. Like other flight personnel, they are responsible to the captain. Before each flight, the stew ardess attends the briefing of the flight crew. She sees that the pas senger cabin is in order, that sup plies and emergency passenger gear are aboard, and that neces sary food and beverages are in the 699 CIVIL AVIATION OCCUPATIONS galley. As the passengers come aboard, she greets them, checks their tickets, and assists them with their coats and small lug gage. On some flights, she may sell tickets. During the flight, the steward ess makes certain that seat belts are fastened and gives safety in structions when required. She an swers questions about the flight and weather, distributes reading matter and pillows, helps care for small children and babies, and keeps the cabin neat. On some flights, she heats and serves meals that have been previously cooked. On other flights, she may prepare, sell, and serve cocktails. After the flight, she completes flight reports. On international flights, she also gives customs in formation, instructs passengers on the use of emergency equip ment, and repeats instructions in an appropriate foreign language to accommodate foreign passen gers. About 28,500 stewardesses and 1,500 stewards worked for the scheduled airlines in 1968. About 80 percent were employed by the domestic airlines, and the rest worked for international lines. Nearly all stewards were em ployed on overseas flights. Air liners generally carry 1 to 6 flight attendants, depending on the size of the plane and what proportion of the flight is economy or firstclass. Most flight attendants are stationed in major cities at the airlines’ main bases. A few who serve on international flights are based in foreign countries. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Because stewardesses are in con stant association with passengers, the airlines place great stress on hiring young women who are at tractive, poised, tactful, and re sourceful. As a rule, applicants must be 19 to 27 years old, from 5 feet 2 inches to 5 feet 9 inches tall, with weight in proportion to height (but not exceeding 140 pounds), and in excellent health. They also must have a pleasant speaking voice and good vision. The major airlines require that stewardesses be unmarried when hired but permit girls to work as stewardesses after they marry. Applicants for stewardess’ jobs must have at least a high school education. Those having 2 years of college, nurses’ training, or ex perience in dealing with the pub lic are preferred. Stewardesses who work for international air lines generally must be able to speak an appropriate foreign language fluently. Most large airlines give newly hired stewardesses about 5 weeks’ training in their own schools. Girls may receive free transporta tion to the training centers and also may receive an allowance while in attendance. Training in cludes classes in flight regula tions and duties, company oper ations and schedules, emergency procedures and first aid, and per sonal grooming. A d d i t i o n a l courses in passport and customs regulations are given trainees for the international routes. Toward the end of their training, students go on practice flights and per form their duties under actual flight conditions. A few airlines that do not op erate their own schools may em ploy graduates who have paid for their own training at private stewardesses’ schools. Girls inter ested in becoming stewardesses should check with the airline of their choice before entering a pri vate school to be sure that they have the necessary qualifications for the airline, and that the school’s training is acceptable. Immediately upon completing their training, stewardesses re port for work at one of their air line’s main bases. They serve on probation for about 6 months, and an experienced stewardess usually works with them on their first flights. Before they are as signed to a regular flight, they may work as reserve flight at tendants, during which time they serve on extra flights or replace stewardesses who are sick or on vacation. Stewardesses may advance to jobs as first stewardess or purser, supervising stewardess, steward ess instructor, or recruiting repre sentative. Advancement opportu nities often come quickly because stewardesses work only about 2 or 3 years, on the average, and then resign to get married. Em ploym ent O utlook Young women will have several thousand opportunities to get jobs as stewardesses each year 700 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK some time off may occur between flights while away from home. Airlines generally use the sen iority bidding system for assign ing home bases, flight schedules, and routes. Stewardesses who have the longest service, there fore, get the more desirable flights. The stewardess’ occupation is exciting and glamorous, with op portunities to meet interesting passengers and see new places. However, the work can be strenu ous and trying. A stewardess may be on her feet during a large part of the flight. She must re main pleasant and efficient dur ing the entire flight, regardless of how tired she may be. Most flight attendants are members of either the Air Line Stewards and Stewardesses Asso ciation of the Transport Workers Earnings and W orking Conditions Union of America or the Stew ards and Stewardesses Division An examination of union-man-' of the Air Line Pilots Associa agement contracts covering sev tion, International. (See introductory section for eral large domestic and interna tional airlines indicates that in general information on supple 1968, beginning stewardess earn mentary benefits and working ed approximately $433 to $532 conditions.) a month for 80 hours of flying time. Stewardesses having 2 years’ experience earned approxi mately $493 to $689 a month. AIRCRAFT MECHANICS Stewardesses employed on do mestic flights averaged $435 a (D.O.T. 621.281) month in late 1968; those work ing on international flights aver aged about $557. N atu re of the W ork Since commercial airlines oper ate around the clock, 365 days a Aircraft mechanics have the year, stewardesses usually work irregular hours. They may work important job of keeping air at night, on holidays, and on planes operating safely and effi weekends. They usually are lim ciently. Mechanics employed by ited to 80 hours of flight time a the airlines work either at the month. In addition, they devote larger airline terminals making up to 35 hours a month to ground emergency repairs on aircraft (line-maintenance work) or at an duties. As a result of irregular hours and limitations on the airline main overhaul base, where amount of flying time, some stew they make major repairs or per ardesses may have 15 days or form the periodic inspections that more off each month. Of course, are necessary on all aircraft. during the 1970’s. Most of these openings will occur as girls marry or leave the occupation for other reasons. (About 30 percent of the employed stewardesses leave their jobs each year.) In addition, total employment of stewardesses will grow very rapidly as a result of the anticipated large increase in passenger traffic. Young women interested in be coming stewardesses should real ize that thousands of girls apply for this type of work each year because of the glamour attached to the occupation. Despite the large number of applicants, the airlines find it difficult to obtain enough young women who can meet their high standards of at tractiveness, personality, and in telligence. These mechanics may specialize in work on a particular part of the aircraft such as propellers, landing gear, hydraulic equip ment, airborne electronic com munications and control equip ment, instruments, or on sheet metal sections. They frequently take apart a complex airplane component, replace damaged or worn parts, put the component together again, and test it to make sure that it is operating perfectly. A line-maintenance mechanic may be instructed by the flight engineer or lead mechanic as to the kinds of repairs to make, or he may examine the aircraft thoroughly to discover the cause of malfunction. He then makes the necessary repairs or adjust ments or he may install a new part; for instance, he may replace an entire engine when it cannot be repaired quickly. Line-mainte nance mechanics must be all round mechanics able to make repairs on all parts of the plane. They also may have to do mainte nance work such as changing spark plugs or adding fluid to a hydraulic system. Aircraft mechanics employed in general aviation usually do maintenance and repair work comparable with the work per formed by line-maintenance me chanics. However, the planes which these mechanics service are generally smaller and less com plex than those flown by the air lines. One mechanic frequently does the entire servicing job with little supervision, and he works on many different types of planes and engines. Mechanics who work for employers such as certificated supplemental airlines, air-taxi op erators, and independent repair shops also may do overhaul work. Independent repair shops usually specialize in engine, instrument, or airframe overhaul. (The air frame consists of the plane’s CIVIL AVIATION OCCUPATIONS fuselage, wings, landing gear, flight controls, and other parts which are not part of the engine, propeller, or instruments.) Aircraft mechanics use many different kinds of tools in their work. These may range from sim ple handtools, such as screwdriv ers, wrenches and pliers, to large and expensive machines and equipment designed to diagnose troubles and help the mechanic correct them. Examples of such equipment are propeller grinding machines, electrical circuit test ers, and magnetic and black light inspection equipment designed to detect flaws and cracks in metal parts. Places of E m ploym ent Over 52,000 mechanics were employed by the scheduled air 701 lines in 1968. An estimated 50.000 mechanics and supervisory mechanics were employed by in dependent repair shops. A few thousand mechanics also were employed by certificated supple mental airlines, aerial applica tion and air-taxi firms, and busi nesses that use their own planes to transport their key employees or cargo. Many other aircraft me chanics work in aircraft manu facturing plants. (These workers, whose duties are somewhat dif ferent from those of airline me chanics, are discussed in the chapter on Occupations in the Aircraft, Missile, and Spacecraft Field.) About 20,000 civilian aircraft mechanics were employed by the Air Force in 1968. Another 12.000 worked for the Navy. The FAA employs several hundred skilled men with maintenance ex perience to inspect aircraft manu facturing plants; examine airline and other commercial flying or ganizations’ aircraft maintenance methods, training programs, and spare parts stock; and test appli cants for FAA mechanic licenses. This agency also employs approxi mately 500 aircraft mechanics to maintain its own planes. Most of these men are employed at the FAA Aeronautical Center in Ok lahoma City. Some mechanics are employed by other Government agencies, principally the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis tration and the Army. Most airline mechanics are em ployed in the larger cities on the main airline routes. Each airline usually has one main overhaul base where more than half of its mechanics are employed. Large concentrations of mechanics are employed in cities such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Miami, all of which are important domestic and International air traffic centers. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Mechanics responsible for any repair or maintenance operation must be licensed by the FAA as either an “ airframe mechanic” (to work on the plane’s fuselage, covering surface, landing gear, and control surfaces such as rud der or ailerons); “ powerplant mechanic” (to work on the plane’s engines); “ airframe and powerplant mechanic” (to work on all parts of the plane); or as a “ repairman” who is authorized to make only specified repairs. Mechanics who maintain and re pair electronic communications equipment are required to have at least a Federal Communica- 702 tions Commission Second Class Radio Telephone Operator Li cense. At least 18 months’ experience working with airframes or engines is required to obtain an airframe or powerplant license, and at least 30 months’ experience work ing with both engines and air frames is required for the com bined airframe and powerplant license. However, this experience is not required of graduates of mechanic’s schools approved by the FAA. In addition to meeting these requirements, applicants must pass a written test and give a practical demonstration of their ability to do the work. Repair men licenses are issued to me chanics who are able to perform those maintenance and repair op erations for which their employ ers have received FAA authoriza tion. Mechanics may prepare for the trade and their licenses by work ing as trainees or apprentices, or as helpers to experienced me chanics. The larger airlines train apprentices or trainees in a care fully planned 3- or 4-year pro gram of instruction and work ex perience. Men who have learned aircraft maintenance in the Arm ed Forces usually are given credit for this training towards the re quirements of apprenticeship or other on-the-job training pro grams. For trainee or apprentice jobs, the airlines prefer men between the ages of 20 and 30 who are in good physical conditon. Appli cants should have a high school or trade school education, includ ing courses in mathematics, phy sics, chemistry, and machine shop. Experience in automotive repairs or other mechanical work also is helpful. Other mechanics prepare for their trade by graduating from an FAA approved mechanics school. Most of these schools have OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK an 18- to 24-month program. Several colleges and universities also offer 2-year programs that prepare the student for the FAA mechanic examinations, and for jobs as engineering aids and re search and development techni cians in aircraft manufacturing. Mechanics generally are re quired to have their own handtools which they must pay for themselves. They usually acquire their tools gradually. Several advancement possibili ties are available to skilled me chanics employed by the sched uled airlines. The line of ad vancement is usually mechanic, lead mechanic (or crew chief), inspector, lead inspector, shop foreman, and, in a few cases, su pervisory and executive positions. In most shops, mechanics in the higher grade positions are re quired to have both airframe and powerplant ratings. In many cases, the mechanic must pass a company examination before he is promoted. T o qualify for jobs as FAA in spectors, mechanics must have broad experience in maintenance and overhaul work, including su pervision over the maintenance of aircraft. Applicants for this job also must have both airframe and powerplant ratings or a combined rating. E m ploym ent O utlook The number of aircraft me chanics employed by scheduled airlines is expected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s be cause of the substantial increase in the number of aircraft in op eration. Rapid growth antici pated in general aviation flying will lead to an increase in the number of aircraft. An increase is expected in the number of me chanics employed both in firms providing general aviation serv ices and in independent repair shops. Employment opportunities for aircraft mechanics in the Fed eral Government will depend largely on the size of the Govern ment military aircraft program. In addition to the openings that will arise from employment growth, a few thousand job open ings will result annually from the need to replace mechanics who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Earnings and W orking Conditions Mechanics employed by the scheduled domestic and interna tional airlines earned, on the average about $700 a month in 1967. Other aricraft mechanics generally had lower average earn ings. Airline mechanics work in hangars or in other indoor areas, whenever possible. However, when repairs must be made quickly, which is sometimes the case in line-maintenance work, mechanics may work outdoors. Mechanics employed by most major airlines are covered by un ion agreements. Most of these employees are members of the International Association of Ma chinists and Aerospace Workers. Many others belong to the Inter national Brotherhood of Team sters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America and the Transport Workers Union of America. (See introductory sec tion for sources of additional in formation and for general infor mation on supplementary bene fits and working conditions.) 703 CIVIL AVIATION OCCUPATIONS AIRLINE DISPATCHERS (D.O.T. 912.168) N ature of the W ork and Places of Em ploym ent Dispatchers (sometimes called flight superintendents) are em ployed by the airlines to coordi nate flight schedules and opera tions within an assigned area; they also make sure that all Fed eral Aviation Administration (FAA) and company flight and safety regulations are observed. After examining weather condi tions, the dispatcher makes a preliminary decision as to wheth er a flight may be undertaken safely. He frequently must ar range to notify the passengers and crew if there is any change from the scheduled departure time. The dispatcher confers with the captain about the quantity of fuel needed, the best route and altitude at which the plane will fly, the total flying time, and the alternate fields that may be used if landing at the scheduled air port is hazardous. The dispatcher and the captain must agree on all details of the flight before the plane leaves the airport. In some instances, the dispatcher is also responsible for keeping records and checking matters such as the availability of aircraft and equip ment, the weight and balance of loaded cargo, the amount of time flown by each aircraft, and the number of hours flown by each crew member based at his station. After the flight has begun, the dispatcher plots the plane’s prog ress as reported at regular inter vals by the captain on the radio, and keeps the captain informed of changing weather and other conditions that might affect his flight. The assistant dispatcher helps the dispatcher plot the progress of flights, secure weather infor mation, and handle communica tions with aircraft. In 1968 only about 1,200 dis patchers and assistants were em ployed in scheduled domestic and international operations, primar ily at large airports in the United States. An even smaller number worked for large certificated sup plemental airlines, and for pri vate firms which offer dispatch ing services to small airlines. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Airline dispatcher assists pilot in preflight planning. Dispatchers are required to have an FAA dispatcher certifi cate. An applicant for such a cer tificate may qualify if he has spent at least a year engaged in dispatching work under the su pervision of a certificated dis patcher. He also may qualify by completing an FAA-approved dispatcher’s course at a school or an airline training center. If an applicant has neither schooling nor experience, he also may qualify if he has spent 2 of the previous 3 years in air traffic control work, or in airline jobs such as dispatch clerk, assistant dispatcher, or radio operator, or in similar work in military service. An applicant for an FAA dis patcher certificate must pass a written examination on subjects such as Federal aviation regula tions, weather analysis, air-navi gation facilities, radio procedures, and airport and airway traffic procedures. In an oral test, he also has to demonstrate his abili ty to interpret weather informa tion, his knowledge of landing and cruising speeds and other laircraft operational characteristics, and his familiarity with airline routes and navigational facilities. A licensed dispatcher is checked periodically by his employer to make sure that he is maintaining the skills required by Federal regulations. All qualified dis patchers are given additional in struction by their airlines at spe cial training centers so that they may become familiar with new flight procedures and with char acteristics of new aircraft. Each year, he also is required to “ fly the line” as an observer over the portion of the system which he services, to maintain his first hand familiarity with airline routes and flight operations. For assistant dispatcher jobs, which may not require certifica tion, airlines prefer men who have at least 2 years of college or an equivalent amount of time work ing in some phase of air trans portation, such as communica tions. Preference is given to col lege graduates who have had courses in mathematics, physics, and related subjects. Some ex perience in flying, meteorology, or business administration is also helpful. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 704 Most airlines fill assistant dis patcher positions by promotion or transfer from within the com pany. Men are preferred who have had long experience in ground operations work. As a re sult, most openings are filled by men who have been dispatch clerks, meteorologists, or radio operators; a few jobs are filled by men who have been pilots. Em ploym ent O utlook The number of workers in this very small occupation is not ex pected to change much during the 1970’s. Most new workers will be hired as assistant dispatchers or dispatch clerks. Job openings for dispatchers will be filled mainly by promoting or transfer ring experienced persons already employed by the airlines. The need for some additional dispatchers will result from the increase in air traffic, the addi tion and extension of routes, and the extra difficulties in dispatch ing jet aircraft. However, these factors will be largely offset by improved radio and telephone communication facilities which al low dispatchers at major termi nals to dispatch aircraft at other airports and over large geographic areas. Foreign-flag airlines, which fly between overseas points and cities in the United States, also will provide a few job opportu nities for dispatchers. Earnings and W orking Conditions Beginning dispatchers earned between $800 and $850 a month in 1968. Dispatchers having 10 years’ service earned between $1,100 and $1,500 a month. As sistant dispatchers earned $550 and over a month to begin and up to $850 a month after 3 years. Assistant dispatchers who have FAA certificates may earn $25 a month extra. Most dispatchers are members of the Air-Line Dis patchers Association. Sources of A dditional In fo rm atio n Air Line Dispatchers Association, 929 West Broad St., Falls Church, Va. 22130. (See introductory section for additional sources of information and for general information on supplementary benefits and working conditions.) AIR TRAFFIC CONTROLLERS (D.O.T. 193.168) N atu re of the W ork Air traffic controllers are the guardians of the airways. These employees of the Federal Avia tion Administration (FAA) give instructions, advice, and informa tion to pilots by radio to avoid collisions and minimize delays as aircraft fly between airports or in the vicinity of airports. When di recting aircraft, traffic controllers must consider many factors, in cluding weather, geography, the amount of traffic, and the size, speed, and other operating char acteristics of aircraft. The men who control traffic in the areas around airports are known as air port traffic controllers; those who guide aircraft between airports are called air-route traffic con trollers. Airport traffic controllers are stationed at airport control tow ers to give all pilots within the vicinity of the airport weather in formation and take-off and land ing instructions such as which approach and airfield runway to use and when to change altitude. They must control simultaneous ly several aircraft which appear as tiny bars on a radar scope. They talk on the radio first to one and then to another of the pilots of these planes, remember ing their numbers and their po sitions in the air, and give each of them different instructions. These workers also keep records of all messages received from air craft and operate runway lights and other airfield electronic equipment. They also may send and receive information to and from air-route traffic control cen ters about flights made over the airport. Air-route traffic controllers are stationed at air traffic control centers to coordinate the move ments of aircraft which are being flown “ on instruments.” They use the written flight plans which are filed by pilots and dispatchers be fore aircraft leave the airport. To make sure that aircraft remain on course, they check the prog ress of flights, using radar and other electronic equipment and information received from the aircraft, other control centers and towers, and information from FAA or airline communications stations. W here Em ployed About 14,600 air traffic con trollers were employed by the FAA in 1968. Of these, about half were airport traffic controllers, employed at airport control tow ers located at key airfields. A few of these jobs are located at tow ers and centers outside the United States. About 7,600 airroute traffic controllers worked in 24 control centers scattered throughout the United States. CIVIL AVIATION OCCUPATIONS 705 Em ploym ent O utlook Air traffic controllers guide aircraft with radio and radar. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and Advancem ent Applicants for positions as airroute or airport traffic controller must be able to speak clearly and precisely. They enter the field through the competitive Federal Civil Service system after passing a rigid physical examination, which they must pass every year. Applicants must pass a written test designed to measure their ability to learn, perform the du ties of air traffic controller, and meet certain experience, training, and related requirements. Successful applicants for traffic controller jobs are given approxi mately 9 weeks of formal train ing to learn the fundamentals of the airway system, Federal Avia tion Regulations, and radar and aircraft performance characteris tics. After completing this train ing, controllers qualify for a basic air traffic control certificate. At an FAA control tower or center, they receive additional classroom instruction and on-the-job train ing to become familiar with spe cific traffic problems. Only after he has demonstrated his ability to apply procedures, and to use available equipment under pres sure and stress, may he work as a controller. This usually takes about 2 to 3 years. Controllers can advance to the job of chief controller. After this promotion, they may advance to more responsible management jobs in air traffic control and to a few top administrative jobs in the FAA. Total employment of air traffic controllers is expected to increase moderately through the 1970’s. The number of air traffic con trollers is expected to increase despite the greater use of auto mated equipment. Additonal air traffic control lers will be needed because of the anticipated growth in the number of airport towers that will be built to reduce the burden on ex isting facilities and to handle in creasing airline traffic. More air port controllers also will be needed to provide services to the growing number of pilots outside of the airlines, such as those em ployed by companies to fly executives. A number of additional airroute traffic controllers will be needed during the next few years to handle increases in air traffic. However, with the expected in troduction of an automatic air traffic control system and a fur ther decline in the number of control centers, employment of air-route traffic controllers is ex pected to moderate in the long run. A few hundred openings will occur each year for controller jobs because of the need to replace those workers who leave for other work, retire, or die. Earnings and W orking Conditions The monthly salary for air traffic controllers during their first 6 to 12 months of training averaged about $530 in late 1968. Air traffic controllers can earn between $770 to $1,500 a month, depending on the type of work they do, the amount of traf fic handled at their facility and how long they have been on the job. In addition, all traffic con trollers are eligible for periodic OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 706 wage increases. In areas that han dle extremely large volumes of air traffic, a chief controller may earn more than $1,648 a month. These employees receive the same annual leave, sick leave, and other benefits provided other Federal workers. FAA controllers work a basic 40-hour week; however, they may work overtime, for which they receive equivalent time off or ad ditional pay. Because control towers and centers must be oper ated 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, controllers are periodically assigned to night shifts on a ro tating basis. However, an addi tional 10 percent is paid for work between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. Because of the congestion in air traffic, a controller works un der great stress. He is responsible for directing as many as 10 to 20 aircraft or more at the same time. He must check simultaneously flights already under his control, know the flight schedules of air craft approaching his area, and coordinate these patterns with other controllers as each flight passes from his control area to another. (See introductory section for sources of additional information and for general information on supplementary b e n e f i t s and working conditions.) use a radio-telephone to send and receive spoken messages; some operators may use a radio-tele graph to transmit written mes sages. Radio operators occasion ally may make minor repairs on their equipment. T e le typists transmit only written messages between ground personnel. They operate a teletype machine which has a keyboard similar to that of a typewriter. Flight service station special ists employed by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) do some work similar to that of airline ground radio operators and teletypists. They use radio telephones, radio-telegraph, and teletype machines in their work. In addition to providing pilots with weather and navigational information before and during flights, these workers relay mes sages from air traffic control fa cilities to other ground station personnel and to pilots. Places of Em ploym ent About 8,200 ground radio op erators and teletypists were em ployed in air transportation in 1967. Flight service station spe cialists employed by the FAA made up about half of these em ployees. The scheduled airlines employed about 3,400 radio op erators and teletypists. An addi tional 450 were employed by a cooperative organization which offers the airlines, private pilots, GROUND RADIO OPERATORS AND TELETYPISTS (D.O.T. 193.282 and 203.588) N ature of the W ork Ground radio operators and teletypists transmit highly im portant messages concerning weather conditions and other flight inform ation between ground station personnel and flight personnel. Radio operators Ground radio operators and teletypists process messages in radio room. 707 CIVIL AVIATION OCCUPATIONS and corporation aircraft its ser vices over a centralized commu nications system. A few hundred were employed by the Army and Navy in civilian communications occupations. FAA flight service station spe cialists work at stations scattered along the major airline routes; some stations are located in re mote places. Ground radio oper ators and teletypists employed by the airlines work mostly at air ports in or near large cities. Train in g , O ther Q ualifications, and Advancem ent Applicants for airline radio op erator jobs usually must have at least a third-class Federal Com munications Commission radio telephone or radio-telegraph op erator’s permit. However, a sec ond-class operator’s permit is pre ferred. They also must be high school graduates and have a good speaking voice, the ability to type at least 40 words a minute, and a basic knowledge of the language used in weather reports. Teletyp ists must be able to type at least 40 words a minute and have had training or experience in operat ing teletype equipment. Appli cants for jobs as radio operators and teletypists also must have a knowledge of standard codes and symbols used in communications. T o qualify for entry positions as FAA flight service station spe cialists, applicants must pass a written test and meet certain ex perience requirements. Perma nent appointments are made on the basis of Federal civil service examinations. The airlines usually employ women as teletypists, and an in creasing number are being hired as radio operators. Both airline radio operators and teletypists, and FAA flight service station specialists serve probationary periods during which time they receive on-the-job training. Skill gained in communications is help ful experience for transferring in to such other higher paying jobs such as airline dispatcher. Em ploym ent O utlook Openings for entry positions as radio operators or teletypists will number less than a hundred each year during the 1970’s. These openings will occur as workers transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Overall employment of these workers may decline somewhat because of the use of more auto matic communications equipment which permits communications for longer distances. The number of flight service station specialists employed by the FAA is expected to increase slowly in the years ahead. Need for additional workers to perform more services for pilots will be offset by improvements in equip ment, and an increase in twoway radios that permit commu nications between pilots and air traffic controllers. The number of radio operators and teletypists employed by airlines will increase slowly due to communications systems becoming more automat ic and centralized. Earnings and W orking Conditions The beginning salary for airline radio operators who held the minimum third-class permit gen erally was between $390 and $535 a month in 1968. Workers who held a second-class license generally received $10 to $25 more a month. The beginning salary for teletypists ranged from $450 to $559 a month. Beginning FAA flight service station spe cialists receive between $477 and $581 a month, depending on edu cation and experience; experi enced flight service specialists earn from $705 to $1,105 a month. Radio operators and teletyp ists in a number of airlines are unionized. The major union in these occupational fields is the C o m m u n i c a t i o n s W o r k e r s of America. (See introductory section for sources of additional information and for general information on s u p p l e m e n t a r y b e n e f i t s and working conditions.) TRAFFIC AGENTS AND CLERKS (D.O.T. 912.368, 919.368) N atu re of th e W ork Selling flight tickets, reserving seats and cargo space, and taking charge of the ground handling of planes are some of the duties of traffic agents and clerks. This group of workers includes ticket or reservation agents and clerks, operations or station agents, and traffic representatives. Reservation sales agents and clerks give customers flight schedule and fare information over the telephone. Reservation control agents record reservations as they are made and report the reservations by teletype machine to a central computer or to clerks in other cities so that the same space will not be sold twice. They also receive teletype messages in forming them of the sale of space. On some of the larger airlines, data processing systems receive, record, and transmit flight space information to personnel at air ports and reservations officers throughout the entire airline sys tem at great speeds. Ticket agents sell tickets and fill out ticket forms, including information such as the flight number and the pas senger’s name and destination. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 708 and clerks by the scheduled air lines in 1968. A few thousand others also were employed by the supplemental airlines, and by foreign-flag airlines that operate between the United States and overseas points. Traffic staffs are employed principally in downtown offices and at airports in or near large cities where most airline passen ger and cargo business originates. Some are employed in smaller communities where airlines have scheduled stops. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent They also check and weigh bag gage, answer inquiries about flight schedules and fares, and keep records of tickets sold. Traf fic representatives contact poten tial customers to promote greater use of the airline services. Operations or station agents are responsible for the ground handling of airplanes at their stations. They supervise the load ing and unloading of the aircraft and sometimes do this work themselves. They see that the weight carried by the planes is distributed properly, compute gas loads and the weight carried by the plane, prepare a list of the cargo, and keep records of the number of passengers carried. They also may make arrival and departure announcements and prepare the weather forms that pilots use when they plan their routes. Places of Em ploym ent About 41,500 men and women were employed as traffic agents Traffic agents and clerks must deal directly with the public, either in person or by telephone. For this reason, airlines have strict hiring standards with re spect to appearance, personality, and education. A good speaking voice is essential because these employees frequently use the telephone or public address sys tems. High school graduation generally is required, and college training is considered desirable. College courses in transporta tion such as “ traffic manage ment” and “ air transportation,” as well as experience in other areas of air transportation, are helpful for a higher grade job, such as traffic representative. Both men and women are em ployed as reservation and ticket agents; however, most operations agents are men. Traffic agents may advance to traffic representative and super visor. A few eventually may move up to city and district traffic and station manager. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment of traffic person nel will increase rapidly over the 1970’s, mainly because of antici pated growth in passenger and cargo traffic. In addition to the thousands of opportunities for new workers that will result from this employment growth, addi tional opportunities will arise as young women leave their jobs to marry or rear children. Most of the major airlines are installing new machines to record and process reservations, keep records, and perform a variety of other routine tasks. Mechaniza tion will affect the reservation clerks in particular. The employ ment of ticket agents, however, whose main job involves personal contacts, will not be affected very much, although their paper work will be reduced consider ably. The small group of traffic representatives probably will in crease substantially as the air lines compete for new business. Earnings and W orking Conditions Limited wage data collected from union-management con tracts covering reservations and ticket agents employed by sev eral airlines indicate that their beginning salaries ranged from $430 to $455 a month in 1968. Those workers having 5 years or more of experience earned be tween $527 to $584 a month. Station and operations agents started at about $475 a month and progressed to about $624 a month after several years. Many reservation and trans portation agents belong to labor unions. Most of the organized agents belong to the Transport Workers Union of America or the Brotherhood of Railway and Steamship Clerks, Freight Han dlers, Express and Station Em ployees. (See introductory section for sources, of additional information and for general information on supplementary b e n e f i t s and working conditions.) O C C U P A T IO N S IN T H E E L E C T R I C P O W E R IN D U S T R Y Nearly every American home, business, and community is de pendent upon electricity. There would be no modern communica tion systems, no highly mecha nized industries, and fewer of the appliances that have become an indispensable part of every day life without this most versatile form of energy. Many types of workers are needed to produce electricity, develop additional markets for it, and distribute it to the consumer. These workers include power plant operators, linemen, electricians, engineers, research scientists, salesmen, technicians, meter readers, and office workers. Electric utilities offer interesting jobs and steady employment for men and women in several thousand communities throughout the country. N ature and Location of the Industry The electric power industry in cludes about 3,700 electric utility systems that vary greatly in size and type of ownership. Utilities range from large, interconnected systems serving broad regional areas to small power companies serving individual communities. Many utilities are investor own ed (private) or owned by cooper atives; others are owned by cities, counties, and public utility dis tricts, as well as by the Federal Government. Utility systems in clude power plants, which gener ate electric power; substations, which increase or decrease the voltage of this power; and vast networks of transmission and dis tribution lines. it is the distinctive feature of the operation of electric power sys tems. Electricity cannot be stored efficiently but must be used as it is produced. Because a customer can begin or increase his use of electric power at any time by merely flicking a switch, an elec tric utility system must have suf ficient capacity to meet peak consumer needs at any time. Some utilities generate, trans mit, and distribute only electric ity; others distribute both elec tricity and gas. This chapter is concerned with employment op portunities in those jobs relating only to the production and dis tribution of electric power. In 1968, private, cooperative, and government utility systems combined employed nearly 475,000 workers. Privately owned utilities and cooperatives em ployed about 405,000 workers; Federal, and municipal govern ment utilities employed the re maining 70,000. A few large man ufacturing establishments, which @1 produce electric power for their own use, also employ electric power workers. Three principal groups of con sumers— industrial, residential, and commercial— purchased more than 95 percent of all electricity sold in 1968. Industrial custom ers, such as chemical, steel, aluminum, and a u t o m o b i l e plants, purchased almost 45 per cent of all the electric power sold. Residential customers purchased nearly 30 percent, and commer cial customers, such as stores, hotels, and office buildings, pur chased about 20 percent. Electric utility service now reaches almost every locality and, therefore, electric utility jobs are found throughout the country. Hydroelectric power projects have created jobs even in rela tively isolated areas. Most utility jobs, however, are in heavily populated urban areas, especially where there are many industrial users, or where a large utility has its headquarters. Producing and distributing large quantities of electrical en ergy involves many processes and activities. Chart shows how elec tric energy is generated, and how it travels from the generating station to the users. The first step H o w Electricity Is M ad e A n d Brought To The Users G enerating Plant High Voltage Transmission The delivery of electricity to the user at the instant he needs 709 710 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK in providing electrical energy oc curs in a generating station or plant, where huge generators convert mechanical energy into electricity. Electricity is pro duced primarily in steam-pow ered generating plants which use coal, gas, or oil for fuel. Some new steam generating stations use nuclear energy as a fuel. A con siderable amount of electricity also is produced in hydroelectric generating stations which use water power to operate the tur bines. Some generators, primarily for use in standby service or to provide electricity for special pur poses, are powered by internal combustion and gas turbine engines. After electricity is generated, it passes through a “ switchyard” where the voltage is increased so that the electricity may travel long distances without excessive loss of power. After leaving the generating plant, electricity passes onto transmission lines. These lines carry electricity from the generating plant to substa tions, where the voltage is de creased and passed on to the dis tribution networks serving in dividual customers. Transmission lines tie together the generating stations of a single system and also the power facilties of sev eral systems. In this way, power can be interchanged among sev eral utility systems to meet vary ing demands. ers. Another 20 percent are in maintenance and repair work and in jobs such as guard, watchman, and janitor. Approximately 30 percent are employed in adminis trative and clerical jobs, 10 per cent in customer servicing jobs, and 10 percent in scientific, engi neering, and other technical occupations. In addition to the powerplant, transmission, and customer serv ice occupations (discussed in de tail later in this chapter), the electric power industry employs large numbers of workers in main tenance, engineering, scientific, administrative, sales, and clerical occupations. The latter occupa tions are discussed briefly below. Detailed discussions of these and other occupations in the electric power industry and in many other industries are given in the Hand book sections covering the indi vidual occupations. Electric U tility Occupations Engineering and Scientific Occu pations. Many interesting job op Workers are needed in many different occupations to produce electric power for instant use. About 10 percent of the em ployees in this industry work in occupations directly related to the generation of electricity. About 20 percent are in jobs re lated to the transmission and dis tribution of power to the custom portunities are available for en gineers and technical workers in electric utilities. Engineers plan generating plant additions, inter connections of complex power systems, and installations of new transmission and distribution equipment. They supervise con struction, develop improved oper ating methods, and test the effi Maintenance and Other Occupa tions. A considerable number of workers maintain and repair the equipment used by the electrical utilities. The duties of these skilled craftsmen are similar to those of maintenance workers in other industries. Among the more important skilled workers are electricians, instrument repair men, maintenance mechanics, ma chinists, pipefitters, and boiler makers. Other workers are em ployed as guards, watchmen, and janitors. ciency of the many types of elec trical equipment. In planning modern power systems, engineers select plant sites, types of fuel, and types of plants. Engineers also help industrial and commer cial customers make the best use of electric power for equipment and lighting. They stimulate greater use of electricity by dem onstrating the advantages of elec trical equipment and suggesting places where electricity can be used more effectively. Administrative and Clerical Occu pations. Because of the enormous amount of recordkeeping neces sary to run the business opera tions, electric utilities employ a higher proportion of administra tive and clerical personnel than many other industries. Nearly one-third of the industry’s work force is employed in clerical and administrative jobs. Many of these workers are women. Large numbers of stenographers, typ ists, bookkeepers, office machine operators, file clerks, accounting and auditing clerks, and cashiers are employed. These workers keep records of the services ren dered by the company, make up bills for customers, and prepare a variety of statements and sta tistical reports. An increasing amount of this work in the larger offices now is being per formed by electronic data-processing equipment. This generally results in more clerical work being done with the same or fewer employees. The use of this equipment also creates require ments for programers and com puter operators. Administrative employees include accountants, personnel officers, purchasing agents, and lawyers. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment in the electric power industry is expected to OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY grow slowly during the 1970’s, al though the production of electric power is expected to increase sub stantially. In addition to new jobs created by employment growth, several thousand job opportuni ties for new workers will occur each year during this period to replace workers who retire, die, or leave the industry for other work. Industrial customers are ex pected to use more electricity be cause of the widening application of electric power to industrial processes. Use of electricity by residential customers is expected to rise because of the continued growth in population and the number of households. In addi tion, residential customers are expected to increase their use of electricity for heating and air con ditioning, and for an increasing number and variety of appliances. The construction of new stores and office buildings and the mod ernization of existing structures will expand the use of electricity by commercial customers. However, the growing use of automatic controls in this highly mechanized industry makes pos sible large increases in the pro duction of electric power with little increase in employment. For example, since operators in gen erating stations are needed chiefly to check gages and control in struments, improvements in gen erating equipment have made possible great increases in the in dustry’s capacity and production with only small increases in the number of operators. Continuing development of larger and more highly mechanized equipment with many automatic controls will result in a decline in the num ber of these operators. The em ployment of substation operators will continue to decline because of the installation of completely automatic equipment in all but the largest substations. Employ ment decreases in these occupa tions may be offset by the expect ed growth in the number of main tenance and repair craftsmen needed to keep the industry’s in creasing amount of complex ma chinery in operating condition. The employment of workers in maintenance and repair of trans mission and distribution lines is expected to remain relatively stable. Fewer men per crew will be needed to work on electric power lines because of the increas ing use of mechanized equipment for setting poles and for string ing and maintaining lines. How ever, this reduction in jobs per crew may be offset by the larger number of crews needed to serv ice the expanding distribution systems required by the growing number of electric power customers. Because of the increasing use of electronic data-processing equipment for billing and record keeping, only a small increase in office employment is expected. However, the relatively high turn over in office jobs will provide many additional openings for new workers each year. Some increase in employment also is expected in administrative jobs; scientific, engineering, and other technical jobs; and in areas such as sales and market development. Earnings and W orking Conditions Earnings in the electric utility industry generally are higher than in other public utility industries and in many manufacturing in dustries. In 1968, earnings of nonsupervisory employees in pri vate electric power utilities av eraged $3.71 an hour or nearly $155 a week. Many nonsupervisory electric utility workers in production, transmission, and distribution de partments are union members. 711 The bargaining representative for most of these workers is either the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers or the Utility Workers Union of America. Inde pendent unions represent some utility workers. Because supplying electricity is a 24-hour, 7-day-a-week activity, some employees work evenings, nights, and weekends. Most union contracts with electric utilities provide a higher rate of pay for evening and night work than the basic day rate. In 1968, most workers on the second shift re ceived from 10 to 20 cents an hour more than the basic day rate, and those on the third shift, from 10 to 25 cents an hour more. Overtime work often is re quired, especially during emer gencies such as floods, hurricanes, or storms. During an “ emergency callout,” which is a short-notice request to report to work during nonscheduled hours, the worker generally is guaranteed a mini mum of 3 or 4 hours’ pay at 1% times his basic hourly rate. Travel time to and from the job is count ed as worktime. In addition to these provisions which affect pay, electric utilities provide other employee benefits. Annual vacations are granted to workers according to length of service. Usually, contracts or em ployee benefit programs provide for a 1-week vacation for 6 months to 1 year of service, 2 weeks for 1 to 10 years, and 3 weeks for 10 to 20 years. A num ber of contracts and programs provide for 4 weeks after 18 years and for 5 weeks after 25 years or more. The number of paid holi days ranges from 6 to 12 days a year. Nearly all companies have benefit plans for their employees. A typical program provides life, hospitalization, and surgical in surance and paid sick leave. Re tirement pension plans supple ment Federal social security pay- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 712 ments and generally are paid for in full or in part by the employer. The number of injuries per million man-hours worked is much lower in this industry than in most manufacturing industries. Some occupations are more sub ject to accidents than others. Ac cidents occur most frequently among the line and cable splicing crews. Because of the dangers of electrocution and other hazards, electric utilities and unions have made intensive efforts to enforce safe working practices. Sources of A d ditional Inform ation More information about jobs in the electric power industry may be obtained from local electric utility companies, industry trade associations, or from the local of fices of unions which have electric utility workers among their mem bership. Additional information may be obtained from: Edison Electric Institute, 750 3rd Avenue, New York, New York 10017. International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers, 1200 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Utility Workers’ Union of Amer ica, 1875 Conn. Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. POWERPLANT OCCUPATIONS N atu re of the W ork Operators are key workers in a powerplant. They observe, con trol, and keep records of the op eration of various kinds of powerplant equipment. They make sure the equipment functions efficient ly and detect any trouble that arises. There are four basic classes of operators— boiler, turbine, aux iliary equipment, and switch board operators. In many new steam plants, the duties of these operators are combined, and op erators and their assistants are known as steam operators, powerplant operators, or central control room operators. Of increasing im portance in this highly mechan ized industry are the maintenance men and repairmen, including electrical, instrument, and me chanical repairmen. Other pow erplant workers include helpers and cleaners, and the custodial staff, including janitors and watchmen. Coal handlers are em ployed in steam generating plants that use coal for fuel. Hydroelec tric plants employ gate tenders who open and close the headgates that control the flow of wa ter to the turbines. Supervision of powerplant operations is handled by a chief engineer and by his assistants, the watch engineers. Boiler operators (D.O.T. 950.782) regulate the fuel, air, and water supply in the boilers and maintain proper steam pressure needed to turn the turbines, on the basis of information shown by gages, meters, and other in struments mounted on panel boards. One man may operate one or more boilers. Boiler operators, are employed only where steam is used to generate electricity. Turbine operators (D.O.T. 952.138) control the operation of steam- or water-powered turbines which drive the generators. (In small plants, they also may op erate auxiliary equipment or a switchboard.) Modern steam tur bines and generators operate at extremely high speeds, pressures, and temperatures; therefore, close attention must be given the pressure gages, thermometers, and other instruments which show the operations of the turbo generator unit. Turbine operators record the information shown by these instruments and check the oil pressure at bearings, the speed of the turbines, and the circula tion and amount of cooling water in the condensers which change the steam back into water. They also are responsible for starting and shutting down the turbines and generators, as directed by the switchboard operator in the con trol room. Other workers, such as helpers and junior operators, assist the turbine operators. Auxiliary equipment operators (D.O.T. 952.782) check and re cord the readings of instruments that indicate the operating con dition of pumps, fans, blowers, condensers, evaporators, water conditioners, compressors, and coal pulverizers. Since auxiliary equipment may break down occa sionally, these operators must be able to detect trouble quickly, make accurate judgments, and sometimes make repairs. Some small plants do not employ aux iliary equipment operators; these duties are performed by turbine operators. Switchboard operators (D.O.T. 952.782) control the flow of elec tric power in the generating sta tion from generators to outgoing powerlines. They usually work in a control room equipped with switchboards and instrument pan els. Switches control the move ment of electricity through the generating station circuits and onto the transmission lines. Instruments mounted on panelboards show the power demands on the station at any instant, the powerload on each line leaving the station, the amount of cur rent being produced by each gen erator, and the voltage. The op erators use switches to distribute the power demands among the generators in the station, to com bine the current from two or more generators, and to regulate the flow of the electricity onto vari ous powerlines to meet the de- OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY 713 equipment, which in older plants requires specialists such as boiler and turbine operators. Control room operators have several as sistants whose duties include pa trolling the plant and checking the equipment. The central con trol room operators report to the plant superintendent or watch engineers when equipment is not operating properly. Watch engineers (D.O.T. 950.131) are the principal supervisory workers in a powerplant. They supervise the employees respon sible for the operation and main tenance of boilers, turbines, gen erators, auxiliary equipment, switchboards, transformers, and other machinery and equipment. Watch engineers are supervised by a chief engineer or a plant su perintendent who is in charge of the entire plant. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Operator checks instrument readings at nuclear powered generating plant. mands of the users served by each line. When power require ments on the station change, they order generators started or stop ped and, at the proper time, con nect them to the power circuits in the station or disconnect them. In doing this work, they follow telephone orders from the load dispatcher who directs the flow of current throughout the system. Switchboard operators and their assistants also check their instruments frequently to see that electricity is moving through and out of the powerplant prop erly, and that correct voltage is being maintained. Among their other duties, they keep records of all switching operations and of load conditions on generators, lines, and transformers. They ob tain this information by making regular meter readings. In most powerplants construct ed in recent years, the operation of boilers, turbines, auxiliary equipment, and the switching re quired for efficient balancing of generator output has been cen tralized in a single control room. Here, central control room opera tors or power plant operators, by monitoring instrument panels and manipulating switches, reg ulate all the power generating New powerplant workers gen erally begin at the bottom of the ladder— usually on cleanup jobs. Such work gives beginners an opportunity to become familiar with the equipment and the op erations of a powerplant. They advance to the more responsible job of helper, as job openings occur. Formal apprenticeships in these jobs are rare. Applicants generally are required to have a high school education or its equivalent. Advancement on the job depends primarily on one’s ability to master the skills re quired. It takes from 1 to 3 years to become an auxiliary equipment operator and from 4 to 8 years to become a boiler operator, tur bine operator, or switchboard op erator. A person learning to be an auxiliary equipment operator pro gresses from helper to junior op erator to operator. A boiler opera- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 714 tor generally spends from 2 to 6 months as a laborer before being promoted to the job of helper. Depending on openings and the worker’s aptitude, the helper may advance to junior boiler operator and eventually to boiler operator, or transfer to the maintenance department and work his way up to boiler repairman. In most large cities, boiler operators, who op erate highpressure boilers, are re quired to be licensed. Powerplant workers employed in atomic-powered electric plants must have special training to work with fissionable, radioactive fuel, in addition to the knowledge and skills required for the generation of conventional steam generated electric power. Turbine operators are selected from among auxiliary equipment operators in many plants. The line of advancement in other plants is from laborer to turbine helper. The helper then may ad vance either to junior turbine op erator and eventually to turbine operator, or he may transfer to turbine repairman, depending on job openings and his aptitude. Turbine operators in most large cities are required to be licensed. Where a system has a number of generating plants of different size, operators first get experi ence in the smaller stations and then are promoted to jobs in the larger stations as vacancies occur. New workers in the switchboard operators section begin as helpers, advance to junior operators, and then to switchboard operators. They also may advance from jobs in small stations to those in larger stations where operating condi tions are much more complex. Some utility companies promote substation operators to switch board operating jobs. The duties of both classes of operators have much in common. Switchboard operators can advance to work in the load dispatcher’s office. Watch engineers are selected from among experienced powerplant operators. At least 5 to 10 years of experience as a firstclass operator usually are re quired to qualify for a watch en gineer’s job. Em ploym ent O utlook Operator checks control panel. The total number of jobs for powerplant operators is expected to show little change during the 1970’s, although the production of electrical energy will increase at a rapid rate. However, several hundred job openings for new workers will occur each year to replace operators who retire, die, or leave the industry for other work. The use of increasingly larger and more efficient equipment is expected to make possible great increases in capacity and produc- OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY tion with little increase in the number of powerplant operators. For example, one operator can control a large modem turbogen erator as readily as he can con trol a much smaller one. Also, the growing use of more automatic equipment reduces the number of operators needed, and makes it possible to direct all operating processes from a central control room. However, because of the expected increased demand for electric power, it will be necessary to build and operate many new generating stations. Generally, operating a nuclearpowered plant requires about the same number of employees as running a steam-generating plant using fossil fuels. Earnings and W orking Conditions The earnings of powerplant workers depend on the type of job, the section of the country in which they work, and many other factors. The following tabulation shows estimated average hourly earnings for selected powerplant occupations in privately operated utilities in November 1967: A v e ra g e hourly earnings Auxiliary equipment operator .. $3.40 Boiler operator.......................... 3.84 Control room operator ............ 4.19 Switchboard operator: Switchboard operator, Class A ............................ 4.08 Switchboard operator, Class B ............................ 3.74 Turbine operator...................... 3.96 Watch engineer ........................ 4.99 A powerplant is typically well lighted and ventilated, clean, and orderly, but there is some noise from the whirring turbines. Switchboard operators in the control room often sit at the panel boards, but boiler and turbine op erators are almost constantly on their feet. The work of power- plant operators generally is not physically strenuous, particularly in the newer powerplants. Since generating stations operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, pow erplant employees sometimes must work nights and weekends. TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OCCUPATIONS N ature of th e W ork One-fifth of the workers em ployed by electric light and power systems are in transmission and distribution jobs maintaining the flow of electric power to the users. The principal workers in trans mission and distribution jobs are those who control the flow of elec tricity— load dispatchers and sub station operators— and the men who construct and maintain pow erlines— linemen, cable splicers, troublemen, groundmen, and helpers. Linemen make up the largest single occupation in the industry. Load dispatchers (D.O.T. 950.168) (sometimes called system operators or power dispatchers) are the key operating workers of the transmission and distribution departments. They control the flow of electricity throughout the area served by the utility. The load dispatcher’s room is the nerve center of the entire utility system. From this location, he controls the plant equipment used to generate electricity and directs its flow throughout the system. He telephones his instruc tions to the switchboard operators at the generating plants and the substations. He tells the opera tors when additional boilers and generators are to be started or stopped in line with the total pow er needs of the system. 715 The load dispatcher must an ticipate demands for electric power so that the system will be prepared to meet them. Power de mands on utility systems may change from hour to hour. A sud den afternoon rainstorm can cause a million lights to be switch ed on in a matter of minutes. He also directs the handling of any emergency situation, such as a transformer or transmission line failure, and routes current around the affected area. Load dispatch ers also may be in charge of inter connections with other systems, and they direct the transfer of current between systems as the need arises. The load dispatcher’s source of information for the entire trans mission system centers in the pilot board. This pilot board, which dominates the load dis patcher’s room, is a complete mkp of the utility’s transmission sys tem. It enables the dispatcher to determine, at a glance, the con ditions that exist at any point in the system. Lights may show the positions of switches which con trol generating equipment and transmission circuits, as well as high voltage connections with substations and large industrial customers. The board also may have several recording instru ments which make a graphic rec ord of operations for future analy sis and study. Substation operators (D.O.T. 952.782) generally are in charge of a substation and are respon sible for its operation. Under orders from the load dispatcher, they direct the flow of current out of the station by means of a switchboard. Ammeters, voltmet ers, and other types of instru ments on the switchboard register the amount of electric power flowing through each line. The flow of electricity from the in coming to the outgoing lines is controlled by circuit breakers. 716 The substation operators connect or break the flow of current by manipulating levers on the switch board which control the circuit breakers. In some substations, where alternating current is changed to direct current to meet the needs of special users, the op erator controls converters which perform the change. In addition to switching duties, the substation operators check the operating condition of all equipment to make sure that it is in good working condition. They supervise the activities of the other substation employees on the same shift, assign them tasks, and direct their work. In smaller substations, the substation opera tor may be the only employee. Linemen (D.O.T. 821.381) con struct and maintain the network of powerlines which carry electric ity from generating plants to con sumers. Their work consists of in stallations, equipment replace ments, repairs, and routine main tenance work. Although in many companies the installation of new lines and equipment is important, in other companies this work is performed by outside contractors. When wires, cables, or poles break, it means an emergency call for a line crew. Linemen splice or replace broken wires and cables and replace broken insulators or other damaged equipment. Most linemen now work from “ bucket” trucks with pneumatic lifts that take them to the top of the pole or adjacent to the overhead con ductor at the touch of a lever. In some power companies, line men specialize in particular types of work. Those in one crew may work only on new construction, and others may do only repair work. In some instances, linemen specialize on high voltage lines using special “ hot line” tools to avoid interruptions in the flow of current. Troublemen (D.O.T. 821.281) OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK are experienced linemen who are assigned to special crews that handle emergency calls for serv ice. They move from one special job to another, as ordered by a central service office which re ceives reports of line trouble. Often troublemen receive their orders by direct radio communi cation with the central service office. These workers must have a thorough knowledge of the com pany’s transmission and distribu tion network. They first locate and report the source of trouble and then attempt to restore serv ice by making the necessary re pairs. Depending on the nature and extent of the trouble, a troubleman may restore service in the case of minor failure, or he may simply disconnect and remove damaged equipment. He must be familiar with all the circuits and switching points so that he can safely disconnect live circuits in case of line breakdowns. Groundmen (D.O.T. 821.887) dig poleholes and assist the line men and apprentices to erect the wooden poles which carry the dis tribution lines. The linemen bolt crossarms to the poles or towers and bolt or clamp insulators in place on the crossarms. With the assistance of the groundmen, they raise the wires and cables and in stall them on the poles or towers by attaching them to the insula tors. In addition, with assistance from groundmen, linemen attach a wide variety of equipment to the poles and towers, such as lightning arrestors, transformers, and switches. Cable splicers (D.O.T. 829.381) install and repair single- and multiple-conductor insulated ca bles on utility poles and towers, as well as those buried under ground or installed in under ground conduits. When cables are installed, the cable splicers pull the cable through the conduit Lineman works on transmission line. and then join the cables at con necting points in the transmission and distribution systems. At each connection in the cable, they wrap insulation around the wiring. They splice the conductors lead ing away from each junction of the main cable, insulate the splices, and connect the cable sheathing. Many cables have a lead sheath which requires mak ing a lead joint. Most of the phys ical work in placing new cables or replacing old cables is done by helpers. Cable splicers spend most of their time repairing and main taining the cables and changing the layout of the cable systems. They must know the arrangement of the wiring systems, where the circuits are connected, and where they lead to and come from. They make sure that the conductors do not become mixed up between the 717 OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY substation and the customer’s premises. The splicers connect the ends of the conductors to numbered terminals, making cer tain that they have the same iden tifying number at the remote panel box in an underground vault as they have in the control office. Cable splicers also make sure the insulation on the cables is in good condition. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Load dispatchers are selected from among the experienced switchboard operators and from operators of the larger substa tions. Usually, 7 to 10 years of experience as a senior switch board or substation operator are required for promotion to load dispatcher. To qualify for this job, an applicant must demon strate his knowledge of the entire utility system. Substation operators generally begin as assistant or junior oper ators. Advancement to the job of operator in a large substation requires from 3 to 7 years of onthe-job training. Skilled linemen (journeymen) usually qualify for these jobs after about 4 years of on-the-job train ing. In some companies, this train ing consists of a formal appren ticeship program. Under formal apprenticeship, there is a written agreement, usually worked out with a labor union, which covers the content of the training and the length of time the apprentice works in each stage of the train ing. The apprenticeship program combines on-the-job training and classroom instruction in blue print reading, elementary electri cal theory, electrical codes, and methods of transmitting electrical currents. The apprentice usually begins his training by helping the groundman to set poles in place and by passing tools and equip ment up to the lineman. After a training period of approximately 6 months, the apprentice begins to do simple linework on lines having low voltage. While per forming this work, he is under the immediate supervision of a jour neyman lineman or the line fore man. After about a year, he is assigned more difficult work but is still under close supervision. During the last 6 months of his apprenticeship, the trainee does about the same kind of work as the journeyman lineman but with more supervision. When he begins to work independently, he is first assigned simple, routine tasks. After he acquires several years of experience and demonstrates a thorough knowledge of the com pany’s transmission and distribu tion systems, he may advance from lineman to troubleman. The training of linemen who learn their skills on the job gengenerally is similar to the appren ticeship program; it usually takes about the same length of time but does not involve classroom instruction. The worker begins as a groundman and progresses through increasingly difficult stages of linework before becom ing a skilled lineman. Candidates for linework should be strong, in good physical con dition, and without fear of height. Climbing poles and lifting lines and equipment is strenuous work. They also must have steady nerves and good balance to work at the tops of the poles and to avoid the hazards of live wires and falls. Most cable splicers get their training on the job, usually tak ing about 4 years to become fully qualified. Workers begin as help ers and then are promoted to as sistant or junior splicers. In these jobs, they are assigned more dif ficult tasks as their knowledge of the work increases. E m ploym ent O utlook Several thousand job oppor tunities are expected to be avail able in transmission and distri bution occupations during the 1970’s. Most of these opportuni ties will occur because of the re placement of experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Some increase in the employ ment of transmission and distri bution workers is expected, al though employment trends will differ among the various occupa- OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 718 tions in this category. In spite of the need to construct and main tain a rapidly growing number of transmission and distribution lines, the number of linemen and troublemen is expected to in crease only slightly because of the use of more mechanized equip ment. Some increase in the num ber of cable splicers is expected because of the growing use of un derground lines in suburban areas. The need for substation operators will be reduced substan tially, since the introduction of improved and more automatic equipment makes it possible to operate most substations by re mote control. Earnings and W orking Conditions The earnings of transmission and distribution workers depend on the type of job they have, and the section of the country in which they work. The following tabulation shows the average hourly earnings for major trans mission and distribution occupa tions in privately operated utili ties in November 1967: Average hourly earnings Groundman ................................ $2.71 Lineman..................................... 4.09 Load dispatcher ........................ 4.90 Substation operator.................. 4.01 Troubleman................................ 4.20 Load dispatchers and substa tion operators generally work in doors in pleasant surroundings. Linemen, t r o u b l e m e n , and groundmen work outdoors and, in emergencies, in all kinds of weath er. Cable splicers do most of their work in manholes beneath city streets— often in cramped quar ters. Safety standards developed over the years by utility compan ies, with the cooperation of labor unions, have reduced greatly the accident hazards of these jobs. CUSTOMER SERVICE OCCUPATIONS N atu re of th e W ork Workers in customer service jobs include those who install, test, and repair meters, and those who read the meters. Also in this group are company agents in rural areas and appliance serv icemen working in company-oper ated shops which repair electrical equipment owned by customers. Metermen (D.O.T. 729.281) (or meter repairmen) are the most skilled workers in this group. They install, test, main tain, and repair meters on cus tomers’ premises, particularly those of large industrial and com mercial establishments. Some me termen can handle all types of meters, including the more com plicated ones used in industrial plants and other places where large quantities of electric power are used. Others specialize in re pairing the simpler kinds, like those in homes. Often, some of the large systems have meter spe cialists, such as meter installers (D.O.T. 821.381) and meter testers (D.O.T. 729.281). Meter installers put in and take out meters. Meter testers specialize in testing the small meters on homeowners’ property and some of the more complicated ones used by commercial and i n d u s t r i a l customers. Meter readers (D.O.T. 239.588) go to customers’ premises— homes, stores, and factories— to read the figures on the meters which register the amount of elec tric current used. They record the amount of current used in a spe cific period so that each customer can be charged for the amount he used. Meter readers also watch for, and report, any tampering with meters. District representatives usually serve as company agents in out lying districts, in localities where the utility company does not have an office, and where the small number of customers does not justify the use of more special ized workers. Their work includes reading meters, collecting over due bills, connecting and discon necting meters, and making minor repairs. They receive complaints about service and reports of line trouble and send them to a cen tral office for handling. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Metermen begin their jobs as helpers in the meter testing and meter repair departments. Young men entering this field should have a basic knowledge of elec tricity. About 4 years of on-thejob training are required to be come a fully qualified meterman. Some companies have formal ap prenticeship programs for this occupation in which the trainee progresses according to a specific plan. Utility companies usually em ploy inexperienced men to work as meter readers. They generally accompany the experienced meter reader on his rounds until they have learned the job well enough to go on the rounds alone. This job can be learned in a few weeks. The duties of district repre sentatives are learned on the job. An important qualification for men in these jobs is the ability to deal tactfully with the public in handling service complaints and collecting overdue bills. E m ploym ent O utlook Little change in employment in customer service occupations is expected through the 1970’s. The need for meter readers will be OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY limited because of the trend toward less frequent reading of meters. Moreover, automatic meter reading may become more common, and new meters will re quire less maintenance. However, some job openings for metermen and meter readers will occur each year to replace those workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. 719 type of job they have, and the section of the country in which they work. The following tabula tion shows the average hourly earnings for major customer serv ice jobs in privately operated utilities in November 1967: A v era g e hourly earnings Earnings and W orking Conditions District representative ............ $3.80 Meterman A .............................. 3.96 Meterman B .............................. 3.53 Appliance serviceman.............. 3.67 Meter reader.............................. 2.98 The earnings of customer serv ice workers vary according to the The job of the meter reader is not physically strenuous but in volves considerable walking and some stair climbing. Metermen and appliance servicemen work indoors under typical repair shop conditions except when repairing or installing meters or appliances on customers’ premises. M E R C H A N T M A R IN E O C C U P A T IO N S The American merchant ma rine is more than a vital link in the Nation’s transportation sys tem. It is our life-line in both peace and war and links us to every corner of the world. It trans ports America’s exports and in return, brings imports from the rest of the world. In time of con flict, it carries troops, arms, and supplies to combat areas. Seafar ing employment offers a wide variety of interesting and reward ing careers requiring diverse skills and levels of experience as well as an opportunity for travel and adventure. N atu re and Location of the Industry marily petroleum and petroleum products, almost exclusively in the domestic trade between Gulf Coast ports and Atlantic Coast ports. The more than 800 freight er vessels, on the other hand, are employed almost exclusively in the foreign trade of the United States. More than half of these vessels are employed in liner ser vice to carry relatively high val ued packaged cargoes on fixed schedules. Freighters are of vari ous types, such as general cargo vessels, bulk carriers, refrigerator ships, roll-on-roll-off container, trailer, and other special-purpose type ships. Places of Em ploym ent The United States Flag Mer % The U.S. Flag Merchant Fleet chant Fleet consists of ocean-go employed about 60,000 seamen ing vessels of 1,000 gross tons or in mid-1968, two-thirds of whom over which carry U.S. foreign and were on freighters. Many addi domestic water-borne commerce. tional men were employed during Approximately 1,100 vessels the year because many seamen were in the active U.S. ocean leave their ships at the termina going merchant fleet in mid- tion of a voyage; some take va 1968, of which about 2 out of cations which may average 100 every 3 were privately-owned. days or more each year; others Government-owned vessels are take temporary shoreside jobs or operated by the Navy’s Military are unavailable for sea duty be Sea Transportation S e r v i c e cause of illness or injury. (M ST S ) which has civilian sea Although there are about 70 faring personnel. Three broad ports in the United States, more categories of vessels constitute than half of the Nation’s shipping the merchant fleet: combination is carried on in 17 deep-sea ports passenger-cargo vessels, tankers, along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pa and freighters. Vessels in our cific Coasts. The Nation’s largest “ liner fleet” operate on regular port is New York. Other major schedules to specific ports. Atlantic ports are Philadelphia, “ Tramp” ships, on the other Baltimore, Norfolk, Boston, hand, sail for any port promising Charleston, Savannah, Tampa, profit. and Jacksonville. Gulf ports This country’s 26 combination handling substantial volumes of passenger vessels carry passen cargo include New Orleans, Hous gers, mail, and highly valued car ton, Galveston, Port Arthur, and go on a regularly scheduled basis. Lake Charles. Shipping on the Its approximately 270 tankers West Coast is concentrated in carry liquid bulk products, pri the areas of San Francisco Bay, Los Angeles, and Seattle and Portland. The size and composition of crews employed aboard merchant vessels depend on the size and type of vessel. Cargo vessels and tankers have crews varying from 36 to 65 men, passenger vessels such as the United States may have a crew of a 1,000 or more. The work performed aboard ship is divided among the deck, engine, and steward departments. The deck department is re sponsible for the navigation of the vessel, maintenance of the hull and deck equipment, and the loading, discharging, and storing of cargo. Personnel in the engine department operate and maintain the machinery that propels the vessel. The steward’s department feeds the crew and maintains liv ing and recreation areas. About one-fourth of the jobs in the merchant marine are filled by licensed personnel that include highly skilled licensed supervis ory and professional workers in the deck and engine departments. The remaining berths are filled by skilled and semiskilled per sonnel in the deck, engine, and steward’s departments. Training , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent No educational requirements are established for either licensed or unlicensed positions in the merchant marine industry. Like most jobs today, a good educa tion is a definite advantage. Training for licensed ratings is conducted at the United States Merchant Marine Academy, at five State merchant marine academies, and through programs operated by trade unions in the merchant marine industry. Un ions also conduct training pro grams to upgrade the ratings of unlicensed seamen and, to a lim ited degree, to train prospective seamen for entry ratings. 721 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 722 Ship officers are licensed. To obtain an officer’s license, candi dates must be United States citi zens, physically fit, and pass a comprehensive written examina tion by the U.S. Coast Guard. Unlicensed crewmen going to sea for the first time must obtain a merchant mariner’s document from the Coast Guard. T o obtain the document, applicants must present proof that they have job offers as members of a crew of a U.S. merchant vessel and pass a physical examination. Young persons considering the merchant marine as a career should give serious thought to the department (deck, engine, steward) in which they would like to work. Once a man starts up the ladder in one department he cannot switch without begin ning near the bottom again. Ad vancement to a higher rating de pends not only upon specified sea experience, leadership ability, and an opening, but also upon passing a Coast Guard examina tion. Examinations for officer positions require a much higher level of theoretical knowledge than certification in the unli censed ranks. Deck officers start as third mates, and after accumulating prescribed amounts of sea service, may advance to second mate, to first mate, and finally to master. An officer in the engine depart ment starts as a third assistant engineer and, in turn, may ad vance to second assistant engi neer, first assistant engineer, and finally to chief engineer. Unlicensed personnel also ad vance along well defined promo tional lines. In the deck depart ment, persons may advance from ordinary seamen to able seamen (A .B .). Some able seamen are upgraded to boatswains (fore men). In the engine department an unlicensed seaman usually ad vances from wiper to fireman/ watertender or to oiler. The next step is a highly skilled rating such as deck engine mechanic, re frigerator engineer, or electrician. In the steward’s department, a messman or utilityman advances to third cook, to cook/baker to chief cook, and finally to chief steward. More detailed information on training, other qualifications, and advancement appears in the statements on Licensed Merchant Marine Officers and Unlicensed Merchant Seamen. Em ploym ent O utlook Except during periods of war and national emergency, there has been a long-term decline in the number of men and vessels engaged in our merchant marine. Unless considerable reorientation takes place in our Nation’s mer chant marine policy, more of the same is expected during the dec ade ahead. Because of substantially higher shipbuilding and manning costs, our merchant fleet finds that competing in the intensive world wide shipping market is difficult. T o insure that our country has a merchant fleet operating in regu lar or essential trade routes, the Government subsidizes about 300 cargo and passenger vessels (about a third of the active fleet). Much of the fleet is com posed of slow, inefficient ships of World War II vintage that are sinking one by one into the sea of obsolescence. Whether it is prudent to let this trend continue is the sub ject of much discussion. The Gov ernment presently is formulating a new merchant marine policy that is expected to define the role that Federal assistance will play in the size of tomorrow’s fleet. The future of our merchant marine rests with this policy. Radical new concepts that could dramatically cut shipping costs on some items and improve our competitive position are pres ently in the testing stage. For ex ample, surface-effect ships that glide on or just above the water are capable of speeds 5 times those of most modern cargo ships. Greater application of nuclear power to merchant shipping is also on the horizon. But few of such radical innovations are like ly to have a substantial impres sion on seaborne trade in the next decade. Instead present trends toward greater mechaniza tion and automation will con tinue. Future ships will be larger and faster and will operate with fewer men. For example, a central console in the engineroom of the newest ships controls engines, boilers, and most auxiliary equipment. Data loggers auto matically print the performance of various parts of the systems such as temperatures and pres sures and automated boiler systems. The size of the deck crew is being reduced primarily in the area of maintenance by improve ments such as hydraulically oper ated hatch covers, inorganic zinc coatings that protect metals for years, and automatic tension mooring winches that assist in docking and undocking. Eventu ally a “ lookout” device is foreseen that not only will warn of a col lision but also will automatically adjust the course to avoid a crash. Improved efficiency on our newest ship already has cut 11 to 14 men from conventional manning requirements of about 55; still further reductions are likely. Widespread unemployment is not necessarily a corollary to these reductions in manpower needs. For one thing, the dozen or so seagoing unions are likely MERCHANT MARINE OCCUPATIONS 723 across departmental lines, union jurisdictions, and present work specialties. Some jobs will be en tirely new, and both officers and unlicensed workers will require a new inventory of skills to hold them. For example, experience gained by standing watch in an engineroom of a conventional vessel may be secondary com pared with basic courses in elec tronics. In anticipation of this trend, the U.S. Merchant Marine Acad emy now selects 10 percent of the approximately 300 men who enter the academy each year to be trained as “ omnicompetent” officers. They are taught both navigational and technical skills so they can work in either de partment. Earnings and W orking C onditions to resist substantial cuts in the size of crews. Further, many sea men began their careers when our fleet was built during World War II. This older work force, in con junction with liberalized pension provisions and normally high de parture rates for shore jobs, is expected to result in a large out flow of seamen from the indus try during the years ahead. For less skilled unlicensed po sitions, much of the attrition will be compensated for by declining manpower needs and upgrading among the abundance of men in the lower ratings. As more em phasis is placed on fewer but more highly trained men, there will be very little demand for unskilled men in the entry jobs. The employment outlook for officers is somewhat brighter. They are among the older work ers in the merchant marine, and replacements are restricted by the limited training facilities presently available. Even assum ing a smaller officer corps a dec ade from today, more than 1,000 employment opportunities are ex pected each year for academy graduates (who presently number about 600 a year) and those who work their way up through the ratings. Whether an officer’s best pros pects lie in the deck or the engi neering department is a question generating considerable heat among the unions representing these respective workers. It seems clear, however, that the present sharp craft line drawn between deck and engineering jobs will become blurred. The emphasis will be on job function; the new est automated equipment will cut Earnings aboard American flag deep-sea ships are the highest of any Nation in the world. In few other industries can an ambitious man who has a high school edu cation or less do so well finan cially. An unlicensed seaman who has advanced a rung or two in rating can receive base and over time earnings of nearly $700 a month, in addition to free food and lodging. Most officers earn over $1,000 a month. Wages vary not only according to the job but also by the size and type of vessel. They are high est on multiple-screw passenger vessels. An outstanding charac teristic of the maritime industry is that base wages represent only part of the seamen’s take-home pay. Additional payments for as suming extra work or responsi bility add as much as 50 percent to the base wages paid to licensed and unlicensed seamen. These ad ditional payments include over time pay, supplemental pay and so-called “ penalty” pay. 724 Liberal employer-financed pen sion and welfare plans are pro vided. Today seamen whose va cation benefits range from 60 to over 100 days’ vacation pay may retire at any age after 20 years of service, and receive pensions of $250 per month for unlicensed seamen and $325 per month for licensed seamen. All seamen and dependents are covered by com prehensive medical and welfare benefits. (See statements in Li censed Merchant Marine Officers and Unlicensed Merchant Sea men for more information on earnings). The workweek for persons em ployed aboard ship is consider ably different from the workweek for persons employed on the shore. At sea, the daily hours of licensed officers, able and ordi nary seamen, firemen/watertenders, oilers, or deck/engine me chanics usually employed as watchstanders consist of 3 watches during each 12 hours. Each watch is 4 hours long and each man stands 2 watches, 7 days a week. Overtime is paid for any work over 40 hours a week. When the ship is in port, the crew works a 40-hour week, Monday through Friday. Working and living conditions aboard ship have improved over the years. Mechanization has re duced work demands and newer vessels contain private rooms, airconditioning, television, and ex panded recreational facilities. However, life aboard ship is con fining. Although a seaman may visit many parts of the world, his shore time may be limited by the increasingly rapid “ turn-around” time of modern vessels. While at sea, crew members must be able to derive satisfac tion from simple pleasures, such as reading or a chair-side hobby. Since voyages last several weeks or months, seamen are away from home and families for substantial OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK periods of time. Some men tire of the lengthy separations and choose shoreside employment. Others become frustrated by pe riods of unemployment. Although union hiring rules recognize sen iority in hiring, a man who has long years of sea experience does not have the same degree of job security often associated with seniority in shore jobs. Although available jobs are usually first offered to workers in the highest seniority “ level,” employment within these levels is typically on a first-come, first-served basis; and when berths are scarce, the list of candidates may be long. The merchant marine has been called a feast or famine industry. During shipping emergencies such as the Vietnam conflict, hundreds of additional ships are put into service. When shipping demands recede, the industry fre quently has excess shipping ca pacity and men. This accounts in part for the large number of sea men whose connection with the industry is only casual. It also explains in part why the poten tial supply of qualified seamen almost always exceeds the num ber of jobs, and why a person considering a career at sea can never be sure of the number of men with whom he might be com peting in the future. The duties aboard ship are hazardous relative to other in dustries. At sea, there is always a possibility of injuries from falls or the danger of fire, collision, or sinking. In the past, sudden ill ness at sea could be extremely hazardous, but emergency air service available today reduces the danger. Despite these draw backs, for many men, the spirit and adventure of the sea; good wages and living conditions; and liberal vacation, pension, and welfare protection, more than compensate for the disadvantages of the work. Sources of A dditional In fo rm atio n General information about jobs in the merchant marine may be obtained from: Office of Maritime Manpower, Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. 20235. Information about job open ings, qualifications for employ ment, wage scales and other par ticulars can be obtained from lo cal maritime unions. If no sea faring union is listed in a local telephone directory, information may be obtained from the follow ing: International Organization of Masters, Mates and Pilots, 39 Broadway, New York, New York 10006. National Marine Engineers’ Bene ficial Association, 17 Battery Place, New York, New York 10004. National Maritime Union of America, 36 Seventh Avenue, New York, New York 10011. LICENSED MERCHANT MARINE OFFICERS N atu re of th e W ork The Coast Guard licenses ship’s professional and supervis ory personnel consisting of deck, engine, and radio officers. In command of every ocean-going vessel is the captain (D.O.T. 197.168) or master who is the ship owner’s sole representative. He is responsible and has complete au thority for the operation of the ship including discipline and order, and the safety of the crew, passengers, cargo, and vessel. While in port, the captain may function as the agent for the ship owners by conferring with custom officials. In some cases, he may MERCHANT MARINE OCCUPATIONS act as paymaster for the ship. Al though not technically a member of a specific department, he gen erally is associated with the deck department, from whose ranks he was promoted. Deck Department. Acting un der supervision of the master, li censed deck officers or “ mates” as they are traditionally called, direct the navigation and piloting of the ship and the maintenance of the deck and hull. While at sea, deck officers stand watch, take navigational observations, and supervise emergency drills. From his position on the bridge, the watchstanding deck officer is re sponsible for the ship’s naviga tion. American vessels contain the most modern navigational de vices, such as gyrocompass, radar, sonar, Fathometer, Loran, and radio directional finders. Deck officers must be familiar with these and other instruments as part of their duties in the safe and efficient operation and navi gation of the ship. While on duty, the deck officer maintains the authorized speed and course; plots the vessel’s po sition at frequent intervals; posts lookouts when required; records his watch in the ship’s “ log” of the voyage; and immediately no tifies the master of any unusual occurrences. Besides acting as watch officer, each deck officer performs other duties. The chief mate (D.O.T. 197.133), or first mate or chief officer, as he is also known, acts as the captain’s key assistant in assigning duties to the unlicensed deck crew, maintaining order and discipline, and by seeing that the deck crew, maintaining order and and orderly. He also plans and carries out the loading, unload ing, and stowing of cargo, and assists the captain in taking the ship in and out of port. On some ships he also may be in charge of first aid treatment. Chief mate directs speed and course of cargo ship from bridge. By tradition, the second mate (D.O.T. 197.133) is the navigat ing officer. He sees that the ship is provided with the necessary navigation charts and that navi gating equipment is maintained properly. The third mate (D.O.T. 197.133), the most junior-rated deck officer, is responsible for the care and the maintenance of the navi gating bridge and the chartroom. He functions as the signal officer and is in charge of all signaling equipment and assists in the su pervision of cargo loading and unloading operations. Third mates frequently inspect life boats and other lifesaving equip 725 ment to be sure they are ready to use for a fire, shipwreck, or other emergency. Engine Department. A ship is equivalent to a self-contained sea going city, because it manufac tures its own lights, water, and power. Marine engineers operate and maintain all engines and ma chinery aboard the ship. The chief engineer (D.O.T. 197.130) who supervises the engine department, is responsible for the operating efficiency of engines and for all other mechanical equipment. He oversees the operation of the main power plant and auxiliary equip ment while the vessel is under way and is responsible for the log of equipment performance and fuel consumption. The first assistant engineer (D.O.T. 197.130), supervises en gine room personnel and directs operations such as starting, stop ping, and controlling the speed of the main engines. He oversees and inspects the lubrication of engines, pumps, electric motors and generators, and other ma chinery; directs the installation of steam and water pipes and elec tric wiring; and with the aid of the chief engineer directs all types of repairs. As with the deck department, the engineroom is operated on a 24-hour basis and officers are as signed watch periods. The chief engineer and/or first assistant engineer appoints the second as sistant engineer and two of the third assistant engineers to a watch period during which they are responsible for the operation of the ship’s propulsion plant and auxiliary machinery and the su pervision of unlicensed engine de partment personnel. Marine engi neers on watch must notify the chief engineer of any unusual occurrence and keep a record of equipment performance. Each member of the licensed engineering staff performs spe- 726 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK the extensive paperwork required to enter and clear a vessel in each port, prepare payrolls, and assist passengers as required. In recent years, the Staff Officers Association has established a program designed to train pursers to act also as Pharmacist Mates. This instruction would improve the medical care aboard all dry cargo and tankers and facilitate the obtaining of Public Health clearance when a vessel arrives in port. All passenger vessels must carry licensed doctors and nurses. Places of E m ploym ent About 15,000 officers were em ployed aboard U.S. Flag ocean going vessels during mid-1968. l i censed deck officers and engineer ing officers each account for about two-fifths of total employment. The remaining one-fifth is made up of radio and staff officers. Marine engineer controls running speed of main engine. cific duties. The second assistant engineer (D.O.T. 197.130) has direct charge of the boiler and associated equipment, such as the water-feed system, pumps, and fuel oil heater system. He is re sponsible for the maintenance of proper steam pressure and oil and water temperatures. He super vises the cleaning of the boilers and is usually responsible for their operation and the operation of the steam generator. The third assistant engineer (D.O.T. 197.130) supervises the operation and maintenance of the lubrication system and engineroom auxiliaries. At least one third assistant engineer is em ployed as a day man (nonwatchstander) and is responsible for the electrical and/or refrigeration systems aboard ship. Other officers. A ship main tains contact with shore and other vessels through its radio officer (D.O.T. 193.282), who is also responsible for maintaining this equipment. A passenger ship carries three to six operators; the average cargo vessel employs one. He sends and receives messages by voice or Morse code. He peri odically receives and records time signals, weather reports, position reports, and other navigation and technical data. The radio opera tor may also maintain depth re cording equipment and electron ic navigation machinery. Some cargo and tanker vessels and all passenger vessels carry pursers (D.O.T. 197.168). The purser or staff officer performs T rain in g , O th er Q ualificatio ns, and A dvancem ent Persons applying for the first time for an officer’s license in the deck and engineering depart ments of oceangoing vessels must meet certain major legal require ments. Masters, chief and second mates, chief and first assistant engineers are required to be at least 21 years of age. The mini mum age for third mates, third assistant engineers, and radio op erators is 19. In addition, appli cants must present documentary proof of United States citizenship and obtain a U.S. Public Health Service certificate attesting to their vision, color perception, and general physical condition. In addition to legal and medi cal requirements, candidates for deck officer rating must pass Coast Guard examinations that MERCHANT MARINE OCCUPATIONS require extensive knowledge of seamanship, navigation, cargo handling, and the operations of the deck department in all its phases. Marine engineering offi cer candidates must demonstrate in-depth knowledge of propulsion systems, electricity, plumbing and steam fitting, metal shaping and assembly, and ship structure. T o progress to a higher rating, officers are required to complete successfully their examinations. For a Coast Guard license as a radio officer, applicants must have a first or second-class radio telegraph operator’s license is sued by the Federal Communi cations Commission. For a license to serve as the sole radio op erator aboard a cargo vessel, the Coast Guard also requires 6 months of radio experience at sea. Unlike most professions, no educational requirements have been established to become a merchant marine officer. Anyone who has served for 3 years in the deck or engine department may apply for either a third mate’s license or for a third assistant engineer’s license. However, the complex machinery, navigational, and electronic equipment on modem vessels require that offi cers have extensive technical knowledge. T o pass the Coast Guard’s ex amination for an officers’ license generally requires formal train ing. The fastest and surest way to become a well-trained officer is through an established officer training program. Such training programs are available at the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy at Kings Point, New York and at five State merchant marine aca demies: California Maritime Aca demy, Vallejo, Calif.; Maine M aritim e A cadem y, Castine, Maine; Massachusetts Maritime Academy, Hyannis, Mass.; Texas Maritime Academy, Galveston, Tex.; and New York Maritime College, Fort Schuyler, New York, N.Y. Approximately 600 students graduate each year from the six schools; about one-half are trained as deck officers and one-half as marine engineers. Entrance re quirements for each of the acad emies are very high. Admission to the Federal academy is through nomination by a member of Con gress, whereas entrance to the other academies is made through written application directly to the school. Each of the academies offers 3- or 4-year courses in nautical science or marine engineering, as well as practical experience at sea. Subjects include navigation, mathematics, electronics, sea manship, propulsion systems, electrical engineering, languages, history, and shipping manage ment. Each student receives a subsistence allowance and a bachelor of science degree upon graduation. After Coast Guard examinations are passed, licenses are issued for either third mate or third assistant engineer. In addition, graduates may receive commissions as ensigns in the U.S. Naval Reserve. Because of their thorough grounding in theory and its prac tical application, academy gradu ates are in the best position to move up to master and chief en gineer ratings. Their well-round ed education also qualifies them for shoreside jobs such as marine superintendent, operating man ager, or shipping executive. A number of trade unions in the maritime industry provide of ficer training. These unions in clude the International Organi zation of Masters, Mates and Pi lots; the Seafarers’ International Union; the Brotherhood of Ma rine Officers, and the National Marine Engineers’ Beneficial As sociation. Most union programs are designed to upgrade unli 727 censed seamen to the licensed ratings although some programs accept inexperienced young men. For example, the National Ma rine Engineers’ Beneficial Asso ciation (M EBA) District 1-Pa cific Coast District operates the Calhoon M EBA Engineering School in Baltimore, Maryland, which offers high school gradu ates a 2-year apprenticeship training program in preparation for a third assistant engineer’s license. The program consists of both classroom instruction and sea experience and provides free room, board, medical care, and text books in addition to a monthly grant. Trainees must agree to serve at least three years in the U.S. Merchant Marine after the 2-year training period. Advancement for deck and en gine officers is along well-defined lines and depends primarily upon specified sea experience, passing a Coast Guard examination, and leadership ability. Deck officers start as third mates. After 1 year’s service they are eligible to take a second mate examination. To rise to chief mate, a candi date must have served as second mate at least 1 year or 2 years as a watch officer while holding a license as a second mate. The chief mate may apply for mas ter’s license after 1 year of serv ice, or after 2 years of service as second mate while holding a chief mate’s license. An officer in the engine department starts as third assistant engineer. After 1 year of service, he may apply for a second assistant’s license. After further experience, he may apply for first assistant’s license and finally a chief engineer’s license. Em ploym ent O utlook Employment of ship officers is expected to decline moderately during the 1970’s. However, be- 728 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Licensed officers and their de pendents enjoy substantial bene fits from noncontributory pen sion and welfare plans. For ex ample, licensed deck officers are eligible for a monthly pension of $325 after 20 years of serv ice, and up to one-half their monthly rate after 25 years of service. Partial pensions are pro vided for those men forced to retire prematurely due to a per manent disability. Comprehen sive medical care and hospitaliza tion are provided licensed officers and their families through union programs. While at sea, officers stand two watches each day. In port, the normal workday is from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m., Monday through Friday. Aboard the ship, each officer has a private room with Earnings and W orking Conditions hot and cold running water. He dines with fellow officers in a The level of wages paid to of dining salon separate from the ficers depends upon rank and the messhall in which unlicensed size and type of vessel. Wages crewmen eat. A bedroom steward are highest on multiple-screw cleans his room each morning. passenger vessels. The accom A number of labor organiza panying tabulation shows month tions represent merchant marine ly base wages for officers aboard officers. The two largest are the an average freighter. Additional International Organization of payments for overtime, supple Masters, Mates and Pilots repre mental pay and “ penalty pay” senting deck officers and the Na generally average about 50 per tional Marine Engineers’ Bene cent of base pay. A monthly sum ficial Association representing en in lieu of overtime is paid to gineering officers. Licensed un master, chief mate, chief engineer ions for Officers may require initi and first and third assistant en ation fees as high as $1,000. gineers who do not stand watch. The Brotherhood of Marine In 1968, this was equal to $218.40 Officers represents licensed deck per month. and engine personnel on about 70 vessels. The Staff Officers Asso Base p a y 1 ciation represents pursers on all Master......................................... $1,821 Atlantic and Gulf Coast passen First mate................................... 1,102 ger vessels and certain freight Second mate .............................. 780 Third mate.................................. 720 ships. Radio officers are repre Radio officer .............................. 884 sented by the American Radio 656 Purser ......................................... 2 Association and the Radio Offi Chief engineer............................ 1,696 cers Union. In addition, a num First assistant engineer............ 1,102 Second assistantengineer.................... 780 ber of independent unions repre Third assistant engineer..................... 720 sent licensed and/or unlicensed 'East Coast wages in August 1968 aboard a personnel on tanker vessels. 12,000-17,000 power ton single screw ship. (See introductory statement “Purser/pharmacist mate, $806. cause pensions are improved and the average age of officers is high, a few thousand replacements will be needed each year. Other offi cers are expected to quit the sea for shore-side employment. The primary factors responsible for the expected decline are the con tinued decline in the absolute size of the fleet and the smaller crew sizes required because of mechanization. The level of em ployment of licensed officers in the industry in the final analysis will depend upon government policy with respect to a vessel replacement program and its de termination of the level of U.S. flag participation in the U.S. wa ter-borne foreign commerce. on Merchant Marine Occupations for additional information on earnings and working conditions and for sources of additional in formation.) UNLICENSED MERCHANT SEAMEN N atu re of th e W ork Unlicensed seamen make up most of a ship’s crew and per form most of the manual labor aboard ship. Employment is along craft lines with varying de grees of skill levels and includes the following departments: Deck, engine, and steward’s depart ment. DECK DEPARTMENT. Or dinary Seamen (D.O.T. 911.887), the entry rating in the deck department, perform general deck maintenance work such as scrubbing decks, coiling and splicing ropes, chipping rust, and painting. Aboard ship, they may perform other types of general maintenance work including the cleaning of the quarters of the unlicensed personnel of the deck department. Ordinary seamen also may “ spell” (relieve) the helmsman and lookout. All dry cargo and tanker vessels employ three ordinary seamen; each man is assigned a watch at sea. Able Seamen (D.O.T. 911.884) or A.B.’s constitute about onefifth of the unlicensed crew. All dry cargo and tanker vessels have aboard six A.B.’s, two of whom are assigned to each watch. These skilled workers must have a thorough knowledge of all parts of the vessel and be able to han dle all gear and deck equipment. They act as helmsmen or quarter masters to steer the ship. Usu ally, A.B.’s each take 2 hours turns at the wheel, and as look outs report sightings to the watch 729 MERCHANT MARINE OCCUPATIONS methods of fire prevention and control. They participate in peri odic boat drills and are trained in all operations connected with launching lifeboats and life rafts, and handling of the boats and commanding boat crews. The boatswain (D.O.T. 911.131), or bosun, is a day worker (nonwatchstander) and the high est ranking able seaman. As fore man in charge of the deck crew he relays the deck officers’ orders and sees that such orders are executed. The boatswain assists the chief mate in assigning work for crew members not on watch duty and directs general mainte nance operations such as clean ing decks, polishing metalwork, and maintaining lifeboats. When the ship docks or anchors, he supervises the deck crew in han dling the lines used for mooring. Most cargo vessels carry one to three deck utility men (D.O.T. 911.884), day workers who main tain the deck department under the direct supervision of the boatswain. Deck utilitymen must be able seamen in qualifications and Coast Guard endorsement so that in emergencies they may stand A.B.’s watch. Their work includes determining the con dition of bilges (compartments in the bottom of the hull), over haul of blocks, and general main tenance work. Some vessels carry a ship’s (D.O.T. 860.281) whose duties include securing cargo hatches and ports, bracing (shoring) cargo, and maintain ing water-tight integrity of the ship. He may operate winches that hoist and drop the anchor and seal the hawsepipes (steel pipes through which anchor chains pass) when anchor and chains are not in use. Because of mechanization, newer vessels are sailing with fewer carpenters and deck utilitymen. carpenter Seamen secure anchor chain for sea voyage. officer. Able seamen on passenger ships perform many of the same functions as able seamen on cargo vessels. Able seamen are also respon sible for rigging, overhauling, and stowing cargo-handling and other gear. They must be able to tie common knots and handle moor ing lines when the ship is dock ing or departing. In addition to their more skilled tasks, A.B.’s perform general deck mainte nance work similar to that per formed by ordinary seamen. Because of the ever-present danger of fire at sea, able seamen must be familiar with approved OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 730 ENGINE DEPARTMENT. The unlicensed engineering staff consists of a variety of occupa tional specialties requiring vary ing degrees of skill from the en try rating of wiper to specialized skilled jobs such as reefer en gineer. Wipers (D.O.T. 699.887), are day workers and are respon sible for keeping the engine room and machinery clean. Most cargo vessels carry two or three wipers. Oilers (D.O.T. 911.884) lubricate moving parts or wearing surfaces of mechanical equipment. They make regular rounds of ship ma chinery to check oil pressures and flow. They inspect the ma chinery for overheating, fuel sup ply, and apply proper grades of grease or oil to all ship machin ery. Oilers may help the engineer in charge to overhaul and repair main and auxiliary engines. Fire men/watertenders (D.O.T. 951.885) check and regulate the amount of water in the boilers; inspect gauges; regulate fuel oil gauges to keep steam pressure constant; and change and clean burner nozzles. They also check the operation of evaporators and condensers and test water for salt control, check fuel boilers; clean oil burning equipment; re move, clean, and replace burners; and clean strainers used to filter dirt from oil before use in the burners. The ship’s electrician (D.O.T. 825.281) takes orders from the chief engineer. He keeps the electrical equipment in good re pair. He tests electrical equip ment; repairs defective electrical systems; oils and greases winches; and changes oil in casings. Many vessels carry a second electrician to maintain and repair electrical equipment and machinery. All automated vessels carry deck-engine mechanics of whom one usually is classified as a day worker and three, as watchstanders. These jobs combine the work of the unlicensed junior engineers and electricians and require higher skills than the oilers and firemen-watertenders on conventional vessels whom they replace. Certain types of ships require special skills, such as reefer engineers (D.O.T. 950.782) who operate refrigerator compartments for perishable car goes such as meat and vegetables. S T E W A R D ’ S DEPART MENT. The steward’s depart ment does not include licensed officers. However, its members vary from stewards to unskilled utility men. The chief steward (D.O.T. 350.138) supervises the operation and maintenance of the living quarters of officers, crew, and passengers. He directs and supervises all the department’s personnel, orders and purchases food supplies, inspects and stores supplies, and supervises the prep aration and serving of meals and the care and upkeep of living quarters. The chief cook (D.O.T. 315.131) and assistant cooks pre pare the meals aboard ship. The chief cook helps the steward plan and prepare the meals and draw pantry supplies from the store room. He also supervises the other galley (ship’s kitchen) workers and is responsible for keeping the galley clean and orderly. The cook/baker (D.O.T. 315.381) assists the chief cook and also acts as the ship’s baker. Utility men (D.O.T. 318.887) and messmen (D.O.T. 350.878 com plete the crew in the steward’s department. These beginning jobs require little skill. General ly, utility men carry food sup plies from the storeroom and ice boxes; prepare vegetables; wash cooking utensils and scour galley equipment; whereas messmen set tables, serve meals, clean off ta bles, wash dishes, and care for living quarters. Places of Em ploym ent Unlicensed seamen employed aboard U.S. oceangoing vessels numbered about 45,000 in mid1968. About 2 out of every 3 were aboard dry cargo ves sels. Skilled deck and engine sea men made up about one-half of the unlicensed work force and skilled personnel in the steward’s department, one-sixth. The stew ard’s department employs the greatest concentration of un skilled workers, about one-fifth of unlicensed seamen. T rain in g , O ther Q ualifications, and A dvancem ent Although not required, previ ous sea experience in the Coast Guard or Navy is a good back ground to enter the merchant marine. Applicants for work must possess health certificates. In ad dition, every person going to sea for the first time in a job or “ rating” that does not require a license must obtain seaman’s papers from the United States Coast Guard. Seaman’s papers do not guarantee a job. They merely qualify a person to be considered for a job when the supply of regular workers and newcomers registering earlier has been exhausted. To get a job, a man must be present at the hir ing hall when the opening be comes available. In good shipping times an opening may come with in a few days, or a month or more; in less prosperous times, a berth may never appear. An inexperienced man usually gets a job on a ship by applying for work at a central hiring hall in one of the chief ports of the country. These hiring halls are operated by unions for commer cial vessels and by the Navy’s Military Sea Transportation Serv ice MSTS for government oper- 731 MERCHANT MARINE OCCUPATIONS ated ships. In most ports along the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts and Great Lakes, the National Mari time Union or Seafarers’ Interna tional Union operate hiring halls. The Sailors Union of the Pacific operates hiring halls in many ports of the West Coast. MSTS employment offices are located at Brooklyn, N .Y.; New Orleans, La.; and Oakland, Calif. The job seeker is given a ship ping card when he registers at the hiring hall. The shipping companies send job orders to the hiring hall and the applicant un employed the longest is entitled to the first preference on a job for which he is qualified. The applicant must be present at the hall when the job is announced and he may lose his place if he is not present or has turned down three job offers. Upon accepting a job, the applicant presents an assignment slip to the shipping company. A seaman advances in the deck and engine departments by serv ing a designated period in a rat ing and by successfully complet ing a Coast Guard examination which tests the seaman’s ability to use and maintain the equip ment in his department. Forexample, after serving a minimum of one year, the ordinary seaman may apply to the Coast Guard for a limited endorsement to his mer chant mariner’s document as able seamen. For full endorsement for a Coast Guard A.B. ticket, the seaman. For full endorsement for T o obtain the endorsement, the applicant must be 19 years of age and pass an examination de signed to test his knowledge of seamanship and ability to carry out all the duties required of an able seaman. Upon obtaining an A.B. ticket, a seaman may serve in any unlicensed rating in the deck department. Unlicensed seamen who have the ability to supervise may advance to boat swain after years of sea service. Advancement to higher positions in the steward’s department is by recommendation of the chief steward to the master. Most training programs in the industry assist workers already in the industry to upgrade their ratings. However, the Seafarers’ International Union of North America operates the Harry Lundeberg School for seamanship at Piney Point, Md. that accepts and trains in general seaman ship skills a limited number of young men who have no pre vious sea experience. Upgrading courses for seamen are offered by the Seafarers’ Union; the National Maritime Union of America, and a number of other organizations. Marine Occupations for addition al information on technological changes.) Earnings and W orking Conditions Crew members of American merchant ships enjoy excellent pay, subsistence, and working conditions. Most jobs provide 60 days paid vacation each year, some even longer. Earnings of unlicensed seamen depend on their job assignments and the type of vessel on which they are employed. Basic monthly pay for a cross section of unlicensed rat ings on a typical freighter is il lustrated in the accompanying tabulation: Base Pay1 Em ploym ent O utlook Workers seeking employment as unlicensed seamen will face keen competition during the 1970’s as the total number of ships decline and m a n n i n g crews are reduced. The total number of seamen is expected to decline moderately. Demand for men in entry ratings will be especially limited. However, some berths will be available each year as seamen die, retire, or quit the sea for other reasons. Many of the merchant vessels now operating in the U.S. fleet are of World War II vintage and are approaching obsolescense. Re placements for these vessels and ships being refitted are equipped with mechanized features which limit the manpower requirements for unlicensed personnel, particu larly in the unskilled ranks. (See employment outlook section of introductory section Merchant Able seaman .......................... Ordinary seaman .................. Deck utilityman...................... Carpenter ................................ Electrician .............................. Oiler......................................... Fireman/watertender ........... Wiper ..................................... Chief steward.......................... Cook/baker.............................. Messman/utilityman ............ $444 346 496 536 686 444 444 412 583 505 344 1East Coast wages in August 1968 aboard a 12,000-17,000 power ton single screw ship. Monthly earnings are supple mented by premium pay for over time and other factors. On the average, premium earnings are equal to about 50 percent of base wages. For example, an oiler with a monthly base pay of $444 may regularly earn about $665 each month. Working conditions for seamen aboard U.S. merchant vessels are generally good, but not luxurious. Meals are served in a mess hall, which often doubles as a recre ation room where the crew can read, write letters, play cards, and socialize. Crewmen generally share quarters with other men and have little privacy. Unlicensed seamen are repre- 732 sented by a number of labor organizations; the two largest are the National Maritime Union of America and the Seafarers’ In OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ternational Union of North America. (See introduction statement on Merchant Marine Occupations for additional information on earnings and working conditions and for sources of additional in formation). R A D IO A N D T E L E V IS IO N B R O A D C A S T IN G O C C U P A T IO N S The glamor and excitement as sociated with radio and television make careers in broadcasting at tractive to many young people. The electronic technology in volved in transmitting programs and the business aspects of op erating a broadcasting station or network also are attractions. In 1968, about 105,000 full-time and 25,000 part-time staff were em ployed in commercial broadcast ing; altogether, over 55 percent were employed in radio. Staff employees work for a broad casting station or network on a regularly scheduled and con tinuous basis. In addition to staff employees, several thousand free lance performers, such as actors, musicians, dancers, comedians, and top-level announcers work on specific assignments from sta tions, networks, and other pro gram producers. (Several thou sand other employees work for independent program producers in activities closely related to broadcasting, such as the prepara tion of filmed and taped programs and commercials for broadcast ing.) Women make up almost a fourth of broadcasting staff em ployment. They frequently work as production assistants, produc ers, newswriters, continuity writ ers, casting directors, costume or set designers, and supervisors of religious and children’s programs. They also work in the many of fice occupations often filled by women. A job as secretary is fre quently a good entry job for women interested in the program ing and administrative areas of broadcasting. Broadcasting stations offer a variety of interesting jobs in all parts of the country. Opportuni ties for entry jobs are best at sta tions in small communities. Gen erally, the most specialized and best paying jobs are in large cit ies, especially those with national network stations. Neverthless, the talented individual will have many opportunities to advance to good paying jobs in stations located in smaller communities. N ature and Location of the Industry In early 1969, about 6,200 com mercial radio stations were in op eration in the United States. Of these, approximately 4,200 were AM stations; and approximately 2,000 were FM stations. During this same period, about 678 commercial television sta tions were in operation. Of these, about 3 out of every 4 were VHF stations. UHF stations generally employ fewer workers than VHF stations. Most commercial radio broad casting stations are small, inde pendent businesses. In early 1968, the average AM and AMFM radio station had about 11 full-time employees and 4 parttime workers. Television stations were generally larger, and on the average, they employed about 50 full-time and 8 part-time em ployees. Commercial radio stations are served by four nationwide net works and a large number of re gional networks. Stations can af filiate with networks by agreeing to broadcast their programs on a regular basis. National radio net works have affiliated stations in almost every large metropolitan area, although only a minority of all radio stations are affiliated with national networks. Regional radio networks have fewer affili ated stations, and their activities usually consist of arranging for the sale of advertising time, and interconnecting member stations for special events such as base ball and football games. Regional networks have few full-time em ployees because their programing is conducted by staff employees of the affiliated stations. The four national radio n e t w o r k s , to gether employed over 2,500 workers in early 1968. Most television stations depend on one or more of the three na tional television networks for pro grams that would be too expen sive for individual stations to originate— for example, sports events such as world series base ball games or international Olym pic contests; broadcasts of op eras, plays, and musicals; and newscasts of national and inter national significance. These net works, in turn, can offer national coverage to advertisers. Since some small cities have only one or two television stations, these stations often carry the programs of two or three networks to offer their viewers a wider variety of programs. A typical network tele vision show may be carried by up to 200 stations across the coun try. In early 1968, the three na tional television networks em ployed over 15,000 workers, or 3 of every 10 staff employees in television. One-third of all radio stations are located in communities which have a population of less than 10,000, and most of these are in one-station communities. Gener ally, television stations are lo cated in communities of more than 25,000 population. About three-fourths of all television sta tions are in communities of 100.000 or more. In contrast, over 60 percent of all radio stations are in communities of less than 100.000 population. Practically all large broadcasting stations are located in metropolitan areas, but small stations are found in big cit733 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 734 ies as well as small communities. About one out of four broadcast ing jobs are in New York and Cali fornia because New York City and Los Angeles are the two ma jor centers for origination of net work programs. In addition, one out of three broadcasting jobs are in Texas, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Florida, North Carolina, Michigan, Tennessee, Georgia, and Virginia. The balance of broadcasting jobs are distributed throughout the other states. In addition to commercial broadcasting stations, there were over 350 noncommercial radio stations (mainly F M ), and ap proximately 180 noncommercial television stations, both VHF and UHF, in early 1969. These stations are operated by non profit organizations, principally educational agencies such as State commissions; local boards of education; colleges and uni versities; and special community educational television organiza tions. Relatively few full-time staff members were employed in educational radio and television stations; instructors and students often help to operate many of these stations, especially those located on college campuses. B roadcasting O ccupations Employees of broadcasting sta tions generally specialize in 1 of 4 major areas of work. Those concerned with programing pre pare and produce programs; engi neering workers operate and maintain the equipment that con verts sounds and pictures into electronic impulses that can be picked up on home receivers; sales workers sell time to adver tisers and develop publicity and promotional material for the sta tion. The remaining employees handle general business matters, such as accounting, payroll, pub lic relations, personnel adminis tration, and the clerical work related to all the station’s ac tivities. Nearly half of all staff em ployees in broadcasting hold pro fessional and technical jobs such as staff announcer, newsman, continuity writer, or broadcast technician. About one-fourth hold managerial or proprietary jobs such as producer, manager, or director. Clerical workers ac counted for about 1 of every 7 workers, and sales workers for only slightly more than 1 of every 20 jobs in broadcasting. Of the remaining workers in broadcast ing, skilled mechanics, such as radio and television repairmen, and skilled maintenance person nel, such as carpenters and elec tricians, were the largest groups of workers employed. Job duties vary greatly be tween small and large stations. In small radio stations, a large pro portion of broadcast time con sists of recorded music and weather and news announce ments. As a result, small stations employ only a few workers, each of whom performs a variety of tasks. The station manager, who frequently is also the owner, may act as business and sales man ager, or perhaps as program di rector, announcer, and copywrit er. Announcers in small stations may do their own writing, often operate the studio control board, and may even act as salesmen. The engineering staff may con sist of only one full-time broad cast technician assisted by work ers from the other departments. Small low-powered stations, which do not use a directional antenna, may employ a chief engineer part-time and share his services with similar stations in the com munity. In large radio and tele vision stations, jobs are more specialized and usually are con fined to 1 of the 4 departments. The kinds of jobs found in each of these departments are de scribed below. Programing Department. The programing department plans, prepares, and produces radio and television programs. Staff em ployees plan the station’s pro graming, produce the daily and
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