The full text on this page is automatically extracted from the file linked above and may contain errors and inconsistencies.
OCCUPATIONS IN THE APPAREL INDUSTRY For example, those making women’s suits, coats, and skirts averaged $83.15 a week in early 1967, whereas those producing men’s work clothing averaged $57.44 a week. Earnings of apparel workers also vary by occu pation and geographical area. For example, average hourly earnings of cutters and pressers in almost all Women’s and misses’ dresses areas are higher than those of sewing machine operators; and average hourly earnings generally are lower in the South than in the Middle Atlantic States. The following tabu lation gives estimated average hourly earnings for selected occupations and geographical areas in one segment of the apparel industry in March 1966: Estimated average hourly earnings Wilkes- Los AnBarre- geles-Long New York Hazleton Beach City All production workers........................................................ $1.89 Cutters and markers (almost all men)....................................... 2. 79 Pressers, hand (women).................................................................. 2. 61 Pressers, hand (men)....................................................................... 3. 17 Sewers, hand (almost all womfcn)................................................ 1.67 Sewing machine operators, section system (almost all women)............. 1.92 Sewing machine operators, single hand (tailor) system (al most all women)............................................................................................. Because most production workers in this industry are paid on the basis of the number of pieces they produce, their total earnings depend upon speed as well as skill. Sewing machine operators, hand sewers, and pressers generally are paid on a piecework basis. Cutters are paid either piece work rates or hourly wages, depend ing upon the practice in the area or shop in which they work. Most of the other workers, including tailors, pat ternmakers, graders, inspectors, and work distributors, are paid by the hour or week. In most metropolitan areas, the bulk of apparel employees work in shops that have union contracts. New employees in plants which have these agreements are required to join the union after 30 days of employment. These agreements deal with such sub jects as wages; hours of work; vaca tion and holiday pay; seniority; health, insurance, and pension plans; and other employment matters. Among the unions to which apparel workers belong are the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America (ACWA), International Ladies’ Gar ment Workers’ Union (ILGWU), and United Garment Workers of America (UGW). The ILGWU sponsors vacation resorts for union $2.15 3. 28 2. 22 2. 94 1.86 1.93 $2.73 3. 55 2. 91 5. 08 2.12 2.41 2.27 2.81 members and their families. Both the ACWA and the ILGWU operate health centers for garment workers in major producing areas. Workers in the apparel industry can expect to lose very little work time as a result of strikes or other work stoppages because the industry has had many years of peaceful labormanagement relations. However, workers making certain types of gar ments may have layoffs of several weeks during slack seasons. Generally, such layoffs occur more often in plants making seasonal garments, such as women’s coats and suits, than in plants producing standardized gar ments, such as pajamas and men’s shirts, which are worn all year long. In many plants, the available work during slack periods is divided so that workers can be assured of at least some earnings. Also, more and more firms are diversifying the types of apparel they make, which reduces seasonal employment declines. Old buildings, whose surroundings and facilities may frequently leave much to be desired, continue to house most apparel establishments, especially those in metropolitan areas. Newly constructed plants usually have ample space, good lighting, and air conditioning. Some of the new 521 plants have cafeterias, and health clinics with a registered nurse on duty. Most sewing jobs are performed while sitting and are not physically strenuous. The working pace is rapid because workers’ earnings depend on their production. In addition, many tasks are extremely monotonous. Serious accidents among sewers are rare, although a sewer may occasion ally pierce a finger with a needle. On the other hand, pressing may be strenuous work and involves working with hot steam. Working conditions in cutting and designing rooms are pleasant. In manufacturing establishments, de signing and cutting are often per formed in a separate area away from the main sewing and pressing opera tions. Jobs in designing and cutting operations are more interesting and less monotonous than most other ap parel jobs. Moreover, since accuracy and skill as well as individual talent and judgment are valued more than speed in these jobs, the work pace is less rapid. Where To Go for More Information Information relating to vocational and high schools that offer training in designing, tailoring, and sewing may be obtained from the Division of Vocational Education of the De partment of Education in the State capital. Information concerning appren ticeships may be obtained from the Apprenticeship Council of the State Labor Department or the local of fice of the U.S. Employment Service. Some local Employment Service of fices give tests to determine hand-eye coordination, which is important for many apparel industry jobs. Information of a general nature may be obtained from the following sources: Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America, 15 Union Square, New York, N.Y. 10003. 522 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK American Apparel Manufacturers Association, Inc., 2000 K St. N W , Washington, D.C. 20006. Associated Fur Manufacturers, Inc., 101 West 30th St., New York, N.Y. 10001. Clothing Manufacturers Association of U.S.A., 135 West 50th St., New York, N.Y. 10001. National Outerwear and Sportswear Association, Inc., 347 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. International Ladies’ Garment Work ers’ Union, 1710 Broadway, New York, N.Y. 10019. United Garment Workers of Amer ica, 31 Union Square, New York, N.Y. 10003. OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD In early 1967, about 175,000 work ers had jobs in a variety of atomic energy activities. Large numbers of these workers were employed in re search and development work. Others were engaged in activities such as the manufacture of nuclear weapons and other defense materials, the design and manufacture of nuclear reactors, and the production of nuclear fuels. The majority of atomic energy work ers are scientists, engineers, techni cians, or craftsmen. Employment opportunities for these workers will continue to be especially favorable through the 1970’s. Applications of Atomic Energy Atomic energy is a source of enor mous heat and radiation that can be used in many ways for peaceful as well as military purposes. Peaceful applications of atomic energy are still in the early stages of develop ment, and continuing research and development programs will be needed during the next several decades to find new and more efficient ways of utilizing this force. One of the most significant uses of atomic energy is in the production of commercial electricity, using nuclear reactors as the heat source. (See chart 49.) Steam produced by such reac tors is now generating electricity for several communities. In recent years these reactors have become more com petitive with systems using fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, and it is antici pated that many more nuclear facil ities will be built. Since reactors are an efficient source of thermal energy, they also can be used to evaporate large quantities of sea water to pro duce fresh water—a process known as desalting. Plans are already being developed to build a combination power generation and desalting plant. Nuclear reactors provide power for naval and commercial ships. By vir tually eliminating the need for refuel ing, nuclear propulsion greatly ex tends the range and mobility of our naval forces. Research towards de veloping nuclear propulsion for space vehicles hold excellent promise for extending the range of space flights by eliminatmg the need to carry great quantities of conventional fuel. Although existing reactors generate tremendous amounts of power from a small amount of uranium, research is continuing in an effort to develop even more efficient reactors. Still fur ther in the future, we can hope to generate power through controlled fusion. Fusion occurs naturally on the sun, and scientists already have pro duced uncontrolled fusion in the hy drogen bomb, but have not yet been able to produce a controlled fusion reaction on a relatively small scale. Research also is being conducted in the “Plowshare” program to develop peaceful uses for nuclear explosives. The program has many potential ap plications in such areas as gas and oil recovery, mining operations, and in excavation of harbors, canals, and mountain passes. Another significant application of atomic energy is in the use of radio isotopes which decay or disintegrate spontaneously, emitting radiation that can be detected by special instru ments. Radioisotopes are very valu able as research tools in agriculture, medicine, and industry and for use in industrial inspection and control devices. Nuclear radiation also has tre mendous potential as an aid in the preservation of food. One of the ma jor causes of food spoilage is the activity of micro-organisms. When food is treated with radiation, these organisms are killed, and the spoilage process is greatly inhibited. This treat ment makes possible the long term storage of certain foods without re frigeration, and extends the time for marketing certain perishable refrig erated items such as fresh fruits and fish. How Atomic Energy Is Produced Atomic energy, or more accurately nuclear energy, may be produced through several processes, the two most important of which are fission and fusion. In fission, the nucleus of a heavy atom is split, releasing energy in the form of heat and radiation, and producing two lighter elements or more. In fusion, energy is released by combining the nuclei of two light atoms. The detonation of atomic bombs is an application of the ex plosive release of enormous amounts of atomic energy. Nonweapon appli cations require that release of this energy be carefully controlled and regulated so that it proceeds at a manageable rate. Controlled fission is the essential feature of a nuclear reactor. The re actor, being a furnace, requires fuel to operate. The principal source ma terial for reactor fuel is uranium, which in its natural state contains less than 1 percent of readily fission able material, uranium U—235. Al though natural uranium is used as re actor fuel, a more concentrated and enriched fuel can be produced and used by increasing the proportion of U-235 isotopes through a process called gaseous diffusion. U-235 occurs naturally and undergoes fission read ily, but two manmade fissionable ma terials, plutonium and uranium U— 235, also can be used as reactor fuel. 523 524 Fissionable fuel is placed in the nuclear reactor with certain other elements. Under proper conditions, the fuel will sustain a “chain reac tion”—the continuous fissioning (or splitting) of the nuclei of atoms—re sulting in the release of energy in the form of heat and radiation. When the fissionable atoms in the fuel split, they release neutrons (so-called “atomic bullets”) which cause other fission able atoms to split. These, ;n turn, re lease additional neutrons which sim ilarly split more atoms. The level of the chain reaction is carefully con trolled, usually by inserting special neutron-absorbing rods into the fuel chamber, or “core,” of the reactor. In this way, the rate of the fission reac tion and of the energy produced can be regulated or stopped completely. Thus, harnessed atomic energy is produced in a nuclear reactor in the form of heat and radiation. However, if reactors are to be used for power, the heat must be removed from the reactor and put to work. This is done by converting the heat to electricity through the use of conventional equipment. The major difference be tween nuclear and conventional thermal electric power stations is that the heat needed to generate steam to drive turbines comes from a nuclear reactor rather than from a conven tional steam-generating boiler fueled with coal, gas, or oil. During the fission process, nuc’ear radiation is released. This radiation, identifiable only by sensitive instru ments, can be ruinous to equipment and highly dangerous to personnel. Therefore, special materials, resistant to damage by radiation, are used in reactors and great care is taken to protect personnel. Nature of the Atomic Energy Field Many different kinds of research and industrial activities are required for the production and application of nuclear energy. Included in the various processes is the mining, mill OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ing, and refining of uranium-bearing ores; the production of nuclear fuels; the manufacture of nuclear reactors, reactor components, and nuclear in struments; the production of special materials for use in reactors; the de sign, engineering, and construction of nuclear facilities; the operation and maintenance of nuclear reactors; the disposal of radioactive wastes; the processing and packaging of radio isotopes; the production of nuclear weapons; and research and develop ment work. These activities are performed in plants in several different industries, as well as in laboratories and other types of facilities. Much of this work, such as ore mining and milling, manu facture of heat transfer equipment, and construction of facilities, differs little from similar nonatomic energy work. Other activities, such as manu facture of the fuels needed to run reactors, are unique to the atomic energy field. The Federal Government supports most of the basic atomic energy activ ities. The U.S. Atomic Energy Com mission (AEC) directs the Federal Government’s atomic energy program and regulates the use of nuclear ma terials by private organizations. The operation of AEC-owned facilities, including laboratories, uranium proc essing plants, nuclear reactors, and weapon manufacturing plants, is con tracted out to private organizations. More than half of all workers in the atomic energy field are employed in these facilities. In their own installa tions, private firms are engaged in many types of atomic energy activity, except development and production of military weapons and certain nu clear fuel-processing operations. A large amount of research and de velopment work is done in the atomic energy field. Much of this work is carried on by the AEG-owned labora tories and by university and college laboratories, other nonprofit institu tions, and industrial organizations under Commission contracts. Occupations in the Atomic Energy Field Engineers, scientists, technicians, and craftsmen account for a higher proportion of total employment in this field than in most other fields, largely because of the importance of research and development. Office personnel in administrative and cleri cal jobs represent another large group. Most of the remaining em ployment consists of semiskilled and unskilled workers in production work, and plant protection and other service workers. Although many engineers in the atomic energy field are highly trained in nuclear technology, engineers in all major engineering fields are em ployed. Mechanical engineering is the largest single engineering occupation, but large numbers of electrical and electronics, chemical, reactor, civil, and metallurgical engineers also are employed. Many of these engineers do research and development work, while others are engaged in designing nuclear reactors, nuclear instruments, and other equipment used in the atomic energy field, and in the opera tion of production plants. A large number of scientists are employed by research laboratories and other organizations engaged in atomic energy work to perform basic and applied nuclear research. Physi cists and chemists predominate, but many types of scientists are included, such as mathematicians, metallurgists, b i o l o g i c a l scientists, and health physicists. A large number of technicians are employed to assist engineers and scientists in research and development work and in the designing and testing of equipment and materials. These workers include draftsmen; electron ics, instrument, chemical, and other engineering and physical science technicians; and radiation monitors. The atomic energy field employs many highly skilled workers to fabri cate special parts and equipment for use in experimental and pilot work and to maintain the considerable amount of complex equipment and OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIEU) small proportion of the employees in uranium mining are in professional jobs, such as mining engineer and geologist. Nuclear engineers adjust equipment used in reprocessing nuclear fuels. machinery. Maintenance mechanics (e.g., machinery repairmen and mill wrights) and all-round machinists are employed extensively in most atomic energy activities, as are electricians, plumbers, pipefitters, and other craftsmen and chemical process operators. Activities in the Atomic Energy Field A brief description of some impor tant atomic energy activities and the types of workers employed in them follows. Uranium Ore Milling. In uranium mills, metallurgical and chemical processes are used to extract uranium from mined ore. Uranium mills, lo cated primarily in the Colorado Plateau, employed about 2,000 work ers in early 1967. These mills employ skilled machin ery repairmen, millwrights, pipefit ters, carpenters, electricians, and chemical process operators. A small proportion of the employees in mill ing operations are scientists and engineers. Uranium Refining and Enriching. Milled uranium is chemically proc essed to remove impurities and then converted to metal or intermediate chemical products for reactor fuel preparation. Conventional chemical and metallurgical processes are used, but they must meet more exacting standards than in most other indus tries. The output of refining plants may be further processed to obtain enriched uranium. Activity in this segment of the atomic energy field is centered in Ohio, Tennessee, K entucky, and Illinois. In early 1967, uranium refin ing and enriching plants employed about 7,500 workers. Maintenance craftsmen, particu larly in the highly automated ura nium enriching plants, account for a large proportion of skilled workers. Large numbers of chemical process operators are also employed. Chemi cal engineers and chemists accounted for almost half of the engineers and scientists. Many of the technicians worked in chemical analytical labora tories associated with production processes. Uranium Mining. The 4,000 miners and supporting personnel employed in uranium mines in early 1967 had jobs similar to those in the mining of other metallic ores. Their jobs are largely concentrated in the Colorado Plateau area of the Far West, in the States of New Mexico, Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, and Arizona. A rela tively few mines account for the bulk of production and employment. Most workers in uranium mines are in pro duction jobs, such as miner and driller in underground mines, and truckdriver, bulldozer operator, and ma Reactor Manufacturing. More than chine loader in open pit mines. A 14,000 workers were employed in 525 early 1967 in the design and manu facture of nuclear reactors and unique reactor components. Reactor manufacturers do extensive research and development work on reactors and auxiliary equipment, design the reactor, and generally fabricate some of the intricate components, such as fuel elements, control rods, and re actor cores. More than half of the employees in firms that design and manufacture reactors are scientists, engineers, and technicians. Engineers alone repre sent about one quarter of the employ ment, with mechanical engineers and reactor engineers, who are specialists in reactor technology, predominating. Among scientists, the largest group of workers are physicists, but many chemists, mathematicians, and metal lurgists also are employed. Assisting these engineers and scientists are many draftsmen, engineering aids, and physical science technicians. Skilled workers are employed by reactor manufacturers in experimen tal, production, and maintenance work. All-round machinists account for a large proportion of these crafts men. Other craftsmen such as sheet metal workers, instrument makers, machinery repairmen, instrument re pairmen, and electricians also are employed. Reactor manufacturers employ nuclear reactor operators to operate experim ental and test reactors. Reactor Operation and Maintenance. About 1,000 workers were engaged in the operation and maintenance of nuclear reactors producing commer cial electricity in early 1967. Principal types of occupations found in the operation of a nuclear power station are mechanical engineer, electrical and electronics engineer, instrument technician, electronics technician, ra diation monitor, reactor operator, and other power plant operators and attendants. Among the employees needed to maintain and repair reac tors are machinery repairmen, in strument repairmen, electricians, and pipefitters. 526 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK N U C LEA R REA CTO R G E N ER A T IN G ELECTRICITY Cool Fluid Research and Development Facilities. A number of research and develop ment laboratories and other research facilities are owned by the Atomic Energy Commission and are operated for the AEC by universities and in dustrial concerns. These facilities are major centers for basic and applied nuclear research in the physical, engi neering, and life sciences and in the development of nuclear reactors and other nuclear equipment. In early 1967, these facilities employed about 50,000 workers. More than half of the employees in AEC research and development facilities are engineers, scientists, and supporting technicians. Among the engineers and scientists are physicists, mechanical engineers, electrical and electronics engineers, chemists and chemical engineers, mathematicians, reactor engineers, metallurgists and metallurgical engi neers, biological scientists, and health physicists. Assisting scientists and en gineers are many physical science and engineering aids; draftsmen; elec tronics, instrument, and biological technicians; and radiation monitors. Administrative and clerical work ers together account for a large pro portion of employment. The skilled worker group includes large numbers of all-round machinists, electricians, machinery repairmen, and mill wrights, as well as substantial num bers of tool and diemakers, instru ment makers, and pipefitters. Nuclear reactor operators are employed to operate research and test reactors and many service workers are employed in plant protection and security operations. Although most nuclear energy research is performed in AEC re search and development facilities, additional research is performed in the privately owned research labora tories of educational institutions, other nonprofit institutions, and in dustrial concerns. Like the AEC facilities, these laboratories employ a large proportion of workers in scien tific, engineering, and other technical jobs. Production of Nuclear Weapons and Other Defense Materials. Approxi mately 30,000 workers were employed in early 1967 in establishments pro ducing nuclear weapons and weapon components, plutonium, and other defense materials. About 1 out of every 4 workers in these defense production facilities is a skilled worker in a production or maintenance job. Included among these skilled workers are large num bers of machinery repairmen and millwrights, chemical process opera tors, all-round machinists, electri cians, instrument repairmen, pipefit ters, tool and diemakers, and instrument makers. Among the large number of scien tists and engineers employed at these facilities are many chemists, physi cists, and mechanical, chemical, and electrical and electronics engineers. Many engineering and physical science aids, draftsmen, radiation monitors, and electronics technicians are employed to assist scientists and engineers. Other Atomic Energy Activities. About 1,500 workers were employed in early 1967 to produce special materials such as beryllium, zir conium, and hafnium for use in reactors. About 5,500 workers were em ployed by companies that manufac ture reactor control instruments, radiation detection and monitoring devices, and other instruments for the atomic energy field. Production of these instruments involves work similar to that in instrument manu facturing in general. Engineers and technicians represent a substantial proportion of employment in this field. About 1,000 persons were employed in companies which specialize in the manufacture of particle accelerators or their specialized components. These machines enable scientists to study the structure and properties of the elementary particles that make up the nucleus of an atom. Workers employed in the design and manu facture of these machines include electrical and electronics engineers, mechanical engineers, physicists, draftsmen, electronics technicians, and machinists. Other workers in the atomic energy field are engaged in such activities as processing and packaging radioiso topes, manufacturing radiography units and radiation gages, packaging and disposing of radioactive wastes, and industrial radiography. OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIEiLI> Instrument technicians make connections on test reactor. Government Employment. The Atomic Energy Commission, which directs the Federal Government’s atomic energy program, employed about 7,400 workers in its head quarters and field offices in early 1967. Over 1,300 engineers and scien tists were employed by the Commis sion, including personnel in nearly every major engineering and scien tific occupation. Since the AEC is primarily an administrative and reg ulatory agency, approximately twothirds of Commission employees are in administrative and other profes sional positions or in clerical jobs. This proportion of administrative and clerical personnel is much larger than in most other activities in the atomic energy field. In addition to those employed by the Atomic Energy Commission, a few thousand government employees are engaged in atomic energy work in other Federal agencies and in reg ulatory and promotional activities of State and local governments. Their responsibilities involve atomic energy research and application, and estab lishment of radiation health and safety measures. Unique Atomic Energy Occupations. Most of the occupations discussed in the preceding sections are similar to those found in other industrial activi ties, although they may have job titles unique to the atomic energy field, (such as nuclear engineer, radia tion chemist, and nuclear reactor operator) and require some special ized knowledge of atomic energy. A detailed discussion of the duties, training, and employment outlook for most of these occupations appears elsewhere in the Handbook. The health physics occupations, which are unique to the atomic energy field, and some other occupa tions that are unique in that they re quire training in the handling and use of radioactive materials or radia tion-producing equipment, are dis cussed briefly in the following sec tions. Health physicists (also called radiological physicists) are concerned with the problem of radiation safety for workers in atomic energy installa tions and for people in surrounding communities. They are responsible for protecting individuals and property from the hazards of radiation by detecting radiation, and applying safety standards to control exposure to it. In early 1967, more than 800 health physicists were employed in radiation protection work, research, or teaching. Health physicists are responsible for planning and organizing radiologi cal health programs at atomic energy facilities. T hey establish standards of inspection and determine procedures for protecting employees and elimi nating radiological hazards. They supervise the inspection of work areas with potential radiation hazards and prepare instructions covering safe work procedures in these areas. Health physicists also plan and supervise training programs dealing with radiation hazards and advise others on methods of dealing with such hazards. In some cases, they are employed on research projects deal ing with the effects of human ex posure to radiation and may develop procedures to be followed in using radioactive materials. Radiation monitors (also called health-physics technicians) generally work under the supervision of health 527 physicists. An estimated 2,000 radia tion monitors were employed in the atomic energy field in early 1967. They use special instruments to monitor (check) work areas, tools, and equipment to detect radioactive contamination. Soil, water, and air samples are taken frequently to deter mine radiation levels. Monitors may also collect and analyze radiation detectors worn by workers, such as film badges and pocket detection chambers. Radiation monitors inform their supervisors when a worker’s ex posure to radiation or the level of radiation in a work area approaches specified maximum permissible limits and they recommend work stoppage in potentially unsafe areas. They cal culate the amount of time that per sonnel may work in contaminated areas, considering maximum radia tion exposure limits and the radiation level in the area. Monitors may also give instructions in radiation safety procedures and prescribe special clothing requirements and other safety precautions for workers enter ing radiation zones. A nuclear reacior operator's job in a nuclear power station is similar to a boiler operator’s job in a conven tional power station; however, the controls he operates are somewhat different. In addition, reactor oper ators may assist in the loading and un loading of reactor cores. Nuclear reactor operators who work with re search and test reactors check reactor control panels and adjust controls to maintain specified operating condi tions within the reactor, such as power and radiation levels. More than 1,000 persons were employed as nuclear reactor operators in early 1967. Accelerator operators set up and coordinate the operation of particle accelerators. They adjust machine controls to accelerate electrically charged particles, in accordance with instructions from the scientist in charge of the experiment, and set up target materials which are to be bom barded by the accelerated particles. 528 They also may assist in the main tenance of equipment. An estimated 7,000 radiographers were employed in early 1967. These workers take radiographs of metal castings, welds, and other objects by adjusting the controls of an X-ray machine or by exposing a source of radioactivity to the object to be radiographed. They select the proper type of radiation source and film to use and apply standard mathematical formulas to determine exposure dis tance and time. While taking radio graphs, they use radiation detection instruments to monitor the work area for potential radiation hazards. Radiographers may also remove and develop the film or plate and assist in its analysis. Hot-cell technicians operate re mote-controlled equipment to test radioactive materials that are placed in hot cells—rooms that are enclosed with radiation shielding materials, such as lead and concrete. By con trolling “slave manipulators” (me chanical devices that act as a pair of arms and hands) from outside the cell and observing their actions through the cell window, these tech nicians perform standard chemical and metallurgical operations with radioactive materials. Hot-cell tech nicians may also enter the cell wear ing protective clothing to set up experiments or to decontaminate the cell and equipment. Decontamina tion men have the primary duty of decontaminating equipment, plant areas, and materials exposed to radio active contaminants. They use radia tion-detection instruments to locate the contamination; eliminate it by the use of special equipment; deter gents, and chemicals; and then verify the effectiveness of the decontamina tion measures. Waste-treatment op erators operate heat exchange units, pumps, compressors, and other equip ment to decontaminate and dispose of radioactive waste liquids. Waste-dis posal men seal contaminated wastes in concrete containers and transport the containers to a burial ground or arrange for sea burial. Radioisotope OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Hot-cell technician manipulates “ master-slave.” production operators use remote con trol manipulators and other equip ment to prepare radioisotopes for shipping and to perform chemical analyses to ensure that radioisotopes conform to specifications. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training and educational require ments and advancement opportuni ties for most workers in atomic energy activities are generally similar to those for comparable jobs in other fields and are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook under the specific occupa tion. However, specialized training is required for many workers because the atomic energy field is a relatively new field of work, requires rigorous work standards in both its research and production activities, and has unique health and safety problems. Engineers and scientists at all levels of professional training are employed in the atomic energy field. Many of them have had advanced training, particularly those engaged in re search, development, and design work. Of the scientists and engineers employed in research and develop ment by major AEC contractors in 1966, about one-fourth had a Ph. D. degree. The proportion of engineers with Ph. D. degrees is smaller than the proportion of scientists with such degrees. However, graduate training is preferred for an increasing num ber of engineering jobs, and training in nuclear engineering is available almost exclusively at the graduate level. Specialized knowledge of nuclear energy is essential for most scientific and engineering positions in the atomic energy field. This specialized training may be obtained by taking work at a university or sometimes by on-the-job training. Colleges and universities have ex panded their facilities and curriculums to provide training in nuclear energy. Engineers and scientists who plan to specialize in the atomic energy field generally take graduate work in nuclear energy, although introduc tory or background courses may be taken at the undergraduate level. Some colleges and universities award graduate degrees in nuclear engineer ing or nuclear science. Others offer graduate training in these fields, but award degrees only in the traditional engineering or scientific fields. Craftsmen in some atomic energy jobs need more training than most craftsmen in comparable nonatomic iobs. Hifdi skill requirements are often needed because of the extreme precision reauired to insure efficient ODeration and maintenance of com plex eauipment and machinery. For example, pipefitters may have to fit pipe to tolerances of less than one ten-thousandth of an inch and work with pipe made from rare metals costing more than $1,000 a foot. Welding may also have to meet higher reliability standards than in most nonatomic fields. Craftsmen in the atomic energy field generally ob tain the required special skills through on-the-job training. Many AEC installations also have appren tice training programs to develop craft skills. OCCUPATIONS IN THE ATOMIC ENERGY FIELD Health physicists should have at least a bachelor’s degree in physics, chemistry, or engineering, and a year or more of graduate work in health physics. A Ph. D. degree is often re quired for teaching and research posi tions. To qualify for on-the-job training as a radiation monitor, a high school education with courses in mathe matics, physics, and chemistry is usually sufficient. Radiation monitors must become familiar with charac teristics of radiation, maximum per missible radiation exposure levels, and methods of calculating exposure periods. They must also learn how to calibrate the instruments they use. Nuclear power reactor operators need a basic understanding of reactor theory and a working knowledge of reactor controls. Most operator trainees have a high school education. Trainees usually are selected from conventional power plant personnel having experience as operators of boiler, turbine or electrical machin ery. Preference is sometimes given to those who have completed courses in science and engineering at the college level. Workers who operate the con trols of private nuclear reactors must be licensed by the AEC. To qualify for a license, the trainee must pass an operating test, a written test given by the AEC, and a medical examination. To qualify for on-the-job training as an accelerator operator, a high school education that includes courses in mathematics and physics usually is required. Accelerator operators re ceive several months of on-the-job training covering operating, repair, and safety procedures. To qualify for on-the-job tra:ning as a radiographer, a high school education, including courses in mathematics, chemistry, and physics usually is sufficient. High school graduates with some mechanical experience usually can qualify for on-the-job training as hot cell technicians and decontamination men. They may be given in-plant training lasting several months. For the job of radioisotope-production operator, a high school education, with courses in chemistry, is usually required. High school graduates can qualify as waste-treatment operators, but experience in reading electronic instruments or in a chemical labora tory is desirable. High school grad uates can also qualify for employment as waste-disposal men. They receive on-the-job training in the operation of equipment and the avoidance of radiation hazards. Other workers in the atomic energy field also need special training be cause of the presence of potential radiation hazards. Employees who work in the vicinity of such hazards are always given on-the-job training in the nature of radiation and the procedures to follow in case of its ac cidental release. Individuals who handle classified data (restricted for reasons of na tional security) or who work on classi fied projects in the atomic energy field must have a security clearance. This is a finding based on an investi gation of a person’s character, loyalty, and associations. The Atomic Energy Commission, at its contractor-operated facilities, supports on-the-job and specialized training programs to help prepare scientists, engineers, technicians, and other workers for the atomic energy field. The AEC also offers graduate fellowships in specialized nuclear fields. A large number of fellowships— about 480—were awarded for the 1965—66 academic year. The prereq uisite for consideration for a fellow ship is a bachelor’s degree in engi neering or physical science. Fellowships in health physics pro vide for 9 months’ training at a university, followed by 3 months’ training at a Commission laboratory. Approximately 60 such fellowships are available each year to students with bachelor’s degrees in biology, chemistry, engineering, or physics. About 10 additional fellowships are available for advanced training in health physics leading to a doctorate. Additional educational and train ing opportunities are offered in co 529 operative programs arranged by AEC laboratories with colleges and univer sities. Temporary employment at AEC-owned laboratories is available to faculty members and students. En gineering undergraduates may work at laboratories and other Commission facilities on a rotation basis with classroom studies, and graduate stu dents may do their thesis work at AEC laboratories. Many Commission contractors pro vide employees with training at their own plants or at nearby colleges and universities. Employment Outlook Total employment in the atomic energy field is expected to increase moderately during the remainder of the 1960’s. Over the 1970’s, however, overall employment is likely to grow more rapidly as commercial activities in atomic energy expand, and as new applications of this energy form are developed. Many factors point to a long-term expansion in this field. Increasing ex penditures for atomic energy research and development should lead to fur ther employment growth in research and development laboratories; the use of nuclear reactors in electric power generating stations is becom ing increasingly widespread; and the use of reactors in conjunction with power generation to desalt sea water is also expected to increase. Growth in the use of nuclear reactors for propulsion of naval and maritime ships is anticipated, although progress in this area may not be as rapid as in power generation. Expansion is also expected in the “Plowshare” program to develop peaceful uses for nuclear explosives, in programs to further de velop radioisotope technology, and in the use of nuclear power in space. Employment opportunities are ex pected to rise significantly for work ers who design and manufacture nu clear power reactors and instruments, and who process and package radio isotopes. As more nuclear reactors are built and put into operation, employ 530 ment will further increase both in the operation and maintenance of reac tors, and in such related activities as the fabrication and reprocessing of reactor fuel elements and the disposal of radioactive wastes. Employment in mining, milling, refining, and enrich ment of uranium will increase as the demand for nuclear fuel increases. As the use of nuclear power becomes more widespread, there will also be an increase in employment of regula tory workers in both the Atomic Energy Commission and in State agencies to insure safe use of atomic energy. Expansion in these areas of atomic energy will create very good employment opportunities for trained professional and technical workers and for skilled craftsmen. In addition to the employment op portunities created by expansion in atomic energy activities, other job openings will occur because of the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other industries. Earnings and Working Conditions In early 1967, blue-collar workers employed by contractors at AEC laboratories and other installations had average straight-time hourly OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK earnings of $3.48, while blue-collar workers in all manufacturing indus tries had average earnings of $2.78 an hour. Professional workers employed at AEC installations averaged $12,380 a year in base pay in early 1967, and other white-collar workers (largely clerical and other office personnel) averaged $6,600 a year. (Earnings data for many of the occupations found in the atomic energy field are included in the statements on these occupations elsewhere in the Hand book.) Working conditions in uranium mining and milling, instrument and auxiliary equipment manufacturing, and facilities construction are gen erally similar to those in comparable nonatomic energy activities, except for radiation safety precautions. Nearly all uranium mines are equipped with mechanical ventilation systems that reduce the concentra tion of radioactive radon gas—a sub stance that can cause lung injury if inhaled over a number of years. Ef forts to eliminate this hazard are continuing. In other atomic energy activities, in which the major propor tion of workers in the field are em ployed, working conditions generally are very good. Buildings and plants are well lighted and ventilated. Equipment, tools, and machines are modern and sometimes the most ad vanced of their type. Only a small proportion of employees in the atomic energy field actually work in areas where direct radiation hazard dan gers exist. In some cases, plants are located in remote areas. Extensive safeguards ensure the health and safety of workers, and the AEC and its contractors have main tained an excellent safety record. The AEC regulates the possession and use of radioactive materials, and AEC personnel inspect nuclear facilities to insure compliance with the AEC’s health and safety requirements. Con stant efforts are being made to provide better safety standards and regulations. Most plant hourly paid workers belong to unions that represent their particular craft or industry. Where To Go for More Information Additional information about the atomic energy field may be obtained from: U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, D.C. 20545. OCCUPATIONS IN THE BAKING INDUSTRY The baking industry is one of the largest food-processing employers in the United States. Occupations in baking establishments provide steady, year-round employment to several hundred thousand workers through out the country. The industry employs workers to make bakery products, wrap and pack these products, and to deliver them to stores, homes, and restau rants. It also employs mechanics to maintain and repair the large amounts of machinery used in modern bakeries. Additional mechanics are employed to serve the fleets of de livery trucks. The industry employs many managers and sales specialists to direct operations and clerical workers to perform the regular office duties. Nature and Location of the Industry In early 1967, the baking industry employed 280,000 workers in about 5,000 establishments. About 85 per cent of these workers were employed in establishments that produced per ishable baked goods such as bread, rolls, pies, cakes, and doughnuts. The remaining workers were employed in establishments that produced “dry” baked goods such as cookies, crack ers, pretzels, and ice cream cones. Baking establishments include large 262-057 O— 68-----35 wholesale bakeries that sell to retail stores, restaurants, hotels, and other large customers; home service bak eries that deliver their products directly to the customers’ homes; bakeries owned and operated by grocery chains; and the central bak ing establishments of companies op erating several retail bake shops. In addition to the baking establish ments described above, over 14,000 single-shop retail bakeries employed about 100,000 men and women in cluding shop owners. Although some retail bakeshops employed 20 individ uals or more, the average shop em ployed about 5 or 6. Many of the actual baking operations in these re tail establishments are done by hand rather than machine, and therefore, retail bakeries offer many opportuni ties to the skilled baking craftsman which are not available in the large industrial-type establishments. Most establishments producing perishable baked goods are relatively small because they serve only their local area. However, an increasing number serve markets up to 200 miles away, and a few serve even wider areas. In contrast, bakeries that pro duce dry baked goods generally are large establishments that distribute their products regionally or nation ally. The average number of employ ees in these bakeries is about 120 in contrast to about 50 in bakeries pro ducing perishable products. Alm ost every com m unity in the United States has at least one bakery. However, half of all industrial baker ies and the same proportion of the industry’s employees are in the fol lowing seven States: New York, Penn sylvania, California, Illinois, Ohio, New Jersey, and Massachusetts. for delivery, or keep the bakeries san itary. About every fifth employee de livers the industry’s products. Most of these employees work as driversalesmen, selling to retail stores or di rectly to customers in their homes. Other drivers with no sales duties are employed to deliver bakery prod ucts to distribution centers, hotels, restaurants, and stores. The remain der of the work force is employed in administrative, professional, techni cal, and clerical jobs. About 1 of every 5 industrial bakery workers is a woman. Most of them are employed as secretaries, typists, bookkeepers, and in other office jobs. Some are employed in production jobs, such as slicing machine operator, wrapping machine operator, or pie and cake packer; very few women are bakers. Production Occupations. The princi pal baking processes consist of blend ing, sifting, mixing, proofing, baking, and wrapping and packing. Since bread is the primary product of the baking industry, the following de scriptions of occupations relate prin cipally to the production of bread. With some variations, depending on the product and the amount of mechanization in the bakery, these are the occupations in any industrial bakery. Occupations in the Baking Industry Nearly 60 percent of the employees in the baking industry perform the actual baking operations, receive and store raw materials, maintain and re pair machinery and other baking equipment, wrap or pack products Dough mixer operator prepares to release batch of dough into trough. 531 532 In general, production workers load and unload machines, watch the operation of the machines, and inspect the output. Mixers (D.O.T. 520.885) weigh ingredients and combine them in blending ma chines. By means of instruments, they carefully control timing and temper ature in order to produce a uniform, well-blended dough. The dough is sent to a “proofing” room where the warm temperature produces a fer menting process which causes the dough to rise. When the dough has risen, it is poured into another blend ing machine, and additional flour, liquids, sugar, salt, and shortening are added and mixed. The dough then goes through another fermenting process before it is shaped into loaves or rolls. Dividermen (D.O.T. 526.782) operate machines which divide the dough according to the weight of the loaf to be produced. The pieces of dough are rolled into balls which are dusted with flour in a rounding machine. Dough molders or molding machine operators (D.O.T. 520.885) operate machines which press all the air bubbles from the dough and form it into loaves or rolls. “Continuous mixing,” an automatic process that is being used increasingly, eliminates many of the steps described above. When fancy shaped bread or rolls are made, bench hands (D.O.T. 520.884) knead and form the dough by hand into various shapes and place the pieces of dough in the pans. The pans containing the machine- and hand-shaped dough go to the final proofing room where the dough rises for about an hour before it is re moved and placed in the oven. Ovenmen (D.O.T. 526.885) adjust tem perature and timing devices on the ovens. In small bakeries, all-round bakers (D.O.T. 526.781), assisted by help ers, usually carry through all the steps needed to turn out finished baked products. Large bakeries employ all round bakers as working foremen in charge of one operation or more. These workers supervise the men and machines in their department and co OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ordinate their activity with that in other departments in order to meet production schedules. A considerable number of helpers (D.O.T. 526.886) are employed in baking operations. They may assist all-round bakers and specialized bak ery workers. They have job titles such as dough mixer helper, bench hand helper, and ovenman helper. Helpers also perform such jobs as greasing pans, removing bread from pans, pushing troughs and racks, and washing pans. After baked foods leave the oven and are cooled, several types of workers prepare them for delivery to customers. Slicing-and-wrapping machine operators (D.O.T. 521.885) feed loaves of bread onto conveyors leading into the machines and watch the slicing and wrapping operations. They adjust the machines and keep them supplied with plastic bags, paper, and labels. The wrapped loaves leave the machines and travel along a conveyor belt to the shipping platform. Many bakery employees work in icing departments where they give the finishing touches to cakes, pas tries, and other sweet goods. Icing mixers (D.O.T. 520.885) prepare cake icings and fillings, following special formulas of the bakery. They weigh and measure ingredients and mix them by machine. They also pre pare cooked fillings for pies, tarts, and other pastries. In small plants, icing mixers may also spread icing on cakes and cookies. Hand icers (D.O.T. 524.- Baker adjusts automatic depanning machine. OCCUPATIONS IN THE BAKING INDUSTRY 884) are skilled craftsmen who dec orate special products such as wedding cakes, birthday cakes, and fancy pastries. When the product is uniform or requires' no special dec oration, the frosting may be applied by machine icers (D.O.T. 524.885). Bakeries employ many workers in their storage, warehousing, and ship ping departments. Receiving and stock clerks check and keep records of incoming supplies and ingredients, and deliver them to various depart ments. Packers and checkers make up orders of bakery products for de livery by driver-salesmen. Maintenance Occupations. Baking firms employ skilled maintenance workers such as machinists, electri cians, and stationary engineers and their helpers to keep machinery and equipment in good condition. Large plants, which are usually highly mechanized, employ many of these workers. In addit'on, since many baking firms have fleets of trucks, many truck mechanics are employed for maintenance. Sales and Driving Occupations. The selling and delivery of finished baked foods to grocers, restaurants, hotels, homes, and other customers provide jobs for many thousands of workers. Some of these workers sell baked goods, some drive trucks, and many do both. Driver-salesmen, also called routemen (D.O.T. 292.358), work for either wholesale bakeries or homeservice bakeries. They deliver baked foods to grocery stores or to homes along their assigned routes and col lect payment for delivered products. A major part of their job is to try to increase customers’ orders and to gain new customers on their routes. Wholesale driver-salesmen arrange their baked products on shelves or display racks in grocery stores. At some busy stores, they may restock the shelves several times a day. Home-service driver-salesmen make deliveries directly to customers’ homes. Driver-salesmen return to the bakery at the end of each day to make a report of the day’s transac tions. They turn in money collected from their customers and return un sold baked goods. They make a list of the items that they think grocers or housewives on their routes will buy the next day. These estimates, assembled from driver-salesmen on all routes, serve as guides for produc tion managers in making up pro duction schedules for the next morning. A large bakery may employ several route supervisors, each in charge of 6 to 10 driver-salesmen. In a smaller bakery, one route supervisor may be in charge of all salesmen. When a salesman is absent, the supervisor may take over the route until the salesman returns or is replaced. Route supervisors also train new driver-salesmen. Chain grocery store bakeries and multioutlet retail bakeries generally employ truckdrivers rather than driver-salesmen. These employees drive large vans, delivering baked foods to each of their company’s stores. Truckdrivers for chainstore bakeries deliver wrapped bread and other bakery products to loading platforms of the stores. Stock clerks then arrange the display of baked goods in the stores. In bakeries which operate their own retail bakery out lets, the truckdrivers wheel the un wrapped baked foods in enclosed metal racks from the van to each store. Sales clerks then arrange the display of these freshly baked foods. Administrative, Clerical, and Profes sional and Technical Occupations. Administrators in large baking firms and proprietors of small firms coor dinate all baking activities from the purchase of raw materials to the pro duction and delivery of baked prod ucts. In large baking firms, activities are divided into separate departments or functions and supervised by plant managers, comptrollers, sales man agers, and other executives. Other 533 administrative employees may spe cialize in such fields as accounting, purchasing, advertising, and person nel and industrial relations. Business offices of bakeries employ many types of clerical workers, including book keepers, cashiers, clerks, business machine operators, stenographers, typists, and switchboard operators. A large proportion of these office work ers are women. Some large baking companies have laboratories and test kitchens where chemists, home econ omists, and their assistants test ingredients and prepare formulas and recipes for bread and other baked items. (Detailed discussions of the duties, training, and employment outlook for maintenance, sales, driv ing, administrative, clerical, and technical personnel appear elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Training requirements for occupa tions in the baking industry range from a few days of on-the-job training to several years of training and experience. For example, some bakery workers, such as slicing machine operators, can be trained on the job in a few days. Skilled workers, such as all-round bakers and baking specialists, require at least 3 or 4 years of training. Professional personnel and some administrative workers must have a college degree or equiv alent experience in their particular specialty. Most inexperienced production workers in the baking industry are hired as helpers (utility workers). They may be assigned such tasks as washing and greasing pans, carrying ingredients to mixing machines, pushing troughs of dough to the proofing room, and otherwise assist ing bakers. By working alongside skilled bakers, helpers are able to acquire baking skills. Some bakeries train their bakers through formal apprenticeship pro 534 grams. Apprentices generally are selected from among the helpers. Employers usually require that apprentice applicants be between 18 and 26 years of age, have a high school or vocational school educa tion, and show an interest in baking. Apprenticeship programs last 3 or 4 years. They include on-the-job train ing in all baking operations and class room instruction in related subjects. Some workers acquire baking skills by taking courses in vocational school or by learning the trade in the Armed Forces. Such training may not qualify a young man as a skilled baker, but it may help him to become an apprentice and perhaps shorten his apprenticeship period. Bakers may be promoted to such jobs as working foreman or depart ment foreman. Some bakers who have developed special skill in fancy cakemaking or piemaking may find jobs in hotel or restaurant bakeries. All-round bakers with some business ability sometimes open their own bakeshops. Good health is important for a young man or woman planning to enter a baking occupation. For any one handling food, most States re quire a health certificate indicating that the worker is free from commu nicable diseases. Good health is necessary also because of irregular working hours and the extremes in temperatures found in bakeries. Some bakeries have apprenticeship programs for maintenance jobs such as machinists, electricians, and me chanics. Other plants hire inexperi enced workers as mechanics’ helpers, who gain experience and know-how while working with skilled mechanics. Some bakeries hire only skilled main tenance men. For jobs as driver-salesmen or truckdrivers, baking firms generally hire inexperienced young men with a high school education. These workers often begin as stock clerks, packers, or checkers, and may be promoted to driving jobs as vacancies occur. Some OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK young men take summer and parttime jobs as driver-helpers to gain experience. Applicants for these jobs must be able to get a commercial driving permit (chauffeur’s license). Large baking companies often give tests to their applicants to determine whether they are safe drivers. A pleasant appearance and the ability to get along well with people are pre ferred qualifications for the new worker who w’ants to sell as well as drive. New driver-salesmen may be given classroom instruction in sales, display, and delivery procedures. Most training, however, is given on the job by route supervisors. Driversalesmen may be promoted to route supervisor and sales manager. Administrative jobs are usually filled by upgrading personnel already employed in the firm. Some owners and production managers of bakeries have come from the ranks of baking craftsmen, and some begin their ca reers in sales occupations. In recent years, large baking firms have re quired their new administrative work ers to have a college degree in one of the administrative fields, such as marketing, accounting, labor rela tions, personnel, or advertising. Sev eral colleges offer courses in baking science and management; one col lege offers a 4-year course in this field. Young women who have com pleted a commercial course in high school, junior college, or a business school usually are preferred for the secretarial, stenographic, and other office jobs. Employment Outlook Several thousand job openings are expected to occur in the baking in dustry each year during the rest of the 1960’s and over the 1970 decade because of the need to replace work ers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Retirements and deaths alone should provide about 6,000 job openings each year. The demand for bakery products is expected to rise moderately during this period in response to increases in population. However, because of increasing efficiency in production, employment in the industry is ex pected to decline slowly. Even so, em ployment in some occupations is expected to increase. For example, more truckdrivers will be needed as suburban developments increase and sales territories expand. Additional maintenance workers will be needed to keep machinery and other equip ment in operating order as bakeries become more mechanized. Some in crease may occur in the number of clerical workers as a result of additional recordkeeping require ments. However, the anticipated increases in these occupations will be more than offset by the continuing decline in the number of production workers resulting from the installa tion of mechanized processing and materials handling equipment, and improvements in the methods of processing baked goods. Pneumatic conveyors, for example, greatly in crease efficiency in materials handling operations, and the “continuous mix” process eliminates dough mixing and proofing operations. In addition, the freezing of baked goods for storage until ready for sale permits bakeries to prepare a week’s requirements at one time rather than small batches daily. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of production workers in the perishable bakery products indus try averaged $105.86 a week, or $2.64 an hour, in late 1966. The rates were slightly lower in biscuit and cracker bakeries. Wage rates tend to be higher in the West and North than in the South or Southwest. According to union-management contracts covering employees in 25 wholesale bakeries producing bread and related products, ranges for minimum hourly rates in major oc- OCCUPATION'S IN THE BAKING INDUSTRY Truckdrivers for baking plants are cupations in mid-1966 were as paid by the hour. Hourly rates and follows: hours worked vary from city to city. Baking foremen and all round bakers........................ $2. 88-$4. 04 In mid-1965 (the latest year for Mixers (dough or icing). . . . 2. 43- 3. 88 which this information is available), Ovenmen..................................... 2. 43- 3. 88the minimum wage rates and maxi Molders and dividers and mum hours a week before overtime molding and dividing ma chine operators...................... 2. 28- 3.rates 88 prevail, provided by union-man agement contracts for truckdrivers of Benchmen................................... 2. 43- 3. 79 Utilitymen (general helpers). 2. 13- 3.28 bakeries producing bread, cakes, pies, Wrapping machine opera etc. in 11 selected cities were as tors ......................................... 2. 28— 3. 02 follows: Porters and cleaners.............. 1. 92- 2. 73 Minimum Hours per wage Some plant employees work night rate week shifts and weekends because baking Atlanta, G a..................... . $2,695 45 47 is done around the clock in many Birmingham, Ala........... . 2.43 40 Cleveland, Ohio............ . 3.33 plants. Workers receive from 7 to 23 Dallas, . 2. 59 45 T ex...................... cents an hour extra pay for night- Detroit, Mich, (bread). . 3. 10 40 work. However, the night shift is be Houston, T ex.................. . 2.645 45 46 ing eliminated in some bakeries be Little Rock, Ark............ . 2.43 York, N.Y. (cake cause the increasing use of freezing New 40 and pastry).................. . 3.225 processes makes it possible to prepare Oklahoma 45 City, Okla. . . 2.465 baked goods in advance and store Pittsburgh, Pa. (bread). . 2.545 44 them until needed. Most plant work Oakland, Calif, (transers are on a 40-hour workweek, al port and chainstore).. . 3. 95-4. 20 40 though some work 35 or 37^ hours Home-service driver-salesmen and and others 44 or 48 hours regularly. truckdrivers work mostly out of doors. For those who work a 35- or 37l/ i- Wholesale driver-salesmen spend hour week, time and a half is paid for much of their time arranging bakery work beyond their regular schedule. goods on grocers’ display shelves. For all others, time and a half is paid Many jobs in baking plants involve for all work over 40 hours. some strenuous physical work, despite Driver-salesmen are usually paid a the considerable mechanization of guaranteed minimum salary plus a baking processes. Work near ovens percentage of their dollar sales. Ac may be hot. cording to limited information avail Paid vacations for employees are able in late 1966 on baking firms in almost universal in industrial baking 13 Eastern States, driver-salesmen for firms. Vacation periods range from 1 both wholesale and home-service to 4 weeks, according to length of bakeries had minimum weekly sala service. Paid holidays range from 5 ries of from $70 to $118. By selling to 11 days, depending on the locality. more baked products to their custo Most baking firms have adopted some mers and by increasing the number of type of insurance or pension arrange customers on their routes, driver- ment for their employees, such as life salesmen can increase their earnings insurance, health insurance programs, considerably. Companies generally or retirement pension plans. A large pay for uniforms and their mainte number of employees are covered by joint union-industry health and wel nance. 535 fare plans, and pension systems which are paid for entirely by employer con tributions. Most plant workers and drivers be long to a labor union. Bakers, baking specialists, and other plant workers have been organized by the American Bakery and Confectionery Workers’ International Union or the Bakery and Confectionery Workers’ Interna tional Union of America (Ind.). Driver-salesmen and transport drivers are generally members of the Interna tional Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America (Ind.). Some maintenance men are members of craft unions such as the International Association of Machinists and Aero space Workers and the International Union of Operating Engineers. Where To Go for More Information Information on local job openings in the baking industry may be ob tained directly from bakeries in the community. High school students—or adults in terested in evening courses—may obtain information on courses relating to baking by writing to the Director of Vocational Education or to the Superintendent of Schools in their lo cal community, or to the State Direc tor of Vocational Education in the Department of Education in the State capital. General information on job oppor tunities in the baking industry and on requirements for entering accredited schools which offer courses or degrees in baking science and technology may be obtained by writing to: American Bakers Association, 1700 Pennsylvania Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING The science of electronics has con tributed greatly to the spectacular achievements of the age in which we live. Electronic instruments guide un manned missiles for our Nation’s de fense and control the flights of our astronauts as they rocket into outer space. Other electronic instruments make it possible for man to see, hear, and communicate over vast distances. Electronic devices direct, control, and test production processes in industries such as steel, petroleum, and chemi cals. Electronic data-processing equipment enables business and Gov ernment to handle tons of paper work with great accuracy and speed. Hospitals use electronic instruments to perform laboratory tests and to check body functions. Television and radio sets inform and entertain, while other electronic devices help protect homes against fire and other hazards. Indications are that electronics will play an even greater role in the future. In early 1967, an estimated 1.1 mil lion workers were engaged in manu facturing electronic products. Dur ing the late 1960’s and throughout the 1970’s, a rapid increase in employ ment is anticipated. Job opportuni ties are expected to be particularly favorable in plants producing indus trial-commercial electronic equip ment, output of which is expected to 536 grow more rapidly than other elec computers; commercial radio and television broadcasting equipment; tronic products. commercial and private aircraft communications and navigational Nature and Location of Electronics apparatus; and industrial testing, Manufacturing measuring, and production control equipment. Principal consumer prod Before World War II, the principal ucts include television sets, radios, electronic products were radios, phonographs, tape recorders, and broadcasting equipment, other re hearing aids. Electronic components ceiving and transmitting equipment, fall into three broad classifications: and electron tubes. With the rapid tubes, semiconductors, and “other development of new electronic prod components.” Tubes include receiv ucts during and after that war, the ing tubes, power tubes, television pic broader term “electronics manufac ture tubes, and special purpose tubes. turing” or “electronics industry” Principal semiconductor devices are came into general use. transistors, diodes, rectifiers, and The heart of every electronic prod microelectronic devices, which in uct is a circuit or system that in clude combinations of miniaturized cludes electron tubes, semiconduc semiconductors. “Other components” tors, and other electronic devices include such items as capacitors, which regulate, control, or direct the resistors, transformers, relays, con flow of small, active particles of nega nectors, and electronic switches. tive electricity (electrons) through Of the estimated 1.1 million work the circuit. Because of their unique ers employed in electronics manu functions, electronic devices are find facturing establishments in early ing many applications. 1967, about three-fifths—640,000— Electronic products may be were in plants producing end pro grouped into four major categories: ducts. About 325,000 of these work (1) Military and space equipment, ers produced military and space (2) industrial and commercial prod equipment; 170,000 industrial and ucts, (3) consumer products, and commercial products; and 145,000 (4) components. In 1966, military consumer items. The remaining and space products accounted for 440,000 workers were in plants mak about half of total electronic ship ing electronic components. ments. Industrial and commercial Electronics manufacturing plants equipment and consumer products are located in nearly every State, but accounted for about one-fourth each; the majority of electronics manufac components produced as replacement turing workers in early 1967 were em parts were only a small percentage of ployed in seven States: California, total shipments. (Components pro New York, New Jersey, Illinois, duced as original equipment for end Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and products are included in the ship Indiana. Metropolitan areas with ments value of the end products.) large numbers of electronics manu Military and space products in facturing workers included Chicago, clude electronic guidance and tele Los Angeles, New York, Philadelphia, metering systems for missiles and Newark, Boston, Baltimore, and spacecraft; radar and other detection Indianapolis. devices; automatic communications In addition to the employees in and computing systems; gyroscopes electronics manufacturing plants, and other navigational equipment; over 75,000 electronics workers were and fire controls (such as air-to-air employed in the Federal Govern target seeking and detonating equip ment, universities, and nonprofit ment) . Some important commercial research centers, in such activities as and industrial electronic products are research, development, and the ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING negotiation and administration of ment plants, particularly where contracts. products are mass-produced. For example, in the manufacture of cir cuit boards, many plants use auto How Electronic Products Are Made matic punch presses to make holes in thin sheets of plastic (one or both Many plants manufacturing elec sides of which is coated with a thin tronic products specialize in one type layer of copper) so that components of end product, such as television can be attached. Machines are used sets, radios, or electronic computers; to etch electrical circuits, which re or one type of component, such as place wires, on the circuit boards. television picture tubes, power tubes, Machines also position components or semiconductors. In plants which into the proper holes in the circuit produce several types of end products boards. Mechanical devices bend the or components, each type is generally wires or metal “ears” on the bottom made in a separate department. of the components, locking them into Subassemblies, such as tuners and place on the board. Wire leads on record changers, are often made in the components are commonly plants specializing in these products. soldered to the etched circuits in one Research and development activities continuous operation (called “dip” are performed in establishments spe or “wave” soldering). cializing in such work, or in separate Parts used in end products are departments of manufacturing plants. usually brought to the assembly line A large proportion of workers in by hand truck since most electronic plants manufacturing end products parts are not bulky. They may be are engaged in assembly operations. loose in boxes, fed from hoppers Inspecting and testing of subassem (receptacles for parts), or held in blies and end products are also impor special containers or jigs. During tant activities. Some end-product assembly operations, components and plants have fabricating and process subassemblies are inspected and ing departments in which workers do tested to locate faulty parts or con machining, sheet-metal work, and nections or other defects. cleaning and coating of metals, such In components manufacturing as painting and plating; and plastic plants, most assembly work is done molding. by machine. Some types of compo In assembling radios, television nents are usually assembled by hand, sets, and other end products pro such as experimental parts, special duced in large quantities, major sub- purpose tubes, and extremely tiny assemblies, such as circuit boards or semiconductors used in military and panels, transformers, tuners, tubes, space equipment. Electronic compo and speakers are attached mainly by nents are inspected and tested many hand onto a chassis. A moving con times, beginning with visual inspec veyor is often used to transport the tion of raw materials as they enter chassis from one work station to the plant and continuing through all another. Assembled units are placed stages of manufacture. into metal, plastic, or wooden cab inets. Where complex electronic products are made in small lots, as Electronics Manufacturing in the case of scientific and research Occupations devices and of electronic equipment A wide variety of occupations, re used in space exploration, one or two workers may assemble a complete quiring a broad range of training and skills, is found in plants manufactur unit by hand. Semiautomatic and automatic ma ing electronic products. About half chinery are being used more and the workers in electronics manufac more to perform processing and turing are in plant jobs (production, assembly operations in end-equip maintenance, transportation, and 537 service); the rest are in white-collar jobs (engineering, scientific, finance, administrative, clerical, and sales). The proportions of plant and white-collar workers differ from one establishment to another, depending mainly on the products being manu factured. For example, the propor tion of plant workers is generally higher in establishments producing consumer products than in establish ments manufacturing military and space products. More than two-fifths of the work ers employed in electronics manufac turing plants are women. In some plants, particularly those producing electron tubes and semiconductors, women account for half or more of total employment. Most women are employed as semiskilled plant work ers, chiefly as assemblers, inspectors, and testers, and as office workers. However, opportunities for women exist in nearly all types of jobs in electronics. Professional and Technical Occupa tions. A large proportion of electron ics manufacturing workers are in engineering, scientific, and other technical jobs. Engineers and scien tists alone represent about 1 out of 7 electronics workers. Generally, they account for a much larger proportion of employment in plants making mil itary and space equipment than in those producing other types of elec tronic products. The largest group of engineers is electrical or electronics engineers. They are generally employed in re search and development, although many work in production operations as design engineers or as test methods and quality control engineers. Elec tronics engineers also work as field engineers, sales engineers, or engineer ing liaison men. Substantial numbers of mechanical engineers and industrial engineers are also employed in electronics manu facturing plants. Mechanical engi neers work as design engineers in product development and in tool and equipment design. They work also as 538 plant engineers—chiefly concerned with the maintenance layout, and operation of plant equipment. Most industrial engineers work as produc tion engineers or as efficiency, meth ods, or time-study engineers. Other engineers employed in electronics manufacturing include chemical, metallurgical, and ceramic engineers. Physicists make up the largest group of scientists in electronics man ufacturing. Most of them do research and development work in connection with such products as microwave tubes and microminiaturized compo nents and circuits. Microminiaturiza tion refers to the development of ex tremely tiny, light-weight electronic devices which consume very small amounts of power. Many scientists in electronics manufacturing are chem ists and metallurgists, employed mainly in research work and in mate rials testing. Mathematicians and statisticians work with engineers and scientists on complex mathematical and statistical problems, especially in the design of military and space equipment and computers. Statisti cians are also employed in the fields of quality control, production sched uling, and sales analysis and plan ning. Industrial designers work on the design of electronic products and the equipment used to manufacture them. Technicians—such as electronics technicians, draftsmen, engineering aids, laboratory technicians, and mathematical assistants represent a large group of electronics manufac turing workers, roughly 1 out of 11. Many electronics technicians are engaged in research and development work, helping engineers in the design and construction of experimental models. They are also employed by manufacturers to work on electronic equipment in customers’ establish ments. Other electronics technicians work in highly technical inspecting, testing, and assembly jobs in the engi neering laboratories of firms manu facturing electronic products. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK commercial products and in establish ments doing research and develop ment work. They prepare training and technical manuals describing the operation and maintenance of elec tronic equipment. They also prepare catalogs, product literature, and pro ject reports and proposals. Specifica tions writers compile lists of required measurements and materials. Tech nical illustrators draw pictures of electronic equipment, for technical publications and sales literature. Research technician analyzes quality of ma terials for electronic components. Draftsmen are usually employed in engineering departments to prepare drawings from sketches or specifica tions furnished by engineers. Manu facturers of military and space equipment generally employ a higher proportion of draftsmen than do manufacturers of other types of elec tronic products. E ngineering aids are another im portant group of technicians. They assist engineers by making calcula tions, sketches, and drawings, and by conducting performance tests on com ponents and systems. Laboratory technicians help physicists, chemists, and engineers by performing such duties as setting up apparatus and as sisting in laboratory analyses and ex periments. Some laboratory tech nicians may themselves conduct analyses and experiments, usually of a standardized, routine nature. Mathematical assistants help to solve mathematical problems, following procedures outlined by mathe maticians. They also operate test equipment used in the development of electronic computers. Technical writers work closely with engineers, particularly in plants making military-space and industrial- Administrative Clerical, and Related Occupations. About 1 out of 4 work ers in electronics manufacturing plants are in administrative or other office jobs. Administrative workers include purchasing agents, sales ex ecutives, personnel workers, advertis ing personnel and marketing research specialists. Clerks, secretaries, stenog raphers, typists, and business ma chine operators, many of whom are women, are among the thousands of other office workers employed by electronics manufacturing firms. A small but growing proportion of these office workers operate electronic com puters and auxiliary equipment. Most of these computers are used to process office records, including payroll, pro duction, costs, sales, and inventory data. Plant Occupations. About half of electronics manufacturing employees work in assembly, inspecting and test ing, machining, fabricating, process ing, maintenance, and other plant op erations. The proportion of workers in each of these operations differs among electronics plants depending largely on whether end products or components are produced, and the types manufactured. For example, the proportion of assemblers is higher in plants making components and consumer end products than in plants producing military space equipment, and industrial-commercial products. The proportion of machining and fabricating workers is higher among ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING manufacturers of military space equipment and industrial-commercial products than among manufacturers of other types of products. Assembly occupations (D.O.T. 729.884; 720.884; 726.781 and .884). Assemblers make up the largest group of electronics plant workers. Both end-product and component manufacturing firms employ as semblers with many different skills. However, most assemblers are semi skilled workers. Most end products are assembled mainly by hand, with small handtools, soldering irons, and light welding devices. Assemblers use diagrams, models, and color-coded parts and wires to help them in their work. Some assembly work is done by fol lowing instructions presented on color slides and tape recordings. Color slides flash a picture of an assembly sequence on a viewing screen while the assembler listens to recorded directions. Precision assemblers install com ponents and subassemblies into end products in which moving parts and mechanisms must operate within clearances measured in thousandths, or even millionths, of an inch. Some of these assembly workers do repair Machine operator checks wave-soldered printed circuit board. work, experimental and develop mental work, and model assembly work. Most precision assemblers are employed in the manufacture of mili tary space and industrial-commercial electronic equipment. Machines are used in some as sembly work on end products. For example, in putting together subas semblies such as circuit boards, auto matic machines are often used to position components on the boards and to solder connections. Here the assemblers work as machine operators or loaders. Most components are assembled by machines, since their assembly in volves many separate but simple and repetitive operations. Even some types of miniaturized semiconductors and other components, made with parts small enough to pass through the eye of a needle, are now assembled on highly complex machines. Some of these machines are automatically controlled. Hand assembly is needed for some components, such as receiving tubes, special purpose tubes, and some types of transistors, diodes, capacitors, and resistors. Hand assemblers may only perform a single operation on these components as they move down the assembly line, but some may com pletely assemble a particular type of component. Tiny components are often hand-assembled under magnify ing lenses or powerful microscopes. Hand assemblers may sometimes use machines to assist them in per forming assembly operations on com ponents. For example, precision welding equipment may be used to weld connections in microminiature components and circuit assemblies. Some circuit assemblies are so small that hundreds of components may be precision welded in a cubic inch of space. Machines may also be used to position and hold component parts during assembly operations. Hand assemblers are also employed in electronics research laboratories 530 and in the research and development departments of electronics manufac turers. These workers—frequently called electronics technicians—gen erally do difficult assembly work on small quantities of complex, often ex perimental, equipment. They may also work on the development of new ways to assemble large quantities of components or subassemblies by ma chine. Some electronics technicians install subassemblies into complex systems such as those in guided mis siles. These hand assemblers usually must know enough electronics theory to understand the operation of the items being assembled. Most assemblers are women. They are employed mainly as machine op erators or tenders and as hand as semblers of items made in large quantities. Men are chiefly employed in experimental assembly work, in model assembly, and in assembly jobs requiring relatively heavy work. Men are also employed in assembly depart ments as “trouble shooters.” These workers analyze end products and subassemblies which have failed routine performance tests, to pinpoint the exact cause of faulty operation. Machining occupations. Metal ma chining workers are employed in most electronics manufacturing plants, particularly those making militaryspace and industrial-commercial products. Machine-tool operators and machinists operate power-driven machine tools to produce metal parts of electronic products. Toolmakers construct and repair jigs and fixtures used in the- fabrication and assembly of parts. Diemakers specialize in mak ing metal forms (dies) used in punch and power presses to shape metal parts. Fabricating occupations. Fabricat ing workers are employed in many electronics manufacturing plants, but the largest proportion is in establish ments producing industrial-commer cial products. Among the fabricating workers are sheet-metal workers who make frames, chassis, and cabinets. 540 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tronics manufacturing workers is en gaged in processing activities, chiefly in plants producing electronic com ponents. Electroplaters and tinners (D.O.T. 501.885) coat many parts with metal. Anodizers (D.O.T. 501.782) treat parts in electrolytic and chemical baths to prevent corrosion, iSilk screen operators (D.O.T. 726.887) print patterns on circuit boards and on parts of electronic components. Many women are employed as assemblers in the electronics industry. Glass blowers and glass lathe opera tors (D.O.T. 674.782) are employed chiefly in electronic tube experi mentation and development work; in the manufacture of special purpose tubes, which are made in small num bers ; and in rebuilding television pic ture tubes. Other fabricating workers include punch press operators, blank ing machine operators and shear operators. Some fabricating jobs involve the molding, firing, and glazing of ceramics used as insulating materials in many components. Workers may also operate machines that mold plas tic components. In electron tube man ufacturing, special fabricating work ers are employed. For example, grid lathe operators (D.O.T. 725.884) make grids (devices in electronic tubes which control the flow of elec trons) by winding fine wire around two heavy parallel wires. Other fabri cating workers include spot welders, coil winders (D.O.T. 724.781 and .884) and crystal grinders and finish ers (D.O.T. 726.884). Processing occupations. A relatively small but important group of elec Etching e q u i p m e n t operators (D.O.T. 590.885) do chemical etch ing of copper on circuit boards. Processing workers also impregnate or coat coils and other electronic components with waxes, oils, or other materials. Some operate machines which encase microminiature compo nents in plastic resin to join and in sulate them in circuits, seal out moisture, and reduce chances of connection failure caused by heat and vibration. Another group of processing work ers operate furnaces, ovens, and kilns, used chiefly to harden ceramics, bake on coatings, and eliminate contam ination by gases and foreign materials. Operators of infrared ovens and hy drogen furnace fires (D.O.T. 590.885) rid tubes of foreign deposits. In tube manufacturing, exhaust op erators (D.O.T. 725.884) and sealers (D.O.T. 692.885) operate gas flame machines which seal the mount (the part of an electronic tube consisting of a Bakelite base and stem) in the tube, clear the tube of impurities, exhaust the gas, and seal the tube. Testing and inspection. Testing and inspection in electronics manu facturing begin when raw materials enter the plants, and continue throughout fabricating operations. Finished components and end prod ucts undergo thorough testing and inspection, frequently including op eration for a period of time, before shipment. In end-product manufacturing plants, testers use voltmeters, oscillo scopes, and other test meters to make certain that components, subassem ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURING blies, and end products conform to specifications. Many of these workers have job titles that indicate the type of work they do, such as analyzer, final tester, tuner tester, and opera tional tester. Some testing jobs require techni cally trained workers who have had several years of experience in elec tronic testing. These jobs are com monly found in research and devel opment work, where electronics technicians test, adjust, and aline circuits and systems as part of their overall responsibility. These jobs are also found in complex production work, such as the manufacture of missiles and spacecraft. In component manufacturing plants, components are checked manually by testers using various types of test meters, or routed me chanically through automatic test equipment. Some automatic equip ment can check a large number of component characteristics, produce a punched tape of test results and sort the components into batches for shipping. Although many of these workers are simply called component testers, others have job titles which reflect the type of components they test, such as transformer tester, coil tester, and magnetic component Inspector tests power supply module. tester. Workers who feed or monitor automatic test equipment are often called test-set operators or testingmachine operators. The work of inspectors in endproduct plants varies from checking incoming materials to inspecting subassemblies and final products for flaws in circuit assembly, etching, plating, painting, and labeling. Elec tronic assembly inspectors (D.O.T. 722.281) examine assembled elec tronic units to make certain that they conform to blueprints and specifica tions, and check wire routing, electrical connections, and quality of units. Mechanical and precision inspectors check mechanical assem blies and precision parts. Inspectors in end-product plants may use tools such as measuring scales, microme ters, calipers, and magnifying glasses in their work. Inspectors in component manu facturing plants check incoming raw materials and subassemblies before, during, and after fabricating and processing operations. They may in spect wire leads on diodes for straightness or length, wire winding on coils for evenness or breakage, and completed tubes for loose wires, scratched paint, corrosion, and de fective etches and identifying labels. Some inspectors make repairs on de fective components. Tools used by inspectors in com ponents plants may include magnify ing lenses, micrometers, calipers, tweezers, and, in some circumstances, microscopes. These inspectors may have job titles that indicate the work they do, such as incoming materials inspector, plating inspector, power tube inspector, coil inspector, ma chine parts inspector, and precision inspector. Maintenance occupations. Many maintenance workers with different types of training are employed in electronics manufacturing plants to take care of machinery and equip ment. Skilled electricians are respon sible for the proper operation of electrical equipment. Machine and equipment repairmen perform me 541 chanical repairs. Hydraulic mechan ics s p e c i a l i z e in maintaining hydraulic equipment. Maintenance machinists and welders build and re pair equipment, jigs, and fixtures. Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics are employed in electron ics plants which are air-conditioned and have special refrigerated and dust-free rooms. Painters, plumbers, pipefitters, carpenters, sheet-metal workers, and other building mainte nance craftsmen are also employed in electronics plants. Other plant occupations. Parts changer (D.O.T. 729.381) is another important occupation in electronic manufacturing plants. These workers repair assembled electronic products which have been tagged for replace ment of defective parts. Women are frequently e m p l o y e d as parts changers, Many workers are employed in materials movement and handling. These workers include operators of plant trucks and tractors; forklift op erators who stack crates and load and unload trucks and boxcars; and truckdrivers who handle transporta tion outside the plant. Other occupa tions include boiler operator and stationary engineer. (Detailed discussions of profes sional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations found not only in electronics manufacturing plants but also in other industries are given else where in the Handbook, in sections covering the individual occupations.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Electronics manufacturing plants employ many engineers, scientists, and technicians, because of the tech nical nature of plant production operations and the great emphasis on research and development work. Be ginning engineering jobs are usually filled by recent graduates of engineer ing colleges (some with advanced degrees). A small number of workers without college degrees are upgraded to professional engineering classifica 542 tions from such occupations as engi neering assistant and electronics technician. Workers who become engineers in this way usually have taken advanced electronics courses in night school or under other training programs. To keep up with new de velopments in their fields and to help them qualify for promotion, profes sional and technical personnel obtain additional training, read technical publications, and attend lectures and technical demonstrations. Almost all mathematicians, phys icists, and other scientists employed in electronics manufacturing plants have college degrees and many have advanced degrees. Job prospects are usually better for scientists with at least a master’s degree than for those with only a bachelor’s degree. Technicians generally need some specialized training to qualify for their jobs. Most electronics tech nicians have attended either a public, private, or Armed Forces technical school. Some have obtained their training through apprenticeships, usually of 3 or 4 years’ duration. Ap plicants with a high school education, including courses in mathematics and science, are preferred for these apprenticeships. Some workers be come electronics technicians by being upgraded from such jobs as tester and experimental assembler, after they have developed required skills on the job and acquired the necessary knowledge in basic electronics theory, mathematics, drafting, and reading of schematic diagrams. This knowl edge is usually obtained by taking courses in company-operated classes, night school, junior college, technical school, or by correspondence. Electronics technicians need color vision, manual dexterity, and good eye-hand coordination. As in the case of other technical workers, they must be able to understand technical pub lications. Some technicians who do final testing that requires the opera tion of radio transmitting equipment must hold licenses from the Federal Communications Commission as firstor second-class commercial radiotele phone operators. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Laboratory technicians, engineer ing and scientific aids, and mathe matical assistants frequently have had 1 year or more of college training in a scientific or engineering field, but have not completed course requirements for a degree. In other cases, these workers have been upgraded from jobs as lower grade assistants in engi neering laboratories or as high-grade testers in production departments. In hiring lower grade assistants, elec tronics firms give preference to high school graduates who have completed high school courses in mathematics, physics, and chemistry. Draftsmen usually enter their trade by taking a course in drafting at a trade or technical school; a few have completed a 3- or 4-year apprentice ship. Some qualify for their jobs under an informal arrangement with their employers which provides for both on-the-job training and part-time schooling. Because many draftsmen must understand the basic principles of electronic circuits to do their work, they should study basic electronic theory and circuits and the reading of electronic schematic diagrams. Technical writers must have a flair for writing and are usually required to have some technical training. Elec tronics firms prefer to hire those who have had some technical institute or college training in science or engi neering. Some have college engineer ing degrees. Many have college de grees in English and journalism and have received their technical training on the job and by attending companyoperated evening classes. Technical illustrators have usually attended special schools of art or design. Many tool and die makers, ma chinists, electricians, pipefitters, car penters, and other craftsmen in elec tronics manufacturing learn their trades by completing a 4- or 5-year apprenticeship. Some enter these trades through upgrading from help ers’ jobs. Some take courses at voca tional schools. Formal training in electronics is usually not necessary for workers en tering plant jobs, but completion of high school is frequently required. Job applicants may have to pass aptitude tests and demonstrate skill for par ticular types of work. On-the-job training, usually for a short period, is generally provided for workers who have had no previous experience. As semblers, testers, and inspectors need good vision, good color perception, manual dexterity, and patience. Requirements for filling adminis trative and other office jobs are simi lar to those in other industries. Cer tain beginning administrative jobs in electronics manufacturing are gener ally open only to college graduates with degrees in business administra tion, accounting, or engineering. More and more employers are re quiring college training for adminis trative jobs in advertising, personnel, accounting, and sales. For clerical jobs, employers usually prefer appli cants who are high school graduates with special training in stenography, typing, bookkeeping, and office ma chine operation. Employment’ Outlook Electronics manufacturing will pro vide tens of thousands of job oppor tunities annually during the late 1960’s and throughout the 1970’s. A rapid rate of growth in electronics employment is expected over this period, assuming relatively full em ployment in the Nation’s economy and the high levels of economic ac tivity needed to achieve this goal. In addition to the many thousands of job opportunities resulting from em ployment growth, large numbers of job openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Re tirements and deaths alone will pro vide an estimated 35,000 job open ings annually—about 10,000 for men and 25,000 for women. Employment in the electronics in dustry is expected to rise rapidly but the rate of increases will vary by ma jor product category. The most rapid employment growth is expected for industrial-commercial products. Busi- ELECTRONICS MANWACTURING nessmen are expected to spend in creasing amounts for electronic equipment to automate and mech anize data processing and production processes, especially for such items as computers and numerical controls for machine tools. Demand is also expected to grow for navigational, test, educational, and radio commu nications equipment. Production of electronic equipment for the medical and atomic energy fields will also ex pand greatly. In addition, many new fields are being explored for applica tions of electronic devices, including automated highways and railways and water desalinization and purifi cation. The demand for consumer items is also expected to increase rapidly as population, family formations, and personal spendable incomes rise over the period. The demand for military and space electronic equipment is ex pected to grow slowly over the period. This projection is based on the as sumption that the level of defense expenditures, an important determi nant of output in this product cate gory, will return to the pre-Vietnam level during the 1970’s. Moreover, it assumes that expenditures for pro grams to explore outer space and the ocean depths will continue at ap proximately current levels. If these assumptions should not be realized, em ploym ent levels in this sector of the industry will be affected. The increase in electronics em ployment in all product categories probably will not be as great as the expansion in output, however, be cause technological improvements in production methods are expected to increase output per worker. For ex ample, increasing mechanization of operations formerly done by hand will tend to reduce labor require ments, particularly in plants where products are mass-produced, such as television and radio sets, and com ponents. However, mechanized man ufacturing processes are difficult to adapt to the fabrication of many types of highly complex electronic products. Although employment in elec tronics manufacturing is expected to grow rapidly over the period, the rates of growth will vary among oc cupational groups and individual oc cupations. For example, the demand for skilled maintenance personnel, particularly instrument repairmen, is expected to rise at a rapid rate, be cause of the need to maintain and repair the increasing amounts of complex machinery. On the other hand, employment of semiskilled workers is anticipated to rise slowly because of the growing mechaniza tion and automation of assembly line operations. The overall demand for engineers, scientists, and technicians is expected to increase because of continued high •expenditures for research and de velopment, and the continuing trend toward the production of complex equipment. Among professional and technical workers, the greatest de mand will be for engineers with ad vanced degrees, particularly those who have a background in certain 543 specialized fields, including quantum mechanics, solid-state circuitry, prod uct design, and industrial engineer ing. The demand for engineers pos sessing selling ability will rise rapidly because the increasing complexity of industrial and commercial equip ment will require salesmen with highly technical backgrounds. The demand for mathematicians and physicists will be particularly great because of expanding research in computer and laser technology. Earnings and Working Conditions Average hourly and weekly earn ings of production workers in elec tronics manufacturing industries vary considerably by type of product produced. As shown in the following tabulation, production workers in in dustries making military-space and industrial-commercial products had higher average earnings in mid-1967 than those in industries producing other major types of electronic prod ucts. Type of product All manufacturing industries....................................................... Major electronics manufacturing industries: Military-space and industrial-commercial electronics end products.......................................................................................... Electron tubes..................................................................................... Radio and television receiving sets, and phonographs............ Semiconductors and other com ponents, except tu b es................ Earnings of individual production workers may differ from the averages shown above since such earnings de pend not only on the type of plant in which they work but also on factors such as skill level and experience, length of service, geographic location, and amount of overtime. Electronics workers generally re ceive premium pay for overtime work and for work on Sundays and holi days. Virtually all plants provide ex tra pay for evening and night shift work. Many workers in electronics manu facturing plants receive 2 or 3 weeks’ vacation with pay, depending on their length of service, and from 6 to 8 paid Average hourly earnings $2. 82 3. 03 2.61 2. 42 2. 36 Average w eekly earnings $114. 49 125. 14 103. 10 92. 20 91. 57 holidays a year. Almost all electronics workers are covered by health and life insurance plans; many are cov ered by pension plans and other fringe benefits. Working conditions in electronics manufacturing compare favorably with those in other industries. Plants are usually well lighted, clean, and quiet. Many plants are relatively new and are located in suburban and semirural areas. Most plant departments are air conditioned where dust-free conditions or air temperature control is necessary for the manufacture of certain types of electronic equipment. The work in most electronics occupa- KAA U liJ C tions is not strenuous. Many assembly line operations are repetitious. Music during working hours, cafeterias, recreational facilities, and social pro grams are provided for employees by some electronics manufacturing firms. The frequency of injuries in elec tronics manufacturing is far below the average in manufacturing as a whole, and injuries are usually less severe. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Many workers in electronics manu facturing are covered by labor-man agement agreements. The principal unions involved are the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Ma chine Workers; International Broth erhood of Electrical Workers; Inter national Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; and the United Electrical, Radio and Ma chine Workers of America (Ind.). Where To Go for More Information Further information concerning careers in electronics manufacturing can be obtained from die public re lations department of individual elec tronics manufacturing companies and from: Electronic Industries Association, 2001 Eye St. NW., Washington, D.G. 20006. OCCUPATIONS IN FOUNDRIES The metal castings produced by foundry workers are essential parts of thousands of products ranging from automobile engines to cooking utensils. In early 1967, an estimated 400,000 workers were employed in the Nation’s foundries and in foundry departments of other metalworking establishments. Casting is a method of forming metal into a wide range of intricate shapes. To cast metal, a mold is pre pared with a cavity in it that has been shaped by a pattern or model of the object to be cast. Metal is then melted and poured into the mold cavity, where it cools and solidifies. Castings may range in length from a fraction of an inch to many feet. They may weigh anywhere from less than an ounce to many tons. The considerable strength and rigidity of cast objects makes the casting process suitable for producing thousands of items for household and industrial uses. Among these products are ma chine bases, ship propellers, bearings, industrial valves, water faucets, water mains, engine blocks, dies, gears, mo tor frames, railroad car wheels, and aircraft and missile components. ployed in ferrous foundries—those that make castings of iron and steel. About three-fifths of these workers are employed in ferrous foundries that produce gray and ductile iron castings; the remainder are employed in malleable iron and steel foundries. About 90,000 work ers are employed in nonferrous found ries. Most of this group work in foundries that make brass, bronze, aluminum, magnesium, and zinc cast ings. Approximately 70,000 foundry workers are employed in foundry departments of other metalworking establishments. Foundries usually spe cialize in casting a particular metal, since somewhat different methods and equipment are used in melting and in casting the different metals. However, many nonferrous foundries and some ferrous foundries cast several metals. With additional training, foundry workers are capable of transferring from foundries casting one type of metal to foundries casting a different one. Foundries are usually small estab lishments. More than 90 percent em ploy fewer than 250 workers each. However, large foundries with 500 workers or more employ about onethird of all foundry workers. More than two-thirds of the foundry work ers are employed in independent shops that sell their castings to other firms. Most of the remaining workers are employed in the foundry depart ments of plants that use castings in their final products, such as machin ery and motor vehicles. Some foundry workers are employed in foundry pat tern shops in various metalworking plants, and in shops that make pat terns on order. There are five principal methods of casting, each named for the type of mold used. The most common of these is green-sand molding. In this method, sand composed chiefly of sil ica, clay, and moisture is packed in a boxlike container, called a flask, around a pattern. After the pattern is withdrawn, molten metal is poured into the mold cavity to form the de sired metal shape. Sand molds can be used only once, but the sand is usually reconditioned and reused. A second method, called permanent molding, employs a metal instead of a sand mold. Metal molds, which can be used many times, are used chiefly for casting nonferrous products. How ever, some ferrous castings are also produced by this method. Precision investment casting, a third method (often known as the “lost wax” process), uses ceramic molds. In this method, a wax or plas tic pattern is coated with refractory Employment In 27 Selected Foundry Occupations THOUSANDS OF WORKERS ^ MOLDERS CHIPPERS& GRINDERS COREMAKERS PATTERNMAKERS MELTERS & POURERS Nature and Location of Foundry Work An estimated 240,000 of the foundry industry’s workers are em SHAKEOUT MEN INSPECTORS, CASTINGS _ ! / E stim a te d .e a rly 1967 545 546 clay. After the coating hardens, the pattern is melted and drained, leaving a mold cavity into which molten metal is poured. Castings produced from these molds are precise and re quire little machining. Shell molding, a fourth process, is becoming increasingly important. In this method, a heated metal pattern is covered with sand coated with resin. The sand forms a thin shell mold that, after curing, is stripped from the pat tern. Castings produced from these molds are precise and have a smooth surface. The process is even used more widely to make cores, which form designed cavities in the castings. Die casting, a fifth process, is done entirely by machines operated by die casting machine operators. In this method, molten metal under high pressure is forced into dies from which the castings are later automatically ejected, or removed by hand, when the metal solidifies. Small foundries generally produce small amounts of different kinds of castings for* nearby metal fabricating plants. These foundries ordinarily are not highly mechanized. They employ hand and machine molders and core makers (the key foundry occupa tions), and a substantial number of unskilled laborers. Many of these foundries produce large castings, and require the skills of floor molders. Large foundries are often highly mechanized and produce great quan tities of identical castings. These shops employ relatively few unskilled labor ers because cranes, conveyors, and other types of materials-handling equipment are used in place of hand labor to move materials, molds, and castings. However, proportionately greater numbers of skilled mainte nance workers, such as millwrights and electricians, are employed in these foundries to service and repair the large amount of machinery and equipment. Also, these shops employ proportionately fewer skilled molders and coremakers. There are foundry jobs in every State and in most large- and mediumsize cities in the country. Because OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK foundries usually are located near plants where their castings are used, foundry jobs tend to be concentrated in States where there is considerable metalworking activity; for example, in Michigan, Ohio, Illinois, Pennsyl vania, Indiana, and Wisconsin. Foundry Occupations More than four-fifths of the ap proximately 400,000 workers in foundries and foundry departments in early 1967 were employed in plant occupations. More than half of the plant workers were employed in oc cupations not found in other indus tries. To illustrate more clearly the duties of these workers, a brief de scription of the jobs involved in the most common casting process—sand casting—follows: After the casting is designed, the patternmaker makes a wood or metal pattern in the shape of the casting desired. Next, a hand molder (D.O.T. 518.381) makes sand molds by pack ing and ramming sand, specially pre pared by a sand mixer (D.O.T. 579.782), around the pattern. A molder’s helper (D.O.T. 519.887) may assist in these operations. If large numbers of identical castings are to be made, molding machines may be used to make the molds at a faster speed than is possible by hand. The operator of this equipment is called a machine molder. A coremaker shapes sand, specially prepared by a sand mixer, into cores (bodies of sand designed usually to create hollow spaces in castings). Most cores are baked in an oven by a core-oven tender (D.O.T. 518.885). Core parts or sections are put togeth er by a core assembler (D.O.T. 518.887). After the cores are assem bled, they are placed in the molds by coresetters (D.O.T. 518.884) or Machine coremaker tends automatic equipment that produces cores. OOCUPATKXN19 IN FOUNDRIES molders. Now, the molds are ready for the molten metal to be poured. A furnace operator, or melter (D.O.T. 512.782) operates the fur nace that melts the metal. The metal is usually poured into molds by a pourer (D.O.T. 514.884), although in some small foundries molders may perform this task. When the castings have solidified, they are dumped from the molds by a shakeout man (D.O.T. 519.887) and sent to the cleaning and finishing department. The dirty and rough surfaces of the castings are cleaned and smoothed by blasting or tumbling, and chipping and grinding. A shotblaster (D.O.T. 503.887) operates a machine that cleans the castings by blasting them with air mixed with metal shot or grit. The castings may be smoothed by tumbling. In this process, the cast ings together with an abrasive mate rial, and sometimes water, are placed in a barrel which is rotated. As the barrel turns, the castings tumble against each other, thereby removing sand, burrs, and scale. The man who controls the barrel is called a tumbler operator (D.O.T. 599.885). Sand blasters and tumbler operators may also operate a machine which both tumbles and blasts the castings. A chipper (D.O.T. 809.884) and a grinder (D.O.T. 809.884) use pneu matic chisels, powered abrasive wheels, powersaws, and handtools, such as hammers, chisels, and files, to remove excess metal and to finish the castings. Castings are frequently heat treated in furnaces to improve the physical properties of the metal; a heat treater, or annealer (D.O.T. 504.782), operates these furnaces. Before the castings are packed for shipment, a casting inspector (D.O.T. 514.687) checks them to make sure they are structurally sound and meet blue print specifications. The estimated number of workers in the principal occupations unique to foundries and foundry departments are shown in chart 50. Detailed dis cussions of three of these occupa262-057 O— 68-----36 tions—patternmakers, coremakers, and molders—follow this chapter. Many foundry workers are em ployed in occupations that are com mon to other industries. For example, foundry maintenance mechanics, ma chinists, carpenters, and millwrights maintain and repair plant and equip ment. Crane and derrick operators and truckdrivers move castings and casting materials from place to place. Machine tool operators finish castings in the many foundries that do ma chine finishing work. Foundries also employ thousands of workers in un skilled jobs, such as guard, janitor, la borer, and helper. Nearly a fifth of all foundry work ers are employed in professional, tech nical, administrative, clerical, and sales occupations. Of these personnel, the largest number are clerical work ers, such as secretaries, stenograph ers, typists, and accounting clerks. Foundries also employ substantial numbers of professional and technical workers, such as engineers, and metal lurgists. Some of these employees do research; others make designs and lay outs of machinery and equipment; control the quality of castings; or su pervise plant operations and mainte nance. In recent years, increasing numbers of these workers have been hired to sell castings and to assist cus tomers in designing cast parts. Found ry technicians are employed in a va riety of functions concerning the control of quality in casting produc tion. For example, they may test molding and coremaking sand, make chemical analyses of metal, and oper ate machines that test the strength and hardness of castings. In this work they may use X-ray or magnetic ap paratus to inspect the internal struc ture of castings. Administrative workers employed in foundries include office managers, personnel workers, purchasing agents, plant managers, and other supervi sory workers. (Detailed discussions of profes sional, technical, mechanical, office, and other occupations found in the 547 foundry industry as well as in many other industries are given in the sec tions of the Handbook covering indi vidual occupations.) The foundry work force is predom inately male, since much of the work connected with the production of castings is strenuous. Women are em ployed primarily in office jobs, al though some are employed in produc tion occupations such as coremaker. Women also assemble wax and plastic patterns in investment c a s t i n g foundries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most foundry plant workers start in unskilled jobs, such as laborer or helper. A worker may begin as a la borer and, after receiving informal on-the-job training from a foreman or experienced worker, he may gradu ally learn how to perform the more skilled jobs. This is the usual practice in training workers for such direct casting process jobs as melter, chip per, and grinder. Some skilled foundry workers—particularly hand molders, hand coremakers, and patternmakers— learn their jobs through formal ap prenticeship. In this type of training, the young worker is given supervised on-the-job training for a period of 4 or 5 years, usually supplemented by classroom instruction. A worker who has completed an apprenticeship pro gram is usually preferred by foundry management because he has a greater working knowledge of all foundry operations and is, therefore, better qualified to fill supervisory jobs. An increasing number of skilled foundry workers learn their jobs through a combination of trade school and on-the-job training. Begin ning workers may attend trade schools that offer training in foundry work before entering a formal apprentice ship program; in some cases, trade school courses may be credited to ward completion of formal appren ticeships. 548 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook The foundry industry will hire thousands of workers a n n u a l l y through the 1970’s, mainly to replace experienced workers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Be cause the industry employs a large number of workers, retirements and deaths alone will provide about 9,000 job openings annually. A substantial increase in foundry production is expected during the decade ahead. Growing population and rising levels of personal dispos able income will result in expanded consumer outlays for most products, resulting in greater demand for cast ings and products that include cast parts. These products include, for ex ample, automobiles, plumbing fix tures, air conditioners, household ap pliances, and gas and water lines. New machinery, much of which will be made with cast components, will also be needed to produce the increas ing quantity of goods needed to sat isfy the requirements of an expanding population. In addition, the need for modern transportation systems to transport the output of a growing economy will stimulate the demand for castings used in trucks, buses, rail road cars, ships, and aircraft. Little or no change is expected in employment in foundries through the 1970’s. Continued improvements in casting methods, particularly in ma chine molding and coremaking, and the increasing use of machinery for materials handling, will result in greater output per foundry worker. Employment is expected to rise faster in some occupations than in others; in a few occupations, employ ment may actually decline. For ex ample, scientists, engineers, and other technical personnel are expected to increase more rapidly than other workers as a result of expanding re search and development activities. Technicians also will be needed in greater numbers as the foundry in dustry introduces improved quality control procedures and new produc tion techniques. More maintenance workers and operators of materials moving machines will be needed be cause of the increasing use of materials-handling equipment and more complex processing equipment. In contrast, the number of hand molders, hand coremakers, and other hand processing workers will show little change, because of the increasing sub stitution of machine molding and coremaking for hand processes. The number of laborers and other un skilled workers employed in the in dustry will continue to decline. Various labor unions have foundry workers in their membership. Among these unions are the International Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Union of North America; the United Steel workers of America; the Interna tional Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Imple ment Workers of America; and the International Union of Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers. Many patternmakers are members of the Pattern Makers’ League of North America. Earnings and Working Conditions Where To Go for More Information Foundry production workers had higher average hourly earnings than production workers in manufacturing as a whole. In early 1967, earnings of production workers in iron and steel foundries averaged $128.78 a week, or $3.03 an hour. In nonferrous foundries, the average was $120.30 a week, or $2.92 an hour. By compari son, production workers in all manu facturing industries had average earn ings of $113.02 a week, or $2.77 an hour. Collective bargaining contracts negotiated between foundry em ployers and unions generally included provisions for fringe benefits, such as holiday pay, vacation pay, and retire ment pensions. Other important benefits often included in such con tracts were life, medical, and ac cident insurance. Working conditions in foundries have improved in recent years. Many foundries, through the installation of modem ventilating systems, new equipment, and improved plant lay out, have reduced the heat, fumes, and smoke that are part of foundry operations. Although the rate of dis abling work injuries in foundries is higher than the average for all manu facturing industries, employers and unions attempt to eliminate injuries by promoting safety training and by using protective equipment, such as face shields, metal toe shoes, metal helmets, and safety glasses. For further information about work and/or training opportunities in foundry occupations, inquiries should be directed to local foundries; the local office of the State employment service; the nearest office of the State apprenticeship agency or the Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U.S. Department of Labor; and the fol lowing organizations: Foundry Educational Foundation, 1138 Terminal Tower, Cleveland, Ohio 44113. International Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Union of North America, 1225 East McMillan St., Cincinnati, Ohio 45206. National Foundry Association, 9838 Roosevelt Road, P.O. Box 76, Westchester, 111. 60156. Non-Ferrous Founders’ Society, Inc., 14600 Detroit Ave., Cleveland, Ohio 44107. Gray and Ductile Iron Founders’ Society, Inc., National City— East 6 th Bldg., Cleveland, Ohio 44114. American Foundrymen’s Society, Golf and Wolf Rds., Des Plaines, 111. 60016. Malleable Founders’ Society, 781 Union Commerce Bldg., Cleve land, Ohio 44114. Steel Founders’ Society of America, Westview Towers, 21010 Center Ridge Rd., Rocky River, Ohio 44116. 549 OCCUPATIONS IN FOUNDRIES PATTERNMAKERS Nature of Work Foundry patternmakers are highly skilled craftsmen who build patterns used in making molds in which foundry castings are formed. Most of the workers in the occupation are metal patternmakers (D.O.T. 600.280) ; a somewhat smaller number are wood patternmakers (D.O.T. 661.281) . In the last decade or so, in creasing use has been made of plaster and plastics in pattemmaking. Al though these materials are used mainly by wood patternmakers, they are also used by metal patternmakers. In addition, a small number of pat ternmakers work exclusively with plaster and plastics. Patternmakers work from blue prints prepared by the engineering department or the customer’s design engineer. They make a precise pattern for the product, allowing for shrink age of molten metal used in the cast ing process and for other factors. The metal patternmaker prepares patterns from metal stock or from rough castings made from an original wood pattern. To shape and finish the patterns, he uses a variety of metal working machines, including the engine lathe, drill press, shaper, mill ing machine, power hacksaw, and grinder, as well as small handtools. The wood patternmaker selects the appropriate woodstock, lays out the pattern, marks the design for each sec tion on the proper piece of wood, and saws each piece roughly to size. He then shapes the rough pieces into final form, using various woodworking ma chines, such as circular saws, lathes, planers, bandsaws, and sanders, as well as many small handtools. Finally, he assembles the pattern segments by hand, using glue, screws, and nails. Standardize colors are used to finish the pattern. A high degree of accuracy is re quired to make patterns, since any imperfection in the pattern will be reproduced in the castings made from Patternmakers cover test tank mold with high-temperature coating. patternmaker. Because of the high degree of skill and the wide range of knowledge needed for patternmaking, it is difficult to learn the trade in formally on the job. In some in stances, skilled machinists have been able to transfer to metal patternmak ing with additional on-the-job train ing or experience. Good trade school courses in patternmaking provide useful preparation for the prospective apprentice. Such courses may be credited toward completion of the ap prenticeship period. However, these courses do not substitute for appren ticeship or other on-the-job training. The usual apprenticeship period for pattemmaking is 5 years. At least 144 hours of classroom instruction in related technical subjects are nor Training and Other Qualifications mally provided annually. There are Apprenticeship is the principal separate apprenticeship programs for means of qualifying as a journeyman wood and metal pattemmaking. it. Throughout his work, the pattern maker carefully checks each dimen sion of the pattern, using a variety of measuring instruments such as shrink rules, calipers, micrometers, and gages. Patternmakers also may make core boxes (in much the same man ner as patterns are constructed) and repair patterns and core boxes. More than half of the pattern makers work in specially equipped foundry pattern shops in plants mak ing such products as machinery, transportation equipment, and fabri cated metal products. Other pattern makers work in plants that make pat terns on order, or in pattern shops in independent foundries. 55(0 The patternmaker apprentice be gins by helping journeymen in routine duties. Then he makes simple pat terns under close supervision, gradu ally learning to use the various types of machines and handtools. As his training progresses, the work becomes increasingly complex and the super vision more general. Patternmaking, although not stren uous, requires considerable standing and moving about. A high degree of manual dexterity is especially impor tant because of the precise nature of many hand operations. The ability to visualize objects in three dimensions is also important. Employers generally require patternmaker apprentices to have had at least a high school education. Employment Outlook There will be a few thousand job openings for foundry patternmakers, mainly metal patternmakers, during the remainder of this decade and throughout the 1970’s. Most job openings will result from the need to replace experienced patternmakers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone will create several hundred job openings annually. Employment of foundry pattern makers—who numbered about 18,000 in early 1967—is expected to show little or no growth during the decade ahead, despite the anticipated substantial increase in foundry pro duction. The need for patternmakers will not increase as fast as production, because of the greater use of metal patterns in the production of large numbers of identical castings. Metal patterns can be used many times to make identical molds, thereby reduc ing the number of individual patterns needed to produce a given number of castings. Because patternmakers learn either basic metalworking or woodworking skills, they are prepared for employ ment in related fields when pattern making employment is not available. Wood patternmakers can qualify for OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK skilled woodworking jobs, such as cabinetmaker, and metal pattern makers can transfer their skills to machining occupations such as ma chinist or layout man. Earnings and Working Conditions Skilled patternmakers generally have higher average straight-time earnings than other skilled foundry workers. However, the earnings of both wood and metal patternmakers depend on the skill requirements of the job, the type of metal poured, and the geographic location of the foundries in which they are employed. Generally, metal patternmakers have higher average hourly earnings than wood patternmakers. In January 1967, average straight-time hourly earnings of wood patternmakers ranged from $3.53 in steel foundries to $4.23 in nonferrous foundries, ac cording to a national survey of wages and fringe benefits for 27 foundry oc cupations in 55 labor areas, made by the National Foundry Association. See “Where To Go for More In formation” in the introductory sec tion of this chapter. MOLDERS Nature of Work The molder prepares a mold which is made of specially prepared sand and which contains a hollow space in the shape of the item to be made. The mold is made by packing and ram ming prepared sand around a pat tern—-a model of the object to be duplicated—in a molding box called a flask. A flask is usually made in two parts which can be separated to allow removal of the pattern by the molder without damaging the mold cavity. Molten metal is poured into the cavity which, when solidified, forms the cast ing. A molder uses pneumatic-pow ered rammers and handtools, such as trowels, shovels, and mallets, to han dle, compact, and smooth the sand in molds made by hand. Most of the more than 50,000 workers in this occupation in early 1967 were machine molders; the rest were hand—bench and floor—mold ers. Machine molders (D.O.T. 518.782) operate machines which simplify and speed the making of large quantities of identical sand molds. Machine molders assemble the flask (molding box) and pattern on the machine table, fill the flask with prepared sand, and operate the ma chine by the properly timed use of its control levers and pedals. Many machine molders are skilled workers who set up and adjust their own ma chines. Some machine molders are semiskilled workers whose duties are limited to operating machines which are set up for them by more experi enced molders or maintenance men. Bench and floor molders use mainly hand methods to make the sand molds. Molds for small castings are usually made on the workbench by bench molders (D.O.T. 518.381); those for large and bulky castings are made on the foundry floor by floor molders (D.O.T. 518.381). Skill re quirements in this occupation vary considerably. An all-round hand molder (journeyman) makes many different kinds of molds. A less skilled molder does more repetitive work, specializing in a few simple types of molds. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Completion of a 4-year apprentice training program, or the equivalent in experience, is needed to become a journeyman molder and thus qualify both for all-round hand molding and for the specialized skilled or super visory jobs. Men with this training are also preferred for some kinds of machine molding. The molder apprentice works un der the close supervision of journey men who instruct him in the skills of 561 OCCUPATION® IN FOUNDRIES Hand molder* use trowels to finish floor mold. the craft. About half of the appren tice training is devoted directly to molding. The apprentice begins with a simple job, such as shoveling sand; and gradually takes on more difficult and responsible work, such as ram ming molds, withdrawing patterns, and setting cores. He also learns to operate the various types of molding machines. As his training progresses, he makes complete molds, beginning with simple shapes and progressing to those of increasing complexity. This training includes both floorwork and benchwork. In addition, the ap prentice may work in other foundry departments to develop all-round knowledge of foundry methods and practice. The apprentice usually re ceives at least 144 hours of classroom instruction each year in such subjects as shop arithmetic, metallurgy, and shop drawing. Molders’ helpers and less-skilled hand molders frequently learn mold ing skills informally on the job, and then seek jobs as journeymen. How ever, this way of learning the trade is often lengthier and less reliable than apprenticeship. Hand molders who do highly repetitive work usually learn their jobs during a brief training period. “Learners” (either men without pre vious foundry experience or upgraded foundry helpers) work with a molder engaged in making a particular kind of mold. After 2 to 6 months of this training, the learner is usually com petent to make the same mold, or one that is similar, without close super vision. The more difficult and responsible types of machine molding jobs also require formal or equivalent training. However, most machine molding jobs can be learned in 60 to 90 days of on-the-job training. An eighth grade education usually is the minimum requirement for ap prenticeship. Many employers, how ever, require additional education up to and including high school gradu ation for apprenticeship in skilled hand molding or machine molding jobs. Physical standards for molding jobs are fairly high. The molder stands at his work, moves about a great deal, and must do frequent lifting. The hand molder needs a high degree of manual dexterity and good vision. Since the work is fairly strenuous, very few women are employed as molders. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of molders depend on several factors, including the type of molding work performed—hand or machine; the specific type of hand or machine work performed; the skill requirements of the job; the type of metal poured; and the geo graphic location of the foundry in which they are employed. In Jan uary 1967, the average (median) straight-time hourly earnings of bench molders was $2.87; squeezermachine molders $2.92; heavy ma chine molders, $2.87; and floor molders, $3.05, according to a na tional survey of wages and fringe benefits for 27 foundry occupations in 55 labor areas, made by the National Foundry Association. As shown in the following tabulation of average (mean) straight-time hourly earnings for molding occupations, the highest earnings were received by squeezer-machine molders in nonferrous foundries. Type of molder Employment Outloox The need to replace molders who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die will provide most of the job openings for new workers in this trade through the 1970’s. Retire ments and deaths alone with provide approximately 1,000 openings an nually. Several hundred of these openings will be for molding appren tices. There will also be openings each year for workers in entry jobs in machine molding and in the less skilled types of hand molding. Employment of molders is ex pected to show little or no growth during the decade ahead, despite the anticipated substantial increase in foundry production. The demand for molders will not increase as fast as foundry production, since the trend is toward more machine molding and less hand molding, and the increasing use of permanent molds and shell molds. Type offoundry Gray Noniron and malleable Steel ferrous Floor...................... $2.96 $3. 07 $3.06 Bench..................... 2.84 2. 76 2. 97 Heavy machine. . 2. 74 2.64 2. 83 Squeezer machine............. 2. 88 2. 77 3. 18 See “Where To Go for More In formation” in the introductory section of this chapter. COREMAKERS Nature of Work Coremakers prepare the “cores” which are placed in molds to form the hollows or holes usually required in metal castings. The poured metal solidifies around the core so that when the core is removed, the desired cavity or contour remains. A core may be made either by hand or ma chine. In both instances, prepared sand is packed into a core box, a block of wood or metal into which a hollow 552 space of the size and shape of the desired core has been cut. After the core has been removed from the core box, it is hardened either by baking or by other drying methods. When hand methods are used to make a core, the coremaker uses mallets and other handtools to pack and ram sand into the core box. In hand coremaking, small cores are made on the workbench by bench coremakers (D.O.T. 518.381) and bulky cores are made on the foundry floor by floor coremakers (D.O.T. 518.381). There is a wide range of skill requirements in this occupation. All-round hand coremakers (journey men) prepare large and intricate cores. The less skilled coremakers make smaller and simpler cores. Their work is highly repetitive be cause they frequently produce large quantities of identical cores. Many skilled coremakers are employed as supervisors. Machine coremakers (D.O.T. 518.885) operate machines which make sand cores by forcing sand into spe cially shaped hollow forms. Most ma chine made cores are blown by compressed air. Some machine core makers are required to set up and adjust their own machines and do finishing operations on the cores. Other coremakers are primarily ma chine tenders. They are closely supervised and their machines are adjusted for them. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Completion of a 4-year appren tice training program or the equiv alent in experience is needed to become a skilled hand coremaker. Coremaking apprenticeships are also sometimes required for the more difficult and responsible machine coremaking jobs. Only a brief period of on-the-job training is needed for less skilled hand coremaking and for most machine coremaking jobs. Training in coremaking and molding are often combined in a single apprenticeship. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook Coremaker operates machine that forces sand Most job openings for coremakers through the 1970’s will result from the need to replace experienced core makers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone will create several hundred job opening annually. The employment of coremakers— who numbered about 22,000 in early 1967—is expected to show little or no growth during the decade ahead, despite the anticipated substantial in crease in foundry production. The demand for coremakers will not in crease as fast as production, because of the growing use of machine-made rather than handmade cores. into hollow forms. The coremaking apprentice works with journeymen coremakers, first helping them in routine duties and then undertaking more advanced work, such as making simple cores, or operating core ovens. As his skill increases, the apprentice makes more complex cores. He acquires experi ence in benchwork and floorwork and in the operation of coremaking ma chines used in the plant. On-the-job training is generally supplemented by classroom instruction covering such subjects as arithmetic, shop drawing, and the properties of metals. Hand coremakers with all-round training have opportunities for promotion to supervisory jobs. An eighth grade education is usually a minimum requirement for coremaking apprentice training; some employers require apprentices to be high school graduates. Persons without previous foundry experience may be hired directly for the less skilled coremaking jobs, or foundry laborers or helpers may be upgraded to do this work. Physical requirements for light coremaking are not exacting because the work is not very strenuous. Some types of hand coremaking require a high de gree of manual dexterity. Women are frequently employed to do light coremaking. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of both hand and machine coremakers depend not only on the skill requirements of the job, but also on the type of metal poured and the geographic location of the foundry in which they are employed. In January 1967, the average (me dian) straight-time hourly earnings of bench coremakers was $2.87; floor coremakers, $2.97; and machine coremakers $3.05, according to a national survey of wages and fringe benefits for 27 foundry occupations in 55 labor areas, made by the Na tional Foundry Association. As shown in the following tabulation of average (mean) straight-time hourly earnings for coremaking occupations, the highest averages were recorded for bench coremakers in nonferrous foundries: Occupation Type offoundry Gray iron and Nonmalleable Steel ferrous Floor coremaker.. $2. 78 $2. 93 $2. 91 Bench coremaker. 2. 74 2. 92 2. 99 Machine core maker................. 2.96 2.78 2.83 See “Where To Go for More Infor mation” in the introductory section of this chapter. OCCUPATIONS IN THE INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL INDUSTRY The industrial chemical industry has grown, in just a few decades, into one of the great manufacturing industries of our Nation. An impor tant reason for this growth has been the industry’s huge expenditures for research and development activities, which have provided many new and improved products for its custom ers—mainly other manufacturing industries. A wide variety of indus trial chemical products contribute to our everyday needs and comforts, e.g., synthetic fibers are used in cloth ing and rugs, and plastics in dinnerware and furniture. Also, they are essential for the manufacture of mis sile and space equipment, rocket pro pulsion fuels, and for other national defense and space materials. In early 1967, more than 500,000 wage and salary workers were em ployed in the industrial chemical industry in a wide range of occupa tions. Job requirements varied from graduate college degrees for some scientists and engineers to a few days of on-the-job training for some plant workers. Nature of the Industry The industrial chemical industry is made up of plants which manufac ture industrial inorganic and organic chemicals, plastic materials and syn thetic resins, synthetic rubber and synthetic and other man-made fibers, except glass. These chemicals are used mainly by other companies in the chemical industry, and by other man ufacturing industries as raw materials or as processing agents to make their own products. Industrial chemicals are unlike other chemical products, such as drugs, soaps, detergents, cos metics, perfumes, paints, and fertili zers, which are sold directly to the consumer without further processing. The latter are not discussed in this statement. Industrial chemical plants make organic chemicals from raw materials obtained from the remains of pre historic life such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas, or from living mate rials such as agricultural and forest products. Some products of organic chemicals such as synthetic fibers, synthetic rubber, and plastics are well known. Among those less well known to the public are coal tar crudes, benzene, acetone, and formaldehyde. The principal users of organic chem icals include the textile, plastics prod ucts, rubber, and food-processing industries. Inorganic chemicals come from nonliving matter, such as salt, sulfur, mineral ores, and limestone. They are basic materials for making, or help ing to make, other chemicals as well as finished products, such as steel, glass, paper, and gasoline. In at least one respect, the manufacture of chemicals differs from the manufac ture of most other products—the in gredients which are used to make chemicals undergo reactions which produce compounds vastly different in nature and appearance from those of the original raw materials. For ex ample, by rearranging and combin ing the molecules of coal, air, and wa ter, the chemists can produce nylon, a product having no similarity to its raw materials. A modern chemical plant is made up of huge towers, tanks, and build ings linked together by a network of pipes. These structures contain the Production workers study scale model of chemical plant to learn about new process ing equipment. various types of equipment needed to process raw materials into chemi cal products. Raw materials go through several processing operations such as drying, heating, cooling, mix ing, evaporating, and filtering. Be tween each operation, the materials, which may be liquid, solid, or gas, are transported by pipes or conveyors. Throughout these operations, auto matic control devices regulate the flow of materials, the combination of chemicals, and the temperature, pres sure, and time needed for each op eration. These control devices make it possible for tons of material to be processed in one continuous opera tion with very little manual handling of materials. Approximately 2,500 plants in the United States make industrial chem icals. About two-thirds of the plants have fewer than 50 employees each. However, more than one-half of the industrial chemical workers are em ployed in very large plants of 500 or more employees each. Chemical plants are usually located on the out skirts of industrial centers. Sometimes plants are built near the sources of raw material; for example, plants 553 554 which produce chemicals made from petroleum and natural gas are located near the oilfields and refineries of Texas, California, and Louisiana. Although industrial chemical workers are employed in most States: more than 60 percent of the em ployees and more than one-half the plants are in the following 10 States; New Jersey, Texas, New York, Ten nessee, Virginia, Pennsylvania, Dela ware, West Virginia, Michigan, and Ohio. Occupations in the industry Workers with many different levels of skills and education are employed in the plants, offices, and laboratories of industrial chemical firms. More than 3 out of every 5 employees are engaged in processing operations, maintenance duties, or other plantrelated activities. A large number of scientists, engineers, and other tech nical personnel are also employed because of the highly technical na ture of chemical products and the methods used to produce them. Ad ministrative and professional em ployees, such as purchasing agents, salesmen, accountants, lawyers, and personnel officers, make up another sizable segment of the industry’s work force. In addition, large num bers of clerical workers, such as book keepers, stenographers, typists, and office machine operators, are em ployed. About 1 out of every 8 workers in the industrial chemical industry is a woman. Most women in this in dustry work in clerical jobs, although some work in chemical laboratories as research chemists or as laboratory technicians and assistants. In a few industrial chemical plants, women are employed as chemical operators or as packers. Plant Occupations. Plant workers, who represent more than 3 out of every 5 employees in the industrial chemical industry, can generally be divided into three major occupa OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK tional groups: Processing workers, who operate the chemical-processing equipment; maintenance workers, who maintain, install, and repair machinery, pipes, and equipment; and other plant workers, such as stock clerks, material handlers, and truckdrivers. Process equipment operators and their helpers are the largest occupa tional group in the industrial chemi cal industry. Many of these operators are highly skilled workers. Chemical operators (D.O.T. 558.885 and 559.782) control the various pieces of equipment which convert raw materials into chemical products. Operators are responsible for carry ing out instructions given to them by the supervisor in charge. Op erators set dials on devices that measure the exact amount of ma terials to be processed and con trol temperature, pressure, and flow of materials. They keep a record of operations and report any sign of breakdown of equipment. They may use instruments which measure and test chemicals or they may send sam ples of chemicals to laboratory tech nicians in the testing laboratory. They may be assisted by chemical operators of less skill, as well as by helpers. Sometimes chemical opertors are classified according to the type of equipment they operate, such as filterer, grinder, or mixer. Operator monitors matically production. check instruments and that control auto chemical The industry employs many skilled maintenance workers to prevent in terruptions of its highly automated production processes. Maintenance skills are also very important because of the extremes of temperature, pres sure, and corrosion to which pipes, vats, and other plant equipment are subjected. Included among mainte nance workers are pipefitters, who lay out, install, and repair pipes and pipefitting; maintenance machinists, who make and repair metal parts for machines and equipment; electri cians, who maintain and repair wir ing, motors, switches, and other elec trical equipment; and instrument repairmen, who install and repair electrical and electronic instruments and control devices. In some chemical plants, the duties of several mainte nance jobs may be combined into a single job and performed by one maintenance man. Plant workers who do not operate or maintain equipment perform a variety of other tasks in industrial chemical plants. Some drive trucks and tractors to make deliveries to various parts of the plant; some load and unload materials on trucks, trains, or ships; and other workers keep inventory records of stock and tools. The industry also employs cus todial workers, such as guards, watch men, and janitors, whose duties are similar to those of such workers in other industries. Scientific and Technical Occupa tions. The industrial chemical indus try is one of the Nation’s largest employers of scientific and technical personnel. About 1 out of every 6 em ployees in this industry is in some activity requiring scientific, engineer ing, or technical training. About 40 percent of these employees work in laboratories, developing new chemi cal products and new methods of pro duction as well as performing basic research. About one-third are in volved in the production of chemicals and in other plant operations. The remaining scientific and technical personnel are in analysis and testing OCCUPATION'S IN THE INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL INDUSTRY Chemist uses complex equipment to analyze composition of chemical compounds. work, and in administrative or sales positions requiring technical back ground. Chemists and chemical engineers make up the largest proportion of scientific and technical personnel in the industrial chemical industry. Many chemists work in research and development laboratories. A large number work in production depart ments, analyzing and testing chemi cals in order to control their quality during processing. Some chemists are supervisors of plant workers; others are technical salesmen, technical writers, or administrators whose posi tions require technical knowledge. Chemical engineers apply their knowledge of both chemistry and en gineering to the design, construction, operation, and improvement of chemical equipment and plants. They convert processes developed in a laboratory into large-scale produc tion methods, using the most eco nomical manufacturing techniques. Some chemical engineers are em ployed in production departments and others are in selling, customer service, market research, and writing jobs which require technical knowl edge and skill. Other types of engineers are also employed in industrial chemical firms. Mechanical engineers design and lay out power and heating equipment, such as steam turbines. They often supervise the installation, operation, and maintenance of chem ical processing equipment. Electrical engineers design and develop elec trical and electronic machinery and equipment, such as control devices and instruments, as well as facilities for generating and distributing elec tric power. In addition to the large number of 555 t such professional personnel, the in dustry employs many technical assistants such as laboratory techni cians, draftsmen, and engineering aids. Laboratory technicians assist chemists and engineers in research and development work and in qual ity control. They may perform simple routine tests or experiments, or do highly technical testing and analyses of chemical materials, depending on their training and experience. Much of the work of laboratory technicians consists of conducting tests and re cording the results—often in the form of simple reports, charts, or graphs—for interpretation by chem ists and chemical engineers. Administrative, Clerical and Related Occupations. About 1 out of every 5 employees in the industrial chem ical industry is an administrative, clerical, or other white-collar worker. Many high-level administrative and management positions are filled by men with training in chemistry or chemical engineering. At the top of the administrative group are the executives who make policy decisions concerning matters of finance, types of products to manufacture, and location of plants. To make such de cisions, executives require the help of a large body of specialized per sonnel in the company. Some of these workers are accountants, purchasing agents, sales representatives, lawyers, and personnel employed in such activities as industrial relations, pub lic relations, transportation, adver tising, and market research. Other workers are required to assist these specialized administrative workers. For example, clerical employees keep records on personnel, payroll, raw materials, Sales, shipments, and plant maintenance. (Detailed discussions of profes sional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations found not only in the industrial chemical industry but in other industries as well are given elsewhere in this Handbook in the sections covering the individual oc cupations. See index for page numbers.) OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 556 Operator monitors machine that processes manmade fiber. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The industrial chemical industry generally hires inexperienced workers for processing and maintenance jobs and trains them on the job. Com panies in the industry prefer to hire young workers who are high school graduates. In many plants, a new worker is sent to a labor pool from which he is assigned to such jobs as filling barrels and moving materials. After several months, he may be trans ferred to one of the processing de partments when a vacancy occurs. As he gains experience and know how, he moves to more skilled jobs in his department. Thus, he may ad vance from laborer to chemical operator helper, to assistant chemical operator, and then to skilled chem ical operator. Skilled processing workers are rarely recruited from other plants. Most maintenance jobs are filled by men who are trained on the job in the plant. Many industrial chemical companies have training programs to meet the needs of their maintenance shops. These programs may last from a few months to several years; they include mainly on-the-job training and some classroom instruction re lated to the trainees’ particular work. Instrument repair trainees often learn how to assemble and repair instru ments in the factories which manu facture them. Many companies en courage skilled maintenance workers as well as trainees to take courses related to their jobs in local voca tional schools and technical institutes, or to enroll in correspondence courses. Upon the successful completion of these courses, some companies reim burse the workers for tuition. A bachelor’s degree in chemistry, or one of the otner sciences is the minimum educational require ment for entry into scientific and en gineering jobs in the industrial chem ical industry. For jobs in research laboratories, applicants with ad vanced degrees are generally pre ferred. Some companies have formal training programs for young college graduates with engineering or scien tific backgrounds. These men work for brief periods in the various divi sions of the plant to gain a broad knowledge of chemical manufactur ing operations before being assigned to a particular department. Other firms immediately assign junior chem ists or engineers to a specific activity such as research, process develop ment, production, or sales. Technicians in the industrial chem ical industry qualify for their jobs in many different ways. Companies pre fer to hire men and women who have obtained a formal education in tech nical institutes or junior colleges. However, most workers become tech nicians through on-the-job training and experience. Generally, industrial chemical firms select young men from their labor pool and give them train ing while they work at one of the technician jobs. Sometimes, techni cians may be sent to a technical insti tute for training, usually at company expense. Students who have not com pleted all requirements for a college degree, especially those who have received some education in mathe matics, science, or engineering, are often employed in technician jobs. Laboratory technicians begin their work in routine jobs as assistants and advance to jobs of greater responsi bility after they have acquired addi tional experience and have shown their ability to work without close supervision. Inexperienced draftsmen OCCUPATIONS IN THE INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL INDUSTRY usually begin as copyists or tracers. With additional experience and train ing, they may advance to more skilled and responsible jobs as draftsmen. Administrative positions frequently are filled by men and women who have college degrees in business ad ministration, marketing, accounting, economics, statistics, industrial rela tions, or other specialized fields. Some companies have advanced training programs in which they give their new employees additional training in their chosen specialties. Clerks, bookkeepers, stenographers, and typists in industrial chemical firms generally have had commercial courses in high school or business school. Although the qualifications for and the duties of administrative, sales, clerical, and related occupations in this industry are similar to those in other industries, a knowledge of chemistry is often helpful. This is especially true of those sales jobs in which it is necessary to give technical assistance to customers. Employment Outlook The growing industrial chemical industry is expected to provide many thousands of job opportunities for new workers each year through the 1970’s. Large numbers of job open ings for new workers will be created by retirements, deaths, or transfers to jobs in other fields of work. Retire ments and deaths alone probably will provide, on the average, more than 10,000 openings for new workers each year during the late 1960’s and throughout the 1970’s. The industrial chemical industry’s emphasis on research and develop ment is expected to continue to stim ulate the growth of this dynamic industry, which has far outstripped most other major industries in the development of new products. Some of these products, such as plastics and synthetic fibers, have not only created completely new markets, but also have competed successfully in mar kets previously dominated by wood, natural textile fibers, and metals. They are expected to continue to make inroads into these markets. A plentiful supply of the raw materials used in chemical manufacturing is also favorable to the industry’s future growth. The atomic energy field is an area where continued growth, in civilian as well as military applications, will favorably affect the demand for industrial chemicals. These chemicals are used in various aspects of atomic energy work, such as the processing and purification of uranium ores and the development and operation of nuclear reactors. Although industrial chemical pro duction has grown rapidly, employ ment has increased at a much slower rate. Since 1958, the number of industrial chemical workers has grown by about 21 percent in con trast with output, which has more than doubled. The major reason for this difference is the industry’s em phasis on improved methods of making chemicals. The widespread use of automatic processing and con trol equipment has enabled the indus try to increase its production consid erably with a relatively small increase in labor. Increases in output per worker are expected to continue in the years ahead, as new plants with the latest equipment are constructed and more modern devices are installed in the older plants. Some occupational groups in the industry are expected to grow faster than others. For example, the number of professional and administrative jobs is expected to increase more rapidly than the number of plant (processing and maintenance) work ers if recent trends in this industry continue. Emphasis on research and development and greater complexity of products and processes are ex pected to increase the need for chemists, engineers, technicians, and other technical personnel. Most of the demand for additional plant workers will be for skilled maintenance workers, such as instru ment repairmen, pipefitters, electri 657 cians, and maintenance machinists, because of the increasing use of instrumentation and automatic equipment in processing operations. Process equipment operators will continue to be the largest occupa tional group in the industry, although employment of these workers is not expected to increase as much as employment of maintenance workers. Earnings and Working Conditions Production workers in the indus trial chemical industry are among the higher paid factory workers. Average earnings are relatively high because of the large proportion of workers in skilled occupations. In mid-1967, production workers in plants producing industrial inorganic and organic chemicals had average earnings of $145.74 a week or $3.47 an hour and those in plants pro ducing plastics materials and syn thetic rubber, resins, and fibers had average earnings of $129.89 a week or $3.10 an hour. In comparison, average earnings in mid-1967 for production workers in manufacturing industries as a whole were $113.65 a week or $2.82 an hour. Entry salaries for inexperienced chemists and chemical engineers in the chemical industry are among the highest in American industry, accord ing to a 1966 survey conducted by the American Chemical Society. In this industry, the median starting salary was $625 a month for chemists with a bachelor’s degree and $690 a month for chemical engineers with a bachelor’s degree. Chemists and chemical engineers with graduate degrees received higher starting salaries. Paid vacations are universal in this industry and are generally based on length of service. Plant workers gen erally receive a 1-week vacation after 1 year of employment, 2 weeks after 3 years, 3 weeks after 10 years and 4 weeks after 20 years. A majority of the workers are cov ered by insurance plans. These plans include life, sickness, accident, hos 558 pitalization, and surgical insurance. Practically all plants have pension plans. Many chemical workers are em ployed in plants that operate around the clock—three shifts a day, 7 days a week. Owing to the widespread in dustry practice of rotating shifts, proc essing workers can expect to work the second or third shift at one time or another. Nearly all workers receive extra pay for shift work, about 10 cents more an hour for the second shift, and about 15 cents more an hour for the third or night shift. Very few maintenance workers are em ployed on these shifts. Work in the industry has little seasonal variation and regular workers have year-round jobs. With the exception of work per formed by laborers and material han dlers, most industrial chemical jobs require little physical effort. Much of OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK the plant work involves tending, in specting, repairing, or maintaining machinery and equipment, since most of the process operations are con trolled automatically or semiautomatically. Some workers climb stairs and ladders to considerable heights in the course of their duties. Other jobs are performed out of doors in all kinds of weather. In some plants, workers may be ex posed to dust, disagreeable odors, or high temperatures. Chemical compa nies, however, have reduced the dis comforts arising from these condi tions by installing ventilating or airconditioning systems. Safety meas ures, such as protective clothing and eye glasses (usually provided by the company), warning signs, showers and eye baths near dangerous work stations, and first-aid stations, have also reduced hazards. These measures have helped to make the injury-fre quency rate (number of disabling in juries for each million man-hours worked) in the industrial chemical industry less than half that for all manufacturing industries. Most production workers in the industrial chemical industry are members of labor unions. The leading unions are the International Chemi cal Workers Union; Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union; and District 50, United Mine Workers of America (Ind.). Where To Go for More Information American Chemical Society, 1155 16th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. Manufacturing Chemists’ Associa tion, Inc., 1825 Connecticut Ave. NW., Wash ington, D.C. 20009. OCCUPATIONS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY There is hardly a product in daily use that has not been made from steel, or processed by machinery made of steel. The Nation’s high and rising standard of living, its industrial might, and its military strength depend largely on its ability to produce great quantites of high quality steel. In 1966, United States steelmakers pro duced about 135 million tons of steel—more than one-fourth of the world’s output of this vital metal. The iron and steel industry is one of the Nation’s largest employers. About 640,000 wage and salary work ers were on the payrolls of the indus try’s more than 700 plants in early 1967. Employees work in a broad range of jobs requiring a wide variety of skills—from unskilled to technical and professional jobs. Many of these jobs are found only in iron and steel making or finishing. The iron and steel industry, as dis cussed in this chapter, consists of blast furnaces, steelmaking furnaces, and rolling mills, including mills engaged in finishing and rolling steel products, from purchased sheets, strips, bars and rods, and other materials. The production of iron and steel consists of a closely related series of produc tion processes. First, iron ore is con verted to molten iron in blast furnaces. The molten iron is poured into “hot metal cars” and either trans ported directly to the steelmaking furnace, or cast into “pigs” (iron in rough bar form) for use by foundries or by steel mills that do not produce their own iron. (See chart 54.) Mol ten iron or pig iron is then converted into steel in various types of steelmak ing furnaces, including open hearth, basic oxygen, and electric furnaces. The steel is then rolled into basic products, such as plates, sheets, strips, rods, bars, rails, and structural shapes. Many plants carry the manufacturing processes beyond the primary rolling stage to produce finished products such as tinplate, pipe, and wire prod ucts. (This chapter does not describe the mining of coal, iron ore, lime stone, and other raw materials used to make steel, or the casting, stamp ing, forging, machining, or fabrica tion of steel. These activities are not considered to be in the iron and steel industry. Employment opportunities in foundry, forging, and machining occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Because iron and steel are pro duced in huge quantities, the industry uses gigantic processing equipment. A modern blast furnace may be as high as a 23-story building (about 230 feet tall). A single blast furnace may produce up to 4,000 tons of molten iron in a 24-hour period. The several different types of furnaces used to convert iron into steel are also im mense. For example, open-hearth fur naces, used to make most steel, may be 70 feet long, 2 stories deep, and 20 feet wide or even larger. Limestone and scrap metal are loaded into openhearth furnaces by enormous electri cally operated “charging” machines. After the initial charge is heated, mol ten iron is poured into open hearths from huge crane-operated ladles. Six to eight hours later, molten steel is “tapped,” or emptied from the fur nace into other giant ladles, which are moved by a crane to a pouring platform where the steel is “teemed,” or poured, into ingot molds. These ingots later are rolled into finished and semifinished products. An increasing tonnage of steel to day is being made in basic oxygen furnaces. In these “pear-shaped” ves sels, steel scrap, molten iron, and limestone—plus alloying additives— are charged in closely controlled amounts. Pure oxygen is blown into the charge, raising the temperature rapidly and burning off the impurities in the charge. A 250-ton heat of steel can be made in less than 1 hour— charge to tap time. BOF’s are com puter controlled to increase the qual559 560 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Molten metal is poured into basic oxygen furnace. ity of the steel produced and to speed up the steelmaking process. The rolling equipment which forms steel into various shapes is hundreds of feet long. A hot sheet mill, for ex ample, is more than 2,000 feet long. Some of the steel cylinders, or “rolls,” used in this equipment may weigh 40 or 50 tons. Steel companies differ in the num ber of operations they perform. Many of them, known as integrated com panies, produce their own coke from coal, reduce ore to pig iron, make steel, and form the steel into products by rolling and other finishing meth ods. Such companies account for the dustries are automobile, construction and building materials, machinery and machine tools, containers, and household appliances. Steel sheets are made into such things as automobile bodies, house hold appliances, and metal furniture. Steel bars are used to make parts for automobiles and machinery, and to reinforce concrete in building and highway construction. Steel plates be come parts of ships, bridges, heavy machinery, railroad cars, and storage tanks. Strip steel is used in the manu facture of such items as pots and pans, automobile body parts, razor blades, and toys. Tin coated steel, known as “tinplate,” is used primarily to make “tin” cans. Individual plants in this industry typically employ a large number of workers. About 70 percent of all the industry’s employees work in plants which have more than 2,500 wage and salary workers. A few plants have more than 20,000 employees. However, many plants employ fewer than 100 workers, particularly those plants which make highly specialized steel products. Iron and steel producing plants are located mainly in the northern and eastern parts of the United States. There are large plants at the South Shore of Lake Michigan; Cleveland and Youngstown, Ohio; Buffalo, N.Y.; and Pittsburgh, Johns town, Bethlehem, and Morrisville, Pa. The Nation’s largest steel plant is located at Sparrows Point, near Baltimore, Md. Much of the steel making in the South is in the vicinity of Birmingham, Ala. Important steel making facilities also are located in the Far West. About 7 out of 10 of the industry’s workers are employed in five States— Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and New York. Nearly 3 out of 10 are in Pennsylvania. bulk of total steel production and em ploy most of the industry’s workers. Another group of companies make various types of steel from steel scrap and pig iron purchased from other companies. A third group rolls and finishes purchased raw steel. A fourth type makes only pig iron to be sold to small steel plants and foundaries. Most of the basic products made by steel mills are shipped to the plants of other industries, where they are made into thousands of different products. Occupations in the Industry Some steel mill products, however, Workers in the iron and steel in such as rails, pipe, and nails, are pro duced in their final form at the mills. dustry hold more than 1,000 different The leading steel consuming in types of jobs. Some workers are di OCCUPATIONS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY rectly engaged in making iron and steel and converting it into semi finished and finished products. Others take care of the vast amount of ma chinery and equipment used in the industry, operate cranes and other equipment which move raw materials and steel products about the plants, or perform other kinds of work. In addition, many workers are needed to do the clerical, sales, professional, technical, administrative, and super visory work connected with the op eration of steelmaking plants. More than four-fifths of all em ployees in the iron and steel industry in early 1967 were production and maintenance workers. These workers were directly concerned with the pro duction and finishing of iron and steel, the maintenance of plant equip ment, and movement of materials within and among plant departments. The remaining employees were em ployed in clerical, sales, professional, technical, administrative, research, managerial, a n d s u p e r v i s o r y occupations. Men constitute 96 percent of all employees in the iron and steel in dustry, and an even higher propor tion of the industry’s production workers since much of the production work is strenuous. However, the physical labor involved in steelmak ing has been reduced through mech anization. About two-thirds of all the women employed in the industry work in clerical and other office jobs, including research and other tech nical work. Women employed in pro duction departments are in jobs such as assorter and inspector. Processing Occupations. The major ity of the workers in the iron and steel industry are employed in the many processing operations involved in con verting iron ore into steel and then into semifinished and finished steel products. To provide a better under standing of the types of jobs in this industry, brief descriptions of the major steelmaking and finishing op erations and of the more important occupations connected with them are given below. Blast furnaces. The blast furnace is used to reduce iron ore to molten iron. Calculated mixtures of iron ore, coke, and limestone are fed into the top of the furnace. Hot air, blown in from the bottom of the furnace, rises through the mass of material and causes combustion. The gases formed by the burning of the coke combine with and remove the oxygen from the ore. Molten iron trickles down through the charge and collects in a pool at the bottom of the furnace. At the same time, the intense heat melts the limestone which combines with silica and other impurities in the iron ore and coke and forms molten “slag,” a useful byproduct. This, too, trickles down through the charge and floats on top of the heavier molten iron. The slag and molten iron ore are separately tapped or “cast” from the blast furnace. A blast furnace operates continu ously, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, unless it has to be shut down for repairs or for other reasons. Molten iron is removed every 3 to 4 hours; slag is removed more frequently. The charging of iron ore, coke, and lime stone into the furnace is a continu ous operation. The raw materials used in blast furnaces are stored in a stock house below furnace level. Here stockhouse men or stockhouse larrymen. (D.O.T. 919.883) load traveling stock or larry cars with raw materials from storage bins. They weigh all raw materials in accordance with a prearranged sched ule, determined by the kind of hot metal desired. The loaded stock cars are emptied into waiting “skip cars,” which carry the materials up tracks to the top of the blast furnace where they are automatically dumped. Other stockhouse men or skipmen (D.O.T. 921.883), stationed on the ground below, control the skip cars through electric and pneumatic con trols. Stove tenders (D.O.T. 512.782) and their assistants operate huge, bricklined stoves which heat air for 561 the blast furnace. They regulate valves to control the heating cycle of the stoves and regulate the flow of heated air to the furnace. The men responsible for the quan tity and quality of iron produced are called blowers (D.O.T. 519.132). They direct the operation of one or more blast furnaces, including load ing and tapping the furnace, and reg ulating the air blast and furnace heat. Blowers carefully check the metal pro duced, periodically sending samples of the molten iron and slag to the lab oratory where quality tests are made and the results reported to the blower. Keepers (D.O.T. 502.884), under the direction of the blower, are respon sible for tapping the furnace. They direct their helpers and cindermen or staggers (D.O.T. 519.887) in lining (with special refractory sand) the troughs and runners through which the molten iron and slag are run off into waiting cars. In plants where both iron and steel are made, most of the molten iron is carried in insu lated “hot metal cars” or in giant la dles to the steelmaking furnaces. If the iron is to be shipped or stored, it is carried to a casting machine where it is cast into pigs (bars). Steel furnaces. The second major step in steelmaking is to convert the iron into steel. This is done in several types of furnaces: Open hearth; basic oxygen; and electric. Open-hearth steel, which accounts for about two-thirds of all steel pro duced in the United States, is pro duced by adding molten pig iron to previously charged and heated steel scrap and limestone and melting the mixture in furnaces. It is possible to make from about 125 to more than 500 tons of steel per load or “heat” in most furnaces. Some furnaces, how ever, have capacities in excess of 600 tons. The open-hearth process is named because the saucer-shaped hearth, or floor of the furnace, is ex posed to the sweep of the flames which melt the steel. Most of the open-hearth steelmaking facilities now use oxygen in the refining opera tion to speed up the process. The use of oxygen has improved heat transfer OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK and melting rates to such an extent that the “heat” time has been cut by 50 percent or more when compared with traditional open-hearth opera tions. A melter (D.O.T. 512.132) is in charge of one open-hearth furnace or more and is responsible for the qual ity and quantity of the steel produced. Each heat of steel is made to specifi cations, which depend upon the end use for the steel. The melter makes the steel to the desired specifications by varying the proportions of lime stone, iron ore, scrap steel, and mol ten pig iron in the furnace, and by adding small amounts of other materi als, such as manganese, silicon, or copper. He supervises three grades of helpers—first (D.O.T. 512.782), sec ond (D.O.T. 502.884), and third (D.O.T. 519.887). These helpers pre pare the furnaces for the heat, regu late furnace temperatures, take sam ples of molten steel for laboratory tests, direct the adding of various al loying materials, and tap the molten steel from the furnace into a ladle. One first helper is responsible for each open-hearth furnace. The charging machine operator (D.O.T. 512.883) runs an electrically controlled machine with a long steel arm which picks up, one by one, long steel boxes full of limestone, scrap, and other materials. The machine pushes each box through the open furnace doors, turns it upside down to discharge its contents, and then withdraws it. The hot metal crane man (D.O.T. 921.883) operates a large overhead crane, that picks up ladles of molten iron and pours the contents into the open-hearth fur naces. When the heat of steel is ready to be tapped, the furnace crew knocks out a plug at the back of the furnace with a “jet tapper” (small explosive charge which is fired into the plug) which allows the molten metal to flow into a ladle. The slag, which floats to the top of the ladle, overflows into a smaller ladle, called a slag pot. The molten steel is then poured from the ladle into ingot molds (hol Melter helpers sample steel from basic oxygen furnace. low cast iron forms). A ladle crane man (D.O.T. 921.883) operates an overhead crane which picks up the ladle and moves it over a long row of ingot molds resting on flat-bottom cars. The steel pourer (D.O.T. 514.884) operates a stopper on the bottom of the ladle to let the steel flow into the molds. As soon as the steel in the molds has solidified sufficiently, an ingot strip per (D.O.T. 921.883) operating an overhead crane, removes the molds from the still hot blocks of steel, called ingots, leaving the stripped ingots standing to cool on the “ingot bug gies” (four-wheel carts running on rails). About one-fourth of all steel pro duced in 1966 was made in basicoxygen furnaces, and the proportion is expected to increase rapidly in the years ahead. Basic oxygen furnaces can make steel faster than any other type of furnace currently in use, and continual displacement of the openhearth steelmaking process by the basic oxygen method is expected. Some basic oxygen furnaces can pro duce more than 6,000 tons of steel in a 24-hour period. In this steelmaking process, oxygen is “blown” into the furnace through vertical pipes, or “lances,” after it has been loaded with steel scrap, and molten pig iron. Limestone and other slag forming materials are added to remove im purities from the steel. The use of oxygen speeds the steelmaking proc ess because it is blown directly into the molten metal forcing a faster chemical reaction and a higher bath temperature. - Electric furnaces accounted for about one-tenth of all steel produced in 1966. In electric furnaces, steel making can be controlled very closely. Consequently, such furnaces are used to produce high quality and high al loy steel, such as tool and stainless steels, as well as .the more common steels. Rolling and finishing. The three principal methods of shaping metal in steel plants are rolling, casting, and forging. About three-fourths of all 563 OCCUPATIONS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY steel products are shaped by the roll ing process. In this method, heated steel ingots are squeezed longer and flatter between two cylinders or “rolls.” Before ingots of steel are rolled, they are heated to the temper ature specified by the plant’s metal lurgist. The heating is done in large furnaces, called “soaking pits,” lo cated in the plant floor. A heater (D.O.T. 613.782) controls the soak ing pit operation. He directs helpers in heating the ingots to the specified temperature and, with the help of control equipment, determines when they are ready for rolling. A soaking pit craneman (D.O.T. 921.883) op erates an overhead crane, by means of electrical controls, to lift the stripped ingots from an ingot car and place them into the soaking pit. When the ingots are sufficiently “soaked” with heat, the heater opens the fur nace doors and the craneman removes the ingots and places them on ingot buggies, which carry them to the roll ing mills. Here, the ingots are rolled into semifinished shapes—blooms, slabs, or billets. Blooms are generally more than 6 inches wide and 6 inches thick. Slabs are much wider than blooms. Billets are the smallest of these three shapes. The rolling of blooms illustrates the semifinishing process. In the bloom ing mill, as in other rolling mills, the ingot m oves along on a roller con veyor to a machine which resembles a giant clothes wringer. A “two-high” blooming mill has two heavy grooved rolls which revolve in opposite direc tions. The rolls grip the approaching ingot and pull it between them, squeezing it thinner and longer. When the ingot has made a “pass” through the rolls, the rolls are revolved in the opposite direction, and the ingot is fed back through them. Throughout the rolling operation the ingot is pe riodically turned 90 degrees by me chanical devices called “manipula tors,” and passed between the rolls again, so that all sides are rolled. Guides, located on each side of the roll table, properly position the ingot for entry into the rolls. This opera262-057 0 — 68------37 Blooming mill roller manipulates controls to reduce ingot to slab. tion is repeated until the ingot is re duced to a bloom of the desired size. The bloom is then ready to be cut to specified lengths. A blooming mill roller (D.O.T. 613.782), the man in charge of the mill, works in a glass-enclosed control booth, or “pulpit,” located above or beside the roller line. His duties, which appear to consist principally of moving levers and pushing buttons, look relatively simple. However, the quality of the product and the speed with which the ingot is rolled depend upon his skill. The roller regulates the opening between the rolls after each pass. Long experience and a knowledge of steel characteristics are required for a worker to become a roller. A manipulator operator (D.O.T. 613.782) sits in the pulpit beside the roller and coordinates his controls with those of the roller. Upon leaving the rolling mill, the red-hot bloom moves along a roller conveyor to a place where a shearman (D.O.T. 615.782) controls a heavy, hydraulically operated shear which cuts the steel into desired lengths. In a blooming mill with automatic (electronic) process controls, a roll ing mill attendant is given a card which has been punched with a series of holes. The holes represent coded information and directions as to how the ingot is to be rolled. The attend ant inserts the card into a card “reader,” then presses a button that starts the rolling sequence. The infor mation in punched-card form governs the setting of the roll opening, the speed of the rolls, the number of passes to be made, and the number of times the ingot must be turned. When the automatic process is used, the roller’s function is shifted from operating the rolling controls to di recting and coordinating the entire rolling process. This consists of heat ing, rolling, and shearing. 564 One of the latest developments in steel shaping is the continuous cast ing process. In this process molten steel is poured into a water-cooled mold located at the top of a tower. As the mold is filled, the steel solidifies along the bottom and lower sides. The mold bottom is then withdrawn and the slab starts its descent through the tower. As the slab ribbon emerges from the mold, additional molten steel is continuously added at the top. Continuing downward, the slab passes through a spray chamber where it is further cooled by a water spray to solidify the still liquid core. Pinch rolls control the slab’s descent and support its weight. Finally the slab is cut into lengths as it emerges from the rolls. In some continuous casting installations, a curved mold is used, so that the slab comes out horizontally rather than vertically. Another relatively new process which is capable of displacing the conventional method of casting steel into rolling ingots is known as “pres sure pouring.” In this process, molten steel is forced up through a tube into a graphite mold to produce a finished steel slab. After the steel is rolled into semi finished shapes—blooms, slabs, or billets—most of it is put through “finishing” operations. For example, steel slabs may be reduced and shaped into plates and sheets. Even after additional rolling, some steels must be worked further. Some rods, for instance, are reduced to wire by drawing. Wire can be further proc essed into wire rope, nails, fencing, or other end products. Much sheet steel is further reduced by cold-roll ing, and then it may be run through galvanizing or tinplating lines. Bars, skelp (a thick, narrow sheet), and plate can be formed into pipe of widely varying diameters. Equipment operator, inspector, and assorter are among the major occu pations in finishing operations; women frequently are employed in these jobs. An important occupation in wire making is the wire drawer (D.O.T. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 614.782). This worker pulls the pointed end of a steel rod through a die (a block of hard steel or sintered carbide with a tapered hole in it). The rod end is then attached to a reel which, while revolving, pulls the rest of the rod through the die. As the rod passes through the die it is made thinner and longer and becomes wire, which is automatically coiled around the revolving reel. If extensive reduc tion of the rod is required, it is passed through a series of dies, each die re ducing the diameter of the wire slightly. Pipe, both welded and seamless, is also an important steel mill product. In making welded pipe, the flat steel is fed into a machine which rolls it into tube shape; then the edges of the pipe are fused by continuous welding. Seamless pipe and tubing are formed from a solid billet of steel, called a tube round. In the seamless operation, the piercer-machine oper ator (D.O.T. 613.885) passes a pre heated tube round between two bar rel-shaped rolls. The revolving rolls spin the tube round and force one end against a piercing plug or “mandrel.” The combined rolling ac tion and the pressure of the rolls tend to make the steel draw apart pro viding space for the mandrel to enter. The mandrel smooths the inside walls and makes the diameter of the hole uniform. Tinplate is another important steel product. To make tinplate, thin sheets of steel are fed continuously through an electrolytic bath where a coat of tin is deposited on the steel. Maintenance, Transportation, and Plant Service Occupations. Large numbers of workers are required in steel plants to support processing ac tivities. Some maintain and repair machinery and equipment, and others operate the equipment which pro vides power, steam, and water. Other groups of workers move material and supplies and perform a variety of service operations. In the machine shops, machinists and machine tool operators make and repair metal parts for machinery or equipment. Diemakers use machine tools to form dies, such as those used in wire drawing units. Roll turners (D.O.T. 613.780) use lathes, grind ers, and other machine tools to finish steel rolls to desired shapes and sizes for use in the rolling mills. Millwrights in this industry main tain mechanical equipment. They overhaul machinery, and repair and replace defective parts. Electricians install electric wiring and fixtures and “hook up” electrically operated equipment. Electrical repairmen (motor inspectors) keep wiring, motors, switches, and electrical equip ment in good operating condition and make repairs when electrical equip ment breaks down. Electronic repairmen install, repair, and adjust the increasing number of electric devices and systems used in steel manufacturing plants. Typically, this equipment includes communica tion systems, such as public address systems; closed-circuit television in stallations; electronic computing and data recording systems; and measur ing, processing, and control devices, such as X-ray measuring or inspection equipment. Bricklayers repair and rebuild the brickwork in furnaces, soaking pits, and coke ovens, as well as mill build ings and offices. Pipefitters lay out, install, and repair piping that is used to carry the large amount of water, gas, steam, oil, air, oxygen, and acetylene used in the steelmaking process. Boilermakers test, repair, and rebuild heating units, storage tanks, stationary boilers, and condensers. Locomotive engineers and other train crew members operate diesel or elec tric trains used to transport materials and products in the vast yards of iron and steel plants. Welders operate welding equipment to join metal parts in repairing and rebuilding plant machinery and in fabricating steel products. Skilled workers run the various boilers, turbines, and switchboards in the powerplants which provide the large amounts of electric power needed in steelmaking. Other types of maintenance and service workers found in steel plants OCCUPATIONS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUiSTDRY include carpenters, oilers, painters, instrument repairmen, scale repair men, loaders, riggers, greasers, jani tors, and guards. Many laborers are employed to load and unload mate rials and do a variety of cleanup operations. Administrative, Clerical, and Techni cal Occupations. Professional, tech nical, administrative, clerical, and sales workers accounted for nearly one-fifth of the industry’s total em ployment in 1967. Of these, the majority were clerical workers, such as secretaries, stenographers, typists, accounting clerks, and general office clerks. Engineers, scientists, and techni cians made up a substantial propor tion of the industry’s “white-collar” employment. Several thousand of these workers were engaged in re search and development to improve existing iron and steel products and processes, and to develop new prod ucts and processes. For example, these workers are now developing and improving alloy steels that are highly resistant to heat, extremely strong, and corrosion resistant. The technical specialists in iron and steel plants also include mechan ical engineers whose principal work is the design, construction, and oper ation of mill machinery and material handling equipment. Many mechan ical engineers work in operating units where their jobs include, for example, determination of roll size and con tour, rolling pressures, and operating speeds. Others are responsible for plant and equipment maintenance. Metallurgists and metallurgical engi neers work in laboratories and in production departments where they have the important task of testing and controlling the quality of the steel during its manufacture. They also develop and improve the industry’s products and processes through re search. Civil engineers are engaged in the layout, construction, and main tenance of steel plants and the equip ment used for heat, light, and trans portation. Electrical engineers design, lay out, and supervise the operation of electrical generating distribution facilities that provide the power essential in modem steel mill opera tion. These engineers are concerned also with the operation of electrical machinery and electrical and elec tronic control equipment. Chemists work in the laboratories, making chemical analyses of steel and raw materials used in steel manu facture. Laboratory technicians do routine testing and assist chemists and engineers. Draftsmen prepare work ing plans and detailed drawings required in plant construction and maintenance. Among the employees in adminis trative, managerial, and supervisory occupations were office managers, labor relations and personnel man agers, purchasing agents, plant managers, and industrial engineers. Working with these personnel were several thousand professional work ers, other than scientists and engi neers. By far the largest group of these professional employees were accountants, but there were also many nurses, lawyers, economists, statisticians, mathematicians, librar ians, and social workers. In addition, the industry employed several thous and workers in sales positions. (Detailed discussions of profes sional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations found in the iron and steel industry as well as in many other industries are given elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement New workers in processing opera tions usually are hired at the un skilled level, as laborers. Openings in higher rated jobs usually are filled by promoting workers from lower grade jobs. Factors considered when selecting workers for promotion are ability to do the job, physical fitness, and length of service with the company. Training for processing occupa tions is done almost entirely on the 565 job. Workers move to operations re quiring progressively greater skill as they acquire experience. A crane man, for example, is first taught how to operate relatively simple cranes, and then he advances through several steps to cranes much more difficult to run, such as the hot-metal crane. In selecting workers for processing jobs, steel companies generally give preference to high school graduates. To help them advance in their work, many workers take part-time courses in subjects such as chemistry, physics, and metallurgy. In some cases, this training is provided by the steel com panies and may be given within the plant. Other workers take evening courses in high schools, trade schools, or universities in their communities or enroll in correspondence courses. Workers in the various operating units usually advance along fairly well-defined lines of promotion within their department. Examples of pos sible lines of advancement in the various operating units follow. To become a blast furnace blower, a worker generally starts as a laborer, advancing to cinderman or slagger, keeper’s helper, keeper, blower’s helper, and finally, to blower. In the open-hearth department, a man may begin by doing general cleanup work around the furnace and then advance to third helper, second helper, first helper, and eventually, to melter. A possible line of job ad vancement for a roller in a finishing mill might be pitman, roll hand, manipulator, rougher, and finish roller. Workers can be trained for skilled jobs, such as blower, melter, and roller (which are among the highest rated steelmaking jobs), in a minimum of 4 or 5 years, but usually wait a much longer time before openings occur. Most companies conduct some type of apprenticeship program to meet the needs of their maintenance shops. There are apprentice training pro grams for more than 20 different crafts in the steel industry. The ap prenticeship programs for mainte nance workers usually are of 3 or 4 566 years’ duration and consist mainly of shop training in various aspects of the particular jobs. In addition, class room instruction in related technical subjects usually is given, either in the plant or in local vocational schools. Steelmaking companies have dif ferent qualifications for apprentice applicants. Generally, employers re quire applicants to be high school or vocational school graduates. In most cases, the minimum age is 18 years; sometimes an upper age limit is specified. Some companies give apti tude and other types of tests to ap plicants to determine their suitability for the trades. Apprentices generally are chosen from among qualified young workers already employed in the plant. The following occupations are among those most often included in apprentice training programs in iron and steel plants: Blacksmith, boilermaker, bricklayer, coremaker, carpenter, electrician, instrument re pairman, lead burner, machinist, molder, painter, patternmaker, pipe fitter, rigger, roll turner, sheet-metal worker, tool and die maker, and welder. Applicants for jobs as helpers to skilled maintenance workers are usually given aptitude tests. Helpers receive on-the-job training and may be promoted to jobs requiring greater skill as openings occur. However, vacancies in these higher grades may not occur for several years, depending on the rate of turnover. The minimum requirement for engineering and scientific jobs is usually a bachelor’s degree with an appropriate major. Practically all the larger companies have formal train ing programs for college-trained tech nical workers in which the trainees work for brief periods in various oper ating and maintenance divisions to get a broad picture of steelmaking operations before they are assigned to a particular department. In other companies, the newly hired scientist or engineer is assigned directly to a specific research, operating, main tenance, administrative, or sales unit. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Engineering graduates frequently are hired for sales work and many of the executives in the industry have engi neering backgrounds. Engineering graduates as well as graduates of busi ness administration and liberal arts colleges are employed for jobs in sales, accounting, and labor-management relations, as well as in managerial positions. Completion of a business course in high school, junior college, or business school usually is preferred for entry into most of the office occupations. Office jobs requiring special knowl edge of the steel industry generally are filled by promoting personnel al ready employed in the industry. Employment Outlook The iron and steel industry will hire many thousands of workers during the remainder of this decade and through the 1970’s. Retirements and deaths alone in this large industry should provide about 12,000 job openings annually. However, because of the ex pected increase in output per worker, total employment in the industry is not expected to increase substantially above the 1967 level of approximately 640,000, even assuming relatively full employment nationally and the high levels of economic activity needed to achieve this goal. Future employment levels are dif ficult to determine at this time, be cause it is too early to evaluate com pletely the laborsaving effects of many of the technological developments be ing introduced in the iron and steel industry. However, should total em ployment levels decline over the long run, employment* in some occupa tions, or occupational groups, still is expected to rise. Among white-collar workers, for example, employment of engineers, chemists, physicists, mathematicians, laboratory aids, and other technical personnel will increase, because of the industry’s expanding research and de velopment programs. Job opportuni ties for electronic technicians, electronic computer programers, and other personnel trained in the prep aration of data for use in these ma chines also are expected to increase. Among skilled plant personnel, main tenance workers (particularly instru ment repairmen) are expected to be needed in greater numbers, because of the increasingly complex ma chinery, instruments, and other equipment used. In contrast, the number of less skilled processing jobs is expected to decline. A moderate increase in the produc tion of iron and steel is expected dur ing the decade ahead. The growing population and rising levels of per sonal disposable income will result in greater demand for products that re quire large amounts of steel, such as automobiles, houses, household appli ances, and highways. New machinery also will be needed to produce the growing quantity of goods needed to feed, clothe, and otherwise satisfy the requirements of an e x p a n d i n g population. Continued increases in the effi ciency of office and production opera tions in the iron and steel industry are expected in the decade ahead. The efficiency of office operations, for ex ample, will be improved by the grow ing use of electronic data-processing and communications equipment. Pro duction efficiencies will be gained by the increasing use of beneficiated ores in blast furnaces; the replacement of open-hearth furnaces with basic oxy gen furnaces; the use of oxygen in open-hearth and electric furnaces; and the substitution of continuous casting equipment for primary rolling mills. The trend toward more auto matic production operations and the greater use of instruments to control the quality of steel also will result in increased operating efficiency. The use of automatic production tech niques is growing in rolling mills, in tin coating processes, and in heating and controlling furnaces; and these techniques are being improved and extended to other operations. OCCUPATION'S IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of production workers in iron and steelmaking establishments are among the highest in manufactur ing. In early 1967, their earnings av eraged $143.72 a week, or $3.54 an hour. This compares with average earnings of $113.02 weekly, or $2.77 an hour, for all production workers in manufacturing establishments. Basic (standard) hourly wage rates for nine selected processing occupa tions in the United States Steel Corp., the largest single steel company, are shown in the following tabulation: Blast furnaces: Keeper........................ Stockhouse man........ Cinderman................. Steelmaking: Charging-machine operator, open hearth...................... Ingot stripper, open hearth...................... Helper, third, open hearth...................... Rolling and finishing mills: Roller, blooming mill........................... Manipulator, blooming mill.................... Assorters, tin plate. . . Approxi mate basic Job hourly C lass 1 ra te s 2 14 10 6 $3. 35 3. 05 2. 75 16 3. 50 12 6 3. 20 2. 75 26 4. 25 13 3. 27 2. 67 5 1An arrangement of jobs into a series of categories rated according to skill, experience, training, and other factors. 2 These rates are from the wage agreement between the company and the United Steelworkers of Amer ica and include the increase effective on Aug. 1,1967 Basic hourly wage rates for skilled processing jobs ranged from about $3.12 to $4.70; for semiskilled jobs, from approximately $2.67 to $3.05; and for unskilled jobs, from $2.45 to about $2.60. (The individual work er’s rate depends on his particular job classification.) These rates were rep resentative of those from processing jobs throughout the industry and were guaranteed minimum for those work ers who were paid on the incentive (piece rate) basis. Since about twothirds of the industry’s production workers were paid on an incentive basis, a majority of such workers gen erally earned more than the basic hourly wage rate. In addition to the above rates, steelworkers receive premium pay for overtime work and for work on Sundays and holidays. Agreements between most steel companies and the United Steel workers of America include provisions for various fringe benefits, such as va cation pay, shift differentials, paid holidays, retirement pensions, and un employment benefits. Most workers receive vacation pay ranging from 1 to 4 weeks depending on length of service. In addition, the top 50 per cent of the workers, ranked on the basis of seniority, receive 13-week va cations (including regular vacation time) every 5 years; and the remain ing 50 percent receive extra single weeks vacation, expected to average about 3 weeks in a 5-year period. Pro fessional and executive personnel in a few companies receive similar bene fits. Workers may retire on full pen sion after 30 years of service, regard less of age. Retiring workers are eligible for a company-paid pension, in addition to social security benefits for which they may be eligible. Em ployees having 2 years or more of service are eligible to receive supple mental unemployment benefits for up to 52 weeks. Other important provi sions include a $100 monthly disa bility pension provided by the com panies, and accident and sickness, hospitalization, surgical, and life in surance benefits financed by the companies. 567 The American Iron and Steel Insti tute estimates wage supplements in 1966 as 27.5 percent of total employ ment costs or $1.27 per hour worked. Working conditions depend upon the particular plant department in which the worker is employed. Main tenance shops generally are clean and cool. Rolling mills, however, gener ally are hot and noisy. Some plants are developing methods to reduce job discomfort. For example, the use of remote control enables employees to work outside the immediate vicinity of processing operations. In other in stances, the cabs in which the men work, while operating mechanical equipment, are often air conditioned. Some of the workers near blast and steel furnaces are exposed to consid erable heat. Because certain processes are operated continuously, some workers are on night shifts or work on weekends. The iron and steel industry is a leader in the development of safety programs for workers, emphasizing the use of protective clothing and de vices on machines to prevent acci dents. In 1966, steel plants had an average injury frequency rate (in juries per million hours of work) that was about a third of the rate for all manufacturing. Most plant workers in the iron and steel industry are members of the United Steelworkers of America. Where To Go for More Information American Iron and Steel Institute, 150 East 42d St., New York, N.Y. 10017. United Steelworkers of America, 1500 Commonwealth Building, Pitts burgh, Pa. 15222. MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT MANUFAC TURING OCCUPATIONS Few products have had as great an impact on everyday life as the auto mobiles, trucks, buses, and other ve hicles manufactured by the motor ve hicle and motor vehicle equipment industry (automobile industry). Four out of five families owned automo biles in 1966, and over 94 million passenger cars, trucks, and buses trav eled the Nation’s streets and high ways. In addition, the widespread use of motor vehicles has made sig nificant contributions to the Nation’s economy by helping to create new industries and develop existing ones. Many businesses, including automo tive repair shops, gasoline service sta tions, and truck and bus transporta tion facilities have been created as a result of the motor vehicle. More over, the automobile industry is a major consumer of many basic com modities such as steel, rubber, and plate glass. To manufacture the more than 10 million motor vehicles (mainly auto mobiles) produced in 1966, the mo tor vehicle industry (SIC 371) em ployed approximately 860,000 em ployees. (In addition, thousands of people, whose employment is not in cluded in this chapter, are employed outside motor vehicle plants in the production of components for the mo tor vehicle industry. These are per sons engaged in the production of 568 tires and tubes, automobile glass, ve hicular lighting systems, storage bat teries, and many other items.) Like other large industries, the automobile industry offers employment to men and women with widely different backgrounds of education and skill. Requirements for jobs vary from the college degrees necessary for engi neers and other professional and tech nical personnel, to the few hours of on-the-job training necessary for some other occupations, such as as sembler, materials handler, and cus todial employee. The largest number of employees work in factory (plant) occupations. Plant occupations range from the skilled tool and die maker, millwright, and electrician, to those requiring little skill, such as machine tender, assembler, materials handler, and custodial worker. A great num ber of automotive employees also work in office and administrative jobs as clerks, business machine operators, stenographers, purchasing agents, and personnel assistants. Nature and Location of the Industry This industry’s ability to produce millions of complex motor vehicles is due mainly to mass production of standardized parts and assembly-line manufacturing methods. Thousands of identical parts are produced by em ployees whose jobs are divided into a limited number of operations on high-speed machinery. These massproduced parts are then put together by other employees to form the com pleted vehicle. As a result, new cars can be driven off assembly lines at the rate of more than one a minute. The motor vehicle industry in 1966 consisted of approximately 2,500 plants that manufactured parts or as sembled these parts into cars, trucks, buses, and special-purpose vehicles such as ambulances, fire engines, and taxicabs. The plants ranged in size from huge assembly plants employ ing many thousands of workers, to parts plants employing a small num ber of workers. About 80 per cent of the industry’s workers are employed in establishments with 1,000 em ployees or more. In 1966, about 15 percent of the employees in the industry were en gaged in the manufacture of bodies for passenger cars, trucks, and buses, and in the production of truck trail ers and truck trailer chassis. The re maining 85 percent were almost equally divided between plants that supply parts for new motor vehicles, and plants that assemble the com ponents into the final product that appears on the highway. Hundreds of companies supply the parts for new vehicles and also pro duce the replacement parts neces sary to keep the millions of vehicles already on the road in operation. These firms often specialize in pro ducing individual parts—for instance, brakes, axles, and transmissions. There are relatively few companies that assemble complete vehicles. More than 90 percent of the motor vehicle industry’s workers are em ployed in 12 States. Michigan alone accounts for more than 40 percent of the industry’s employment; Ohio, Indiana, and New York account for another 25 percent. The eight other States with large concentrations of motor vehicle manufacturing employ ment are Wisconsin, California, Mis souri, Illinois, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, and Texas. In Michigan, the Detroit metro politan area is the center of the in dustry. About 1 out of every 4 of the Nation’s motor vehicle workers is em. ployed within its industrial area, which includes Dearborn and Ponti ac. Several other cities, especially Flint, Lansing, and Saginaw, employ large numbers of automobile workers. The Great Lakes region has many other important centers; Cleveland, Lorain, Toledo, and Cincinnati, Ohio; Indianapolis and Fort Wayne, Ind.; Chicago, 111.; Buffalo, N.Y.; and Milwaukee and Kenosha, Wis. MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS Much of the motor vehicle manu facturing on the East Coast is cen tered in the New York-Northeastern New Jersey-Philadelphia industrial area in such localities as Newark, Paterson, Linden, and New Bruns wick, N.J.; and New York, N.Y. The Los Angeles industrial area is the leading automobile manufactur ing center in the Pacific Coast region. The East Bay area is another auto mobile manufacturing center in California. How Motor Vehicles Are Made Automobiles and other motor ve hicles are produced in three steps: Preliminary designing and engineer ing ; production of motor vehicle parts and subassemblies; and final assembly of parts into completed vehicles. Preliminary Designing and Engineer ing. Approximately 2 to 3 years of de signing, planning, and testing often precede the actual production of each year’s model. Stylists constantly strive to improve the appearance of the au tomobile. They work closely with en gineers and other technical personnel concerned with improving mechani cal operation, design, and safety. The stylists’ creative designs are transferred to blueprints, from which skilled modelmakers make clay, wood, and plastic models of the new automobile. From these models, re finements in styling and design of the new car are developed. In order to mass-produce the car, master dies based on the finally accepted model are made. Companies that produce parts work closely with the automobile manufacturers on questions of de signing, engineering, and testing. Problems of production methods, costs, and scheduling also are worked out long before the actual manufac turing process begins. In recent years, computers have played an increasingly important role in calculating engineering data and have been linked up with numer Draftsman checks automobile design drawings prepared by numerically controlled machine. ically controlled drafting machines. These machines, automatically op erated by a tape containing instruc tions prepared on a computer, produce engineering drawings. An other recent technique is the recording of points on a clay model using photographic equipment which the computer can then convert into full scale drawings. These methods have enabled the manufacturers to shorten the lead time that is neces sary to bring forth the new model automobiles that appear annually. Production of Motor Vehicle Parts. After the designing and engineering phases have been completed, thou sands of component parts that will later be assembled into a complete motor vehicle must be produced. A large variety of materials are used, the most common being steel, alum inum, copper, zinc, plastic, rubber, fabric, glass, iron, and lead. The large number of metal parts used in a motor vehicle are shaped by several different methods, depend ing on the purpose and size of the part and the metal being used. The casting process is used to produce bulky parts such as engine blocks. Those parts which must be capable of withstanding great stress, such as axles and wheel spindles, are pro duced by the forging process. Huge presses form the sheet metal and 569 aluminum that compose the exterior body. Those metal parts that require precise size and shape dimensions, such as pistons and engine blocks, undergo further machine processing. These various processes are explained more fully under plant occupations. The production of parts does not entirely consist of metalworking op erations. For example, parts are made rustproof and attractive by painting and baking them in ovens lined with infrared lights. Throughout the production of parts, numerous inspections are made so that the quality of the assembled vehicles will meet established stand ards. Assembling the Final Product. The last stage of motor vehicle manufac turing takes place on the final assem bly line. Final assembly is the process of putting together in sequence the individual parts and the subassem blies, with the completed vehicle rolling off the end of the line. Over head wires and pipes feed electric power and air to nut tighteners, weld ing equipment, and other tools used by workers on the assembly line. A conveyor carries the motor vehicle forward while men at work stations attach the necessary parts and subassemblies in proper sequence. Generally, large and heavy subassemblies, such as the engine and the body, are lowered by hoists into Assembly line worker alines automobile body with power train. 570 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Motor Vehicle Manufacturing Occupations Operator tightens a ll wheel lugs at once with pneumatic impact wrench. position on the chassis as it conies down the line. The finishing acces sories, such as bumpers, hubcaps, and floor mats, are added near the end of the line. Finally, gasoline is pumped into the fuel tank, and the new motor vehicle is driven off the line. The headlights and wheels are then alined and the finished car is inspected before it leaves the factory. As the chassis move down the as sembly line, “banks” of material located in aisles along the line are continually fed to the assemblers in accordance with a careful system of scheduling arranged by the produc tion control department. Behind die movement of the parts and subassem blies to the assembly line is the work of the materials control men who, months before, coordinated the movement of material from outside suppliers with a planned production schedule. The sequence of the models to be built may be transmitted to the various stations along the line by either teletype or telautograph. The information on color and on the special equipment desired in each car is obtained from car orders placed by automobile dealers. By this sched uling program, cars of different colors and types follow each other down the assembly line—for ex ample, a light blue sedan may be followed by a beige station wagon. The motor vehicle industry’s 860.000 employees in 1966 worked in hundreds of occupations. Semiskilled plant workers such as assemblers, inspectors, and materials handlers made up about one-half of all employees. An additional quarter were employed as foremen, mechan ics and repairmen, machinists, tool and die makers, and in other skilled occupations. Clerical employees made up about a tenth of the total. The remaining workers were employed in professional, technical, sales, and managerial occupations, and as un skilled workers and guards. About 90 percent of all the auto mobile industry’s employees are men. Of the women employed in the indus try, about half are in production jobs in which the work is not physically strenuous, such as assemblers, inspec tors, machine operators, and sewers and stitchers; the rest are in clerical and other office jobs, including research and technical work. The duties and training require ments of some of the important occu pations are described briefly below. (Detailed discussions of professional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations found in the automobile industry, as well as in many other industries, are given elsewhere in this Handbook, in the sections cover ing individual occupations.) Professional and Technical Occupa tions. The modem automobile is a product of the research, design, and development work of thousands of engineers, chemists, metallurgists, physicists, and other scientists and engineers, as well as mathematicians, draftsmen, and other professional and technical personnel employed by the motor vehicle companies. About 21.000 scientists and engineers were employed in the motor vehicle indus try in early 1967. Engineers make up the largest group of professional and technical workers in the motor vehicle industry. Motor vehicle com panies hire engineers specializing in mechanical, electrical, industrial, and other fields. For example, the mechanical engineer seeks ways of improving the engine, transmission, or other parts of the automobile through research and development and better design. The electrical engineer works on the design of electrical parts, such as ignition sys tems, voltage regulators, and gen erators. The industrial engineer con centrates on the layout of plant equipment, improved processes, and production scheduling. The industry also employs civil, chemical, and ceramic engineers, and metallurgists. About two-fifths of the scientists and engineers are principally engaged in research and development. Others may supervise technical production jobs; for example, the metallurgist may supervise the melting operations in the precision casting and forging departments, and the chemist may head the testing and analytical laboratory. The industry also employs many thousands of technicians, such as draftsmen, engineering aids, and lab oratory assistants, to assist profes sional engineers and scientists. Administrative, Clerical, and Related Occupations. Many types of employ ees are necessary in the automobile industry to perform a great variety of administrative functions. These include executives who determine how many vehicles to produce, what styles to make, what prices to charge, which parts the company should pro duce and which parts it should buy, and where it is best to locate plants. Other administrative personnel are those, such as personnel manager and purchasing agent, who direct individ ual departments or special phases of operations. Among those assisting the administrators are accountants, law yers, market analysts, economists, sta tisticians, and industrial relations ex perts. This large industry also has many supervisory personnel in charge of specific groups of office or plant employees. MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS A large staff of clerical workers also is employed, including secretaries, stenographers, bookkeepers, clerks and typists, key punch operators, and business machine operators. A large proportion of these are women. Plant Occupations. More than threefourths of the employees in the motor vehicle industry work in factory jobs and are directly concerned with pro duction operations. Most plant em ployees m a k e automobile parts, assemble them into the complete ve hicles, and put the finishing touches on them. Other plant employees serv ice and maintain the vast amount of machinery and equipment needed for automobile manufacturing. Machining Occupations. Machining is the metalworking process generally best adapted for the production of parts to precise sizes. It is a process of cutting or chipping away excess metal from a part or a piece of metal by the use of power-driven machine tools. Among the more common types of machine tools are lathes, boring machines, drill presses, grinding ma chines, milling machines, and gear cutters. Automobile parts are manufac tured to precise dimensions by machining workers. One of the larg est metalworking occupations in the automobile industry is that of machine tool operator. These work ers operate power-driven machines which hold both the piece of metal to be cut and an instrument, or “tool,” that cuts, shapes, drills, or grinds the metal. The job titles of these employees, such as engine lathe operator, drill press operator, and milling machine operator, depend on what type of machine tool they operate. Among the most highly skilled machining workers are the tool and the die makers .Toolmakers make the jigs, fixtures, and other accessories that hold the metal being machined. Diemakers construct the dies that are used in stamping, pressing, forging, and other metalforming operations. Tool and die makers read blueprints, Operator monitors machine that checks accuracy of cylinder bores. set up and operate machine tools, use precision-measuring instruments, and make shop computations. They work to closer tolerances (more exact dimensions) and do more precision handwork than most other machining workers. The motor vehicle industry has taken the lead in developing contin uous automatic production for many machining operations. This approach to production depends on a variety of instruments to direct and control manufacturing processes. In applying automation to machining processes, automobile manufacturers have linked automatic machine tools to perform various operations. Less labor is required because the parts or pieces being machined are not handled manually. For example, in an automated engine plant, a rough engine block goes through hundreds of different cutting, drilling, and grinding opera tions using little direct manual labor. The engine block is moved into and out of load stations mechanically, machined automatically by a battery of machine tools, and transferred by conveyors to the next machining operation. Much of the inspection is done automatically. The machine tools, the conveyors, and the inspec tion equipment often are controlled by electronic, hydraulic, or air con trol mechanisms. Workers tend the automated lines of machine tools by watching the control panels for inter 571 ruptions of the machines’ normal functioning. Other Metalworking Occupations. The motor vehicle industry employs large numbers of workers in other metalworking occupations. These in clude punch press operators who run power-driven presses that vary in size from small presses used for forming brackets, clips, or other small parts to massive presses which form, trim, and pierce holes in automobile doors, body panels, and frames. Automobile plants employ many thousands of welders to join metal parts. Some manual electric-arc welders and gas welders work in pro duction jobs in parts and body manu facturing plants, and others work in maintenance jobs repairing and re building machinery and equipment. Machine (resistance) welders are em ployed on assembly lines to weld the separate parts of the bodies and subassemblies. Foundry Occupations. Castings for automobile parts, such as engine blocks, are produced by pouring metal into molds where it cools and hardens in the shape of the molds. Pattern makers make a wood or metal pattern in the shape of the final casting desired. Coremakers shape the bodies of sand, or “cores,” which are placed inside molds in order to form hollow spaces needed in castings. Machine molders make the sand mold into which the metal is poured. Many other workers in the foundries are in less skilled occupa tions. Melters operate electric fur naces and cupolas used to melt metal for castings! The actual pouring is done by metal pourers. After the cast ing cools, the shakeout men remove it from the mold. Other workers clean the castings and remove the excess metal. Forging occupations. Those auto mobile parts which must withstand great stress, such as axles, are shaped by forging hammers and presses in the forge shop. Hammermen operate drop hammers which pound metal in to various shapes between closed dies. 572 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Welder fastens rocker panel to steel body structure. The hammermen are assisted by heaters who heat the metal stock in a furnace to prepare it for forging and then pass the stock to the hammer men. Other forge shop workers are engaged in cleaning, finishing, heat treating, or inspecting forgings. Inspection Occupations (D.O.T. 806.281; 283; 381; 382; 387; 684 and 687). Automobiles can be massproduced because parts and subas semblies for the same make of auto mobile are interchangeable. These parts are made to exact measure ments and are subject to close quality control and inspection. (The industry employs statisticians and engineers in quality control departments who use statistical techniques designed to con trol the quality of the product.) Inspectors check incoming raw materials, examine parts during the manufacturing stages, and make qual ity and conformity checks during the subassembly and assembly operations. Micrometers, specially designed gages, and other measuring and test ing instruments are used by inspectors and testers in performing their duties. Finishing Occupations. Many finish ing operations must be performed be fore a car is completed. For example, the metal surfaces must be readied for finishing, the exteriors painted, the interiors covered, the seats up holstered, and finally, the finished product must undergo a thorough in spection. Among these employed in the finishing departments are metal finishers, platers, sprayers, polishers, sanders, trim cutters, sewing machine operators, and trimmers. Metal finishers (D.O.T. 705.884) file and polish rough surface areas of metal parts in preparation for painting. Platers (D.O.T. 500.885) put a thin coat of chrome on automobile bump ers and “hardware” for ornamenta tion and protection against corrosion. Sprayers (D.O.T. 741.887) operate spray guns to apply paint or other finishes to the metal parts. Polishers (D.O.T. 705.884) rub the finished surfaces by hand or polish them with a portable motor-driven buffing wheel. Gutters, sewing machine operators, and trimmers combine their skills to provide comfortable and attractive interiors. With hand shears or an electric knife, the cutter (D.O.T. 781.884) cuts fabric or leather to the specific shape according to a pattern. The sewing machine operator (D.O.T. 787.782), using a powerdriven machine, sews together the up holstery sections after they have been cut to size. Trimmers (D.O.T. 780.884) arrange and fasten springs and padding or foam rubber for the seats and backs and tack the covering material in place. Assembling Occupations (D.O.T. 806.887). The workers who do motor vehicle assembling make up the larg est occupational group in the auto mobile industry. Assemblers may put together small parts to form subas semblies or they may put together the parts and subassemblies to form the motor vehicle (line assemblies). Those employed on subassemblies work in parts plants or in automobile manufacturing plants. Those who put together the completed car work in automobile assembly plants. Most assembly jobs are repetitive and require little skill; however, they do require coordination and may be strenuous. Assembly-line work is di vided into many simple operations. Each employee is assigned a job to be done when the automobile passes his work station. For example, one em ployee may start nuts on bolts and the next worker may tighten the nuts. Materials Handling, Custodial, and Plant Protection Occupations. The production of motor vehicles by the 573 MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS Employee alines front wheels before automobile leaves assembly line. assembly-line process requires an elab orate system of materials movement to supply the assembly lines and to remove finished products. A consider able number of workers are employed to move materials in automobile and automobile parts plants. Drivers op erate power trucks which deliver parts or subassemblies to the asembly line or move materials between plants. Materials handlers load and unload parts from trucks or into and out of containers. Overhead crane operators use machines to move raw steel stock, heavy dies, and other ma terials that cannot be lifted by hand. Many employees are needed to keep the production employees sup plied with tools, parts, and materials, and to keep records of materials. Fac tory clerks, such as checkers, stock chasers, and stock clerks, coordinate the delivery of parts to the proper location on the assembly line. They check, receive, and distribute mate rials and keep records of incomingand outgoing shipments. The motor vehicle industry also employes many workers in plant pro tection and custodial work. These employees include plant patrolmen, gatemen, janitors, and porters. Maintenance Occupations. A large staff is required to keep machines and equipment in good operating condi tion and to make changes in the lay out of automobile plants. Because breakdowns in the assembly lines and in the highly mechanized machining lines are particularly costly, the auto mobile industry employs many skilled maintenance employees to service this complicated production system. The maintenance and repair of complex electrical, electronic, and hydraulic equipment require well-trained elec tricians, electronic technicians, and machinery repairmen. Millwrights move, install, and maintain heavy machinery and mechanical equip ment. Plumbers and pipefitters lay out, install, and repair piping, valves, pumps, and compressors. Other 574 maintenance employees in automo bile plants include carpenters, sta tionary engineers, and sheet metal workers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement The training requirements for jobs in the motor vehicle industry range from a few hours of on-the-job train ing to years of preparation. Many plant workers can learn their jobs in a day or two. On the other hand, engineering and scientific jobs, as well as craft jobs, are filled by people who have spent many years in train ing for their occupations. The motor vehicle industry’s em phasis upon new designs and mechan ical improvements has made it an important employer of persons with engineering and scientific back grounds. The minimum requirement for professional engineering jobs is a bachelor of science or a bachelor of engineering degree from a recog nized college. Advanced degrees are often required for scientists, par ticularly for those engaged in research and development work. Many of the companies give their newly hired en gineers and scientists specialized training courses. Many of the indus try’s top executives have been selected from this professional group. The requirements for other tech nical employees vary according to their specialities. For example, en gineering aids, laboratory assistants, and draftsmen are often technical institute or junior college graduates. Some automobile companies train their own seimprofessional technical employees at company-run schools or subsidize students at local junior col leges or technical institutes. These employees may also take advanced training and acquire engineering degrees. Administrative positions are usually filled by men and women who have college degrees in business adminis tration, marketing, accounting, in dustrial relations, or other specialized fields. Some companies have ad OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK vanced training programs for em ployees in these specialties. Most of the top administrative jobs are filled by promotion from within the organization. Most motor vehicle firms hire peo ple who have had commercial courses in high schools or business schools for office jobs such as clerk, bookkeeper, keypunch operator, ste nographer, and typist. These people usually have not been trained spe cifically for jobs in this industry. Applicants for most plant jobs must be physically able, dependable, and have aptitude for mechanical work. For semiskilled jobs, the indus try looks for applicants who are high school graduates, and who can do routine work at a steady and fast pace. Many assembling jobs can be learned in a few hours or days. Some of the less skilled machine operating jobs can be learned in a few weeks. Other plant production jobs require about a month of on-the-job experi ence. Extensive periods of training are required for craft jobs in the motor vehicle industry. Tool and die makers, patternmakers, electricians, mill wrights, and machinery repairmen are some of the highly skilled workers who generally require at least 4 years of training before they can perform their specialized jobs. Although many of the workers in craft jobs have ac quired the skills of their trade by working for many years with experi enced workers, most training authori ties agree that apprenticeship is the best way to learn a skilled trade. Automobile firms, in cooperation with labor unions, conduct appren ticeship programs for many of the skilled trades. The industry’s appren ticeship programs enable several thousand young men each year to prepare themselves for skilled jobs. Applicants for apprenticeship training are generally required to be between the ages of 18 and 26 (onethird of the apprentices can be work ers between the ages of 26 and 41 who are already employed in auto mobile companies) and graduates of a high school, trade, or vocational school. Training authorities stress that young people interested in appren ticeship training should prepare themselves by taking courses in math ematics and other sciences. Appren tice applicants are given physical examinations, mechanical aptitude tests, and other qualifying tests. Apprenticeship training includes both on-the-job and classroom in struction related to the occupation. Mathematics, blueprint reading, shop theory, and specialized subjects are studied in the classroom and the op eration and use of tools of a particu lar trade are learned in the shop. Most motor vehicle companies se lect their foremen from among work ers already employed. Frequently, persons who have completed appren tice training in a company are se lected for supervisory jobs after they have acquired further experience. Applicants for foreman jobs, if se lected, go through a training period when promoted to the foreman level. Employment Outlook The motor vehicle industry is ex pected to provide thousands of job openings annually during the remain der of the 1960’s and throughout the 1970’s, as a result of the need to re place experienced workers who trans fer to other industries, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone should provide about 14,000 job openings annually. On the other hand, be cause of laborsaving technological ad vances, employment in the industry is expected to show little change from the 1966 level of 860,000, despite an ticipated large increases in produc tion of motor vehicles and parts. Production of motor vehicles and parts and therefore, employment, have fluctuated sharply since the end of World War II, reflecting the in dustry’s sensitivity to factors such as changes in general business condi tions, consumer preference, availabil ity of credit, and defense production needs. In the future, assuming the realization of relatively full employ MOTOR VEHICLE AND EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING OCCUPATIONS ment nationally, the production of motor vehicles and equipment is ex pected to increase greatly. Factors contributing to the growth in demand for motor vehicles include expected large increases in the driving age population and in the number of households, growth of multicar own ership, higher levels of personal spendable income, and a continuing shift of families from the cities to the suburbs. Also, as the stock of motor vehicles in use continues to grow, the demand for vehicles will be stimu lated by the increasing numbers of new vehicles needed each year to re place those that are scrapped. In addition to the production of motor vehicles and parts, another major factor determining employ ment in this industry is the number of man-hours required to build a motor vehicle or to produce a part. Man-hour requirements have de clined in recent years and have ex erted a downward pressure on employment. In the decade ahead, the industry’s continued emphasis upon mechanized production meth ods, such as automatic assembly operations, especially subassembly, is expected to continue to increase out put per worker. The emphasis on re search and development of new materials is also likely to continue in the future. Recent examples include the use of metal powders to manufac ture certain precision parts, which eliminates a substantial amount of machining, the substitution of plas tics for many metal parts, and the growing use of electrical discharge and electrochemical machining. New and modernized plants are also ex pected to lead to further efficiencies in production that will reduce labor requirements. However, increased production efficiency will be partly offset by the greater number of man hours required to produce an increas ing variety of models and a growing number of motor vehicles with addi tional equipment, such as improved safety devices, air conditioners, power brakes, and exhaust control devices. Taking into account all of these factors, and assuming the realization of relatively full employment na tionally and the high rates of eco nomic growth necessary to achieve this goal, employment in the motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing industry in the late 1970’s is ex pected to be about the same as the 1966 level. If these high levels of eco nomic activity are not realized a de cline in employment in this industry may be anticipated. The occupational distribution of employment in the motor vehicle in dustry has been changing as a result of the industry’s emphasis upon re search and development activity, and its increasing use of automatic manu facturing operations. For example, white-collar employment as a pro portion of total employment in this industry has been increasing slowly in the postwar period. Following recent occupational trends, the number of engineers, sci entists, and other professional and technical personnel is expected to in crease as a proportion of total employ ment because of the anticipated ex pansion in research and development activities. Moreover, this emphasis upon research and development will create more job opportunities for en gineers and scientists with advanced degrees. The growing complexity of the automobile industry will lead to a greater need for more accountants, particularly those specializing in tax accounting. The industry is expected to expand its use of electronic dataprocessing equipment in the future, and programers will be employed in greater numbers. Employment of clerical and administrative workers is expected to remain at about the present level. Although the introduc tion of data-processing equipment may reduce the number employed in some clerical occupations, a slight in crease in the number of stenogra phers and typists is anticipated. The employment of skilled workers, as a group, is expected to remain rela tively stable. However, some skilled occupations, including millwright, 575 pipefitter, electrician, and machinery repairman, are expected to increase; others, including carpenter and up holsterer are expected to decline. The number of semiskilled workers, such as assemblers and machine operators, is expected to continue to decline. Earnings and Working Conditions ij , The earnings of production work ers in this industry are among the highest in manufacturing. In 1966, production workers in the motor ve hicle industry earned, on the aver age, $147.23 for 42.8 hours a week, or $3.44 an hour. This compares with average earnings of $111.92 for a 41.3-hour week, or $2.71 an hour, for production workers in all manu facturing industries. As a result of collective bargaining contracts negotiated between em ployers and unions, most employees in the industry receive benefits such as life insurance, accidental death, and dismemberment benefits, and weekly accident and sickness benefits for temporary disability. Many em ployers pay the entire cost of these benefits. Hospitalization, surgical, and medical benefits, which are pro vided as a result of collective bargain ing, are usually financed solely by em ployers. Most employees also receive paid sick leave; paid vacations (or payments in lieu of vacations) rang ing from 1 to 3 weeks depending on length of service; and an average of 9 paid holidays a year. Most com panies provide for automatic in creases in hourly wages when the cost of living rises beyond a given amount. Employees are paid at one and one-half their normal rate for working more than 40 hours a week or for working on Saturdays. They receive double the hourly rate for working on Sundays or holidays. Supplemental unemployment ben efit plans (paid for solely by the em ployers) cover the majority of workers. These plans provide cash payments for employees with at least 1 years service, ranging up to $56 a 576 week for hourly rated employees and up to $66 a week for some salaried employees. In most States these bene fits are in addition to those received from State unemployment compen sation plans. These plans also provide supplementary pay benefits (short workweek benefits) to help stabilize the income of hourly rated employees when they are required to work less than a normal week. In addition, pro visions are included for hospitaliza tion, surgical, and medical benefits during layoff; separation payments for those laid off 12 or more con tinuous months; and relocation al lowances for some laidoff employees. A great majority of the motor ve hicle workers are covered by pension programs, almost all of which are paid for entirely by the employer. Re tirement benefits vary with length of service. In a typical case, a retiring employee, age 65, with 30 years’ service, receives a monthly company pension of $127.50 in addition to his Federal social security benefits. Many pension programs also include pro OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK visions for voluntary retirement as early as age 55. The great bulk of the production and maintenance workers in the mo tor vehicle assembly plants, and a ma jority employed in the parts plants belong to the International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America. In some automobile parts plants, the International Union, Al lied Industrial Workers of America is the bargaining agent for the em ployees. Other unions with member ship in the automobile industry in clude the International Association of Machinists and Aerospace Work ers; the Pattern Makers’ League of North America; the International Molders’ and Allied Workers’ Union of North America; the Metal Polish ers, Buffers, Platers and Helpers In ternational Union; the International Union, United Plant Guard Workers of America (Ind.); the Mechanics Educational Society of America; the International Brotherhood of Electri cal Workers; and the International Die Sinkers’ Conference (Ind.). In general, the work surroundings in automobile plants are more favor able than those in most other types of metalworking facilities. Most motor vehicle workers are employed in plants which are relatively clean and free from dust, smoke, and fumes. Some work surroundings, however, particularly in the foundry and forge departments, may be hot, and the worker may be exposed to noise, dust, and fumes. Working conditions in foundries and forge departments have been greatly improved by the intro duction of larger, more efficient ven tilation systems. Motor vehicle plants are, on the whole, comparatively safe places to work, although safety conditions vary somewhat among the individual de partments or facilities. The rate of disabling injuries in motor vehicle plants has been less than half that of all manufacturing industries in most of the recent years. Some automobile plants have fully equipped hospital facilities with doctors and nurses in attendance. PETROLEUM AND NAT URAL GAS PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING The petroleum industry provides about 75 percent of all the energy fuels consumed in this country. Prod ucts refined from crude oil supply the fuels and lubricants used for nearly all our cars, trucks, buses and trains; military and civilian aircraft; and ships. Oil and gas provide much of the heat for our homes, factories, and commercial establishments, as well as the fuel for over one-quarter of the electric power generated in this coun try. In addition, basic petroleum com pounds are essential in the manufac ture of hundreds of products in everyday use, such as synthetic rub ber, plastics, and fertilizer. In early 1967, about 430,000 work ers, with a wide range of educational backgrounds and skills, were em ployed in the various activities that make up the crude oil and natural gas production and processing sectors of this industry. They worked in oil and natural gas exploration and drill ing operations, in natural gas proc essing plants, and in oil refineries lo cated throughout the country. Nature and Location of the Industry Petroleum is one of the fossil fuels, having been formed from the decay of once living matter. It is extracted mainly in the form of crude oil and natural gas. Thousands of companies are in the petroleum business, most of them spe cializing in a single activity, such as exploring for gas or oil, drilling wells, operating wells, transporting petrol eum products, processing gas, and re fining crude oil. Others operate gaso line service stations, or supply natural gas for heating and cooking. Much of the petroleum business, however, is done by a small number of large firms that are involved in many of the in dustry’s activities—from exploring for oil and gas to selling finished pe troleum products. These firms pro vide a large share of the industry’s jobs. This chapter deals with the jobs and activities involved in getting oil and gas to the surface of the earth (production) and converting it to usable products (processing and re fining) . It excludes the transporting and marketing of petroleum products. Petroleum Production. Because the processes involved in finding and ex tracting crude oil and natural gas are the same, the jobs and activities involved are identical up to the point where the gas or oil well starts pro ducing. In this chapter, references to “petroleum production” also cover the discovery and extraction of nat ural gas. In early 1967, about 280,000 wage and salary workers were employed in the United States in petroleum production, including the production and processing of natural gas. Al though drilling for oil and gas is done in about three-fourths of the States, nearly 90 percent of the workers are employed in 10 States. Texas is the leading State in the number of oilfield jobs, followed by Louisiana, Oklaho ma, California, Kansas, Illinois, New Mexico, Wyoming, Mississippi, and Colorado. Many additional American workers are employed in foreign countries by United States oil com panies, particularly in the Middle East, Africa, South America, and Canada. The jobs and processes in petrole um production involve finding crude oil and extracting it from the earth. Petroleum production includes three broad fields of work: Exploration, drilling and oilfield servicing, and well operation and maintenance. Firms that specialize in performing one or more of these activities under contract to oil companies, employ about one-half of all the workers in petroleum production. Major oil companies engage in all of these pro duction activities. Since oil is difficult to find—only rarely are there any signs on the earth’s surface of its presence under ground—an important part of petro leum production activity involves using scientific methods to search for oil. After scientific tests are made which indicate the possible presence of oil beneath the surface of the earth, a site is selected and the drilling process begins. Before a well can be drilled, a towerlike steel drilling rig is installed to support the tools and pipes that must be lowered into the well. Most rigs used today are portable ones brought to the drilling site, but some rigs are built at the site. Although a few large firms do some of their own drilling, over 90 percent of this work is performed by about 2,800 special ized drilling contractors. A number of other services are performed in connection with oilfield drilling. These include building ac cess roads, hauling supplies, cement ing wells, cleaning and treating wells, and other special operations. Much of this work is handled by contrac tors. When oil is reached, the job of the drilling crew is finished and that of the well-operating crew begins. About half of all petroleum produc tion workers operate or maintain some 700,000 oil and gas producing wells in the United States. These wells are operated by thousands of companies which range in size from 577 578 large firms with wells all over the world to small firms with only a sin gle well. After oil or gas is brought out of the ground, it is transported to refineries or processing plants by pipelines, ships, barges and trucks. Petroleum Refining. Crude oil as it comes from the ground has few uses. To make useful end products, such as gasoline, fuel oil, kerosene and lubricants, oil must be heated under pressure or in a vacuum, or treated with chemicals. This processing, called refining, is done in plants known as refineries. About 265 refineries were in oper ation throughout the country in 1966, employing some 150,000 wage and salary workers. Refineries range in size from small plants with fewer than 50 employees to plants with sev eral thousand employees. Although refineries are located in most States, nearly 90 percent of refinery workers are employed in only 10 States: Texas, California, Pennsylvania, Louisiana, Illinois, Oklahoma, In diana, New Jersey, Ohio, and Kan sas. Refineries usually are located near oilfields, consuming centers, and deepwater ports where tankers can dock. Natural Gas Processing. Natural gas as it comes from the ground is diffi cult to transmit through pipelines for long distances because of the various liquid compounds dissolved in it. As OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK a result, natural gas processing plants, which remove these liquids, usually are located at or near gas fields. How ever, a few companies have found it desirable to locate large processing plants adjacent to main transmission lines, at a point several hundred miles from the producing area. Recently constructed plants are highly auto mated and usually have relatively few employees. There are over 600 natural gas processing plants employing about 15,000 workers. More than 75 per cent of the plants had fewer than 50 employees. Although natural gas processing plants are located in 20 States, over 85 percent were located in 6 States: Texas, Oklahoma, Lou isiana, California, West Virginia, and New Mexico. industry each year during the re mainder of the 1960’s and over the next decade. Employment in the industry is ex pected to decline despite the fact that the demand for petroleum and nat ural gas products will continue to increase. The anticipated decline, however, will be concentrated among production and related workers as a result of the continued applica tion of technological improvements which, in all likelihood, will lead to further increases in output per worker. (See p. 724 for statements on petroleum and natural gas pro duction occupations.) Where To Go for More Information Further information concerning jobs, processes, and working condi tions in the petroleum industry can Employment in petroleum and be obtained from the public relations natural gas production and petro department of individual petroleum leum refining is expected to continue companies and from: the slow decline which began during American Gas Association, the 1950’s. However, little or no 605 Third Ave., New York, N.Y. change in employment is anticipated 10016. among natural gas processing work ers. Most of the job opportunities American Petroleum Institute, that will arise through the 1970’s 1271 Avenue of the Americas, New York, N.Y. 10020. will result from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer National Petroleum Refiners Asso to other fields of work. Deaths and ciation, retirements alone will account for 1725 DeSales St. NW., Washington, more than 7,000 job openings in this D.G. 20036. Employment Outlook PETROLEUM REFINING OCCUPATIONS Nature of Work Petroleum refining changes crude oil into gasoline, kerosene, fuel oil, lubricants, and other products for use in homes and industry. The mod em refinery is a complicated stmcture made up of tanks and tow ers connected by a maze of pipes. From the time crude oil enters the refinery to the shipment of finished products, the flow of production is continuous. The refining process is highly automatic and is controlled by instmments which measure and regulate the flow, temperature, and pressure of liquids and gases going through the pipes and tanks. Manual handling of materials is virtually eliminated in the modem refinery. Briefly, the first step in petroleum refining consists of heating crude oil as it flows through a series of pipes in a furnace. The vapors from the heated oil pass into a tower where the various “fractions,” or parts, of crude oil are condensed. The heaviest parts (for example, asphalt) are drawn off along the bottom of the tower where temperatures are high est; lighter parts (kerosene) are drawn off along the middle of the tower; and the lightest (gasoline and gases) are taken off at the top where temperatures are lowest. Further pro cessing, by more complicated methods, combines or modifies 262-057 O— 68----- 38 Operators regulate processing of crude oil from central controls. compounds obtained through frac tionating. About one-third of the plant work ers in refineries are employed in processing work. A key worker in converting crude oil into usable prod ucts is the stillman (D.O.T. 542.280), or chief operator. He is responsible for the efficient operation of one distillation unit or more. The opera tor watches instrument readings for any changes in temperature, pressure, and oil flow. In the more modem refineries, the operator can watch in struments on graphic panels which show the entire operation of all distillation units in the refinery. He regulates the instmments so that oil products will meet specifications. From time to time, the operator pa trols all units for which he is responsi ble to check their operating condition and to take samples for testing. He may have one assistant or more (D.O.T. 542.782), depending on the number and size of the units he directs. Other plant workers whose jobs are related .to the processing of crude oil include pumpmen (D.O.T. 549.782) and their helpers (D.O.T. 549.884), who maintain and operate power-driven pumps which circulate petroleum products, chemicals, and water through units during process ing; and treaters (D.O.T. 549.782), who operate equipment to remove impurities from gasoline, oil, and other petroleum products. 579 580 In many refineries, a large percent age of the plant workers repair, re build, and clean the highly compli cated refinery equipment. In other plants, maintenance work is con tracted to companies outside the petroleum industry. A large number of maintenance workers are needed because high heat and pressure and corrosion quickly wear out equip ment. Included among these are skilled boilermakers, carpenters, elec tricians, instrument repairmen, lead burners, machinists, masons, painters, pipefitters, pipe coverers, riggers, sheetmetal workers, and welders. Many helpers and trainees are also in these trades. Some skilled workers have a primary skill in one craft as well as the ability to handle the duties of closely related crafts. For example, a pipefitter also may be able to do boilermaking and welding repair work on a piece of equipment. Maintenance workers who have such combined jobs are sometimes called refinery mechanics. Plant workers who do not operate or maintain equipment do a variety of other tasks in refineries. Some workers are employed in the packaging and shipping department; some load and unload materials on trucks, trains, or ships; som e drive trucks and tractors to deliver materials to various parts of the plant; and others keep inven tory records of stock and tools. The industry also employs custodial work ers such as guards, watchmen, and janitors. About 15 percent (slightly more than 20,000) of the workers in pe troleum refining are scientists, engi neers, and technicians, compared with about one-tenth in petroleum pro duction. Among these professional and technical refinery workers are chemists, chemical engineers, me chanical engineers, petroleum engi neers, laboratory technicians, and draftsmen. Chemists and laboratory technicians control the quality of petroleum products by making tests and analyses to determine chemical and physical properties. Some chem ists are engaged in research and development activities to discover OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Chemist conducts research to develop new petroleum products. new products and to improve those already produced. Laboratory tech nicians also assist chemists in research projects or do routine testing and sample taking. Some engineers design chemical processing equipment and plant layout and others supervise re fining processes. Draftsmen prepare detailed plans and drawings needed in refinery construction and main tenance. Many administrative, clerical, and other white-collar personnel are em ployed by refining companies. A large number of top administrative and management positions are filled by technically trained men, many of whom are chemists or engineers. Sales engineers also are technically trained. Other specialized workers in the field of administration include account ants, purchasing agents, and lawyers. Many typists, stenographers, secre taries, bookkeepers, and business ma chine operators are employed to as sist these specialized workers. (De tailed discussions of professional, technical, mechanical, and other oc cupations found not only in the pe troleum refining industry but also in other industries are given in the sec tion of this Handbook covering the individual occupations. See index for page numbers.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Petroleum refineries typically re quire new plant workers to have a high school or vocational school edu cation. In large refineries, aptitude and psychological testing and inter viewing are used in selecting em ployees. Usually, a new worker be gins in a labor pool where he does such jobs as moving materials, pack ing cartons, or filling barrels. When a vacancy occurs either in a process ing department or in a maintenance shop, he may be transferred to one or the other, depending on his par ticular aptitudes and seniority. A worker newly assigned to a proc essing department learns to operate processing equipment under the su pervision of experienced workers. As PETROLEUM REfFENilNlG OCCUPATION® he gains experience and know-how, he moves to the more skilled jobs in his department. For example, one line of advancement for a processing worker may be from helper to assist ant operator to chief operator. For mal training courses frequently are provided to assure thorough and cur rent knowledge in a variety of operations. An inexperienced worker who is assigned to a maintenance shop re ceives training on the job under the supervision of the foreman. In some refineries, he also may receive class room instruction related to his partic ular work. Over a period of 3 or 4 years, he may advance from helper to skilled craftsman in one of the maintenance jobs. Some large refin eries have programs under which workers are given training in several related maintenance crafts. For ex ample, a qualified instrument repair man may be given additional train ing as electrician or machinist. For scientists and engineers a bach elor’s degree in science or engineering usually is the minimum educational requirement. For research jobs, scien tists and engineers with advanced de grees are preferred. Laboratory assist ants begin their work in routine jobs and advance to positions of greater responsibility as they acquire addi tional experience and demonstrate ability to work without close super vision. Inexperienced draftsmen be gin as copyists or tracers. With addi tional experience and training, they may advance to more skilled and re sponsible drafting positions. Adminis trative positions generally are filled by men and women who have college degrees in business administration, marketing, accounting, industrial re lations, or other specialized fields. For positions as clerks, bookkeepers, stenographers, and typists, most re fineries employ persons who have had commercial courses in high school or business school. ers in petroleum refineries through the 1970’s. These will result from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other industries. Not all job vacancies created by turn over may be filled, since it is expected that in the future total employment in petroleum refining will continue a slow decline which began during the early 1950’s. This decline is expected despite the continued expansion of refinery out put and anticipated increases in con sumption of petroleum products in the years ahead. The lower employ ment level is expected to result from improved methods of refining crude oil and the trend toward fewer but larger and more highly automated refineries. Most of the job opportunities cre ated by turnover in petroleum refin ing will be for professional, adminis trative, and technical workers, partic ularly chemists, chemical engineers, and technicians, who are needed for the industry’s research and develop ment activities. Among plant work ers, most job opportunities will be in maintenance occupations, such as those of instrument repairman, pipe fitter, machinist, and maintenance electrician, because of the increasing use of automated equipment and complex control instruments. Earnings and Working Conditions Refinery workers are among the highest paid employees in American industry. In mid-1967, production workers in petroleum refining aver aged $163.07 a week, or $3.81 an hour for a 42.8-hour workweek, com pared with an average for all manu facturing industries of $113.65 a week, or $2.82 an hour for a 40.3hour workweek. The higher average earnings of production workers in refineries reflect the relatively large proportion of workers in skilled occupations. Employment Outlook Entry salaries for chemists and Only a few thousand job openings chemical engineers in the petroleum each year are expected for new work refining industry were among the 581 highest in American industry, accord ing to a survey conducted by the American Chemical Society in 1966. The survey showed that in this in dustry the average starting salary for chemists with a bachelor’s degree and no experience was $643 a month and for chemical engineers, $690 a month. Most petroleum refinery workers receive a 2-week vacation with pay after 1 year of service; 3 weeks, after 5 years; 4 weeks, after 10 years; and 5 weeks after 20 years. Most refiner ies have adopted some type of insur ance, pension, and medical and sur gical plans for their employees. Em ployee stock-purchase and savings plans, to which the employer makes contributions, are in effect in many firms. Because petroleum refining is a continuous round-the-clock opera tion, operators may be assigned to one of the three shifts, or they may be rotated on various shifts and be sub ject to Sunday and holiday work. Em ployees usually receive 10 to 20 cents an hour additional pay when they work on the second or third shift. Most maintenance workers are on duty during the day shift; only a few work at night to handle emergencies. Work in the industry has little sea sonal variation and regular workers have year-round jobs. Most refinery jobs require only moderate physical effort. A few work ers, however, have to open and close heavy valves and climb stairs and lad ders to considerable heights in the course of their duties. Others may work in hot places or may be exposed to unpleasant odors. Refineries are relatively safe places in which to work. The injury-frequency rate is about half that of manufacturing as a whole. A majority of refinery plant work ers are union members. A large num ber of refineries have been organized by the Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union. Some refinery workers are members of other AFL-CIO unions or of various local unions not affiliated with the AFLCIO. cal and professional jobs, many of which are found only in the paper industry. About 145,000 women were em ployed in this industry at the begin ning of 1967. Many of them worked in plant jobs, mainly as machine op erators and inspectors in paper finish ing and coverting plants; others were in office jobs. Few women were em ployed in the actual making of pulp or paper. OCCUPATIONS IN THE PULP, PAPER, AND ALLIED PRODUCTS INDUSTRY In early 1967, the pulp, paper and allied products industry (the paper industry) employed about 680,000 workers to produce thousands of paper products such as newsprint, business forms, facial tissue, building board, paper bags, writing paper, and paperboard containers and boxes. Consumption of paper and paperboard in 1966 amounted to more than 530 pounds for each person in the Nation. The industry employs workers in occupations ranging from unskilled to highly specialized techni 582 Nature and Location of the Industry paperboard. A few very large plants also produce finished paper products. The largest group of employees in the industry in 1966 worked in mills that made pulp, paper, or paperboard. The next largest group was employed in plants that produced paperboard boxes and containers; the remainder worked in plants that pro duced a variety of other paper products. More than 90 percent of the pulp, paper, and paperboard employees and over 70 percent of the converting plant employees worked in factories employing over 100 workers each. Workers in this industry are located throughout the country, although more than half are employed in eight States: New York, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Ohio, Illinois, Massachu setts, New Jersey, and California. Other States with large numbers of paperworkers are Michigan, Minne sota, Georgia, Washington, Maine, Louisiana, Florida, and North Carolina. The paper industry is highly mech anized. Pulp and paper and many finished paper products are manufac tured by machines—some as long as a football field—in a series of nearly automatic operations involving very little handling of material by workers. Manufacturing plants in the paper industry are engaged in one or more of three different operations: The production of pulp (the basic ingredi ent of all paper) from wood, reused fibers, or other raw materials; the Occupations in the Industry manufacture of paper or paperboard (thick paper) from pulp; or the con Workers in the paper industry are version of rolls of paper or paper- employed in a wide variety of occupa board into finished products. Some tions, requiring a broad range of large plants produce pulp, paper, and training and skills. Many workers op erate and control specialized paper making, finishing, and converting machines. Some workers install and repair equipment such as papermak ing machinery, converting equipment, motors, pumps, pipes, and measuring instruments. Truck and tractor driv ers make deliveries to and from plants, and other workers load and unload trucks, trains, and ships. Guards, watchmen and janitors do custodial work. Other workers keep inventory records of stock and tools. The industry employs many work ers in clerical, sales, and administra tive occupations. For example, it employs purchasing agents, personnel managers, salesmen, office clerks, stenographers, bookkeepers, and busi ness machine operators. Also, because OCCUPATIONS IN PULP, PAPER,^ AND ALLIED PRODUCTS INDUSTRY 583 ering individual occupations. See index for page numbers.) Production Jobs. More than threefourths of all employees in the in dustry worked in production jobs. The simplified description of paper making occupations and processes which follows, applies to a plant which combines the production of pulp, paper, and finished products into one continuous operation. (See chart 52.) It takes between 12 and 15 hours, on the average, for pulpwood or other raw materials to be converted into rolls of paper or paperboard. After the pulpwood logs are re ceived at the pulp mill, the bark is re moved. One machine used for this operation is a large revolving cylinder known as a “drum barker.” Logs are mechanically fed into this machine by a semiskilled worker called a barker operator. The machine cleans the bark from the logs by tumbling them against each other and against the rough inner surface of the drum. Next, the pulp fibers in the logs are separated from other substances not used in papermaking. This is done by a chemical or mechanical process, or a combination of both, depending on the type of wood used and the grade of paper desired. Women are frequently employed as carton inspectors. of the complex processes and equip ment used, the industry employs many people in professional and technical occupations such as chemical and mechanical engineers, chemists, lab oratory technicians, pulp and paper testers, and inspectors. (Detailed dis cussions of professional, technical, and mechanical occupations, found not only in the paper industry but in other industries, are given elsewhere in the Handbook in the sections cov- Barker operator controls machine that removes bark from logs. 584 In the mechanical process, the pulpwood is held against a fastrevolving grindstone which separates the fibers. In the more commonly used chemical process, pulpwood is carried on conveyor belts to a chipper machine operated by a chipperman (D.O.T. 668.885). The machine cuts the pulpwood into chips about the size of a quarter. These wood chips are then “cooked” with chemicals under high temperature and pressure in a “digester,” a kettlelike vat several stories high. The digester is operated by a skilled worker called a digester OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK operator (D.O.T. 532.782) (also known as a “cook”). He determines the amount of chemicals to be used and the cooking temperature and pressure, directs the loading of the digester with wood chips and chemi cals, and determines, by checking an instrument panel, that proper con ditions are being maintained. When the pulp fibers are removed from the digester, they are washed to remove chemicals, partially cooked chips, and other impurities. These fibers, called pulp, resemble wet, brown cotton. As a first step in turning pulp into paper, Digester operator adjusts flow of steam in paper digester. pulp is mixed thoroughly with water and further refined in a machine op erated by a skilled worker called a beater engineer (D.O.T. 530.782). The kind and amount of chemicals and dyes that he uses and the length of time he “beats” the solution de termines the color and strength of the paper. The pulp solution, now more than 99 percent water, is turned into paper or paperboard by machines that are among the largest in American in dustry. The machines are of two gen eral types. One is the Fourdrinier machine which is, by far, the most commonly used. The other is the cylinder machine used to make cer tain types of paper such as building and container board. It differs from the Fourdrinier machines in the pa performing section. In the Four drinier, the pulp solution pours onto a continuously moving and vibrating belt of fine wire screen. As the water drains, millions of pulp fibers adhere to one another, forming a thin wet sheet of paper. After passing through presses that squeeze out more water, the newly formed paper passes through the dryer section of the pa permaking machine to evaporate the remaining water. Papermaking ma chines are operated by a paper ma chine operator (D.O.T. 539.782) (also called a “machine tender”). The quality of the paper produced largely depends on the skill of this worker. His principal responsibility is to control the “wet-end” of the pa permaking machine, where paper of a specified thickness, width, and physical strength is formed. He checks control-panel instruments to make certain that the flow of pulp and the speed of the machine are coordinated. The paper machine operator deter mines whether the paper meets the required specifications by interpreting laboratory tests or, in some instances, by visually checking and feeling the paper. He also supervises the less skilled workers of the machine crew and, with their help, keeps the paper moving smoothly through the ma chine. The paper machine operator 585 OCCUPATIONS IN PULP, PAPER, AND ALLIED PRODUCTS INDUSTRY and his crew may also replace worn felts and wire screens. The backtender (D.O.T. 532.885), who is super vised by the paper machine operator, controls the “dry-end” of the pa permaking machine, where the pa per is dried and prepared either for shipping or converting into finished products. He controls the pressure and temperature of the rolls that dry and finish the paper and give it the correct thickness, inspects the paper for imperfections, and makes sure that it is being wound tightly and uniformly into rolls. The backtender also adjusts the machinery that cuts the rolls into smaller rolls and, with the help of assistants, may weigh and wrap the rolls for shipment. Paper mills that produce a fine grade of paper for books, magazines, or stationery usually maintain finish ing departments. Most of the workers in these departments are either semi skilled or unskilled. One such semi skilled worker, called the super calender operator (D.O.T. 534.782), aided by several helpers and by me chanical handling equipment, places huge rolls of paper onto a machine which gives the paper a smooth and glossy finish. He also inspects the fin ished paper to make sure that speci fications have been met. Another semiskilled worker in the finishing de partment, the paper sorter and counter (D.O.T. 649 .68 7), inspects sheets of paper for tears, dirt spots, and wrinkles, and counts them. In converting plants, machines operated by semiskilled or skilled workers convert paper and paperboard into paper products such as envelopes, napkins, corrugated ship ping containers, and folding or rigid boxes. Occupations in converting plants differ widely, depending largely on the product being manu factured. An example of a semiskilled worker in an envelope-making plant is the envelope machine operator (D.O.T. 641.885) who feeds and tends an automatic machine that makes envelopes from either rolls of paper or prepared envelope blanks. He loads the rolls of blanks into the Paper machine operator and helper inspect and adjust flow of w et stock. machine and supplies the machine with glue. An example of a skilled worker in a converting plant is the corrugator operator (D.O.T. 643.782) who regulates the speed of the machine that glues together three pieces of paperboard into corrugated paperboard (paperboard with alter nate ridges and grooves) which is used in the manufacture of shipping containers. Another of the few skilled workers in a converting plant is the printer-slotter operator (D.O.T. 651.782) who sets, adjusts, and operates a machine which cuts and creases corrugated or paperboard sheets and prints designs or lettering on them. He also positions the printing plates and cutting devices and turns keys to control the distribution of print ing ink, pressure of rollers, and speed of the machine. Another skilled job is that of the die maker (D.O.T. 739.381) who makes cutting dies used on machines that produce fold ing cartons (the familiar collapsible cartons used by clothing stores to pack purchases). Converting plants employ thou sands of workers to print text, designs, and lettering on paper products, such as cartons, bags, wallpaper, and en velopes. Among these are skilled com positors who set type, and pressmen who prepare and operate printing presses. Maintenance Jobs. The paper indus try employs many skilled mainte nance workers to care for its Com plex machinery and electrical equipment. Millwrights maintain, install, and repair machinery and equipment and 586 examine paper machine rolls, bear ings, and pumps to insure that they are in good working condition. They also take apart and reassemble ma chines and equipment when they are moved about the plant. Instrument repairmen install and service electrical, electronic, and me chanical instruments that measure and control the flow of pulp, paper, water, steam, and chemical additives. The job of instrument repairman is becoming increasingly important with the greater use of automatic control equipment in pulp and paper manufacturing. Other important maintenance em ployees include electricians, who re pair wiring, motors, and switches; maintenance machinists, who make replacement parts for mechanical equipment; and pipefitters, who lay out, install, and repair pipes. Stationary engineers are employed to operate and maintain powerplants, steam engines, boilers, air compres sors, motors, and turbines. Professional and Technical Occupa tions. The complexity of pulp and pa per manufacturing requires the em ployment of thousands of workers with engineering, chemical, or other technical training and education. More than 15,000 scientists and en gineers and 7,000 technicians were employed by the paper industry in early 1967. Many chemists are employed to control the quality of the product by supervising the testing of pulp and paper. In research laboratories, chemists study the influence of vari ous chemicals on pulp and paper properties. In addition, some chem ists and engineers are employed as salesmen, supervisors of plant work ers, or as administrators in positions requiring technical knowledge. Chemical and mechanical engi neers design, construct, operate, con trol, and improve pulp and paper making equipment. They transform new pulp and papermaking tech niques, developed in the laboratory, into practical production methods. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Some chemical engineers are em ployed in plant jobs to supervise the application of pulp and paper tech nology to the production process. Electrical engineers are employed to supervise the design, development, and operation of electrical and elec tronic instruments and power-gener ating and distributing equipment. Packaging engineers (D.O.T. 019.187) design and supervise the pro duction of paper and paperboard containers and packages. A few box manufacturers also employ artists who work out the letterings, designs, and colors for containers. Professionally t r a i n e d foresters manage large areas of timberland and assist in the wood-buying opera tions of pulp and paper companies. Systems analysts and computer programers are becoming increasingly important to this industry. Comput ers are being used to coordinate the complex papermaking process by col lecting and analyzing data on chem ical mixtures, pulp flows, tempera tures, pressures, machine speeds, and performing quality control tests. In addition, much of the accounting and management statistical data are proc essed by computers. Frequent tests are performed dur ing the manufacturing of pulp or paper to determine whether the size, weight, strength, color, and other properties of the material meet speci fied standards. Some of this testing is done by machine operators, but in many mills, testing technicians are employed. These employees, who have job titles such as laboratory tech nician, paper tester, pulp tester, pa per inspector, and chemical analyst, work in plant laboratories. They use chemicals and laboratory testing equipment when performing tests. They also assist professional engineers and chemists in research and devel opment activities. Depending on their training and experience, technicians perform simple, routine tests or do highly skilled technical or analytical work. Technicians working in labora tories conduct tests and record the results on charts or graphs for inter pretation by engineers and chemists. Administrative, Clerical and Related Occupations. The paper industry em ploys many administrative, clerical, and other office personnel. At the top of the administrative group are the executives who make and administer company policy. Many of these are technically trained men. To do their work effectively, executives require in formation that must come from a large group of personnel. Some are accountants, purchasing agents, sales representatives, lawyers, and person nel employed in such activities as in dustrial relations, public relations, transportation, advertising, and mar ket research. Clerical employees who keep records of personnel, payroll, in ventories, sales, shipments, and plant maintenance are also employed in this industry. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Technician tests bursting strength of paper sample. The training for new workers in the pulp, paper, and allied products industry ranges from a few days to years of preparation. Many operating jobs can be learned in a few days of on-the-job training. On the other hand, maintenance jobs, some ma chine operating jobs, and, particu larly, engineering and scientific jobs require years of specialized training. OCCUPATIONS IN PULP, PAPER, AND ALLIED PRODUCTS INDUSTRY Paper and pulp companies gener ally hire inexperienced workers for processing and maintenance jobs and train them on the job. Many com panies prefer to hire high school grad uates between the ages of 18 and 25. Production workers usually start as laborers or helpers and advance along fairly well-defined paths to more skilled jobs. Maintenance jobs gen erally are filled by men trained in the plant. When no qualified workers are available, however, jobs are filled by hiring experienced men from outside the plant. Most companies in this industry do not have formal apprenticeship pro grams to meet the needs of their own maintenance shops. In recent years, however, some of the large plants that make pulp, paper, and paperboard have started formal apprenticeship programs which require 3 to 4 or more years of training. Under these programs, young men are trained for skilled maintenance jobs such as ma chinist, electrician, millwright, and pipefitter. Generally, an applicant is given a physical examination, me chanical aptitude tests, and similar qualifying tests. Apprentice training includes both on-the-job training and classroom instruction related to the occupation. For example, the ma chinist apprentice receives classroom instruction in mathematics, blueprint reading, shop theory, and specialized subjects. During shop training, the apprentice learns the use and care of the tools of his trade. A bachelor’s degree from a recog nized college is usually the minimum educational requirement for sci entists, engineers, foresters, and other specialists employed by the industry. For research work, persons with ad vanced degrees are preferred. Many engineers and chemists (called proc ess engineers and paper chemists) have specialized training in paper technology. A listing of the schools offering such training is available from the American Paper Institute, 260 Madison Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. Many companies hire students specializing in papermaking for sum mer work, and upon graduation, fre quently hire them on a permanent basis. Some associations, colleges, universities, and individual com panies offer scholarships in pulp and papermaking technology. Some companies have formal train ing programs for college graduates with engineering or scientific back grounds. These employees may work for brief periods in various plant op erating divisions to gain a broad knowledge of pulp and paper manu facturing before being assigned to a particular department. Other firms immediately assign junior chemists or engineers to a specific research opera tion or maintenance unit. Generally, no specialized education is required for laboratory assistants, testing technicians, or other kinds of technicians. Some employers, how ever, prefer to hire those who have had training in a technical institute or junior college. Training, usually, is on the job. Laboratory assistants, for example, begin in routine jobs and advance to positions of greater re sponsibility after they have acquired experience and demonstrated their ability to work without close super vision. Administrative positions are filled frequently by men and women who have college degrees in business ad ministration, marketing, accounting, industrial relations, or other special ized business fields. A knowledge of paper technology is helpful for ad ministrative, sales, and related occu pations. This is especially true of sales jobs, where customers often require technical assistance. Most pulp and paper companies employ clerks, book keepers, stenographers, and typists who have had commercial courses in high school or in business school. Factors affecting advancement of plant workers include the length of time that a worker has held a plant job, how well he performs his job, and his physical condition. Promotion is generally limited to jobs within a “work area,” which may be a depart ment, section, or an operation on one type of machine. To become a paper machine tender, for example, the worker may start as a laborer, wrap 587 ping and sealing the finished rolls of paper as they come off the paper making machine. As he gains experi ence and skill, he moves to more diffi cult assignments, finally becoming a machine tender in charge of the op eration of a machine. These promo tions may take many years, depending on the availability of jobs. Experience gained within a work area is generally not transferable; unskilled or semi skilled workers who transfer to jobs outside their senority area or to other plants usually must start again in entry jobs. Many plant foremen and super visors are former production workers. In some plants, qualified workers may be promoted directly to foreman or other supervisory positions. In others, workers are given training before they are eligible for promotion to higher level jobs. This training is often con tinued after the worker is promoted— through conferences, special plant training sessions, and sometimes by taking courses at universities or trade schools. Most firms provide some fi nancial assistance for employees who take training courses outside their plant. Employment Outlook Young people will find many thou sands of job openings annually during the remainder of the 1960’s and throughout the 1970’s in the pulp, paper, and allied products industry. Although employment is expected to increase by several thousand workers each year, most job opportunities will result from the need to replace ex perienced workers who retire, trans fer to other fields of work, or die. Deaths and retirements alone are ex pected to provide about 14,000 job openings annually. Employment in this industry is ex pected to continue to grow fastest in the South and West. Employment prospects, however, will remain good in the Northeast and North Central areas because of the need to replace experienced workers. 588 The production of paper is ex pected to increase as a result of the increased demand resulting from population growth, business expan sion, and new uses of paper. For ex ample, rising population will create a greater demand for textbooks, writ ing papers, periodicals, and news papers. Business expansion will in crease the need for paper products, such as business forms and packaging. The greater use of paper products, such as disposable garments, stretch able grocery bags, carpet backing, and refuse bags is also expected to stimulate paper production. Employ ment will increase at a slower rate than production, however, because of the increasing use of more efficient, labor-saving machinery and auto matic tontrol equipment. Occupational groups in the indus try are expected to increase at differ ent rates. The numbers of engineers, scientists, technicians, and skilled workers, such as electricians, machin ery repairmen, instrument repair men, pipefitters, and millwrights are expected to increase faster than other occupational groups in the industry. Scientific and technical personnel will be needed as research and devel opment activities increase, and more skilled maintenance and repair men will be required to service the grow ing inventory of complex machinery. The employment of administrative and clerical workers is also expected to increase at a faster pace than total employment. On the other hand, employment of semiskilled workers will grow more slowly, while the num ber of helpers, laborers, and other un skilled plant workers is expected to remain about the same or decline slightly as more automatic machinery is introduced. Earnings and Working Conditions Production workers in the paper and allied products industry had average earnings of $2.75 an hour, or $119.35 for a 43.4-hour workweek in 1966. In the same year, earnings of production workers in all manufac OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK turing industries averaged $2.71 an hour or $111.92 for a 41.3-hour workweek. The following data, collected from more than a score of union-manage ment agreements in the paper indus try, illustrate the approximate range of hourly wage rates for selected pro duction and maintenance occupa tions for the country as a whole in 1966. Local wage rates within these ranges depend on factors such as type and size of mill and kind of ma chines used. Pulp plants Woodyard and wood prepa ration occupations: Crane operator.................... Barker, drum....................... Chipperman......................... Pulpmaking occupations: Digester operator (cook). . Grinderman......................... Screenman............................ Bleacherman........................ Pulp tester............................ Paper and paperboard plants Stock preparation occupa tions : Head stock preparer (beater engineer)............. Beaterman............................ Hydrapulper operator. . . . Machine room occupations: Paper machine tender. . . . Backtender............................ Third hand.......................... Fourth hand........................ Paper tester.......................... Finishing occupations: Supercalendar operator. .. Rewinder operator............. Rewinder helper................. Cutters................................... Converting plants Converting occupations: Envelope machine opera tor ....................................... Corrugator operator........... Printer-slotter operator. . . Diemaker.............................. Compositor........................... Pressmen (printing)........... Miscellaneous occupations Maintenance occupations: M aintenance mechanic (also millwright, welder, pipesetter, sheet-metal worker, machinist, black smith, and boilermaker). Painter................................... Carpenter............................. Electrician............................ Other: Oiler...................................... Trucker, power................... Hourly rate ranges $2. 50-$3. 75 2. 20- 2. 75 2. 20- 3. 00 2. 502. 202. 302. 402. 30- 4. 54 3. 77 3. 62 4. 53 2. 82 2. 70- 4. 12 2. 25- 3. 50 2. 30- 3. 67 2. 64— 4. 50 2. 40- 4. 00 2. 30- 3. 70 2. 25- 3. 15 2. 30- 3. 12 2. 60- 3. 56 2. 22- 3. 20 2. 31- 2. 77 2. 22- 3. 14 1.602. 001.952. 402. 202. 20- 2. 55 3. 07 3.07 3. 70 3. 72 5. 26 2. 202. 152. 102. 35- 3. 78 3. 62 3. 78 3. 86 2. 30- 3. 25 2. 20- 2. 87 Most of the workers in pulp and paper producing operations work in plants that operate around the clock—three shifts a day, 7 days a week. Owing to the widespread in dustry practice of rotating shifts, pro duction workers can expect to work on the evening or night shifts from time to time. Maintenance workers, for the most part, are employed on the regular day shift. Many plants pay between 5 and 11 cents more an hour for work on the evening shift and between 9 and 15 cents extra an hour for the night shift. Most workers in the industry have year-round employ ment because paper production is not subject to seasonal variations. A work schedule of 40 hours a week is in effect in most mills. A few plants in the industry have a standard work week of 36 hours or less. Paid vacations are almost always provided and generally are based on length of service. In practically all mills, workers receive 1 week of vaca tion after 1 year of employment, 2 weeks after 3 to 5 years, and 3 weeks after 10 years or more. Many com panies give 4 weeks’ vacation to em ployees who have been with them 20 years and 6 weeks after 30 years. Nearly all workers receive paid holi days ; the number of days range from 4 to 11 a year, with most mills grant ing 7 or 8 paid holidays. Insurance or pension plans, financed at least partially by em ployers, are in effect in the majority of plants. These plans generally in clude life, sickness, accident, hospitali zation, and surgical insurance benefits for the employee and, in some cases, his dependents. Employee stock-purchase and savings plans, to which the company makes contributions, are in effect in some firms. Most pulp and papermaking jobs do not require strenuous physical ef fort. Some employees, however, work in hot, humid, and noisy areas. They may also be exposed to disagreeable odors from the chemicals used in the papermaking process, but the pulp and paper companies have made in- 589 OCCUPATIONS IN PULP, PAPE®, AND ALLIED PRODUCTS INDUSTRY tensive efforts in recent years to im prove working conditions. The rate of disabling injuries in this industry in recent years has been about the same as the average for all manufacturing. Protective clothing, warning signs in danger areas, lock ing devices on potentially dangerous equipment, guards and rails around moving machinery, and instruction in safe practices have been important in reducing the accident rate. Some of the more hazardous jobs are in converting plants, where many cut ting tools and moving equipment are used. A majority of the production work ers in this industry are members of trade unions. A large number belong to either the International Brother hood of Pulp, Sulphite and Paper Mill Workers or the United Papermakers and Paperworkers. Many printing workers in the industry be long to the International Printing Pressmen and Assistants’ Union of North America. Some maintenance workers and other craftsmen belong to various craft unions. Where To Go for More Information American Forest Products Industries, 1835 K St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20036. American Paper Institute, 260 Madison Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. Fibre Box Association, 224 South Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111. 60604. National Paper Box Manufacturers Association, Inc. 121 North Broad St., Philadelphia, Pa. 19107. National Paper Trade Association, Inc., 220 East 42d St., New York, N.Y. T0017. United Papermakers and Paperworkers, Papermakers Building, Albany, N.Y. 12201. WHOLESALE AND RETAIL TRADE Wholesaling and retailing are the final stages in the process of trans ferring goods from producers to con sumers. Wholesalers assemble goods in large lots and distribute them to retail stores, industrial firms, and institutions such as schools and hospitals. Retailers sell goods directly to housewives and other consumers in a variety of ways—in stores, by mail, or through door-to-door selling. A list of the items sold by wholesale and retail businesses would in clude almost every item produced by American industry—automobiles, clothing, food, furniture, and count less others. In 1966, more than 13 million per sons (not counting an estimated 2 /2 million self-employed and unpaid family workers) worked in whole sale and retail trade. Retail trade ac counted for the largest number of workers—9.8 million—or about three-fourths of the employment in the broad industry group. The ma jority of these workers are employed in department stores, food stores, and in restaurants and other eating places. About 3^4 million persons worked in wholesale trade. Wholesale and retail businesses are a major source of job opportuni ties for women. In 1966, for example, about two-fifths of the workers employed in retail trade were women. 590 They comprised about one-fifth of all workers employed in wholesale trade. Many women employed in retail stores work part time. Workers with a wide range of ed ucation, training, skill, and ability are employed in wholesale and retail trade. In 1966, white-collar workers accounted for more than 3 out of every 5 persons employed in the ma jor industry group, as shown in the accompanying table. Sales workers, the largest single group, make up nearly one-fourth of total industry employment. Managers and proprie tors, the second largest group of work ers, account for about one-fifth of the industry’s work force. Many managers and proprietors own and operate small wholesale houses or retail businesses, such as food stores and gasoline service stations. Clerical workers make up roughly one-sixth of the work force; many are employed by retail stores as cashiers, especially in supermarkets and other food stores. Other important clerical occupations in retail trade include secretaries, stenographers and typists, office ma chine operators, and bookkeepers and accounting clerks. Large numbers of shipping and receiving clerks are em ployed in both wholesale and retail trade. Blue-collar workers (craftsmen, operatives, and laborers) accounted for nearly one-fourth of all employ ment in the industry group in 1966. Many are employed as mechanics and repairmen, auto parking attendants, drivers and deliverymen, meat cut ters, and materials handlers. Most mechanics and auto parking attend ants work for motor vehicle dealers and gasoline service stations. A large number of meat cutters are employed in wholesale grocery establishments and in supermarkets and other food stores. Service workers accounted for roughly 1 out of every 7 workers em ployed in the industry group, mostly in retail trade. Food service workers such as waiters, cooks, and bartend ers made up by far the largest con centration of persons employed in this occupational group. These workers were employed mainly in restaurants, drug stores and other retail businesses where food is served to the public. Other large groups of service workers were janitors, charwomen and clean ers, and guards and watchmen. Major occupation group E stim ated em ploym ent, 1966 (percent distribution) All occupation groups........................ Professional, technical, and kindred workers........................ Managers, officials, and pro prietors. ...................................... Clerical and kindred workers... Sales workers................................ Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers........................ Operatives and kindred workers........................................ Service workers............................. Laborers.......................................... 100 2 21 16 24 7 12 14 4 Employment in wholesale and re tail trade is expected to increase moderately through the mid-1970’s. The major factors contributing to the expected growth of employment in trade are increasing population and consumer expenditures, continuation of the population movement from rural to urban areas and from city to suburbs, and the trend toward keeping stores open longer hours. Growth in employment requirements is expected to be slowed somewhat by the increasing applications of laborsaving technology. For example, technological change may affect em ployment because of improvements in materials-handling methods, packag ing innovations, the growing use of computers for inventory control and billing operations, the increasing use of mechanized equipment in super markets, and the continued growth in the number of stores using selfservice operations. Within retail trade, employment in department stores and in restaurants and other eating places is expected to rise the most rapidly. Among whole sale establishments, the rates of em ployment growth are likely to be highest in businesses that distribute WHOLESALE AND RETAIL TRADE in office buildings or factories, or in a suburban shopping center, empha size rapid service and inexpensive meals. In contrast, some restaurants cater to customers who have the time to eat in a leisurely manner and, thus, they serve elaborate meals which may include unusual dishes or “specialties of the house.” Most restaurants are small busi nesses with fewer than 10 paid em ployees; many of these are operated by their owners with no paid help or with only 1 or 2 part-time workers. A small proportion of all restaurants are run by proprietors or business firms owning more than one restau rant. Although restaurant employment is concentrated in the States with the Restaurant Industry largest populations, and particularly in large cities, even very small com Millions of people eat in restau munities usually have coffee shops, rants, cafeterias, snack bars, and luncheonettes, and roadside diners. other eating places daily. There are about 335,000 establishments whose main business is to serve food and Restaurant Workers beverages, and in early 1967, they employed about 2.0 million persons. About three-fourths of all restau Many other food-service workers rant employees prepare and serve were employed in establishments that food, or do other kinds of related serve meals in connection with some service work. The two largest service other activity—for example, drug groups, each with several hundred and department stores, hotels, hos thousands of workers, are waiters and pitals, schools and colleges operating waitresses and cooks and chefs. In lunchrooms for students and staff, addition to these two groups, there and factories operating cafeterias for are counter attendants who serve food employees. Commercial airlines, rail to customers in cafeterias; bartenders roads, and shiplines also employ who mix and serve alcoholic drinks food-service workers. (See state to customers; busboys and busgirls ments on the two largest restaurant who clear tables, carry soiled dishes occupations—Waiters and Waitresses back to the kitchen, and sometimes and Cooks and Chefs.) set tables; kitchen workers who wash dishes and prepare vegetables; pan trymen and pantrywomen who pre Nature and Location pare salads and certain other dishes serving; and janitors and porters Establishments catering to the for who of trash and garbage, custom of “eating out” range from sweepdispose and mop floors, and do other small diners to luxurious and expen cleaning jobs. Some of these workers sive restaurants. The kind of food operate mechanical equipment, such offered and the way it is served de as powerdriven dishwashers, floor pend upon the size, location, and polishers, vegetable slicers and peel financing of the restaurant, as well ers, and garbage disposal equipment. as the type of customer it seeks to These specialized service jobs, how attract. For example, cafeterias, ever, are likely to be found only in which usually are located downtown the largest restaurants. In many small 591 motor vehicles and automobile parts and in firms selling industrial ma chinery, equipment, and supplies. The statement that follows covers the major occupations in restaurants, where, for example, large numbers of waiters and waitresses and cooks and chefs are employed. More detailed in formation about occupations that cut across many industries appear else where in the Handbook. These in clude salesmen, office workers, shipping and receiving clerks, maintenance trades, and many others. (See index in the back of the book.) eating places, waiters and waitresses clear and set up tables, sometimes prepare certain kinds of dishes, and help in the kitchen when they are not busy with customers. Another large group of restaurant workers—about one-sixth of the total—are managers and proprietors. Many are owners and operators of small restaurants and, in addition to acting as managers, may do cooking and other work. Some are salaried employees managing restaurants for others. All other restaurant workers com bined account for less than one-tenth of total industry employment. They are employed principally in large restaurants. Most are clerical em ployees—cashiers who receive pay ments and make change for customers; food checkers who total the cost of the meals selected by cafeteria customers; and bookkeep ers, stenographers, typists, and other 592 office workers. Some large restau rants also employ mechanics and other maintenance workers, account ants, advertising or public relations directors, personnel workers, and musicians or other entertainers. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK troduced self-service, made use of precut meats and modern mechanical equipment, and otherwise increased the efficiency of their operations. Al though further improvements of this kind can be expected, the number of restaurant employees is likely to in crease rapidly as the volume of busi Employment Outlook ness continues to expand to meet the population’s need for restaurant More than 150,000 openings are services. expected annually in the restaurant industry during the remainder of the 1960’s and throughout the 1970’s. Earnings and Working Conditions Although many new jobs will be cre ated by the growth of the restaurant The location, size, and type of res business, most openings will result taurant affect earnings of restaurant from turnover. Most job openings will workers. Other significant factors in be for waitresses and kitchen help clude the tipping practice for some ers—both because of high turnover occupations and the degree of union and because these workers make up ization. a very large proportion of all restau In early 1967, average earnings of rant employees. Employment oppor nonsupervisory employees in the res tunities also are expected to be favor taurant industry (excluding tips) able for skilled cooks and salaried were $47.60 a week or $1.40 an hour restaurant managers. There will be a for a 34.0 hour workweek, compared number of openings in clerical jobs with $68.57 a week or $1.91 an hour such as cashier, bookkeeper, stenog for a 35.9 hour workweek for work rapher, and typist, and a few in spe ers in all retail trade establishments. Limited wage data obtained from cialized positions such as food man ager and dietitian. union-management contracts, in ef The volume of restaurant business fect in early 1967, covering eating is expected to increase substantially and drinking places in large metro over the next decade and the number politan areas on the East and West of restaurant workers will rise rapidly. Coasts and in the Midwest, provide A growing population, increasing an indication of earnings for various leisure time, and higher income levels, types of restaurant workers. In these will raise the demand for restaurant contracts, straight-time hourly pay services. More people will “eat out” rates generally ranged from $1.90 to as large numbers of housewives take $3.35 for bartenders; $0.95 to $2.15 outside employment and more people for bus boys and girls; $1.35 to $2.45 travel. Restaurants, hotel and motel for cashiers; $1.25 to $2.25 for dish dining rooms, school and factory washers; $1.50 to $2.50 for food lunchrooms, drugstore fountains, and checkers; $1.50 to $2.50 for kitchen even vending machines which dis helpers; $1.50 to $2.80 for pantry pense prepared foods will share in the men and women; and $1.45 to $2.25 for porters. (For earnings of waiters increased business. Manpower changes taking place and waitresses, and cooks and chefs, within the restaurant industry will see statements on these occupations.) tend to reduce the number of em Most restaurant workers, however, ployees needed to prepare and serve are not covered by union-manage food. Restaurants—particularly those ment contracts. serving hundreds of meals daily— Salaries of employees in managerial have achieved substantial reductions positions have a wide range, mainly in manpower requirements during re because of differences in duties and cent years, as managers have central responsibilities. Many college gradu ized the purchase of food supplies, in ates with specialized training in res taurant management received starting salaries ranging from $6,000 to $8,000 annually in 1967. Managerial trainees without this background often started at lower salaries. Many experienced restaurant managers receive salaries between $10,000 and $15,000 a year, depending on size, location, and type of restaurant. Salaries below this range may be paid to managers of small restaurants, and considerably higher salaries are likely to be paid to managers of exclusive restaurants and large restaurant chains. In addition to wages, restaurant employees usually receive at least one free meal a day at their place of work and are often provided with uniforms. Waiters, waitresses, and bartenders also receive tips. Paid vacations and holidays are common and various types of health and insurance pro grams also are available. Most full time restaurant workers have work schedules of 40 to 48 hours a week. Many work on split shifts, which means they are on duty for several hours during one meal, take some time off, and then return to work during the next period of heavy ac tivity. Scheduled hours may include work in the late evenings and on holidays and weekends. Many restaurants are air-condi tioned, have convenient work areas, and are furnished with the latest equipment and laborsaving devices. In other restaurants—particularly small ones—working conditions may be less desirable. In all restaurants, workers spend long periods on their feet, and may be required to lift heavy trays and other objects, or work near hot ovens or steam tables. Work haz ards include the possibility of burns; injury from knives, broken glass or china, or mechanical equipment; and slips and falls on wet floors. The principal union in the restau rant industry is the Hotel and Restau rant Employees and Bartenders Inter national Union (AFL-CIO). The proportion of workers covered by union contract agreements, however, varies greatly from city to city. 593 Where To Go for More Information A list of public and private schools Information on courses relating to restaurant work may be obtained and colleges offering courses which Additonal information about ca train restaurant employees may be from the local Director of Vocational reers in the food service industry may obtained by writing to: Education, the Superintendent of be obtained by writing to: Schools in the local community, or the Council on Hotel, Restaurant and Educational Director, National Res State Director of Vocational Educa Institutional Education, taurant Association, tion in the Department of Education Statler Hall, Cornell University, 1530 North Lake Shore Dr., Chicago, in the State capital. Ithaca, N.Y. 14850. 111. 60610. WHOLESALE AND RETAIL TRADE OCCUPATIONS IN GOVERNMENT Government service, one of the Nation’s largest fields of employment, provided jobs for 11.5 million civilian workers in early 1967—about 1 out of every 7 persons employed in the United States. More than threefourths of these workers are em ployed by State or local governments (county, city, town, village, or other local government division) ; the rest work for the Federal Government, either in the United States or abroad. Opportunities for jobs in government service will be very favorable through the 1970’s. Rapid growth is expected in State and local government em ployment, continuing the trend in the post-World War II period. Only a small increase is expected in Fed eral employment. Large numbers of job opportunities will arise in Fed eral, State, and local governments from the need to replace workers who retire, or die, or leave govern 262-057 O— 6S -39 ment service. Hundreds of thousands of individuals will be hired each year for jobs in a wide variety of occupa tions. Government employees are a sig nificant part of the nonagricultural work force in every State. Their jobs are found not only in capital cities, county seats, and metropolitan areas, but also in small towns and villages, and even in remote and isolated places such as lighthouse installations and forest ranger stations. Government Activities and Occupations More than a third of all govern ment workers are engaged in provid ing educational services (chart 53); the majority are in schools and col leges supported by State and local governments. In addition to teachers, employees in this field include ad ministrative and clerical workers, maintenance workers, librarians, dietitians, nurses, and counselors. The great majority of workers in educational services are employed in elementary and secondary schools. The second largest group of gov ernment workers is engaged in na tional defense activities. This group, numbering more than a million em ployees, includes civilians working in the Department of Defense and a few other defense-related agencies such as the Atomic Energy Commission. Within this group are administrative and clerical employees, doctors, nurses, teachers, engineers, scientists, technicians, and craftsmen and other manual workers. Employees in this group work in offices, research labora tories, navy yards, arsenals, and mis sile launching sites, and in hospitals and schools run by the military services. 595 596 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Major Areas Of Government Employment MILLION EMPLOYEES, 1966 EDUCATION NATIONAL DEFENSE & INTERNAT'L RELATIONS HEALTH & HOSPITALS POSTAL SERVICE HIGHWAYS POLICE PROTECTION NATURAL RESOURCES GENERAL CONTROL FINANCIAL ADMIN. ALL OTHER SOURCE BUREAU OF THE CENSUS STATE & LOCAL GOVERNMENTS com p rises legislative bodies, courts. chief executives. & c e n tral staff agencies of governm ents FEDERAL GOVERNMENT Large concentrations of employees are found in health services and hos pitals, the postal service, and highway work. Workers are employed also by government agencies in activities such as housing and community develop ment, police and fire protection, social security and public welfare services, transportation and public utilities, conservation of natural resources, tax enforcement and other financial func tions, as well as in general administra tive, judicial, and legislative activities. Most employees in the health and hospital fields, in highway work, and in police and fire protection activities work for State and local government agencies. On the other hand, jobs in national defense and in the postal service are Federal, as are over half the jobs concerned with natural re sources, such as those in the National Park and Forest Services. Although the many different gov ernmental activities require a diversi fied work force with many different levels of education, training, and skill, the majority of government em ployees are white-collar workers. Among the largest white-collar oc cupational groups are teachers, ad ministrators, postal clerks, and office workers such as stenographers, typists, and clerks. Some important occupations and occupational groups among service, craft, and other manual workers are aircraft and automotive mechanics and repairmen; policemen; firemen; truckdrivers; skilled maintenance workers (for example, carpenters, 597 OCCUPATIONS IN GOVERNMENT painters, plumbers, and electricians); custodial workers; and laborers. The wide variety of government functions requires employees in many different occupations. Because of the special character of many government activities, the occupational distribu tion of employment is very different from that in private industry, as shown in the distributions of employ ment in early 1967 which follows: Occupational group Total.................... White-collar workers.. Professional and technical............. Managers, officials, and proprietors.. Clerical................... Sales........................ Blue-collar workers___ Craftsmen, forem en...................... Operatives.............. Nonfarm laborers. Service workers............ Farm workers............... Trends In State And Local Government Employment MILLIONS OF EMPLOYEES -V Percent of— Nongovern Government ment employ- employmerit1 merit 100 65 36 (’) 6 23 (2) 16 8 5 4 19 100 43 9 11 15 7 40 14 21 5 12 5 1 Data excluded overseas Federal employment. 2 Less than 0.5 percent. N ote: Because of rounding, sums of individual items m ay not equal totals. The following chapters discuss op portunities for civilian employment in the major divisions of government and in the various branches of the Armed Forces. A separate chapter gives detailed information on post office occupations. 1J ANNUAL AVERAGE Types Of Work Performed By Enlisted Men In The Armed Forces, 1965 PERCENT 0 ELECTRICAL/MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT REPAIRMENautomotive, aircraft mechanics, etc. ADMINISTRATIVE SPECIALISTS & CLERKSsupply, communications, personnel workers, etc. ELECTRONICS- electronics equipment repairmen, radio operators, aircraft controllers, etc. GROUND C0MBATinfantry, artillery, tank crews, etc. SERVICESfood service, security, motor transport, etc. OTHER TECHNICALmedical specialists, intelligence, draftsmen, etc. CRAFTSMENprinting, metal working, construction, etc. SOURCE: U S. DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE. 5 10 15 20 25 CIVILIAN EMPLOYMENT FEDERAL GOVERNMENT The Federal Government, the largest employer in the United States, had about 2.7 million civilian work ers in early 1967. Federal employees are engaged in occupations represent ing nearly every kind of job in private employment, as well as some unique to the Federal Government such as postal clerk, border patrolman, immi gration inspector, foreign service of ficer, and Internal Revenue agent. Practically all Federal employees work for the departments and agen cies that make up the executive branch of the government. The others are employed in the legislative and judicial branches. The executive branch includes the Office of the President, the 12 depart ments with cabinet representation, and a number of independent agen cies, commissions, and boards. This branch is responsible for such activ ities as administering Federal laws; handling international relations; con serving natural resources; treating and rehabilitating disabled veterans; delivering the mail; conducting scien tific research; maintaining the flow of supplies to the Armed Forces; and administering other programs to pro mote the health and welfare of the people of the United States. The Department of Defense, which includes the Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force, is the largest agency; it employed more 598 than 1.2 million civilian workers in early 1967; the Post Office Depart ment employed nearly 700,000. The Veterans Administration, the Depart ment of Agriculture and the Depart ment of Health, Education, and Wel fare each had more than 100,000 workers. The remaining employees of the executive branch were distributed among more than 70 departments, agencies, commissions, offices, and boards. There were about 27,000 em ployees in the legislative branch, which includes the Congress, the Gov ernment Printing Office, the General Accounting Office, and the Library of Congress. About 6,000 persons were employed by the judicial branch, which includes the Supreme Court and the other United States courts. The Federal Government em ploys about 1.4 million white-collar workers. Entrance requirements for white-collar jobs vary widely. En trants into professional occupations are required to have highly special ized knowledge in a specified field, as evidenced by completion of a pre scribed college course of study or, in many cases, the equivalent in ex perience. Occupations typical of this group are attorney, physicist, and en gineer. Entrants into administrative and managerial occupations usually are not required to have knowledge in a specialized field but rather, they must indicate by graduation from a 4-year college or by responsible job experience, that they have potential for future development. The entrant usually begins at a trainee level, and learns the duties of the job after he is hired. Typical jobs in this group are budget analyst, claims examiner, pur chasing officer, administrative assist ant, and personnel officer. Technician, clerical, and aid-assist ant jobs have entry level positions that usually are filled by persons hav ing a high school education or the equivalent. For many of these posi tions, no prior experience or training is required. The entry level position is usually that of trainee, where the duties of the job are learned and skill is improved. Persons with junior college or technical school training, or those having specialized skills may enter these occupations at higher levels. Jobs typical of this group are engineering technician, supply clerk, clerk-typist, and nursing assistant. With its wide range of responsibili ties, the Federal Government em ployes white-collar workers in a great many occupational fields. About 130.000 Federal workers are em ployed in engineering and related fields. Included in this total are 75.000 engineers, representing virtu ally every branch and specialty of the profession. There are also large num bers of technician positions in areas such as engineering, electronics, sur veying, and drafting. More than half of all engineering positions are in the Department of Defense. Of the 110,000 workers employed in accounting and budgeting work, more than 30,000 are professional ac countants and Internal Revenue agents. Among administrative and managerial occupations in the ac counting and budgeting field are tax technician and budget administrator. There are also large numbers of cleri cal positions involving specialized ac counting work. Accounting workers are employed throughout the Govern ment, particularly in the Department of Defense, the Treasury Depart ment, and the General Accounting Office. About 90,000 Federal workers are employed in medical, public health, and hospital work. Professional oc cupations in this field include medical officer, nurse, dietitian, medical tech nologist, and physical therapist. Among technician and aid jobs are medical technician, medical labora tory aid, and nursing assistant. Em ployees in this field work primarily in the Veterans Administration; some others are in the Defense Department and Department of Health, Educa tion, and Welfare. Approximately 40,000 workers are employed in the biological and ag- CIVILIAN EMPLOYMENT ricultural sciences. Large numbers of professional workers are engaged in forestry and soil conservation work. Others administer farm assistance programs. Technician and aid-assist ant occupations include biology tech nician, forest and range fire control technician, soil conservation techni cian, and forestry technician. Most of these workers are employed by the Departments of Agriculture and Interior. In the physical sciences, the Feder al Government employs professional workers such as physicists, chemists, meteorologists, cartographers, and geologists. Aids and technicians in this field include physical science technician, meteorological techni cian, and cartographic technician. Most of the 40,000 workers in the physical sciences are employed by the Department of Defense, National Aeronautics and Space Administra tion, the Department of Agriculture, the Department of Health, Educa tion, and Welfare, and the Commerce Department. Within the mathematics field are professional mathematicians and statisticians and mathematics tech nicians and statistical clerks. There are also a number of administrative positions in the related field of com puter programing. Mathematics workers are employed primarily by the Defense Department, the Nation al Aeronautics and Space Adminis tration, the Department of Agricul ture, the Commerce Department, and the Department of Health, Educa tion, and Welfare. Positions in the computer field are found in most agencies. In the field of law are about 11,000 employees in professional positions such as attorney, and others in ad ministrative positions such as claims examiner. There are also many cleri cal positions involving claims examin ing work. Workers in the legal field are employed throughout the Fed eral Government. In the social science field there are professional positions for economists throughout the government, psychol ogists and social workers, primarily in the Veterans Administration, and foreign affairs and international rela tions specialists in the Department of State. Among social science adminis trative workers are social insurance administrators in the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, and intelligence specialists in the Depart ment of Defense. The Federal Government employs more than 50,000 persons in investi gating and inspection work. Large numbers of these workers engage in administrative activities such as crim inal investigation and food and cus toms inspection. These jobs are pri marily in the Defense, Treasury, Jus tice, and Agriculture Departments. Jobs concerned with purchasing, cataloging, storing, and distribution of supplies for the Federal Govern ment provide employment for about 80,000 workers. This field includes many managerial and administrative positions, such as supply management officer, purchasing officer and inven tory management specialist, as well as large numbers of specialized cleri cal positions. Most of these jobs are in the Department of Defense. Some 275,000 general clerical workers are employed in virtually every department and agency of the Federal Government. I n c l u d e d within this group are office machine operator, secretary, stenographer, clerk-typist, mail and file clerk, tele phone operator, and other related workers. (In addition, there are sev eral hundred thousand postal clerks employed by the Federal Govern ment. See the following section on Post Office occupations for further in formation. ) Blue collar jobs—service, craft, and manual labor—provided employment to over 600,000 workers in early 1967. The majority of these workers were in establishments such as naval ship yards, arsenals, air bases, or army de pots ; or they worked on construction, harbor, flood-control, irrigation, or reclamation projects. Approximately three-fourths of these workers were employed by the Department of De 509 fense. Others worked for the Veter ans Administration, Post Office, Gen eral Services Administration, Depart ment of the Interior, Tennessee Val ley Authority, and Department of Ag riculture. Within this group are a wide range of occupations, including many of the service, craft, and man ual occupations found in industry. The largest single group of bluecollar workers consists of mobile equipment operators and mechanics. Among these jobs are forklift opera tor, chauffeur, truckdriver and auto mobile mechanic. The next largest group of workers are general laborers, who perform a wide variety of man ual jobs. The Federal Government employs many workers in machinery operation and repair occupations, such as boiler and steam plant operator, machinist, machinery repairman, maintenance electrician, electronics equipment re pairman, and aircraft mechanic. Skilled construction workers also are utilized widely throughout the Federal Government. Included in these fields are jobs such as carpenter, painter, plumber, steamfitter and pipefitter, and sheetmetal worker. Other large blue-collar occupations include warehouseman, food service worker, and printer. Many skilled occupations may be entered through apprenticeship pro grams. To qualify, experience nor mally is not required, but a test may be given to indicate whether an ap plicant has an aptitude for the occu pation. There are also jobs as helpers for skilled workers, such as carpen ter’s helper and machinist’s helper. (Detailed descriptions of the work duties of most white-collar, service, craft, and manual labor jobs men tioned above are provided in other sections of the Handbook.) Federal employees are stationed in all parts of the United States and its territories and in many foreign coun tries. Although most Government de partments and agencies have their headquarters offices in the Washing ton, D.C. metropolitan area, only 1 out of 10 (under 300,000) Federal 600 workers were employed in that area in early 1967. California had about 265,000 workers, and New York, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Illinois each had more than 100,000. About 40,000 U.S. citizens were employed in for eign countries and about 20,000 worked in U.S. territories. The Merit System Approximately 9 out of 10 jobs in the Federal Government in the United States are covered by the Civil Service Act. This act was passed by the Congress to ensure that Federal employees are hired on the basis of individual merit and fitness. It pro vides for competitive examinations and the selection of new employees from among those who make the highest scores. The U.S. Civil Service Commission, which administers the Civil Service Act, is responsible for examining and rating applicants and supplying Federal departments and agencies with names of persons eligi ble for the jobs to be filled. Some Federal jobs are excepted from Civil Service requirements either by law or by action of the Civil Service Commission. However, most of the excepted positions are under separate merit systems of other agen cies, such as the Foreign Service of the Department of State, the Depart ment of Medicine and Surgery of the Veterans Administration, the Fed eral Bureau of Investigation, the Atomic Energy Commission, and the Tennessee Valley Authority. These agencies establish their own stand ards for the selection of new em ployees. Civil service competitive examina tions may be taken by all persons who are citizens of the United States, or who owe permanent allegiance to the United States (in the case of residents of American Samoa). To be eligible for appointment, an applicant must meet minimum age, training, and ex perience requirements for the par ticular position. A physical handicap will not in itself bar a person from a position if it does not interfere with OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK his performance of the required duties. Examinations vary according to the types of positions for which they are held. Some examinations in clude written tests; others do not. Written examinations test the appli cant’s ability to do the job applied for or his ability to learn how to do it. In nonwritten examinations, applicants are rated on the basis of the experi ence and training described in their applications and any supporting evi dence required by the Commission. The Commission notifies applicants whether they have achieved eligible or ineligible ratings, and enters the names of eligible applicants on a list in the order of their scores. When a Federal agency requests names of eligible applicants for a job vacancy, the Commission sends the agency the names at the top of the appropriate list. The agency can select any one of the top three available eligibles. Names of those not selected are re stored to the list for consideration for other job openings. Appointments to civil service jobs are made without regard to an appli cant’s race, color, religion, national origin, politics, or sex. Employment Trends and Outlook requirements for professional, admin istrative, and technical workers. Population expansion will lead to an increased employment of workers such as social security claims examin ers, accounting and budget workers, and business and industry specialists. Laws providing new or expanded services to the public should result in increased employment of food and drug inspectors, highway engineers, and education personnel. Employ ment in legal and kindred occupa tions will increase also, mainly be cause of the existence of more laws and regulations to interpret, adminis ter, and enforce; and more claims to examine for payment of retirement, disability, and death benefits. Federal employment gains in sci ence, engineering, and other fields will reflect the demands of vigorous national research and development efforts in a variety of programs, such as space exploration, urban develop ment, military weapons, nuclear energy, medicine and health, trans portation, and natural resource de velopment. The number of engineers and engineering technicians will continue to grow rapidly. Employ ment of scientists, as well as that of technicians working with them, also will increase, and the number of medical personnel employed should continue to rise also. Opportunities for employment in the Federal Government will con tinue to be favorable during the 1970’s. In addition to new oppor tunities due to growth in employment, several hundred thousand job oppor tunities will become available each year because of the need to replace employees who leave the Federal service, retire, or die. Thus, many job opportunities will occur in occu pations in which total employment is relatively stable, as well as in those in which it is rising. Assuming defense activities ap proximate the level prior to the Viet nam build-up, it is anticipated that Federal employment will grow at a relatively slow rate during the 1970’s. A number of factors will tend to limit employment in many clerical and blue-collar occupations. Among these factors are the Federal Govern ment’s increasing use of laborsaving electronic data-processing and materials-handling equipment and the introduction of improved data-transmission and communications systems. The manpower requirements of the Federal Government will, in general, tend to reflect the demand for services Earnings, Advancement, and of an increasing population, and the Working Conditions country’s domestic and international Federal civilian employees are paid programs. These demands are ex pected to be reflected in rapidly rising under several pay systems. CIVILIAN EMPLOYMENT Pay rates of employees under the General Schedule are set by the Con gress and are nationwide. This Gen eral Schedule provides a pay scale for employees in professional, admin istrative, technical, and clerical jobs, and for employees such as guards and messengers. General Schedule jobs are classified and arranged in 18 pay grades according to difficulty of the duties, and the responsibilities, knowl edge, experience, or skill required. The distribution of Federal whitecollar employees by grades, the en trance and maximum salaries, and the amount of periodic increases for each grade, are listed in the accom panying table. Distribution of All Full-Time Federal Employees Under the General Schedule, June 30, 1966, by Grade Level and Salary Scale, Effective July 1,1966 General schedule grade 1........................................................................................ 2........................................................................................ 3........................................................................................ 4........................................................................................ 5........................................................................................ 6........................................................................................ 7........................................................................................ 8........................................................................................ 9........................................................................................ 10...................................................................................... 11 ................................................................................... 1 2 ..................................................................................... 13...................................................................................... 14...................................................................................... 15 ............................................................................... 16 ............................................................................... 17 ............................................................................... 18 ............................................................................... Employees Number Percent 1,118,577 2,552 58,040 145,839 171,776 145,585 55,945 101,010 18,054 130,443 15,785 125,320 97| 151 69,326 32,074 15,644 2,874 812 347 100.0 0.2 4.9 12.3 14.5 12.2 4.7 8.5 1.5 11.0 1.3 10.5 8.2 5.8 2.7 1.3 0.2 0.1 (9 Entrance Salaries Periodic Maximum increases $3,609 3,925 4,269 4,776 5,331 5,867 6,451 7,068 7,696 8,421 9,221 10; 927 12,873 15,106 17,550 20,075 22; 760 25,890 $122 133 144 160 176 198 213 235 261 288 315 379 448 523 607 670 760 $4,707 5,122 5; 565 6,216 6,915 7,649 8,368 9,183 10; 045 11.013 12,056 14,338 16,905 19,813 23.013 25,435 25,800 » Less than 0.05 percent. Source: U.S. Civil Service Commission. Employees in all grades except GS18 receive within-grade increases after they have completed the re quired service periods, if their work in determined to be of an acceptable level of competence. Within-grade in creases also may be given in recogni tion of high-quality service. High school graduates with no re lated work experience are usually ap pointed to GS-2 positions, but some with special skills begin at GS-3. Graduates of 2-year junior colleges and technical schools can often begin at the GS-4 level. Most young people appointed to professional and admin istrative positions enter at grades GS5 or GS-7 depending on their aca demic record. Those who hold a master’s degree or the equivalent in education or experience usually enter at grade GS-7; they may enter at grade GS-9 if they are well qualified. In addition, the Federal Government also appoints very well-qualified, ex perienced people at the GS-11 level and above. These appointments are for such positions as psychologist, stat istician, economist, writer and editor, budget analyst, accountant, and physicist. New appointments usually are made at the minimum rate of the salary range for the appropriate grade. However, appointments in City eoi hard-to-fill positions frequently are made at a higher rate. For example, in 1967 engineers, accountants, math ematicians, certain physical scientists, and those in a few other specialized occupations were being recruited at above minimum rates. Advancement depends upon abil ity, work performance, and generally, upon openings in jobs at higher grades. Employees frequently get pro motions by qualifying for jobs at high er grades. Promotions also may be ob tained when jobs are reclassified to a higher grade to reflect more difficult work assignments and increased re sponsibilities. Graft, service, and manual workers employed by the Federal Government in the United States are paid under the wage board system. The pay rates for these workers are fixed by wage boards on the basis of “prevailing” rates paid for similar work by private employers in the areas where they work. The average (median) annual pay of employees under this system was $6,180 ($2.97 per hour) in June 1966. The following tabulation of Army-Air Force Wage Board pay rates for selected occupations illus trates hourly wage rates in early 1967 for workers paid under the wage board system. Employees in agencies with sep arate merit systems are paid under acts other than those already men tioned. The standard workweek for Fed eral Government employees is 40 Atlanta, G a......................................................... ............... Boston, Mass....................................................... ............... Chicago, 111......................................................... ............... Denver, Colo. ..................................................... ............... Hampton Roads, V a........................■................ ............... Houston-Galveston, Tex................................... ............... Los Angeles, Calif.............................................. ............... New Orleans, La................................................ ............... New York, N.Y.-Newark, N .J........................ ............... Pensacola, Fla..................................................... ............... Philadelphia, P a................................................ ............... Puget Sound, Wash........................................... ............... San Francisco, Calif.......................................... ............... St. Louis, M o...................................................... ............... Washington, D .C ............................................... ............... Common laborer $2. 17 2.45 2.64 2.58 2. 17 2.45 2.76 2.31 2.67 2. 15 2.66 2.74 2.85 2.65 2.58 Electrician $3. 23 3. 36 3.54 3. 28 3. 18 3. 34 3. 63 3. 32 3. 39 3. 50 3. 37 3.60 3.50 3. 56 3. 38 Machinist general $3. 37 3.50 3. 69 3. 39 3. 30 3. 47 3. 75 3.44 3. 49 3. 63 3.49 3. 73 3. 62 3. 68 3.51 Source: Army-Air Force Wage Board, U.S. Department of Defense. Rates are for the second step of a 3-step pay range. 602 hours, and the pay schedules are based on this workweek. If an em ployee is required to work overtime he is either paid overtime rates for the additional time worked or given compensatory time off at a later date. Most employees usually work 8 hours a day, 5 days a week, Monday through Friday, but in some cases, the nature of the work may call for a different workweek. Annual earn ings for most full-time Federal work ers are not affected by seasonal factors. Federal employees earn 13 days of annual (vacation) leave during each of their first 3 years of service, then 20 days each year until they have completed 15 years; after 15 years, they earn 26 days of leave each year. In addition, they earn 13 days of paid sick leave a year. Eight paid holidays are observed annually. Employees who are members of military reserve organizations also are granted up to 15 days of paid military leave a year for training purposes. A Federal em ployee who is laid off is entitled to unemployment compensation similar to that provided for employees in private industry. Other benefits available to most Federal employees include: A con tributory retirement system; optional participation in low-cost group life and health insurance programs sup ported in part by the Government; and training programs to develop maximum job proficiency and help employees achieve their highest po tential. These training programs may be conducted in Government facil ities or in outside educational facilities at Government expense. Where To Go for More Information Information on Federal employ ment opportunities is available from a number of sources. For college students, the college placement office is often a good source of such infor mation. High school students in many localities may obtain informa tion from their high school guidance counselors. Additional information OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK may be obtained from State employ ment service offices and many post offices. The Interagency Board system, operated by the U.S. Civil Service Commission, consists of boards of examiners located in population centers throughout the country. These boards announce and conduct examinations and evaluate and refer eligible applicants to employing agencies for their geographic areas. They also provide a complete onestop information service, so that all interested citizens may learn of local and nationwide employment oppor tunities in the Federal Government service. Information about a specific agency also may be obtained by con tacting the agency directly. Post Office Occupations The mailman, carrying the familiar leather pouch over his shoulder, and the clerk standing behind the stamp window in the Post Office, are the two employees of the Federal Government most familiar to the general public. Although we all receive or send mail almost every day, few people realize how many workers are employed by the Post Office Department and exactly what they do. In early 1967, more than 700,000 postal service workers—about 13 per cent of whom were women—were employed in 38,000 separate installa tions throughout the country. These workers collected and distributed nearly 80 billion letters, post cards, newspapers, magazines, parcels, and other items of mail. They also pro vided special mail services such as registration (giving evidence of mail ing and delivery), insurance, and c.o.d. (the collection of the price of an article, and the cost of postage from a customer upon delivery). Other services performed by these workers included selling United States savings stamps and money orders. Although many postal jobs are located in small communities and in rural areas, postal employment is con centrated in large centers of popula tion. The metropolitan area of New York City, in its various post offices and other installations, employs about 56.000 postal service workers, or 8 percent of all post office employees. Other large centers of postal employ ment include the Chicago, Los Angeles, Boston, and Philadelphia metropolitan areas. Occupations in the Postal Service Clerks are the largest group of postal workers, many of whom are employed in the workrooms behind the lobbies of large post offices. At all hours of the day and night, an end less flow of mail moves from unload ing platforms through the workrooms and out to loading platforms. In the workrooms, the mail goes through a series of separations in which distribu tion clerks sort it according to type and destination. Other clerks work behind the windows in the lobbies of post offices selling stamps and money orders, registering and insuring mail, and accepting parcel post. In all, there were about 280,000 postal clerks employed throughout the country in early 1967. The city carriers are the second largest group of postal workers (over 190.000 in early 1967). These work ers collect the mail which flows into city post offices and deliver it after it has been sorted by the distribution clerks. Rural carriers collect and deliver mail in the country and pro vide some of the services available in post offices. In early 1967, there were about 47,000 of these workers. Both city and rural carriers cover assigned routes on regular schedules. Some city carriers may work exclusively deliver ing parcel post or collecting mail. (A detailed description of the duties, training, qualifications, employment outlook, earnings, and working con ditions for clerks and carriers appears CIVILIAN EMPLOYMENT in later sections of this chapter.) A relatively small number of postal em ployees deliver only special delivery mail. The “Star” route carrier transports mail under contract with the Post Office Department and is not an em ployee of the Department. There were approximately 12,000 “Star” route contracts in early 1967. The length of the routes varied consider ably. Most of these carriers use trucks to carry the mail, but in certain re mote areas where there are no roads, some use horses or boats. In all post offices, bulk mail in large, heavy sacks must be loaded, unloaded, and moved about. In small post offices, clerks perform this work; in large post offices, mail handlers are employed to do most of it. Be sides handling sacked mail, mail han dlers separate the mail into parcel post, paper mail, and letter mail, and bring the mail to distribution clerks for processing. They also pick up the processed mail and put it into sacks. In early 1967, there were approxi mately 43,000 mail handlers. About 33,000 postal supervisors and 11,000 postmasters directed the work of more than a half million clerks, carriers, and mail handlers in large post offices. (About 22,000 ad ditional postmasters were employed in small post offices.) Mail handlers are employed primarily in large post offices. 603 Approximately 21,000 mainte nance service employees were con cerned with the operation, mainte nance, and protection of post office buildings and equipment. About 14.000 of these employees were jani tors, building guards, elevator opera tors, and laborers. The remainder were mechanics or craftsmen, such as electricians, carpenters, and painters. The Post Office Department em ployed more than 6,000 motor ve hicle operators who drove trucks transportating bulk mail. About 4,600 other employees were concerned with the maintenance of the trucks driven by the motor vehicle opera tors as well as the rest of the post of fice vehicle fleet, including more than 57.000 trucks and mailsters (light three-wheel motor vehicles) driven by carriers. This group included garagemen who did routine servic ing of vehicles, automotive mechan ics, body and fender repairmen, and parts clerks. About 1,000 postal inspectors are employed in the oldest investigative agency in the Federal Government— the Post Office Inspection Service. The main function of these em ployees is to inspect post offices to see that they are efficiently operated, that funds are being properly spent, and that postal laws and regulations are observed. Other principal duties include the prevention and detection of crimes, such as theft, forgery, and fraud involving use of the mail. Another small, but very important, group of employees is made up of the several hundred workers who service semiautomatic and automatic mail processing equipment. As the mecha nization of the Post Office Depart ment continues, many more of these employees will be needed. The Post Office Department also employs a small number of engineers, accountants, lawyers, and clerical and office workers, such as typists, stenographers, file clerks, and person nel assistants. 604 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To qualify for a job in the Post Office Department, an applicant must be a citizen, pass a civil service examination, and meet the minimum age requirements. Generally, the minimum age for post office employ ment is 18. For high school graduates, the minimum age limit is 16, except for jobs which may be considered hazardous or may require operation of a motor vehicle. Usually the ap plicant must also live in the area served by the particular post office in which he would work if selected for appointment. Before deciding on a permanent career in the Post Office Department, young men and women may work at a post office during the summer or at Christmas when tem porary help is employed. In recent years, most applicants who have been appointed to post of fice jobs were high school graduates. However, formal education or special training, although highly recom mended, is not required for most post office entry jobs. As in other civil service examina tions, an honorably discharged war veteran has 5 extra points added to his passing grade and a disabled vet eran receives 10 extra points. Veter ans with compensable disabilities are placed at the top of the list. Certain jobs (guards, elevator operators, la borers, janitors, etc.) are reserved for veterans. The names of applicants who pass an examination are placed on a reg ister in the order of their scores. The appointing officer selects one of the top three available applicants to fill a job vacancy. Those not selected are put back on the list for consideration for the next job opening. Appoint ments to jobs are made without regard to an applicant’s race, color, sex, marital status, national origin, or religion. Postal employees, like all other Federal workers, are subject to an investigation of their moral character and loyalty. Before an ap plicant may be appointed, he must pass a physical examination. Specific OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK physical requirements differ accord ing to the nature of the work in the various jobs. In general, most of the work in the post office requires considerable physical stamina. An even more im portant quality is a good memory. Clerks, for example, must be able to remember the streets and numbers which make up a district so that they can sort mail rapidly. Window clerks and carriers are expected to be pleasant and tactful in dealing with the public. Distribu tion clerks in the large post offices have no contact with the public. However, since they have constant deadlines and work in large groups in close quarters, they are expected to get along well with coworkers. All new postal employees serve a probationary period of 1 year. During this period the employee’s conduct and performance are observed and, if warranted, he may be dismissed at any time. The amount of training given to a new employee varies considerably, depending on his job and the size of the post office. On-the-job train ing is generally provided by the super visor or an experienced employee. The new employee performs the simpler tasks of his job from the very first day. To become proficient in all of his work, however, takes much longer. The new clerk or carrier must spend many hours of practice sorting mail to get the necessary speed and accuracy. In addition, he must spend time learning postal regulations, schemes, and routes. (A scheme is a group of places consisting of States, cities, zones, or streets and numbers arranged for the convenient delivery of mail.) Career postal employees are classi fied as regulars or substitutes. The great majority begin as substitutes. The positions of clerk, city carrier, special delivery messenger, mail handler, and positions in the vehicle service are initially filled by substitute appointment from the civil service register. Substitutes replace regular employees who are absent and also supplement the regular work force. As vacancies occur in the regular work force, they are filled by convert ing substitutes to regulars according to seniority. Some jobs, even at the same salary level, may be considered more desir able than others because of the type of work performed, the hours of work, or for other reasons. When a vacancy occurs, it is posted and employees in the occupational group may submit “bids” (written requests for assign ment to the vacancy). The preferred assignment is given to the qualified bidder who has the longest service. A few nonsupervisory jobs at a higher salary level may also be bid on. For assignment to most higher level positions, however, merit, not senior ity, is the controlling factor. Qualifi cations for promotion may include experience, training or education, aptitude as measured by a written examination or performance test, work record, and personal character istics. (The last mentioned is par ticularly important in supervisory positions.) If the leading candidates for the job are about equally qualified, length of service determines which one is selected. Opportunities for advancement in the postal service are limited. Most employees start as postal clerks and carriers and continue in those cate gories. However, they can receive preferred assignments or routes as their seniority increases. Opportuni ties for promotion to supervisory positions depend largely on the size of the post office. Promotion oppor tunities are better in large post offices, where each department has a super visor, than in small post offices. Employment Outlook The Post Office Department will hire many thousands of young work ers each year during the remainder of the 1960’s and throughout the 1970’s. Most job opportunities will arise from the need to replace employees who retire, die, or transfer to other em ployment. Deaths and retirements CIVILIAN EMPLOYMENT alone should provide more than 17,000 jobs openings annually. In addi tion, some job openings will result from an expected moderate increase in post office employment. As in the past, the volume of mail is expected to grow rapidly, largely as a result of an expanding popula tion and rising business activity. Em ployment, however, is expected to grow at a slower rate than mail vol ume because of the continuing mod ernization of postal facilities and equipment which is increasing the amount of mail an individual em ployee can handle. In advanced stages of development, and in actual use at a few post offices, are a variety of electromechanical and electronic de vices and controls which receive, process, and dispatch mail at a con siderable saving in postal clerk man power. Light weight vehicles (mailsters) are also in use on a number of residential routes, and additional ones are being purchased. The carrier pro vided with such a vehicle delivers parcel post as well as letter mail and paper mail. For every 10 routes so mechanized, one less parcel post car rier is required. Neverthless, because of the large increase expected in mail volume in the next decade, employ ment should still continue to grow. Earnings and Working Conditions Almost all postal employees are paid under the Postal Field Service Compensation Act, under which three separate pay schedules are pro vided. One schedule determines the salaries of rural carriers and is based primarily on route length. Another schedule covers fourth-class postmas ters, whose compensation is based on the annual receipts of their post of fices. Salaries of all other postal field service employees are determined un der the third schedule, the Postal Field Service Schedule (PFS). The grade level of a position under this schedule depends upon the duties and responsibilities, and the knowledge, experience, or skill required. In all three pay schedules, em ployees receive periodic “step” in creases, up to a specified maximum, if their job performance is satisfac tory. A distribution of employees by PFS level, together with the entrance and maximum salary, as well as the amount of the periodic increases for each grade, is shown in the accom panying table. Most regular postal employees work an 8-hour day, 5 days a week. If a regular employee works more than 8 hours in a day or 40 hours in a week, he is paid at 1/i times the regu Postal field service level Total employees under P F S schedule3. 1..................................................................................... 2 ................................................................................ 3 ................................................................................. 4 ................................................................................. 5 ............................................................................................................................. 6 ................................................................................. ............................................................................ 7 8 ................................................................................. 9 ................................................................................. 10 .......................................................................... 20 .......................................................................... 11................................................................................... 12................................................................................... 13 ............................................................................... 14 ............................................................................... 15 ............................................................................... 16 ............................ .................................................. 17 ............................................................................... 18 ............................................................................... 19 ............................................................................... 605 lar rate for the extra hours worked. A substitute employee receives overtime pay if he works more than 40 hours in a week. Postal employees, both substitutes and regulars, receive the same vaca tion, sick leave, and other benefits available to Federal employees gen erally. They earn 13 days’ annual (vacation) leave during each of their first 3 years of service, then 20 days each year until they have completed 15 years of service; and after that, 26 days of leave a year. In addition, they earn 13 days of paid sick leave a year. Employees 1 Salary schedules 2 Number Percent En- Periodic Maxiof total trance increase mum 618,419 4,726 25,653 64,008 430,434 35,282 11,983 17,208 10,869 8,082 3,962 2,169 1,317 1,147 839 404 202 82 19 19 14 100.0 0.8 . $4,204 4.1 4,552 10.4 4,919 69.6 5,331 5.7 5,697 1.9 6,113 2.8 6,545 1.8 7,088 1.3 7,665 .6 8,345 9,221 .4 .2 10,202 .2 11,274 .1 12,427 .1 13,736 15,179 0 16,793 0 18,530 0 20,525 0 22,760 0 $139 149 166 176 191 203 218 235 255 283 315 347 389 432 474 528 587 615 685 760 $5,733 6,191 6,745 7,267 7,798 8,346 8,725 9,203 9,960 10,892 12,056 13,325 14,775 16,315 18,002 19,931 22,076 24,065 25,320 25,800 1As of June 30,1966. 2 In effect as of March 10,1967. 3 Does not include postmasters of fourth-class offices and rural carriers. < Less than 0.05 percent. N ote .—B ecause of rounding, sums of individual items m ay not equal 100. Source: U.S. Post Office Department. Other benefits include: Retirement and survivorship annuities, optional participation in low-cost group life insurance and health insurance pro grams supported in part by the Fed eral Government, and compensation to employees injured in the perform ance of duty. Postal workers are covered by the civil service system and enjoy a maxi mum of job security. The physical surroundings usually are pleasant. Most postal employees have frequent contact with the public or other em ployees, a work situation which many people enjoy. Prospective employees have the opportunity to choose be tween outdoor work (carrier) and in door work (postal clerk). Some of the work requires consid erable physical exertion, such as walking, reaching, lifting, and carry ing heavy sacks of mail. Some of the work is also of a routine nature. Most postal employees are mem bers of unions. There are more than a dozen unions which represent postal employees. Where To Go for More Information Information on post office employ ment opportunities and civil service competitive examinations for postal 606 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK jobs may be obtained from the local storage (relay) boxes at intervals post office, the regional offices of the along the route. The carrier starts on his route with Civil Service Commission, or State the mail in a large leather bag, which employment service offices. is carried over his shoulder, or in a mail cart. In some cities, a carrier who is assigned an outlying residen tial route may use a light, three wheeled motor vehicle called a “mailMAIL CARRIERS ster” to deliver mail. (D.O.T. 233.388) On his route, the carrier goes from door to door, placing mail in boxes or through door slots. Mail is deliv ered throughout residential areas and Nature of Work office buildings served by elevators; Most carriers or mailmen, as they however, in apartment houses, the are commonly known, travel along mail is usually deposited in the boxes predetermined routes delivering and located near the front entrances. The collecting mail. Some city carriers carrier collects charges on postage(usually new workers), however, only due and c.o.d. mail and obtains re collect mail from street letter boxes ceipts for registered and certain in and from office mail chutes. Other sured mail. are the same or different. The third carriers drive trucks and deliver par When the carrier completes his part tests the applicant’s ability to fol cel post; still others—called rural car route, he returns to the post office, low instructions carefully in making riers—deliver and collect mail along bringing with him the letters left in changes on a mailing scheme and in routes usually located outside the city mail boxes for mailing, and the mail routing mail. Sample questions are limits. In addition, they may sell he has collected from street letter sent to applicants with their notices stamps and money orders and accept boxes. He then arranges the letters admission to the written tests. parcel post, letters, and packages to he brought back so that stamps can of Persons considered for ap be registered or insured. All carriers be easily canceled and turns in the pointment asbeing carriers are given a road answer questions about postal regu money and receipts he has collected test in which they must demonstrate lations and service and provide during the day. their ability to handle, under various change of address cards and other driving conditions, vehicles of the postal forms when requested. type and size they may be required to The carrier begins his work early Training, Other Qualifications, and operate as carriers. At the time of Advancement in the morning. He spends a few appointment, the applicant must hours at the post office arranging the have a valid driver’s license. To be considered for a carrier posi mail in the order it will be delivered. tion, an applicant must be a citizen, Applicants must pass rigorous He readdresses mail to be forwarded meet the minimum age requirements, physical examination to adetermine and marks the mail of persons who and pass a civil service examination. whether they are able to stand the have moved without leaving forward To be eligible for employment, most physical exertion required to perform ing addresses to show how it should offices require carrier applicants the jobs. They must be able to stand be handled. He also prepares remind post to be least 18 years of age and pass for long periods of time, walk con ers for special mail, such as insured a roadattest. siderable distances, and handle heavy mail which requires a signature by The same written civil service ex sacks mail. Carriers must weigh the person receiving it. He signs re amination is given to applicants inter at leastof 125 pounds. The minimum ceipts for postage due and c.o.d. mail. ested in either city carrier or postal weight requirements may be waived When the mail has been arranged, clerk jobs. The written test consists for veterans, and for those who can it is assembled into bundles. The car of three parts. The longest part is a pass a strength test consisting of lift rier’s mail is generally too heavy for test of general intelligence, including ing a sack weighing 80 pounds to their all of it to be carried at one time. questions on simple arithmetic, spell shoulders. (Thirty-five pounds is the maximum ing, vocabulary, and reading compre In addition to good health and to be carried.) He therefore makes up hension. Another part tests the appli physical stamina, a carrier should larger bundles of mail—called “re cant’s reading accuracy by requiring have a good memory. He relies on his lays”—which are transported in him to compare addresses arranged memory in arranging the mail on his trucks by other carriers and placed in in pairs and to indicate whether they route in the proper order for delivery. CIVILIAN EMPLOYMENT He must also memorize many postal rules and regulations. Other desir able qualities for a carrier are a pleas ant manner and a neat appearance. City carriers begin as substitutes and become regulars in order of se niority as vacancies occur. New car riers are taught the procedures for casing mail. Substitute city carriers may be assigned to postal-clerk duties and may sometimes be required to pass examinations on schemes of city “primary distribution” (first sorting by destination). About once a year, the carrier is checked on how well he performs his job. Promotional opportunities for car riers are limited. Some carriers in city delivery service may advance to spe cial nonsupervisory jobs such as car rier-technician or to jobs as carrier foreman and route examiner. Such employees, however, constitute only a small percentage of the number of city carriers. Most carriers, there fore, can only look forward to pre ferred routes as their seniority in creases. Employment Outlook There will be many thousands of job openings for mail carriers during the remainder of the 1960’s and throughout the 1970’s. Many of these openings will result from the need to replace carriers who die, retire, or transfer to other work. Deaths and re tirements alone should provide about 4,000 job opportunities annually. Ad ditional job openings will result from an expected moderate increase in mail carrier employment. Most job openings will be for city carriers. Employment of city carriers is expected to increase moderately as population continues to grow and spread out into suburban areas. How ever, such innovations as the increas ing use of motor vehicles will prob ably limit employment growth. Employment of rural carriers is ex pected to show little or no change in future years. Although new rural routes will be established to provide service in areas where fourth-class post offices are discontinued, many rural routes near large cities will be connected to city routes as the suburbs continue to spread. Earnings and Working Conditions Almost all city carriers begin as substitutes and receive $2.64 an hour. If their work is satisfactory, they re ceive an increase of 8 or 9 cents an hour each year for the first 6 years, and an increase of 8 or 9 cents an hour every 3 years thereafter, up to a maximum of $3.60 an hour. Regular city carriers are paid on an annual basis, beginning at $5,331 and increas ing each year by $176 for the first 6 years, and by $176 every 3 years there after, up to a maximum of $7,267 after 21 years of service. All city car riers receive an allowance for the postal uniforms they are required to wear. Rural carriers are paid a salary based on a combination of fixed an nual compensation and the number of miles in their routes. In addition, they receive a maintenance allowance of 12 cents a mile for the use of their automobiles. A carrier with a 61-mile route (the average route length in 1966) would receive $5,806 a year in his first year and $6,862 in his sev enth year. The allowance for the use of his automobile would give him an additional $7.32 a day. A substitute rural carrier receives a base pay for the days he works, and, in addition, receives the same mileage compensation and automobile main tenance allowance as the regular car rier whose route he is covering. The regular city carrier usually works an 8-hour day, 5 days a week. If he works more than 8 hours a day or 40 hours a week, he is paid at I /2 times his regular rate for the extra hours worked. A substitute city car rier receives overtime pay if he works more than 40 hours a week. Both reg ular and substitute city carriers re ceive 10-percent additional pay for work between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. Rural carriers work a 6-day week. 607 Most carriers begin work very early in the morning. In some cities, car riers with routes in the business dis trict report to the post office at 6 a.m. They work outdoors in the pleasant spring and fall weather, as well as un der the hot summer sun and in the snow and ice of winter. The carrier must cover his route within certain time limits. Otherwise, he is on his own while delivering the mail and has the opportunity of meet ing different people along his route. Most carriers have to do a great deal of walking with a mail bag slung over the shoulder. Even the carriers who drive vehicles have to do consid erable walking and lift heavy sacks of parcel post while loading their ve hicles. They may also carry heavy packages in making deliveries to busi ness establishments or homes. POSTAL CLERKS (D.O.T. 232.368) Nature of Work The great majority of post office clerks—called distribution clerks— work behind the scenes and are never seen by the public. These workers sort incoming and outgoing mail in post offices. Other clerks—called win dow clerks—serve the public at the windows in post office lobbies, sell ing stamps and money orders and providing other services. In small post offices, the same clerks may do both types of work. After the carriers collect the mail, they bring it into the post office work room and dump it onto long tables. Here distribution clerks (and some times mail handlers) separate the mail into parcel post, paper mail, and letter mail. They then “face” (stamps down and facing the same direction) the letter mail and feed it into stamp canceling machines. (Many large post offices have machines which can au- 608 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK from outside the city to be sorted in a secondary case. The clerks who sort local mail must know the streets and street numbers that are included in each postal zone, branch, or station. Mail is sometimes further separated by sections within postal zones so that when it arrives at a neighborhood post office, it is almost ready for im mediate delivery by carriers. Parcel post is sorted in the same way as letter mail. However, clerks use chutes, conveyors, slides, tables, and bags or other containers instead of letter cases when sorting parcels. Some distribution clerks separate mail while traveling in trains or buses. Other clerks, known as trans fer clerks, arrange for the mail to be moved to and from trains promptly and at the lowest possible cost. Distribution clerk (machines) is a relatively new post office occupation. Clerks in this occupation are em ployed in some of the large post offices and operate electronic ma chines that distribute mail automat ically. For example, a clerk using an electronic sorting machine merely pushes buttons to direct letters auto matically to the proper compart ments. These clerks must know distribution schemes, as do the clerks who sort mail by hand. Distribution clerks have to work quickly because mail must be deliv ered as speedily as possible. Accuracy is also most important because plac ing a letter in the wrong compart ment of a case will result in delayed delivery. Window clerks weigh letters and Postal clerk feeds letters into canceling machine. tomatically “find” and cancel stamps.) Parcel post and paper mail are canceled by hand. After the stamps have been canceled, the mail is taken to different sections where other clerks begin a series of sortings according to destination. Clerks who process letter mail sep arate it into even finer groupings. They begin by making a “primary distribution” ( first sorting by destina tion) of the letters. The letters are sorted into a “letter case” (an up right box with compartments) which usually has one or two compartments for local mail, a number of compart ments for groups of distant States, a compartment for each of the nearby States, one for each of the largest cities in the country, etc. The primary distribution is fol lowed by one or more “secondary” distributions in which the mail from each compartment in the primary case is sorted in greater detail. For example, clerks gather the local mail from the appropriate compartment in each primary case and combine it with the local mail which has come in Postal workers sort letters rapidly with high speed machines. CIVILIAN EMPLOYMENT parcels and determine the amount of postage required. They check pack ages and envelopes to see if their sizes, shapes, and condition are ac ceptable. They register and insure mail and sell the postage or collect the charges required for the service. Window clerks also sell and cash money orders, distribute general de livery mail and parcels and other undeliverable mail being held at the post offices, and rent post office boxes. They also answer questions on rates, mailing restrictions, and other postal matters. Occasionally, a win dow clerk will help someone file a claim for mail that has been dam aged. In large post offices, a window clerk will perform only one or two of these services. Thus, in these offices there are such clerks as registry, stamp, and money order clerks. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Some of the requirements for entry as a postal clerk are the same as for any post office job and are dis cussed earlier in this chapter. The written civil service examination and physical requirements are the same as for carrier applicants and are dis cussed on page 606. A special type of examination, including a machine aptitude test, is given to applicants for the position of distribution clerk (machines). Good health and a good memory are essential for those who want to be postal clerks. The work requires much stretching and lifting, walking and standing, and throwing of pack ages of mail as well as handling of heavy sacks of mail. Clerks have to memorize distribution schemes and many postal rules and regulations. They also need good eye-hand co ordination, and the ability to read rapidly. The distribution clerk works closely with other clerks, frequently under the tension and strain of meeting mailing deadlines and should, there fore, be even-tempered. The window clerk is in constant contact with the 009 public, and considerable tact may be are increasing the amount of mail a required in his replies to questions clerk can handle. and complaints. Most postal clerks begin as sub stitutes and become regulars in order Earnings and Working Conditions of seniority as vacancies occur. New Most postal clerks are at the same clerks receive brief instructions in their duties. They are given a pri grade level as city carriers and the mary scheme to learn and, when they earnings information for clerks is, have mastered this, they are given therefore, the same as that presented one or two secondary schemes to on page 605. Clerks working on the learn. They practice on their own night shift receive 10-percent addi time to achieve speed and accuracy. tional pay. Postal clerks who separate All postal clerks are required period mail while traveling in trains or buses ically to pass scheme examinations receive higher salaries than clerks in on the work for which they are large post offices, and the clerks in large post offices receive higher sala responsible. Promotion opportunities for postal ries than those in the small (thirdclerks are limited. In large post of class) post offices. The working conditions of post of fices, there are some special postal clerk jobs at a higher level, as well fice clerks differ according to the spe as some scheme examiner jobs, mail cific work assignment and the amount dispatch expediter jobs, and foreman and kind of laborsaving machinery in jobs. Compared with the large num the particular post office. Generally, ber of postal clerk jobs, these “higher distribution clerks work in close con level” jobs are relatively few. Most tact with each other and often there postal clerks, therefore, do not ad is a spirit of friendliness and coopera vance to a higher level. However, as tion within a group. Much of the their seniority increases, they may re work is routine, however, and may be ceive preferred assignments such as come boring unless the clerk accepts the day shift, or a window clerk job. the challenge of improving his speed and accuracy. The work is also physi cally demanding. The clerk has to do considerable walking, throwing, and Employment Outlook reaching. He is on his feet much of There will be many thousands of the time and may have to handle job openings for postal clerks during heavy sacks of mail. the remainder of the 1960’s and The work of the window clerk re throughout the 1970’s. Most of these quires considerably less physical exer openings will result from the need to tion. It is usually more varied, and replace clerks who retire, die or the window clerk also has the constant transfer to other fields of work. Deaths contact with the public to keep him and retirements alone should provide interested. Furthermore, very few nearly 6,000 job opportunities annu window clerks work at night. For ally. Additional job opportunities will these reasons, the job of the window result from an expected moderate in clerk is generally regarded as a pre ferred assignment. crease in postal clerk employment. Employment requirements for pos tal clerks are expected to increase mainly as a result of a substantial in crease in the volume of mail, arising STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS from increases in population and business activity. However, employ ment is expected to grow at a slower State and local governments pro rate than the volume of mail because vide a very large and growing source of technological developments which of job opportunities in many different 610 occupational fields. In 1966, about 8.6 million workers were employed in State and local government agencies. Three-fourths of these workers were with units of local governments, such as counties, municipalities, towns, and school districts, and one-fourth were employed in State government agencies. About 4.4 million employees, or over half of all State and local govern ment workers, were employed in pub lic schools, colleges, or other educa tional services in 1966. In addition to more than 2.5 mil lion classroom and college teachers, school systems and colleges and uni versities also employ administrative personnel, librarians, guidance coun selors, nurses, dietitians, clerks, and maintenance workers. Almost 80 per cent of employment in the field of education is in elementary and secon dary schools, which are administered largely by local governments. State employment in education is concen trated chiefly in institutions of higher learning. The next two largest fields of State and local government employment in 1966 were in health and hospital work and highway work. The 860,000 persons employed in health and hospi tal work include physicians, nurses, medical laboratory technicians, and hospital attendants. About 590,000 workers were employed in highway activities, such as construction and maintenance of roads, highways, city streets, toll turnpikes, bridges, and tunnels. Among these employees are civil engineers, surveyors, operators of construction machinery and equip ment, truckdrivers, concrete finishers, carpenters, and construction laborers. In 1966, about 540,000 workers were employed in general and finan cial control activities—most of them at the local level. General and finan cial control functions include the ac tivities of chief executives and their staffs and legislative bodies; the ad ministration of justice; tax enforce ment and other financial work; and general administrative work. These functions require the services of in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK dividuals such as lawyers, judges, and other court officials, city managers, property assessors, budget analysts, stenographers, and clerks. Protective services, such as those provided by police and fire depart ments, is another large field of State and local government employment. There were over 410,000 people em ployed in police work in 1966, prin cipally by local governments. Em ployment in police work includes ad ministrative, clerical, and custodial personnel, as well as uniformed and plainclothes policemen. All of the 250,000 firemen are employed by local governments, and about a third of these are part-time employees. Other State and local government employees are engaged in a wide va riety of fields—local utilities ( such as water, electricity, transportation, and gas supply systems) ; natural re sources; public welfare; parks and recreation; sanitation; correction; local libraries; sewage disposal; and housing and urban renewal. These activities require workers in many dif ferent occupations such as economist, electrical engineer, electrician, pipe fitter, clerk, forester, and busdriver. Clerical, administrative, mainte nance, and custodial workers con stitute a significant proportion of all employees in many areas of govern ment activity. Among the more im portant groups of workers engaged in these occupations are clerk-typists, stenographers, secretaries, office man agers, fiscal and budget administra tors, bookkeepers, accountants, car penters, painters, plumbers, guards, and janitors. (Detailed discussions of most occupations in State and local governments are given elsewhere in the Handbook, in the sections cover ing the individual occupations.) Employment Trends and Outlook The long-range employment trend in State and local governments has been steadily upward. (See chart 55.) Much of this growth has occurred because of the need to provide serv ices for increasing numbers of younger and older persons, and because of population movements from rural to urban areas. City development has required more street and highway facilities; police and fire protection; and public health, sanitation, welfare, and other services. Population growth and in creasing personal income have gen erated demands for more and improved education, housing, and hospital and other services provided by State and local governments. Much of the increase in State and local government employment in the 1956-66 decade was due to increased employment of teachers and other educational personnel. Expansion in health and hospital services, highway programs ,and protective (police and fire) services also contributed to the increase. Rapid growth in State and local government employment is expected to continue during the remainder of the 1960’s and through the 1970’s. Employment of elementary and sec ondary school teachers, however, is expected to increase more slowly than in the past, as the areas of rapid school enrollment growth shift to higher education. This shift will create greater needs for college and university teachers and administra tors. A larger State and local work force also will be needed to provide improved public transportation sys tems; more urban planning and re newal ,programs; increased police protection; better measures to guard against air and water pollution; and expanded natural resource develop ment programs and hospital facilities. New or recently expanded FederalState programs in education, voca tional training, medicine, and other fields will increase greatly the require ments of local and State govern ments for professional, administrative, and technical personnel, such as engineers, scientists, social workers, counselors, teachers, doctors, and librarians. CIVILIAN EMPLOYMENT In addition to job opportunities resulting from the expected overall growth in State and local government employment, large numbers of em ployees will be needed to replace workers who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Most positions in State and local governments are filled by permanent residents of the State and locality where they seek employment. Often, however, it is necessary for State and local governments to recruit outside their areas if shortages of particular skills exist in their areas. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of State and local gov ernment employees vary widely, de pending Upon occupation and lo cality. Salaries from State to State tend to reflect differences in the general wage level in various lo calities. Clerical and blue-collar earnings in State and local govern 262-057 0 — 68 40 ments are generally comparable to those of workers in similar occupa tions in private industry. Earnings of administrative and professional em ployees in many areas tend to be somewhat lower than those for work ers in similar occupations in private industry. The Handbook statements for in dividual occupations often give salary information for State and local gov ernment employment. Salary infor mation can be obtained also from the appropriate agency in each State and locality. A majority of State and local gov ernment positions are filled through some type of formal civil service test, and personnel are hired and pro moted on the basis of merit. In some areas, broad groups of employees, such as teachers, firemen, and police men have separate civil service cov erage which applies only to their specific groups. Most State and local government employees are covered by retirement 611 systems, or by the Federal Social Se curity program. They usually work a 40-hour week; overtime pay or com pensatory time benefits often are granted for hours of work in excess of the standard workweek. Where To Go for More Information People interested in working for State or local government agencies should contact the appropriate agen cies in the State, county, or city. Local school boards, city clerks, school and college counselors or placement offices, and local offices of State em ployment services also will have fur ther information. General information on adminis trative careers in government may be obtained from: American Society for Public Adminis tration, 1329 18th St. N W , Washington, D.C. 20036. A R M ED F O R C E S When planning their careers, young men must take into account their military service obligation. By knowing the choices available for ful fillment of this obligation, they can better fit their service period into their occupational plans. In many in stances, the service activities provide valuable vocational training which is helpful in obtaining civilian jobs later on. The Armed Forces also offer many opportunities to qualified young men and young women for. lifetime service careers in many occupations. The Armed Forces are maintained through voluntary enlistment, supple mented by a Selective Service System which drafts young men between the ages of I 8 /2 and 26. A young man may enlist in any one of a variety of programs involving different combi nations of active service and reserve 612 duty; or he may wait to be drafted for a 2 -year period of active duty, fol lowed by 4 years in the reserves; or, if qualified, he may enter one of sev eral officer training programs and dis charge his obligation in a commis sioned status. Additional choices for fulfilling a military obligation are available in reserve programs. One of these choices allows a young man to fulfill his military obligation by enlisting in the reserves for 6 years, at least 4 months of which are spent in active duty training. These enlistment choices and the draft, however, are subject to change at any time by congressional action. The alternative choices described here in a general way serve only to illustrate a few pos sibilities. Detailed up-to-date infor mation can be obtained from local Armed Forces recruiting stations or from publications available at high schools, colleges, and State employ ment service offices. In early 1967, military personnel were distributed among the various services as follows: Army, 1,427,000; Air Force, 904,000; Navy, 747,000; Marine Corps, 280,000; and Coast Guard, 35,000. About half of all en listed jobs in the Armed Forces re quire special in-service school train ing. On-the-job training is given for the remainder. It is possible for a young man, during his military serv ice, to receive training in electronics, aircraft maintenance, metalworking, or other skilled work. (See chart 56.) In addition to specific on-the-job training, the Armed Forces provide military personnel with a wide choice of voluntary off-duty academic and technical training programs. Military personnel may enroll in ( 1 ) the U.S. Armed Forces Institute (USAFI), (2) the Resident Center Program, (3) the Group Study Program, or (4) the Military Extension Corre spondence Course Program. USAFI offers approximately 200 correspond ence courses ranging from elementary school through the second year of college. In addition, approximately 6,000 courses are offered by colleges and universities under contract with USAFI. In the Resident Center Pro gram, civilian institutions offer courses leading to high school diplo mas and college degrees; these courses may be taken either on the military installation or on a nearby campus. The Group Study Program is offered on military installations where local civilian classes are not avail able. The Military Extension Corre spondence Course Program provides technical courses in military special ties which are designed to advance career capabilities. Each of the services publishes handbooks describing entrance re quirements, training, advancement, and other aspects of their career fields. These publications are avail able at all recruiting stations and at most State employment service of fices, high schools, colleges, and pub lic libraries. SERVICE AND MISCELLANEOUS The long-term growth in the American economy has created a growing demand for services of all kinds. Thus, in addition to the mul titude of goods produced and distrib uted, a growing share of our national wealth and manpower is being devoted to needed services, resulting in greater emphasis on better medical care, quality education, and increased personal and recreational services. In many ways, the rapid growth in the importance of the service in dustries reflects the country’s aspira tions for a better and fuller life for all of its citizens. In today’s job market, the service industries represent an important source of employment to new as well as experienced workers and offer job opportunities to persons with various levels of skill and with differing de grees of training and education. In 1966, about 19 million workers were employed in one of the various service industries. Approximately one-half were wage and salary work ers employed by private firms, 4.9 million were government employees (mainly in educational and medical services), and 2.3 million were selfemployed persons. The remainder, accounting for 2.5 million persons, were employed in private households. Educational services, including public and private elementary and secondary schools and institutions of higher education, make up the largest sector of the service industry’s em ployment. In 1966, educational serv ices accounted for more than onefourth of the service work force. Hospitals and other establishments that provide health services consti tute the next largest industry sector, accounting for roughly 1 of every 5 workers. In both the educational service and health service industries, government workers (mainly local and State) make up a large share of the work force. Other service indus tries employing many workers are hotels, laundries and other personal services, private households, business and repair services, and entertain ment services. The service industries represent a major source of job opportunities for women. In 1966, for example, women made up about three-fifths of the total employment in the service in dustry. Among the various service industries that make up the broad industry group, however, their em ployment ranged from less than onetenth in automobile and other types of repair businesses to virtually all of the workers in private households. Women workers also accounted for an especially high proportion of the total employment in hospitals, medi cal and dental offices, educational services, hotels and establishments that provide personal services, such as beauty shops and laundries. Workers with a wide range of edu cation, training, skills and abilities are employed in the service industries. In 1966, as shown in the accompany ing table, white-collar workers (pro fessional, managerial, clerical, and sales workers) made up more than one-half of the service industry’s work force. The service industry em613 614 ploys the highest proportion of pro fessional, technical, and kindred workers found in any major industry, accounting for nearly one-third of total industry employment. By far the largest concentration of professional and technical workers is represented by teachers employed in the educa tional services industry. Other major employers of professional workers are found in the medical and health serv ices industry—where doctors, den tists, and nurses make up a large share of the work force, and profes sional services where large numbers of engineers and architects are em ployed. Self-employment is typical for most of the male professional workers in the health service industry. By way of comparison, women in this field— typified by the case of professional nurses—are mainly salaried workers. Clerical workers account for about 1 out of every 7 workers in the service industry. Most are women who are employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries, and office machine operators or in general office occupa tions. Managers, officials, and propri etors, including hospital administra tors, make up a relatively small fraction of total employment in the service industry. Service workers represent the larg est occupational group and make up more than one-third of the total in dustry employment. The major serv ice occupations are private household OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK worker, practical nurse, hospital at tendant, charwoman, janitor, waiter, waitress, cook, and protective service worker. Blue-collar workers, mainly skilled craftsmen and maintenance workers, account for a relatively small share of total industry employment—only about 1 out of every 8 workers. Many of the craftsmen are employed as me chanics and repairmen in automobile and other repair service industries or as maintenance workers in hotels, schools, theaters, and other establish ments. Motion picture projectionists are especially important in the enter tainment service industry. Operatives are employed mainly in laundries, automobile repair shops, and other types of repair businesses. Most of the relatively few laborers in this indus try work in auto repair shops, on golf courses, and in bowling alleys. Major occupational group Estimated employment, 1966 (percent distribution) All occupation groups........................ Professional, technical and kin dred workers.............................. Managers, officials and proprie tors............................................... Clerical and kindred workers... Sales workers................................. Craftsmen, foremen, and kin dred workers.............................. Operatives and kindred work ers ................................................. Service workers............................. Laborers......................................... 100 32 6 14 1 5 5 35 3 N ote.—Because of rounding, individual items may not add to total. Employment in the service industry is expected to increase rapidly through the mid-1970’s, rising by nearly two-fifths over current levels. Major factors contributing to the sharp growth in the demand for serv ices are expected to stem from popu lation growth, expanding business activity, rising personal incomes, and the general awareness of the benefits that educational, health, and other services can provide. The fastest growing components of the service in dustry will be educational services, medical health services, and among firms that provide computer services and laboratory research facilities. The necessity for extensive personto-person contact in the performance of many service functions tends to limit the impact of technological innovations on employment require ments. Although the adoption of automatic data-processing equipment may moderate employment growth in some areas—for example, in account ing and bookkeeping services—tech nological change is not expected to influence greatly or limit the demand for workers in the service industries. The statement that follows dis cusses job opportunities in the hotel industry. More detailed information about occupations that cut across many industries appears elsewhere in the Handbook. (See index in the back of the book.) HOTEL OCCUPATIONS Throughout the United States, travelers find hotels and motels ready to provide them with a “home-awayfrom-home.” More than 700,000 peo ple worked in these hotels, motels, and related businesses in early 1967. The great majority were employed in the Nation’s hotels and motor hotels, located chiefly in urban areas. Of the remainder, most worked in the large number of motels and tourist courts located on the outskirts of large cities, along major highways, and in resort areas. A few were employed in related businesses such as summer camps and dude ranches. Slightly less than half of the employees in hotels and related businesses were women. Some hotel occupations can be en tered with little or no specialized training. In many kinds of hotel work, however, the demand for specially trained people is increasing. Hotels are complex organizations and need specialized personnel to direct and coordinate operations which may in volve thousands of guests annually and millions of dollars of property and equipment. This chapter deals with employ ment opportunities in hotels, motels, and related businesses, and includes separate statements on several hotel occupations. The Hotel Business and Its Workers Hotels are of three general types— commercial, residential, and resort. The vast majority are commercial hotels which cater chiefly to tran sients—that is, travelers seeking a room for a brief stay. A relatively small number are residential hotels, which chiefly accommodate people for long periods, ranging from a few months to many years. Others are resort hotels, which provide lodging for vacationers. Motor hotels, motels, and other establishments cater espe cially to vacationers and other travel ers seeking accommodations for a short time. Commercial and resi dential hotels generally operate the year round. Although many resort hotels, motor hotels, and motels are open for only part of the year—for example, during the winter season in Florida, or the summer months in northern parts of the country—an in creasing number are remaining open the year round. Hotels range in size from those which have fewer than 25 rooms and only a few employees, to some which have 1,000 or more rooms and many hundreds of workers. In the past few years, an increasing number of motor hotels have been built, some of which have large staffs. Most motels, however, are relatively small, includ ing a sizable number which are run by the owners with few, if any, paid employees. Most hotels have restaurants, ranging from simple coffee shops to vast dining rooms, wine cellars, and elaborate kitchens. Large hotels and motor hotels also may have banquet rooms, exhibit halls, and spacious ballrooms—to accommodate conven tions, business meetings, and social gatherings. Many hotels, especially in resort areas, have recreational facili ties such as swimming pools, boating facilities, golf courses, and tennis courts. For the convenience of guests, hotels may provide information about interesting places to visit, sell tickets to theaters and sporting events, and even call in babysitters. Their facili ties often include newsstands, gift shops, barber and beauty shops, laundry and valet services, and rail road and airline ticket reservation offices. Although motels and tourist courts usually offer fewer services than hotels, the number with restau rants, swimming pools, and other conveniences for guests is steadily increasing. Because of the many services they offer, hotels need workers in a wide variety of occupations. One of the largest groups of hotel employees is in the housekeeping department. Many thousands of maids, porters, housemen, linen room attendants, and laundry room workers are em ployed in “back of the house” jobs— to make beds, clean rooms and halls, move furniture, hang draperies, pro vide guests with fresh linens and towels, operate laundry equipment, and mark and inspect laundered items. Women are usually employed for the lighter housekeeping tasks, whereas men have jobs requiring more strenuous physical effort, such as washing walls and arranging fur niture. Large hotels and motor hotels usually employ executive housekeep ers to supervise these workers, and some hotels may also have a special manager in charge of laundry opera tions. In most hotels, a uniformed staff performs guest services in the lobby. This staff includes the bellmen who carry baggage for guests and escort them to their rooms. Doormen are also a part of the uniformed staff, as are elevator operators. The front office staff work as room clerks, key clerks, mail clerks, and information clerks. Their chief duties are to greet guests, assign rooms, and furnish information. About half of the hotel clerical workers are front office employees. The remainder, mainly women, are employed in a variety of office occupations such as bookkeeper, cashier, telephone oper ator, and secretary. These occupa tions are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Hotel managers and their assist ants are a relatively small group with the highly important task of super615 616 vising operations and making them profitable. A general manager is in charge of all hotel operations. Some general managers have assistants who are in charge of the frorit office or help with other phases of hotel man agement. Some assistants may be responsible for specific operations; for example, food-service managers who operate the dining rooms and other eating facilities, or sales man agers responsible for attracting more business to the hotel. In addition, hotels employ workers who also are found in other indus tries. Among these are accountants, personnel workers, entertainers, rec reation workers, waiters, chefs, and bartenders. Maintenance workers, such as carpenters, electricians, sta tionary engineers, plumbers, and painters, also work for hotels. Still other types of workers employed in hotels include detectives, barbers, beauty salon operators, valets, seam stresses, and gardeners. Most of these occupations are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook. Employment Outlook A rapid increase in employment is likely in this industry during the rest of the 1960’s and through the 1970’s. In addition, about 30,000 workers will be required each year to replace those who retire or die. Many addi tional openings will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to positions in other industries. Most of the anticipated employ ment growth in the industry will stem from the need to staff the new hotels, motor hotels, and motels being built in urban areas. Limited expansion probably will take place in older hotels that try to meet the challenge of increasing competition for business by modernizing their facilities and ex panding their services. Hotels that are unable to modernize their facilities are likely to experience low occu pancy rates and may be forced to re duce overhead costs by eliminating services and workers. Thousands of temporary jobs will continue to be OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK available each year in resort hotels, motels, and other establishments which are open only part of the year or have more business in some seasons than others. The demand for lodging is ex pected to increase through the 1970’s as the country’s population grows and travel for business and pleasure in creases. Jet air travel, which permits businessmen and others who travel frequently to make a trip to a distant city, complete their business, and re turn home the same day, may some what limit this increase. Employment is likely to rise most rapidly in motels, motor hotels, and other businesses catering especially to motorists. This trend has been evident for some time and will continue, as the Federal highway building program further stimulates both automobile travel and the building of motels and motor hotels. In motels, most of the addi tional employees (not counting new owners) will be housekeeping and food-service workers. Most of the job openings in hotels will continue to be for workers who need little specialized training, such as maids, porters, housemen, kitchen helpers, and some dining room em ployees. These jobs account for a large proportion of all hotel workers, and have high turnover rates. When general employment conditions are good, people in such jobs find it rela tively easy to shift to other kinds of work. Also many of the workers are women, who often leave their jobs to take care of their families. In a few of these occupations technologi cal changes may limit the number of openings. For example, the increased use of automatic dishwashers, vege table cutters and peelers, and other mechanical kitchen equipment is likely to reduce the need for kitchen helpers. A number of people will also be needed every year in front office jobs, to replace workers who are promoted to managerial posts as well as to fill new jobs in the increasing number of hotels and motels. People in these oc cupations are less subject than many other workers in the industry to changes in general economic condi tions. In addition, there will be open ings for clerical workers, although the increasing use of office machines may adversely affect clerical employment in some hotels. Opportunities are ex pected to be favorable for young peo ple who acquire the training and experience necessary to qualify for jobs as cooks and food managers. (Food service workers and office workers are discussed elsewhere in the Handbook.) Earnings and Working Conditions The location, size, and type of hotel affect earnings of hotel workers. Other significant factors include the tipping practice for the occupation and the degree of unionization. More than one-half of all hotel workers are now covered by the Fair Labor Stand ards Act, a Federal statute which sets minimum wages. Hotel workers cov ered by the law receive at least $1 an hour. In addition, more than half the States have their own wage and hour laws that cover hotel workers among others. Salaries of hotel employees in man agerial positions have an especially wide range, mainly because of great differences in duties and responsi bilities. Hotel manager trainees who are graduates of specialized college programs start out at salaries rang ing from $5,000 to $7,200 and are us ually given periodic increases for the first year or two. Experienced man agers may earn several times as much as beginners; a few, in top jobs, earn $50,000 or more a year. In addition to salary, hotels customarily furnish managers and their families with lodging in the hotel, meals, parking facilities, laundry, and other services. Since earnings of bellmen are greatly affected by tips, obtaining meaningful data on their income is difficult. In large luxury and resort hotels, bellmen may earn $100 or more a week (including tips). 617 HOTEL OCCUPATIONS The earnings for all nonsupervisory workers in the hotel industry aver aged about $53 a week in 1966. How ever, the wage rates of hotel workers varied greatly from occupation to oc cupation according to limited infor mation obtained from union-man agement contracts in various cities throughout the United States. For example, bellmen earned from $30 to $57 a week depending upon geo graphic location, type of hotel, and whether they worked the day or night shift. Housemen averaged from $53 to $80 a week and maids and chamber maids earnings ranged from about $47 to $60 a week. Front office clerks earned from about $53 a week to $73 a week. In addition to the wage rates contracted for in these agreements, some workers such as bellmen, maids, and housekeepers may receive tips from hotel or motel guests. Nonsupervisory employees gener ally work a 40-hour week, except in the South where the scheduled week is usually 48 hours. For most front office clerks th,e scheduled workweek ranges from 40 hours—particularly common in the Northeast—to 48 hours in practically all southern cities. In a few cities, the workweek is less than 40 hours. Since hotels are open round the clock, workers may be employed on any one of three shifts. Usually, more people are employed during the day than at night, and additional com pensation may be paid for work dur ing late hours. Managers and house keepers who live in the hotel usually have regular work schedules, al though managers may be called on at any time. Waiters and waitresses, cooks, pan try workers, dishwashers, and other kitchen workers commonly receive free meals; in a few hotels, maids, elevator operators, and room clerks also receive free meals. More than three-fourths of nonsupervisory em ployees are covered by paid vacation provisions, the duration of the vaca tion usually being determined by length of service. Paid holidays— usually 4 to 6 a year—are provided for nearly half of the nonsupervisory hotel employees. The Hotel & Restaurant Employees and Bartenders International Union is the major union in the hotel busi ness. Uniformed personnel, such as bellmen and elevator operators, may be members of the Building Service Employees’ International Union. The degree of unionization, however, differs sharply from area to area. In Boston, Chicago, Detroit, New York, St. Louis, and San Francisco-Oakland, 90 percent or more of nonsuper visory employees, except front desk and office, are in establishments with union contract agreements. In New Orleans, Atlanta, and Memphis the percentage is 20 or below. Where To Go for More Information Information on careers in hotel work may be obtained from: American Hotel and Motel Associa tion, 221 West 57th St., New York, N.Y. 10019. Additional information on train ing opportunities, and a directory of schools and colleges offering courses in the hotel field may be obtained by writing to: Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, Statler Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. 14850. Information on housekeeping in hotels, including a list of schools offer ing courses in housekeeping, may be obtained from: National Executive Housekeepers Association, Inc., Business and Professional Building, Gallipolis, Ohio 45631. Information on courses relating to hotel work may be obtained from the local Director of Vocational Educa tion, the Superintendent of Schools in the local community, or the State Director of Vocational Education in the Department of Education in the State capital. BELLMEN AND BELL CAPTAINS (D.O.T. 324.138 and .878) Nature of Work Bellmen, also called bellboys or bellhops, carry the baggage of incom ing hotel guests while escorting them to their rooms. The bellman checks the lights and the supply of towels and soap, and sees that everything is in order in the room. He may suggest the use of various hotel services, in cluding the dining room and the valet service. Bellmen also perform errands for guests and deliver packages. In early 1967, more than 25,000 such workers were employed in the Na tion’s lodging places. In large hotels, special baggage porters are usually employed to carry baggage for guests who are checking out. In smaller hotels, bellmen carry baggage for out going as well as incoming guests and may also relieve the elevator operator or switchboard operator. Bell captains are employed in large and many medium-size hotels to supervise the bellmen. They assign work to these employees, keep their time records, and instruct new bell men in their duties. They may also help guests arrange for transporta tion by giving them information on train and plane schedules and sending a baggage porter or a bellman to pick 618 up the transportation tickets. In addi tion, they handle complaints from guests regarding the work of their department, and take care of requests for unusual services. At times, bell captains may also perform the duties of bellmen. Superintendents of service—found in only a few hotels with large service departments—supervise elevator op erators and starters, doormen, and washroom attendants, as well as bell men and bell captains. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement No specific educational require ments exist for bellman jobs. Gradua tion from high school, however, en hances a bellman’s opportunities for transfer to front office clerical jobs, and for promotion. (See statement on Front Office Clerks in this chapter.) In many hotels, bellman jobs are filled by promoting elevator opera tors. In the service department of the hotel, the line of promotion is from bellman to bell captain to superin tendent of service. Some of the factors which may affect a bellman’s chances for advancement are a favorable work record showing few complaints by guests, good work habits, and leader ship qualities. Since there is only one bell captain’s position in each hotel a number of years may pass before an opening occurs. Opportunities for advancement to superintendent of service are even more limited. Since bellmen are in frequent con tact with the public, it is important that they be neat, tactful, and courte ous. A knowledge of the attractions and geography of the local commu nity is an asset. They must also be able to stand all day and to carry heavy baggage. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK deaths and retirements. Many addi tional openings will also be created as bellmen transfer to other occupations. Since many hotels promote from within by advancing men elevator operators to bellman jobs, chances for outsiders to enter year-round jobs as bellmen will be best in hotels which employ women as elevator operators, and in the increasing number of hotels which have automatic eleva tors. Many opportunities for tempo rary jobs will also arise in resort hotels which are open only part of the year and hire college students and other young men. Many beginners will also be needed in small hotels, to replace experienced bellmen who shift to jobs in luxury hotels where earnings from tips may be higher. Competition among employed bellmen for the rela tively few bell captain jobs that will become available in the future is ex pected to remain keen. The number of bellmen employed is expected to increase slowly during the rest of the 1960’s and through the 1970’s. Some additional jobs will be created as new hotels and motor hotels are built and additions are made to existing hotels. The fast growing motel business will also' pro vide some additional jobs; however, because of the type of construction and the emphasis on informality, rela tively few motels employ bellmen. See introductory section to this chapter for information on Earnings and Working Conditions, Where To Go for More Information, and for additional information on Employ ment Outlook. work related to assigning rooms. More than 50,000 such workers were employed in the Nation’s lodging places in early 1967. By working “up front,” they deal directly with the public and help build an establish ment’s reputation for courteous and efficient service. In small hotels and in motels, a front office clerk (who may be the owner) may not only rent rooms, issue keys, sort mail, and give information, but also do some book keeping and act as cashier. On the other hand, large hotels usually em ploy several front office clerks, who may be assigned to the following dif ferent kinds of jobs. Room or desk clerks rent the avail able rooms. Customarily, they are the first of the front office clerical staff to great guests. In assigning rooms, they must be aware of advance reg istrations, consider any preferences guests may express, and at the same time try to obtain maximum revenues for the hotel. Room clerks give infor mation about rates and the types of services available, and see that guests fill out registration forms properly. After registration is completed, room clerks signal bellmen to carry guests’ luggage. Reservation clerks acknowl edge room reservations by mail or telephone, type out registration forms, and notify the room clerk when guests are due to arrive. To keep room as signment records current, rack clerks insert or remove forms indicating the FRONT OFFICE CLERKS (D.O.T. 242.368) Employment Outlook Nature of Work Nearly a thousand openings for bellmen are expected each year dur Hotels and motels employ front ing the rest of the 1960’s and through office clerks to greet guests, rent the 1970’s to take care of growth and rooms, handle mail, and do other Front office clerks check advance room reservations. HOTEL OCCUPATIONS. time when rooms become occupied or vacant or when they are closed for repairs. They also keep housekeepers, telephone operators, and other per sonnel informed about changes in room occupancy. Other special clerks, such as key, mail, and information clerks are employed in some hotels. In the largest hotels floor supervisors or floor clerks are assigned to each floor to handle the distribution of mail and packages and perform other incidental duties. In all but the very largest hotels and motels, front office clerks may be responsible for a combination of these various duties. They may have other duties as well, particularly when they work on late evening shifts. For example, the night room clerk may perform bookkeeping functions or assist cashiers with their clerical work. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduates who have some clerical aptitude and the per sonal characteristics necessary for dealing with the public may be hired for beginning jobs such as mail, in formation, or key clerk. Neatness, a courteous and friendly manner, and ease in dealing with people are im portant personal traits for front office clerical workers. Typing and book keeping courses given in high school may be helpful, particularly for nightshift work where additional clerical duties are often performed, or for jobs in smaller hotels and motels, where the front office clerks often have a variety of duties. Although education beyond high school is generally not required for front office work, hotel employers are increasingly attaching greater importance to college train ing in selecting personnel who may later be advanced to managerial posi tions. Front office clerks may improve their opportunities for promotion by taking home study courses, such as those sponsored by the Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Association. 610 Inexperienced workers learn about Go for More Information, and for the front office routine mainly additional information on Employ through on-the-job experience. They ment Outlook. usually have a brief initial training period during which their duties are described and they are given infor mation about the hotel, such as the location of rooms and the types of HOUSEKEEPERS AND ASSISTANTS services offered. After new employees (D.O.T. 321.138) begin working, they receive help when necessary from the assistant manager or some experienced front office worker. Nature of Work Front office workers usually start as key clerks or mail clerks, or in other Hotel housekeepers are responsible fairly routine jobs. Occasionally, em for keeping the hotels clean and at ployees in other types of related tractive. They account for furnish work—for example, bellmen or ele ings and supplies; hire, train, and vator operators—may be transferred supervise the maids, linen room and to front office jobs. Most hotels have laundry workers, housemen, seam a promotion-from-within policy for stresses, and repairmen; keep em front office workers. A typical line of ployee records; and perform other promotion might be from key or rack duties which vary with the size and clerk to room clerk, to assistant front type of the hotel. Those employed in office manager, and later to front of middle-size and small hotels not only fice manager. (See statement on supervise the cleaning staffs but may Hotel Managers and Assistants later do some of the maids’ work. In large in this chapter.) hotels and smaller luxury-type hotels, the duties of executive or head house keepers are primarily administrative. Employment Outlook Besides supervising a staff which may number in the hundreds, they pre Employment in this occupation pare the budget for the housekeeping will probably increase moderately department; regular reports to during the rest of the 1960’s and the managermake on the condition of through the 1970’s. Many openings rooms, needed repairs, and suggested will result from the need to replace workers who are promoted to higher improvements; purchase or assist in level jobs or transfer to other occupa purchasing supplies; and have respon tions. Some new jobs will become sibility for interior decorating work. available in cities where new hotels Some executive housekeepers em will be built or existing ones ex ployed by large hotel chains may have panded. In addition, new front office special assignments such as reorgan jobs will be created in the hundreds izing housekeeping procedures in an of motels and motor hotels expected established hotel or setting up the housekeeping department in a new or to open in the next decade. A front office clerk has relatively newly acquired hotel. stable employment. Employment in In many hotels, executive house this occupation does not expand or keepers are assisted by floor house contract as sharply with changes in keepers who directly supervise the general economic conditions as em work on one floor or more. Large ployment in many other hotel occu hotels also may employ assistant ex pations. ecutive housekeepers. More than See the introductory section to this 18,000 hotel housekeepers were em chapter for information on Earnings ployed in early 1967, most of whom and Working Conditions, Where To were women. 620 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK hotel, many years may pass before an opening of this kind occurs in a given hotel. Experienced hotel housekeep ers will also find employment oppor tunities in hospitals, clubs, college dormitories, and a variety of welfare institutions. See introduction to this chapter for information on Earnings and Work ing Conditions, Where To Go for More Information, and for addi tional information on Employment Outlook. MANAGERS AND ASSISTANTS (D.O.T. 163.118 and 187.118 and .168) Nature of Work Executive housekeeper instructs new employees in bed-making procedures. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Although no specific educational requirements exist for housekeepers, most employers prefer applicants who have at least a high school diploma. Experience is also an asset in obtain ing a hotel housekeeping job. Specialized training in hotel ad ministration, including courses in housekeeping, was available at sev eral colleges in 1966. Some univer sities offer short summer courses or conduct evening classes in coopera tion with the National Executive Housekeepers Association. In addi tion, the Educational Institute of the American Hotel and Motel Associa tion also offers housekeeping oriented courses, for class or individual home study. The most helpful courses are those emphasizing housekeeping pro cedures, personnel management, budget preparation, interior decorat ing, and the purchase, use, and care of different types of equipment and fabrics. Employment Outlook More than 1,500 openings for ho tel housekeepers and their assistants are expected annually during the rest of the 1960’s and through the 1970’s. Most openings will result from the need to replace workers who retire or leave the occupation for other rea sons. However, some new positions for housekeepers also will become available in newly built hotels and the growing number of motor hotels and large luxury motels. In estab lished hotels, most openings for house keepers and their assistants will be filled from within by promoting as sistant housekeepers and maids. How ever, since only one top job as ex ecutive housekeeper exists in each Hotel and motel managers are re sponsible for operating their estab lishments profitably and at the same time, providing maximum comfort for guests. Of the more than 150,000 hotel and motel managers employed in early 1967, more than 50,000 were salaried and about 100,000 were owner-managers. Managers direct and coordinate the activities of the front office, kitchen and dining rooms, and the various hotel departments, such as housekeeping, accounting, personnel, purchasing, publicity, and maintenance. They make decisions on room rates, establish credit policy, improve operations, and have final responsibility for dealing with many other kinds of problems that arise in operating their hotels or motels. Like other managers of business enter prises, they may also spend consider able time conferring with business and social groups and participating in community affairs. In small hotels, the manager also may perform much of the front office clerical work. In the smallest hotels and in many motels, the owners— sometimes a husband - and - wife team—do all the work necessary to run the business. HOTEL OCCUPATIONS M anager helps guest with special problem. The general manager of a large hotel may have several assistants who manage one department or more and assume general administrative respon sibility when the manager is absent. Because preparing and serving food is so important in the operation of most large hotels, a special manager is usually in charge of this depart ment. Managers of large hotels usu ally employ a special assistant, known as a sales manager, whose job it is to promote maximum use of hotel facili ties. The sales manager spends much time traveling about the country ex plaining to various groups the facili ties his hotel can offer for meetings, banquets, and conventions. Since large hotel chains often cen tralize such activities as purchasing supplies and equipment and plan ning employee training programs, managers of these hotels may have fewer duties than managers of inde pendently owned hotels. Hotel chains may assign managers on a temporary basis to help organize work in a newly acquired hotel, or may transfer them to established hotels in different States or in foreign countries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Since most hotels promote from within, individuals who have proved their ability usually in front office jobs, may be promoted to assistant manager positions and eventually to general manager. Although successful hotel experi ence is generally the first considera tion in selecting managers, employers increasingly emphasize a college edu cation. Many believe that the best 621 educational preparation is provided by the few colleges which offer a specialized 4-year curriculum in hotel and restaurant administration. Spe cialized courses in hotel work, avail able in a few junior colleges, and study courses given by the Educa tional Institute of the American Ho tel and Motel Association, are also helpful. In colleges offering a specialized 4year curriculum in hotel manage ment, the courses include hotel ad ministration, hotel accounting, eco nomics, food service management and catering, and hotel maintenance en gineering. Students are encouraged to spend their summer vacations working in hotel or restaurant jobs— for example, as busboys or bellmen, room clerks, or assistant managers. The experience gained in these jobs and the contacts with employers may enable young people to obtain better hotel positions after graduation. In addition, students are encouraged to study foreign languages and other subjects of cultural value such as his tory, philosophy, and literature. College graduates who have ma jored in hotel administration usually begin their hotel careers as front office clerks; after acquiring the necessary experience, they may advance to top managerial positions. An increasing number of employers require some ex perience in food operations. Hotel chains may offer better opportunities for advancement than independent hotels, since vacancies may arise in any hotel of the chain as well as on the central management staff. Some large hotel organizations have established special programs for management trainees who are college graduates or for less highly trained personnel promoted from within. Such programs consist mainly of onthe-job training assignments in which the trainee is rotated among jobs in the various hotel departments. In ad dition, some large hotels provide financial assistance to outstanding employees for college study. 622 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook Well-qualified young people will find favorable opportunities during the rest of the 1960’s and through the 1970’s to obtain entry positions that offer the possibility of promotion to managerial work. Young men appli cants who have college degrees in hotel administration will have an ad vantage in seeking such entry posi tions and later advancement, if they have had training in food manage ment or can qualify as sales managers. Many openings for management per sonnel will probably result from the need to fill vacancies resulting from turnover. The number of hotel managers is expected to increase rapidly over the long run. New positions will arise as additional hotels are built, and as the number of motor hotel and luxury motels expand. See the introductory section of this chapter for information on Earnings and Working Conditions, Where To Go for More Information, and for additional information on Employ ment Outlook. AGRICULTURE A farmer’s workday may begin early and end late, but he works for himself and thus has considerable flexibility. He does not have to punch a time clock. If he needs an extra few minutes to complete a job, he can take it without imposing on anyone. If he is cultivating land and it rains, he may shift to repair work or mar keting, catch up on odd jobs, or spend the time with his family. Modem transportation and communication, public utilities, and conventional upto-date household and farming appli ances have reduced most differences that once existed between rural and urban living. Many people prefer liv ing in the country or rural area. Earlier agriculture was synonymous with farming, or the growing of crops and the production of livestock, using simple tools and methods of produc tion. Science and technology have made agriculture a complex and di versified industry including many of the activities existing outside the farm sector. Today the typical farmer is a me chanic, welder, tractor operator, bookkeeper, financier, scientist, and supervisor. He buys items from a va riety of dealers. He has many com petitors and sells his products in sev eral markets at different times. Significance of Agriculture in the Economy Only about 6 percent of the total population now live on farms, com pared with 23 percent in 1940. Five percent of the total civilian labor force is employed on farms. Whereas one farmworker produced enough food and fiber for himself and only 10 other people three decades ago, today he can produce enough food for himself and 38 others. Although the number of farm workers has declined, the number of people who work in jobs closely re lated to agriculture has been grow ing. These include the workers in feed mills, fertilizer plants, farm machin ery industries, farm marketing and farm supply stores, food processing plants, and many other businesses that process, distribute, or transport farm products and farm supplies. The total number of trained persons needed to carry on this whole com plex of activities on and off the farm—often called “Agri-Business”— is rising. The nonfarm sector of agri culture consists of (1) firms manu facturing and distributing equipment and supplies used in farm production; (2) processing and marketing estab lishments that convert and distribute farm produces in the form, place, and time needed for consumption, and (3) organizations providing sendees to the farmer directly or to agricul ture in general. 623 Size of Farm Operations OPPORTUNITIES ON FARMS The typical farm of today is much larger and more highly mechanized than the farm of 25 years ago, and consequently requires much more capital and many farming skills to own and operate. The standard of living of American farmers today is higher than ever before. Opportuni ties for the small farmer, however, have become very limited. Investment per Worker on Farms Since before World War II, agri culture in the United States has in creased greatly in the value of produc tive assets relative to the number of workers, resulting mostly from the higher cost of land and equipment and the substitution of machinery for labor. Capital investment in land, farm buildings, livestock, machinery, equipment, and other items amounted to about $36,000 per farmworker in 1966, compared with less than $3,500 in 1940; the investment in farm ma chinery and equipment alone has in creased tenfold. Technological prog ress has brought the farmer many new laborsaving devices and produc tion-expanding aids. 624 Many farms in the United States are too small to provide an adequate income. In 1964, about 69 percent of all farms were classified as com mercial (those providing the farmer with his major source of income). Fewer than 45 percent of all farms reported sales of $5,000 or more. The trend toward fewer and larger farms means that more managerial skills, capital, and mechanical equipment are needed. Farm Employment Outlook Because of current trends on the farm, openings for new workers dur ing the remainder of the 1960’s and over the next decade will be fewer than the number of workers who die, retire, or leave the farm for other rea sons. From 1954 to 1964, an estimated 1.2 million operators left commercial farms, and farmworkers declined by 1.8 million. This trend is likely to continue for some years. Since the number of young men growing up on farms and living in rural commu nities is declining, there will be some opportunity for those possessing farm skills and backgrounds. Though find ing skilled and interested farmwork ers is difficult, employment opportu nities will not improve significantly for most hired farmhands. Agriculture cannot expect the same increase in per capita consumption of its products as can many other seg ments of the economy. Expansion of domestic markets will depend mainly on population growth. Although ex ports of farm products are expected to continue at relatively high levels, farming nevertheless will continue to be highly competitive because of the rapid advances in technology, faster communication and transportation, and better informed producers and consumers. Agriculture in the under developed countries will improve, and they will depend less on our exports. Training Opportunities Available for Farming The best initial training for farm ing is to grow up on a farm. The necessary experience also may be gained by working as a closely super vised tenant or hired worker on a successful farm. Several types of vocational train ing are available under the federally assisted program of vocational educa tion, including the teaching of agri culture in high school. Training may be given in the following: 1. All-day programs supervised by teachers who are agricultural college graduates. 2. Young farmer programs consisting of short courses during the day, includ ing intensive training in farm planning, farm layout, farm structures, construction, welding and related shop and repair work, plant breeding, pest control, growing broilers and breeding cattle, swine, sheep, and other aspects of farming. 3. Adult farmer programs in evening classes (or day classes in off-seasons) give intensive training in conservation, crop and livestock production, and special problems, such as control of pests and planning adjustments in land use and treatment. The most significant general sources of information and guidance avail able to farmers are the services pro vided by the land-grant colleges and universities and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. These include the fa cilities of State and Federal experi ment stations, the Cooperative Exten sion Services, and resident teaching. The county agricultural agent is often the best contact for the young person seeking advice and assistance in farm ing. The Farmers Home Administra tion system of supervised credit is one example of credit facilities combined with a form of extension teaching. Organized groups, such as the Future Farmers of America and the 4-H Clubs, also furnish valuable training to young farm people. OPPORTUNITIES ON SPE CIFIC TYPES OF FARMS income or opportunity to improve his status without major changes. On most of the farms, the major part of the work is done by the farm operator and his family. Whereas, some of the smaller farms hire workers only dur ing the peak labor season, large ones often use hired labor year-round. The figures in the table on capital invested mean that, the operator controls or uses resources valued at that amount. Many farmers supple ment their own capital with borrowed funds; others rent part or all of the land they use, thus allowing more of their funds for the purchase of live stock, machinery, and equipment. Still others have partners who provide most of the working capital. For ex ample, many farmers raise broilers in partnership with a feed dealer. No brief general statement about specialization versus diversification in farm operations that would apply in all parts of the country can be made. The general trend is for more special ized farming. Farms that produced many products a generation ago now may produce only two or three. Ef ficient production of most farm prod ucts requires a substantial investment in specialized equipment. If the farm operator is to receive the full benefit from his investment, he must produce on a large scale. Two other factors contributing to specialization are the greater emphasis on quality of farm products and the increased knowl edge and skill required for effective production of each. Few farmers, however, find it advantageous to pro duce only one product. The main reasons are the spreading of price and production risks, the more effec tive use of labor, particularly family labor, and the inefficient utilization of other resources in a one-product system. Although the number of openings in fanning is decreasing, desirable and rewarding openings occur from time to time. The decision to enter farming may be made simply because an opening exists on the family farm or on one nearby. To be successful, a young man should carefully ap praise the requirements in specific types of farm operations, and the prospects for success in them, taking into consideration his aptitudes, interests, preferences, experience, knowledge, and skills in directing labor and handling livestock and ma chinery. He must take into account also his family labor supply and his financial resources, as the labor and capital requirements for an operation of adequate size vary widely from one type of farm to another. A realistic decision to go into farm ing can be made only in terms of a particular type (or types) of farming in a particular area or community. This section evaluates from an oc cupational standpoint some of the more common farm types. The ac companying table gives illustrative data on size of farm, labor and capi tal requirements, and net farm in comes received by operators of typi Dairy Farms cal or representative farms in various parts of the country. Many farms are Dairy farms are located in most larger than these and offer more re parts of the country. Despite modem turn than is shown here. Some are methods of processing and transport smaller and offer the operator little ing milk, dairy production is still con centrated near the large population centers, particularly in the Northeast and the Great Lakes States. How ever, many areas in the Far West and the South also are becoming large producers of dairy products. Al though many of these are “drylot” operations, on dairy farms in the Lake States and to a lesser extent in the Northeast, crops are important, causing peak labor loads, especially at harvesttime. However, there is plenty of work throughout the year on dairy farms, so that effective use can be made of labor, and a regular force can be kept fully occupied most of the time. Although most people do not like to be “tied down” 7 days a week, this obstacle presents no great hard ship for the man who enjoys working with animals. Dairying is also a good choice for the man who likes to work with mechanical equipment. As many dairy farmers still produce much of their feed, the work varies enough to prevent monotony. The dairyman’s sales and income are evenly distributed throughout the year. Moreover, the prices he receives are less subject to year-to-year fluctua tions than some other types of farm ing. The accompanying table shows the average net farm income on dairy farms in the Central Northeast and Midwest for 1963 to 1965. Compared with farmers in most other areas, dairy farmers in the more concentrated milksheds of the North east (such as the dairy farms in the Central Northeast shown in the table) frequently milk larger herds, purchase a larger proportion of their feed, and buy rather than raise their herd replacements. Exceptions are the specialized dairy farms on the Pacific Coast and a few other isolated areas. In the most highly specialized producing area near Los Angeles, dairy farms are quite small in acreage but large in milk production and number of cows milked. No crops are produced; these dairy operators buy their entire feed requirements from outside the area. Most of the cows 625 626 are bought at freshening time and are replaced when their lactation period is completed. Net farm income represents the re turn to the farm operator and his family for their labor and the capi tal invested in the farm business— provided the operator owns his land and is free from debt. If he rents part or all of his farm, not all of net farm income is available for family OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK stock and mechanical equipment. Many farmers consider general live stock farms—such as the hog-fatten ing beef-raising farms, and hog-beef fattening farms of the Com Belt—an advantage because they require fewer chores than dairy farms. (See table.) Livestock Farms and Ranches Although livestock producers often A general livestock farm is a good work shorter hours than dairymen, choice for the farmer who is inter during the slack season they cannot ested and skilled in working with live always use effectively the regular living; part of it must be used for rent. Similarly, the farmer who is in debt must deduct interest and principal. Size of Farm, Labor Used, Capital Invested, and Net Farm Income on Commercial Farms, By Type, Size, and Location, 1963-65 Average Type of farm and location Dairy farms: Central Northeast................................................. Eastern Wisconsin: Grade A ................................................................ Grade B ................................................................ Western Wisconsin, Grade B ............................. Dairy-hog farms, Southeastern Minnesota........ Egg-producing farms, New Jersey....................... Broiler farms: M aine......................................................................... Delmarva: Broilers................................................................. Broiler-crop......................................................... Georgia..................................................................... Com Belt farms: Hog-dairy................................................................. Hog fattening—beef raising................................ Hog-beef fattening................................................. Cash grain............................................................... Cotton farms: Southern Piedm ont.............................................. Mississippi Delta: Small .................................................................... Large-Scale.......................................................... Texas: Black Prairie....................................................... High Plains (nonirrigated)............................. High Plains (irrigated).................................... San Joaquin Valley, Calif, (irrigated): Cotton-specialty crop....................................... Cotton-general crop (medium size)............. Cotton-general crop (large)............................. Peanut-cotton farms, Southern Coastal Plains. Tobacco farms: North Carolina Coastal Plain: Tobacco................................................................. Tobacco-cotton.................................................... Kentucky Bluegrass: Tobacco-livestock, inner area........................ Tobacco-dairy, intermediate area................. Tobacco-dairy, outer area............................... Pennyroyal, Kentucky-Tennessee: Tobacco-beef........................................................ Tobacco-dairy.................................................... Spring wheat farms: Northern Plains: Wheat-small grain-livestock........................... Wheat-com-livestock........................................ Wheat-fallow........................................................ Winter wheat farms: Southern Plains: Wheat..................................................................... Wheat-grain sorghum........................................ Pacific Northwest: Wheat-pea............................................................. Wheat-fallow........................................................ Cattle ranches: Northern Plains..................................................... Intermountain Region........................................ Southwest........................................................ Sheep ranches: Northern Plains..................................................... U tah-Nevada......................................................... Southwest.............................................................. Size of farms, in 1965 as measured by— $45,660 $3,070 71,680 5,910 47,830 4,660 38,460 4,290 57,960 4,070 45,950 0 0 33,690 0 19,700 51,660 0 17,520 160 74,030 5,310 65,540 4,460 126,030 11,630 152,790 440 33,340 510 17,160 170 285,900 1,860 61,370 590 91,350 310 1 4 9 ,0 7 0 430 0 3 310,250 0 3 307,980 0 4 1,057,730 25,860 650 $4,212 6,334 3,323 4,135 4,492 2,977 3,592 2,472 6,868 1,036 7,969 5,301 10,908 13,423 2,944 2,518 35,180 5,053 7,351 16,073 58,461 30,815 89,994 6,006 530 • 460 2,210 920 1,800 3,550 2,560 41,890 45,640 110,950 24,340 48,100 90,020 66,440 5,940 5,896 8,173 3,059 5,926 5,780 6,063 4,220 9,080 4,150 1,880 3,440 1,590 60,480 63,920 65,560 8,579 8,526 9,047 7,180 8,450 2,410 4,680 24,440 40,080 29,340 25,170 51,050 21,400 2,420 1,730 1,020 1,270 3,300 4,290 1,930 1,230 1,930 840 114,180 130,480 209,560 166,340 90,080 92,800 184,930 105,550 162,710 225,850 9,129 9,029 16,741 14,373 7,009 8,503 4,243 13,129 15,504 6,331 33.5 milk cows........................ 34.2 milk cows........................ 22.4 milk cows........................ 25.4 milk cow s........................ 22.6 milk cow s........................ 5,200 layers............................... 72,802 produced annually... 59,376 produced annually... 63,630 produced annually... 32,594 produced annually... 130 acres of cropland............ 145 acres of cropland............. 198 acres of cropland............. 277 acres of cropland............. 107 acres of cropland............. 40 acres of cropland............... 640 acres of cropland............. 248 acres of cropland............. 480 acres of cropland............ 427 acres of cropland............. 340 acres of cropland............. 340 acres of cropland............. 1,196 acres of cropland......... 72 acres of cropland............... 4,610 4,690 3,850 4,350 4,210 5,010 2,350 1,870 2,730 1,600 4,640 3,640 3,980 2,320 4,840 2,730 25,100 2,850 3,760 5,670 12,590 9,730 29,220 3,690 $25,230 41,290 30,510 22,350 39,580 36,420 24,210 17,000 41,360 12,550 52,040 46,870 87,410 137,490 29,560 13,120 235,330 51,570 79,840 130,450 258,890 259,280 932,770 20,000 $8,230 12,910 6,520 4,400 7,560 2,280 9,480 2,700 10,300 4,110 8,370 6,830 10,670 14,480 2,230 3,390 41,080 7,070 10,510 17,460 27,350 28,600 76,420 3,460 $9,130 11,570 6,140 7,420 6,750 7,250 0 0 0 700 8,310 7,380 16,320 380 1,040 480 7,630 2,140 690 730 0 0 0 1,750 48 acres of cropland............... 54 acres of cropland.............. 63 acres of cropland............... 25 acres of cropland............... 43 acres of cropland............... 240 acres of cropland............. 179 acres of cropland............ 5,430 6,230 4,570 3,450 4,860 4,490 5,010 36,390 39,930 95,930 17,750 35,510 70,290 50,910 4,510 4,780 5,450 3,000 6,150 7,550 7,180 460 470 7,360 2,670 4,640 8,630 5,790 605 acres of cropland............ 411 acres of cropland............. 670 acres of cropland............. 2,560 3,470 2,740 43,120 42,160 49,960 11,260 9,240 9,860 625 acres of cropland............. 700 acres of cropland............. 555 acres of cropland........... 1,088 acres of cropland......... 110.5 cows................................. 154.6 cows................................. 150.6 cows................................. 1,323 sheep............................... 2,208 sheep............................... 1,250 sheep............................... 2,930 3,110 3,520 3,780 4,320 5,170 3,710 6,970 7,790 5,280 93,240 109,410 182,530 140,230 54,590 41,600 148,140 72,220 102,910 198,530 11,340 10,890 23,600 20,160 7,750 6,830 5,520 6,930 6,820 5,080 1 The information presented here is on an owner-operator basis primarily for comparability between types of ranches. N et ranch income to operator and unpaid members of the family for labor and management on the ranch and return to total capital. N o allowance has been made for rent, interest, or mortgage. 2 Includes $24,010 cost of irrigation system. Capital invested in— Total farm N et Harm labor Land Machinery used and and Livestock Crops capital income (hours) buildings equip ment 3 Includes $20,100 cost of irrigation system. 4 Includes $48,540 cost of irrigation system. N ote.—Prepared in the Farm Production Economic Division, Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. AGRTCDI/nUEiE labor force. This may not present particularly great problems when a larger part of the labor force consists of young people of school age. The busiest times come when these work ers are out of school. The livestock farmer’s income is not as well distributed throughout the year as the dairyman’s and it is less likely to be uniform from year to year. Financial management problems re sult, increasing the risks of operation. Moreover, on farms of limited acre ages—often found in the Eastern States—the level of income from gen eral livestock is usually lower than from a dairy herd on similar acreage. Most hog producers have their own breeding stock and raise the pigs they fatten for market. Cattle and sheep present a different situation. Most of the cattle and sheep fattened and marketed by the livestock farmer are bred and raised originally by someone else—usually the livestock rancher of the West. The accompanying table includes data for six types of Western livestock operations: Northern Plains sheep and cattle ranches, Intermoun tain cattle ranches, sheep ranches in Utah and Nevada, and sheep and cat tle ranches in the Southwest. In these areas of low rainfall, the main source of feed is range grass, and several acres are required to support one ani mal. Except where irrigation is avail able, few feed crops are harvested. Some ranchers, particularly those in the Intermountain region and the Northern Plains, own only a small part of the land on which they graze their livestock. Most of the land on which they buy grazing rights is pub lic. Large acreages are required to provide enough pasture for their stock, so the ranchers spend much time in the saddle, truck, or jeep, managing their herds. Poultry Farms Most farmers in the United States raise some poultry, but in 1964 fewer than 3.8 percent of them were classi fied as poultry farmers. Many poultry farms concentrate on egg production; 262-057 O— 68-----41 most of the larger and more special ized of these farms are in the North east and in California. Others pro duce broilers; many highly concen trated centers of broiler* production are east of the Mississippi River and a few are on the West Coast. Turkey producers also are specialized. A con centration of specialized producers of ducks are in Suffolk County, Long Island, New York. A few poultrymen produce some crops for sale and purchase special poultry feeds and laying mash. Crops are not grown by most specialized poultry producers, particularly those who produce broilers or large laying flocks. Commercial poultry farmers in New Jersey, for example, buy all their feed. The typical broiler producer in Maine, the Delmarva (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia) peninsula, and Georgia devotes almost all of his capi tal and labor to the production of broilers. Poultry farming requires special ized skill in handling birds, chiefly on the part of the operator. Bulk han dling of feed and mechanical feeding is widespread and requires little physi cal strength. For these reasons, poul try farms can use available family help. Data on average capital investment and net farm income for representa tive egg producers in New Jersey and broiler operators in Maine, Del marva, and Georgia from 1963 to 1965 are given in the table. These averages do not reveal the sharp yearto-year fluctuations in income that occur. Because they have a high pro portion of cash costs and a thin mar gin of profit, relatively small changes in feed, broiler, and egg prices can produce sizable fluctuations in net farm income. The incomes of most broiler pro ducers, however, are more stable be cause of the high proportion of broiler growers who produce “under con tract.” Contract production is more widespread in broiler production than in any other major type of farming. Under these arrangements, the fi nancing agency (usually a feed 627 dealer) furnishes the feed, chicks, and technical supervision—almost every thing except the buildings, equip ment, and direct production labor. The grower receives a stipulated amount for each bird marketed, and often a bonus for superior efficiency. Many turkey producers operate under similar contracts, but these arrange ments are not nearly so universal for the production of turkeys as for broilers. Corn and Wheat Farms For the man who likes working with crops and farm machinery, cash grain, corn, and wheat farming have much to offer. Many farmers dislike year-round association with livestock and chores. They prefer instead to work long hours using laborsaving equipment during the busy seasons, and then having more freedom when the rush times end. The table shows the investment re quired and the recent income experi ence of some representative cash grain farms. Farms of this type include cash grain farms in the Corn Belt, spring wheat farms in the Northern Plains, winter wheat farms in the Southern Plains, and wheat-pea and wheat-fal low farms in the Pacific Northwest. Some of these farmers—particularly in the Northern Plains—raise some beef cattle for sale as feeders and keep a few milk cows. However, this live stock production is usually of sec ondary importance. Many of these farmers do not raise any livestock. One of the main risks faced by the commercial wheat grower is the un certainty of favorable weather. Gov ernment programs have taken out much of the price risk in wheat farming. Cotton, Tobacco, and Peanut Farms In terms of numbers of farmers, the production of cotton, tobacco, and peanuts makes up a large part of the agriculture in the Southeastern and South Central States. These products 628 are grown on farms that range from very small operating units to com paratively large ones. Competition among these growers has been keen, and many have been forced to di versify and enlarge their farms—ad justments which require expenditures of capital. Industrial expansion in the South and competition from cotton growers in the irrigated areas of the West and Southwest have forced many farmers in the Southeast to dis continue cotton growing. Some of them have stopped farming, and some have diversified their operations. Competition will continue in the growing of cotton, tobacco, and peanuts. Crop Specialty Farms Many farmers throughout the country have special background, skills, resources, and other advantages, chiefly because of location and home training. They may specialize in pro duction of a single crop—such as grapes, oranges, potatoes, sugarcane, or melons—or a combination of, re lated specialty crops. Operators of these enterprises usually employ many seasonal workers and require relatively expensive spe cialized equipment. They also need specific skills, many of which can be obtained only through experience. Enterprises of this kind should be undertaken only by persons with con siderable experience and some of the special skills and techniques required. An individual having an aptitude for these skills can usually learn them by working a few years as a laborer for an operator or as a tenant for a land OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK lord who can give direction and assistance. Annual returns from these special ty farms usually vary greatly from year to year* because of the vagaries of nature and the changes in prices. Operators of these farms must keep abreast of production and market ing conditions and are well rewarded for their ability to manage, produce, and market. Private Outdoor Recreation Farms Public demand for outdoor recrea tion is far in excess of the existing and projected supply of public facilities. The public sector is not flexible enough to supply the specialized types of recreation or services demanded by smaller groups. The privately owned outdoor recreation enterprise, par ticularly the farm-base type, is in a unique position to supply these types of recreation services and activities to the public. The 1964 Census of Agriculture re ported over 3 million farms in the United States. Of this total, about 28,000 earned money from some type of recreation activity. Many farm operators in the vicini ty of national, State, and local parks, or wildlife reservations have taken advantage of the location in estab lishing recreation businesses. The av erage amount received from this ac tivity was about $1,500 per farm reporting. These farmers sell hunting rights to individuals, form hunting clubs, establish private campgrounds, and take the overflow from public camp grounds or cater to the individuals who want more privacy with their camping. Vacation farms cater to family groups during the summer and take in hunters later during the year when children are in school. Many farmers enlarge and improve their irrigation reservoirs. They stock ponds for fishing and have swimming areas in the summer and skating areas in the winter. Old farm buildings, sheds, and bams are converted into riding stables or horse boarding sta bles, or a combination of both. Shore and backwater areas are used to dock privately owned craft. In so doing, many farmers have converted a lia bility into an asset. Farmers become guides for hunters during the game season and mechanics and service en gineers for watercraft. Guides are also in demand for nature trails and scenic tours. Other Specialties j Other highly specialized operat ions, such as fur farms, apiaries, and hop farms are very sensitive to price and market conditions. Special land skills and equipment are required, and risks are high. Even with the high risk, from the standpoint of capi tal invested and income, the venture is often rewarding to individuals who have the ability and resources. Where To Go for More Information Additional information may be ob tained from the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.G. 20250; the Department of Com merce, Washington, D.G. 20230; and from State Land Grant Colleges and Universities. OCCUPATIONS RELATED TO AGRICULTURE As agriculture becomes more tech nical and more commercial, the num ber of people directly engaged in farming decreases, but the number in occupations related to agriculture increases. Power machinery, for ex ample, saves many man-hours of la bor on the farm, but many highly trained nonfarmworkers are required to develop, distribute, and service these machines. Technological changes have been applied to the production, process ing, and marketing of farm products and have brought about diversifica tion and specialization in the farm and agri-business sectors. This has re sulted in an increased demand for people in occupations related to ag riculture. A large number of these vocations are professional or techni cal and require college training or its equivalent. Others can sometimes be learned on the job. A farm back ground is helpful, but not essential. Following is a discussion of some of these occupations. COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE WORKERS culture, home economics, youth ac tivities, and community resource de velopment. They are employed joint ly by State land-grant universities and the U.S. Department of Agri culture. Extension workers must be proficient in both subject matter and teaching methods. County agricultural agents are in terested in improving the efficiency of agricultural production and mar keting, including the development of new market outlets. County home economics agents work closely with women in home management and nu trition. There are 4—H extension agents who work with youth. In some counties special agents concentrate on community resource development. Extension workers help people ana lyze and solve their farm and home problems. Much of this educational work is carried on in groups, through meetings, tours, demonstrations, and local voluntary leaders. Individual assistance is given on problems that cannot be solved satisfactorily by group methods. Extension workers rely heavily on mass communication media, such as newspapers, radio, and television. The county extension staff is sup ported by State extension specialists in such subject-matter fields as agron omy, livestock, marketing, agricul tural economics, home economics, horticulture, and entomology. Each of these specialists keeps abreast of the latest research in his particular field and works with agents in apply ing this information to local needs and problems. Where Employed duction, crop production, or live stock. Training and Other Qualifications A county agent must have a bache lor’s degree in agriculture or home economics. In most States, the Exten sion Service maintains an in-service training program to keep agents in formed of the latest developments in agricultural research, of new pro grams and policies that affect agricul ture, and of new teaching techniques. To be successful, extension workers must like to work with people. In most instances, specialists on the State staff are expected to have a master’s degree and special training in their particular lines of work. Employment Outlook Employment of Extension Service workers has grown to 15,000 in 1967. The demand for additional workers is expected to continue, especially in depressed rural areas. As agricultural technology becomes more compli cated and as farm people become more aware of the need for organized activity, more help is being sought from trained Extension Service per sonnel. The Extension Service also is being extended to new segments of the population, as rural nonfarm families and suburban residents recog nize the value of their assistance. Counterparts of the Cooperative Extension Service are being estab lished in many countries and Exten sion Service personnel are often re cruited to help initiate and organize these programs. Extension agents are located in nearly every county in the United Earnings and Working Conditions States. Counties having many farm The salaries of extension agents ers who produce a variety of crops Nature of Work may have as many as 10 agents or vary from State to State and county to Extension Service workers are en more, each specializing in a particular county. In 1966, starting salaries for gaged in educational work in agri field such as dairying, poultry pro assistant agricultural agents ranged (D.O.T. 096.128) 629 630 from $5,600 to $7,500 and averaged $6,200. That of home economics agents was approximately $5,800. Ordinarily, the assistant agent is promoted rapidly to a more respon sible job, either in the county where he works or in another county in the State. In 1966, salaries for experi enced agricultural agents ranged from $9,500 to $15,500. Salaries of experi enced home economics agents ranged from $7,200 to $12,000 annually. Ex tension specialists salaries averaged $10,000 to $12,000; some earned around $20,000. Where To Go for More Information Additional information may be ob tained from County Extension Of fices, State Director of Extension located at each State College of Agri culture, or the Federal Extension Service, U.S. Department of Agricul ture, Washington, D.C. 20250. (Also see statement on Home Economists.) SOIL SCIENTISTS (D.O.T. 040.081) Nature of Work Soil scientists study the physical, chemical, and biological characteris tics and behavior of soils. They investigate the soils both in the field and the laboratory and grade them according to a national system of soil classification. From their research, scientists can classify soils in terms of response to management practices and capability for producing crops, grasses, and trees, as well as their utility as engineering materials. Soil scientists prepare maps, usually based on aerial photographs, on which they plot the individual kinds of soil and other landscape features significant to soil use and management in rela tion to land lines, field boundaries, roads, and other conspicuous fea tures. Soil scientists also conduct research to determine the physical and chem OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ical properties of soils and their water relationships, in order to understand their behavior and origin. They pre dict the yields of cultivated crops, grasses, and trees, under alternative combinations of management prac tices. Soil science offers opportunities for those who wish to specialize in soil classification and mapping, soil geography, soil chemistry, soil phys ics, soil microbiology, and soil management. Training and experi ence in soil science also will prepare persons for positions as farm man agers, land appraisers, and many other professional positions. Where Employed Most soil scientists are employed by agencies of the Federal Govern ment, State experiment stations, and colleges of agriculture. However, many are employed in a wide range of other public and private institu tions, including fertilizer companies, private research laboratories, insur ance companies, banks and other lending agencies, real estate firms, land appraisal boards, State highway departments, State and city park departments, State conservation de partments, and farm management agencies. A few are independent con sultants and others work for con sulting firms. An increasing number are employed in foreign countries as research leaders, consultants, and agricultural managers. with the doctor’s degree—can be expected to advance rapidly into a responsible and high paying position. This is particularly true in soil re search, including the more responsi ble positions in soil classification, and in teaching. Soil scientists who are qualified for work with both field and laboratory data have a special advan tage. Many colleges and universities offer fellowships and assistantships for graduate training, or employ graduate students for part-time teaching or research. Employment Outlook Opportunities for well-trained soil scientists are expected to be favorable through the mid—1970’s. A number of positions were vacant in early 1967 because of the shortage of qualified persons. The demand is increasing for soil scientists to help complete the scien tific classification and evaluation of the soil resources in the United States. One of the major program objectives of the Soil Conservation Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture is to complete the soil survey of all rural lands in the United States. This program includes research, soil classi fication and correlation, interpreta tion of results for use by agriculturists and engineers, and training of other workers to use these results. Also, demand is increasing for both basic and applied research to increase the efficiency of soil use. Training and Advancement Training in a college or university of recognized standing is important in obtaining employment as a soil scientist. For Federal employment, the minimum qualification for en trance is a B.S. degree with major study in Soil Science, or a closely related field of study, having 30 semester hours of course work in the biological, physical, and earth sciences including a minimum of 15 semester hours in soils. Those with graduate training—especially those Earnings The incomes of soil scientists depend upon their education, profes sional experience, and individual abilities. The entrance salary in the Federal service for graduates holding a B.S. degree was $5,300 in early 1967. They may expect advancement to $6,400 after 1 year of satisfactory performance. Further promotion depends upon the individual’s ability to do high-quality work and to accept responsibility. Earnings of well- 631 turns from, various alternatives of tion, some openings will arise because land use and treatment. of the normal turnover in personnel. After the landowner or operator decides upon a conservation program Earnings that provides for the land to be used within its capability and treated ac In early 1967, soil conservationists cording to the planned use, the con having a bachelor’s degree and em servationist records the relevant facts ployed the Federal Government as part of a plan which, together with receivedby$5,300 a year. Advancement the maps and other supplemental in to $6,400 could be expected after 1 formation, constitute a plan of action for conservation farming or ranching. year of satisfactory service. Further advancement depends upon the in The soil conservationist then gives the dividual’s ability to accept greater land manager technical guidance in responsibility. of well-quali applying and maintaining the conser fied Federal soilEarnings conservationists with vation practices. several years’ experience range from $9,200 to $15,100 a year. OCCUPATIONS RELATED TO AGRICULTURE qualified Federal soil scientists with several years’ experience range from about $9,200 to $15,100 per year. Where To Go for More Information Additional information may be ob tained from the U.S. Civil Service Commission, Washington, D.C. 20415; Office of Personnel, U.S. De partment of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250; or any office of the De partment’s Soil Conservation Service. Also see statements on Chemists and Biologists. SOIL CONSERVATIONISTS Where Employed Most soil conservationists are em ployed by the Federal Government, mainly by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Soil Conservation Serv Nature of Work ice and the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the Department of the Interior. Soil conservationists supply farm Some are employed by colleges and ers, ranchers, and others with tech State and local governments; others nical assistance in planning, applying, work for banks and public utilities. and maintaining measures and struc tural improvements for soil and water conservation on individual holdings, Training and Advancement groups of holdings, or on watersheds. Farmers and other land managers use A Bachelor of Science degree and a this technical assistance in making ad major in soil conservation or a related justments in land use; protecting land agricultural science constitute the against soil deterioration; rebuilding minimum requirement for profes eroded and depleted soils; stabilizing sional soil conservationists. Those runoff and sediment-producing areas; with unusual aptitude in the various improving cover on crop, forest, phases of the work have good chances pasture, range, and wildlife lands; of advancement to higher salaried conserving water for farm and ranch technical and administrative jobs. use and reducing damage from flood water and sediment; and in draining Employment Outlook or irrigating farms or ranches. The types of technical services pro Employment opportunities for wellvided by soil conservationists are as follows: Maps presenting inventories trained soil conservationists were good of soil, water, vegetation, and other in 1966. Opportunities in the profes details essential in conservation plan sion will expand because government ning and application; information on agencies, public utility companies, the proper land utilization and the banks, and other organizations are treatment suitable for the planned use becoming interested in conservation of each field or part of the farm or and are adding conservationists to ranch, groups of farms or ranches, or their staffs. Other new openings will entire watersheds; and estimates of occur in college teaching, particularly the relative cost of, and expected re at the undergraduate level. In addi (D.O.T. 040.081) Where To Go for More Information Additional information on employ ment as a soil conservationist may be obtained from the U.S. Civil Serv ice Commission, Washington, D.C. 20415; Employment Division, Of fice of Personnel, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250; or any office of the Depart ment’s Soil Conservation Service. OTHER PROFESSIONAL WORKERS Nature of Work There are many employment op portunities in the field of agriculture for people trained in other profes sional fields. The following are gen eral descriptions of the work per formed by other professional persons employed in occupations related to agriculture. Many of these occupa tions are discussed more fully else where in the Handbook. (See index.) Entomologists study insects, both beneficial and harmful in farming. They are concerned especially with developing measures to control in sects that injure growing crops and animals, harm human beings, and damage agricultural commodities in 632 shipping, storage, processing, and dis tribution. Agronomists are concerned with the growing and improving of field crops such as cereals and grains, legumes, grasses, tobacco, cotton, and others. They also do research in the fundamental principles of plant and soil sciences and study and develop seed propagation and plant adapta tion. Plant scientists study diseases, structure, and growth factors in plants, and try to improve the quality of fruits, vegetables, flowers and ornamentals. Microbiologists study bacteria and the relation of other micro-organisms to human, plant, and animal health; they also study the function of these micro-organisms in the making of such products as vitamins, antibiotics, amino acids, sugars, and polymers. Geneticists try to develop strains, varieties, breeds, and hybrids of plants and animals that are better suited than those currently available to the production of food and fiber. Animal physiologists and animal husbandmen study the environmental influences in relation to efficient man agement of farm animals; they also are concerned with the breeding, growth, nutrition, and physiology of livestock. Home economists specialize in fam ily household management; the study of foods in relation to human nutri tion ; and the use of household equip ment, textiles and clothing. Veterinarians inspect livestock at public stockyards and points of entry into the U.S.; inspect establishments that produce veterinary biological supplies; administer tests for animal diseases; conduct animal disease con trol programs; and do research in dis eases of livestock. Plant quarantine and plant pest control inspectors who are trained in the biological sciences, supervise and perform professional and scientific work in enforcing plant quarantine and pest control laws. Plant Quarantine Inspectors inspect ships, planes, trucks, and autos coming into OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK the country to keep out dangerous insect pests. Plant Pest Control In spectors conduct programs to protect the crops of the country by prompt detection, control, and eradication of plant pests. Human nutritionists study the proc ess by which the human body utilizes food substances. Agricultural engineers develop new and improved farm machines and equipment; study the physical aspects of soil and water problems in farming, such as irrigation layout, watershed protection, flood control and related problems; and devise new techniques for harvesting and processing farm products; and design more efficient farm buildings. Agricultural economists deal pri marily with problems related to the production, financing, and marketing of farm products. They are fact finders, evaluators, analysts, and in terpreters who help farmers under stand economic problems. They estimate benefits; allocate costs; and determine economic justification of plans for flood prevention, irrigation, drainage, recreation, and other types of resource development projects. Rural sociologists study the struc ture and functions of the social insti tutions (customs, practices, and laws) that are a part of or affect rural society. School teachers in vocational agri culture and related fields supervise and give instructions in farm planning and management, communications, mechanics, engineering, and related fields. Where Employed Persons trained in these specialties work in various capacities that relate to agriculture. Government agencies, colleges, agricultural experiment sta tions, and private businesses that deal with farmers hire many research workers. They also hire people to take technical and administrative respon sibilities in public agencies involving farmers or programs affecting farm ers. Agri-business and farmer coop eratives, private business, commercial, and financial companies that buy from, sell to, or serve farmers also employ many people. State, county, and municipalities hire many who serve as vocational agriculture teach ers and workers in agricultural com munications, in farmers’ organiza tions, or in trade associations whose members deal with farmers. The number of research activities related to agriculture has increased very rapidly. The largest agencies in this field are the State experiment stations connected with the landgrant colleges and the various re search branches of the U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture. Other research organizations include some engaged in independent research, and others connected with companies that fi nance farming operations, market farm products, or produce chemicals, equipment, and other supplies or serv ices for farmers. The U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture employs workers in research positions in various parts of the country; in Washington, D.C., at the Agricultural Research Center at Beltsville, Md.; and at land-grant colleges. Other Government depart ments also have many agricultural research jobs. Various independent research orga nizations, foundations, and private business groups in many parts of the country have recently initiated re search related to agriculture. They tend to be located either in industrial centers or in areas of high agricultural activity, and include producers of feed, seed, fertilizer, farm equipment; and insecticides, herbicides, and other chemical dusts and sprays. Public and private lending institu tions which make loans to farmers, employ men with broad training in agriculture and business. These work ers are ordinarily required to have had practical farm experience, as well as academic training in agriculture, economics, and other subjects. Mak ing financially sound loans involves careful analysis of the farm business and proper evaluation of farm real OCCUPATIONS RELATED TO AGRICULTURE estate and other farm property. These workers are employed by the cooper ative Farm Credit Administration in its banks and in associations operating under its supervision throughout the country; by the Farmers Home Ad ministration in its Washington and county offices; by rural banks; and by insurance companies that have sub stantial investments in farm mort gages. The Federal and State Govern ments also employ various specialists in activities relating to agriculture. These specialists have technical and managerial responsibilities in activ ities such as programs relating to the production, marketing, inspection, and grading of farm products; pre vention of the spread of plant pests, animal parasites and diseases; and management and control of wildlife. Large numbers of professionally trained persons are employed by co operatives and business firms that deal with farmers. Employment in these organizations may be expected to expand, as farmers rely increas ingly on them to provide farm sup plies, machinery, equipment, and services, and to market farm prod ucts. The size of the organization and the types of services it offers deter mine the number of its employees and the nature of their jobs. Large farm supply cooperatives and businesses, for example, may have separate divi sions for feed, seed, fertilizer, petro leum, chemicals, farm machinery, public relations, and credit, each su pervised by a department head. In smaller businesses and cooperatives, such as local grain-marketing eleva tors, the business is run almost en tirely by the general manager who has only two or three helpers. Agricultural communications is an other expanding area of specializa tion. Crop reporters and market news reporters are employed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in field offices throughout the United States. Crop reporters gather information on crop production during all stages of the growing season. Market news re porters collect information on move ment of agricultural produce from the farm to the market. Radio and TV farm directors are employed by many radio and TV stations to report prices, sales, grades, and other agri cultural information to farm people. Agricultural reporters and editors compile farm news and data for farm journals, bulletins, and broadcasts. Closely related to agricultural com munications is employment in farm ers’ organizations or in-trade associa tions whose members deal with farmers. The nationwide, federally aided program of vocational education con tinues to offer employment for per sons technically trained in agriculture and related subjects. Instruction under this program is given in public high schools and in classes organized for persons over 14 years of age “who have entered upon or who are prepar ing to enter upon the work of the farm or the farm home.” Vocational agriculture teachers also supervise farm programs and give instruction in farm mechanics in school shops as well as serving as advisers to the local chapters of the Future Farmers of America. In addition to working with “in-school” students, the teach ers provide organized instruction to assist young farmers in becoming satisfactorily established in farming and in becoming community leaders. They also provide organized instruc tion for adult farmers giving individ ual consultation on their farms to keep them abreast of modem farm technology. The qualifications of workers in all of these fields ordinarily include a college education and special training in a particular line of work. In most of these fields, the demand for work ers exceeds the supply. In recent years, the demand has been increased because of the need to recruit pro fessional personnel to staff agricul tural missions and to give technical aid to agricultural institutions and farmers in other countries. 633 Where To Go for More Information Opportunities in Research. Addi tional information on research op portunities at land-grant colleges may be obtained from the dean of agri culture at the State land-grant col lege. Information on employment in the U.S. Department of Agriculture is available from the USDA recruit ment representatives at land-grant colleges and from the Office of Per sonnel, U.S. Department of Agricul ture, Washington, D.C. 20250. The following publications will be valuable: “Profiles-Careers in the U.S. Depart ment of Agriculture,” U.S. De partment of Agriculture, Septem ber 1964. Superintendent v of Documents, GPO, Washington, D.C. 20402. Price $2. “There is a New Challenge in Agriculture,” American Associa tion of Land-Grant Colleges and State Universities, Washington, D.C., 1962. Copies can be obtained from your State Agricultural College. Opportunities in Agricultural Fi nance. Inquiries on employment op portunities in agricultural finance may be directed to the following: Farm Credit Administration, Wash ington, D.C. 20578. Farm Credit District— Springfield, Mass.; Baltimore, Md.; Columbia, S.C.; Louisville, Ky.; New Or leans, La.; St. Louis, Mo.; St. Paul, Minn.; Omaha, Nebr.; Wichita,, Kans.; Houston, Tex.; Berkeley, Calif.; Spokane, Wash. Farmers Home Administration, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Wash ington, D.C. 20250. Agricultural Director, American Bankers Association, 90 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. Opportunities With Cooperatives. Farmer cooperatives are located in every State. Information relating to job opportunities in farmer coopera tives may be obtained from local or regional cooperatives. If no jobs are available with these cooperatives, they may be able to make referrals to 634 others which have openings. Other sources of information are the county agent and the Agricultural Eco nomics Departments of State Agricultral Colleges. General information may be obtained from the American Institute of Cooperation or the Na tional Council of Farmer Coopera tives, both located at 1200 17th St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036, and the Cooperative League of the U.S.A., 59 East Van Buren St., Chicago, 111. 60605. Opportunities for Agricultural Economists. For additional informa tion about opportunities in agricul tural economics, check with the Department of Agricultural Eco nomics at State land-grant colleges. For information on Federal employ ment opportunities, applicants may get in touch with USD A recruitment representatives at the State land-grant college or write directly to the Office of Personnel, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 20250. Opportunities as Vocational Agri culture Teachers. As salaries, travel, and programs of vocational agricul ture teachers vary slightly among States, prospective teachers should consult the Head Teacher Trainer in Agriculture Education at the landgrant college or the State Supervisor of Agricultural Education at the State Department of Public Instruction in their respective States. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK FARM SERVICE JOBS In almost every type of agriculture, farmers require specialized services which can be readily learned and per formed by other workers. A person can enter many of these services, either as an independent operator or as an employee. Some services require an extensive outlay of capital, and others require very little. Some are highly seasonal; others are performed year round. These services and the operation of a small farm can some times be combined. Services that provide year-round employment include the following: Cow testing, artificial breeding, live stock trucking, whitewashing, well drilling, fencing, and tilling. In cow testing and artificial breed ing, an association of farmers em ploys one worker or more on a month ly basis to conduct the operations. Supervisors who do cow testing are employed by dairy herd improvement associations. They must have a high school education, and a farm back ground is almost essential. Artificial breeding associations employ inseminators who must have at least a high school education. Agricultural col lege training is desirable but not es sential for employment in these occu pations. Brief periods of approxi mately a month of specialized train ing are available through the associations. Other services for farmers are more seasonal. These include the fol lowing: Fruit spraying (2-3 months), airplane dusting (4-6 months), grain combining (2 months), hay and straw baling (2-8 months), tractor plowing and culti vating (4-6 months), and sheep shearing (2-3 months). These and many other services are often done by farmers who engage in custom work as a sideline to keep their equipment busy. In areas where the growing season is long, however, the period when these services can be carried on is long enough to per mit individuals to specialize in them. Closely associated but somewhat more remote from farm operation are such activities as repairing and serv icing farm machinery; feed grinding and mixing; maintaining storages and warehouses of agricultural prod ucts; operating nurseries and green houses; and packing, grading, and processing farm products. Although these activities are some times performed on the farm, the cur rent trend is to conduct them as spe cialized lines of business away from the farm. An agricultural background is helpful to people who enter these lines of work. The agricultural as pects, however, can be learned more readily than the required specialized skills. TRANSPORTATION, COMMUNICATION, AND PUBLIC UTILITIES The transportation, communica tion, and public utilities industries make possible the smooth functioning of our society and produce most of the energy that powers, heats, and lights our factories and homes. The transportation industry moves goods and people about the country by air, rail, water and highway; the com munications industry provides com munication systems such as telephones and radio and TV broadcasting. Other public utilities supply the Na tion with electricity and gas, and with sanitation services. Transportation, communication, and public utility firms are all semipublic in character. Some State and local governments operate their own transit lines or elec tric companies as well as other types of utilities. Privately owned transpor tation and public utility firms are regulated closely by commissions or other public authorities to make sure they operate in the public interest. In 1966, about 4.1 million persons were employed in the transportation, communication, and public utilities industry group. In addition, one-half million persons were employed by State and local governments in pub licly owned transit and utility systems. Almost half of the workers in this major industry group were employed in two industries—motor freight (1.0 million workers) which includes localand long-distance trucking, and the communications industries (0.9 mil lion workers) which includes tele phone, telegraph, and radio and TV broadcasting. Railroads employed over 700,000 workers in 1966; over 600,000 were employed by electric, gas, and sanitary services companies. Other industries with significant em ployment included local and interurban passenger transit and air trans portation. The remainder of the workers were employed by firms that provided water and pipeline trans portation and transportation services. Nearly one-fifth of the persons em ployed in transportation, communi cation, and public utilities are women—a ratio somewhat less than for the economy as a whole. Employ ment of women varies greatly among the industries that make up the major industry group. For example, they make up only 8 percent of employ ment in local and interurban passen ger transit; however, in the communi cations industry, where many work as telephone operators, women ac count for over one-half of the work force. White-collar workers account for about 2 of 5 workers in transportation, communication, and public utilities, mostly in communications, and elec tric, gas, and sanitary services. Whitecollar jobs in these industries reflect the many clerical workers in the tele phone industry, technicians and man agers in radio and TV broadcasting, and engineers and technicians em ployed throughout the various trans635 636 portation and public utility indus tries. Clerical workers make up about 1 of 4 workers in the major industry division; over one-half are employed in the communications industry. Pro fessional and technical workers make up about 7 percent of the employment in the industry. Most of these workers are concentrated in the communica tions industry, where, in addition to large numbers of engineers and tech nicians, many actors, entertainers, and writers are employed. Craftsmen account for 1 of 5 work ers, and operatives, 1 of 4. Skilled craftsmen are needed to install, main tain, and repair the large amount of mechanical, electrical, and other types of equipment that are used throughout this industry. Among the major blue-collar occupations are airplane mechanic, motor vehicle me chanic, and telephone lineman; other important skilled occupations are lo comotive engineer and fireman, sta tionary engineer, and foreman. This major industry division is the chief employer of workers in a number of semiskilled occupations such as bus and truck driver, taxi driver, brakeEstimated employment, 1966 (percent Major occupational group distribution) All occupational groups.................... 100Professional, technical, and kin dred workers....................... 7 Managers, officials, and proprie 9 tors ............................................... Clerical and kindred workers... 24 Sales workers.......................... 1 Craftsmen, foremen, and kin dred workers....................... 21 Operatives and kindred work ers.......................................... 27 Service workers..................... 3 Laborers.................................. 9 N o t e .—Due to rounding, sum of indi vidual items may not add to total. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK man and switchman, and sailor and deckhand. Employment in transportation and public utilities is expected to increase moderately during the 1970’s. In ad dition to opportunities resulting from growth in employment, many thou sands of job openings are expected each year because of the need to re place workers who die or retire. Transfer of employees to other fields of work will provide still additional job opportunities. Replacement needs will be particularly high in clerical positions because many women leave the work force each year to take on family responsibilities. The rising levels of business and consumer income in the years ahead should increase significantly the over all demand for services in this sector and the need for workers to provide them. Employment growth in the in dividual industries, however, will vary considerably. The transportation industries are expected to grow faster than average, particularly because of rapid growth in motor freight and air transportation. Rising population, urbanization, and the growth of sub urban areas will continue to stimulate employment in local trucking. Al though employment in long-distance trucking will continue its long-term growth, competition from rail and air transportation may slow down the rate of growth relative to the recent past. The increasing popularity of air transportation for both passengers and cargo will continue into the 1970’s, as rising business activity and more leisure time for travel spur continued rapid growth in this area. On the other hand, not all of the transporta tion industries will experience rapid employment growth. For example, little employment change is expected in local and interurban passenger transportation (buses, taxis, and sub ways) as it is likely that consumers will continue to rely heavily on pri vate automobiles. Employment in the communica tions industry and electric, gas, and sanitary services is expected to grow slower than the sector as a whole. Rapid advances in technology are expected to limit employment growth, although demand for the products and services of these industries will increase rapidly. Technological changes are expected to be particu larly significant in telephone com munications. The computer and other electronic equipment are expected to be applied increasingly to functions that have been performed by workers. Employment in electric and gas utilities also will be affected strongly by advancing technology as the out put of the industry nearly doubles by 1975. Substantial improvements in electric generating equipment through the increasing use of nuclear power, the growing use of electronic controls, improved coal-handling techniques, and more efficient tech niques of constructing and maintain ing transmission lines will work to limit the growth of employment in this important industry. The statements that follow cover major occupations in the transporta tion, communication, and public util ity fields. More detailed information about occupations that cut across many industries—for example, ste nographers and typists, drivers, and others—appear elsewhere in the Handbook. (See index in the back of the book.) CIVIL AVIATION OCCUPATIONS The rapid development of air trans portation in the past two decades has greatly increased the mobility of the population and has created many thousands of job opportunities in the civil aviation industry. By late 1966, about 375,000 persons were employed in this field in a variety of interesting and responsible occupations. Nature and Location of Civil Aviation Activities Civil aviation services are provided by many different types of organiza tions for a variety of purposes. The scheduled airlines (those which oper ate regularly scheduled flights over prescribed routes) provide transpor tation for passengers, cargo, and mail. Other airlines, called supplemental airlines, provide charter and nonscheduled service for passengers and cargo. A wide range of other civil aviation activities are conducted in the field of general aviation, includ ing the use of company-owned aircraft to transport employees or cargo (business flying) ; spraying insecti cides, fertilizers, or seed on land, crops, or forest (aerial application) ; charter service in small aircraft (airtaxi operations); and inspection of pipelines and powerlines for breaks. In addition to these flying activities, general aviation includes mainte nance and repair activities conducted by repair stations licensed by the Gov ernment to work on general aviation aircraft (certificated repair stations). Civil aviation activities also include the regulatory functions of the Fed eral Aviation Administration (FAA) and the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB)—both Federal Government agencies. The FAA develops air safety regulations, inspects and tests aircraft and airline facilities, provides ground electronic guidance equipment, and gives tests for licenses to personnel such as pilots, copilots, flight engi Employment In Scheduled Airlines Selected Occupations 10 THOUSANDS OF WORKERS , 1966 20 30 ..................................... i 40 ' 'I FLIGHT PERSONNEL flight Eng.risers MECHANICS TRAFFIC AGENTS AND C LER K S GROUND RADIO OPERATORS AND T E LE T Y P IS T S DISPATCHERS AND ASSISTANTS 1 Pilots & CapiMs Stewards. Stewardesses & Pursers neers, dispatchers, and aircraft me chanics. The CAB establishes policy concerning matters such as airline rates and routes and investgates accidents. The 49 scheduled airlines were the largest employers of air transporta tion workers in late 1966, with about 211.000 workers. Of these, about 80 percent (170,000) were employed to fly and service aircraft and passengers on domestic routes—between cities in the United States. About 37,000 other workers handled the operations of the scheduled airlines which flew international routes. The remaining workers were employed by airlines that handled only cargo. More than half of all scheduled airline employees worked for the four largest domestic airlines. In addition to scheduled airline employees, several thousand work ers—all in ground occupations—were employed in the United States by for eign airlines that operate between overseas points and the United States. An additional 2,400 workers were employed by 15 supplemenal airlines. These workers were in many of the same occupations as scheduled airline workers. An estimated 112,000 workers— nearly all pilots, copilots, and aircraft mechanics—were employed in gen eral aviation operations to fly and service the 95,000 aircraft used in late 1966. About two-fifths of these workers (46,000) were employed in certificated repair stations. Another one-fourth (29,000) were engaged in business flying. About 10,000 worked for firms that gave flight instruction; approximately 7,500 were in aerial application activities; and nearly 16.000 were employed by for-hire operators of small passenger and cargo aircraft. The remaining 13,500 workers were in other general avia tion activities, such as test flying or inspecting pipelines for breaks. The FAA employed about 43,000 people and the CAB about 830 in late 1966. The largest group of FAA em ployees worked mainly in occupations 637 638 relating to the direction of air traffic, and the installation and maintenance of mechanical and electronic equip ment used to control traffic. CAB workers were employed mainly in ad ministrative and clerical jobs con cerned with the economic regulation of the airlines, supervision of inter national air transportation matters, promotion of air safety, and investiga tion of accidents. Civil aviation workers are em ployed in every State, but an esti mated half work in five States: New York, California, Florida, Illinois, and Texas. Some of the reasons for the employment concentration in these States are their large popula tions and geographic areas, their large numbers of airports and aircraft regi strations, and the existence of major airline aircraft overhaul bases. Civil Aviation Occupations In addition to employing the largest number of air transportation workers, the scheduled airlines em ploy workers in the widest variety of occupations. Of the 211,000 employed by the scheduled airlines in late 1966, about 4 out of 5 worked in ground occupations. Mechanics and other aircraft main tenance personnel was the largest oc cupational category, with 19 percent of scheduled airline employment. (See chart 57.) About 16 percent of all scheduled airline workers were traffic agents and clerks, and almost 2 percent worked at airline ground stations as communications personnel and dispatchers. The remaining work ers in ground occupational categories (about 43 percent) were employed as cargo and freight handlers, custodial and other aircraft-servicing person nel, and office, administrative, and professional personnel. Pilots and copilots represented the largest flight occupation, with over 8 percent of all airline workers; stew ardesses and stewards constituted an other 8 percent; and flight engineers accounted for the remainder. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK More than 50 percent of general aviation workers were pilots or co pilots, and about 45 percent were aircraft mechanics. The great ma jority of the mechanics were em ployed in certificated repair stations. The remaining general aviation work ers were employed in clerical or ad ministrative jobs. In the Federal Government, the largest group of civil aviation workers were in air traffic servicing work. About 17,700 workers were employed in this category. Most of these work ers—about 13,600—were air traffic controllers. Another group of about 4,100 workers were flight service sta tion specialists. A detailed description of the duties, training, qualifications, employment outlook, earnings, and working con ditions for each of the following air transportation jobs appear in the later sections of this chapter: (1) Pilots and copilots, (2) flight engi neers, (3) stewardesses, (4) aircraft mechanics, (5) airline dispatchers, (6) air traffic controllers, (7) ground radio operators and teletypists, and (8) traffic agents and clerks. Employment Outlook The total number of workers in civil aviation occupations is expected to increase very rapidly during the 1970’s, but the rates of growth among the major civil aviation divisions will differ. General aviation employment is expected to show a rapid rise, mainly because the anticipated greater de mand for general aviation services will lead to an increase in the number of aircraft. About 184,000 general aviation aircraft may be flying by 1980—an increase of about 88,000 over the number in 1966. A significant employment increase also will occur in business flying, which will require about 20,000 new employees, mainly well qualified pilots. Even more new job openings will occur in air-taxi operations, largely because of the de mand for air transportation in cities not serviced by the scheduled airlines. These jobs will be about equally di vided between qualified pilots and co pilots and aircraft mechanics. An es timated 40,000 job openings—prac tically all for aircraft mechanics— will occur in certificated repair sta tions because of the need for addi tional maintenance and repair serv ices by a larger general aviation fleet. The number of operators who give flight instruction and engage in patrol and survey flying will grow very rapidly by 1980, requiring thousands of additional pilots. Use of aircraft for aerial applica tion which includes the distribution of chemicals or seeds in agriculture, fire fighting, restocking of fish and other wild life will require a few thou sand additional employees, mainly pilots. A slow increase is expected in Fed eral Government employment of civil aviation workers. Openings that oc cur will be primarily those resulting from retirements, deaths, and trans fers to other fields of work. Although employment declines may occur in some occupations, increasing employ ment opportunities are expected for those who maintain and repair the increasing array of visual and elec tronic aids to air traffic. Airline employment growth will result from anticipated increases in passenger and cargo traffic. By 1980, the scheduled airlines will fly about three times the number of revenue passenger miles flown in 1966. An even larger increase is expected in air cargo traffic which, however, repre sents a relatively small percent of total traffic. Among the factors which will contribute to increased air travel are a larger population, increased con sumer purchasing power, the trend toward longer vacations, the greater use of air travel by businessmen, faster flights on jet aircraft which will save considerable time in long-distance travel, and more economy-class pas senger services. As in the past, airline occupations CIVIL AERONAUTICS will grow at different rates. Occupa tions such as stewardess and cargo and baggage handler, which provide services for passengers and cargo directly, will grow very rapidly. How ever, employment in these occupa tions is not expected to increase as fast as the increases in traffic for several reasons. For example, more widespread installation of mechanical equipment, such as conveyors, will permit airlines to move greatly in creased amounts of baggage and cargo without comparable growth in employment of baggage and cargo handlers. Economy flights, which offer fewer in-flight services than first-class flights, will permit airlines to fly greatly increased numbers of passengers without a corresponding rise in employment of flight attend ants. The rapid growth in some airline occupations, particularly those con cerned with the operation and main tenance of aircraft, will result from a substantial increase in the number of aircraft in service. Continuing re placement of present equipment by faster, larger capacity jet planes and eventual introduction of supersonic aircraft will accomodate part of the increased traffic, but a significant in crease in the total number of aircraft in service will also be necessary. Re placement needs because of retire ments and deaths will remain high throughout the 1970’s. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings among various civil avia tion occupations vary greatly because of such factors as skill requirements, length of experience, and amount of responsibility for safe and efficient operations. Within particular occupa tions, earnings vary according to the type of civil aviation activity. The statements on individual occupations which follow contain detailed discus sions of earnings. As a rule, airline employees and their immediate families are entitled 639 to a limited amount of free or re portation are union members. These duced-fare transportation on their unions are identified in the statements companies’ flights, depending on the covering the individual occupations. employees’ length of service. In addi tion, they may fly at greatly reduced rates with other airlines. Flight per Where To Go for More Information sonnel may be away from their home Information about job openings in bases about a third of the time or a particular airline, and the qualifi more. When they are away from cations required may be obtained by home, the airlines either provide liv writing to the personnel of ing accommodations or pay expenses. the company. Addresses ofmanager individual Airlines operate flights at all hours are available from the Air of the day and night. Personnel in companies Transport Association of America, some occupations, therefore, often 1000 Connecticut have irregular work schedules. Maxi ington, D.C.20036.Ave. NW., Wash mum hours of work per month for Inquiries regarding jobs with the workers in flight occupations have Federal Aviation Administration been established by the FAA as a should be addressed to the Personnel safety precaution against fatigue. In Officer, Federal Aviation Adminis addition, union-management agree tration at any of the following ments often stipulate payment for a addresses: minimum number of hours each Eastern Federal Building, John month, to guarantee a substantial Region. F. Kennedy Interna proportion of normal earnings. tional Airport, Ja Ground personnel who work as maica, Long Island, N.Y. 11430. dispatchers, mechanics, traffic agents, communications operators, and in Southwest P.O. Box 1689, Fort administrative jobs usually work a 5Region. Worth, Tex. 76101. day, 40-hour week. Their working Southern P.O. Box 20636, Athours, however, often include nights, Region. lanta, Ga. 30320. weekends, or holidays. Air traffic con Central 601 E. 12th St., Kantrollers work a 5-day, 40-hour week; Region. sas City, Mo. 64106. they are periodically assigned to night, weekend, and holiday work. Ground Western 5641 West Manchester Region. Ave., Box 90007, personnel generally receive extra pay Airport Station, Los for overtime work or compensatory Angeles, Calif. time off. 90009. In domestic operations, airline em 632 Sixth Ave., An ployees usually receive 2 to 4 weeks’ Alaskan chorage, Alaska Region. vacation with pay, depending upon 99501. length of service. Most flight person Pacific P.O. Box 4009, Hononel in international operations get a Region. lulu, Hawaii 96812. month’s vacation. Employees also re Information concerning FAA-apceive paid sick leave and retirement, insurance, and long-term disability proved schools offering training for hospitalization benefits. FAA and work as an airplane mechanic, pilot, CAB employees are entitled to the or in other technical fields related to same benefits as other Federal per* aviation may be obtained from the sonnel, including from 13 to 26 days Information Retrieval Branch, Fed of vacation leave and 13 days of sick eral Aviation Administration Li leave a year, as well as retirement, life brary, HQ—630, Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, D.C. insurance, and health benefits. Many of the workers in air trans 20553. 040 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK PILOTS AND COPILOTS (D.O.T. 196.168, .228, .268, and .283) Nature of Work The men who have the respon sibility for flying a multimillion dollar plane and transporting safely as many as 200 passengers or more are the pilot and copilot. The pilot (called “cap tain” by the airlines) operates the controls and performs other tasks nec essary for flying a plane into the air, keeping it on course, and landing it safely. He supervises a crew which usually includes—in addition to the copilot—a flight engineer and flight attendants. The copilot is second in command. He is present on airline flights to assist the captain in air-toground communications, monitoring flight and engine instruments, and in operating the controls of the plane. Both captain and copilot must do a great deal of planning before their plane may take off. Before each flight, they confer with the company mete orologist about weather conditions and, in cooperation with the airline dispatcher, they prepare a flight plan along a route and at altitudes which offer the best weather and wind con ditions so that a safe, fast, and smooth flight will be possible. This flight plan must be approved by Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) air traffic control personnel. The copilot plots the course to be flown and com putes the flying time between various points. Just prior to takeoff, both men check the operation of each engine and the functioning of the plane’s many instruments, controls, and elec tronic and mechanical systems. During the flight, the captain or copilot reports by radio to ground control stations regarding their alti tude, air speed, weather conditions, and other flight details. The captain also supervises the navigation of the flight and keeps close watch on the many instruments which indicate the plane’s fuel load and the Condition of the engines, controls, electronic equipment, and landing gear. The co pilot assists in these duties. Before landing, the captain or the copilot recheck the operation of the landing gear and request landing clearance from air traffic control per sonnel. If visibility is limited when a landing approach is being made, the captain may have to rely primarily on instruments, such as the altimeter, air speed indicator, artificial horizon, and gyro compass. Both men must complete a flight report and file trip records in the airline office when the flight is ended. Some pilots, employed by airlines as “check pilots,” make at least two flights a year with each captain to observe his proficiency and adherence to FAA flight regulations and com pany policies. Airlines employ some pilots to fly planes leased to private corporations. Airlines also employ pilots as instructors to train both new and experienced pilots in the use of new equipment. Although pilots employed in gen eral aviation usually fly planes smaller than those used by the scheduled air lines, their preflight and flight duties are similar to those of airline pilots. These pilots seldom have the assist ance of flight crews. In addition to flying, they may perform minor main tenance and repair work on their planes. In some cases, such as in busi ness flying, they may mingle with and act as host to their passengers. Pilots who are self-employed, such as airtaxi operators, in addition to flying and doing some maintenance work, have duties similar to those of other small businessmen. Where Employed The scheduled airlines employed over 21,000 pilots and copilots in late 1966. In addition, approximately CIVIL AERONAUTICS 1,900 pilots were employed by the certificated supplemental airlines (airlines that provide charter and nonscheduled service). An estimated 57,000 pilots and co pilots (including some who work part time) were employed in general aviation in late 1966. Several thou sand worked in business flying and in for-hire operations. About 7,500 pilots were employed in aerial application flying. The Federal Government em ployed approximately 900 pilots (about half in the FAA) to perform a variety of services, such as examin ing applicants for pilots’ licenses, in specting navigation facilities along Federal airways, testing planes that are newly designed or have major modifications, enforcing game laws, fighting forest fires, and patrolling na tional boundaries. In addition, several thousand pilots were employed by companies to inspect pipelines and installations for oil companies, and to provide other aerial services, such as private flight instruction, and flights for sightseeing, skywriting, and aerial photography. A small number worked for aircraft manufacturers as test pilots. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To do any type of commercial fly ing, pilots or copilots must be licensed by the FAA. Airline captains must have an “airline transport pilot’s” li cense. Copilots, and most pilots em ployed in general aviation, must have a “commercial airplane pilot’s” license. In addition, pilots who are subject to FAA instrument flight regu lations or who anticipate flying on instruments when the weather is bad, must have an “instrument rating.” Pilots and copilots must also have a rating for the class of plane they can fly (single-engine, multi-engine, or seaplane) and for the specific type of plane they can fly, such as DC-6 or Boeing 707. To qualify for a license as a com mercial pilot, applicants must be at least 18 years old and have at least 200 hours of flight experience. To obtain an instrument rating, appli cants must have at least 40 hours of instrument time, 20 hours of which must be in actual flight. Applicants for an airline transport pilot’s license must be at least 23 years old and have a total of 1,200 hours of flight time during the previous 8 years, including night flying and instrument flying time. Before a person may receive any license or rating, he must pass a phys ical examination and a written test given by the FAA covering such sub jects as principles of safe flight op erations, Civil Air Regulations, navi gation principles, radio operation, and meterology. He must also submit proof that he has completed the mini mum flight-time requirements and, in a practical test, demonstrate flying skill and technical competence. His certification as a professional pilot re mains in effect as long as he can pass an annual physical examination and the periodic tests of his flying skills required by Government regulation. An airline transport pilot’s license ex pires when the pilot reaches his 60th birthday. A young man may obtain the knowledge, skills, and flight experi ence necessary to become a pilot through military service or from a private flying school. Graduation from flying schools approved by the FAA satisfies the flight experience re quirements for licensing. Applicants who have appropriate military flight training and experience are required to pass only the Civil Air Regulations examination if they apply for a license within a year after leaving the service. Those trained in the armed services have the added opportunity to gain experience and accumulate flying time on large aircraft similar to those used by the airlines. As a rule, applicants for a copilot job with the airlines must be between 641 20 and 35 years old, although pref erence is given to applicants who are between ages 21 and 28. They must be 5 feet 6 inches to 6 feet 4 inches tall and weigh between 140 and 210 pounds. All applicants must be high school graduates; some airlines re quire 2 years of college and prefer to hire college graduates. Physical re quirements for pilots, especially in scheduled airline employment, are very high. They must have at least 20/100 vision corrected to 20/20, good hearing, outstanding physical stamina, and no physical handicaps that would prevent quick reactions. Since flying large aircraft places great responsibilities upon a pilot, the air lines use psychological tests to deter mine an applicant’s alertness, emo tional stability and maturity, and his ability to assume responsibility, com mand respect, and make quick deci sions and accurate judgments under pressure. Men hired by the scheduled air lines (and by some of the larger sup plemental airlines) usually start as copilots, although they may begin as flight engineers. An applicant for a copilot’s job with a scheduled airline often must have more than the FAA minimum qualifications for commer cial pilot licensing. For example, al though the FAA requires only 200 flying hours to qualify for such a li cense, the airlines generally require from 500 to 1,000 flying hours. Air lines also require a “restricted” radio telephone operator permit, issued by the Federal Communications Com mission, which allows the holder to operate the plane’s radio. Pilots employed in business flying are required to have a commercial pilot’s license. In addition, some em ployers require their pilots to have in strument ratings, and some require pilot applicants to have air transport pilot ratings. Because of the close re lationship between pilots and their passengers, employers look for job applicants who have pleasant personalities. 642 All newly hired airline copilots go through company orientation courses. In addition, some airlines give begin ning copilots or flight engineers from 3 to 10 weeks of training on company planes before assigning them to a scheduled flight. Trainees also re ceive classroom instruction in subjects such as flight theory, radio operation, meteorology, Civil Air Regulations, and airline operations. The beginning copilot generally is permitted only limited responsibility, such as operating the flight controls in good weather over a route that is easy to navigate. As he gains experi ence and skill, his responsibilities are gradually increased and he is pro moted to copilot on larger, more modern aircraft. When he has proved his skill, accumulated sufficient ex perience and seniority, and passed the test for an airline transport pilot’s li cense, a copilot may advance to captain as openings arise. A minimum of 2 or 3 years’ service is required for promotion but, in actual practice, ad vancement often takes at least 5 to 10 years or longer. The new captain works first on his airline’s older equip ment and, as openings arise, he is advanced to larger, m ore modern aircraft. A few opportunities exist for cap tains who have administrative ability to advance to chief pilot, flight opera tions manager, and other supervisory and executive jobs. Most airline cap tains, however, spend their entire careers flying. As they increase their seniority, they obtain a better selec tion of flight routes, types of aircraft, and schedules which offer higher earnings. Some pilots may go into business for themselves if they have adequate financial resources and busi ness ability. They may operate their own flying schools or air-taxi and other aerial services. Pilots may also shift to administrative and inspection jobs in aircraft manufacturing and Government aviation agencies, or be come dispatchers for an airline when they are not longer able to fly. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment’ Outlook A rapid rise in the employment of airline pilots is expected through the 1970’s. In addition to those needed to staff new positions, several thou sand job openings for qualified ap plicants will result from the need to replace pilots who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Although larger, faster, and more efficient jet planes are likely to be used in the years ahead, increased passenger and cargo miles may substantially exceed the increase in capacity realized from the new equipment. Therefore, em ployment of pilots is likely to increase to the extent increased growth of traffic exceeds increased capacity. Employment of pilots outside of the scheduled airlines is expected to continue to grow very rapidly, par ticularly in business flying, aerial ap plication, air-taxi operations, and patrol and survey flying. Growth in these areas will result from expansion in the use of aircraft to perform these general aviation activities. Earnings and Working Conditions Captains and copilots are among the highest paid wage earners in the Nation. Those employed by the sched uled airlines averaged about $21,000 a year in domestic air transportation and nearly $25,000 in international operations in late 1966. Most of the senior captains on large aircraft earned well over $25,000 a year: those assigned to jet aircraft may earn as much as $35,000. Pilots employed by the scheduled airlines generally earn more than those employed else where, although pilots who work for supplemental airlines may earn almost as much. Some experienced copilots were earning as much as $21,000 a year in domestic flying and more than $23,000 in international flying in late 1966. The earnings of captains and co pilots depend on factors such as the type, size, and speed of the planes they fly, the number of hours and miles flown, and their length of serv ice. They receive additional pay for night and international flights. Cap tains and airline copilots with at least 3 years of service are guaranteed minimum monthly earnings- which represent a substantial proportion of their earnings. Under the Federal Aviation Act, airline pilots cannot fly more than 85 hours a month; some union-manage ment contracts, however, provide for 75-hour a month maximums. Though pilots and copilots, in practice, fly approximately 60 hours a month, their total duty hours, including before- and after-flight activities and layovers before return flights, usually exceed 100 hours each month. Some pilots prefer the shorter dis tance flying usually associated with the local airlines and commercial fly ing activities, such as air-taxi opera tions, because they are likely to spend less time away from their home bases and fly mostly during the daytime. These pilots, however, have the added strain of making more takeoffs and landings daily. Although flying does not involve much physical effort, the pilot is often subject to stress because of his great responsibility. He must be constantly alert and prepared to make decisions quickly. Poor weather conditions can also make his work more difficult. Most airline pilots are members of the International Airline Pilots Asso ciation. Some are members of the Allied Pilots Association. Where To Go for More Information International Air Line Pilots Associa tion, 55th St. and Cicero Ave., Chicago, 111. 60638. See the introductory section for ad ditional sources of information and for general information on supple mentary benefits and working con ditions. CIVIL AERONAUTICS FLIGHT ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 621.281) Nature of Work and Where Employed The flight engineer monitors the operation of the different mechanical and electrical devices aboard the air plane. Before takeoffs, he may inspect the tires and other outside parts of the plane and make sure that the plane’s fuel tanks have been filled properly. Inside the plane, he assists the pilot and copilot in making preflight checks of instruments and equipment. Once the plane is airborne, the flight engi neer watches and operates many in struments and devices to check the performance of the engines and the air-conditioning, pressurizing, and electrical systems. In addition, he keeps records of engine performance and fuel consumption. He reports any mechanical difficulties to the pilot and, if possible, makes emergency re pairs. Upon landing, he makes certain that mechanical troubles that may have developed are repaired by a mechanic. Flight engineers employed by the smaller airlines may have to make minor repairs themselves at those few airports where mechanics are not stationed. 0 — 68------ 42 Digitized262-057 for FRASER Flight engineers or second officers are required on almost all three- and four-engine aircraft and some twoengine jet aircraft. An evaluation of the aircraft and the functions to be performed by the crew determined the need of a flight engineer. In late 1966, about 7,200 workers were em ployed to perform flight engineers’ duties. Most of them worked for the major scheduled airlines and were stationed in or near large cities where long-distance flights originate and terminate. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement All flight engineers must be licensed by the Federal Aviation Administra tion (FAA). A man can qualify for a flight engineer’s certificate if he has had 2 years of training or 3 years of work experience in the maintenance, repair, and overhaul of aircraft and engines, including a minimum of 6 months’ training or a year of experi ence on four-engine piston and jet planes. He may also qualify with at least 200 hours of flight time as a captain of a four-engine piston or jet plane, or with 100 hours of experience as a flight engineer in the Armed Forces. The most common method of qualifying is to complete a course of ground and flight instruction ap proved by the FAA. In addition to such experience or training, an applicant for a license must pass a written test on flight theory, engine and aircraft perform ance, fuel requirements, weather as it affects engine operation, and main tenance procedures. In a practical flight test on a four-engine plane, he must demonstrate his skill in perform ing preflight duties and normal and emergency in-flight duties and pro cedures. He must also pass a rigid physical examination every year. Most scheduled airlines now require applicants for flight engineer positions to have a commercial pilot’s license. 643 This qualification is not generally re quired by the nonscheduled airlines. Young men can acquire the knowl edge and skills necessary to qualify as airline flight engineers through mili tary training as aircraft pilots, me chanics, or flight engineers. They may also attend a civilian ground school and then gain experience as an air plane mechanic. For jobs as flight engineers, airlines generally prefer men 21 to 35 years of age, from 5 feet 6 inches to 6 feet 4 inches tall, and in excellent physical condition. They require a high school education but prefer men with 2 years or more of college. Airlines prefer to hire young men who already have a flight engineer certificate and a com mercial pilot’s license, although they do select applicants who have only a commercial pilot’s license and give them additional training. A flight engineer can become a chief flight engineer for his airline. Advancement possibilities usually de pend on his qualifications and the seniority provisions established by air line union-management agreements. The flight engineer with pilot quali fications may advance on the basis of his seniority to copilot, and then fol low the regular line of advancement open to other copilots. Flight engi neers without pilot qualifications can advance from less desirable to more desirable routes and schedules as they gain seniority. Employment Outlook Employment of flight engineers is expected to increase rapidly during the 1970’s as heavier jet-powered air craft replace piston engine planes not now requiring flight engineers. This development will contribute to the employment growth in this field since in most cases the third required crew member will be a qualified pilot serv ing as a flight engineer until his pro motion to copilot. (See also the 644 Handbook statement for Pilots and Copilots.) OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK STEWARDESSES (D.O.T. 352.878) Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of flight engineers in late 1966 ranged from $550 to $600 a month for new employees to $1,730 for experienced flight engineers on jet aircraft on international flights. Many flight engineers earned be tween $1,000 and $1,500 a month. Average monthly earnings for all flight engineers in domestic opera tions was nearly $1,400; those em ployed on international flights aver aged nearly $1,700. The earnings of flight engineers depend upon factors such as size, speed, and type of plane; hours and miles flown; length of service; and the type of flight (such as night or international). Engineers are guaranteed minimum monthly earnings, which represent a substan tial proportion of their total earnings. Their flight time is restricted, under the Federal Aviation Act, to 85 hours a month. Flight engineers in inter national operations are limited to 100 hours a month, 300 hours every 90 days, or 350 hours every 90 days, depending on the size of the flight crew. Many flight engineers belong to the Flight Engineers’ International Association. Some are represented by the International Air Line Pilots Association and some by the Inter national Association of Machinists and Aerospace Workers. Where To Go for More Information Flight Engineers’ International Asso ciation, 100 Indiana Ave. NW., Washing ton, D.C. 20001. See the introductory section for ad ditional soures of information and for general information on supplemen tary benefits and working conditions. Nature of Work and Where Employed Stewardesses or stewards (some times called flight attendants) are aboard almost all passenger planes operated by the commercial airlines. Their job is to make the passengers’ flight safe, comfortable, and enjoy able. Like other flight personnel, they are responsible to the captain. Before each flight, the stewardess attends the briefing of the flight crew. She sees that the passenger cabin is in order, that supplies and emergency passenger gear are aboard, and that necessary food and beverages are in the galley. As the passengers come aboard, she greets them, checks their tickets, and assists them with their coats and small luggage. On some flights, she may sell tickets. During the flight, the stewardess makes certain that seat belts are fas tened and gives safety instructions when required. She answers questions about the flight and weather, distrib utes reading matter and pillows, helps care for small children and babies, and keeps the cabin neat. On some flights, she heats and serves meals that have been previously cooked. On other flights, she may prepare, sell, and serve cocktails. After the flight, she completes flight reports. On in ternational flights, she also gives cus toms information, instructs passengers on the use of emergency equipment and repeats instructions in an appro priate foreign language to accommo date foreign passengers. About 21,000 stewardesses and 1,000 stewards worked for the sched uled airlines in late 1966. About 80 percent were employed by the domes tic airlines, and the rest worked for international lines. Nearly all stew ards were employed on overseas flights. Airliners generally carry 1 to 6 flight attendants, depending on the size of the plane and what proportion of the flight is economy or first-class. Most flight attendants are stationed in major cities at the airlines’ main bases. A few who serve on interna tional flights are based in foreign countries. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Because stewardesses are in con stant association with passengers, the airlines place great stress on hiring young women who are attractive, poised, tactful, and resourceful. As a rule, applicants must be 20 to 27 years old, 5 feet 2 inches to 5 feet 9 inches tall, with weight in proportion to height (but not to exceed 140 pounds), and in excellent health. They must also have a pleasant speak ing voice and good vision. As of mid1967, some major airlines required that stewardesses be unmarried; and also required them to resign when they married or shortly afterwards. Stewardesses who can no longer qualify for flying, such as those who marry, may obtain jobs in other de partments, such as sales or public relations. Applicants for stewardess’ jobs must have at least a high school edu cation. Those with 2 years of college, nurses’ training, or business experi ence in dealing with the public are preferred. Stewardesses who work for international airlines generally must be able to speak an appropriate for eign language fluently. Most large airlines give newly hired stewardesses about 5 weeks’ training in their own schools. Girls may receive free transportation to the training centers and also may receive an al lowance while in attendance. Train ing includes classes in flight regula tions and duties, company operations and schedules, emergency procedures and first aid, and personal grooming. Additional courses in passport and customs regulations are given train ees for the international routes. Toward the end of their training, stu- 646 CIVIL AERONAUTICS Employment Outlook Young women will have several thousand opportunities ter get jobs as stewardesses each year during the re mainder of the 1960’s and through out the 1970’s. Most of these openings will occur as girls marry or leave the occupation for other reasons. (About 40 percent of the employed stew ardesses leave their jobs each year.) In addition, total employment of stewardesses will grow very rapidly as a result of the anticipated large in crease in passenger traffic. Young women interested in becom ing stewardesses should realize that thousands of girls apply for this type of work each year because of the glamour attached to the occupation. Despite the large number of appli cants, the airlines find it difficult to obtain enough young women who can meet their high standards of at tractiveness, personality, and intel ligence. Earnings and Working Conditions dents go on practice flights and per form their duties under actual flight conditions. A few airlines which do not operate their own schools may employ gradu ates who have paid for their own training at private stewardesses’ schools. Girls interested in becoming stewardesses should check with the airline of their choice before entering a private school to be sure they have the necessary qualifications for the airline, and that the school’s training is acceptable. Immediately upon completing their training, stewardesses report for work at one of their airline’s main bases. They serve on probation for about 6 months, and an experienced stewardess usually works with them on their first flights. Before they are assigned to a regular flight, they may work as reserve flight attendants, dur ing which time they serve on extra flights or replace stewardesses who are sick or on vacation. Stewardesses may advance to jobs as first stewardess or purser, super vising stewardess, stewardess instruc tor, or recruiting representative. Ad vancement opportunities often come quickly because stewardesses work only about 2 or 3 years, on the aver age, and then resign to get married. An examination of union-manage ment contracts covering several large domestic and international airlines indicates that in 1966, beginning stewardesses earned approximately $413 to $475 a month for 80 hours of flying time. Stewardesses with 2 years’ experience earned approximately $475 to $567 a month. Those assigned to piston flights usually earned ap proximately $30 a month less. Stewardesses employed on domes tic flights averaged $466 a month in late 1966; those working on interna tional flights averaged about $555. Since commercial airlines operate around the clock, 365 days a year, stewardesses usually work irregular hours. They may work at night, on holidays, and on weekends. They are usually limited to 80 hours of flight time a month. In addition, they de vote up to 35 hours a month to ground duties. As a result of irregular hours and limitations on the amount of flying time, some stewardesses may have 15 days or more off each month. 646 Of course, some time off may occur between flights while away from home. Airlines generally use the seniority bidding system for assigning home bases, flight schedules, and routes. Stewardesses with the longest service, therefore, get the more desirable flights. The stewardess’ occupation is ex citing and glamorous, with opportu nities to meet interesting passengers and to see new places. However, the work can be strenuous and trying. A stewardess may be on her feet during a large part of the flight. She must remain pleasant and efficient during the entire flight, regardless of how tired she may be. Most flight attendants are members of either the Air Line Stewards and Stewardesses Association of the Transport Workers Union of Ameri ca, or the Stewards and Stewardesses Division of the International Air Line Pilots Association. See introductory section for gener al information on supplementary benefits and working conditions. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK instruments, or on sheet metal sec tions They frequently take apart a complex airplane component, replace damaged or worn parts, put the com ponent together, and test it to make sure that it is operating perfectly. A line-maintenance mechanic may be instructed by the flight engineer or lead mechanic as to the kinds of re pairs to make, or he may examine the aircraft thoroughly to discover the cause of malfunction. He then makes the necessary repairs or adjustments or he may install a new part; for in stance, he may replace an entire en gine when it cannot be repaired quickly. Line-maintenance mechanics must be all-round mechanics able to to make repairs on all parts of the plane. They may also have to do maintenance work such as changing spark plugs or adding fluid to a hy draulic system. Aircraft mechanics employed in general aviation usually do mainte nance and repair work comparable with the work performed by linemaintenance mechanics. However, the planes which these mechanics service are smaller and less complex than those flown by the airlines. One mechanic frequently does the entire servicing job with little supervision, and he works on many different types of planes and engines. Mechanics who work for employers such as cer tificated supplemental airlines, airtaxi operators, and independent repair shops may also do overhaul work. Independent repair shops usu ally specialize in engine, instrument, or airframe overhaul. (The airframe AIRCRAFT MECHANICS (D.O.T. 621.281) Nature of Work Aircraft mechanics have the im portant job of keeping airplanes operating safely and efficiently. Me chanics employed by the airlines work either at the larger airline terminals making emergency repairs on aircraft (line-maintenance work) or at an airline main overhaul base, where they make major repairs or perform the periodic inspections that are necessary on all aircraft. These me chanics may specialize in work on a particular part of the aircraft, such as propellers, landing gear, hydraulic equipment, airborne electronic com munications and control equipment, Line mechanics service engine on jet aircraft. CIVIL AERONAUTICS consists of the plane’s fuselage, wings, landing gear, flight controls, and other parts which are not part of the engine, propeller, or instruments.) Aircraft mechanics use many dif ferent kinds of tools in their work. These may range from simple handtools, such as screwdrivers, wrenches and pliers, to large and expensive machines and equipment designed to diagnose troubles and help the me chanic correct them. Examples of such equipment are propeller grind ing machines, electrical circuit test ers, and magnetic and black light inspection equipment designed to de tect flaws and cracks in metal parts. Where Employed Over 45,000 mechanics were em ployed by the scheduled airlines in late 1966. An estimated 46,000 me chanics and supervisory mechanics were employed by independent re pair shops. A few thousand mechanics also were employed by certificated supplemental airlines, aerial applica tion and air-taxi firms, and businesses that use their own planes to transport their key employees or cargo. Many other aircraft mechanics work in air craft manufacturing plants. (These workers, whose duties are somewhat different from those of airline me chanics, are discussed in the chapter on Occupations in the Aircraft, Missile, and Spacecraft Field.) About 17,000 civilian aircraft me chanics were employed by the Air Force in late 1966. Another 10,000 worked for the Navy. The FAA em ploys several hundred skilled men with maintenance experience to in spect aircraft manufacturing plants; examine airline and other commer cial flying organizations’ aircraft maintenance methods, training pro grams, and spare parts stock; and test applicants for FAA mechanic li censes. This agency also employs ap proximately 475 aircraft mechanics to maintain its own planes. Most of these men are employed at the FAA Aero nautical Center in Oklahoma City. Some mechanics are employed by other Government agencies, princi pally the National Aearonautics and Space Administration and the Army. Most airline mechanics are em ployed in the larger cities on the main airline routes. Each airline usually has one main overhaul base where more than half of its mechanics are em ployed. Large concentrations of me chanics are employed in cities such as New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Miami, all of which are important domestic and interna tional air traffic centers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Mechanics responsible for any re pair or maintenance operation must be licensed by the FAA as either an “airframe mechanic” (to work on the plane’s fuselage, covering surface, landing gear, and control surfaces such as rudder or ailerons) ; “powerplant mechanic” (to work on the plane’s engines) ; “airframe and powerplant mechanic” (to work on all parts of the plane) ; or as a “repair man” who is authorized to make only specified repairs. Mechanics who maintain and repair electronic com munications equipment are required to have at least a Federal Communi cations Commission Second Class Ra dio Telephone Operator License. At least 18 months’ experience working with airframes or engines is required to obtain an airframe or powerplant license, and at least 30 months’ experience working with both engines and airframes is required for the combined airframe and powerplant license. However, this experi ence is not required of graduates of mechanics’ schools approved by the FAA. In addition to meeting these re quirements, applicants must pass a written test and give a practical dem onstration of their ability to do the work. Repairmen licenses are issued to mechanics who are able to perform those maintenance and repair opera tions for which their employers have received FAA authorization. 647 Mechanics may prepare for the trade and their licenses by working as trainees or apprentices, or as helpers to experienced mechanics. The larger airlines train apprentices or trainees in a carefully planned 3- or 4-year program of instruction and work ex perience. Men who have learned air craft maintenance in the Armed Forces are usually given credit for this training towards the requirements of apprenticeship or other on-the-job training programs. For trainee or apprentice jobs, the airlines prefer men between the ages of 20 and 30 who are in good physical condition. Applicants should have a high school or trade school education, including courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, and machine shop. Experience in automotive repairs or other mechanical work is also helpful. Other mechanics prepare for their trade by graduating from an FAA ap proved mechanics school. Most of these schools have an 18- to 24-month program. Several colleges and uni versities also offer 2-year programs that prepare the student for the FAA mechanic examinations, and for jobs as engineering aids and research and development technicians in aircraft manufacturing. Mechanics are generally required to have their own handtools which they must pay for themselves. They usually acquire their tools gradually. Several advancement possibilities are available to skilled mechanics em ployed by the scheduled airlines. The line of advancement is usually me chanic, lead mechanic (or crew chief), inspector, lead inspector, shop foreman, and, in a few cases, super visory and executive positions. In most shops, mechanics in the higher grade positions are required to have both airframe and powerplant ratings. In many cases, the mechanic must pass a company examination before he is promoted. To qualify for jobs as FAA in spectors, mechanics must have broad experience in maintenance and over 648 haul work, including supervision over the maintenance of aircraft. Ap plicants for this job must also have both airframe and powerplant ratings or a combined rating. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Transport Workers Union of Amer ica. See introductory section for sources of additional information and for general information on supple mentary benefits and working condi tions. Employment Outlook The number of aircraft mechanics employed by scheduled airlines is ex pected to increase rapidly through the 1970’s because of the substantial increase in the number of aircraft in operation. In addition to the openings that will arise from employment growth, a few hundred job openings will result annually from the need to replace mechanics who transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. The very rapid growth anticipated in general aviation flying will lead to an increase in the number of aircraft. Therefore, an increase is expected in the number of mechanics employed in firms providing general aviation services, and the independent repair shops that repair many of these air craft. Employment opportunities for air craft mechanics in the Federal Gov ernment will depend largely on the size of the Government military air craft program. Earnings and Working Conditions Mechanics employed by the sched uled domestic and international air lines earned, on the average, $665 a month in late 1966. Other aircraft mechanics generally had lower aver age earnings. Airline mechanics work in hangars or in other indoor areas, whenever possible. However, when repairs must be made quickly, which is sometimes the case in line-maintenance work, mechanics may work outdoors. Mechanics employed by most major airlines are covered by union agreements. Most of these employees are members of the International As sociation of Machinists and Aerospace Workers. Many others belong to the AIRLINE DISPATCHERS (D.O.T. 912.168) Nature of Work and Where Employed Dispatchers (sometimes called flight superintendents) are employed by the airlines to coordinate flight schedules and operations within an assigned area; they also make sure that all Federal Aviation Administra tion (FAA) and company flight and safety regulations are observed. After examining weather conditions, the dispatcher makes a preliminary de cision as to whether a flight may be safely undertaken. He frequently must arrange to notify the passengers and crew if there is any change from the scheduled departure time. The dispatcher confers with the captain about the quantity of fuel needed, the best route and altitude at which the plane will fly, the total flying time, and the alternate fields that may be used if landing at the scheduled air port is hazardous. The dispatcher and the captain must agree on all details of the flight before the plane leaves the airport. In some instances, the dispatcher is also responsible for keeping records and checking such matters as the availability of aircraft and equipment, the weight and bal ance of loaded cargo, the amount of time flown by each aircraft, and the number of hours flown by each crew member based at his station. After the flight has begun, the dis patcher plots the plane’s progress as reported at regular intervals by the captain by radio, and keeps the cap tain informed of changing weather Airline dispatcher assists pilot in preflight planning. and other conditions that affect his flight. The assistant dispatcher helps the dispatcher plot the progress of flights, secure weather information, and han dle communications with aircraft. In late 1966, only about 1,000 dis patchers and assistants were em ployed in scheduled domestic and in ternational operations, primarily at large airports in the United States. An even smaller number worked for large certificated supplemental air lines, and for private firms which offer dispatching services to small airlines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Dispatchers are required to have an FAA dispatcher certificate. An ap plicant for such a certificate may qualify if he has spent at least a year engaged in dispatching work under the supervision of a certificated dis patcher. He may also qualify by com pleting an FAA-approved dispatch er’s course at a school or an airline training center. If an applicant has neither schooling nor experience, he may also qualify if he has spent 2 of 649 CIVIL AERONAUTICS the previous 3 years in air traffic con trol work, or in such airline jobs as dispatch clerk, assistant dispatcher, or radio operator, or in similar work in military service. An applicant for an FAA dispatch er certificate must pass a written ex amination on subjects such as Federal aviation regulations, weather anal ysis, air-navigation facilities, radio procedures, and airport and airway traffic procedures. In an oral test, he also has to demonstrate his ability to interpret weather information, his knowledge of landing and cruising speeds and other aircraft operational characteristics, and his familiarity with airline routes and navigational facilities. A licensed dispatcher is checked periodically by his employer to make sure that he is maintaining the skills required by Federal regula tions. All qualified dispatchers are given additional instruction by their airlines at special training centers so that they may become familiar with new flight procedures and with char acteristics of new aircraft. Each year he is also required to “fly the line” as an observer over the portion of the system which he services, in order to maintain his first-hand familiarity with airline routes and flight opera tions. For assistant dispatcher jobs, which may not require certification, airlines prefer men who have at least 2 years of college or an equivalent amount of time working in some phase of air transportation, such as communica tions. Preference is given to college graduates who have had courses in mathematics, physics, and related subjects. Some experience in flying, meteorology, or business administra tion is also helpful. Most airlines fill assistant dis patcher positions by promotion or transfer from within the company. Men are preferred who have had long experience in ground operations work. As a result, most openings are filled by men who have been dispatch clerks, meteorologists, or radio opera tors; a few jobs are filled by men who have been pilots. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROLLERS (D.O.T. 193.168) Employment Outlook The number of workers in this very small occupation is not expected to change much during the 1970’s. Most new workers in this occupation will be hired as assistant dispatchers or dispatch clerks. Job openings for dis patchers will be filled mainly by pro moting or transferring experienced persons already employed by the air lines. The need for some additional dis patchers will result from the increase in air traffic, the addition and exten sion of routes, and the extra diffi culties in dispatching jet aircraft. However, these factors will be large ly offset by improved radio and tele phone communication facilities, which allow dispatchers at major terminals to dispatch aircraft at other airports and over large geographic areas. Foreign-flag airlines, which fly between overseas points and cities in the United States, will also provide a few job opportunities for dis patchers. Earnings and Working Conditions Beginning dispatchers earned be tween $700 and $800 a month in late 1966. Dispatchers with 10 years’ serv ice earned between $1,000 and $1,325 a month. Assistant dispatchers earned $475 and over a month to begin and up to $750 a month after 3 years. As sistant dispatchers with FAA certifi cates may earn $25 a month extra. Most dispatchers are members of the Air-Line Dispatchers Association. Where To Go for More Information Air Line Dispatchers Association, 243 West Maple Ave., Vienna, Va. 22180. See introductory section for addi tional sources of information and for general information on supplemen tary benefits and working conditions. Nature of Work Air traffic controllers are the guard ians of the airways. These employees of the Federal Aviation Administra tion (FAA) give instructions, advice, and information to pilots by radio in order to avoid collisions and mini mize delays as aircraft fly between air ports or in the vicinity of airports. When directing aircraft, traffic con trollers must consider many factors including weather, geography, the amount of traffic, and the size, speed, and other operating characteristics of aircraft. The men who control traf fic in the areas around airports are known as airport traffic controllers; those who guide aircraft between air ports are called air-route traffic con trollers. Airport traffic controllers are sta tioned at airport control towers to give all pilots within the vicinity of the airport weather information and take off and landing instructions, such as which approach and airfield runway to use and when to change altitude. They must simultaneously control several aircraft which appear as tiny bars on a radar scope. They talk on the radio first to one and then an other of the pilots of these planes, remembering their numbers and their positions in the air, and give each of them different instructions. These workers also keep records of all mes sages received from aircraft and op erate runway lights and other air field electronic equipment. They may also send and receive information to and from air-route traffic control centers about flights made over the airport. Air-route traffic controllers are sta tioned at air traffic control centers to coordinate the movements of air craft which are being flown “on in struments.” They use the written flight plans which are filed by pilots and dispatchers before aircraft leave 660 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Air traffic controllers guide aircraft with radio and radar. the airport. To make sure that air craft remain on course, they check the progress of flights, using radar and other electronic equipment and information received from the air craft, other control centers and tow ers, and information from FAA or airline communication stations. port traffic controllers, employed at airport control towers located at key airfields. A few of these jobs are lo cated at towers and centers outside the United States. About 6,600 airroute traffic controllers worked in 24 control centers scattered throughout the United States. be at least 21 years of age and able to speak clearly and precisely. They enter the field through the competi tive Federal Civil Service system after passing a rigid physical examination, which they must pass every year. Ap plicants must pass a written test de signed to measure their ability to learn, perform the duties of air traffic controller, and meet certain experience, training, and related requirements. Successful applicants for airport traffic controller jobs are given ap proximately 8 weeks of formal train ing to learn the fundamentals of the airway system, Civil Air Regulations, and radar and aircraft performance characteristics. Newly hired air-route traffic controllers are given a slightly longer period of basic instruction. After completing this training, both groups of controllers qualify for a basic air traffic control certificate. At an FAA control tower or center, they receive additional classroom instruc tion and on-the-job training to be come familiar with specific traffic problems. After about 6 months, they generally qualify as assistant control lers and receive additional training. This training is designed to simulate emergency situations to determine the assistant controller’s emotional stabil ity under pressure, stress, and strain. Only after he has demonstrated his ability to apply procedures, and to use available equipment under pressure and stress, may he work as a control ler. This usually takes about a year from the time he becomes an assistant controller. Controllers can advance to the job of chief controller. After this promo tion, they may advance to more re sponsible management jobs in air traffic control and to a few top admin istrative jobs in the FAA. Employment Outlook Total employment of air traffic controllers is expected to increase slowly through the 1970’s. Both the About 13,500 air traffic controllers were employed by the FAA in late Applicants for positions as air- number of airport traffic controllers 1966. Of these, nearly half were air route or airport traffic controller must and air-route traffic controllers are Where Employed Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement CIVIL AERONAUTICS expected to increase despite the greater use of automated equipment. Additional airport traffic control lers will be needed because of the anticipated growth in the number of airport towers that will be built to reduce the burden on existing facili ties and to handle increasing airline traffic. More airport controllers will also be needed to provide services to the growing number of pilots outside of the airlines, such as those employed by companies to fly executives. A small number of additional airroute traffic controllers will be needed during the next few years to handle increases in air traffic. However, with the expected introduction of an auto matic air traffic control system and a further decline in the number of con trol centers, employment of air-route traffic controllers is expected to de cline in the longer run. A few hundred openings will occur each year for both kinds of controller jobs because of the need to replace those workers who leave for other work, retire, or die. Earnings and Working Conditions The monthly salary for air traffic controllers during their first 6 to 12 months of training averaged about $490 in late 1966. After this training period, they receive $590 monthly during their first year as an assistant air traffic controller. Air-route traffic controllers can earn over $1,000 a month, depending on the type of work they do. Airport traffic con trollers can earn from about $650 to over $1,000 a month, depending on the amount of traffic handled at their facility and how long they have been on the job. In addition, all traffic controllers are eligible for periodic wage increases. In areas that handle extremely large volumes of air traffic, a chief controller may earn $1,460 and over a month. These employees receive the same annual leave, sick leave, and other benefits provided other Federal workers. FAA controllers work a basic 40hour week; however, they may work overtime, for which they receive equivalent time off or additional pay. Because control towers and centers must be operated 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, controllers are peri odically assigned to night shifts on a rotating basis. However, an additional 10 percent is paid for work between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. Because of the congestion in air traffic, a controller works under great stress. He is responsible for directing as many as 10 to 20 or more aircraft at the same time. He must simultane ously check flights already under his control, know the flight schedules of aircraft approaching his area, and coordinate these patterns with other controllers as each flight passes from his control area to another. See introductory section for sources of additional information and for gen eral information on supplementary benefits and working conditions. 651 erators and teletypists. They use radio-telephones, radio-telegraph, and teletype machines in their work. In addition to providing pilots with weather and navigational informa tion before and during flights, these workers relay messages from air traffic control facilities to other ground station personnel and to pilots. Where Employed About 8,000 ground radio opera tors and teletypists were employed in air transportation in late 1966. Flight service station specialists em ployed by the FAA made up about half of these employees. The sched uled airlines employed about 3,100 radio operators and teletypists. An additional 375 were employed by a cooperative organization which offers the airlines, private pilots, and cor poration aircraft its services over a centralized communications system. A few hundred were employed by the Army and Navy in civilian communi GROUND RADIO OPERATORS AND cations occupations. TELETYPISTS FAA flight service station spe cialists work at stations scattered (D.O.T. 193.282 and 203.588) along the major airline routes; some stations are located in remote places. Ground radio operators and tele typists employed by the airlines work Nature of Work mostly at airports in or near large Ground radio operators and tele cities. typists transmit highly important messages concerning weather condi tions and other flight information be Training, Other Qualifications, and tween ground station personnel and Advancement flight personnel. Radio operators use Applicants for airline radio opera a radio-telephone to send and receive spoken messages; some operators may tor jobs usually must have at least a use a radio-telegraph to transmit third-class Federal Communications written messages. Radio operators Commission radio-telephone or occasionally may make minor repairs radio-telegraph operator’s permit. on their equipment. Teletypists trans However, a second-class operator’s mit only written messages between permit is preferred. They must also ground personnel. They operate a be high school graduates and have a teletype machine which has a key good speaking voice, the ability to board similar to that of a typewriter. type at least 40 words a minute, and Flight service station specialists em a basic knowledge of the language ployed by the Federal Aviation Ad used in weather reports. Teletypists ministration (FAA) do work similar must be able to type at least 40 words to that of airline ground radio op a minute and have had training or 652 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ices for pilots will be offset by im provements in equipment, and an in crease in two-way radios that permit communications between pilots and air traffic controllers. The number of radio operators and teletypists em ployed by airlines will increase slowly due to communications systems be coming more automatic and centralized. Earnings and Working Conditions The beginning salary for airline radio operators who held the mini mum third-class permit generally was between $388 and $490 a month in late 1966. Workers who held a secondclass license generally received $10 to $25 more a month. The beginning salary for teletypists ranged from $355 to $400 a month. Beginning FAA flight service station specialists receive between $440 and $480 a month, de pending on education and experience; experienced communicators earn from $640 to $835 a month. Radio operators and teletypists in a number of airlines are unionized. The major union in these occupational fields is the Communications Workers Ground radio operators and teletypists process messages in radio room. of America. introductory section for sources experience in operating teletype transferring into such higher paying of See additional information and for gen equipment. Applicants for jobs as jobs as airline dispatcher or eral information on supplementary radio operators and teletypists must meteorologist. benefits and working conditions. also have a knowledge of standard codes and symbols used in communi cations. Employment Outlook To qualify for entry positions as Openings for entry positions as FA A flight service station specialists, applicants must be at least 21 years radio operators or teletypists will TRAFFIC AGENTS AND CLERKS old, pass a written test, and meet cer number less than a hundred each (D.O.T. 912.368, 919.368) tain experience requirements. Perma year during the 1970’s. These open nent appointments are made on the ings will occur as workers transfer to basis of Federal civil service other fields of work, retire, or die. Nature of Work Overall employment of these work examinations. The airlines usually employ women ers may decline somewhat because of Selling flight tickets, reserving seats as teletypists, and an increasing num the use of more automatic communi and cargo space, and taking charge ber are being hired as radio operators. cations equipment which permits of the ground handling of planes are Both airline radio operators and tele communications for longer distances. some of the duties of traffic agents The number of flight service sta and clerks. This group of workers in typists and FAA flight service station tion specialists employed by the FAA cludes ticket or reservation agents and specialists serve probationary periods, is expected to remain about the same clerks, operations or station agents, during which time they receive onthe-job training. Skill gained in com in the years ahead. Need for addi and traffic representatives. munications is helpful experience for tional workers to perform more serv Reservation sales agents and clerks 653 CIVIL AERONAUTICS Where Employed About 33,000 men and women were employed as traffic agents and clerks by the scheduled airlines in late 1966. A few thousand others were also em ployed by the supplemental airlines, and by foreign-flag airlines that oper ate between the United States and overseas points. Traffic staffs are employed prin cipally in downtown offices and at air ports in or near large cities where most airline passenger and cargo business originates. Some are em ployed in smaller communities where give customers flight schedule and airlines have scheduled stops. fare information over the telephone. Reservation control agents record reservations as they are made and re Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement port the reservations by teletype ma chine to a central computer or to clerks in other cities so that the same Traffic agents and clerks must deal space will not be sold twice. They directly with the public, either in per also receive teletype messages inform son or by telephone. For this reason, ing them of the sale of space. On some airlines have strict hiring standards of the larger airlines, data processing with respect to appearance, personal systems receive, record, and transmit ity, and education. A good speaking flight space information to personnel voice is essential because these em at airports and reservations offices ployees frequently use the telephone throughout the entire airline system or public address systems. High school at -great speeds. Ticket agents sell graduation generally is required, and tickets and fill out ticket forms, in college training is considered desir cluding such information as the flight able. Experience with freight, pas number and the passenger’s name and senger, or express traffic in other destination. They also check and weigh baggage, answer inquiries branches of transportation is also about flight schedules and fares, and desirable. keep records of tickets sold. Traffic College courses in transportation, representatives contact potential cus such as “traffic management” and tomers in order to promote greater “air transportaton,” as well as ex perience in other areas of air trans use of the airlines services. Operations or station agents are portation, are helpful for a higher responsible for the ground handling grade job, such as traffic representa of airplanes at their stations. They tive. Both men and women are em supervise the loading and unloading ployed as reservation and ticket of the aircraft and sometimes do this agents; however, most operations work themselves. They see that the agents are men. weight carried by the planes is dis Traffic agents may advance to tributed properly, compute gas loads traffic representative and supervisor. and the weight carried by the plane, A few may eventually move up to city prepare a list of the cargo, and keep and district traffic and station man records of the number of passengers carried. They may also make arrival ager. Some transfer to better pay and departure announcements and ing jobs with travel agencies or prepare the weather forms that pilots to the traffic departments of big use when they plan their routes. corporations. Employment Outlook Employment of traffic personnel will increase rapidly over the 1970’s, mainly because of anticipated growth in passenger and cargo traffic. In ad dition to the thousands of opportu nities for new workers that will result from this employment growth, addi tional opportunities will arise as young women leave their jobs to marry or rear children. Most of the major airlines are in stalling new machines to record and process reservations, keep records, and perform a variety of other routine tasks. Mechanization will affect the reservation clerks in particular. The employment of ticket agents, however, whose main job involves personal con tacts, will not be affected very much, although their paper work will be re duced considerably. The small group of traffic representatives probably will increase substantially as the airlines compete for new business. Earnings and Working Conditions Limited wage data collected from union-management contracts cover ing reservations and ticket agents em ployed by several airlines indicate that their beginning salaries ranged from $388 to $436 a month in early 1966. Those workers with 5 to 8 years or more of experience earned between $456 and $514 a month. Station and ’operations agents started at about $411 a month and progressed to about $553 a month after several years. Many reservation and transporta tion agents belong to labor unions. Most of the organized agents belong to the Transport Workers Union of America or the Brotherhood of Rail way and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express and Station Em ployees. See introductory section for source of additional information and for gen eral information on supplementary benefits and working conditions. ers. Electric utilities offer interesting jobs and steady employment for men and women in several thousand com munities throughout the country. Nature and Location of the Industry OCCUPATIONS IN THE ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY Nearly every American home, busi ness, and community is dependent upon electricity. There would be no modern communication systems, no highly mechanized industries, and fewer of the appliances that have be come an indispensable part of every day life without this most versatile form of energy. Many types of work ers are needed to produce electricity, develop additional markets for it, and distribute it to the consumer. These workers include power plant opera tors, linemen, electricians, engineers, research scientists, salesmen, techni cians, meter readers, and office work ^ The electric power industry in cludes about 3,600 electric utility systems, which vary greatly in size and type of ownership. Utilities range from large interconnected systems serving broad regional areas, to small power companies serving individual communities. Many utilities are in vestor owned (private) or owned by cooperatives; others are owned by cities, States, counties, and public utility districts, as well as by the Fed eral Government. Utility systems in clude power plants, which make (gen erate) electric power; substations, which increase or decrease the voltage of this power; and vast networks of transmission and distribution lines. The delivery of electricity to the user at the instant he needs it is the distinctive feature of the operation of electric power systems. Electricity cannot be stored efficiently but must be used as it is produced. Because a customer can begin or increase his use of electric power at any time by How Electricity Is Made And Brought To The Users G e n e r a t i n g P la n t 654 H ig h V o lt a g e T r a n s m is s io n merely flicking a switch, an electric utility system must have sufficient ca pacity to meet peak consumer needs at any time during the day or night. Some utilities generate, transmit, and distribute only electricity; others distribute both electricity and gas. This chapter is concerned with em ployment opportunities in those jobs relating only to the production and distribution of electric power. In early 1967, private, cooperative, and government utility systems com bined employed almost 460,000 work ers. Privately owned utilities and co operatives employed about 390,000 workers; Federal, State, and munici pal government utilities employed the remaining 70,000. A few large manu facturing industries, which produce electric power for their own use, also employ some electric power workers. Three principal groups of con sumers—industrial, residential, and commercial—purchased about 95 percent of all electricity sold in 1966. Industrial customers such as chemi cal, steel, aluminum, and automobile plants purchased almost half of all the electric power sold. Residential cus tomers purchased nearly 30 percent, and commercial customers such as stores, hotels, and office buildings purchased about 20 percent. Electric utility service now reaches almost every locality and, therefore, electric utility jobs are found through out the country. Hydroelectric power projects have created some jobs even in relatively isolated areas. Most utili ty jobs, however, are in heavily popu lated urban areas, especially where there are many industrial users, or where a large utility has its head quarters. Producing and distributing large quantities of electrical energy in volves many processes and activities. Chart 58 shows how electric energy is generated, and how it travels from the generating station to the users. The first step in providing electrical energy takes place in a generating sta tion or plant, where huge generators ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY convert mechanical energy into elec tricity. Electricity is produced pri marily in steam-powered generating plants which use coal, gas, or oil for fuel. Increasingly, new steam gen erating stations use nuclear energy as fuel. A considerable amount of elec tricity is also produced in hydroelec tric generating stations which use water power to operate the turbines. Some generators, primarily for use in standby service or to provide elec tricity for special purposes, are pow ered by internal combustion and gas turbine engines. After electricity is generated, it passes through a “switchyard” where the voltage is increased in order that the electricity may travel long dis tances without excessive loss of power. After leaving the generating plant, electricity passes onto transmission lines. These lines carry electricity from the generating plant to substa tions where the voltage is decreased and passed on to the distribution net works serving individual customers. Transmission lines tie together the generating stations of a single system and also the power facilities of several systems. In this way, power can be interchanged among several utility systems to meet varying demands. Electric Utility Occupations Workers are needed in many differ ent occupations to produce electric power for instant use. About 10 per cent of the employees in this industry work in occupations directly related to the generation of electricity. About 20 percent are in jobs related to the transmission and distribution of pow er to the customers. Another 20 per cent are in maintenance and repair work and in jobs such as guard, watchman, and janitor. Approxi mately 30 percent are employed in administrative and clerical jobs, 10 percent in customer servicing jobs, and 10 percent in scientific, engineer ing, and other technical occupations. In addition to the powerplant, transmission, and customer service occupations (discussed in detail later in this chapter), the electric power industry employs large numbers of workers in maintenance, engineering, scientific, administrative, sales, and clerical occupations. The latter occu pations are discussed briefly below. Detailed discussions of these and other occupations in the electric power in dustry and in many other industries are given in the Handbook sections covering the individual occupations. Maintenance and Other Occupations. A considerable number of workers are engaged in maintaining and repairing the equipment used by the electrical utilities. The duties of these skilled craftsmen are similar to those of main tenance workers in other industries. Among the more important skilled workers are electricians, instrument repairmen, maintenance mechanics, machinists, pipefitters, and boiler makers. Other workers are employed as guards, watchmen, and janitors. Engineering and Scientific Occupa tions. Many interesting job op portunities are available for engineers and technical workers in electric utilities. Engineers plan generating plant additions, interconnections of complex power systems, and installa tions of new transmission and distri bution equipment. They supervise construction, develop improved operating methods, and test the effi ciency of the many types of electrical equipment. In planning modem power systems, engineers select plant sites, types of fuel, and types of plants. Engineers also help industrial and commercial customers make the best use of electric power for equipment and lighting. They stimulate greater use of electricity by demonstrating the advantages of electrical equipment and suggesting places where elec tricity can be more effectively used. Administrative and Clerical Occupa tions. Because of the enormous 055 amount of recordkeeping necessary to run the business operations, electric utilities employ a greater proportion of administrative and clerical person nel than many other industries. Near ly a third of the industry’s work force is employed in clerical and adminis trative jobs. Many of these workers are women. Large numbers of stenog raphers, typists, bookkeepers, office machine operators, file clerks, ac counting and auditing clerks, and cashiers are employed. These workers keep records of the services rendered by the company, make up bills for customers, and prepare a variety of statements and statistical reports. An increasing amount of this work in the larger offices is now being performed by electronic data-processing equip ment. This generally results in more clerical work being done with the same or fewer employees. The use of this new equipment is also creating some new jobs such as programer and console operator. Administrative em ployees include specialized workers such as accountants, personnel offi cers, purchasing agents, lawyers, and salesmen. Employment Outlook Employment in the electric power industry is expected to show little or no change during the 1970’s, although the production of electric power is expected to increase substantially. Several thousand job opportunities for new workers will occur each year during this period, however, because of the need to replace workers who retire, die, or leave the industry for other work. Industrial customers are expected to use more electricity because of the widening application of electric power to industrial processes. Use of electricity by residential customers is expected to rise because of the rapid growth in population and the num ber of households. In addition, resi dential customers are expected to in crease their use of electricity for 65,6 heating and air-conditioning, and for an increasing number and variety of appliances. The construction of new stores and office buildings and the modernization of existing structures will expand the use of electricity by commercial customers. However, the growing use of auto matic controls in this already highly mechanized industry makes possible large increases in the production of electric power with little or no in crease in total employment. For ex ample, since operators in generating stations are needed chiefly to check gages and control instruments, im provements in generating equipment have made possible great increases in the industry’s capacity and produc tion with only small increases in the number of operators. Continuing de velopment of larger and more highly mechanized equipment with many automatic controls will result in a decline in the number of these operators. The employment of substa tion operators will continue to decline because of the installation of com pletely automatic equipment in all but the largest substations. Employment decreases in these occupations may be offset by the expected growth in the number of maintenance and repair craftsmen needed to keep the in dustry’s increasing amount of complex machinery in working condition. The employment of workers in maintenance and repair of transmis sion and distribution lines is expected to remain relatively stable. Fewer men per crew will be needed to work on electric power lines because of the increasing use of mechanized equip ment for setting poles and for string ing and maintaining lines. However, this reduction in jobs per crew may be offset by the larger number of crews needed to service the expanding dis tribution systems required by the growing number of electric power customers. Because of the increasing use of electronic data-processing equipment for billing and recordkeeping, only a OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK small increase in office employment is expected. However, the relatively high turnover in office jobs will pro vide many additional openings for new workers each year. Some increase in employment is also expected in administrative jobs; scientific, engi neering, and other technical jobs; and in such areas as sales and market de velopment. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings in the electric utility in dustry are generally higher than in other public utility industries and in many manufacturing industries. In mid-1967, earnings of nonsupervisory employees in private electric power utilities averaged $3.50 an hour or $145.95 a week. Many nonsupervisory electric util ity workers in production, transmis sion, and distribution departments are union members. The bargaining rep resentative for most of these workers is either the International Brother hood of Electrical Workers or the Utility Workers Union of America. Independent unions represent some utility workers. Because supplying electricity is a 24-hour, 7-day-a-week activity, some employees must work evenings, nights, and weekends. Most union contracts with electric utilities provide a higher rate of pay for evening and night work than the basic day rate. In 1966, most workers on the second shift received from 7 to 17 cents an hour more than the basic day rate, and those on the third shift, from 9 to 24 cents an hour more. Overtime work is often required, especially during emergencies such as floods, hurricanes, or storms. During an “emergency callout,” which is a short-notice request to report to work during nonscheduled hours, the worker is generally guaranteed a minimum of 3 or 4 hours’ pay at I /2 times his basic hourly rate. Travel time to and from the job is counted as worktime. In addition to these provisions which affect the workers’ pay, electric utilities provide other benefits. An nual vacations are granted to workers according to length of service. Usu ally, contracts or employee benefit programs provide for a 1-week vaca tion for 6 months to 1 year of service, 2 weeks for 1 to 10 years, and 3 weeks for 10 to 20 years. A number of con tracts and programs provide for 4 weeks after 20 years or more. The number of paid holidays ranges from 6 to 12 days a year, depending on the locality. Nearly all companies have benefit plans for their employees. A typical program provides life, hospi talization, and surgical insurance and paid sick leave. Retirement pension plans supplement Federal social secu rity payments and are generally paid for in full or in part by the employer. The number of injuries per million man-hours worked is much lower in this industry than in most manufac turing industries. Workers in some oc cupations in this industry are more subject to accidents than others. Ac cidents occur most frequently among the line and cable splicing crews. Be cause of the dangers of electrocution and other hazards, electric utilities and unions have made intensive ef forts to enforce safe working prac tices. Where To Go for More Information More information about jobs in the electric power industry may be obtained from local electric utility companies, industry trade associa tions, or from the local offices of unions which have electric utility workers among their membership. Additional information may be ob tained from: International Brotherhood of Elec trical Workers, 1200 15th St. NW., Washington, D.C. 20005. Utility Workers’ Union of America, 1875 Conn. Ave. NW., Washington, D.C. 20006. 657 EXiEiCTRIC POWER INDUSTRY POWERPLANT OCCUPATIONS Nature of Work Operators are key workers in a powerplant. They watch, check, con trol, and keep records of the opera tion of various kinds of equipment. They must see that the equipment functions efficiently and instantly de tect any trouble that arises. There are four basic classes of operators—boiler, turbine, auxiliary equipment, and switchboard operators. In many new steam plants, the duties of these op erators are combined, and operators and their assistants are known as steam operators, powerplant opera tors, or central control room opera tors. Of increasing importance in this highly mechanized industry are the maintenance men and repairmen, in cluding electrical, instrument, and mechanical repairmen. Other powerplant workers include helpers and cleaners, and custodial staff, includ ing janitors and watchmen. Coal han dlers are employed in steam generat ing plants that use coal for fuel. Hydroelectric plants employ gate ten ders who open arid close the headgates that control the flow of water to the turbines. Supervision of powerplant operations is handled by a chief en gineer and by his assistants, the watch engineers. Boiler operators (D.O.T. 950.782) regulate the fuel, air, and water sup ply in the boilers and maintain proper steam pressure needed to turn the turbines, on the basis of information shown by gages, meters, and other instruments mounted on panel boards. One man may operate one or more boilers. Boiler operators, of course, are employed only where steam is used to generate electricity. Turbine operators (D.O.T. 952.138) control the operation of steamor water-powered turbines which drive the generators. (In small plants, they may also operate auxiliary equipment or a switchboard.) Mod ern steam turbines and generators operate at extremely high speeds, pressures, and temperatures; there fore, close attention must be given the pressure gages, thermometers, and other instruments which show the op erations of the turbogenerator unit. Turbine operators record the infor mation shown by these instruments and check the oil pressure at bearings, the speed of the turbines, and the cir culation and amount of cooling water in the condensers which change the steam back into water. They are also responsible for starting and shutting down the turbines and generators, as directed by the switchboard operator in the control room. Other workers, such as helpers and junior operators, assist the turbine operators. Auxiliary equipment operators (D.O.T. 952.782) check and record the readings of instruments that indi cate the operating condition of pumps, fans, blowers, condensers, evaporators, water conditioners, com pressors, and coal pulverizers. Since auxiliary equipment may go out of order occasionally, the operators must be able to detect trouble quickly, make accurate judgments, and some times make repairs. Some small plants do not employ auxiliary equipment operators; these duties are performed by turbine operators. Switchboard operators (D.O.T. 952.782) control the flow of electric power in the generating station from generators to outgoing powerlines. They usually work in a control room 658 which is equipped with switchboards and instrument panels. Switches con trol the movement of electricity through the generating station cir cuits and onto the transmission lines. Instruments mounted on panelboards show the power demands on the station at any instant, the power load on each line leaving the station, the amount of current being pro duced by each generator, and the voltage. The operators use switches to distribute the power demands among the generators in the station, to com bine the current from two or more generators, and to regulate the flow of the electricity onto various power lines to meet the demands of the users served by each line. When power re quirements on the station change, they order generators started or stopped and, at the proper time, connect them to the power circuits in the sta tion or disconnect them. In doing this work, they follow telephone orders from the load dispatcher who directs the flow of current throughout the system. Switchboard operators and their assistants also check their instruments frequently to see that electricity is moving through and out of the powerplant properly, and that correct voltage is being maintained. Among their other duties, they keep records of all switching operations and of load conditions on generators, lines, and transformers. They obtain this information by making regular meter readings. In most powerplants constructed in recent years, the operation of boil ers, turbines, auxiliary equipment, and the switching required for effi cient balancing of generator output has been centralized in a single con trol room. Here, central control room operators or power plant operators, by monitoring instrument panels and manipulating switches, regulate all the power generating equipment, which in older plants requires spe cialists such as boiler and turbine op erators. Control room operators have several assistants whose duties include OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Operator at instrument console controls generating plant. patrolling the plant and checking the equipment. The central control room operators report to the plant superin tendent or watch engineers when equipment is not operating properly. Watch engineers (D.O.T. 950.131) are the principal supervisory workers in a powerplant. They supervise the employees responsible for the opera tion and maintenance of boilers, tur bines, generators, auxiliary equip ment, switchboards, transformers, and other machinery and equipment. Watch engineers are supervised by a chief-engineer or a plant superin tendent who is in charge of the en tire plant. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement New powerplant workers generally begin at the bottom of the ladder— usually on cleanup jobs. Such work gives beginners an opportunity to be come familiar with the equipment and the operations of a powerplant. They advance to the more responsible job of helper, as job openings occur. Formal apprenticeships in these jobs are rare. Applicants are generally re quired to have a high school educa tion or its equivalent. Advancement on the job depends primarily on ability to master the skills required. It takes from 1 to 3 years to become an auxiliary equipment operator and from 4 to 8 years to become a boiler operator, turbine operator, or switch board operator. A person learning to be an auxiliary equipment operator progresses from helper to junior op erator to operator. A boiler operator generally spends from 2 to 6 months as a laborer before being promoted to the job of helper. Depending on openings and the worker’s aptitude, the helper may advance to junior boiler oper ator and eventually to boiler operator, or transfer to the maintenance de partment and work his way up to boiler repairman. In most large cities, boiler operators, who operate highpressure boilers, are required to be licensed. Powerplant workers employed in atomic-powered electric plants must have special training to work with fissionable, radioactive fuel, in addi tion to the knowledge and skills re quired for operation of conventional steam generated electric power. Turbine operators are selected from among auxiliary equipment op erators in many plants. The line of advancement in other plants is from laborer to turbine helper. The helper then may advance either to junior turbine operator and eventually to turbine operator, or he may transfer to turbine repairman, depending on job openings and his aptitude. Tur bine operators in most large cities are required to be licensed. Where a system has a number of generating plants of different size, operators first get experience in the smaller stations and then are pro moted to jobs in the larger stations as vacancies occur. New workers in the switchboard operations section begin as helpers, advance to junior oper ators, and then to switchboard op erators. They also may advance from jobs in small stations to those in larger stations where operating conditions are much more complex. Some utility 659 ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY companies promote substation oper ators to switchboard operating jobs. The duties of both classes of operators have much in common. Switchboard operators can advance to work in the load dispatcher’s office. Watch engineers are selected from among experienced powerplant op erators. At least 5 to 10 years of ex perience as a first-class operator are usually required to qualify for a watch engineer’s job. Employment Outlook The total number of jobs for pow erplant operators is expected to show little or no change during the 1970’s, although the production of electrical energy will increase at a rapid rate. However, several hundred job open ings for new workers will occur each year because of the need to replace operators who retire, die, or leave the industry for other work. The use of increasingly larger and more efficient equipment is expected to make possible great increases in ca pacity and production with little or no increase in the number of powerplant operators. For example, one operator can control a large modern turbogenerator as readily as he can control a much smaller one. Also, the growing use of more automatic equip ment reduces the number of operators needed, and makes it possible to di rect all operating processes from a central control room. Generally, running an atomic-pow ered plant requires about the same number of employees as running a steam-generating plant using more common fuels. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of powerplant work ers depend on the type of job, the section of the country in which they work, and many other factors. The following tabulation shows estimated average hourly earnings for selected Digitized 262-057 for FRASER o — 68 43 powerplant occupations in privately operated utilities in 1966: Average hourly earnings Auxiliary equipment operator........ $3. 18 Boiler operator................................. 3. 55 Control room operator...................... 4. Switchboard operator: Switchboard operator, Class A . . 3. 72 Switchboard operator, Class B . . 3. 36 Turbine operator............................... 3.71 Watch engineer................................. 4.53 A powerplant is typically well lighted and ventilated, clean, and or derly, but there is some noise from the whirring turbines. Switchboard operators in the con trol room often sit at the panel boards, but boiler and turbine opera tors are almost constantly on their feet. The work of powerplant opera tors is generally not physically strenuous, particularly in the newer powerplants. Since generating stations operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, powerplant employees sometimes must work nights and weekends. TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION OCCUPATIONS Nature of Work One-fifth of the workers employed by electric light and power systems are in transmission and distribution jobs maintaining the flow of electric power to the users. The principal workers in transmission and distribu tion jobs are those who control the flow of electricity—load dispatchers and substation operators—and the men who construct and maintain powerlines—linemen, cable splicers, troublemen, groundmen, and helpers. Linemen make up the largest single occupation in the industry. Load dispatchers (D.O.T. 950.168) (sometimes called system oper ators or power dispatchers) are the key operating workers of the transmis sion and distribution departments. They control the flow of electricity throughout the area served by the utility. The load dispatcher’s room is the nerve center of the entire utility system. From this location, he con trols the plant equipment used to gen erate electricity and directs its flow 11 throughout the system. He telephones his instructions to the switchboard operators at the generating plants and the substations. He tells the operators when additional boilers and genera tors are to be started or stopped in line with the total power needs of the system. The load dispatcher must antici pate demands for electric power, so the system will be prepared to meet them. Power demands on utility sys tems may change from hour to hour. A sudden afternoon rainstorm can cause a million lights to be switched on in a matter of minutes. He must also be able to direct the handling of any emergency situation, such as a transformer or transmission line failure, and to route current around the affected area. Load dis patchers may also be in charge of interconnections with other systems, and they direct the transfer of current between systems as the need arises. The load dispatcher’s source of in formation for the entire transmission system centers in the pilot board. This pilot board, which dominates the load dispatcher’s room, is a complete map of the utility’s transmission system. It enables the dispatcher to determine, at a glance, the conditions that exist at any point in the system. Lights may show the positions of switches which control generating equipment and transmission circuits as well as high voltage connections with substations and large industrial customers. The board may also have several recording instruments which make a graphic record of operations for future analy sis and study. Substation operators (D.O.T. 952.782) are generally in charge of a substation and are responsible for its operation. Under orders from the load dispatcher, they direct the flow of current out of the station by means of a switchboard. Ammeters, volt- 660 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Load dispatchers control flow of electricity through distribution lines. meters, and other types of instruments on the switchboard register the amount of electric power flowing through each line. The flow of elec tricity from the incoming to the out going lines is controlled by circuit breakers. The substation operators connect or break the flow of current by manipulating levers on the switch board which control the circuit breakers. In some substations, where alternating current is changed to di rect current to meet the needs of special users, the operator controls converters which perform the change. In addition to switching duties, the substation operators check the oper ating condition of all equipment to make sure that it is in good working condition. They supervise the activi ties of the other substation employees on the same shift, assign them tasks, and direct their work. In smaller substations, the substation operator may be the only employee. Linemen (D.O.T. 821.381) con struct and maintain the network of powerlines which carry electricity from generating plants to consumers. Their work consists of installations, equipment replacements, repairs, and routine maintenance work. Although in many companies the installation of new lines and equipment is im portant, in other companies this work is performed by outside contractors. When wires, cables, or poles break, it means an emergency call for a line crew. Linemen splice or replace broken wires and cables and replace broken insulators or other damaged equipment. In some power companies, line men specialize in particular types of work. Those in one crew may work only on new construction and others may do only repair work. In some in stances, linemen specialize on high voltage lines using special “hot line” tools to avoid interruptions in the flow of current. Troublemen (D.O.T. 829.281) are experienced linemen who are as signed to special crews that handle emergency calls for service. They move from one special job to an other, as ordered by a central service office which receives reports of line trouble. Often troublemen receive their orders by direct radio communi cation with the central service office. These workers must have a thor ough knowledge of the company’s transmission and distribution net work. They first locate and report the source of trouble and then attempt to restore service by making the nec essary repairs. Depending on the na ture and extent of the trouble, a troubleman may restore service in the case of minor failure, or he may simply disconnect and remove dam aged equipment. He must be familiar with all the circuits and switching points so that he can safely discon nect live circuits in case of line break downs. Groundmen (D.O.T. 821.887) dig poleholes and assist the linemen and apprentices to erect the wooden poles which carry the distribution lines. The linemen bolt crossarms to the poles or towers and bolt or clamp insulators in place on the crossarms. With the assistance of the groundmen, they raise the wires and cables and install them on the poles or tow ers by attaching them to the insula tors. In addition, with assistance from groundmen, linemen attach a wide variety of equipment to the poles and towers, such as lightning arrestors, transformers, and switches. Cable splicers (D.O.T. 829.381) install and repair underground lines, performing about the same service as the linemen do on the overhead lines. When cables are installed, the cable splicers pull the cable through the conduit in which the cable is carried and then join the cables at connect ing points in the transmission and 661 E!LEiCTRIC POWER INDUSTRY Linemen repair extra-high voltage transmission line. 662 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK distribution systems. At each connec tion in the cable, they wrap insula tion around the wiring. They splice the conductors leading away from each junction of the main cable, in sulate the splices, and connect the in sulated splices to the cable sheathing by means of a lead joint. Most of the physical work in placing new cables or replacing old cables is done by helpers. Cable splicers spend most of their time in repairing and maintaining the cables and changing the layout of the cable systems. They must know the arrangement of the wiring sys tems, where the circuits are con nected, and where they lead to and come from. They must make sure that the conductors do not become mixed up between the substation and the customer’s premises. The splicers connect the ends of the conductors to numbered terminals, making certain that they have the same identifying number at the remote panel box in an underground vault as they have in the control office. Cable splicers must also make sure that the insulation on the cables is in good condition. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Load dispatchers are selected from among the experienced switchboard operators and operators of the larger substations. Usually, 7 to 10 years of experience as a senior switchboard or substation operator are required for promotion to load dispatcher. To qualify for this job, an applicant must demonstrate his knowledge of the entire utility system. Substation operators generally be gin as assistant or junior operators. Advancement to the job of operator in a large substation requires from 3 to 7 years of on-the-job training. Skilled linemen (journeymen) usu ally qualify for such jobs after about 4 years of on-the-job training. In some companies, this training consists of a formal apprenticeship program. Under formal apprenticeship, there Linemen work on transmission lines from "bucket truck.” is a written agreement, usually worked out with a labor union, which covers the content of the training and the length of time the apprentice works in each stage of the training. The ap prenticeship program combines onthe-job training and classroom in struction in b l u e p r i n t reading, elementary electrical theory, electrical codes, and methods of transmitting electrical currents. The apprentice usually begins his training by helping the groundman to set poles in place and by passing tools and equipment up to the lineman. After a training period of approxi mately 6 months, the apprentice be gins to do simple linework on lines with low voltage. While on this work, he is under the immediate supervision of a journeyman lineman or the line foreman. After about a year, he is as signed more difficult work but is still under close supervision. During the last 6 months of his apprenticeship, the trainee does about the same kind ELECTRIC POWER INDUSTRY of work as the journeyman lineman but with more supervision. When he begins to work independently, he is first assigned simple, routine tasks. After he acquires several years of ex perience and demonstrates a thorough knowledge of the company’s trans mission and distribution systems, he may advance from lineman to troubleman. The training of linemen who learn their skills on the job is generally simi lar to the apprenticeship program; it usually takes about the same length of time but does not involve classroom instruction. The worker begins as a groundman and progresses through increasingly difficult stages of linework before becoming a skilled line man. Candidates for linework should be strong and in good physical condition, since climbing poles and lifting lines and equipment is strenuous work. They must also have steady nerves and good balance to work at the tops of the poles and to avoid the hazards of live wires and falls. Most cable splicers get their train ing on the job, usually taking about 4 years to become fully qualified. Workers begin as helpers and are then promoted to assistant or junior splic ers. In these jobs, they are gradually assigned more difficult tasks as their knowledge of the work increases. Employment Outlook Several thousand job opportunities are expected to be available in trans mission and distribution occupations during the 1970’s. Most of these op portunities will occur because of the need to replace experienced workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Some increase in the employment of transmission and distribution workers is expected, although em ployment trends will differ among the various occupations in this cate gory. In spite of the need to construct and maintain a rapidly growing num ber of transmission and distribution lines, forthe number of linemen and Digitized FRASER 663 troublemen is expected to increase only slightly becausevof the use of more mechanized equipment. Some increase in the number of cable splic ers is expected because of the growing use of underground lines in suburban areas. The need for substation opera tors will be reduced substantially since the introduction of improved and more automatic e q u i p m e n t makes it possible to operate most substations by remote control. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of transmission and distribution workers depend on the type of job they have, and the section of the country in which they work. The following tabulation shows the average hourly earnings for major transmission and distribution occupa tions in privately operated utilities in 1966: Average hourly earnings Groundman..................................... $2.61 Lineman........................................... 3.81 Load dispatcher............................... 4. 57 Substation operator......................... 3. 71 Troubleman..................................... 3.82 Load dispatchers and substation operators generally work indoors in pleasant surroundings. L i n e m e n , troublemen, and groundmen work outdoors and, in emergencies, in all kinds of weather. Cable splicers do most of their work in manholes be neath city streets—often in cramped quarters. Safety standards developed over the years by utility companies, with the cooperation of labor unions, have greatly reduced the accident hazards of these jobs. CUSTOMER SERVICE OCCUPATIONS Nature of Work Workers in customer service jobs include those who install, test, and repair meters, and those who read the meters. Also in this group are com pany agents in rural areas and ap pliance servicemen working in com pany-operated shops which repair electrical equipment owned by cus tomers. Metermen (D.O.T. 710.281) (or meter repairmen) are the most skilled workers in this group. They install, test, maintain, and repair meters on customers’ premises, particularly those of large industrial and com mercial establishments. Some metermen can handle all types of meters, including the more complicated ones used in industrial plants and other places where large quantities of elec tric power are used. Others specialize in repairing the simpler kinds, like those in homes. Often, some of the large systems have meter specialists, such as meter installers (D.O.T. 821.381) and meter testers (D.O.T. 710.281). Meter installers put in and take out meters. Meter testers special ize in testing the small meters on homeowners’ property and some of the more complicated ones used by commercial and industrial customers. Meter readers (D.O.T. 239.588) go to customers’ premises—homes, stores, and factories—to read the fig ures on the meters which register the amount of electric current used. They record the amount of current used in a specific period so that each cus tomer can be charged for the amount he used. Meter readers also watch for, and report, any tampering with meters. District representatives u s u a l l y serve as company agents in outlying districts, in localities where the utility company does not have an office, and where the small number of customers does not justify the use of more spe cialized workers. Their work includes reading meters, collecting overdue bills, connecting and disconnecting meters, and making minor repairs. They receive complaints about serv ice and reports of line trouble and send them to a central office for handling. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 664 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Metermen begin their jobs as help ers in the meter testing and meter repair departments. Young men en tering this field should have a basic knowledge of electricity. About 4 years of on-the-job training are re quired to become a fully qualified meterman. Some companies have formal apprenticeship programs for this occupation in which the trainee progresses according to a specific plan. Utility companies usually employ inexperienced men to work as meter readers. They generally accompany the experienced meter reader on his rounds until they have learned the job well enough to go on the rounds alone. This job can be learned in a few days. The duties of district representa tives are learned on the job. An important qualification for men in these jobs is the ability to deal tact fully with the public in handling service complaints and collecting overdue bills. Employment Outlook Little change in employment in customer service occupations is ex pected through the 1970’s. The need for meter readers will be limited be cause of the trend toward less fre quent reading of meters. Moreover, automatic meter reading may become more common and new meters will require less maintenance. However, a few job openings for metermen and meter readers will occur each year to replace those workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of customer service workers vary according to the type of job they have and the section of the country in which they work. The following tabulation shows the aver age hourly earnings for major cus tomer service jobs in privately oper ated utilities in 1966: Average hourly earnings District representative..................... $3. 72 Meterman A .................................... 3. 84 Meterman B..................................... 3. 30 Appliance serviceman..................... 3.31 Meter reader.................................... 2. 89 The job of the meter reader is not physically hard but involves consider able walking and some stair climbing. Metermen and appliance servicemen work indoors under typical repair shop conditions except when repair ing or installing meters or appliances on customers’ premises. tional network stations. Nevertheless, the talented individual will have many opportunities to advance to good paying jobs in stations located in smaller communities. Nature and Location of the Industry In early 1967, about 5,700 com mercial radio stations were in opera tion in the United States. Some 4,100 of these were AM stations (broad RADIO AND TELEVISION casting on frequencies between 540 and 1600 kilocycles), and 1,600 were BROADCASTING FM stations (broadcasting on fre OCCUPATIONS quencies between 88 and 108 mega cycles) . About 600 commercial television The glamour and excitement as stations were in operation in early sociated with radio and television 1967. Most of these were VHF sta make careers in broadcasting attrac tions which broadcast on channels 2 tive to many young people. The through 13; about 100 were UHF sta electronic technology involved in tions, which broadcast on channels 14 transmitting programs and the busi through 83. UHF stations generally ness aspects of operating a broadcast employ fewer workers than VHF sta ing station or network also are attrac tions. tions. In early 1967, there were about Most commercial radio broadcast 90,000 full-time and 21,000 part-time ing stations are small independent staff employees in commercial broad businesses. In early 1967, the average casting; altogether, over 55 percent AM radio station employed about 11 were employed in radio. Staff em full-time employees and about 3 ployees work for a broadcasting sta workers on a part-time basis. FM-only tion or network on a regularly sched stations, on the average, employed uled and continuous basis. In addi fewer employees—about 5 full time tion to staff employees, several and 3 part time. Because they are thousand freelance performers, such more complex, television stations have as actors, musicians, dancers, comedi more staff. The average station had ans, and top-level announcers work on about 70 full-time and 11 part-time specific assignments from stations, employees. networks, and other program pro Commercial radio stations are ducers. (Several thousand other em served by four nationwide networks ployees work for independent pro and a large number of regional net gram producers in activities closely works. Stations can affiliate with net related to broadcasting, such as the works by agreeing to broadcast their preparation of filmed and taped pro programs on a regular basis. National grams and commercials for broadcast radio networks have affiliated stations in almost every large metropolitan ing-) Broadcasting stations offer a variety area, although only a minority of all of interesting jobs in all parts of the radio stations are affiliated with na country. Opportunities for entry jobs tional networks. Regional radio net are best at stations in small com works have fewer affiliated stations, munities. Generally, the most spe and their activities usually consist of cialized and best paying jobs are in arranging for the sale of advertising large cities, especially those with na time, and interconnecting member stations for special events such as baseball and football games. Regional networks have few full-time em ployees because their programing is conducted by staff employees of the affiliated stations. The four national radio networks together employed over 1,000 workers in early 1967. Most television stations depend on one or more of the three national television networks for programs that would be too expensive for individ ual stations to originate—for ex ample, sports events such as world series baseball games or international Olympic contests; broadcasts of operas, plays, and musicals; and news casts of national and international significance. These networks, in turn, can offer national coverage to ad vertisers. Since some small cities have only one or two television stations, these stations often arrange to carry the programs of two or three networks in order to offer their viewers a wider variety of programs. A typical net work television show may be carried by up to 200 stations across the coun try. In early 1967, the three national television networks employed about 11.000 workers, or 1 of every 5 staff employees in television. Almost every community of over 10.000 population has at least 1 broadcasting station (usually radio), and a few of the largest metropolitan areas have as many as 30 radio and television stations. However, onethird of all radio stations are located in communities of less than 10,000, and most of these are in one-station communities. Generally, television stations are located in communities of more than 25,000 population. About three-fourths of all television stations are in communities of 100.000 or more. In contrast, over 60 percent of all radio stations are in communities of less than 100,000 population. Practically all large broadcasting stations are located in metropolitan areas, but small stations are found in big cities as well as small communities. The largest proportion of broadcast ing jobs are in New York and Cali665 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 666 fornia because New York City and Los Angeles are the two major cen ters for origination of network pro grams. Other large and heavily popu lated States, such as Illinois, Texas, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, also have many broadcasting workers because of the large number of individual stations. In addition to commercial broad casting stations, there were over 300 noncommercial radio stations (mainly FM ), and over 100 noncommercial television stations, both VHF and UHF, in early 1967. These stations are operated by nonprofit organiza tions, principally educational agen cies such as State commissions; local boards of education; colleges and uni versities; and special community educational television organizations. Relatively few full-time staff members were employed in educational radio and television stations; instructors and students often help to operate many of these stations, especially those located on college campuses. every sixth employee, and one-fourth of all workers are engaged in some aspect of business management. These proportions vary widely among individual stations, depending on sta tion size and type of programing. Job duties vary greatly between small and large stations. In small radio stations, a large proportion of broadcast time consists of recorded music and weather and news an nouncements. As a result, small sta tions employ only a few workers, each of whom performs a variety of tasks. The station manager, who frequently is also the owner, may act as business and sales manager, or perhaps as pro gram director, announcer, and script writer. Announcers in small stations may do their own writing, often op erate the studio control board, and may even act as salesmen. The engi neering staff may consist of only one full-time broadcast technician assisted by workers from the other depart ments on a part-time basis. Small lowpowered stations, which do not use a directional antenna, may employ a chief engineer on a part-time contract basis, sharing his services with similar stations in the community. In large radio and television stations, jobs are more specialized and usually are con fined to 1 of the 4 departments. The kinds of jobs found in each of these departments are described below. Programing Department. The pro graming department plans, prepares, and produces radio and television programs. Staff employees plan the station’s programing, produce the daily and weekly shows, assign per sonnel to cover special events, and provide general program services such as music, sound effects, and lighting. In addition to these staff employees, freelance actors, comedians, singers, dancers, some well-known announc ers, and other entertainers are hired Broadcasting Occupations Employees of broadcasting stations generally specialize in 1 of 4 major areas of work, although there may be considerable “doubling in brass” in small stations. Those concerned with programing prepare and produce pro grams; engineering workers operate and maintain the equipment that converts sounds and pictures into electronic impulses that can be picked up on home receivers; sales workers sell time to advertisers and develop publicity and promotional material for the station. The remaining em ployees handle general business mat ters, such as accounting, payroll, pub lic relations, personnel administration, and the clerical work related to all the station’s activities. Almost one-half of all full-time staff employees are in programing work and 1 worker in 5 is employed in the engineering department. Workers in the sales, publicity, and promotion departments account for Television cameramen sometimes work outdoors. 667 RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING OCCUPATIONS for specific broadcasts or a series of broadcasts or for special assignments. These performers work on a contract basis for the station, network, adver tising agency, sponsor, or an inde pendent company specializing in pro ducing programs. Many radio and television entertainers also perform in stage plays, motion pictures, night clubs, or other entertainment media. The size of a station’s programing department depends not only on the size of the station, but also on the ex tent to which its broadcasts are live, recorded, or received from a net work. In small stations, the program functions are handled by a few peo ple who make commercial announce ments, read news and sports sum maries, select and play recordings, and introduce network programs. A large television station, on the other hand, may have a program staff con sisting of a large number of people in a wide variety of specialized jobs. Responsibility for the overall pro gram schedule of a large station rests with a program director. He arranges for a combination of programs that he believes will be most effective in meeting the needs of advertisers who buy the station’s services and will at the same time be most attractive and interesting to members of the com munity served by the station. He de termines and administers the station’s program ing policy. Daily schedules of programs are prepared by a traffic manager, who also keeps a record of broadcasting time available for advertising. A con tinuity director is responsible for the writing and editing of all scripts. He may be assisted by a continuity writer, who prepares Announcers’ Books (“copy” ). These books contain the script and commercials for each pro gram along with their sequence and length. Individual programs or series of programs are planned and supervised by a director. In large stations, he may work under the supervision of a producer, who assumes responsibility for selection of scripts, financial con trol, for andFRASER other overall problems of Digitized Program assistants help assemble and coordinate parts of show. production. Sometimes these func tions are combined in the job of pro ducer-director. The director’s major functions include selecting appropri ate artists and studio personnel, scheduling and conducting rehears als, coordinating the efforts of all the people involved in the show to pro duce effective entertainment, and di recting the on-the-air show. He may be assisted by an associate director, who takes over such tasks as working out detailed schedules and plans, ar ranging for distribution of scripts and changes in scripts to the cast, and as sisting in directing the on-the-air show. Some stations employ program assistants to aid in carrying out the orders of the director and his assist ants. The assistants help assemble and coordinate the various parts of the show. They arrange for obtain ing props, makeup service, art work, and film slides. They assist in timing OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 668 the on-the-air show, preparing cue cards from the scripts and using them to cue the performers. Education and public affairs directors act as a link between the station and schools, churches, and civic and charitable in stitutions. They supervise and edit most noncommercial programs. Announcers are the largest and best known group of program work ers. In radio and television stations of all sizes, the announcer introduces programs, guests, and musical selec tions, and delivers most of the live commercial messages. (Further in formation on broadcast announcers is given later in this chapter.) Music is an important part of radio and television programing. Both small and large stations use record ings and transcriptions to provide musical programs and background music for other shows. Large stations, which have extensive music libraries, sometimes employ a music librarian, who maintains the music files and answers requests for any particular selection or type of music. In addi tion to recorded music, a few of the largest stations have specialized per sonnel who plan and arrange for mu sical services. The musical director selects, arranges, and directs suitable music for programs on general in structions from the program director. He selects musicians for live broad casts and directs them during re hearsals and broadcasts. Musicians are generally hired for particular as signments on a freelance basis, al though a few stations employ staff musicians full-time. News gathering and reporting is an increasingly important aspect of radio and television programing. In addition to daily coverage of the news, sports, weather, and, in rural areas, farm reports, the news depart ment also presents special programs covering such events as conventions, .elections, and disasters. The news director plans and supervises the overall news and special events cov erage of a station. A newscaster broadcasts daily news programs and reports special news events on the scene. A newswriter selects and writes news copy to be read on the air by the newscasters. In small stations the jobs of newscaster and newswriter fre quently are combined. Stations that originate live tele vision shows must have staff members capable of handling staging jobs, since staging a television show is sim ilar in many ways to producing a professional stage play. The studio supervisor plans and supervises the setting up of scenery and props and other studio and stage equipment for broadcasts. The floor or stage man ager plans and' directs the actors’ positions and movements on the set in accordance with the director’s in structions by relaying stage direc tions, station breaks, and cues. The jobs of studio supervisor and floor manager often are combined. Floormen set up props, hold cue cards, and do the unskilled chores around the studio. (This job is frequently held by a beginner in the programing de partment.) Makeup artists prepare personnel for broadcasts by applying proper makeup, and maintain the supplies and facilities necessary for this work. Scenic designers plan and design settings and backgrounds for programs. They select furniture, draperies, pictures, and other proper ties to help convey the visual impres sions desired by the director. Sound effects technicians operate special equipment to simulate sounds, such as gunfire, thunder, or falling water during rehearsals and broadcasts. About half of all television pro graming is on film, about 15 percent is live, and the remainder is recorded on magnetic video tape. Video tape recording is done by broadcast tech nicians on electronic equipment that permits instantaneous playback of a television performance. It can be used either to record a live show be ing broadcast or to prerecord a pro gram for future broadcast. For filmed programs, the role of the station’s programing staff is limited to editing the film and timing and scheduling the show. Many stations employ spe cialized staff members to take care of Technician rewinds video tape. filmed program material. The film editor edits all film and prepares it for on-the-air presentation. This in cludes screening all films received as well as cutting and splicing feature films to insert commercials. He also edits all locally produced film. The film librarian catalogs and maintains the station’s files of motion picture film, which include not only com plete programs, but many short se quences that can be fitted into pro grams to create effects which are dif ficult to produce in the studio, such as outdoor action. Engineering Department. The engi neering department of a broadcasting station is responsible for converting the sounds and pictures of programs into electromagnetic impulses that can be received on home radio and television sets. The main tasks of the engineering staff are positioning mi crophones, adjusting levels of sound, keeping transmitters operating prop erly, moving and adjusting television cameras to produce clear, wellcomposed pictures, and lighting tele vision scenes and performers. The RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING OCCUPATIONS staff also installs, maintains, and re pairs the many types of electrical and electronic equipment required for these operations. The basic job in the engineering department is that of the broadcast technician who is qualified to perform a variety of jobs in the radio or tele vision station. For example, these technicians control the operation of the transmitter to keep the output level and frequency of the outgoing broadcast within legal requirements. They also set up, operate, and main tain equipment in the studio and in locations from which remote broad casts are to be made. (Further in formation on broadcast technicians is given later in this chapter.) All stations employ a chief engi neer, who has responsibility for all engineering matters, including super vision of other technicians. In small stations, he also may work a regular shift at the control board. The large stations have engineers who specialize in such fields as sound recording, maintenance, and lighting. A few development engineers are employed by the networks to design and develop new electronic apparatus to meet special problems. Sales Department. Broadcasting sta tions earn their income by selling services to advertisers. These services consist of the time on the air that is allotted to the advertisers’ commer cials. Advertisers may buy time as part of a regular daily or weekly show with which they wish to identify their product, or they may simply buy a time segment or “spot” without spe cial reference to the program being broadcast. Time salesmen, the largest group of workers in this department, sell time on the air to sponsors, advertis ing agencies, and other buyers. They must have a thorough knowledge of the stations’ operations and the char acteristics of the area it serves that are of most interest to advertisers, such as population, number of radio and television sets in use, income levels, and consumption patterns. Time salesmen in large stations often maintain close relationships with par ticular sponsors and advertising agen cies, selling time and acting as general consultants and advisers to these clients in matters pertaining to ad vertising through the station. In very small stations, the time salesman also may handle other functions. Many stations sell a substantial part of their time, particularly to national adver tisers, through independent sales agencies known as station representa tives, which act as intermediaries for time buyers and stations or groups of stations. Large stations generally have sev eral workers who do only sales work. The sales manager supervises his staff of time salesmen, directing their efforts and setting general sales policy. He also may handle a few of the largest accounts personally. Some large stations employ statistical clerks and research personnel to assist the sales staff by analyzing and reporting market data relating to the commu nity served, the significance of the rat ings of the station’s programs re ported by the rating services, and other statistical information. Business Management. Like other businesses, broadcasting stations have a considerable amount of administra tive work. In a very small station, the owner and his secretary may handle all the recordkeeping, accounting, purchasing, hiring, and other routine office work. Where the size of the station warrants the employment of full-time specialists, the business staff may include accountants, publicity specialists, personnel workers, and other professional workers. They are assisted by office workers such as stenographers, typists, bookkeepers, clerks, and messengers. Building maintenance men are employed to keep the facilities in good condition. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A high school diploma is the mini mum educational requirement for entry jobs in broadcasting, although 669 for many jobs some college training is increasingly preferred. A liberal arts education is a good qualification for the beginner because broadcasting needs broadly educated people with knowledge and interests in many areas. Work in television programing for networks and large independent stations generally requires a college degree and some experience in the broadcasting field. Training in specialized areas such as writing, public speaking, dramatics, designing, makeup, or electronics may be required of beginners in these specialties, even though work experi ence usually is not necessary. Some young people without specialized training or experience get their start in broadcasting in such jobs as clerk, typist, floorman, or assistant to an experienced worker. As these new workers gain knowledge and experi ence, they have the chance to advance to more responsible jobs. Young peo ple are sometimes hired on the basis of their potentialities rather than for any specific training or experience, but the more skills, education, and varied background these beginners have, the better will be their chances for advancement. A few young people get started in broadcasting with tem porary jobs in the summer when reg ular workers go on vacations, and broadcast schedules of day-lighthours stations are increased. Technical training in electronics is required for entry jobs in engineering departments. In addition, anyone who operates or adjusts a broadcast' transmitter must have a Federal Com munications Commission Radiotele phone' First Class Operator License. To obtain this license, an applicant must pass a series of technical exam inations given by the Federal Com munications Commission. Small radio stations with only a few employees sometimes prefer to have as many per sonnel as possible legally qualified to operate their transmitters. Because of this, nontechnicians, especially an nouncers, will have a better chance of getting a job in radio if they have a first class license. A course in elec 670 tronics at a recognized technical insti tute is probably the best way to pre pare for the FCC test. Specific training or experience usu ally is not required for entry jobs as announcers in small stations, but an applicant must have a good voice, a broad cultural background, and other characteristics that make him a dramatic or attractive personality. Qualifications for administrative and sales jobs in broadcasting are similar to those required by other employers; a business course of study in high school or college is good preparation for such jobs. Most beginners start out in small stations. Although these stations can not pay high salaries, they offer new workers opportunities to learn many different phases of broadcasting work because they generally use their per sonnel in “combination” jobs. For ex ample, in addition to his regular duties, an announcer may perform some of the duties of a broadcast technician. Women make up about a fourth of broadcasting staff employment. They seldom are employed as technicians, announcers, or salesmen, but fre quently work as production assistants, producers, newswriters, continuity writers, casting directors, costume or set designers, and supervisors of reli gious and children’s programs. They also work in the many office occupa tions often filled by women. A job as secretary is frequently a good entry job for women interested in the pro graming and administrative areas of broadcasting. People in the engineering depart ment tend to remain in this area of work, where thorough training in electronics is essential. Program em ployees usually remain in program ing work, although sometimes trans fers from and to the sales and business services departments are made. Transfers are easier between sales and administrative departments because of their close working relationship; in fact, in the small stations, they are often merged into one department. Although transfers of experienced OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK workers between departments are lim ited to the extent noted, these distinc tions are less important in the begin ning jobs and also in the top-level jobs. At the higher levels, a station executive may be drawn from toplevel personnel of any department. Many top-level administrative jobs are filled by people with sales experience. Employment Outlook Employment in the broadcasting industry is expected to increase slowly during the 1970’s. In addition to job opportunities resulting from growth, job openings will become available as workers transfer to other fields of work, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone will provide an estimated 2,000 job openings annually. Although new radio and television broadcasting stations will be estab lished over the period, most will be small and require few employees. In existing radio stations, employment probably will remain about the same. Continued introduction of equipment that permits the control of transmit ters from the studio will eliminate the need for a technical crew at the trans mitter site. Automatic programming equipment permits radio stations to provide virtually unattended pro graming service. These technological advances will tend to offset employ ment gains in other areas of station operations. Employment in existing television stations may increase slightly as they continue to broaden the scope of their service, such as more local newscasts and locally produced shows. As more of the smaller stations acquire the capability to originate local color tele casts, there may be a small expansion in the number of technical workers to handle and operate the more complex equipment. The number of educational broad casting stations is expected to increase rapidly as private and governmental groups—local, State, and Federal—continue to expand this medium as an educational tool. The growth of edu cational television stations, particu larly, should provide an increasing number of job opportunities, espe cially in programing, engineering, and station management. Competition will be very keen for entry jobs in broadcasting in the years ahead, especially in the large cities, because of the attraction this field has for young people, and the rela tively few beginning jobs that will be available. Earnings and Working Conditions In late 1966, earnings of nonsupervisory broadcasting workers aver aged $154.40 a week or $3.86 an hour for a 40-hour workweek. There is a wide range of salaries among various occupations in the industry and among locations. Employees in large cities generally earn much more than those in the same kinds of jobs in small towns. Wages also tend to be higher in large stations than in small ones and higher in television than in radio. Working conditions in broadcast ing stations are usually pleasant. The work is done in clean, attractive sur roundings. It is performed indoors, except where remote pickups are in volved. Jobs in programing are par ticularly attractive to young people interested in the performing arts, both because of the glamour attached to this field of work, and the opportuni ties it affords for high earnings and artistic expression. Most broadcasting employees have a scheduled 40-hour workweek. How ever, some employees, particularly in the small stations, may have a longer workweek. Sales and business services workers generally work in the day time hours common to most office jobs. However, program and engi neering employees must work shifts which may include evenings, nights, weekends, and holidays. In order to meet a broadcast deadline, program and technical employees in the net works may have to work continuously 671 RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING OCCUPATIONS for many hours and under great pressure. Many unions operate in the broad casting field. They are most active in the network centers and large stations in metropolitan areas. The National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians and the Interna tional Brotherhood of Electrical Workers both organize all kinds of broadcasting workers, although most of their members are technicians. The International Alliance of The atrical Stage Employees and Moving Picture Machine Operators organizes various crafts, such as stagehands, sound and lighting technicians, ward robe attendants, makeup men, and cameramen. Many announcers and entertainers are members of the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists. The Directors Guild of America, Inc. (Ind.) or ganizes program directors, associate directors, and stage managers. The Screen Actors Guild Inc., represents the majority of talent personnel who appear on films made for television. RADIO AND TELEVISION ANNOUNCERS (D.O.T. 159.148) Announcers have various duties, such as conducting interviews. Nature of Work Radio and television staff an nouncers present news and live commercial messages, introduce pro grams, describe sporting events, act as masters of ceremonies, conduct interviews, and identify stations. In small stations, they may perform ad ditional duties such as operating the control board, selling time, and writing scripts and news copy. In large stations, their duties are con fined to the programing department. Many announcers act as disc jockeys, introducing selections of recorded music and commenting on the music and other matters of inter est to the audience. Disc jockeys “ad lib” much of the commentary, work ing without a detailed script. About 14,000 staff announcers were employed on a regularly scheduled, full-time basis in radio and television broadcasting stations in early 1967. About 85 percent of them were employed in radio. The average radio station employed 3 or 4 an nouncers; larger stations employed 8 or 10. Most television stations em ployed three staff announcers, al though larger stations sometimes em ployed five or six. In addition to staff announcers, several thousand free lance announcers sell their services for individual assignments to net works and stations, or to advertising agencies and other independent producers, for both programs (news, sports, disc jockey, etc.) and com mercials. Some announcers become well-known and highly paid person alities. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement To succeed as an announcer, one must have a pleasant and well-con trolled voice, a good sense of timing, and excellent pronunciation. In 672 addition, a thorough knowledge of correct English usage, and a knowl edge of dramatics, sports, music, and current events, improve chances for success. In television, rather high standards of personal appearance also must be met. When on the air, an announcer must be able to react quickly and imaginatively in unusual situations. He also must be a convinc ing salesman when presenting com mercials. In addition to all the above qualifications, the most successful announcers have a combination of personality and showmanship that makes them attractive to audiences. Therefore, anyone considering a career as an announcer should judge his chances of success realistically. Most announcers are men, but there are a few opportunities for women, especially in programs and commer cials aimed at women. High school courses in English, public speaking, dramatics, and for eign languages, plus sports and music hobbies, are valuable background for prospective announcers. A number of vacational schools offer training in announcing, and some universities offer courses of study in the broad casting field. A college liberal arts education also provides an excellent background for an announcer. Most announcers get their first broadcasting jobs in small stations. Because announcers in small stations sometimes operate transmitters, pro spective announcers often obtain a Federal Communications Commis sion Radiotelephone First Class Op erator License which enable them legally to operate a transmitter and, therefore, makes them much more useful to these stations. Announcers more frequently operate control boards, for which only a Third Class license is required. (For information on how to obtain such licenses, see p. 669.) Announcers usually work in several different stations in the course of their careers. After acquiring experience at a station in a small community, an ambitious and talented announcer may move to a better paying job in a OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK larger community. He also may ad vance by getting a regular program as a disc jockey, sportscaster, or other specialist. Competition for announc ing jobs in the national networks is intense, and an announcer usually must be a college graduate with sev eral years of successful announcing experience before he will be given an audition. Employment Outlook The employment of announcers is expected to increase moderately in the 1970’s, as new radio and tele vision stations are opened. The gains in employment resulting from these openings during this period, how ever, will be reduced slightly by the increased use of automatic program ing. Some job openings in this relatively small occupation will also result from transfers to other fields of work and from retirements and deaths. The growth of the industry and replacement needs will create, on the average, several hundred open ings for announcers each year through the 1970’s. It will be easier to get an entry job in radio than in television because of the greater number of radio sta tions, especially small stations, which hire beginners. However, the great attraction this field has for young people and its relatively small size will result in keen competition for entry jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of staff announcers vary considerably, depending upon whether the announcer works in radio or televison, in a large or small station, or in a large or small com munity. As a general rule, wages in crease with the size of the community and the station. Earnings of an an nouncer in television tend to be some what higher than those in radio. The earnings of many better paid announcers i n c l u d e fees received from advertisers in addition to the salaries received from stations. Such fees are larger and more common in television than in radio. In small radio stations, announcers generally are paid a fixed weekly or monthly salary. Announcers who work in reg ular shows, such as disc jockeys or announcers who become identified with popular network radio or tele vision programs, earn considerably more than other staff announcers. Most announcers in large stations work a 40-hour week and receive overtime for work beyond 40 hours. In small stations, many announcers work 2 to 6 hours of overtime each week. Evening, night, and weekend work occurs frequently since some stations are on the air 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Announcers’ working hours consist of both time on the air and time spent in preparing for broadcasts. Working conditions are usually pleasant because of the vari ety of work and the many personal contacts which are part of the job. Announcers also receive some satis faction from becoming well known in the area their station serves. BROADCAST TECHNICIANS (D.O.T. 194.281, .282, and .782; 957.282; and 963.168 through .887) Nature of Work Broadcast technicians set up, op erate, and maintain the electronic equipment used to record or trans mit radio and television programs. They work with equipment such as microphones, sound recorders, light ing equipment, sound effects devices, television cameras, magnetic video tape recorders, and motion picture projection equipment. In the control room, broadcast technicians operate equipment that regulates the quality of sounds and pictures being record ed or broadcast. They also operate controls that switch broadcasts from RADIO AND TEuLEVISION BROADCASTING OCCUPATIONS one camera or studio to another, from film to live programing, or from network to local programs. From the control room, they give technical directions to personnel in the studio by means of hand signals and, in television, by use of telephone headsets. When working on disc jockey programs, they sometimes operate phonograph record turn tables. Other control room duties may include operating movie pro jectors, making recordings of live shows, and keeping an operation log of all broadcasts. As a rule, broadcast technicians in small stations perform a wide variety of duties. In large stations and in net works, technicians are more special ized, although specific job assign ments may change from day to day. Broadcast technicians who specialize may be given titles such as transmit ter technician (monitors and logs outgoing signals and is responsible for proper operation of the trans mitter) , maintenance technician (sets up, maintains, and repairs elec tronic broadcasting e q u i p m e n t ) , audio control technician (operates controls that regulate sound pickup, transmission, and switching), video control technician (operates controls that regulate the quality, brightness, and contrast of television pictures), lighting technician (directs lighting of television programs), field techni cian (sets up and operates broad Maintenance technicians service complex electronic broadcasting equipment. 673 c a s t i n g equipment for programs originating outside the studio), re cording technician (operates and maintains sound recording equip ment), and video tape recording technician (operates and maintains magnetic video tape recording equip ment). Sometimes the term “engi neer” is substituted for technician in the above titles. Installing and maintaining com plex electronic equipment is the most technically difficult work of broad cast technicians. Most technicians do at least occasional maintenance, but large stations usually have one or two experienced men whose - chief duties are to repair and maintain electronic equipment under super vision of the chief engineer. In small radio stations, the chief engineer frequently does all maintenance and repair work himself. When events taking place outside the studios are to be broadcast, technicians go to the site of the pick up and set up, test, and operate the necessary equipment. They also make emergency repairs. After the broad cast, they dismantle the equipment and return to the station. In early 1967, about 20,000 nonsupervisory broadcast technicians were employed in radio and televi sion stations. Most radio stations employing fewer than four techni cians, although a few large radio stations may employ more than 15. Nearly all television stations employ at least five broadcast technicians with the average large station having about 45. A few of the largest televi sion stations may employ more than 75. The majority of broadcast tech nicians work in communities of more than 250,000 population. The highest paying and most specialized jobs are concentrated in New York, Los An geles, Washington, D.C., and Chi cago, the originating centers for most of the network programs. In addition to the nonsupervisory technicians, several thousand super visory personnel with job titles such as chief engineer, assistant chief engineer, director of engineering, 674 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Technician regulates transmission from radio station control room. technical director, and supervisory technician work in engineering de partments. Supervisory personnel are responsible for the operation, main tenance, and repair of all electronic equipment in the studio, at the trans mitter, and on remote broadcasting sites. They may also do maintenance and repair work, design and build new equipment, purchase equipment for the station, and help lay out plans for building new studios, transmit ters, relay equipment, and towers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement A young man interested in becom ing a broadcast technician should plan on getting a Radiotelephone First Class Operator License from the Federal Communications Commis sion. Federal law requires that any one who operates or adjusts broad cast transmitters in television and ra dio stations must hold such a license. Some stations require all their broad cast technicians, including those who do not operate transmitters, to have this license. Applicants for the license must pass a series of written examina tions covering the construction and operation of transmission and receiv ing equipment, the characteristics of electromagnetic waves, and Federal Government and international regu Digitized forlations FRASER and practices governing broadcasting. Information about these examinations and guides to study for them may be obtained from the Federal Communications Com mission, Washington, D.C. 20554. High school courses in algebra and trigonometry, and in physics and other sciences, provide valuable back ground for young men anticipating careers in this occupation. Building and operating an amateur radio sta tion is also good training. A good way to acquire the knowledge neces sary for becoming a broadcast tech nician is to take an electronics course in a technical school. Many schools give courses especially designed to prepare the student for the FCC firstclass license test. Training at the tech nical school or college level is a dis tinct advantage for those who hope to advance to supervisory positions or to the more specialized jobs in large sta tions and in the networks. Young men with FCC first-class li censes who get entry jobs are in structed and advised by the chief en gineer or other experienced techni cians concerning the work procedures of the station. In small stations, they may start by operating the transmitter and handling other technical duties after a brief instruction period. As they acquire more experience and skill, they are assigned to more re sponsible jobs. Men who demonstrate above-average ability may move into the top-level technical positions, such as supervisory technician and chief engineer. A college degree in engi neering is becoming increasingly im portant for advancement to supervi sory positions. Employment Outlook The number of broadcast techni cians is expected to increase only slightly during the 1970’s. Retire ments, deaths, and transfers to other jobs will result in some additional job openings. Some job opportunities for tech nicians will be provided by the new radio and television stations expected to go on the air during this period. In addition, color television broad casting may slightly increase the need for technicians. Color television pick up and transmitting equipment is much more complicated than black and white equipment and requires more maintenance and technical know-how. However, other technical advances, such as automatic switch ing and programing, automatic op eration logging, and remote control of transmitters will limit the increase in job opportunities in the new sta tions and replacement needs in exist ing stations. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of broadcast technicians vary greatly depending on such fac tors as the size and location of the community a station serves, the size of the station, whether he works in a radio or television station, and the experience of the individual. As a rule, technicians’ wages are highest in large cities and in large stations. Technicians employed by television stations usually are paid more than those working for radio stations be cause television equipment is gener ally more complex. Most technicians in large stations work a 40-hour week with overtime pay for work beyond 40 hours. Many broadcast technicians in the larger cities work a 37-hour week. In small stations, many technicians work 2 to 8 hours of overtime each week. Eve ning, night, and weekend work occurs frequently since some stations are on the air as many as 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Network technicians may occasionally have to work con tinuously for many hours and under great pressure in order to meet broad cast deadlines. Broadcast technicians generally work indoors in pleasant surround ings. The work is interesting, and there is often considerable variety of duties. When remote pickups are made, however, technicians may work out of doors at some distance from the studios, under less favorable conditions. his way up by learning his job, prov ing his ability, and acquiring the se niority which will enable him to advance. Nature and Location of the Industry RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS The railroads, with their network of more than 200,000 miles of rail line reaching into all parts of the country, are one of the Nation’s larg est employers. About two-thirds of a million railroad workers were em ployed in early 1967, operating trains, looking after the needs of the travel ing public, maintaining and repair ing facilities and equipment, and carrying on the hundreds of other ac tivities required in this industry. These activities offer a great variety of interesting careers requiring differ ent kinds of skills and levels of educa tion. In most railroad occupations, a worker starts at the bottom and works The railroad industry is made up of “line-haul” railroad companies which transport freight and passen gers between cities and towns, and switching and terminal companies which operate facilities at stations, freight yards, and other terminal points. About 570 of these railroad companies were operating in 1966. In addition, the Pullman Co. per formed special services for passengers traveling on these railroads. The Class I line-haul railroads, which include all of the large, wellknown companies, handle more than 95 percent of the railroad industry’s business and employ about 92 per cent of all railroad workers. With nearly 28,000 locomotive units, about 20,000 passenger train cars, and about 1.5 million freight cars, they trans ported more than 2.5 billion tons of freight and 300 million passengers in 1966. Employment and earnings data for jobs on Class I line-haul railroads are used in this chapter to illustrate employment and earnings throughout the entire railroad industry. Of the various transportation serv ices provided by the railroads, freight movement of commodities, such as coal, ore, grain, lumber, and manu factured products, account for most railroad revenue and employment. Passenger service is important also, although it has declined substantially during the past 20 years. Other railroad services include mail and express. Railroad workers are employed in every State and in both large and small communities, but the greatest numbers work at terminal points where the railroads maintain their central offices, freight yards, and maintenance and repair shops. The metropolitan area of Chicago, where the great eastern and western rail road systems meet, is the hub of the Nation’s railroad network and has more railroad workers than any other area. Other places where particularly large numbers of railroad workers are employed are areas around New York City, Los Angeles, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Cleveland, and St. Louis. “Railroad towns,” such as Altoona, Pa., and Roseville, Calif., where locomotive and car shops are located, also have relatively large concentrations of railroad workers. Employment In Selected Railroad Occupations THOUSANDS OF WORKERS, 1966 20 40 60 TR A IN , E N G IN E, & Y A R D S ER V IC E BRAKEMEN CONDUCTORS LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS LOCOMOTIVE FIREMEN O F F IC E , C O M M U N IC A TIO N , & STATIO N CLERICAL WORKERS TELEGRAPHERS. TELEPHONERS. & TOWERMEN STATION AGENTS M AIN TEN AN CE OF EQU IPM ENT CARMEN MACHINISTS ELECTRICAL WORKERS HELPERS (ALL SKILLED TRADES) GANG FOREMEN AND LEADERS SHEET METAL WORKERS APPRENTICES (ALL SKILLED TRADES) BOILERMAKERS BLACKSMITHS M A IN TEN A N C E OF W A Y & STRUCTURES TRUCKMEN & GANG FOREMEN SIGNAL DEPARTMENT WORKERS BRIDGE & BUILDING WORKERS PORTABLE EQUIPMENT OPERATORS & HELPERS SOURCE WAGE STATISTICS OF CLASS 1 RAILROADS IN 1 0 -6 8 44 Digitized262-057 for FRASER Railroad Occupations 100 The work force of the railroad industry can be divided into five main groups—employees who (1) operate trains, (2) perform communications, station, and office work, (3) build and maintain locomotives, cars, and other rolling stock, (4) build and maintain tracks, structures, and other railroad property, and (5) handle luggage, prepare and serve food, and provide other personal services to passengers. In 1966, 94 percent of the workers in railroad jobs were men. Most women employed by the railroads do office work. 675 676 Chart 59 shows the number of em ployees in some of the principal rail road occupations. Other occupations in which large numbers of workers are employed but which are not shown on the chart, range from un skilled laundry and cleaning jobs to professional positions such as ac countant, engineer, and statistician. (Information about some of these jobs is given elsewhere in the Hand book.) The workers directly engaged in running the trains are known as “operating employees.” They repre sent more than one-fourth of all rail road workers. Class I line-haul rail roads had over 170,000 operating employees in 1966. In this group are locomotive engineers, firemen, con ductors, brakemen, and, on some pas senger trains, baggagemen. These men work together as train crews, either operating trains out on the “run” or operating trains at the ter minals and railroad yards where freight is loaded and unloaded, freight cars are received and switched, and trains are broken up and made up. Other operating em ployees who work in the yards in clude switchtenders, who assist con ductors (or foremen) and brakemen (or switchmen) by throwing the track switches, and hostlers, who fuel locomotives, check their operating condition, and deliver them to the engine crews. A large group of railroad workers, about one-fifth of all those employed in the industry, consists of communi cations, station, and office employ ees who regulate the movement of trains and take care of the business affairs of the railroads. In 1966, Class I line-haul railroads employed about 151,600 persons in such jobs. Com munications are handled by dis patchers who coordinate the move ment of trains and issue train orders, and by telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen who either pass train or ders and other instructions to the train crews or carry them out by setting signals and track switches. At all stations, station agents are in OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK charge of the railroad’s business af fairs. Railroad clerks work in stations and company offices where they may do secretarial and other kinds of office work, assist station agents, deal with customers, sell tickets, tend baggage rooms, keep records, and perform re lated tasks. Also included in this group of railroad workers are claims investigators, accountants, lawyers, motor vehicle operators, patrolmen, and watchmen. More than a fifth of all railroad workers are employed in railroad yards, carshops, and engine houses where they maintain and repair loco motives, cars, and other railroad roll ing stock. Class I line-haul roads em ployed about 145,600 workers in this group in 1966. Carmen perform a variety of repair and maintenance tasks necessary to keep railroad freight and passenger cars in good operating condition. Electrical work ers, machinists, boilermakers, black smiths, and sheet metal workers also are employed in car shops. A considerably smaller group of railroad workers, about one-sixth of the total, maintains and constructs tracks, bridges, stations, signals, and other railroad property. The Class I line-haul railroads employed about 94,100 in work of this kind in 1966. Trackmen and other maintenanceof-way workers maintain, construct, and repair tracks and roadbeds. Bridge and building mechanics con struct and maintain bridges, tunnels, and many other kinds of structures along the right of way. Signal work ers are responsible for installing the railroad’s vast network of train and crossing signals and for keeping it in working order. Another small group of railroad workers provides personal services to passengers at stations and aboard trains. With 10,800 employees in 1966, or 2 percent of all employed in the railroad industry, it is by far the smallest of the five major railroad oc cupational groups. It includes Pull man conductors who are in charge of sleeping and parlor car service on most trains, as well as porters and attendants who perform many kinds of personal service for passengers. This group also includes cooks and waiters who prepare and serve food and redcaps who work in and around railroad stations where they handle luggage and otherwise assist passen gers in boarding and leaving trains. (Additional information about cooks and waiters is given elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For most jobs, particularly those on the trains, in the yards, and around the stations, training is received on the job. The new employee learns by working and receiving instructions from experienced men. For some of fice and maintenance jobs, training may be obtained in high schools and vocational schools. Home study courses on railroading are available also. In addition, universities and technical schools offer courses in rail way engineering, transportation, traf fic management, and other subjects valuable to professional and technical workers. New employees in some occupa tions—principally those connected with train or engine service—start as “extra board” men, that is, their names are placed on an “extra list” for individual occupations. From these lists, they are called to fill va cancies that arise due to vacations, days off, or illness of men on regular jobs. They also may be called for extra work because of an increase in railroad traffic. As regular job assign ments become available and as the extra board workers gain experience and seniority, they are assigned to regular positions. The time spent on extra board work varies with the type of job and the number of available openings. In some cases workers may not receive regular assignments for a number of years. Apprenticeship programs are lim ited chiefly to trainees in the railroad shop crafts. Many of these programs 677 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS are planned and operated jointly by the companies and the railroad work ers’ unions. Of the several thousand men who were taking this kind of training in 1966, the majority were “regular” apprentices, usually high school graduates with no previous work experience, who were working and receiving instruction in their chosen trades for a 4-year period. Others were “helper” apprentices, men with some previous experience as railroad workers, who were receiv ing the same kind of training, usually for a 3-year period. Applicants with a high school edu cation or its equivalent are preferred by railroad companies for most kinds of nonprofessional positions. Good physical condition is required for most jobs, and almost all large rail roads require applicants to pass phys ical examinations before they are hired; in some jobs, physical exami nations are required periodically. Ex cellent hearing and eyesight are es sential for train and engine service jobs, and color blindness is an abso lute bar to employment in work in volving the interpretation of railroad signals. Promotions of qualified workers to jobs covered by union-management agreements are made on the basis of seniority. Most job vacancies are listed on a bulletin board, and all workers interested may “bid” for them. The job goes to the qualified applicant whose length of service places him highest on the seniority list. Often, before workers can qualify for promotion, they must pass written and performance tests. For occupa tions in train and engine service, there are well-established avenues of pro motion. Engineers are usually chosen from the ranks of the firemen, and conductors from the list of brakemen. A railroad worker’s seniority usu ally entitles him to promotion only for job openings which occur within a limited area or “seniority district” of the railroad system for which he works. In some cases, seniority rights may apply only to one shop, locality, or office. Among train and engine personnel, seniority rights may be limited either to road (freight and/or passenger) service, or yard service. In such cases, workers may bid only for positions in the particular type of service in which they have been employed. The worker’s seniority also deter mines how much choice he may have about his working conditions. A be ginning telegrapher, for instance, may have to work several years on a night shift in an out-of-the-way location before he accumulates enough se niority to get an assignment without these disadvantages. (Later sections of this chapter con tain more complete information about the training and other qualifi cations for selected occupations in the railroad industry.) Employment Outlook The longrun decline in railroad employment is expected to continue, but at a gradually decreasing rate in the immediate years ahead. If the an ticipated growth of freight traffic is realized, however, a slow upward movement in employment should oc cur during the early 1970’s. Technological innovation and changing patterns of transportation and production have resulted in a substantial decline in railroad em ployment in recent years. Between 1955 and 1966, employment in Glass I line-haul railroads dropped 41 per cent, from nearly 1.1 million to 631,000. Such developments as the use of larger, more powerful diesel loco motives and the extensive use of ma chines for roadway upkeep have had a considerable employment impact. The railroad work force also declined as competition from other modes of transportation—notably automobiles, trucks, buses, airplanes, and pipe lines—brought a steep drop in rail road passenger travel and relatively little growth in freight traffic. Most of the factors which have led to reduced employment in the past will continue to influence railroad employment during the decade ahead. In addition, mergers of con necting or parallel railroads could further reduce railroad employment by eliminating facilities, such as those at terminals, and by combining ac counting and other functions. Some mergers have occurred in recent years and, on the basis of present develop ments, other mergers are likely. Despite prospects for declining em ployment in the immediate future, job opportunities will be available for thousands of new railroad workers. The railroads have one of the largest work forces in American industry, with a high proportion of older work ers. Many jobs will become vacant because of retirements, deaths, pro motions to other railroad jobs, and transfers to other fields of work. Re tirements and deaths alone may re sult in tens of thousands of job open ings each year during the next 10 years. Job openings due to replacement needs will number in the thousands. However, opportunities for new workers in some nonoperating occu pations—such as clerk, roadway maintenance worker, and signal man—may be restricted as a result of recent labor-management agreements providing for job protection of many nonoperating (other than train and engine service) employee groups. Under these contracts, a limitation has been established on reductions in the number of workers in any one year; provisions were made for mov ing unneeded workers in a given craft or occupational group in one district to another district where their skills can be usefully employed; and assur ances were given that regular seasonal employees in future years would be offered employment at least equiva lent to what they performed in 1966. Another restriction on openings for new workers is the recalling of fur loughed workers before considering job applicants to fill vacancies. This restriction is most constraining for jobs in specialized railroad work, such as that of telegrapher and towerman. Job opportunities will be affected 678 much more in some geographic areas than in others by these restrictions. Job openings for work as locomo tive firemen (helpers) have also been extremely limited since May 7, 1964, the effective date of a compulsory ar bitration award designed to eventu ally eliminate 90 percent of firemen (helper) positions in road freight and yard locomotive service. Firemen (helper) positions on locomotives in passenger service were not affected by this award, nor were any positions of firemen (helpers) for any class of locomotive service operating where State law requires employment of fire men on locomotives. This temporary award expired in April 1966 and since no general agreement had been reached between the parties in the dispute by mid-1967, the outlook for job opportunities in this occupation is uncertain. Future job opportunities for appli cants probably will be most numerous in construction and maintenance work along the right-of-way, in oper ating jobs as brakemen, and in office work. However, because of the sea sonality of railroad work, and the seniority system under which new workers are furloughed first and re called last, many new workers will have less than full-time employment during the first few years on the job. The number and type of job open ings for applicants hired by an indi vidual railroad also will be influenced by the rapidity of the railroad’s adop tion of new equipment and new methods of operation, and its geo graphical location in relation to changing marketing c o n d i t i o n s . There will be a need for professional engineers and skilled personnel cap able of maintaining and improving the new mechanical and electrical equipment gradually being intro duced. Opportunities should increase for industrial engineers and methods analysts as railroads seek better means of utilizing equipment and personnel. The increasing use of electronic dataprocessing equipment to handle a wide range of railroad accounting and statistical activities will generate OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK a growing demand for programers and other trained specialists. As the railroads continue to explore new ways to meet competition, opportuni ties will arise for specialists in indus trial development and marketing. Railroad freight traffic is expected to rise substantially through the 1970’s, continuing the trend of recent years. Toward the end of the 1960’s, the need for new workers, due to in creasing freight traffic, is expected to about offset the declines in railroad employment that will result from in creasing efficiency in operations and the declining passenger traffic. The anticipated rise in demand for rail road freight service is based on the assumption of a high rate of growth in the economy through the mid1970’s. Even higher levels of railroad freight traffic may result, also, if im proved freight handling methods and equipment are more widely adopted. For example, the shipment of high way trailers and large containers on railroad flat cars, and the use of larger, special purpose freight cars may increase freight traffic signifi cantly by improving rail carriers’ ability to compete more effectively with other modes of transportation. New interest has also been shown in the use of rapid rail transit for intercity and intraurban passenger movement. Studies of the best meth ods for moving passengers within and between urban areas are pro gressing, and may result in a significant resurgence of rail pas senger transportation. In that event, railroad employment opportunities would increase substantially. Earnings and Working Conditions Average earnings of railroad work ers are higher than those of workers in most manufacturing industries. Employees of Class I line-haul rail roads, exclusive of executive and administrative personnel, averaged $3.08 an hour and $135.52 a week in 1966, whereas production workers in all manufacturing industries aver aged $2.71 an hour and $111.92 a week. The earnings of individual railroad workers vary greatly because of the great variety of their occupations and skill requirements. Geographic dif ferences in wage levels are consider ably less than in most other industries, since the wage scales specified in many labor-management contracts in the railroad industry are identical throughout the country. (Earnings in some of the principal occupations are discussed in later sections of this chapter.) Most railroad workers are mem bers of trade unions and many of the conditions under which they work are regulated by collective bargaining agreements. Contracts between the unions and the railroad companies contain clauses dealing with wage rates, hours of work, vacation pay, seniority, and other matters. (The principal unions representing each occupational group are listed in the sections of this chapter which deal with individual occupations.) The work schedules of railroad em ployees and the conditions under which they are paid for overtime work depend upon the type of opera tion in which they are employed. The great majority of railroad employees work at terminals—in yards, stations, and railroad offices. In 1966, the “basic” workweek for most workers in this group was a 5-day week of 40 hours. Premium pay, amounting to time and one-half the regular wage rate, usually was paid for any time worked over 8 hours a day. In freight and passenger road serv ice, the basic workday for train and engine crews is established on an entirely different basis. Generally, when a member of the train or engine crew has covered a specified number of miles, or worked a certain number of hours—whichever occurs first—he receives a day’s pay at his regular wage rate. He receives extra pay for any additional miles covered or hours worked on that day. The basic hours of employees who look after the needs of passengers 679 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS aboard trains— dining car cooks and waiters, Pullman porters, and train attendants—are set on a monthly basis. Some workers in these jobs re ceive time and one-half pay for hours worked over 184 a month and those employed on regular assignments are guaranteed at least 174 hours of work a month. Others receive overtime after 240 hours and are guaranteed 205 hours a month, if working on regular jobs. Because freight shippers and the traveling public must be served 24 hours a day, the members of train and engine crews, as well as hostlers, teleg raphers and telephoners, and station agents, are often required to work nights, weekends, and on holidays. Irregular work schedules are particu larly common for extra board work ers, since they have no regular assignments and may be called to work any time of the day or night. Some railroad workers, like bridge and building mechanics and certain track and road maintenance workers, are required to work away from home for days at a time. Practically all railroad employees receive 1 week’s paid vacation after 1 year on the payroll, 2 weeks after 3 years, 3 weeks after 10 years, and 4 weeks after 20 years. On most roads, nonoperating employees receive pay for 8 holidays a year and operating employees in yard service receive pay for 7 holidays a year. Under the federally administered Railroad Retirement Act of 1935, all employees having more than 10 years of service in the railroad industry re ceive pensions upon retirement. They receive full pensions when they reach age 65 and reduced pensions at age 62. Those who have worked for the railroads for at least 30 years may retire on a reduced pension at age 60. Employees having 10 years or more of service who become disabled and are unable to work, and depend ent wives and husbands of railroad workers who have died also receive pensions. As of early 1967, the aver age pension paid to railroad workers who retired because of age or dis ability was about $150 a month; the average pension paid to survivors of railroad workers, about $68 a month. Another Federal law, the Railroad Unemployment Insurance Act, pro vides benefits for railroad workers who become unemployed. In January 1967, these benefits ranged from $22.50 to $51 a week depending on earnings. In 1966, the average daily unemployment benefit paid was $10.13 (equal to $50.65 for 5 benefit days per week). Unemployment ben efits are paid for a period up to 26 weeks, but workers having 10 years or more of service can receive benefits for a longer period. Under the Railroad Unemploy ment Insurance Act, railroad workers also receive compensation for work days lost because of sickness or injury. In early 1966, the average daily sick ness benefit paid was $10.10. Other insurance programs are op erated under agreements with trade unions and provide group life insur ance to employees and comprehensive hospital and medical insurance to these employees and their depend ents. Where To Go for More Information Additional information about oc cupations in the railroad industry can be obtained from railroad offices in your locality. General information about the railroad industry can be obtained from : Association of American Railroads, Transportation Building, Washington, D .G .20006. air brakes, and other controls, and he supervises the work of the fireman (helper) who may work in the cab with him. Engineers work in railroad yards, or on the road in passenger or freight service. The yard engineer operates the locomotive or switch-engine, which is used to move freight and passenger cars when trains are being made up before a run and broken up after a run, or when cars are being switched for loading or unloading. The engi neer in passenger or freight service operates the locomotive which moves trains over the road, in accordance with the train orders for each run or any instructions received en route through the conductor, the wayside signal system, or by train radio. Before and after each run, the engineer checks on the condition of the locomotive and either sees that minor adjustments are made on the spot or reports to the engine foreman mechanical defects needing attention. While operating his locomotive, he must observe track signals and com ply with speed restrictions at all hours and in all weather conditions. To do this he must be thoroughly familiar with the characteristics of the road over which he is operating. He must constantly be alert, especially for ob structions on the track or other emergencies. In 1966, about 36,200 engineers were employed by Class I line-haul railroads, and a few thousand more were employed by short-line railways and switching and terminal com panies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS (D.O.T. 910.383) Nature of Work The engineer is responsible for running the locomotive safely and efficiently. He operates the throttle, Vacancies in engineer positions generally have been filled by firemen (helpers) who have qualified for pro motion. Selection is on a seniority basis. To qualify, the applicant must p a s s comprehensive examinations which deal with the train’s mechan ical and electrical equipment, and with fuel economy, safety, timetables, train orders, and other operating rules 680 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK moted, or by firemen whose jobs as engineers were terminated during re cent years because of cutbacks in rail road services. The number of engineers employed by the railroads has been declining for some years because of the decrease in railroad business and increasing' multiple-unit operation of diesel loco motives. Introduction of technologi cal innovations, such as the use of remotely and automatically controlled devices for freight car classification and signal control, and other changes in equipment and operating methods, were also important factors in lower employment levels. The total number of engineers employed by class I linehaul railroads dropped from about 44,000 in 1955 to 36,200 in 1966. Employment is expected to increase slightly in the early 1970’s as freight traffic increases. Some additional locomotive engineers may be needed also for passenger service as rapid mass transit rail systems are developed. Earnings and Working Conditions Diesel engineer checks track conditions by radio. and regulations. He must also be able to operate any kind of locomotive in service on his road. A newly promoted engineer starts out as an extra board man without any regular assignment. It may be several years before he receives such an assignment. During this period, he works on temporary assignments whenever an engineer is needed. An experienced engineer may advance to a supervisory position, such as fore man of engines for his road. Engineers are required to take physical examinations at regular in tervals. They must have good eye sight and hearing. If they fail at any time to meet all of the physical stand ards, they may be restricted to work ing as engineers only in certain types of service, or they may be transferred to other kinds of work where physical standards are less exacting. Employment Outlook The number of job openings for locomotive engineers during the next decade will be limited. Virtually all openings during the early 1970’s will arise from the need to fill positions left vacant by engineers who retire or die. (Most workers are in the older age groups.) These positions will be filled by firemen (helpers) who are pro The earnings of engineers depend on the class of locomotive operated and the kind of service in which the engineer is employed. Engineers in yard service for Class I line-haul rail roads (including extra board men) earned, on the average, about $850 a month in 1966. In road freight serv ice, engineers averaged $1,000 a month. The earnings of passenger service engineers averaged about $1,040 a month in 1966. In 1966, the standard workweek at straight-time rates for yard engineers varied from 5 days on some railroads and railroad divisions to 7 days on others. All yard engineers worked basic 8-hour days with time and onehalf paid for work over 8 hours. The basic unit of work for road freight and passenger engineers is 100 miles. Un der certain circumstances they may be paid on an hourly basis or on a mileshour basis. On many roads, the amount a road engineer may earn in a single month 681 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS is governed by mileage limitations agreed upon by the unions and the railroad companies. Whenever an en gineer on one of these roads reaches the maximum number of miles he is permitted to operate a locomotive during a month, his assignment for the rest of the month is taken over by another engineer—usually an extra board man. The engineer in road service, even on regular assignments, is often sched uled to work nights, weekends, and holidays at straight-time rates. Like other workers in road service, he must often “lay over” away from home for a time at the end of a run before he makes the return trip back to his home terminal. The assignments of engineers on the extra board may be very irregu lar, because these men may be called to work at any time of the day or night, and the amount of traffic varies from one season to another on many roads. Extra board engineers are likely to have less work, and lower earnings than those men having regular assign ments. On all major railroads, wages and the conditions under which engineers work are agreed upon by employers and unions. The great majority of engineers are represented by the Brotherhood of Locomotive Enginers (Ind.). Some are represented by the Brotherhood of Locomotive Fire men and Enginemen. LOCOMOTIVE FIREMEN (HELPERS) (D.O.T. 910.383) Nature of Work The locomotive fireman (helper) works with the engineer either in the railroad yards or in road service. At the beginning of his run, the fire man (helper) checks to make sure that the locomotive is supplied with the fuel, sand, and water needed for the run, that the engine is in proper working order, and that the flagging equipment, classification markers, and tools needed by the engine crew are on hand and ready to use. Dur ing the run, he makes mechanical and electrical adjustments as needed. On passenger trains, he is also responsible for operating the equipment which supplies heat to the train. From his position at the left side of the cab, the fireman (helper) as sists the engineer by acting as look out for obstructions on tracks and at road crossings, and by checking wayside signals which indicate the speed at which the train is to proceed. In addition, he inspects the train as it rounds curves, because this view of the train enables him to spot smoke, sparks, fire, and other signs of de fective equipment. The fireman (helper) must be pre pared to take over the controls of the locomotive, should the engineer be come ill or otherwise incapacitated. An important part of his job, there fore, is learning to operate the loco motive by observing the engineer. Often he relieves the engineer at the controls for brief periods, or takes the controls for a “practice run.” Class I line-haul railroads em ployed about 19,600 firemen in 1966. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement For the relatively few firemen (helper) positions being filled at pres ent, most railroads prefer that appli cants be at least 21 years of age and not over 35. Most applicants hired are over 20 years of age. A high school education or its equivalent is desired. Good health is important, and firemen must be able to pass pe riodic physical examinations. Stand ards for eyesight and hearing are par ticularly high. A beginning fireman first makes a series of trial trips in the railroad yard or on the road. On these trips, he works under the direction of an ex perienced engineer or fireman who instructs him about his future duties and about railroad rules and regula tions. This training period lasts a few days on some roads and as long as 3 weeks on others. After the newly hired fireman has satisfactorily dem onstrated his ability on the trial trips, and after he has passed exami nations on railroad rules and regula tions, his name is placed on the fire man’s extra board and he becomes subject to call for temporary work assignments. He may remain on ex tra board work up to several years before he obtains his first regular as signment. On some roads, beginning assignments are in yard service and the fireman works his way up first to road freight service and then to road passenger service. On other railroads, firemen usually remain either in yard service or in road service throughout their railroad careers. Firemen with sufficient experience and seniority—usually at least 3 or 4 years—can become eligible for pro motion to engineer by passing quali fying examinations covering the me chanical and electrical equipment on trains, air brake systems, fuel econ omy, timetables, train orders, and other operating rules and regulations. As engineers are needed, qualified firemen who have the longest senior ity are placed on the engineers’ extra board. Employment Outlook Job openings for work as locomo tive firemen (helpers) have been ex tremely limited since May 1964, the effective date of a compulsory arbi tration award designed to eventually eliminate all but a relatively few fireman (helper) positions in road freight and yard locomotive service. Firemen (helper) positions on loco motives in passenger service were not affected by this award, nor were any positions of firemen (helpers) for any class of locomotive service operating where State law requires the employ ment of firemen on locomotives. 682 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK The national arbitration award ex pired in April 1966, and since no general agreement had been reached between the parties in the dispute by mid-1967, the outlook for job oppor tunities in this occupation cannot be anticipated with any degree of cer tainty although it appears that em ployment opportunities for new en trants may be somewhat limited. Workers in this occupation on all major roads are covered by union contracts. The great majority of fire men are represented by the Brother hood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen. Some are members of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engi neers (Ind.). Earnings and Working Conditions CONDUCTORS The earnings of firemen depend on the class of locomotive on which they work and the type of service for which the locomotive is operated. Firemen in yard service for Class I line-haul railroads (including extra board men) averaged $670 a month in 1966. Freight service firemen aver aged $785 monthly on freight trains. Road passenger firemen averaged $900 monthly. In 1966, firemen in yard service worked a basic 8-hour day and 40hour week, and IJ/2 times the basic hourly rate was paid for work beyond these hours. On many roads, the amount that firemen in road service could earn in a single month was governed by mileage limitations agreed upon by the unions and the railroad companies. Whenever a fire man on one of these roads reached the maximum number of miles he was permitted to cover in a month, his as signment for the rest of the month was taken over by another fireman— usually a man on the extra board. Firemen must often work at night and on weekends and holidays be cause train schedules require 24hour-a-day service. Road service often requires that they be away from their home stations for varying periods of time. Irregular working hours are particularly common among men on the extra board and in road freight service. Extra board men tend to have less work and therefore lower incomes than firemen with regular assign ments. On many roads, the amount of work varies from one season of the year to another. (D.O.T. 198.168) Nature of Work Conductors are responsible for see ing that railroad trains are moved ac cording to train orders or other in structions. Freight and passenger train conductors are the “captains” of their trains. They are responsible for the safety of their passengers and cargoes, and they supervise the work of the train and engine crews. Before a freight or passenger train leaves the terminal, the conductor re ceives the train orders from the dis patcher and confers with other crew members to make sure they under stand the orders. During the run, he sees that the cars in the train are in spected periodically and arranges either for the repair of mechanical breakdowns while the train is on its run, or for defective cars to be set out on the nearest siding. At stops, he signals to the engineer the proper time for departure. As the superior officer on the train, the conductor takes charge in any emergency that may occur while the train is on its run, and all persons employed on it are subject to his instructions. On freight trains, the conductor keeps a record of the contents and destination of each car, and sees that freight cars are picked up and set out along the route. On passenger trains, the conductor collects tickets and cash fares. Yard conductors, often called “yard foremen,” direct the work of the switching crews who make up and break up trains. In mechanized yards, yard conductors operate consoles that electrically control the alinement of track switches. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Openings for conductors are filled on a seniority basis by promotion of qualified brakemen. To qualify for promotion, a man usually must have several years’ experience as a brakeman, and pass examinations covering signals, air brakes, timetables, operat ing rules, and related subjects. On some roads, those who have qualified for promotion are first given tem porary assignments as conductors while they are still working as brakemen. On other roads, brakemen promoted to conductor positions are put on the extra board where they are given temporary assignments as men are needed. In either case, as regular conductor assignments become avail able, they are assigned to the men with the greatest seniority. On most roads, conductors in yard service and in road service have sep arate seniority lists, and they usually remain in one of these two types of service throughout their careers. A few roads, however, start conductors on yard assignments and then move them to freight service and finally to passenger service. The conductor is the member of the train crew who has the most di rect contact with the public and it is important that he be able to act ef fectively as the railroad’s representa tive. Conductors who show special ability of this kind may advance to managerial positions such as" train master. Employment Outlook There will be a moderate number of opportunities for brakemen to be promoted to jobs as conductors during the 1970’s. Conductors compose one of the oldest age groups in the Na- RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS 683 conductors and ticket collectors $800 a month. In 1966, conductors in yard service worked a basic 8-hour day and 5-day week. For work beyond these hours, they were paid I /2 times their basic wage rates. The pay received by pas senger and freight conductors is based on a combination of miles traveled and hours worked. Under this prac tice these conductors may receive more for a trip than their basic day’s pay. Like all other road crew members, conductors in freight or passenger service are often scheduled to work nights, weekends, and on holidays. Conductors on extra board work often have irregular hours. They may also work less time than conductors with regular assignments and, there fore, earn less. Conductors on every major railroad are covered by union contracts. Freight and passenger conductors are represented by the Order of Railway Conductors and Brakemen (Ind.) and the Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen. Yard conductors (or yard foremen) are organized by the Broth erhood of Railroad Trainmen and the Switchmen’s Union of North America. Conductor talks w ith en gin eer b y radio phone. tion’s work force, and job openings will develop to replace those who re tire, die, or leave railroading for some other reason. The number of conductors on Glass I line-haul railroads declined from about 45,200 in 1955 to 38,700 in 1966, owing to the decline of passen ger traffic, the trend toward longer freight trains, and the mechanization of yard operations. As more and more yard work is speeded up by the use of the new devices such as electric and electronic car classification sys tems and communications equip ment, little change is expected in the number of conductors during the early 1970’s. However, employment in BRAKEMEN this occupation is expected to increase slightly in the latter part of the 1970’s as a result of the anticipated growth in railroad freight traffic. (D.O.T. 910.364 and .884) Earnings and Working Conditions Brakemen work with the conduc tors as members of the train crews on freight and passenger trains and in the railroad yards. One brakeman (or “flagman” ) is generally stationed in the rear of each freight and pas senger train; his duties include seeing that the proper flags, warning lights, and other signals are displayed at the rear of the train in order to protect it while it is in motion and at stops. Most freight and passenger trains The type of service in which they are employed and the number of cars in their trains determine the basic earnings of conductors. In 1966, yard conductors employed by Class I linehaul railroads earned an average of $780 a month. In road freight service, conductors averaged $920 monthly. The average for passenger conductors was $915 and for assistant passenger Nature of Work 684 carry at least one other brakeman stationed in the front end of the train whose duties include setting out sig nals to protect the front of the train at unexpected stops. Before a train leaves the station, the brakemen in road service check the air brake equipment on the cars and see that tools and other equip ment are in their proper places. Dur ing a run, they make frequent visual inspections of their train from posi tions at both the head and rear end of the train, looking for smoke, sparks or other indications of sticking brakes, overheated car bearings, or other equipment malfunctions. A t stops during the run, they make “walking inspections” of the cars in the train and, when necessary, couple and un couple cars and air hose and assist (the conductor in setting out and switching cars at industrial sidings. They are responsible for regulating the air-conditioning, lighting, and heating equipment in passenger cars. Brakemen in passenger service (also known as “trainmen” ) sometimes as sist the conductor by collecting tickets and generally looking after the needs of the passengers. Yard brakemen (frequently called “switchmen” or “helpers” ) assist in making up and breaking up trains by throwing switches, coupling and uncoupling freight and passenger cars, and ap plying or releasing handbrakes on cars to control car movement. Yard brakemen may advance to yard conductors; usually they stay in yard service throughout their rail road careers. On some roads, brakemen in road service may move from freight service to passenger work, us ually considered more desirable be cause it is less strenuous than freight service and sometimes involves shorter working hours. When they have acquired suffi cient seniority brakemen in road serv ice may advance to conductors. Less frequently, they take positions as bag gagemen. Conductor positions are nearly always filled by promoting brakemen who have qualified by pass ingFRASER written and oral examinations Digitized for OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK covering such subjects as signals, timetables, brake systems, and oper ating rules. Promotions are made ac cording to seniority rules, and it may take up to 10 years or more for a brakeman to get his first assignment as a conductor. Employment Outlook Several thousand opportunities for new workers to obtain jobs as brakemen will develop through the 1970’s, almost entirely as a result of retire ments and deaths of conductors and brakemen and because of promotions and transfers to other work. The number of brakemen em ployed by Class I line-haul railroads declined from about 103,000 in 1955 to 76,200 in 1966. During the early 1970’s, work in railroads yards is ex pected to become increasingly mech anized, using automatic car retarders, automatic switching, and other de vices. These developments are ex pected to result in a further decline in the employment of brakemen during this period. However, the total num ber of brakemen is expected to sta bilize or increase slightly by the mid1970’s as a result of the anticipated growth in railroad freight traffic. Earnings and Working Conditions The number of cars in the train and the type of service in which he is employed determine the earnings of a freight brakeman. The average monthly earnings of yard brakemen employed by Class I line-haul rail roads were $645 in 1966. Brakemen on freight trains averaged $780 a month. The monthly average for pas senger train brakemen was $785 in 1966. In 1966, brakemen in yard service had a 5-day, 40-hour basic work week, and for work beyond this they were paid V/2 times their regular hourly rates. In addition to their basic day’s pay, brakemen in road, passen ger, or freight service earned extra pay under certain conditions; for ex ample, when they traveled more than 100 miles on a freight run or 150 miles on a passenger run. Like other members of train and engine crews, brakemen are often scheduled to work nights, weekends, and holidays. Brakemen who are on the extra board and have been em ployed by the railroad for only a short time have less steady work and lower earnings than men having regu lar assignments and they may also work more irregular hours. Yard and freight brakemen face greater ac cident risks than most other railroad workers. The great majority of brakemen are represented by the Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen. The Order of Railway Conductors and Brakemen (Ind.) has organized freight and pas senger brakemen on some roads, and the Switchmen’s Union of North America has organized some yard brakemen. TELEGRAPHERS, TELEPHONERS, AND TOWERMEN (D.O.T. 236.588 and 910.782) Nature of Work Telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen control the movement of trains in accordance with instructions issued by the train dispatchers. Teleg raphers and telephoners receive train orders from the dispatchers and pass them on to the train crews. Towermen operate the controls which throw track switches and set signals in order to route traffic ac cording to train schedules or special orders. To some extent, the three jobs are interchangeable. For example, many towermen also act as teleg raphers and telephoners in trans mitting orders, and some telegraphers and telephoners spend part of their 685 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS time operating signals. Telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen work either in railroad stations or in towers located in yards, terminals, and other important junction points along the railroad’s right of way. Often, at the larger facilities and signal towers, a chief telegrapher, a chief telephoner, or wire chief, or chief towerman (train director) is in charge of the work. Telegraphers and telephoners may transmit information about train or ders, as well as other types of com munications relating to the railroad’s business, by Morse Code, radio tele phone, telephone, and teletype or similar device. Morse Code, once used for this purpose, has generally been replaced by the telephone. At some stations, telegraphers may sell tickets or perform clerical work in addition to their other duties. Class I line-haul railroads em ployed about 14,300 workers in the telegrapher, telephoner, and towerman group in 1966. Included in this group were about 1,100 chief teleg raphers and telephoners, over 300 train directors, and about 4,600 workers who combined telegraphing and telephoning with clerical duties in stations. Short-line railways em ployed several hundred more of these workers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen receive their training on the job, working under the supervi sion of experienced telegraphers, sta tion agents, or towermen. They are instructed about their future responsi bilities, including operating rules, train orders, station operations, and the Morse Code. On most roads, trainees must pass examinations on train operating rules as well as prac tical tests on other duties relating to their future assignments before they can qualify for telegraphers, tele phoners, or towermen. Most roads place newly qualified workers on the extra board, where they serve on temporary assignments as men are needed and, after acquir ing sufficient seniority, bid for regular assignments as telegraphers, tower men, clerk-telegraphers, and station agent telegraphers. Most railroads prefer applicants for beginning positions to be high school graduates between 21 and 30 years of age. Applicants must pass physical examinations which have strict eye sight and hearing requirements. A man with the necessary qualifi cations may advance to station agent or train dispatcher. Telegraphers worked a basic 40hour week of five 8-hour days in 1966, with time and one-half paid for overtime. Under Federal law, teleg raphers, whose duties involve the movement of trains, are prohibited from working more than 9 hours in any one day, except in emergencies. Telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen are members of the Transportation-Communication Em ployees Union. STATION AGENTS (D.O.T. 211.468 and 910.138) Employment Outlook There will be some opportunities for new workers to become student operators each year through the 1970’s. The openings that occur will result primarily from the need to re place experienced workers who retire or die. Employment of Class I line-haul railroads in the telegrapher, tele phone, and towerman group dropped from about 24,400 in 1955 to 14,300 in 1966, but it is expected to increase slightly by the mid-1970’s as freight traffic increases. The mechanization of yard operations, the use of dispatcher-to-train radio hookups and other new communications devices, and the extension of centralized traffic control and other automatic signaling systems are reducing the number of workers needed to help control the movement of trains. Earnings and Working Conditions The average straight-time hourly earnings of clerk-telegraphers and clerk-telephoners on Class I line-haul railroads in 1966 were $2.89; teleg raphers, telephoners, and towermen averaged $2.92. Chief telegraphers and telephoners and train directors averaged, respectively, $3.23 and $3.84 an hour. Nature of Work Station agents are the railroads’ of ficial representatives in dealing with the public at railroad stations. Most agents work at small stations where they sell tickets, check baggage, calcu late freight and express charges, load and unload freight and express pack ages, and perform many other tasks. They may also serve as telegraphers and telephoners, receiving and de livering train orders and other mes sages pertaining to the company’s business. A t stations where super visory agents are employed, some of this work may be done by railway clerks, telegraphers, and other em ployees working under the sta tions agent’s supervision. In major freight and passenger stations em ploying many railroad employees, the duties of the station agent are pri marily administrative and super visory. About 12,100 station agents were employed by Class I line-haul rail roads in 1966. About 10,400 worked in small stations (8,100 of them act ing as telegraphers and telephoners in addition to their other duties), and 1,800 had supervisory positions at major stations. The short-line rail ways employed several hundred other agents, chiefly at small stations. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 686 Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Experienced telegraphers usually become agents in small stations or as sistant agents in larger ones. In addi tion to the necessary seniority, an agent should have a knowledge of train schedules, and routes, rates, bookkeeping methods, and other rail road business transacted at wayside stations. Station agents may advance from small to larger stations or from assist ant agents to agents. They may be promoted to supervisory positions such as stationmaster or inspector. agents who handled the business of the Railway Express Agency received, in addition to their regular pay, a c o m m i s s i o n on the business transacted. Station agents, except for some sup ervisory agents, are members of the Transportation-Communication Em ployees Union. CLERKS (D.O.T. 219.388 and .488; 222.368 through .687; 229.368; 231.682; 249.368; 910.368; 910.688; 913.168; and 919.138) Employment Outlook A limited number of opportunities for assignment to station agent jobs will arise each year through the 1970’s, principally because of the need to replace agents who retire or die. For several years the number of sta tion agents employed by Class I linehaul railroads has been declining. Be tween 1955 and 1966, employment dropped from about 19,600 to 12,100, principally because some local pas senger and freight services were con solidated or discontinued. It is expected that the railroads will consolidate or discontinue some addi tional passenger and freight services over the next decade resulting in the employment of fewer station agents. Earnings and Working Conditions The earnings of station agents vary. In 1966, agents who also served as telegraphers and telephoners on Class I line-haul roads averaged $2.94 an hour; other agents at small stations who did not act as telegraphers aver aged $3.14 an hour. Agents at major stations earned a straight-time aver age of $3.76 an hour. Agents are paid either by the hour or by the month; those in nonsupervisory positions had a basic 40-hour workweek, and time and one-half was paid for overtime work. Most Nature of Work Railroad clerks handle the huge volume of paper work necessary to keep an account of each piece of roll ing stock, and transact business with freight shippers and the traveling public. They work in railroad stations, freight houses, yards, terminals, and company offices. Clerks make up the largest single group of railroad em ployees—Class I line-haul railroads employed about 98,400 of these work ers in 1966 and short-line railways, thousands more. The majority of railroad clerks— 59,900 on Class I line-haul railroads in 1966—do clerical work connected with business transactions such as col lecting bills, investigating complaints, adjusting claims, tracing shipments, compiling statistics, selling tickets, and keeping books. Today much of this work is done by clerks who uti lize computers and other electronic business machines. In small offices and stations, one man may perform duties related to several of these jobs, but in large offices with many em ployees, each clerk usually handles a specialized job. A second group, totaling 17,300 in 1966, consists of secretaries, stenog raphers, typists, and operators of calculating, bookkeeping, and other kinds of office machines. They per form duties similar to those of work ers in the same kinds of jobs in other industries. (Information about the nature of the duties of employees in these clerical jobs may be found else where in the Handbook.) About 9,300 other railroad clerks were in higher grade “senior” jobs involving more responsible or techni cal work. Some of the clerks in this group prepare the statistics on em ployment, traffic, and other matters relating to railroad operations, re quired periodically by the Federal Government. Others, called “cash iers,” deal with customers on such matters as uncollected freight bills. Still others do accounting work re lated to their companies’ use of ter minals and other facilities owned jointly by several roads. A fourth group are the supervisory and chief clerks, who numbered about 11,900. They not only supervise the work of other railroad clerks and as sume responsibility for the clerical ac tivities of entire departments, but they may be called on to deal with highly complex problems related to the business end of railroad operations. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Beginning railroad clerk positions are often filled by hiring newcomers or by promoting workers such as of fice boys or messengers. A high school education usually is required, and clerical aptitude tests are sometimes given. Railroads prefer workers who have had training or some experience in working with figures. In some clerical positions—yard clerk for in stance—beginning workers on some roads are assigned to extra board work, where they work on temporary assignments until such time as regular assignments become available. In many offices, a railroad clerk may advance to assistant chief clerk, or to a higher administrative position. Some clerks may move from routine jobs to work requiring special knowl edge of subjects such as accounting or statistics, and this work may lead 687 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS tions. However, employment of cleri cal workers is expected to increase slightly in the late 1970’s as a result of the anticipated expansion of rail road freight traffic. Earnings and Working Conditions Employees of Class I line-haul rail roads who had clerical jobs involving work such as billing operations, filing, and inventory control, received aver age straight-time pay of $2.92 an hour in 1966. Secretaries, stenogra phers, typists, and office machine op erators averaged $2.92 an hour; senior clerks and specialists averaged $3.29 an hour; and supervisory and chief clerks, $3.48 an hour. Railroad clerks in nonsupervisory positions work a basic 8-hour day and 40-hour week, with time and one-half paid for overtime. The Brotherhood of Railway, Air lines, and Steamship Clerks, Freight Handlers, Express and Station Em ployees represents the railroad clerks on all major roads. SHOP TRADES Nature of Work Modem office machines have revolutionized many railroad paperwork operations. eventually to positions as auditors or statisticians. Railroad clerks may also be promoted to traffic agents, buyers, storekeepers, or ticket and station agents. Employment Outlook Several thousand job opportuni ties for new workers will become available each year through the 1970’s. Because this is a large occupa tional group, retirements, deaths, and transfers to other fields of work will create many openings for new clerical workers. Employment in this occupational group has been declining. In 1955, Glass I line-haul railroads employed about 146,000 railroad clerks; by 1966, their number was 98,400. A continued decrease in the employ ment of these workers is expected during the early 1970’s as electronic business machines do more of the work formerly done by railroad clerks in processing freight bills and record ing information about freight car movements and freight yard opera The skilled workers employed by the railroads to build, maintain, and repair rolling stock and other equip ment may be classified in six main “shop crafts” : Carmen (D.O.T. 622.381), machinists, electrical workers, sheet-metal workers, boilermakers, and blacksmiths. They work in rail way shops, enginehouses, yards, and terminals. In 1966, about 94,200 journeymen mechanics in these six crafts were employed by Class I line-haul rail ways. Working with them were 6,600 gang foremen and leaders, 10,700 helpers, and 3,800 apprentices. Sev eral thousand more workers in the 688 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ployed mainly away from the shop, lay power and communications lines for equipment used by the railroads.) Sheet-metal w o r k e r s , numbering about 6,200 in 1966, install and mainlight sheet-metal parts and do pipefitting on cars, locomotives, and other equipment. Boilermakers, of there were about 1,800 in 1966, maintain and repair stationary boiltanks, and other parts made of sheet iron or heavy sheet steel. Other craftsmen employed in the shops in clude blacksmiths, molders, station ary firemen, oilers, and stationary engineers (steam). (More informa tion about the nature of the work of most of the above shop trades may be found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and (Advancement Shop worker checks for flaws in locomotive axles. same occupations were employed by short-line railways. Carmen, who numbered about 52,000 on Class I line-haul railroads in 1966, are by far the largest group of shop craftsmen. They do many different kinds of work, since they build, maintain, and repair railroad freight and passenger cars, and also work on locomotives and on small vehicles such as the motor-driven cars used in transporting workers along the tracks. Some carmen are skilled in carpentry and can use power equip ment as well as handtools. A few are skilled only in specialties such as up holstering, car painting, and pattern making. Many carmen work as car inspectors in the railroad yards and stations, examining cars for defects that might lead to accidents or delays. Machinists are the second largest group of skilled shop workers. About 19,600 were employed in 1966, doing such work as assembling and dis mantling equipment and replacing and repairing parts. Electrical work ers, who numbered about 12,900 in 1966, install and maintain wiring and electrical equipment in locomotives, passenger cars, and cabooses, as well as in buildings owned by the rail roads. (Another group of electrical workers—nearly 2,200 in 1966—em Apprenticeship is the usual way of entering the shop trades, although many, particularly in the carmen’s craft, are upgraded directly from laborer or helper positions. Appren tices are trained in all branches of -their respective trades, according to standards which in many cases are included in agreements negotiated by the shopmen’s trade unions and the railroad companies. Upon completion of their training, they are certified as qualified journeymen. Beginners, who have no previous experience in their chosen trades, take this training as regular apprentices, generally for a 4-year period. Men who have at least 2 years of previous work experience train as helper apprentices for a 3year period. To become a regular apprentice, the applicant must be at least 16 and not over 21 years of age. The rail roads prefer that helpers entering the 3-year apprentice training be no older than 30 or 35. On some roads, ap plicants for regular apprentice train ing are required to pass mathematical and mechanical aptitude tests. Workers in the shop trades may advance to supervisory positions as foremen in shops, enginehouses, and powerplants. RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS Employment Outlook There will be several hundred op portunities for new workers to obtain jobs either as helpers or as apprentices in the shop crafts each year during the next decade. In 1966, apprentice ship programs operated by Class I line-haul railroads were training about 3,800 new workers, 3,600 of them as regular apprentices. Openings in the skilled shop crafts will result primarily from the need to replace experienced craftsmen who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. The number of journeymen mechanics employed in these crafts declined from about 143,400 in 1955 to 94,200 in 1966 and some further decline appears likely through the 1970’s despite the fact that more roll ing stock will be needed to handle the anticipated increase in freight traffic. Among the factors which are making it possible for the railroads to handle a given amount of work in the shops with a smaller work force than for merly are the use of assembly line techniques in repair work, greater specialization of labor, and the use of better designed and constructed roll ing stock. Fewer equipment mainte nance employees are needed, also, because of the practice on some rail roads of sending diesel locomotives requiring major overhaul back to the manufacturer for rebuilding or in exchange for more highly powered new, or rebuilt units. Employment trends for individual shops crafts have not been affected equally by changes in equipment and operating methods, nor are they likely to be in the future. Two ex tremes in shop craft employment trends are represented by electrical workers and boilermakers. During the 1955-64 period, when the total number of skilled craftsmen in the six principal shop trades decreased by one-third, the number of elec trical workers declined about 25 per cent. Some increase in employment of electrical workers may occur through the 1970’s because of the almost universal use of diesel-electric power and the installation of more 689 complex electrical and electronic equipment in locomotives, railroad cars, and communication systems. On the other hand, the decline that has already taken place in the num ber of boilermakers employed in the shops—from about 4,300 in 1955 to 1,800 in 1966—is expected to con tinue, because the skills of these workers are required much less in the repair of diesel locomotives than in the repair of steam locomotives. The decline since 1955 in carmen and machinists who together account for about three-fourths of all journey men mechanics employed in shop crafts, has been about one-third; some further decline, although less pronounced, is expected through the 1970’s. of Electrical Workers; Sheet Metal Workers’ International Association; International Brotherhood of Boiler makers, Iron Shipbuilders, Black smiths, Forgers and Helpers; and the International Brotherhood of Fire men and Oilers. In collective bar gaining, these unions usually nego tiate their labor contracts through the Railroad Employes’ Department of the AFL-CIO. SIGNAL DEPARTMENT WORKERS (D.O.T. 822.281 and .884) Nature of Work Earnings and Working Conditions Straight-time average hourly earn ings of journeymen employed by Class I line-haul railroads in the shop trades in 1966 were: Carmen $2.99; machinists $3.06; electrical workers $3.08; sheet-metal workers $3.06; boilermakers $3.06; and blacksmiths $3.04. Straight-time earnings of helpers in all shop crafts averaged $2.73 an hour; regular apprentices, who spend part of their time in class room instruction and the rest on the job, averaged $2.50 an hour; and helper-apprentices, who also worked on the same basis, averaged $2.77 an hour; gang foremen and gang leaders averaged $3.55 an hour. Most shop workers have a basic 40-hour work week of five 8-hour days, and are paid time and one-half for overtime. Major repairs on locomotives and cars are made generally indoors in the enginehouse or car repair shop. Minor adjustments, inspection, and emergency repairs may be performed out-of-doors. Most shop workers are members of unions. Among the unions in this field are: Brotherhood Railway Car men of America; International Asso ciation of Machinists and Aerospace Workers; International Brotherhood Workers in railroad signal depart ments construct, install, maintain, and repair the signaling systems which control the movement of trains and assure the safety of rail road travel. One group of skilled workers, known as signal maintainers, keep wires, lights, switches, and other con trolling devices in good operating condition. The work requires a thor ough practical knowledge of electric ity and considerable mechanical skill. Work on the newer signaling systems also requires a knowledge of elec tronics. A second skilled group, known as signalmen, generally has the same skills and knowledge required of maintainers, but construct and install new signals and signal systems. Sig nalmen work as members of crews which also include semiskilled work ers. The crews travel from one part of the road to another, wherever con struction work is underway. In con structing a signal system, crews often build forms for concrete, mix and pour cement, weld metal, and do many other types of work in addition to electrical work. In 1966, Class I line-haul railroads employed about 12,500 men in this OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 600 kind of work; included were about 8,400 signalmen and signal maintain ed, about 1,200 semiskilled assistants, and 800 helpers. Several hundred workers in these groups also were em ployed by the short-line railways and by switching and terminal companies. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Railroads prefer that applicants for entry jobs in the signal department be between 18 and 35 years of age and have a high school education or its equivalent. Knowledge of electricity and mechanical skill are assets to young men seeking these jobs. New employees start as helpers doing work under the direction of ex perienced men, or as assistants, if they have had previous experience in signal work. Helpers, after about 1 year of training on the job, usually advance to assistant. Openings for signalmen and signal maintained are filled, as they occur, by promoting qualified assistants according to sen iority rules. At least 4 years are re quired usually for an assistant to work up to signalman or signal maintainer. Both signalmen and signal main tained may be promoted to more re sponsible positions such as inspected or testmen, gang foremen, leading signalmen, or leading signal main tained. A few may advance to assist ant supervisors or signal engineers. Employment Outlook There will be some opportunities for new workers to obtain entry jobs as helpers or assistants during the 1970’s. Most of these opportunities will result from the need to replace workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Job openings for new workers will be limited be cause men furloughed in recent years will be recalled before new men are hired. Employment of helpers and assist Signal m aintained check signal strength of repeater station. ants declined from about 4,600 in 1955 to 2,000 in 1966, and the num ber of skilled signalmen and signal maintained declined from about 8,800 to 6,900. These occupations are expected to continue to decline in the early 1970’s, after which they are expected to increase slightly. The in stallation of new equipment initially has increased signal work opportuni ties ; maintenance and repair require ments has declined as a result. Earnings and Working Conditions The average straight-time hourly earnings of signalmen and signal maintained employed by Class I linehaul railroads in 1966 were $3.08. Assistant signalmen and signal main tained averaged $2.74 and helpers $2.63 an hour. Signal workers have a basic 8-hour day and 5-day week, and are paid time and one-half for work beyond 8 hours a day. 601 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS Signal maintainers have fairly steady work, because the amount of work required for maintaining rail road signal systems does not change greatly with variations in traffic or with the seasons. Signalmen and other crew members, particularly on some northern roads, may have less work during especially bad weather. In both of these occupations, the work is mostly out of doors, and maintain ers must make repairs regardless of the time of day or the weather condi tions. Both maintainers and signal men, when working on signaling de vices, must often climb poles and work near high-tension electric wires and unguarded railroad tracks. Signalmen and other crew mem bers who work on construction and installation frequently work away from their homes; on these occasions, many railroads provide camp cars for living quarters while the men pay for their own food. Signal maintainers generally are able to live at home, since they maintain signals only over a limited stretch of track. Most signal workers are members of the Brotherhood of Railroad Signalmen. Either a member of the section crew, or track workers operating track motorcars, make regular in spections of the right-of-way, looking for cracked rails, weak ties, washedout ballast, and other track and road way defects. Trackmen and portable equipment operators working in the crews then make the necessary re pairs. Roadway maintenance ma chines, such as multiple tie tampers, power wrenches, and ballast clean ers, have been displacing gradually the use of such handtools as picks, shovels, and spike hammers. More and more railroads are using road way machines, which require skilled operators, to do heavy maintenanceof-way work once done by trackmen using hand or pneumatically powered tools. In 1966, an average of 60,900 track workers were employed by Class I line-haul railroads. They included 40,200 trackmen working in crews, 9,300 portable equipment operators and helpers, and 11,300 gang fore men. Additional thousands of these workers were employed by the short line railroads. The size of this maintenance-of-way work force varies considerably during the year because many construction and repair jobs are done in the summer months when the weather is best. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Most track workers are trained on the job. To acquire the skills neces- TRACK WORKERS (D.O.T. 182.168; 859.883; 869.887; 910.782; and 919.887) Nature of Work Trackmen and portable equipment operators construct, maintain, and repair railroad tracks and roadways. Many of them work in section crews which patrol and maintain a limited section of the railroad’s right-of-way. Some roads combine the section crews and highly mechanized crews to cov er longer stretches of the right-ofway. Still other track workers are em ployed in “extra” crews. These men perform seasonal maintenance and re pair work, such as replacing rails. 262-057 O— 68----- 45 Track workers drive spikes with automatic spikemaster. 692 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK sary to become an all-round trackman requires up to 2 years. Machine op erating jobs in track maintenance work are assigned to qualified track men on the basis of seniority. Most roads prefer workers between the ages of 21 and 45 for their track work forces. Men seeking work as trackmen must be able to read and write and do heavy work. Applicants often are required to take physical examinations. A high school educa tion is desirable for workers who are seeking to advance to portable equip ment operators and gang foremen. Trackmen and portable equipment operators who have the necessary seniority and qualifications may ad vance to gang or assistant foreman. A qualified foreman may advance to a supervisory maintenance-of-way posi tion such as track supervisor. Employment Outlook Several thousand new workers will be hired each year in track mainte nance occupations during the 1970’s, mostly for the seasonal rush during the summer months, particularly in northern sections of the country. Comparatively few openings will offer steady year-round employment. For some years, the use of mecha nized equipment and new kinds of materials in roadway construction has been reducing substantially the num ber of men employed by the railroads in maintenance-of-way work. At the same time, however, the use of mechanized equipment has created a limited number of maintenance-ofway jobs involving the operation of roadway machines. Betwen 1955 and 1966, as the number of trackmen and foremen in section and other kinds of crews dropped from about 136,000 to 51,600, the number of portable equip ment workers rose from 7,400 to about 9,300. These trends are ex pected to continue in the years ahead. Earnings and Working Conditions Track workers are among the low paid groups in the railroad indus Digitized forest FRASER try. Men employed in section and other kinds of crews on Class I linehaul railroads had straight-time aver age earnings of $2.51 an hour in 1966. Portable equipment operators and helpers averaged $2.85 and crew fore men averaged $2.93 an hour in 1966. A basic 5-day, 40-hour week was in force for most classes of track work ers. Time worked over 8 hours a day was paid for at time and one-half rates. Since most section men inspect and maintain only a few miles of track, they usually live at home. However, the section crew is rapidly giving way to the mechanized “floating” crew. Trackmen and portable equipment operators who work in “floating” crews usually travel from place to place and generally live in camp cars or trailers provided by the railroads. They pay for their own food. Most maintenance-of-way workers are members of the Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employes. BRIDGE AND BUILDING WORKERS Nature of Work These workers construct, maintain, and repair tunnels, bridges, stations, railway shops, and a variety of other structures owned by the railroads. In 1966, Class I line-haul railroads em ployed in this kind of work about 9,400 skilled craftsmen, 2,600 helpers, and 2,300 foremen. Among the skilled craftsmen were about 5,500 carpenters working as all-round mechanics in a variety of construc tion trades in addition to carpentry; about 2,800 masons, bricklayers, plas terers, and plumbers; and about 700 painters and 400 ironworkers. The short-line railways employed several hundred more workers in the same occupations. (Information about the nature of the work done by these craftsmen can be found elsewhere in the Handbook.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement New employees usually receive their training as helpers. As openings occur in skilled mechanics’ jobs, they are filled by helpers who have qualified for promotion and have the necessary seniority. Skilled workers with the necessary experience may advance to positions as foremen, inspectors, or bridge and building supervisors. Employment Outlook A small number of job openings in the bridge and building work force will arise each year during the next 10 years. Retirements, deaths, and transfers to other fields of work will provide some job opportunities for new workers. Most of the jobs avail able will be as beginners or helpers, where turnover rates are relatively high. Employment by Class I line-haul railroads of skilled craftsmen, helpers, and foremen on bridge and building work decreased from about 27,300 in 1955 to 14,400 in 1966. This trend is expected to continue because the in creased use of power tools and other laborsaving equipment, and of new materials which require less mainte nance and repair, will cut down fur ther on the number of men needed for construction and maintenance work. However, increased railroad freight activity projected for the early 1970’s may cause employment of these workers to increase slightly. Earnings and Working Conditions The average straight-time hourly earnings of carpenters employed by Class I line-haul railroads in bridge and building work in 1966 were $2.82. Masons, bricklayers, plasterers, and plumbers averaged $2.99, ironworkers 693 RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS $3.02, painters $2.86, helpers $2.67, and foremen $3.17 an hour in 1966. Bridge and building workers work a 5-day, basic 40-hour week and are paid time and one-half for work be yond 8 hours a day, and may receive double time for work over 16 continu ous hours. Bridge and building men usually are away from home during their workweek. On these occasions, they usualy live in camp cars supplied by the railroads. While living in camp cars, they pay for their own food. The Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employes represents the bridge and building workers on most roads. a few weeks; other jobs, such as in staller and repairman, take many more months to learn. More than half of all telephone workers are women. They are em ployed primarily as telephone oper ators or clerical workers. Men usually are employed in installing, repairing, and maintaining telephone equip ment. TELEPHONE INDUSTRY OCCUPATIONS As our population and economy grow, and as technology advances, the need for communication increases. More than 385 million telephone calls are made daily in the United States, both locally and for long dis tances to different parts of the country and overseas. Approximately 800,000 employees were required to provide this service in early 1967. The telephone industry offers men and women many employment op portunities for steady, year-round work in many different jobs. Some of the jobs, such as telephone opera tor and file clerk, can be learned in Nature and Location of the Industry Providing telephone service for the many millions of residential, com mercial, and industrial customers is the main work of the Nation’s tele phone companies. About 100 million telephones were in use in the United States in 1967. Telephone jobs are found in almost every community in the U n i t e d States. Most telephone workers, however, are employed in large cities with concentrations of industrial and business establishments. Nearly threefifths of them work in the 10 States which have the largest number of telephones: New York, California, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, Texas, Michigan, New Jersey, Massachu setts, and Indiana. The nerve center of the local tele Telephone Industry Employs More Craftsmen Than Operators V PERCENT OF TOTAL WORKERS ^ 10 20 30 TELEPHONE CRAFTSMEN TELEPHONE OPERATORS CLERICAL WORKERS ADMINISTRATIVE & SALES PERSONNEL SCIENTIFIC & TECH NICAL PERSONNEL MAINTENANCE & BUILD ING SERVICE WORKERS SOURCE: BASED ON DATA FROM THE FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION 694 phone system is the central office containing the switching equipment through which any telephone may be connected with any other tele phone. Every telephone call made, whether by dialing direct or signaling the operator, travels from the caller through wires and cables to the cable vault in the central office. Thousands of pairs of wires fan out from the cable vault to a distributing frame where each set of wires is attached to switching equipment. To join the caller’s telephone to the telephone he is calling, connections are made auto matically, mainly by electro-mechan ical switching equipment. Manual connections may also be made by the operator in the few remaining man ually operated switchboards, or in unusual situations. Long-distance calls are dialed by the customer or an operator and con nected through switching equipment with the telephone called. By early 1967, about 85 percent of all tele phone users could dial long-distance calls directly. Information needed to bill the customer may be recorded automatically or, on operator han dled calls, is entered on a ticket by the operator. Some customers make and receive more calls than can be handled on a single telephone line. For these calls, a system somewhat similar to a mini ature central office may be installed on the subscriber’s premises. This system is the private branch exchange (PBX), usually found in such places as apartment and office buildings, hotels, department stores, and other business firms. A new type of service is called CENTREX, in which incoming calls can be dialed direct to any extension without an operator’s assistance, and outgoing and intercom calls can be dialed direct by the extension users. The equipment for this service can be located either on telephone com pany premises or on the customer’s premises. Other communication services pro vided by telephone companies in- 695 TELEPHONE INDUSTRY OCCUPATIONS elude conference equipment installed at a PBX to permit conversations among several telephone users simul taneously; mobile radiotelephones in automobiles, boats, airplanes, and trains; and telephones equipped to answer calls automatically and to give and take messages by recordings. Telephone companies also build and maintain the vast network of cables and radio-relay systems for comunication services, including those joining the thousands of broadcasting stations all over the Nation. These services are leased to networks and their affiliated stations. Telephone companies also operate teletype and private-wire services which they lease to business and government offices. The domestic telephone network is made up of two ownership groups— the Bell System and the independent telephone companies. Bell, through its associated companies, serves about 5 of every 6 of the Nation’s telephones. The independents serve the re mainder. There are approximately 2,300 independent telephone com panies in the United States. Telephone Occupations The telephone industry requires workers in many different occupa tions. Chart 60 shows the percentage distribution of telephone employment by occupational group. Nearly 3 of every 10 workers in the industry are telephone craftsmen and about the same proportion are tele phone operators. Telephone crafts men install, repair, and maintain telephones, cables, switching equip ment, and message accounting sys tems. These workers can be grouped by the type of work they perform: (1) Line construction men place, splice, and maintain telephone wires and cables; (2) installers and repairmen place, maintain, and repair tele phones and private branch exchanges (PBX) in homes and in offices and other places of business; and (3) cen tral office craftsmen test, maintain, and repair equipment in central of fices. The duties of the operators in clude making telephone connections; assisting customers on specialized types of calls, for example, reversecharge calls; and giving telephone in formation. Telephone craftsmen are discussed in detail later in this chap ter. A detailed discussion of telephone operators and operators of private branch exchanges (PBX operators) is presented in a separate statement elsewhere in the Handbook. When central office equipment is purchased by a telephone company, it is usually installed by employees of the equipment manufacturers. A few cen tral office equipment installers work for telephone companies or private firms specializing in installation work. Although most of these skilled work ers are not employed in telephone operating companies, they are dis cussed in this chapter because their work is so closely connected with the Nation’s telephone system. Many other occupations in the telephone industry, such as clerical, administrative, scientific, and cus todial jobs, are found in other in dustries as well. They are described in detail elsewhere in the Handbook, in the sections covering individual occupations. More than a fifth (22 percent) of all telephone industry employees are clerical workers, such as stenog raphers, typists, bookkeepers, office machine operators, cashiers, recep tionists, file clerks, accounting and auditing clerks, and payroll clerks. Among their other duties, these cleri cal workers, most of whom are women, keep records of services, make up and send bills to customers, and prepare statistical and other re ports. A small but growing amount of this recordkeeping and statistical work is being done by electronic dataprocessing equipment. About 11 percent of telephone company employees are business office and sales representatives who handle orders for new telephone services and administrative and professional workers, such as accountants, at torneys, personnel specialists, purchas ing agents, public relations employees, training specialists, and statisticians. A small but increasing proportion (6 percent) of the industry’s em ployees are scientific and technical personnel; for example, engineers and their assistants and draftsmen. Most of these workers plan and design the construction of new buildings and the expansion of existing ones, and solve engineering problems that arise in the day-to-day operations of the tele phone system. Some engineers are em ployed in sales development work. Many top supervisory and administra tive jobs are held by men with engi neering backgrounds. Basic research in comunications systems and the de velopment of new and improved tele phone equipment are not done by employees of telephone operating companies, but mainly by those em ployed in affiliated laboratories spe cializing in such work. About 4 percent of the telephone industry’s workers maintain buildings, offices, and warehouses; operate and service motor vehicles; and do many other maintenance and service jobs in offices and plants. Skilled main tenance craftsmen include stationary engineers, carpenters, painters, elec tricians, and plumbers. Other workers employed by the telephone industry are janitors, porters, watchmen, ele vator operators, and guards. Employment Outlook Tens of thousands of new workers will be required by telephone operat ing companies each year during the remainder of the 1960’s and through out the 1970’s, mainly to replace the large numbers of women telephone operators and clerical workers who leave the industry to marry, rear a family, or for other reasons. Some of these new workers, however, will be needed for craft jobs, to replace skilled workers who die, retire, or shift to other work. Job turnover will also create openings for administra tive, sales, professional, technical, and scientific personnel. 696 Despite an anticipated growth in the amount and types of telephone service, total employment in the tele phone industry is expected to grow at only a slow rate. This is because technological improvements are per mitting more calls to be made with out any assistance from an operator. However, operators will continue to be needed to handle the more com plex calls. Clerical workers and many of the skilled craftsmen are also being affected by technological changes ex pected to restrict the total number of workers required for efficient tele phone service. Occupational groups in which employment is expected to grow as the volume of business in creases are sales, administrative, pro fessional, technical, and scientific personnel. Part of the expansion in telephone service will result from expected in creases in the number of households, and the number of business and in dustrial establishments. The remain ing one-seventh of households in the United States without telephones will be another factor in the demand for telephone service, especially as family incomes rise. Other factors are also expected to increase the demand for telephone services. For example, the popularity of extension telephones in private homes, and of telephones of different styles and colors, is increasing. A re cent development is the touch-tone instrument on which a set of buttons replaces the dial. This instrument en ables the user to make a call in half the time required for a dial call and has the potential to be used to pro vide many new services, including the transmission of data, remote control of appliances or remote access to electronic computers. Also, there is growing use of specialized equip ment on telephone instruments, such as volume controls that compensate for impaired hearing, and loudspeak ers that permit “hands free” conver sation. For industrial and commercial users, high speed transmission of large quantities of computer-processed and other data via telephone, teletype OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK writer, telephotograph, or facsimilie are types of special services which are becoming more important. With high speed data transmission, for example, it is possible to publish the same news paper almost simultaneously in two widely separated cities. To meet the increasing demand for overseas com munications, transoceanic service will continue to expand as more under sea cables are laid and communica tions satellites come into wider com mercial use. Earnings and Working Conditions Since wage rates in the telephone industry are geared to those for com parable work in the locality, earnings of telephone workers depend not only on the type of job and the worker’s previous training and experience, but also on location and character of the community. Because of differences in rates among regions and communi ties, considerable variation exists in the rates paid for any given telephone occupation. In general, telephone wage rates are highest in the Pacific and Middle Atlantic States, and low est in the Southeast. For the Nation as a whole, aver age basic hourly wage rates in Decem ber 1965 for all telephone employees, except officials and managerial as sistants, were $3.04. Rates for these workers ranged from an average of $1.82 an hour for telephone operator trainees and $2.17 for experienced telephone operators, to $5.31 for pro fessional and semiprofessional work ers. Clerical workers in nonsupervisory positions averaged $2.35 an hour. Construction, installation and main tenance employees averaged $3.45 an hour. A telephone employee usually starts at the minimum wage for his partic ular job. Advancement from the starting rate to the maximum rate generally takes from 5 to 6 years and involves from 10 to 14 pay grades. More than two-thirds of the work ers in the industry, mainly telephone operators and craftsmen, are mem bers of labor unions. The Communi cations Workers of America repre sents the largest number of workers in the industry, but many other em ployees are members of the 16 in dependent unions which form the Alliance of Independent Telephone Unions. Others are members of the Independent Brotherhood of Elec trical Workers. Wage rates, wage increases, and the amount of time required to advance from one step to the next are gov erned for most telephone workers by union-management contracts. The contracts also call for extra pay for work beyond the normal tour of 6 to 8 hours a day or 5 days a week, and for all Sunday and holiday work. Most contracts provide a pay differ ential for night work. Travel time between jobs is counted as worktime for craftsmen under some contracts. Overtime work is sometimes required in the tele phone industry, especially during emergencies, such as floods, hurri canes, or bad storms. During an “emergency call-out,” which is a short-notice request to report to work during nonscheduled hours, workers are guaranteed a minimum period of pay at the basic hourly rate. In addition to these provisions which affect the pay envelope di rectly, other benefits are provided. Periods of annual vacations with pay are granted to workers according to their length of service. Usually, con tracts provide for a 1-week vacation for 6 months to 1 year of service, 2 weeks for 1 to 10 years, 3 weeks for 10 to 20 years, and holidays range from 6 to 11 days a year depending on locality. The majority of telephone workers are covered by paid sick plans and group insurance plans which usually provide sickness, acci dent, and death benefits, and retire ment and disability pensions. The telephone industry has achieved one of the best safety records in American industry: The number of disabling injuries has been con sistently well below the average. 697 TELEPHONE INDUSTRY OCCUPATIONS Where To Go for More Information Additional information about jobs in the telephone industry may be ob tained from the local telephone com pany or from local unions with tele phone workers among their member ship. If no local union is listed in the telephone directory, information may be obtained from the following: Alliance of Independent Telephone Unions. Room 302, 1422 Chestnut St., Phila delphia, Pa. 19102 Communications Workers of Amer ica. 1925 K St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006. International Brotherhood of Elec trical Workers. 1200 15th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005. Telephone Craftsmen Nearly a third of the employees of the telephone industry are craftsmen engaged in construction, installation, and maintenance activities necessary to operate the vast amount of me chanical, electrical, and electronic equipment vital to the far-reaching network of our modem communica tions systems. About 1 in every 8 of these workers are foremen many of whom have advanced to supervisory positions from a craft job. tential trouble before service is af fected. Telephone companies em ployed about 76,000 central office craftsmen in early 1967, including, for example, approximately 17,000 testboardmen and 56,000 central office repairmen, helpers, and framemen. Frameman (D.O.T. 822.884) is usually the beginning job from which a worker may advance to a more skilled central office craft job. Framemen run, connect and disconnect wires representing individual sub scriber lines between cable and cen tral office terminals according to plans prepared by line assigners, an other small group of workers. Central office repairmen (D.O.T. 822.281), often called switchmen, maintain and repair switching equip ment and automatic message account ing systems in central offices. They check switches and relays, using spe cial tools and gages. They also locate and repair trouble on customers’ lines in central office equipment as reported by testboardmen. Testboardmen (D.O.T. 822.281) make periodic checks of customers’ lines to prevent breakdowns or inter ference in telephone service. They work at special switchboards made up of electrical testing instruments and test for, locate, and analyze trouble spots reported on customers’ lines. If repairs are needed and the breakdown is outside the central of fice, they direct the repair activities of line and cable crews or installerrepairmen or of central office repair men (if the trouble is inside). Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement CENTRAL OFFICE CRAFTSMEN Nature of Work Central office craftsmen test, maintain, and repair mechanical, electrical, and electronic switching equipment and other central office equipment. They keep this equipment in operating condition and locate po The telephone companies usually hire inexperienced men to train for skilled jobs in central offices. Appli cants for these jobs must have at least a high school or vocational school education. A knowledge of the basic principles of electricity and electronics is generally desired. Tele phone training and experience in the armed services or technical training beyond the high school level may be helpful in obtaining jobs as telephone company craftsmen; men with such training may be brought in above the entry level. Preemployment aptitude tests usually are given to prospective employees. Most telephone companies have regular programs for training new employees in central office craft jobs. A new worker may be given classroom instruction as well as on-the-job train ing. Usually, he is assigned to the starting job of frameman and works with experienced framemen under the direction of a supervisor or fore man. As the frameman gains skill and experience, he may advance to cen tral office repairman or testboardman receiving such additional classroom instruction or other training as may be required for the new job. Instruc tion includes courses such as the prin ciples of electricity and electronics, as well as special courses in the main tenance of the particular type of cen tral office equipment used by the company. Central office craftsmen receive training throughout their careers with the telephone company. As new types of equipment and tools are introduced and new maintenance methods are developed, these men may be sent to school for short periods of instruc tion. Usually it takes at least 6 years for workers to reach the top pay rate for central office repairmen or test boardmen. Many workers move into central office craft jobs from other types of telephone work. For example, some men start as telephone installers or linemen and many, with additional training, transfer to jobs as central office craftsmen. Promotional oppor tunities for central office craftsmen include, in addition to the jobs of central office foremen, jobs such as those of engineering assistants and administrative staff workers. Employment Outlook Young men will find many oppor tunities for steady employment as OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 698 ■ .wilJi I J L/BPB w i Central office repairmen at test frames check functioning of switching equipment. central office craftsmen during the remainder of the 1960’s and the 1970’s. The opportunities will result from the need to replace workers who retire, die, transfer to other telephone jobs, or leave the telephone industry. Retirements and deaths alone may result in several thousand job open ings each year. The total number of central of fice craftsmen is expected to increase moderately during the 1967-80 pe riod, mainly as a result of increasing demand for telephone service and data communication systems. How ever, recent technological develop ments, such as electronic switching and various automatic testing devices, will tend to restrict employment growth. Earnings and Working Conditions Central office craftsmen are among the highest paid skilled workers in the telephone industry. In December 1965, average basic hourly rates of TELEPHONE INDUSTRY OCCUPATIONS pay in large telephone companies in the United States were $3.43 for testboardmen and $3.25 for central of fice repairmen; average basic hourly rates ranged from $3.36 to $3.83 for testboardmen and from $3.11 to $3.40 for central office repairmen, depend ing on locality and length of service. Earnings increase considerably with length of service in central office jobs. According to a 1966 unionmanagement contract in one of the higher pay scale cities, craft employ ees start at $90.00 for a 40-hour week. Framemen can work up to a maxi mum of $134.00 after 5 years. If a vacancy occurs and the worker is qualified, a frameman can move into the job of central office repairman or testboardman with a higher pay schedule. Central office repairmen and testboardmen can earn a maxi mum of $160.00 a week after 6 years of periodic increases. Craftsmen who qualify for engineering assistant jobs can earn a maximum of $172.50 a week after 6 years. Since the telephone industry gives continuous service to its customers, central offices operate 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Some central office craftsmen, therefore, have work schedules for which they receive extra pay. Central office craftsmen are covered by the same provisions gov erning overtime pay, vacations, holi days, and other benefits that apply to telephone workers generally. (See dis cussion earlier in this chapter.) Em ployees in central offices work in clean and well-lighted surroundings. CENTRAL OFFICE EQUIPMENT INSTALLERS Nature of Work Central office equipment installers set up complex switching and dialing equipment in central offices of local telephone companies. They assemble, wire, adjust, and test this equipment 699 distance toll center in a big city, he may work with hundreds of other installers. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Central office installers raise frame for dial ing equipment. making sure that it conforms to the manufacturer’s standards for efficient and dependable service. These jobs may involve installing a new central office, adding equipment in an ex panding local office, or modifying or replacing outmoded equipment. About 22,000 installers were em ployed in early 1967. Unilke the other craftsmen discussed in this chapter, most installers work for manufac turers of central office equipment rather than for the telephone com panies. A few installers work directly for telephone operating companies, including about 1,500 in the New England area, and some are employ ees of private contractors who spe cialize in large-scale telephone instal lation jobs. Central office equipment installers are generally assigned to specific areas which may include several States; they must travel to central offices of local telephone companies within these areas. On a small job, such as installing a switchboard in a central office in a small community, an installer may be teamed with only one or two other installers. On a large job, such as installing a long Young men who wish to become installers must have a high school or vocational school education. Men with some college education, espe cially those with engineering training, are often hired for these jobs. Pre employment tests are generally given to determine the applicant’s mechan ical aptitudes, and a physical exami nation is required. New employees receive on-the-job training and classroom instruction. They attend classes for the first few weeks to learn basic installation methods and then start on-the-job training under experienced installers. After several years of experience, they may qualify as skilled installers. Training on the job, however, con tinues even after they become skilled workers. Additional courses are given from time to time not only to improve their skills but also to teach them new techniques of installing telephone equipment. Installers may advance to engineering assistant jobs, especially those workers who have had some technical training beyond the high school level. Employment Outlook During the remainder of the 1960’s and through the 1970’s, several hun dred job openings a year are expected to become available for young men to replace central office equipment installers who transfer to other work, retire, or die. The total number of installers, however, will remain at about the present level for several reasons. Installation of automatic dialing equipment for long-distance calls will continue at about the cur rent rate; eventually such equipment will be installed in all parts of the country. Some new central offices will have to be constructed during the 700 years ahead and existing ones modi fied or enlarged to meet the growing needs of a population that is expand ing and shifting to the suburbs. The amount of such work may be some what less than in recent years, how ever, because many new central of fices have been built recently and will not need replacement for some time. On the other hand, increasingly complex central office and toll equip ment, including advanced types of PBX systems, as well as data and computer networks, will require manpower with more and higher skills in electronic work. Installers, perhaps more than other craftsmen connected with the telephone industry, are subject to possible employment fluctuations in the short run because of changes in business conditions. When the busi ness outlook is depressed, there is less likelihood that new central offices will be built or existing ones enlarged or modernized. When business is prospering, installations, additions, and modifications of central offices may occur at an above-average pace. Earnings and Working Conditions As of late 1966, the straight-time average hourly rate of pay for in stallers was $3.15. According to a major union contract in effect for this occupation in late 1966, inexperi enced installers start at $2.00 to $2.19 an hour, depending on locality. The contract provides for periodic in creases and employees may reach rates of $3.22 to $3.96 an hour after 6 years of experience. Employees may also receive merit increases above these rates, based on job performance plus length of service, bringing the top rates up to $3.49 to $4.25 an hour. Time and a half is paid for work in excess of 8 hours a day or 40 hours a week, and double time is paid for work on Sundays and holidays. Travel and expense allowances are also given. Installers receive 7 to 12 paid holidays a year, depending on OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK locality. Paid vacations are provided according to length of service. The majority of central office equipment installers, including most of those servicing the Bell System, are represented by the Communications Workers of America. Some installers employed by manufacturers supply ing the non-Bell or independent seg ment of the telephone industry, and some employed by large installation contractors, are represented by the International Brotherhood of Elec trical Workers. Installers employed directly by telephone operating com panies in the New England area are members of the International Broth erhood of Telephone Workers, which is affiliated with the Alliance of Independent Telephone Unions. LINEMEN AND CABLE SPLICERS Nature of Work The vast network of wires and cables that connect telephone cen tral offices to the millions of tele phones and switchboards in cus tomers’ homes and buildings is con structed and kept in good operating order by linemen and cable splicers and their helpers. Telephone com panies employed over 40,000 such workers in early 1967— 16,000 line men, 20,000 cable splicers, and 4,000 helpers, laborers, and other workers. In constructing new telephone lines, linemen (D.O.T. 822.381) place wires and cables leading from the central office to customers’ prem ises. They use power-driven equip ment to dig holes and set in telephone poles which support cables. Line men climb the poles to attach the cables, usually leaving the ends free for cable splicers to connect later. In cities where telephone lines are below the streets, linemen place cables in underground conduits. Construction linemen usually work in crews of two to five men. A foreman directs the work of several of these crews. Much of the lineman’s work is re pairing and maintaining existing lines. When wires or cables break or when a pole is knocked down, line men are sent immediately to make emergency repairs. The line crew foreman keeps in close contact with the testboardman who directs him to trouble locations on the lines. Some linemen are assigned sections of lines in rural areas which they inspect pe riodically. During the course of their work, they make minor repairs and line changes. After linemen place cables on poles or in underground conduits, cable splicers (D.O.T. 829.381) gen erally complete the line connections. Splicers work on aerial platforms, in manholes, or in basements of large commercial buildings. They connect individual wires within the cable by matching colors of wires so as to keep each circuit continuous. Cable splic ers also rearrange pairs of wires within a cable when lines have to be changed. At each splice, they either wrap insulation around the wires and seal the joint with a lead sleeve or cover the splice with some other type of closure. Sometimes they fill the sheathing with gas under pressure to keep out moisture. Cable splicers also maintain and repair cables. The pre ventive maintenance work that they 701 TELEPHONE INDUSTRY OCCUPATIONS- do is extremely important because a single defect in a cable may result in a serious interruption in service. Many trouble spots are located through electric and gas pressure tests. Training, Other Qualifications, and 'Advancement Telephone companies hire inex perienced men to train for jobs as linemen or cable splicers. Applicants for these jobs must have a high school or vocational school education and must pass a physical examination. Knowledge of the basic principles of electricity, and especially electronics, is helpful. Preemployment tests are often given to help determine the ap plicant’s aptitudes. Some line and cable work is strenuous, requiring workers to climb poles and lift lines and equipment. Applicants for these positions must be physically qualified for such work. Manual dexterity and the ability to distinguish color are also important qualifications. Men who have received telephone training and experience in the armed services fre quently are given preference for job openings and may be brought in above the entry level. For these jobs, telephone com panies have training programs which include classroom instruction as well as on-the-job training. Classrooms are equipped with actual telephone apparatus, such as poles, cable sup porting clamps, and other fixtures to simulate working conditions as closely as possible. Trainees learn to climb poles and are taught safe working practices to avoid contact with power wires and falls. After a short period of classroom training, some trainees are assigned to a line crew to work on the job with experienced men under the supervi sion of a line foreman. About 6 years are required for linemen to reach the top pay for the job. Other trainees acquire the skills of the trade by work ing with experienced cable splicers to whom they are assigned. Line construction craftsmen con tinue to receive training throughout their careers to qualify for more dif ficult assignments and to keep up with technological changes in the industry. Those with the necessary qualifica tions find many additional advance ment opportunities in the telephone industry. For example, a lineman may be transferred to telephone installer and later to telephone repairman or other higher rated jobs. Employment Outlook Employment of linemen and cable splicers is expected to increase only at a slow rate despite anticipation of a continuing high level of activity in line and cable installation, main tenance, and repair. However, hundreds of job openings for these craftsmen as a group are expected to become available during the 1960’s and throughout the 1970’s because of the need to replace workers who transfer to other jobs, retire, or die. Employment trends will differ among individual occupations. Very small growth is expected in the num ber of cable splicers because of tech nological developments that increase worker efficiency, such as devices that permit splicing of cables without the need to remove insulation; instru ments for identifying types of wires in cables; and use of gas-filled cables whose failure can be pinpointed by detecting devices located in the cen tral office. These developments, fur thermore, are expected to reduce drastically the need for cable splicers’ helpers, continuing the rapid decline in employment in this occupation in recent years. The number of linemen is not expected to increase signifi cantly because of the increasing use of mechanical improvements, such as trucks with derricks and pole-lifting equipment, earth-boring tools, light weight ladders, and “sky buckets,” which has eliminated much of the physical work of the line crews, and is causing a substantial reduction in the regular size of a line crew. Earnings and Working Conditions Cable splicers have higher earnings than linemen. In December 1965, in the United States as a whole, cable splicer’s basic rates averaged $3.39 an hour, and linemen’s rates averaged $2.64. Average hourly rates ranged from $3.27 to $3.65 for cable splicers and from $2.12 to $3.09 for linemen, with variations in earnings depending on locality. Pay rates within the jobs also depend to a considerable extent upon length of service. For example, ac cording to a 1966 union-manage ment agreement, new workers in line construction jobs in one of the higher pay scale cities begin at $90:00 for a 40-hour week. Linemen can reatSi the maximum of $150.00 after 6 years of service. The maximum basic weekly rate for cable splicers is $160.00 based upon a combined total of at least 6 years of work in a plantcraft job, as a helper and as a splicer, or in related craft jobs. Linemen and cable splicers are covered by the same contract provisions governing overtime pay, vacations, holidays, length of service and other benefits that apply to tele phone workers generally. (See discus sion earlier in this chapter.) Linemen and cable splicers work outdoors. They must do a consider able amount of climbing. They also work in manholes, often in stooped and cramped positions. Safety stand ards, developed over the years by telephone companies with the co operation of labor unions, have greatly reduced the hazards of these occupations. When severe weather conditions damage telephone lines, linemen and cable splicers may be called upon to work long and irregu lar hours to repair damaged equip ment and to restore service. Because of the nature of their work, some linemen and cable splicers, by the time they reach their midfifties, trans fer to other jobs, such as installers and repairmen or central office craftsmen. 702 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK TELEPHONE AND PBX INSTALLERS AND REPAIRMEN Nature of Work Telephone and private branch ex change (PBX) installers and repair men (sometimes called servicemen) install and service telephone and PBX systems on the customers’ property and make necessary repairs on the equipment when trouble develops. These workers travel to customers’ homes and offices in trucks equipped with telephone tools and supplies. When telephone customers move or request new types of service, installers relocate telephones or make changes on customers’ existing equipment. For example, they may install a PBX system in an office or change a twoparty line to a single-party line in a residence. Installers may also fill a customer’s request to add an exten sion in another room or to replace an old telephone with a newer model. Telephone and PBX installers and repairmen are the largest group of telephone craftsmen; about 85,000 were employed in early 1967. The bulk of these men mainly install tele phones or private branch exchanges and about 18,000 of them repair and maintain this equipment. The jobs of installing and repairing telephones and PBX systems are discussed below as separate jobs, but many telephone companies combine two or more of these jobs. Telephone installers (D.O.T. 822.381) install and remove telephones in homes and places of business. They connect newly installed telephones to outside service wires which are on nearby buildings or poles. Installers often must climb poles to make these connections. Telephone installers are sometimes called station installers. PBX installers (D.O.T. 822.381) perform the same duties as telephone installers but they specialize in more complex switchboard installations. They connect wires from terminals to switchboards and make tests to check their installations. Some PBX instal lers also set up equipment for radio and television broadcasts, mobile radiotelephones, and teletypewriters. Telephone repairmen (D.O.T. 822.281), with the assistance of testboardmen in the central office, locate trouble on customers’ equipment and make repairs to restore service. Some times the jobs of telephone repairmen and telephone installers are combined and the workers are called telephone installer-repairmen. PBX. repairmen (D.O.T. 822.281), with the assistance of testboardmen, locate trouble on customers’ PBX systems and make necessary repairs. They also maintain associated equip ment, such as batteries, relays, and power plants. Some PBX repairmen maintain and repair equipment for radio and television broadcasts, mo bile radiotelephones, and teletype writers. Sometimes the jobs of PBX installers and PBX repairmen are combined into the job of PBX in staller-repairmen. requires personal contact with cus tomers, applicants who have a pleas ing appearance and the ability to deal effectively with people are preferred. Applicants for these skilled jobs must have a high school or vocational school education. Preemployment tests usually are given to help deter mine applicants’ aptitude. New workers are given classroom instruction in addition to on-the-job training. Classrooms are equipped with telephone poles, lines and cables, and terminal boxes, as well as models of typical residential construction to simulate actual working conditions. Trainees practice installing tele phones and making connections to service wires just as they would in the field. After a few weeks of such training, new workers accompany skilled installers and continue to learn the job of installing by watching and helping these experienced men. Telephone and PBX installers and repairmen continue to receive train ing throughout their careers with the telephone company to qualify for more difficult and responsible work. Since technological changes in the telephone industry are occurring con stantly, telephone companies send their craftsmen to training schools for further instruction. Well qualified workers will have many additional advancement opportunities in this in dustry. For example, after a tele phone installer has worked a few years, he may be transferred to the higher paying job of PBX installer. Similarly, a telephone repairman may be promoted to PBX repairman, one of the highest paying craft jobs. Another new worker may start as a lineman and then transfer to the job of installing or repairing telephones, later moving to either PBX installer or PBX repairman. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Employment Outlook Telephone companies hire inexpe rienced men and train them for tele phone and PBX installation and re pair jobs. Since much of the work Young men will find many oppor tunities for steady employment as telephone and PBX installers and repairmen during the remainder of TELEPHONE INDUSTRY OCCUPATIONS this decade and throughout the 1970’s. Primarily, these opportunities will result from the need to replace workers who transfer to other tele phone jobs, leave the industry, retire, or die. Retirements and deaths alone may result in about 1700 job openings each year during the 1967-80 period. Some job openings created by turn over may be filled by workers trans ferring from other telephone craft jobs, such as linemen and cable splic ers, but many will be open to new employees. The total number of telephone and PBX installers and repairmen is ex pected to increase at a slow rate dur ing the rest of the 1960’s and through the 1970’s. Some additional jobs may become available because of a gradual changeover to electronic switching equipment in central offices that has begun recently. Also, some expansion is anticipated in the volume of service handled by these craftsmen, because of the expanding number of tele phones to be serviced and repaired, the growing popularity of extension phones, the increased use of special ized types of phone equipment, and the development of improved but more complex equipment. The em ployment increase will be slight be cause recent technological changes have increased the efficiency of indi vidual installers or repairmen. Ex amples of such changes include im proved designs for telephone instru ments, wires, and cables; the develop ment of removable components which can be returned to factory or serv ice shop for repair. Earnings and Working Conditions In December 1965, the average basic hourly rate for PBX repairmen was $3.54 and the rate for telephone and PBX installers was $3.32. Aver age hourly rates ranged from $3.26 to $3.66 for PBX repairmen and from $3.00 to $3.52 for telephone and PBX installers, with variations in earnings depending on locality and length of service. 703 The effect of length of service on wage rates is illustrated by a 1966 union management agreement in one of the higher pay scale cities. Under this agreement, telephone installers and repairmen have a starting rate of $90.00 for a 40-hour week with periodic pay increases until a maxi mum of $150.00 a week is reached after about 6 years. PBX installers and repairmen also have a starting rate of $90.00 and progress to $160.00. Installers and repairmen are covered by the same provisions governing overtime pay, vacations, holidays, and other benefits that apply to tele phone workers generally. (See dis cussion earlier in this chapter.) Telephone and PBX installers and repairmen work indoors and outdoors in all kinds of weather. Outdoor work includes climbing poles to place and repair telephone wires leading from poles to customers’ premises. Instal lers and repairmen may be called upon to work extra hours when break downs in customers’ lines or equip ment occur. CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY The activities of the construction industry touch nearly every aspect of our daily lives. The houses and apart ments we live in ; the factories, offices, and schools in which we work; and the roads we travel upon; are ex amples of some of the products of this important industry. The indus try encompasses not only new con struction projects, but includes also additions, alterations, and repairs to existing structures. In 1966, about 3.3 million persons were employed in the contract con struction industry. An additional 1.3 million workers are estimated to be either self-employed—mostly owners of small building firms—or are State and local government employees en gaged in building and maintaining our Nation’s vast highway system. The contract construction industry is divided into three major segments. About half of the work force is em ployed by electrical, air-conditioning, plumbing, and other special trade contractors. Another one-third work in the general building sector where most residential, commercial, and in dustrial construction is carried on. The remaining workers, one-fifth, are engaged in building dams, bridges, roads, and similar heavy construction projects. As illustrated in the tabulation on p. 706, workers in all blue-collar occupa tions made up nearly four-fifths of the construction industry employment in 1966. Craftsmen and foremen alone account for more than one-half of the total employment in this industry—a much higher proportion than that of any other major industry. Most of these skilled workers are employed as carpenters, painters, plumbers and^ pipefitters, construction machinery operators, and bricklayers, or in one of the other construction trades. La borers are the next largest occupa tional group, and account for 1 of 6 workers. They provide material, scaf folding, and general assistance to the craftsmen at the worksite. Semiskilled workers such as truck drivers, weld ers and apprentices (operatives and kindred workers) represent about one-tenth of the industry’s total work force. Managers, officials, and pro prietors—mostly self-employed—also account for about the same share of employment. Professional and tech nical workers make up slightly less than 5 percent of the work force em ployed in construction. Engineers, together with technicians such as draftsmen and surveyors account for most of the employment in this oc cupational group. Clerical workers, largely women working as stenog raphers, typists and secretaries, and in general office work, made up an other 5 percent of the industry’s employment. For the remainder of this decade and through the mid-1970’s, em ployment requirements are expected 705 706 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Estimated employment, 1966 Major occupational group (percent distribution) All occupational groups............ 100 Professional, technical, and kindred workers.............................................. Managers, officials, and proprietors. . . Clerical and kindred workers.............. Sales workers........................................ Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers.............................................. Operatives and kindred workers........ Service workers.................................... Laborers............................................... 5 11 5 (*) 52 11 1 16 'Less than 0.5 percent. to rise in the construction industry. As the national economy expands, as population increases, and as personal and corporate incomes rise, the de mand for contract construction ac tivities are expected to undergo a substantial increase. Likewise, the number of construction workers em ployed by State and local highway de partments is also expected to increase because of the need to meet the de mands of the country’s expanding highway systems. Even though em ployment in the construction indus try is likely to grow, the increasing application of the latest technology in tools, material, and work methods, together with the rising skill level of the work force, will make it possible to increase the level of construction activity without a correspondingly large increase in employment. Contract construction is the major source of employment for such skilled craftsmen as bricklayers, painters, carpenters, and others who are dis cussed more fully eleswhere in the Handbook. For information on these and similar construction occupa tions, see the Building Trades chap ter of the Handbook. For information on occupations which are found in many other industries see the index in the back of book. FINANCE, INSURANCE, AND REAL ESTATE Nearly every individual or organi zation makes extensive use of the di verse and complex services provided by the finance, insurance, and real estate industry. Financial institu tions—banks, savings and loan associ ations, consumer credit organizations, and others—make banking and credit facilities available to individuals and businesses. The types of services they offer range from providing simple fi nancial services such as personal checking and savings accounts to act ing as the broker and salesman in the buying and selling of stocks and bonds needed by giant corporations for in vestment capital. Insurance firms provide protection against unex pected losses due to fire, accident, sickness, and death, and for many other contingencies. Real estate or ganizations act as the intermediary or broker in the sale of houses, build ings, and other property, and often 262-057 0 — 68------ 46 operate and manage large office and apartment buildings. In 1966, nearly 3.1 million workers were employed in the finance, insur ance, and real estate industry. Fi nance made up the largest sector, employing nearly 1.3 million persons in 1966. The next largest concentra tion of employment was in the insur ance sector, where over 1.1 million workers were employed. The remain ing workers—about one-fourth of the total—were employed in the real es tate sector. Finance, insurance, and real estate firms are a major source of job oppor tunities for women workers. Women made up over half of the industry’s work force in 1966, and their propor tion ranged from roughly 35 percent of employment in real estate to over 60 percent of employment in banking. This industry employs a very high proportion of white-collar workers. As shown in the following tabulation, nearly 9 out of 10 workers in the in dustry held white-collar jobs in 1966. Clerical workers made up 45 percent of the industry’s work force, account ing for half of the white-collar em ployees. Many clerical workers are employed in specialized banking and insurance occupations such as bankteller, checksorter, and insurance claims adjuster. Other large clerical occupations include stenographer, typist, secretary, and office machine operator—occupations also found in most other industries. Sales workers, who account of nearly one-fifth of the workers in this industry, are especially important in the insurance and real estate sectors, where insurance and real estate agents and brokers make up over one-third of the total work force. Stock and bond salesmen and brokers are also an important occupa tion in the finance sector. Managers and officials—bank officials, office 707 708 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK managers, and others—made up roughly one-fourth of the industry’s work force in 1966. A majority of the very small num ber of professional, technical, and re lated workers in this industry are employed by financial institutions. Estimated employment, 1966 Major occupational group (percent distribution All occupational groups........ Professional, technical, and kindred workers.......................................... Managers, officials, and proprietors. Clerical and kindred workers......... Sales workers................................... Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers.......................................... Operatives and kindred workers. . . Service workers................................ Laborers........................................... ) 100 3 23 45 18 3 1 5 2 Accountants and auditors, program ed, and business research analysts make up the greater part of these highly trained workers. Employment in the finance, insur ance, and real estate industry is ex pected to increase moderately through the mid-1970’s. Population growth, increasing business activity, and ris ing personal incomes are among the important factors expected to gener ate a rapidly expanding demand for financial, insurance, and real estate services. However, the increasing use of computer technology in perform ing the routine clerical and record keeping functions that are so common in this industry may limit employ ment growth to some extent. In the financial sector, employment is ex pected to increase more rapidly than any other sector within the major in dustry group. On the other hand, the insurance and real estate sectors will experience only modest employment gains over the same time period. In addition to the opportunities that will arise because of employment growth, many thousands of job open ings will result as women leave the field to assume family responsibilities. Replacements also will be needed to fill vacancies created by deaths and retirements and by transfers of work ers out of the industry. The statements that follow cover major occupations in the banking and insurance fields. More detailed infor mation about occupations that exist in many industries appear elsewhere in the Handbook. (See index in the back of the book.) Occupations in Banking Banks have been described as “de partment stores of finance” because of the great variety of financial serv ices they offer. Their services range from convenient individual checking accounts to letters of credit that may be used to finance world trade. They safeguard money and valuables; ad minister trusts and personal estates; and lend money to retail merchants, large industrial concerns, and farm ers. In addition, banks make loans to individuals for the purchase of homes, automobiles, and household items, as well as to meet unexpected expenses and other personal financial needs. Banks strive to introduce new services to meet the needs of their customers. In recent years, for example, they have offered customers revolving check credit plans, credit cards, travel services, facilities for handling charge accounts for retail stores, and “driveup” windows for their banking convenience. Banks and Their Workers To provide these and many other services, banking organizations em ployed about 850,000 people in early 1967; more than half were women. Approximately 800,000 of these bank employees worked in commercial banks, where a wide variety of serv ices are offered; the banking occupa tions discussed in this statement are generally those which are found in banks of this type. Other bank em ployees, many of whom are in the same occupations, work in mutual savings banks, which offer a more limited range of services—mainly savings deposit accounts, safe-deposit rentals, trust management, mortgage loans, and other banking services such as money orders, travelers checks, and passbook loans. Still others are in the 12 Federal Reserve Banks (or “bankers’ banks” ) and their 24 branches; and in foreign exchange firms, clearing house asso ciations, check cashing agencies, and other organizations doing work closely related to banking. In addition to those employed in banking, many people who do similar work are employed in savings and loan associations, credit unions and other personal credit institutions, and other related financial institutions. In 1966, commercial banks proc essed more than 20 billion checks and handled an enormous amount of other paperwork. The clerical em ployees who do this work account for two-thirds of all bank employees. Many of these clerical workers are in jobs which are unique to banks; they are either tellers or bank clerks who process the thousands of deposit slips, checks, and other documents which banks handle daily. Also em ployed are many secretaries, stenog raphers, typists, telephone operators, receptionists, and others whose duties are much the same in banks as in other types of businesses. Bank officers are the second largest occupational group within the indus try. Approximately 1 out of 6 bank workers is an officer—a president, vice president, treasurer, comptroller, or other official. Other, much smaller, occupational groups are accountants and auditors, lawyers, statisticians, economists, and other professional workers, as well as guards, elevator operators, cleaners, and other service workers who protect and maintain bank properties. This chapter gives ’information about three large groups of workers in occupations unique to banking— bank clerks, tellers, and bank officers. Some of the other occupations men tioned which are common to banks as well as other institutions are described elsewhere in the Handbook. Where Employed In early 1967, there were more than 30,000 commercial banks and branch banks, and more than 900 mutual savings banks and branches. Bank employment is concentrated, to a considerable extent, in a rela tively limited number of very large banks and their branches. In early 1966, the 392 largest commercial banks in the country, each with total deposits of $100 million or more, employed more than one-half of all commercial bank employees, whereas nearly 9,700 small commer cial banks (with total deposits of $10 million or less) employed only about one-seventh of all commercial bank workers. Bank employees work mainly in heavily populated areas. Approxi mately half of all bank employees are located in five states: New York, California, Illinois, Pennsylvania, and Texas. New York City, the financial capital of the Nation, has far more bank employees than any other city. Training Bank workers include thousands of professional and managerial employ ees who usually have completed col lege. A high school diploma is ade quate preparation for entry into most clerical jobs in banks; other workers, such as building service workers and guards, are in jobs which can be filled by persons with a high school educa tion or less. Most newly hired em ployees undergo some form of inservice training so that they may be come familiar with bank policies and procedures. Bank employees have numerous opportunities which are provided by their employers to 709 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK 710 broaden their knowledge and skills. Besides the on-the-job training op portunities they may have, employees are often encouraged to further their education off the job. (Additional in formation about the educational re quirements which apply to bank clerks, tellers, and bank officers, and the training given them, is provided in the statements that follow ). Bank employees are encouraged to prepare themselves for better jobs by enrolling in courses offered by the American Institute of Banking in many cities throughout the country. Local Institute chapters set up study groups and offer students correspond ence courses which cover many sub jects. These include accounting, fi nance and credit, commercial law, investments, b a n k i n g operations, trusts, letter writing, public speaking, and English, as well as courses in other areas. Many banks encourage their em ployees to take courses at local col leges and universities. In addition, there are more than 60 individual banking schools sponsored by the American Institute of Banking in co operation with colleges and universi ties throughout the country. These schools are designed to assist bank employees at all levels to assume greater responsibilities in their bank. Many banks pay all or a part of the tuition for those who successfully complete the courses in which they enroll. Employment Outlook Employment in banks is expected to rise very rapidly during the rest of the 1960’s and through the 1970’s. New jobs resulting from employment growth, as well as jobs that must be filled as employees retire or stop working for other reasons, may ac count for about 70,000 openings each year. Still other openings will occur as employees leave their positions to enter other types of employment. Most of these openings will be in clerical occupations. In addition, an increasing number of trainee jobs, which may eventually lead to officer positions, will probably become avail able for college graduates. Openings for professional and specialized per sonnel, such as lawyers, accountants and auditors, economists, statisticians, actuaries, and electronic computer personnel will occur in greater num bers. Population growth and the accom panying rise in production, sales, and national income are expected to pro duce a steady growth in the number of business and financial transactions which banks will handle. As a result, total employment may rise to more than a million workers by 1980. The number of branch banks has been in creasing for many years and will probably continue to do so as banks seek to make their services more accessible both in cities and in new and expanding suburban business centers. More jobs will also be created as banks continue to expand other services. The anticipated services are many, including among others, facili ties for handling charge accounts for retail stores, special savings plans for travel and education, estate planning and administration, “in-plant” bank ing facilities for employed workers, and the management of employee pension funds. The estimated 943 banks which had electronic computer installations in 1966 provided con ventional banking services to other banks and financial institutions with out computers and, to business cor porations, such services as account reconciliation, payroll preparation, sales analysis, inventory control, and customer billing. The increasing number of addi tional workers needed to handle the anticipated increase in banking activ ities may be offset somewhat by the continued conversion of many major banking activities to electronic dataprocessing. Even so, the very rapid growth in employment which has characterized the banking industry in recent years is expected to continue, but at a somewhat slower pace. Elec tronic data-processing is likely to bring about important changes in the pattern of occupations in banking, however, substantially reducing the number of workers needed in some occupations and at the same time cre ating other jobs which are new to banks. The effect of these develop ments will vary from one occupation to another, as indicated in the state ments on specific banking occupations which follow. Bank employees can anticipate steadier employment than workers in many other fields, because they are less likely to be affected by layoffs during periods when the general level of business activity is low. Even when a bank is sold or merged with another bank, it usually continues to do busi ness, and there is little likelihood that workers will lose their jobs. When bank officials find it necessary to cur tail employment, they usually do so by not replacing employees who retire or leave their jobs for other reasons. Although this reduces the number of openings for new employees, it avoids the necessity of laying off experienced personnel. Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of bank clerks, tellers, and officers are discussed in the statements which follow. In addition to their salaries, bank workers receive fringe benefits which are generally some what more liberal than those pro vided by other types of businesses. For example, most banks offer their work ers some type of profit sharing or bonus plan; sick leave; paid holidays ranging from 5 to 12 a year; and va cations with pay, generally 2 weeks for those who have completed 1 year of service, 3 weeks after 10 to 15 years of service, and 4 weeks after 20 to 25 years of service. In addition, group plans that provide life insurance, hos pitalization and surgical benefits, and retirement income are commonplace fringe benefits for many bank em ployees. Sometimes free or preferred banking services, such as checking ac counts, safe deposit boxes, installment loans, and traveling services are also provided. 711 ao cu p A / n o N S i n b a n k i n g Scheduled hours in banks are gen erally 40 or less a week; in a few localities, a work week of 35 hours is fairly common. Tellers and some other types of employees may work in the evening at least once a week when banks remain open for business; and overtime work may be necessary for some bookkeeping department employees during peak periods, often at the end of each month. Workers who do some kinds of check process ing may be employed on evening and night shifts, as are many operators of electronic computing equipment. Generally, bank work is done in modern, clean, well-lighted, and air-conditioned offices. Few jobs re quire strenuous physical exertion. and savings accounts, loans to indi viduals and business firms, and other bank business. Because of the nature of banking, some of their work differs from the work in other kinds of busi ness offices. (Secretaries, office ma chine operators, receptionists, and other clerical workers whose jobs are much the same in banks as in other businesses are discussed in the chapter on Clerical and Related Occupa tions. ) The specific duties that must be performed in a particular bank de pend on the size of the bank and the extent and scope of the services offered. In a small bank, for example, one clerk may be required to perform a variety of work such as sorting checks, totaling debit and credit slips, and preparing monthly state ments for mailing to depositors. How ever, in a large bank, each clerk usually is assigned one kind of work and frequently has a special job title. Bank clerks known as sorters (D.O.T. 219.388) separate bank documents—checks, deposit slips, and other bank items—into different Where To Go for More Information Local banks and State bankers’ as sociations can furnish specific infor mation about job opportunities in local banking institutions. General in formation on banking occupations, training opportunities, and about the banking industry itself is available from: American Bankers Association, Per sonnel Administration and Man agement Development Committee, 90 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016. National Association of Bank Wom en, Inc., National Office, 60 East 42d St., New York, N.Y. 10017. Information on career opportu nities in consumer finance can be ob tained from: The National Consumer Finance As sociation, 1000 16th St., NW., Washington, D .C .20036. BANK CLERKS Nature of Work Bank clerks handle the paperwork associated with depositors’ checking Modem banks rely on electronic computers to process millions of bookkeeping entries daily. 712 groups and tabulate each “batch” so they may be charged to the proper account; often they use canceling and adding machines in their work. Many banks also employ proof ma chine operators (D.O.T. 217.388) who use equipment that, in one oper ation, sorts items and adds and records the amount of money in volved. The bookkeeping workers who keep records of depositors’ accounts and of bank transactions such as loans to business firms or the purchase and sale of securities are the largest single group of bank clerks. Bookkeeping machine operators (D.O.T. 215.388) in this group use either conventional bookkeeping machines or electronic posting machines especially designed for bank work; in most other respects, their work is similar to that of book keeping machine operators in other types of establishments. In banks, these workers are sometimes known as account clerks, posting machine oper ators, or recording clerks. Bookkeep ers (D.O.T. 210.388) are also em ployed in banks, usually to keep special types of financial records. Banks employ very few general book keepers (D.O.T. 210.388) who main tain complete sets of books. The job titles of many bank bookkeepers are related to the kinds of records on which they work—among them, Christmas club bookkeeper, discount bookkeeper, interest-accrual book keeper, trust bookkeeper, and com modity loan clerk. Thousands of bookkeeping and accounting clerks (D.O.T. 219.488) are also employed in bookkeeping departments to do routine typing, calculating, and post ing related to bank transactions. Included in this group are reconcile ment clerks, who process statements from other banks in order to expedite the auditing of accounts; and trust investment clerks who post the daily investment transactions of bank cus tomers. Other clerical employees whose du ties and job titles are unique to bank ing include country collection clerks OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK (D.O.T. 219.388) who sort the thou sands of pieces of mail which come in daily to a city bank and determine which items must be held at the main office and which should be routed to branch banks or out-of-city banks for collection. Also employed are transit clerks (D.O.T. 217.388) who sort bank items such as checks and drafts on other banks, list and total the amounts involved, and prepare the documents so that they can be mailed for collection; exchange c l e r k s (D.O.T. 219.388) who service for eign deposit accounts and determine charges for cashing or handling checks drawn against such accounts; interest clerks (D.O.T. 219.388) who maintain records relating to interestbearing items which are due to or from the bank; and mortgage clerks (D.O.T. 209.388) who type legal pa pers affecting title to real estate upon which money has been loaned, and maintain records relating to taxes and insurance on such properties. New clerical occupations which have been created by the introduction of electronic data-processing, and which are unique to banks, include those of the electronic reader-sorter operator who operates electronic check sorting equipment, the check inscriber or encoder, who operates machines that print information on checks and other documents in mag netic ink to prepare them for machine reading, and the control clerk who keeps track of the huge volume of documents flowing in and out of the computer division. Other occupations include card-tape converter opera tor, coding clerk, console operator, data typist, data converting machine operator, data examination clerk, high speed printer operator, tape librarian, teletype operator, and veri fier operator. Workers in these occu pations are employed only in the rel atively small number of banks that use this kind of equipment. Banks employed more than 400,000 clerical employees of all kinds in early 1967, about 7 out of every 10 of whom were women. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement High school graduation is ade quate preparation for most beginning clerical jobs in banks. For the major ity of jobs, courses in bookkeeping, typing, and business arithmetic are desirable. Courses in office machine operation are also helpful. Job appli cants may be given short employment and clerical aptitude tests. These tests are designed to determine the spe cific ability to work rapidly and ac curately, and to communicate effec tively with others. Beginners may be hired as file clerks, bookkeeping clerks, transit clerks, clerk-typists, or for other re lated work. Some are trained by the bank to operate proof, bookkeeping, and other office machines. A few start as pages or inside messengers. An employee in a routine clerical job may eventually be promoted to a minor supervisory position, or to a job as teller or credit analyst, and eventually to a senior supervisory position. Opportunities for advance ment to bank officer positions also exist for outstanding clerical employ ees, although they are more likely to attain such positions if they have had college training or have taken spe cialized courses offered by the bank ing industry. Additional education obtained while employed—particu larly the courses offered by the Amer ican Institute of Banking—may be helpful in preparing workers for ad vancement. (See introduction to this chapter for further information on the Institute’s educational program.) Employment Outlook Employment of bank clerks is ex pected to increase moderately during the rest of the 1960’s and through the 1970’s, creating many openings. New jobs created by growth, as well as jobs that must be filled as employees retire or stop working for other rea sons, may result in more than 25,000 openings each year.-Turnover is rela tively high in banks, as in other in 713 OCCUPATIONS IN BANKING dustries which employ many women in clerical positions. Jobs for clerks will arise as established banks expand their services and as new banks and branch banks are opened. In those banks which install modern elec tronic equipment, however, decreases may be expected in the employment of workers such as check sorters and bookkeeping machine operators. Most employees affected by the changeover will probably be re trained and reassigned, either to new jobs created by the change in equip ment and processing methods, or to other duties related to the many new functions and services which banks will introduce. Overall, the growth in the volume of work created by new bank facilities and services is ex pected to be so great that the total number of clerical workers will con tinue to rise for some years to come, although much less rapidly than in the recent past. The sharpest in creases in employment are expected in occupations related to electronic data processing. Earnings Average earnings of nonsupervisory bank workers—most of them in clerical jobs—were about $82.14 per week in 1966. The most recent information on the earnings of spe cific clerical occupations is from a 1964 survey of banks in 27 metro politan areas throughout the country. In these areas, average weekly earn ings for women proof-machine operators employed in banks ranged from $56.50 in Louisville to $77 in the San Francisco-Oakland area. The lowest and highest average weekly earnings for women Class A bookkeeping machine operators— generally experienced employees who worked on relatively difficult assign ments—were $61 in Providence and $89.50 in Chicago. For women Class B bookkeeping machine operators, doing more routine work, average weekly earnings ranged from $55.50 in Providence to $71 in the San Francisco-Oakland area. Clerical workers in banks are cov ered under provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act, a Federal law which provides for minimum wages. In 1967, the minimum was $1.40 an hour; thus, a clerk who worked a 40hour week would earn at least $56. See introductory section of this chapter for information on Where Employed, Earnings and Working Conditions, and Where To Go for More Information, and for addi tional information on Training and Employment Outlook. Teller returns customer’s passbook after entering deposit. TELLERS (D.O.T. 212.368) Nature of Work Every bank, no matter how small, has at least one teller to receive and pay out money and record these transactions. In a very small bank, one teller—often known as an allaround teller—may handle transac tions of all kinds, but in large banks different kinds of transactions are usually taken care of by different tellers. A Christmas Club teller ac cepts and records deposits made to Christmas Club savings accounts, for example, and a note teller handles certain transactions for clients mak ing loans on securities. Other tellers who have special job titles include commercial (or paying and receiv ing), savings, foreign exchange, pay roll, discount, and securities tellers. Approximately 180,000 tellers of all kinds were employed in early 1967. A considerable number worked only part time, and about 7 out of 10 were women. Commercial tellers, with whom most people deal when they transact business at banks, are mainly occu pied with cashing customers’ checks and handling deposits and with drawals from checking and savings accounts during the hours the bank is open to the public. Before he cashes a check, the teller must verify the identity of the person to whom he makes payment, and be certain that funds in the account against which the check is drawn (or the payee’s account) are sufficient to cover the payment. When he accepts a deposit, he checks to see whether the amount of money has been correctly itemized on the deposit slip and enters the total in a passbook or on a deposit receipt. Tellers may use machines to make change and total deposits. A teller handling savings accounts may use a “window” posting machine which prints a receipt, or records in the customer’s passbook, and simul taneously posts the transaction in the bank’s ledger. After public banking hours, the teller counts the cash on hand, lists the currency-received tickets on a settlement sheet, and balances his day’s accounts. He may also perform other incidental tasks such as sorting checks and deposit slips, filing new account cards, and removing closed account cards from files. A paying and receiving teller may supervise one or more clerks assigned to assist him. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement In hiring tellers, employers prefer high school graduates experienced in 714 related clerical positions. They regard personal characteristics such as ma turity, neatness, tact, and courtesy particularly important because cus tomers, who deal with tellers far more frequently than with other bank em ployees, often judge a bank’s services principally on their impressions of the tellers. Since tellers handle large sums of money, they must be able to meet the standards established by bonding companies. In filling new positions, most banks give preference to their employees who have demonstrated the necessary qualifications. Newly hired tellers usually learn their duties by first observing experi enced workers for a few days and then, under close supervision, doing the work themselves. Training peri ods may last from a few days to 3 weeks or longer. A new teller’s first assignment is usually to a combina tion job as a savings and commercial teller; or, in those banks which are large enough to have a savings teller’s “cage,” the beginner may start as a savings teller. After gaining experience, a compe tent teller in a large bank may ad vance to the position of head teller, in which he supervises the bank’s staff of tellers. Eventually, experienced tellers may qualify for promotion to bank officer positions, particularly if they have had college training or have taken specialized courses offered by the banking industry. (See introduc tion to this chapter for information about the educational program of the American Institute of Banking.) OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook The number of bank tellers is ex pected to increase very rapidly during the rest of the 1960’s and through the 1970’s, as banks continue to expand their services for the growing urban population. An increasing proportion, however, will be part-time tellers em ployed during peak hours to accom modate those customers who transact business during the noon hour and in the evenings. More than 18,000 open ings are expected each year as a result of the increase in employment and the need to replace tellers who retire or stop working for other rea sons. Turnover is relatively high among the thousands of women who work as tellers. Although increased use of mechan ical and electronic equipment can be expected to eliminate some of the routine work now done by many tellers, and to speed other work they now perform, it is unlikely to affect greatly the total number employed. 1967, the minimum was $1.40 an hour; thus, tellers who worked a 40hour week would earn at least $56. According to the limited informa tion available, part-time tellers, many of whom are employed in branch banks, earn $2 or $3 an hour for a workweek of 20 or 25 hours. See introductory section of this chapter for information on Where Employed, Earnings and Working Conditions, and Where To Go for More Information, and for additional information on Training. BANK OFFICERS (D.O.T. 186.118, .138, .168, and .288; 161.118; 189.118 and .168) Nature of Work Practically every bank has a presi dent who exercises general direction over all operations; one or more vice presidents who either act as general Earnings managers or have charge of bank de The most recent information on the partments such as trust, credit, and earnings of tellers is from a 1964 sur investment; and a comptroller or vey. In 27 metropolitan areas, earn cashier who (unlike cashiers in stores ings of bank tellers having less than and other businesses) is an executive 5 years’ experience ranged from a low officer generally responsible for all of between $45 and $50 a week to a bank property. Large banks may also high almost three times as great. The have treasurers and other senior offi lowest and highest average weekly cers, as well as assistant officers, to su earnings for men and women em pervise the various sections within ployed in specific teller positions for different departments. Banking in less than 5 years are given in the ac stitutions employed more than 140,000 officers in early 1967; women companying tabulation. represented about one-tenth of the Average weekly earnings, 1964 total. Lowest Highest A bank officer makes decisions All-round tellers: within a framework of policy set by $75.50 (Cincinnati) Women............. ...... $55.50 (Louisville)___________________ Men---------------- 66.00 (Washington and Providence)......... .................... 90.00(Chicago) the board of directors. His job re Commercial tellers: Women------------- 66.00 (Boston and D allas)_______ 89.50 (New York) quires a broad knowledge of business (D allas)_________________ 89.00 (New York) Men---------------- 65.00 Savings tellers: Women------------- 59.50 (Baltimore)__________________ 79.50 (San Francisco-Oakland) activities, which he must relate to the Men---------------- 62.50 (Newark-JerseyC ity)__ _______ 87.00 (San Francisco-Oakland) operations of the particular depart N ote tellers: Women— ......... . 63.50 (Philadelphia)____________________ 89.00(New York and San Fran ment for which he is responsible. For cisco-Oakland) Men--------------- 74.00 (Miami)______________________________ 98.50 (Milwaukee) example, the loan officer must exercise The average salaries of tellers with 5 perience. Bank tellers are covered un his best judgment in considering ap years or more of service were from $6 der provisions of the Fair Labor plications for loans, bearing in mind to $24 a week more than the averages Standards Act, a Federal law which general business conditions and the listed provides for minimum wages. In nature of the collateral offered. He above for tellers with less ex 715 OCCUPATION'S IN BANKING The number of women employed as bank officers is growing. must evaluate carefully the reports of credit analysts on the individual or business firm applying for a loan, and balance the favorable and unfa vorable elements in reaching a deci sion. Similarly, the trust officer must have a thorough understanding of the provisions of each trust which he is administering and the knowledge nec essary to manage properly the fund or estate involved; he must invest wisely in order to manage trust funds which were established for purposes such as supporting families, sending young people to college, or paying pensions to retired workers. Besides supervising financial services, bank officers are frequently called upon to advise in dividuals and businessmen and to par ticipate in many different kinds of community projects. Because of the great variety of services offered by banks, a wide choice of officer careers in different areas of the bank is available for those who wish to specialize. For ex ample, in the lending area, the loan officer must be familiar with the prin ciples of economics, production, dis tribution, and merchandising, as well as the fundamentals of commercial law. He must also have the ability to analyze financial statements and have some knowledge of the operations and customs of businesses to which the bank expects to extend credit. Ca reers in the lending area include: Installment loan officer, commercial loan officer, credit department loan officer, real estate mortgage loan of ficer, and agricultural loan officer. In the trust services area, the trust officer is responsible for the management of assets belonging to individuals, fam ilies, corporations, and charitable and educational institutions. Trust management requires specialization in such fields as financial planning, investment, administration, taxes, and business and real estate manage ment. Specialized careers in the trust management area include, for ex ample, estate administration, in dividual and institutional trust administration, and investment re search positions. The operations officer plans, coordinates and controls the work flow, updates systems, and strives for more efficient operations of a bank. He must be able to train and supervise a large number of people since most of a bank’s staff works in operations. Career opportunities in the bank operations area include the following: Customer services, elec tronic data processing services, and internal services. Other career spe cialities for bank officers include cor respondent bank officer who is responsible for relations with other banks, branch bank manager who has full responsibility for all aspects of a branch office, and international of ficer who is financial advisor to cus tomers in the United States and abroad. A working knowledge of a foreign language and knowledge of a foreign country’s geography, politics, history, and economic growth can be very helpful to those interested in careers in international banking. Other career fields for bank officers are auditing, economics, personnel administration, public relations, and operation research. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Bank officer positions may be filled by promoting either experienced clerical bank employees or manage ment trainees. Outstanding individ uals may be selected for promotion even though their academic back ground is limited, but college gradua tion is the usual requirement for young people who enter as trainees. A business administration curriculum with a major in finance or a liberal arts curriculum including accounting, economics, commercial law, political 716 science, and statistics are considered excellent preparation for trainee posi tions. Valuable experience may be gained in the summer employment programs recently initiated by some large city banks for college students. Most large city banks have wellorganized officer-training programs. Usually these range from 6 months to 1 year in length. Trainees may start as credit or investment analysts, or be rotated among various jobs in several bank departments so that they get the “feel” of banking and so that bank officers may be better able to determine the position for which each employee is best suited. Many banks which are too small to operate formal officer-trainee programs nevertheless provide some form of training pro gram which enables trainees to gain an understanding of bank operations. Advancement to officer positions may come slowly in small banks where t&e number of such positions is limited. In large city banks with spe cial training programs, initial pro motions may come more quickly. For a senior officer position, however, many years of experience are usually necessary before an employee can acquire the necessary knowledge of the bank’s operations and customers and of the community. Although experience, ability, and leadership qualities receive great em phasis when bank employees are OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK considered for promotion to officer positions, advancement may also be accelerated by special study. Courses in every phase of banking are offered by the American Institute of Banking, a long-established, industry-sponsored school. (See introduction to this chapter for more information on the Institute’s program and other train ing program sponsored jointly by universities and local bankers’ associ ations.) openings will rise as bank officers transfer to other types of employment. Most of the officer positions which become available will be filled by promoting people who have already acquired experience in banking op erations. Competition for such pro motions is likely to remain keen, particularly in large banks. College graduates who meet the standards for executive trainees should find good opportunities for entry positions, however. Employment Outlook Earnings The number of bank officers is ex pected to increase rapidly during the rest of the 1960’s and through the 1970’s. Many new positions will be created by the expected expansion of banking activities. Others will de velop because the increasing use of electronic computers enables banks to analyze and plan banking operations more extensively and to provide new kinds of services. In addition, because bank officers are somewhat older, on the average, than most employee groups, a large number of additional officers will be needed each year to replace those who retire, or leave their jobs for other reasons. More than 10,000 workers will probably be needed annually because of employ ment growth and the replacement of bank officers who retire or stop work ing for other reasons. Many other According to a private survey con ducted in 1966, large banks, insurance companies, and other financial insti tutions paid salaries generally ranging from $514 to $549 or more a month to new executive trainees who were college graduates having majors in business administration or in the lib eral arts. The salaries of senior bank officers may be several times as great as these starting salaries. For officers, as well as for other employees, salaries are likely to be lower in small towns than in big city banks. See introductory section of this chapter for information on Where Employed, Earnings and Working Conditions, and Where To Go for More Information, and for additional information on Training. may be operated by independent agents and brokers. Nature of the Business OCCUPATIONS IN THE INSURANCE BUSINESS Insurance is a multibillion dollar business which offers many employ ment opportunities for young people just out of high school or college and for experienced workers. There are about 1,700 life insur ance companies and more than 3,000 property and liability (sometimes called property and casualty) insur ance companies. They conduct their business in main offices, commonly called “home” offices, and in thou sands of local sales offices in cities and towns throughout the country. Local offices may be branches oper ated by an insurance company or they Insurance policies are classified into two broad categories: life insurance, and property and liability insurance. Most companies specialize in one of these types. However, companies in both fields sell health insurance. Life insurance companies sell poli cies which provide not only basic life insurance protection, but also several other kinds of protection. Under some policies, for example, policyholders receive an income when they reach retirement age or if they become dis abled and stop working; other life insurance policies may help to meet the costs of educating children when they reach college age, or may give extra financial protection when the children are young. Life insurance companies may also sell accident and health insurance, which assists policy holders in meeting medical expenses and may provide other kinds of bene fits to policyholders when they are injured or ill. Policies sold by property and lia bility insurance companies provide financial protection against loss or damage to the policyholders’ property and protects the policyholder when he is responsible for injuries to others or damage to other people’s property. This insurance field includes protec tion against hazards such as fire, theft, and windstorm, as well as workmen’s compensation and other liability in surance. Many policies sold by life insurance and by property and liability insur ance companies are written to cover groups of people—anywhere from a few individuals to many thousands. Group policies are usually issued to employers for the benefit of their em ployees. They most often provide re tirement income, life insurance, or health insurance and they have gained great popularity in recent years. Group policies providing life insur ance, for example, protected more than 60 million workers in 1965, and the number of policies in force was al most three times the number 10 years earlier. Insurance Workers The insurance business provided jobs for more than 1.2 million people in 1967. The great majority were clerical and sales workers. (See chart 61.) Salesmen are a key group of em ployees in insurance companies. About one-third of all insurance employees are sales workers—chiefly agents, brokers, and others who sell policies directly to individuals and business firms. Agents and brokers are usually responsible for finding their own cus tomers or “prospects,” and for seeing that each policy they sell provides the special kind of protection required by the policyholder. (A statement on In surance Agents and Brokers is in cluded in the chapter on Sales Occu pations.) The various types of insurance poli cies offered by companies in both the life and property-liability fields must be carefully planned so that they are financially sound and conform to le gal requirements. After a policy is 7 17 718 sold, the insurance company must deal with claims made by the policy holder. Insurance companies also must keep records of premium pay ments made by policyholders and services and benefits rendered to them. Most of the planning, record keeping, and other behind-the-scenes work is done in home offices and re quires the services of company offi cials and other in managerial posi tions, professional and technical em ployees, and clerical workers. About 1 out of 7 insurance workers is in a managerial position. Managers in charge of local offices, through which most insurance policies are sold, often spend part of their time in sales work. Others, who work in home offices, are company officials or ad ministrators in charge of policy issu ance, accounting, investments, loans, and other important office work. The large-scale investment activities of many insurance companies make financial administration a particularly important area of employment. Working closely with the mana gerial personnel in insurance com panies are specialists who study in surance risks and coverage problems, analyze investment possibilities, pre pare financial reports, and do other professional work. Professional work ers, employed mainly at home offices, represent about 1 out of 25 insurance workers. Included among them is the actuary, whose job is unique to the insurance field. Actuaries make sta tistical studies relating to various kinds of risks and, on the basis of these studies, determine how large the pre mium rate on each type of policy should be. Another specialist is the home-office underwriter (D.O.T. 169.188), who reviews insurance ap plications in order to evaluate the de gree of risk involved. Underwriters decide whether to accept or reject the insurance policy; they also determine which premium rate should apply for each policy issued. The work of most other professional employees in insur ance companies is fundamentally the same as in other industries. Account OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK ants, for example, deal with insur ance company records and financial problems relating to premiums, in vestments, payments to policyholders, and other aspects of the business. En gineers work on problems connected with policies covering industrial work accidents, damage to industrial plants and machinery, and other technical matters. Lawyers interpret the regu lations which apply to insurance com pany operations, handle the settle ment of some kinds of insurance claims, and do other legal work. In vestment analysts evaluate real estate mortgages and new issues of bonds and other securities, analyze current investments held by their companies, and make recommendations on when to hold, buy, or sell. As more elec tronic computers are installed to han dle office records, increasing numbers of programers are being employed. Many companies also employ editor ial, public relations, sales promotion, and advertising specialists. Keeping track of millions of poli cies involves a vast amount of paper work and occupies the time of hundreds of thousands of clerical workers. Almost half of all insurance company employees are in jobs classi fied as clerical—a much larger pro portion than in most other industries. Insurance companies employ many people in data processing jobs. 719 OCCUPATIONS IN THE INSURANCE BUSINESS The majority are secretaries, stenog raphers, and typists; operators of bookkeeping and other kinds of office machines; or general office clerks. They do much the same kind of work in insurance companies as in other types of business enterprises. Other clerks, employed mostly in home offices, have specialized jobs found only in the insurance business. Among them are typists known as policy writers (D.O.T. 203.588) who copy onto policy forms, from approved in surance applications, the name and address of the policyholder, amount of the policy, premium rate, and other information. Policy change clerks (D.O.T. 219.388) enter changes in beneficiaries and coverage on policies, in accordance with the instructions given by agents. Insurance checkers (D.O.T. 219.488) check the infor mation entered on policies by other clerical workers, to be certain that the work is accurate. Other workers who are classified as clerical occupy positions of consider able responsibility which require ex tensive knowledge of one or more phases of the insurance business. This group includes claim adjusters (D.O.T. 241.168) who decide whether insurance claims are covered by the customer’s insurance policy, see that any payment due the policy holder is made on each claim, and when necessary, investigate the cir cumstances which gave rise to the claim. Claim adjusters for life insur ance companies hold home office positions; those in the property and liability business are generally field personnel. In addition to the four major groups of employment discussed above, insurance companies employ thousands of repairmen, janitors, and others who do maintenance and cus todial work similar to that required in other large business organizations. These employees account for about 1 out of 50 workers in the insurance business. Additional information about many of these occupations is contained in this Handbook in the chapter on Clerical and Related Occupations and the statements on Actuaries, Ac countants, Engineers, Lawyers, Programers, and Maintenance Elec tricians. Where Employed Relatively large numbers of insur ance workers are employed in Con necticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, and Texas, where the home offices of some of the largest insurance companies are located. Many insurance workers also are em ployed in agencies, brokerage firms, and other sales offices in cities and towns throughout the country. Almost all sales personnel work out of local offices, whereas the majority of pro fessional and clerical workers are em ployed in company home offices. More than half of all insurance workers are employed by life insur ance companies and agencies; in cluded in this group are some large companies with thousands of employ ees. Companies which deal mainly in property and liability insurance, al though more numerous than the life insurance companies, generally have fewer employees. Many local agen cies and sales offices are also small, regardless of the type of insurance they handle. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Insurance offers job opportunities for people with very different educa tional backgrounds and talents. Some positions require a great deal of man agerial and administrative experience and ability; others require college training in mathematics, accounting, and engineering; but still others in volve only routine duties which can be learned on the job. Graduation from high school or business school is regarded as ade quate preparation for most beginning clerical positions. Courses in typing, business arithmetic, and the operation of office machines may be valuable. These special skills are often required for jobs in insurance company offices, and this kind of training provides a background of information which helps employees advance to more re sponsible positions. Some legal train ing in a college or university may also be helpful for the position of claim adjuster. Engineering, accounting, and other professional positions in insurance companies usually require the same kinds of college training as they do in other business firms. College-trained people are also preferred for man agerial positions, many of which are filled by promotion from within. In professional and managerial work re quiring contact with the public, as well as in sales work and claim ad justing, it is important that the em ployee have a pleasant disposition and outgoing personality and be able to inspire confidence in his ability to protect the customer’s interests. Insurance companies and associa tions of companies and agents offer several kinds of training programs to help employees prepare for better jobs. The Insurance Institute of America, for example, furnishes study guides relating to the fundamentals of property and casualty insurance, and awards certificates to those who pass the Institute’s examinations. Some national, State, and local insur ance associations offer home study training or evening courses in various aspects of the insurance business. Other courses, especially designed to help clerical employees gain a better understanding of life insurance and life insurance company operations, deal with the organization and opera tion of both home and field offices. They are given under the auspices of the Life Office Management Associa tion which also provides programs for the development of supervisory and managerial personnel. 720 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Employment Outlook During the rest of the 1960’s and through the 1970’s, employment in the insurance industry is expected to rise slowly. New jobs to be filled, plus openings that occur as employees re tire or stop working for other reasons, are expected to total more than 50,000 a year. Turnover is particularly high in this industry because of the many young women in clerical jobs who work for only a few years and then leave to care for their families. Still other openings will have to be filled as insurance workers leave their jobs for employment in other industries. The expected increase in employ ment will result mainly from a rapidly increasing volume of insurance busi ness. With population growth, there will be more individuals who pur chase life insurance as well as insur ance which provides retirement in come and funds for their children’s education. Others who do not pres ently have insurance may become policyholders; for example, advances in medical science are making life in surance available to persons who were formerly rejected as poor insurance risks. The need for property and liabil ity insurance will also increase as a rising standard of living enables more individuals and families to own one automobile or more, buy homes, and make other major purchases which are usually insured. In the business world also, more insurance of this kind will be required as new plants are built, new equipment is installed, and more goods are shipped through out the country and the world. Fur thermore, as the coverage of State workmen’s compensation laws is broadened, more employers may need workmen’s compensation insurance. Insurance employment probably will rise at a somewhat slower rate than the volume of business handled by insurance companies. It is becom ing more common for companies to issue “multiple-line” policies, which cover a variety of insurance risks formerly covered in separate policies, thus reducing the workload of sales personnel in local offices and clerical employees in home offices. The prob ability that more companies will in stall electronic computers and other equipment to process some of the routine paperwork now done by clerks is also likely to bring about changes in insurance company em ployment. The total number of in surance company clerical jobs is likely to continue to rise, especially those jobs such as machine operators, which require special training, but the pro portion of routine jobs probably will decline. Insurance workers have better pros pects of regular employment than workers in many other industries. Most businessmen regard property and liability insurance as a necessity both during economic recession and in boom periods, and private individ uals also attempt to retain as much basic financial protection as possible, even when their incomes decline. Earnings and Working Conditions A 1965-66 survey of nonsupervisory employees of insurance companies, banks, and related^ businesses showed a wide range of salaries among the in dividuals in the companies surveyed. Some clerical workers in beginning, routine jobs earned less than $40 a week; some experienced employees in more responsible positions earned up to four times that amount. Women employed in beginning jobs as junior file clerks averaged $59.50 a week and office girls, $60.50. Switchboard op erators, a fairly large group of women employees, averaged between $76.00 and $85.00 depending upon skill and experience. General stenog raphers averaged $74.50 a week and senior stenographers averaged $86.50 a week. Typists, the largest of any women’s group covered in the survey, averaged $65.50 for beginning jobs and $77.50 for experienced workers. The average for women accounting clerks ranged from $71.50 to $91.50 depending on experience and skill. The earnings of men in office occupa tions averaged somewhat higher than those of women doing similar work. To some extent, these differences in salary levels may be due to differ ences in the specific job duties of the employees involved and in the firms for which they worked. Salary levels in different parts of the country also vary; earnings are generally lowest in southern cities and highest in the western metropolitan areas. (See chapter on Clerical and Related Oc cupations for additional information about the earnings of workers in other office occupations found in insurance companies.) Starting salaries for professional workers are generally compara ble with those for similar positions in other industries and businesses. It is not uncommon for specialists with several years of experience in the in surance business to receive annual salaries of well over $10,000. The earnings of agents and brokers, unlike those of salaried professional work ers, depend on commissions from the policies they sell. (See the statement on Insurance Agents and Brokers.) Except for agents and brokers, who must sometimes extend their working hours to meet the conven ience of prospective clients, insurance company employees usually work between 35 and 40 hours a week. The number of paid holidays is somewhat greater than in many other indus tries. Two-week paid vacations are generally granted employees after 1 year of service; in most companies, vacations are extended to 3 weeks after 15 years and, in some, to 4 weeks after 20 years. Practically all in surance company workers share in group plans providing hospitaliza tion, life, sickness and accident, and surgical insurance, as well as retire ment pensions. Where To Go for More Information General information on employ ment opportunities may be obtained from the personnel departments of major insurance companies or from 721 OCCUPATIONS IN THE INSURANCE BUSINESS insurance agencies in local communi ties. Other information on careers in the insurance field is available from: Insurance Information Institute, 110 William St., New York, N.Y. 10038. Institute of Life Insurance, 277 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10017. For additional information on the salaries of clerical workers in finance industries, including insurance, see: W ages and R e la t e d B e n e fits , P a rt I I : M e t r o p o li t a n A r e a s , U n ite d S t a t e s a n d R e g io n a l S u m m a r ie s , (BLS Bulletin 1385-82, June 1965). Superintendent of Docu ments, Washington, D.C. 20402. Price 70 cents. MINING The mining industry is a major supplier of the basic raw materials and energy sources required for in dustrial and consumer use. Metal mines provide iron, copper, gold, and other ores. Quarrying and other nonmetallic mining produce many of the basic materials such as limestone, gravel, and fire clay needed to build the country’s schools, offices, homes, and highways. Petroleum, natural gas, and coal are the primary sources of nearly all our energy, both for industrial and personal use. Few of the products that are extracted from mines reach the consumer in their natural state. Nearly all require fur ther processing in one or several of the manufacturing industries. Mining is the smallest major in dustry division, employing 630,000 wage and salary workers in 1966. Nearly one-half of these workers are employed in the exploration and exo — 63----- 47 Digitized 262-057 for FRASER traction of crude petroleum and natural gas. Goal mining and quarry ing and nonmetallic mineral mining each account for about one-fifth of the industry’s work force; the remain ing workers, about 1 out of 8, are employed in mining metal ores. The mining industry employs only a small number of women workers; few are engaged directly in the actual mining operations; most are in clerical positions. Nearly three-fourths of all workers in mining are employed in blue-collar jobs, primarily as operatives and kindred workers. Included in the op erative group are miners and mine laborers; mining machinery operators such as drilling and cutting machine operators, crusher operators, con veyor operators, oil well drillers; and most other workers engaged in under ground mining operations. Also in cluded, and especially important in surface mining, are truck and tractor drivers. Skilled craftsmen and foremen account for the second largest occu pational group. Mechanics and re pairmen maintain the complex equip ment and machinery used throughout the various mining industries. Manyheavy equipment operators such as excavating, grading, and power shovel operators are employed in open pit mining operations. Large numbers of pumpers, gagers, and enginemen are needed in the produc tion and transportation of petroleum and natural gas. Foremen, needed to supervise the mine work crews, also constitute an important part of the industry’s work force. The industry’s white-collar workers are divided nearly equally among three major occupational groups-— 723 724 professional and technical, clerical, and managerial. Taken together, these three groups account for the re maining one-fourth of overall indus try employment. Professional, techni cal, and kindred workers make up slightly less than one-tenth of the work force and are concentrated largely in the crude petroleum and natural gas extraction industry. Most are employed in occupations such as engineer, geologist, and technician, and are engaged in the exploration and research activities that are so im portant to the discovery of oil and gas fields and new uses of petroleum products. Clerical workers and man agers, officials, and proprietors each account for one-tenth of the employ ment. Two out of every three clerical employees work in the petroleum and gas extraction industry. Most are secretaries, office machine operators, and typists needed to support the large number of professional, tech nical, and managerial workers em ployed in the petroleum industry. The following tabulation shows the estimated distribution of occupational employment in the mining industry: OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Major occupational group Estimated employment, 1966 ( percent distribution All occupational groups........ ) 100 Professional, technical, and kindred workers.......................................... 8 Managers, officials, and proprietors. 9 Clerical and kindred workers.......... 9 Sales workers.................................... (*) Craftsmen, foremen, and kindred workers......................................... 26 Operatives and kindred workers 2.. . 47 Service workers................................ 2 Laborers...................................................... 1 Less than 0.5 percent. 2 Includes mine laborers. N ote .—Because of rounding, sums of individual items may not equal total. Little or no change in employment is expected in the mining industry through the mid-1970’s, despite an anticipated substantial increase in mining output. The increased de mand for mining products will be met largely through the use of more and improved equipment that will be operated by a more highly skilled work force. Even though employment in the industry as a whole is expected to remain stable, some shifts are likely within the industry. For instance, em ployment in coal mining has declined steadily throughout the 1950’s and 1960’s, and further decreases are ex pected during the 1970’s, although at a slower pace than in the past. On the other hand, employment in quarrying and nonmetallic mining has been growing and is expected to continue to rise over the 1970’s. Population growth, rising incomes and business activity, together with the increasing need for construction materials, are likely to bring about a growing de mand for manpower in quarrying and nonmetallic mining. Employment in the remaining sec tors of the mining industry—for examplefi metal mining, and petroleum and natural gas extraction—will un dergo little change through the 1970’s. The statement that follows pro vides information on employment opportunities in the petroleum and natural gas extraction industry. More detailed information about occupa tions that are found in mining as well as other industries appears elsewhere in the Handbook. (See index in back of book.) PETROLEUM AND NAT URAL GAS PRODUCTION OCCUPATIONS samples of the rocks, clays, and sands that form the layers of the earth. From these examinations, geologists can draw a cross-section map of the underground formations being sur veyed in order to pinpoint areas where oil may be located. Many geologists work in district offices of oil companies or exploration firms where they prepare and study geological maps. They also study core samples collected by exploration parties to find any clue to the pres ence of oil. Exploration parties may include, in addition to the geologist, paleon tologists (D.O.T. 024.081), who study fossil remains in the earth in order to locate oil-bearing sands; and chemists (D.O.T. 022.081) and min eralogists (D.O.T. 024.081), who study physical and chemical prop erties of minerals and rock samples. Planetable operators (D.O.T. 018.188), draftsmen (D.O.T. 010.281), and rodmen (D.O.T. 018.587) assist in surveying and mapping operations. Another way of searching for oil is through the science of geophysics— the study of the inner characteristics of the earth’s structure. About 90 Nature of Work Workers in the petroleum produc tion branch of the oil industry ex plore for crude oil and natural gas, drill wells, and operate and maintain them. These activities require work ers with a wide range of education and skills. (In this section, references to oil include natural gas.) Exploration. Exploring for oil is the first step in petroleum production. Small crews of specialized workers travel to remote areas to search for geological formations likely to con tain oil. Exploration parties, led by a petroleum geologist (D.O.T. 024.081), study the surface and sub surface composition of the earth. Geologists seek clues to the possibility of oil traps by examining types of rock and rock formations on and under the earth’s surface. Besides making detailed, foot-by-foot surveys, petroleum geologists depend on aerial exploration for a broad picture of the surface and sub-surface features of the area being explored; they also may obtain rock samples from the bottom of the sea in their search for clues to oil-bearing formations. Geol ogists can determine the age of rocks by measuring their radioactivity. Sub-surface evidence is collected by making test drills and bringing up Geophysical crew searches for oil. 725 726 percent of geophysical exploration is done by seismic prospecting. The seismograph is a sensitive instrument which records natural and manmade earthquakes. Manmade earthquakes in petroleum exploration are com monly made by exploding small charges of dynamite in the ground. The time it takes for sound waves to reach an underground rock layer and to return indicates the depth of the layer. The seismograph records such information by wavy lines on a chart. Increasingly, this information is recorded on magnetic tape which is then placed in a computer and analyzed automatically. By setting off explosions at a number of points, underground formations can be mapped with considerable accuracy, thus providing a clue to the where abouts of traps which may contain oil. A seismograph crew generally in cludes 10 to 20 persons, led by a party chief who is usually a geophysicist (D.O.T. 024.081). Other members of the seismograph crew may include computers (D.O.T. 010.168), who prepare maps from the information recorded by the seismograph; ob servers (D.O.T. 010.168), who op erate and maintain seismic equip ment; prospecting drillers (D.O.T. 930.782) and their helpers (D.O.T. 930.886), who operate portable drilling rigs to make holes into which explosive charges are placed; and shooters (D.O.T. 931.381), who are in charge of placing and detonating explosive charges. Once the oil company has decided where to drill, it must obtain permis sion to use the land. The landman or leaseman (D.O.T. 191.118) makes necessary business arrangements with owners of land in which his company is interested. Another important job in oil ex ploration is that of the scout (D.O.T. 010.168). He keeps his company in formed of all exploring, leasing, drilling, and production activity in his area. Drilling. Despite all the petroleum methods that have been Digitized forexploration FRASER OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK developed, there is no device that will actually find petroleum. Only by drill ing can the presence of oil be proved. Overall planning and supervision of drilling are usually the responsibilities of the petroleum engineer (D.O.T. 010.081). He helps to prepare drilling sites and to select the methods of drilling. He directs workers in install ing the drilling rig and machinery. He advises drilling personnel on tech nical matters and may stay on the site until drilling operations are completed. There are two methods of drilling a well—rotary drilling and cable-tool drilling. No matter which method is used, all wells are started in the same way. Rig builders (D.O.T. 869.884) and a crew of helpers (D.O.T. 869.887) install a drilling rig, the main purpose of which is to support the machinery and equipment which raise and lower the drilling tools. The rotary method is used for drill ing deep wells through rock and clay formations and accounts for about one-half of the drilling rigs in use. In rotary drilling, a revolving steel drill bit, with cutting teeth at its lower end, bores a hole in the ground by chipping and cutting rock. The bit is attached to a string of jointed pipe (drill stem), which is rotated by a steam, diesel, or gasoline engine or an electric motor. As the bit cuts through the earth, the drill stem is lengthened by the addition of more pipe which is screwed on at the upper end. A stream of mud is continuously pumped through the hollow pipe. This mixture of clay and water cools the drill bit, plasters the walls of the hole to prevent cave-ins, and floats the cuttings to the surface. A typical rotary drilling crew con sists of a rotary driller and four or five helpers. From 15 to 20 workers, di vided into three crews, generally are required to operate a rig 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. A rotary driller (D.O.T. 930.782) is in charge of the work of the crew during his tour of duty. His major duties include oper ating the drilling machinery which controls drilling speed and pressure. He also selects the proper drill bit and keeps a record of operations. He must be ready to meet any emergency, such as breakdown of equipment or problems caused by unusual geologi cal formations. A derrickman (D.O.T. 930.782), second in charge of the crew, works on a small plat form high on the rig. When a drill bit becomes dull and has to be re placed, he catches the upper ends of the pipe sections and. guides them over to a rack beside his platform. He often has several miles of drill pipe racked up before the worm bit is brought to the surface. Other members of a typical rotary drilling crew include rotary floormen (D.O.T. 930.884), who guide the lower end of the pipe to and from the well opening and connect and discon nect pipe joints and drill bits. Help ers, called roughnecks (D.O.T. 930.884), assist floormen in their duties. A fireman (D.O.T. 951.885) (if steam is used) or engineman (D.O.T. 950.782) (if diesel or electric power is used) operates the engines which provide power for drilling and hoisting. An important oilfield worker is the tool pusher (D.O.T. 930.130), who acts as foreman of one or more drill ing rigs. He also is in charge of sup plying rig builders and drilling crews with needed materials and equipment. Roustabouts (D.O.T. 869.884), or general oilfield laborers, are not considered part of drilling crews but are used to do odd jobs, such as cleaning derrick floors and pipes or constructing and maintain ing roads in oilfields. In cable-tool drilling, a hole is broken through rocks by continuously raising and dropping a heavy, sharp ened bit attached to the end of a cable. Cable-tool drilling is used mainly to drill shallow wells in soft rock formation. Most of it is done in Kentucky, Ohio, West Virginia, Pennsylvania, and certain areas of Texas and Oklahoma. A cable-tool drilling crew usually consists of a driller and a tool dresser. The cable-tool driller (D.O.T. 930.- PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION OCCUPATIONS 280) is in charge of all operations dur ing his tour of duty and maintains a detailed record of drilling activity. He controls the force with which the drilling bit strikes the rocks at the bottom of the well. He also supervises and helps in setting up the machinery and derrick. The cable-tool dresser (D.O.T. 639.781), whose job is re lated to that of a blacksmith, assists the driller and maintains the equipment. 727 Rotary drilling crew lowers section of drill pipe. Well Operation and Maintenance. Production is ready to begin when oil is found and the producing equip ment installed. Drill pipe and bit are pulled from the well and casing and tubing are lowered. The upper end of the tubing is fastened to a system of valves and controls, called a “Christ mas tree.” Pressure in the well forces crude oil to the surface, through the Christmas tree, and into storage tanks. If natural pressure is not great enough to force the oil to the surface, pumping or other methods are used to produce an artificial flow. Petroleum engineers generally have charge of overall planning and super vision of the operation and mainte nance of wells. One of their principal duties is to prevent waste by deciding which production method to use and how fast the oil should flow. Some companies hire assistants to the petro leum engineer. These engineering 728 aides perform routine duties such as making elementary calculations, run ning tests, and_keeping records. The job of pumper is numerically the largest occupation in the oilfield. Pumpers (D.O.T. 914.782) and their helpers (D.O.T. 914.887) operate and maintain motors, pumps, and other equipment used to force an artificial flow of oil from wells. Their chief duty is to regulate the flow of oil according to a schedule set up by the petroleum engineer. Generally, a pumper operates a group of wells. Switchers work in fields where oil flows under natural pressure and does not require pumping. They open and close valves to regulate the flow of oil from wells to tanks or into pipelines. Gagers (D.O.T. 914.381) keep track of the amount of oil flowing into tanks or pipelines. They measure and record the contents of storage tanks and take samples of the oil to check its quality. Treaters (D.O.T. 541.782) make tests of crude oil for water and sediment. They remove these impurities from oil by opening a drain at the base of the tank or by using special chemical or electrical equipment. In many fields, pumping, switching, gaging, and treating operations are performed by automatic controls. One operator who monitors these instruments can con trol the flow of oil from several wells into different pipelines. Many workers are employed in maintenance operations in oilfields. Welders, carpenters, electricians, and machinists repair and install pumps, gages, pipes, and other oilfield equip ment. Roustabouts perform various field and well-maintenance jobs which require little skill, but often involve heavy, hazardous work. Other Oilfield Services. Companies which offer oilfield services (other than exploration and drilling) on a contract basis provide another im portant source of employment. Em ployees in these companies perform many services, including cementing and cleaning wells, and building foundations at well locations. Among employees are skilled workers Digitized for these FRASER OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK such as cementers (D.O.T. 930.281), who mix and pump cement into the space between steel casings and side walls of the well to prevent cave-ins; acidizers (D.O.T. 930.782), who force acid into the bottom of the well to increase the flow of oil; perforator operators (D.O.T. 931.782), who pierce holes in drill pipes or casings by using subsurface “guns” to make passages through which oil can flow; sample-taker operators (D.O.T. 931.781), who obtain samples of soil and rock formations from wells to help geologists determine the presence of oil; and well puller (D.O.T. 930.883), who remove pipes and casings from wells for cleaning and repairing equipment or for salvaging. Offshore Operations. Most explora tion, drilling, and producing activities are done on land, but an increasing amount of this work is done offshore, particularly in the Gulf of Mexico off the coasts of Louisiana and Texas. Some additional offshore work is be ing done in the Pacific Ocean off California, Oregon, Washington, and Alaska. Some wells have been drilled more than 100 miles from shore and in water up to 1,000 feet deep. These offshore operations require the same types of drilling crews as are employed on land operations. In addition, off shore operations require employment of radio men, able-bodied seamen, cooks, mess boys, and pilots for work on drilling platforms, crewboats, barges, and helicopters. (Detailed discussions of profes sional, technical, mechanical, and other occupations found not only in the petroleum and natural gas pro duction industry, but in other indus tries as well, are given elsewhere in the Handbook, in the sections cover ing the individual occupations. See index for page numbers.) Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Exploration. Most workers in non professional jobs with an exploration crew begin as helpers and work into one of the specialized jobs after gain ing experience. Their period of train ing on the job may vary from several months to several years. New workers usually are hired in the field by the party chief or by local company rep resentatives. For many nonprofes sional jobs, companies hire young men with a high school or vocational school education and with training or aptitude in mathematics, drafting, and mechanics. College students majoring in physical or earth sciences or in engineering often are hired for part-time or summer work with an exploration crew. This may be a means of working into a full-time job after graduation. For entry into professional occupa tions such as geologist, geophysicist, chemist, or engineer, college training with at least a bachelor’s degree is required. Professional workers usually start at junior levels and, after several years of experience in field surveys, are eligible for promotion to the job of party chief. After field survey ex perience, they may take a position of responsibility in an area or division office and then perhaps in the central office. Scientists and engineers with research ability, preferably those with advanced graduate degrees, may move to research or consulting work. Drilling. Members of drilling crews usually begin work in the industry as roughnecks. As they acquire experi ence, they may advance to more skilled jobs. In rotary drilling, for example, a worker may be hired as a roughneck, advance to the job of floorman, and eventually to derrickman. After several years, he may be come a driller. He may then be pro moted to the job of tool-pusher, in charge of one or more drilling crews. Some drilling companies hire high school and college students for jobs during the summer months. Drilling requires men capable of performing heavy physical labor. Drilling crew members usually are between the ages of 20 and 40. Some PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION OCCUPATIONS companies, however, report that their best drillers are over 50 and even in their sixties, for the job of driller re quires good judgment combined with practical experience. Well Operation and Maintenance. Companies generally hire persons who live near operating wells for well operation and maintenance jobs. They prefer men with mechanical ability and a knowledge of oilfield processes. Because this type of work is less strenuous and offers the advan tage of a fixed locale, members of drilling crews or exploration parties who prefer not to travel often transfer to well operation and maintenance jobs. New workers may start as roust abouts and advance to jobs as switch ers, gagers, or pumper helpers, and later to pumpers. Training usually is acquired on the job; at least 2 years of experience are needed to become a good all-round pumper. The preferred educational qualifi cation for a petroleum engineer is a college degree with specialization in courses dealing with the petroleum industry. However, college graduates with degrees in chemical, mining, or mechanical engineering, or in geol ogy or other related sciences, some times are hired for petroleum en gineering jobs. Petroleum engineering aids frequently are former roust abouts or pumpers who are given several months of specialized on-thejob and classroom training. Employment Outlook Employment in petroleum and nat ural gas production during the 1970’s is expected to continue the slow de cline which began during the late 1950’s despite anticipated increases in oil and gas production. The use of data-processing equipment and im proved seismic techniques is expected to reduce the number of crews needed in petroleum exploration. The em ployment level in oil and gas field production should decline also be cause of the increasing use of auto matic equipment to control produc tion activities. About 5,000 new workers in crude petroleum production operations will be hired each year during the next decade. These job openings will re sult primarily from the need to re place workers who retire, die, or transfer to other fields of work. Al though some untrained workers will be hired for less skilled jobs, the great est demand will be for workers with electrical and mechanical training and/or experience. These skills are becoming more necessary to maintain and repair the increasingly complex equipment used in oil and gas field production. Most of the job opportunities created by turnover in petroleum production will be concentrated in the 10 States which together account for over 85 percent of oilfield jobs— Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Cali fornia, Kansas, Illinois, New Mexico, Wyoming, Mississippi, and Colorado. Offshore activities have accounted for only a small portion of total pro duction employment. However, off shore drilling activities are expected to increase greatly during the 1970’s, particularly off the coasts of Texas, Louisiana, California, Alaska, Wash ington, and Oregon. 729 Earnings and Working Conditions Earnings of oilfield workers are among the highest in American in dustry. In late 1966, earning of nonsupervisory employees averaged $124.49 a week, or $2.95 an hour for a 42.4-hour workweek. The work schedule for most oilfield workers is 40 hours a week. Drilling operations are carried on 24 hours a day, with a complete crew for each 8-hour shift. Generally, workers in these crews receive 8 cents more an hour for work on the second shift and 16 cents an hour more for the third shift. Most establishments provide 8 paid holidays annually. Paid vaca tions are granted according to length of service—generally 2 weeks after 1 year of service, 3 weeks after 10 years, and 4 weeks after 20 years. The majority of oilfield employees do most of their work outdoors and are exposed to all kinds of weather. Although some fields may be near cities, they are more often far from sizeable communities and are some times located in swamps or deserts. Drilling employees may expect to move from place to place since their work in a particular field may be completed in less than a year. Explor ation personnel move even more frequently. They may be away from home for weeks or months at a time, living in a trailer or tent. Workers in well operation and maintenance often remain in the same location for long periods. In offshore operations, earnings usually are higher than those in land operations. Except for drilling ac tivity that is close to shore, workers living quarters are on platforms held fast to the ocean bottom or on ships anchored nearby. NATURAL GAS PROCESS ING OCCUPATIONS Nature of Work A natural gas processing plant performs several functions. Raw natural gas is processed to extract natural gas liquids, and impurities, such as chemical compounds, sand and water. The natural gas liquid compounds—propane, butane, eth ane, and natural gasoline—have im portant uses; for example, as raw materials for the chemical industry and oil refineries, and as a fuel in rural areas. In addition, natural gas may be compressed, for delivery to pipeline transportation companies or for use by oil well operators to force oil out of the ground. More than 50 percent of the work ers in the larger natural gas processing plants are employed in operating or maintaining processing equipment. Operators, numerically the largest plant occupation, have duties very similar to those of the oil refinery workers. The dehydration-plant op erator (D.O.T. 541.782) tends an automatically controlled treating unit which removes water and other im purities from natural gas. The gaso line-plant operator, or gasoline-plant engineer (D.O.T. 950.782), operates equipment which extracts natural gasoline from natural gas. The com pressor-station operator, or compres sor-station engineer (D.O.T. 914.132) operates a compressor which raises the pressure of the gas for trans mission in the pipelines. The gas-com pressor operator (D.O.T. 950.782), assists either of the last two employees named above. The gas plant operator or stillman, gas plant (D.O.T. 540.280), operates the unit which removes sulfur from the gas. As in oil refineries, many workers in the larger natural gas processing plants are employed in maintenance activities. However, the equipment in such plants is subject to less corrosion and wear than that in oil refineries, and it is generally more automated. As a result, the instrument repairman and the electrician are two key work ers needed to maintain the instru ments that control the automatic equipment. The welder and his helper also do much maintenance work in the processing plant. Other workers, whose jobs include maintenance functions, are engine repairman and laborer. . Clerical, administrative, profes sional, and technical workers are a smaller proportion of employment in the larger gas processing plants than in oil refineries. In the numerous smaller natural gas processing plants, many workers have multiple skills—usually combin ing the skills of operator and main tenance man. In addition, there are many very small plants which are so highly automated that they are virtu ally unattended. Either they are checked by maintenance workers at periodic intervals, or they are moni tored continuously by instruments which automatically report malfunc tions and shut down the plant if an emergency develops. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Information on occupational train ing, qualifications, and advancement in natural gas processing plants is similar to that for occupations in petroleum refining, discussed on page 580. Employment Outlook Employment in natural gas proces sing plants is expected to show little or no change during the 1970’s, even though the demand for natural gas and natural gas liquids is expected to increase faster than for other petro leum products. Continued applica tion of technological improvements in processing methods, which will lead to greater output per worker, is ex pected to offset the effect of growing demand. Only a small number of job open ings are expected in these plants each year during the 1970’s. These will result from the need to replace work ers who retire, die, or transfer to other industries. The greatest demand will be for workers who can repair, rebuild, and maintain the highly auto matic plant equipment. Increasing numbers of technically trained em ployees, including engineers, are be ing used on these jobs. Earnings and Working Conditions Production workers in natural gas processing plants, in late 1966, re ceived wages that compared very favorably with the average hourly wage of $2.77 for production workers in manufacturing industries. Gener ally, production workers in these plants receive the same benefits, vaca tions, and shift differentials as work ers in petroleum refining. (See p. 581.) Most workers in natural gas proc essing plants and oil refineries have similar working conditions. Only a moderate amount of physical effort is involved. Some workers are required to open and close valves, to climb stairs and ladders to considerable heights, and to work 1 of 3 shifts. The plants are relatively safe places in which to work. Some workers in particular natural gas processing plants have unusual working conditions. They are re sponsible for maintaining several 731 732 small, unattended automated plants in widely separated, isolated loca tions. They make periodic trips, of 1-day duration or more, to check these automated plants. They travel over rough, unpaved terrain and are OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK exposed to all kinds of weather. These maintenance jobs may be very satisfy ing to those who like working out doors and alone. Workers in many of the larger gas processing plants are union members. Many are members of the Oil, Chem ical and Atomic Workers Interna tional Union. Some have been orga nized by other unions affiliated with the AFL-CIO , and others are mem bers of local, unaffiliated unions. TECHNICAL APPENDIX This appendix is designed for readers who wish more information on the pro cedures followed in developing the con clusions on employment outlook than is presented in the preceding reports on individual occupations and industries. Also included in this appendix is a brief ex planation of how the D.O.T. numbers (from the D ic t io n a r y o f O c c u p a t io n a l T itle s prepared by the Bureau of Employ ment Security o f the U.S. Department o f Labor) given in the occupational reports fit into the D ic t io n a r y ’s occupational classification system. Employment Outlook Conclusions The sections on employment outlook in the occupational reports present conclu sions based not only on information com piled from many sources but also on ex tensive economic and statistical analyses. Although the sources used and the methods of analysis differed among occupations and industries, the same general pattern of research was followed in all of the outlook studies. In preparing the employment outlook studies overall projections of the economy to 1980 were developed to insure that in dividual occupational and industry studies were consistent. This general analytical framework included projections of the population, labor force, gross national product, average weekly hours of work, employment in major industries, and re lated economic measures. All studies of separate occupations and industries were tied in with the projections of the entire economy. The projections are based on the assumption of a relatively full-employment economy. Many individual occupational and in dustry studies were based heavily on an analysis of past and prospective population trends, including the changes expected in population of school and college age, in numbers of older people, in employment of women, and in the concentration of popu lation in urban and suburban areas. In fields such as teaching, the health profes sions, and many personal services, popula tion factors have a direct and obvious influence on employment requirements. They are also of great importance in many industries—for example, residential con struction, baking, telephone communica tions, apparel, and retail trade. Many factors besides the size and com position of the population may affect the volume of business and employment in a given industry. Consumer purchasing pat terns change with shifts in preference from one type of product to another, and with the development of new products which cut into the market for old ones. A general rise in income levels can create new mar kets for more expensive items. Techno logical developments not only bring changes in the raw materials and equip ment needed in production, but also influ ence the size of the required work force and the kinds of occupations and skills needed. Government policies, such as the size of the defense and space programs, and expenditures for research and develop ment, also bring about changes in the types of occupations required. In studying the outlook in each in dustry, the factors having the greatest influence were analyzed and projections were made of demand for the industry’s products or services. These projections were then translated into estimates of the numbers and kinds of workers required to produce the indicated amounts of products or services, taking into account the numbers currently employed in dif ferent occupations, productivity trends, possible further reductions in the work week, and other factors. Past trends in employment also were given much weight in arriving at conclusions about probable future trends. The basic data on population and labor force trends, used for the overall employ 733 734 ment projections and for the studies of individual occupations and industries, are from the decennial Censuses of Popula tion, and from the monthly labor force surveys conducted by the Bureau of the Census for the Bureau of Labor Statistics.1 Data also were drawn from the Censuses of Manufactures and Business conducted by the Census Bureau. Information also was utilized from a variety of sources such as licensing agen cies, labor unions, professional and trade associations, and special surveys. Equally essential to the studies of em ployment trends in major industries were the statistics on employment in nonagricultural establishments, compiled by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. These esti mates provide monthly data on employ ment, hours of work, earnings, and labor turnover, based on reports from a sample of industrial, commercial, and govern mental establishments which together employ about 26 million workers. They are available for a great number of dif ferent industries for the past quartercentury or more.23 Another Bureau program which con tributed to the analysis of future employ ment trends was its series of studies of productivity and technological develop ments. In converting the projections of demand for the products of a given in dustry into estimates of the number of workers who will be needed in that in dustry, allowances were made for anticipated productivity trends and tech nological changes. Information on em ployment of scientists and engineers in research and other activities, obtained from surveys conducted by the Bureau in cooperation with the National Science Foundation, also has been utilized extensively. Still another Bureau project which had a major role in the development of esti mates of future employment requirements in different occupations is the Occupa tional Industry Matrix. The matrix con sists of a set of tables for 116 industry sectors which represent the entire econ omy of the United States. For each industry sector, the tables show a per centage distribution of employment among 1 S p ecia l L abor F o rce R ep ort No. 4 9 , “L abor F o rce P r o je c tio n fo r 1 9 7 0 - 8 0 ” ; a v a ila b le on req u est a s lo n g a s th e supply la s ts from th e U .S. D ep a rtm en t o f Labor, B u reau o f L abor S ta tis tic s, W a sh in g to n , D.C. 20210. 3 See E m p lo ym en t a n d E a rn in g s and M o n th ly R e p o rt on th e L a b o r F o rc e described on p age 7 5 8 . OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK about 160 of the most important occupa tions and among the major occupational groups. The matrix was valuable in ap praising the effects of changing employ ment levels in different industries on employment in specified occupations. It also was useful in estimating the numbers of workers currently employed in each occupation. Conclusions based on the analysis of information from these many sources generally indicate increases in employ ment and, hence, openings for new workers. Expected gains in employment, however, are by no means an adequate indication of the to tal. numbers of job openings that will need to be filled. In most occupations, more workers are needed yearly to fill positions left vacant by those who leave the occupation (to enter other occupations or because of re tirement or death) than are needed to staff new positions created by growth of the field. Rarely do occupations grow fast enough so that the reverse is true. Conse quently, even occupations which are declining in size may offer employment opportunities to many young people. In estimating the number of openings likely to arise in an occupation, use has been made of Bureau of Labor Statistics studies of occupational mobility among se lected groups of workers, and of tables of working life, also developed by the Bureau. The tables, which are similar to the actu arial tables of life expectancy used by in surance companies, provide a basis for assessing future rates of replacements re sulting from deaths and retirements. The latter is affected by differences in sex and average age of the workers in various occupations. In occupations where men constitute the great majority of workers, the rate of replacement for death and for retirement is generally between 1 and 4 percent. The rate is usually somewhat higher in women’s occupations, however, because so many women leave paid em ployment to get married and assume fam ily responsibilities; for example, the re placement rate among school teachers is at least 8 percent a year. The types of information mentioned so far in this section all relate to the demand for workers. In order to appraise the pro spective employment opportunities in an occupation, it is also important to have information on the probable future supply of personnel. The statistics on high school and college enrollments and graduations compiled by the U.S. Office of Education are the chief source of information on the potential supply of personnel in the pro fessions and other occupations requiring extensive formal education. Data on num bers of apprentices from the U.S. Depart ment of Labor’s Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training provide some information on new entrants into skilled trades. Many of the statistical sources and ana lytical approaches referred to above have been developed within comparatively re cent years. The reader should bear in mind that economic forecasting is still in an early stage of development and that at best, it is difficult and uncertain. It is necessary to keep in mind also the basic assumptions underlying the forecasts (enu merated on p. 4). The Bureau believes that, within this general framework of assumption, the basic trends affecting em ployment can be discerned with sufficient accuracy to meet the needs of young peo ple preparing for careers. D.O.T. Classification Numbers The reports in this Handbook have been grouped in the manner that seemed most appropriate in view of the needs of the users and the realities of the industrial world. The arrangement followed does not conform to any one established system of classifying occupations. Provision has been made, nevertheless, to meet the needs of those persons who wish to relate the oc cupations discussed to an established clas sification system. The occupations covered in the Occupational Outlook Handbook are organized according to the occupa tional classification system developed by the Bureau of Employment Security of the U.S. Department of Labor and pub lished in the third edition of the Diction ary of Occupational Titles. The Dictionary provides a code number (the so-called D.O.T. number) for each occupation in cluded in it. In this Handbook, the code numbers have been shown either in the occupational heading or in the body of the text. The third edition of the Dictionary is published in two volumes. Volume I con tains job definitions arranged alphabeti cally; Volume II provides two arrange ments of titles, one primarily for placement and one primarily for counseling. All jobs are classified by a new code structure using six-digit numbers; the system can be used as a filing system for occupational information. Index to Occupations and Industries Pago P age Accelerator operators, atomic energy_________ Account clerks, see: Bank clerks_____________ Account executives, advertising_____________ Account executives, see: Securities salesmen__ Accountants______________________________ See also: Insurance business____________ Accounting-bookkeeping machine servicemenAccounting clerks, see: Bookkeeping workers_ Acidizers, petroleum and natural gas produc tion ___________________________________ Acquisition librarians_____________________ Actors and actresses_______________________ A ctu aries________________________________ See also: Insurance business________________ Mathematicians _________________ Adding machine operators_________________ Adding machine servicemen________________ Adjusters, claim, insurance_________________ Administrators, hospital___________________ Adult services librarians___________________ Advertising artists and layoutmen_________ Advertising copywriters____________________ Advertising managers_____________________ Advertising production managers____________ Advertising workers_______________________ Aeronautical engineers, see: Aerospace engi neers ________________ Aeronautical technicians___________________ Aerospace engineers_______________________ See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing_____________________ Aerospace products manufacturing, see: Air craft, missile and spacecraft manufacturingAgents, see: Insurance agents and brokers___________ Real estate salesmen and brokers________ Agents, air traffic, civil aviation_____________ Agricultural agents, county_________________ Agricultural economists____________________ Agricultural engineers_____________________ See also: Agriculture__________________ Agricultural finance workers________________ Agricultural research workers_______________ Agricultural technicians___________________ Agricultural workers______________________ Agriculture, occupations in_____________ Agriculture, occupations related to___________ 528 712 35 286 32 718 413 253 727 214 153 124 718 119 257 413 719 85 214 35 35 35 35 34 68 190 67 502 500 281 283 652 629 632 69 632 633 632 193 629 623 629 Agriculture teachers, vocational-------------------Agronomists _____________________________ See also: Agriculture__________________ Air-conditioning and refrigeration mechanics— Air-conditioning, heating, and refrigeration technicians_____________________________ Air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating me chanics ________________________________ Air Force________________________________ Air-route traffic controllers, civil aviation------Air traffic controllers, civil aviation--------------Air transportation occupations, see: Civil avia tion ___________________________________ Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufactur ing, occupations in----------Aircraft mechanics, civil aviation-----------------See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing ------------------------------Airframe mechanics, civil aviation---------------Airline dispatchers, civil aviation-----------------Airline traffic agents and clerks, civil aviation— Airplane mechanics, aircraft mechanics---------See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing-------------------------------Airplane pilots, civil aviation----------------------Airport traffic controllers, civil aviation--------Alteration tailors, see: Bushelmen, apparel----Aluminum industry---------------------------Analysts, Chemical, see: Aluminum industry___________________ Pulp, paper, and allied products-----------Analysts, systems---------------------------------------Analysts, investment, see: Insurance business— Analytical chemists----------------------------------Analytical statisticians-------------------------------Anatomists_______________________________ Animal physiologists and animal husbandmen, see: Agriculture________________________ Annealers, see: Aluminum industry-------------------------------Foundries_____________________________ Announcers, radio and television--------------------Anode men, aluminum industry--------------------Anodizers, electronics manufacturing---------------Anthropologists__________________________ Apparel industry, occupations in the---------------Appliance servicemen----------------------------------See also: Electric power------------------------735 632 130 632 399 191 399 612 649 649 637 500 646 505 647 648 652 646 505 640 649 517 509 513 586 232 718 142 122 130 632 511 547 671 510 540 170 515 401 664 736 Appraisers, real estate_____________________ Arc cutters, see: Welders___________________ Arc welders______________________________ Archeologists, see: Anthropologists__________ Architects________________________________ Architects, landscape______________________ Archivists, see: Historians__________________ Armament assemblers, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft_____________________________ Armed Forces____________________________ Army ___________________________________ Art directors, see: Commercial artists________ A rt related occupations____________________ Artists, see: Advertising workers___________________ Commercial artists____________________ Printing (graphic arts)________________ Artists, lithographic, printing (graphic arts)__ Asbestos and insulating workers_____________ Assemblers ______________________________ See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing ________________ Apparel industry_________________ Electronics manufacturing_________ Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing _____________________ Assemblers, bench________________________ Assemblers, floor_________________________ Assembly inspectors, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft ____________________________ Assembly mechanics, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft ____________________________ Assorters, iron and steel____________________ Astrogeologists __________________________ Astronomers ____________________________ Astronautical engineers, see: Aerospace engi neers _________________________________ Astrophysicists, see: Astronomers____________ Atomic energy field, occupations in the_______ Attendants, gasoline service station__________ Attendants, hospital______________________ Attorneys _______________________________ Audio-control technicians, radio and television. Audiologists ____________________________ Auditors, see: Accountants_________________ Automatic pin setting machine mechanics___ Automatic rolling mill attendants, iron and steel __________________________________ Automatic screw machine operators, see: Ma chine tool operators_____________________ Automatic transmission specialists, see: Auto mobile mechanics______________________ Automobile air-conditioning specialists, see: Automobile mechanics_________________ Automobile body repairmen________________ OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page 283 495 495 170 203 209 176 504 612 612 163 163 35 163 455 455 323 460 504 517 538 572 460 460 505 504 564 133 150 68 150 523 475 306 211 673 115 32 409 563 390 407 407 404 P age Automobile-glass mechanics, see: Automobile mechanics ___________________________ Automobile manufacturing occupations, see: Motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing __________________________________ Automobile mechanics____________________ Automobile painters______________________ Automobile parts countermen--------------------Automobile-radiator mechanics, see: Automo bile mechanics ________________________ Automobile salesmen-------------------------------Automobile service advisors-----------------------Automobile trimmers and installation men__ Automobile upholsterers___________________ Automotive technicians, see: Mechanical technicians ___________________________ Auxiliary equipment operators, see: Electronic computer operating personnel-----------------Auxiliary equipment operators, electric power. Auxiliary nursing workers, see: Hospital at tendants ______________________________ Aviation occupations, see: Civil aviation--------Babysitters, see: Private household workers___ Backtenders, pulp, paper, and allied products. Bakers, all-round------------------------------------Baking industry, occupations in the--------------Ballet dancers-----------------------------------------Bank clerks______________________________ Bank managers, branch------------------------------Bank officers------------------------------------------Bank tellers______________________________ Banking occupations______________________ Bankmen, printing (graphic arts)--------------Barbers _________________________________ Barker operators, pulp, paper, and allied prod ucts --------------------------------------------------Bartenders, restaurant------------------------------Beater engineers, pulp, paper, and allied prod ucts _________________________________ Beauticians ______________________________ Beauty operators_________________________ Bellhops, hotel__________________________ Bellmen and bell captains, hotel-----------------Bench assemblers________________________ Bench coremakers, foundry_________________ Bench hands, baking______________________ Bench molders, foundry___________________ Benchmen, optical goods__________________ Bill clerks, see: Cashiers___________________ Billing machine operators__________________ Bindery workers, printing (graphic arts)------Biochemists ------------------------------------------Biological oceanographers-------------------------Biological sciences------------------------------------Biological technicians------------------------------- 408 568 406 462 273 407 271 275 464 464 192 260 657 306 637 291 585 532 531 155 711 714 714 713 709 448 308 583 591 584 310 310 617 617 460 552 532 550 470 254 257 457 145 140 127 193 737 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Biologists _______________________________ Biophysicists -----------------------------------------Blacksmiths _____________________________ See also: Forge shop occupations____________ Railroad shop trades______________ Blanking machine operators, electronics manu facturing ____________________________ Blasters, sand, forge shop--------------------------Blasters, shot, forge shop----------------------------Blockers, printing (graphic arts)___________ Blowers, iron and steel----------------------------Boardmen, general, see: Commercial artists---Body repairmen, automobile_______________ Boiler operators, electric power-------------------Boilermakers____________________________ See also: Iron and steel industry____________ Railroad shop trades---------------------Boilermaking occupations__________________ Bookbinders and related workers---------------Bookkeepers ____________________________ See also: Bank clerks_____________________ Bookkeeping and accounting clerks--------------See also: Bank clerks_____________________ Bookkeepers ____________________ Bookkeeping machine operators, see: Bank Clerks__________________________ Bookkeeping workers__________________ Bookkeeping machine servicemen___________ Bookkeeping workers______________________ Bookmobile librarians_____________________ Boring machine operators, see: Machine tool operators _____________________________ Botanists_________________________________ Bowling-pin-machine mechanics-------------------Box office cashiers________________________ Brake mechanics, see: Automobile mechanics_ Brakemen, railroad------------------------------------Branch bank managers____________________ Bricklayers_______________________________ See also: Aluminum industry_______________ Iron andsteel industry_____________ Railroad bridge and building work ers ___________________________ Brickmasons______________________________ Bridge and building workers, railroad________ Broadcast technicians, radio and television___ Broadcasting occupations, radio and television. Brokers, insurance________________________ Brokers, real estate_______________________ Building helpers__________________________ Building laborers_________________________ Page 127 130 466 381 687 540 383 383 451 561 163 404 657 467 564 687 467 457 253 712 253 712 253 712 253 413 253 214 390 129 409 254 407 683 714 324 512 564 692 324 692 672 665 281 283 331 331 P age Building trades____________________________ Bulldozer operators, see: Operating engineers. Bundlers, apparel_________________________ Bus boys and girls, restaurant_______________ Bus mechanics_____________________________ Busdrivers, intercity_______________________ Busdrivers, local transit____________________ Bushelmen, apparel_______________________ Business administration and related profes sions __________________________________ Business machine operators-------------------------Business machine servicemen----------------------Butlers, see: Private household workers--------- 318 346 517 591 513 374 376 517 C abdrivers_______________________________ Cable splicers, see: Electric power industry________________ Telephone industry----------------------------Cable-tool dressers, petroleum and natural gas production_____________________________ Cable-tool drillers, petroleum and natural gas production_____________________________ Calculating machine operators--------------------Calculating machine servicemen-------------------Cameramen, printing (graphic arts), see: Lithographers_______________________ Photoengravers---------------------------------Cameramen, television, see: Broadcast techni cians _____________ Card-to-tape converter operators, see: Elec tronics computer operating personnel______ Caretakers, see: Private household workers----Carmen, railroad shop_____________________ C arpenters_______________________________ See also: Railroad bridge and building workers____________________________ Carpet layers, see: Floor covering installers---Cartographers, see: Geographers-----------------Caseworkers, social------------------------------------Cash accounting clerks, see: Cashiers------------Cash register servicemen___________________ C ashiers_________________________________ Cashiers, banking, see: Banking officers--------Cashiers, restaurant_______________________ Casting inspectors, foundry-------------------------Casting operators, see: Aluminum industry— Casualty insurance agents---------------------------Catalogers, see: Librarians_________________ Catholic priests___________________________ Cement finishers__________________________ Cement masons-----------------------------------------Cementers, petroleum and natural gas pro duction ________________________________ Central office craftsmen, telephone---------------Central office equipment installers, telephone— Central office operators, telephone---------------- 379 32 256 412 292 660 700 726 725 257 413 455 451 672 260 292 687 327 692 337 174 227 254 413 254 714 591 547 511 281 214 47 329 329 727 697 699 262 738 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK P age Page Central office repairmen, telephone__________ 697 Central office supervisors, see: Telephone op erators ________________________________ 263 Ceramic engineers------------------------------------69 See also: Electronics manufacturing____ 538 Certified public accountants________________ 32 Chainmen, see: Surveyors_________•------------230 Chaplains, see: Clergy____________________ 44 Charging machine operators, iron and steel---562 Check encoders, see: Bank clerks____________ 712 Check inscribers, see: Bank clerks____________ 712 Check-out clerks, see: Cashiers_^___________ 254 Checkers, apparel industry_________________ 517 Checkers, see: Draftsmen__________________ 196 Checkers, insurance policy_________________ 719 Checkers, motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing _______________________________ 573 Chefs, see: Cooks and chefs________________ 301 Chemical analyst, see: Aluminum industry______________________ 513 Pulp, paper, and allied products_________ ’586 Chemical engineers_______________________ 70 See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manu facturing ______________________ 502 Aluminum industry_______________ 512 Atomic energy field_______________ 525 Electronics manufacturing_________ 538 Industrial chemical industy_________ 555 Pulp, paper, and allied products in d u stry______________________ 586 Chemical mixers, see: Photographic laboratory 484 occupations___________________________ Chemical oceanographers__________________ 140 Chemical operators, industrial chemical_____ 554 Chemical process operators, atomic energy___ 526 Chemical technicians______________________ 191 Chemists_________________________________ 142 See also: Aluminum industry_______________ 512 Atomic energy field________________ 525 Electronics manufacturing_________ 538 Industrial chemical industry________ 555 Iron and steel industry_____________ 565 Petroleum and natural gas production 724 Petroleum refining________________ 580 Pulp, apper, and allied products in dustry ________________________ 586 Chief engineers, radio and television_________ 669 Chief mechanics, aircraft, missiles, and space craft --------------------------------------------------505 Chief operators, telephone__________________ 263 Child psychologists________________________ 222 Child welfare workers, see: Social workers___ 227 Children’s 214 librarians_______________________ Chippermen, pulp, paper, and alliedproducts__ Chippers, see: Forge shop____________________________ Foundry industry_____________________ Chiropodists, see: Podiatrists----------------------Chiropractors -----------------------------------------Choreographers, see: Dancers------------------------Christmas club bookkeepers, see: Bank clerks— Christmas club tellers, see: Bank tellers------------Cindermen, iron and steel-----------------------------City carriers, post office--------------------------------City planners____________________________ Civil aviation occupations-------------------------Civil engineering technicians-----------------------Civil engineers___________________________ See also: Atomic energy field_______________ Iron and steel industry---------------------Civil service workers, Federal Government----Civil service w o r k e r s , State and local government____________________________ Civilian employment______________________ Claim adjusters, insurance-------------------------Cleaners, see: Thread trimmers, apparel industry________________________________ Clergy, the--------------Clerical and related occupations------------------Clerk-typists______________________________ Clerks, banking-----------------------------------------Clerks, civil aviation____________________ Clerks, insurance_________________________ Clerks, post office-------------------------------------- 584 383 547 108 75 155 712 713 561 606 234 637 192 70 523 565 600 609 598 719 517 44 245 250 711 652 719 607 Clerks, r a i lr o a d _______________ 686 Clerks, reservation, civil aviation-----------------Clerks, shipping and receiving--------------------Climatologists, see: Meteorologists---------------Clinical psychologists---------------------------------Clothing industry occupations, see: Apparel in d u stry----------------------------------------------Coast G u a rd ------------------------------------------Coil winders, electronics manufacturing--------Coiler operators, aluminum industry------------Collar pointers, apparel----------------------------College and university teachers--------------------College librarians-------------------------------------College placement officers---------------------------College professors_________________________ Color technicians, see: Photographic laboratory occupations____________________________ Combination w eld ers-------------------------------Commercial artists------------------------------------Commercial photographers-------------------------Commercial tellers, banking-----------------------Commodity loan clerks, see: Bank clerks--------Companions, see: Private household workers— 652 265 137 222 515 612 540 511 518 187 214 205 187 483 494 163 217 713 712 291 739 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Composing room occupations, printing (graphic arts)___________________________________ Composition ro o fers______________________ Compositors, hand, printing (graphic arts)---Compressor-station engineers', natural g a s processing_____________________________ Compressor-station operators, natural g a s processing_____________________________ Comptrollers, banking, see: Bank officers------Computer operators, see: Electronic computer operating personnel-------------------------------Computers, petroleum and natural gas production______________________________ Concrete finishers------------------ 1-----------------Conductors, railroad---------------------------------Conservation occupations------------------------------Conservationists, range, see: Range managers. Conservationists, so il---------------------------------Console operators, see: Electronic computer operating personnel-------------------------------Construction----------------Construction electricians------------------------------Construction laborers and hod carriers------------Construction machinery operators, see: Oper ating engineers---------------------------------Construction trades, see: Building trades------Continuity directors, radio and television------Continuity writers, radio and television-------Contractors, building trades--------------------------Control clerks, see: Bank clerks---------------------Control room operators, electric power---------Controllers, air route---------------------------------Controllers, airport traffic--------------------------Converter operators, see: Electronic computer operating personnel_____________________ Cooks, see: Private household workers-------------Cooks and chefs____________________________ Cooks’ helpers, see: Private household workers. Cooperative extension service workers_______ Copilots, civil aviation_____________________ Copying machine servicemen_______________ Copywriters, advertising___________________ Core assemblers, foundry__________________ Core-oven tenders, foundry________________ Coremakers, fo u n d ry_______________________ See also: Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing_______________________ Coremaking machine operators, foundry____ Coresetters, fo u n d ry________________________ Corn and wheat farmers___________ Correspondent bank officers, banking_________ Corrugator operators, pulp, paper, and allied products________________________________ 262-057 0 — 68 48 Page Cosmetologists___________________________ Cotton growers__________________________ 448 Counseling ______________________________ 356 Counseling psychologists, see: Psychologists__ 448 Counselers, see: Rehabilitation counselers______________ 729 School counselers------------------------------Vocational counselers_________________ 729 Counter attendants, restaurant______________ 714 Counters, pulp, paper and allied products___ Country collection clerks, see: Bank clerks___ 259 County agricultural agents-------------------------County home economics agents-------------------725 Court reporters__________________________ 329 Craftsmen, foreman, and kindred workers— 682 Crane operators, see: 50 Foundry industry_____________________ 53 Motor vehicle and equipment manufactur 631 ing _______________________________ Operating engineers---------------------------260 Cranemen, forge shop_____________________ 705 Cranemen, iron and steel---------------------------333 Credit analysts, see: Bank officers---------------331 Credit cashiers, see: Cashiers----------------------Crew chiefs, aircraft, missies, and spacecraft_ 347Crop reporters____________________________ 318 Crop specialty farmers------------------------------667 Crystal finishers, electronics manufacturing---667 Crystal grinders, electronics manufacturing— 318 Cultural anthropologists__________________ 712 Customer service occupations, electric power— 658 Customers’ brokers, see: Securities salesmen— 649 Cutters, apparel--------------------------------------649 Cutters, fur, apparel----------------Cutters, motor vehicle and equipment manu 260 facturing ___________________________ _— 291 Cutting room occupations, apparel--------------301 Cytologists, see: Anatomists-----------------------291 629 Dairy farmers____________________________ 640 D an cers_________________________________ 415 Dark-room technicians, see: Photographic lab 35 oratory occupations_____________________ 546 Data-processing equipment servicemen---------546 Data typists, see: Typists---------------------------551 See also: Electronic computer operators— Day workers, see: Private household workers— 571 Decontamination men, atomic energy-----------552 Decorators, interior designers and---------------546 Dehydration-plant operators, natural gas proc 627 essing _________________________________ Deliverymen, see: Routemen----------------------714 Dental hygienists--------------------------------------585 Dental laboratory technicians--------------------- P age 310 627 56 222 58 56 60 591 585 712 629 629 248 314 547 573 346 381 563 714 254 505 633 628 540 540 170 663 286 516 518 572 516 130 625 155 483 414 250 259 291 528 167 729 371 77 78 740 D entists_________________________________ Derrick operators, see: Foundry industry_____ Derrickmen, petroleum and natural gas pro duction ________________________________ Derrickmen, see: Stonemasons_______________ Designers, apparel__________________________ Designers, industrial________________________ See also listing under Industrial designers. Designers, interior__________________________ Designers, scenic, radio and television_________ See also: Interior designers and decora tors ________________________________ Designers, tool and machine, see: Mechanical technicians______________________________ Designing room occupations, apparel_________ Desk clerks, hotel___________________________ Detailers, see: Draftsmen____________________ Detectives, police__________________________ Developers, see: Photographic laboratory occu pations _______________________________ Development engineers, radio and television— Developmental psychologists_________________ Dictationists, see: Newspaper reporters________ Dictating-machine servicemen_____________ Die makers, pulp, paper, and allied products_ Die makers, tool-and________________________ See also listing under Tool-and-die makers. Diesel mechanics__________________________ Deisel technicians, see: Mechanical techni cians ---------------------------------------------------Die sinkers, forge shop______________________ Dietitians _________________________________ Digester operators, pulp, paper, and allied products _____________________________ Directors, art, see: Commercial artists_________ Directors, college placement, see: College placement officers________________________ Directors, education, radio and television___ Directors, program, radio and television_____ Directors, public affairs, radio and television_ Disbursement clerks, see: Cashiers _____________________________ Post office occupations__________________ Disc jockeys, radio and television____________ Discount bookkeepers, see: Bank clerks________ Discount tellers, banking____________________ Dishwashers, restaurant_____________________ Dispatchers, see: Civil aviation_________________________ Railroads ____________________________ Dispatchers, load, electric light and power___ Dispensing opticians and optical mechanics__ Distribution clerks, post office_______________ Distributors, work, apparel___________________ OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page 80 547 725 360 515 165 167 668 167 193 515 618 196 297 484 669 222 198 414 585 391 418 192 382 83 584 163 206 668 667 668 254 607 671 712 713 591 648 676 659 469 607 517 P age District representatives, electric power________ Dividermen, baking______________________ Doctors, medical_________________________ Domestic workers, see: Private household workers _______________________________ Doormen, hotel-------------------------------------Dough molders, baking------------------------------Draftsmen ______________________________ See also: Aluminum industry--------------------Atomic energy field_______________ Electronics manufacturing________ Iron and steel industry____________ Petroleum and natural gas produc tion -------------------------------------Petroleum refining________________ Drama teachers, see: Actors and actresses____ Dressmakers, apparel_____________________ Drill press operators, see: Machine tool oper ators _________________________________ Drillers, petroleum and natural gas production. Driver-salesmen, see: Routemen____________ See also: Baking industry_____________ Drivers, intercity buses____________________ Drivers, local transit buses_________________ Drivers, local trucks----------------------------------Drivers, over-the-road trucks----------------------Drivers, taxi--------------------------------------------Driving occupations______________________ D ruggists________________________________ Drycleaning and laundry routemen__________ Duplicating and copying machine servicemen_ Duplicating machine operators_____________ Dynamic meteorologists____________________ 663 532 106 291 618 532 195 513 525 538 565 724 580 153 517 390 725 371 533 374 376 369 366 379 366 102 372 415 257 137 Earth-boring machine operators, see: Operating engineers _____________________________ 346 Earth sciences____________________________ 132 Economic geographers_____________________ 174 Economic geologists_______________________ 133 Economists---------------------------------------------- ‘ 172 Economists, agricultural----------------------------632 Editors, film, television____________________ 668 Editors, newspaper________________________ 199 See also: Technical writers-------------------201 Education directors, radio and television--------668 Electric-arc welders----------------------------------495 See also: Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing_____________________ 571 Electric power linemen____________________ 660 Electric power industry------------------------------654 Electric sign servicemen------------------------------420 Electrical appliance servicemen-------------------401 Electrical assemblers, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft______________________________ 504 741 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Electrical engineers_______________________ See also: Aluminum industry_______________ Atomic energy field_______________ Electronics manufacturing_________ Industrial chemical industry'________ Iron and steel industry_____________ Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing _____________________ Pulp, paper, and allied products in dustry ________________________ Electrical repairmen, maintenance electriciansElectrical workers, see: Shop trades, railroads_ Electricians, construction__________________ Electricians, maintenance__________________ See also listing under Maintenance elec tricians. Electric power linemen____________________ Electric power industry, occupations in the----Electromechanical machinery servicemen, see: Postage and mailing equipment servicemen-_ Electronic computer operating personnel____ Electronic computer programers-----------------Electronic data-processing equipment service men, see: Business machine servicemen____ Electronic reader-sorter operators, see: Bank clerks _________________________________ Electronics checkout men, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft_____________________________ Electronics engineers, see: Atomic energy field___________________ Electronics manufacturing_____________ Electronics manufacturing occupations_____ Electronics mechanics, aluminum____________ Electronics repairmen, iron and steel_________ Electronics technicians____________________ See also: Atomic energy field_______________ Electronics manufacturing_________ Electroplaters -----------------------------------------See also: Electronics manufacturing____ Electrotypers and stereotypers, printing (graphic arts)_________________________ Elementary school teachers_________________ Elevator constructors______________________ Elevator mechanics_______________________ Elevator operators, hotel___________________ Embossing machine operators_______________ Embryologists ___________________________ Employment counselors, see: Vocational coun selors __________________________________ Engine lathe operators_____________________ Engine mechanics, aircraft, missiles, and space craft --------------------------------------------------Engineering______________________________ P age 71 513 523 537 555 565 570 586 429 687 333 429 660 654 515 259 219 415 712 505 523 537 536 512 564 192 526 538 472 540 452 182 336 336 618 257 130 60 390 505 64 P age Engineering aids__________________________ See also: Atomic energy field_______________ Electronics manufacturing_________ Engineering and science technicians_________ Engineering geologists_____________________ Engineering psychologists, see: Psychologists---Engineering technicians___________________ Engineers, aeronautical, see: Engineers, aero space __________________________________ Engineers, aerospace---------------------------------See also: Aircraft, missile and spacecraft manufacturing_____________________ Engineers, agricultural------------------------------See also: Agriculture__________________ Engineers, astronautical, see: Engineers, aero space _________________________________ Engineers, ceramic________________________ Engineers, chemical_______________________ See also listing under Chemical engineers. Engineers, civil___________________________ See also listing under Civil engineers. Engineers, compressor-station, natural gas proc essing _________________________________ Engineers, development, radio and television— Engineers, electrical_______________________ See also listing under Electrical engineers. Engineers, electronics, see listing under Elec tronics engineers. Engineers, flight, civil aviation______________ Engineers, foundry________________________ Engineers, gasoline-plant, natural gas process ing ----------------------------------------------------Engineers, industrial______________________ See also listing under Industrial engineers. Engineers, locomotive_____________________ Engineers, mechanical_____________________ See also listing under Mechanical engi neers. Engineers, metallurgical___________________ See also listing under Metallurgical engi neers. Engineers, mining________________________ Engineers, oceanographic, see: Oceanogra phers Engineers, operating, buildingtrades_________ Engineers, packaging, pulp, paper, and allied products_______________________________ Engineers, petroleum______________________ See also listing under Petroleum engineers. Engineers, reactor, atomic energy__________ Engineers, stationary______________________ See also listing under Stationary engineers. Engineers, watch, electric power____________ Enginemen, petroleum and natural gas pro duction ________________________________ 191 525 538 190 133 223 190 68 67 502 69 632 68 69 70 70 729 669 71 643 547 729 72 679 72 73 74 140 346 586 725 525 491 658 725 742 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK P age P age Entomologists ___________________________ See also: Agriculture__________________ Envelope-machine operators, pulp, paper, and allied products_________________________ Estimators, building trades_________________ Etchers, printing (graphic arts)_____________ Etching equipment operators, electronics manu facturing ______________________________ Ethnologists, see: Anthropologists___________ Exchange clerks, see: Bank clerks___________ Exhaust operators, electronics manufacturing-_ Experimental machinists, see: Instrument mak ers (mechanical)_________________________ Exploration geophysicists_____________________ Extension agents, agricultural______________ Extension agents, 4—H_____________________ Extension service workers__________________ Extras, see: Actors and actresses_______________ Extrusions press operators, aluminum industryFabrication inspectors, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft_______________________________ Family service workers, see: Social workers___ Farm cooperative workers_________________ Farm equipment mechanics________________ Farm housekeepers, see: Private household workers_________________________________ Farm service jobs_________________________ Farmers, see: Agriculture__________________ Fashion illustrators, see: Commercial artists__ FBI Special Agents_________________________ Federal Government occupations____________ Field technicians, radio and television________ Film editors, television____________________ Film librarians, television__________________ Film numberers, see: Photographic laboratory technicians______________________________ Film strippers, see: Photographic laboratory technicians______________________________ Final assemblers, aircraft, missiles, and space craft ___________________________________ Finance, insurance, and real estate___________ Finance workers, agricultural_______________ Finishers, crystal, electronics manufacturing__ Finishers, fur, apparel_____________________ Finishers, optical goods____________________ Finishers, printing (graphic arts)___________ Firefighters, protective service_______________ Firemen, petroleum and natural gas production Firemen, protective service, see: Firefighters__ Firemen (helpers), railroad________________ Firemen, stationary (boiler)________________ Firers, hydrogen furnace, electronics manu facturing ________________________________ Fitup men, boilermaking occupations_________ Flagmen, railroad_________________________ 130 631 585 318 451 540 170 712 540 393 135 629 629 629 153 512 505 227 633 423 291 634 623 164 293 598 673 668 668 484 484 504 707 633 540 518 470 451 294 725 294 681 493 540 467 683 Flame cutters, see: Welders________________ Flight attendants, civil aviation_____________ Flight checkout occupations, see: Aircraft, mis sile, and spacecraft manufacturing________ Flight engineers, civil aviation______________ Flight superintendents, see: Airline dispatch ers, civil aviation_________________________ Floor assemblers__________________________ Floor boys and girls, see: Work distributors, ap parel industry____________________________ Floor clerks and supervisors, hotel___________ Floor coremakers, foundry_________________ Floor covering installers----------------------------Floor covering mechanics__________________ Floor layers, see: Floor covering installers___ Floor managers, radio and television_________ Floor molders, foundry____________________ Floormen, rotary, petroleum and natural gas production______________________________ Floormen, television_________________________ Food checkers, restaurant____________________ Food chemists______________________________ Food managers, see: Hotels__________________ Foreign exchange tellers, banking______________ Foresters_________________________________ See also: Pulp, paper, and allied products. Forestry aids______________________________ Forestry technicians, see: Forestry aids_________ Forge shop occupations______________________ See also: Blacksmiths_______________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing________________________ Forging press operators, forge shop----------------Forklift truck operators, see: Power truck op erators _________________________________ Foundry industry___________________________ See also: Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing_______________________ Framemen, telephone central office craftsmen. Free-lance artists, see: Commercial artists____ Front-end mechanics, see: Automobile me chanics ________________________________ Front office clerks, hotel_____________________ Fur cutters, apparel_________________________ Fur finishers, apparel_______________________ Fur machine operators, apparel---------------------Fur nailers, apparel_________________________ Fur shop occupations, apparel-----------------------Furnace installers (heating mechanics)--------Furnace operators, foundry-----------------------Furniture upholsters-------------------------------------Gagers, petroleum and natural gas production. Garage mechanics, see: Automobile mechanics. 495 644 505 643 648 460 517 619 552 337 337 337 668 550 725 668 591 142 621 713 50 586 52 52 381 466 571 381 486 545 571 697 163 407 618 518 518 518 518 518 399 547 474 727 406 743 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Gas appliance servicemen__________________ See also: Air-conditioning, refrigeration, and heating mechanics______________ Gas burner mechanics____________________ Gas fitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters______ Gas plant operators, natural gas processing___ Gas welders_______________________________ See also: Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing_____________________ Gas-compressors operators, natural gas proc essing _________________________________ Gasoline-plant engineers, natural gas proc essing _________________________________ Gasoline-plant operators, natural gas proc essing _________________________________ Gasoline service station attendants___________ Gasoline service station managers____________ Gasoline station servicemen-------------------------General boardmen, see: Commercial artists__ General bookkeepers---------------------------------See also: Bank clerks--------------------------General maids, see: Private household workers. General practitioners, see: Physicians________ Geneticists_______________________________ See also: Agriculture__________________ Geochemists, see: Geologists-----------------------Geodesists, see: Geophysicists----------------------Geodetic surveyors________________________ Geographers_____________________________ Geological oceanographers_________________ Geologists________________________________ See also: Petroleum and natural gas production________________________ Geomagneticians, see: Geophysicists------------Geomorphologists, see: Geologists-----------------Geophysicists____________________________ See also: Petroleum and natural gas production________________________ Glass blowers, electronics manufacturing------Glass lathe operators, electronics manufactur ing ___________________________________ Glaziers _________________________________ Governesses, see: Private household workers— Government occupations, Federal---------------See also: Post office----------------------------Government occupations, State and local------Government, occupations in-----------------------Grain farmers, see: Com and wheat farmers— Gravure pressmen, printing (graphic arts)----Grind lathe operators, electronics manufactur ing __________________ :________________ Grinders, see: Forge sh op __________________________ Foundry industry_____________________ Grinding machine operators, see: Machine tool operators_______________________________ Page 401 400 400 354 729 494 571 729 729 729 475 476 475 163 253 712 291 106 130 632 133 135 230 174 140 132 724 135 133 134 725 540 540 340 291 598 602 609 595 627 455 540 383 547 390 P age Grocery checkers, see: Cashiers_____________ Ground radio operators and teletypists, civil aviation________________________________ Groundmen, electric power-----------------------Guidance counselors______________________ Hairdressers_______ Hammer drivers, forge shop________________ Hammer operators, forge shop--------------------Hammer runners, forge shop----------------------Hammermen, see: Motor vehicle and equip ment manufacturing------------------------------Hammersmiths, forge shop-------------------------Hand compositors, printing (graphic arts)---Hand cutters, apparel-------------------------------Hand icers, baking------------------------------------Hand molders, foundry------------------------------Hand sewers, apparel-------------------------------Hand spreaders, apparel----------------------------Handymen, see: Private householdworkers----Health physicists, atomic energy-----------------Health physics technicians, atomicenergy------Health service occupations-------------------------Heat treaters, see: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manu facturing__________________________ Forge shop---------------------------------------Foundry industry-------------------------------Heaters, see: Forge shop__________________________ Iron and steel industry-----------------------Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing---------------------------------------Heating mechanics------------------------------------Helpers, baking---------------------------------------Helpers, building trades----------------------------Helpers, iron and steel------------------------------Helpers, petroleum and natural gasproduction High school teachers---------------------------------High speed printer operators, see: Electronic computer operating personnel-----------------Highway patrolmen, see: State police officers— Highway surveyors------------------------------------Historians ---------------------------------------------Hod carriers______________________________ See also: Bricklayers---------------------------------Plasterers_______________________ Home economists--------------------------------------See also: Cooperative extension service workD ietitians----------------------------------ers____________________________ Home housekeepers, see: Private household workers _______________________________ Home office underwriters, insurance------------- 254 651 660 56 310 381 381 381 572 381 448 516 532 550 517 516 292 572 527 75 504 383 547 382 563 572 400 532 331 562 725 185 260 299 230 176 331 325 352 207 83 632 291 718 744 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page 142 477 570 425 137 110 217 222 224 279 192 239 291 619 262 540 562 Janitors, restaurant______________________ Jewelers and jewelry repairmen_____________ 591 479 130 85 306 110 225 676 528 leers, baking_____________________________ Icing mixers, baking______________________ Illustrators, see: Commercial artists_________ Illustrators, technical, see listing under Tech nical illustrators. Industrial chemical industry, occupations in t h e ___________________________________ Industrial designers_______________________ See also: Electronics manufacturing_____ Industrial engineers______________________ See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft man ufacturing ----------------------------Electronics manufacturing------------Motor vehicle and equipment man ufacturing ____________________ Industrial machinery repairmen-------------------Industrial meteorologists--------------------------Industrial nurses_________________________ Industrial photographers--------------------------Industrial psychologists----------------------------Industrial recreation workers----------------------Industrial salesmen---------------------------------Industrial technicians------------------------------Industrial traffic managers-------------------------Infants’ nurses, see: Private household workers. Information clerks, hotel__________________ Information operators, telephone----------------Infrared oven operators, electronics manufac turing _________________________________ Ingot strippers, iron and steel-------------------- 532 532 163 P age Inorganic chemists_______________________ Inspectors (manufacturing)_______________ See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft man ufacturing ___________________ Apparel industry_________________ Electronics manufacturing_________ Forge shop-------------------------------Iron and steel industry-----------------Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ___________________ ___ Pulp, paper, and allied products in dustry _______________________ Installation men, see: Automobile trimmers (automobile upholsterers)_______________ Installers and repairmen, telephone and PBX . Installers, floor covering___________________ Installers, meter, electric power_____________ Installers, telephone central equipment_____ Instrument maintenance men, see: Instrument repairmen ___________________________ Instrument makers (mechanical)___________ Instrument mechanics, see: Instrument repair men -------------------------------------------------Instrument men, see: Instrument repairmen_ Instrument repairmen------------------------------See also: Industrial chemical industry_______ Pulp, paper, and allied products in dustry _______________________ Instrument technicians, see: Instrument repair men --------------------------------------------------Instrumentation technicians----------------------Instrumentmen, see: Surveyors_____________ Insulating workers----------------------------------Insurance agents and brokers_______________ Insurance business, occupations in the________ Insurance checkers_______________________ Insurance clerks_________________________ Intercity busdrivers______________________ Intercity truckdrivers_____________________ Interest-accrual bookkeepers, see: Bank clerks. Interest clerks, see: Bank clerks____________ Interior designers and decorators___________ International officers, banking_____________ Intertype operators, printing (graphic arts)_ Interviewers, marketing research___________ Investigators, FBI________________________ Investment analysists, see: Insurance business. Iron and steel industry, occupations in the___ Iron workers, building trades_______________ See also: Railroad bridge and building workers _________________________ Horticulturists___________________________ Hospital administrators____________________ Hospital attendants_______________________ Hospital nurses___________________________ Hospital recreation workers________________ Hostlers, railroad_________________________ Hot-cell technicians, atomic energy__________ Hot metal cranemen, see: Aluminum industry___________________ Iron and steel industry________________ Hotel managers__________________________ Hotel occupations________________________ Household workers, see: Private household workers________________________________ Housekeepers, see: Private household workers. Housekeepers and assistants, hotel___________ Housemen, see: Private household workers__ Housemen, hotel_________________________ Human nutritionists, see: Agriculture_______ Husbandry specialists (animal)_____________ Hydrogen furnace firers, electronics manu facturing _______________________________ Hydrologists, see: Geophysicists_____________ Hygienists, dental------------------------------------- 510 562 620 615 291 291 619 292 615 632 130 540 135 77 553 165 538 72 502 538 505 517 541 382 564 572 586 464 702 337 663 699 427 393 427 427 426 555 586 427 193 230 323 281 717 719 719 374 366 712 712 167 714 448 38 293 718 559 362 692 745 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES P age Jig and fixture builders, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft ____________________________ Junior high school teachers, see: Secondary school teachers------------------------------------Keepers, iron and steel____________ Key clerks, hotel_________________________ Keypunch operators---------------------------------See also: Electronic computer operating personnel ________________________ Kindergarten teachers____________________ Kitchen workers, restaurant________________ Laboratory technicians----------------------------See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft man ufacturing ----------------------------Aluminum industry--------------------Atomic energy field_______________ Electronics manufacturing_________ Industrial chemical industry________ Iron and steel industry-----------------Petroleum refining----------------------Pulp, paper, and allied products in dustry _______________________ Laboratory technicians, dental--------------------Laboratory technicians, optical-------------------Laborers and hod carriers, building trades___ Ladle cranemen, iron and steel-------------------Land surveyors---------------------------------------Landmen, petroleum and natural gas produc tion __________________________________ Landscape architects-------------------------------Larrymen, iron and steel---------------------------Lathe operators, see: Machine tool operators. Lathers _________________________________ Laundresses, see: Private household workers— Lawyers ________________________________ Layout artists, see: Commercial artists---------Layout men, advertising----------------------------See also: Commercial artists-----------------Layout men (machine tools)_______________ See also: Boilermaking occupations--------Leasemen, petroleum and natural gas produc tion __________________________________ Legal secretaries_________________________ Lens grinders, see: Optical mechanics________ Letterers, see: Commercial artists___________ Letterpress pressmen, printing (graphic arts). Librarians _______________________________ Librarians, medical record_________________ Librarians, tape, see: Electronic computer oper ating personnel_________________________ Librarians, television film__________________ Licensed practical nurses___________________ 503 185 561 619 258 259 182 591 190 503 513 525 538 555 565 580 586 78 469 331 562 230 725 209 561 390 341 291 211 163 35 163 396 467 725 248 470 163 453 213 91 260 668 87 Page Licensed vocational nurses_________________ Life insurance agents______________________ Lighting directors, television________________ Lighting technicians, television______________ Line-haul truckdrivers_____________________ Line maintenance mechanics, civil aviation__ Linemen, see: Electric power industry________________ Telephone industry___________________ Linemen and cable splicers, telephone________ Linotype operators, printing (graphic arts)__ Lithographic artists, printing (graphic arts)__ Lithographic occupations, printing (graphic arts) __________________________________ Lithographic pressmen, printing (graphic a r t s ) __________________________________ Livestock farmers_________________________ Load dispatchers, electric power_____________ Loan officers, banking_____________________ Local government occupations______________ Local transit busdrivers____________________ Local truckdrivers________________________ Locomotive engineers, railroad--------------------Locomotive firemen (helpers), railroad---------Long distance operators, telephone__________ Long-haul truckdrivers____________________ Machine coremakers, foundry______________ Machine designers, see: Mechanical techni cians __________________________________ Machine icers, baking_____________________ Machine molders, see: Foundry industry_____________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufactur ing _______________________________ Machine movers, see: Riggers and movers------Machine spreaders, apparel________________ Machine tenders, see: Paper machine operators, pulp, paper, and allied products---------------Machine tool operators____________________ See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft man ufacturing ____________________ Electronics manufacturing_________ Foundry industry-------------------------Iron and steel industry____________ Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ________ Machined parts inspectors, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft_________________________ Machinery repairmen, industrial____________ Machining occupations____________________ See also: Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ____________________ 87 281 673 673 366 646 660 700 700 448 455 455 455 626 659 714 609 376 369 679 681 262 366 552 193 533 550 571 362 516 584 389 503 539 547 564 571 505 425 385 571 746 Machinists, all-round---------------------------------■ See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft man ufacturing ____________________ Atomic energy field----------------------Electronics manufacturing------------Instrument makers (mechanical)-----Iron and steel industry-------------------Pulp, paper, and allied products in dustry ________________________ Railroad shop trades--------------------Maids, see: Private household workers_______ Maids, hotel_____________________________ Mail carriers, post office----------------------------Mail clerks, hotel-------------------------------------Mail clerks, post office_____________________ Mail handlers, post office----------------------------Mail preparing and mail handling machine op erators, office machine operators---------------Mailing equipment servicemen--------------------Mailmen, post office----------------------------------Maintenance electricians----------------------------See also: Aluminum industry----------------------Electronics manufacturing_________ Iron and steel industry-------------------Pulp, paper, and allied products in dustry ________________________ Railroad shop trades--------------------Maintenance machinists, aluminum------------Maintenance mechanics, see: Industrial ma chinery repairmen______________________ Maintenance technicians, radio and television. Maintenance welders, aluminum____________ Makeup artists, television__________________ Makeup men, printing (graphic arts)-----------Managerial occupations___________________ Managers, advertising_____________________ Managers, branch bank____________________ Managers, food, hotel_______________________ Managers, gasoline service station___________ Managers, industrial traffic_________________ Managers, range_________________________ Managers, restaurant________________________ Managers, sales, see: Hotels________________________________ Radio and television broadcasting_______ Managers and assistants, hotel______________ Manipulator operators, iron and steel________ Manual workers__________________________ Manufacturers’ salesmen___________________ Marble setters, tile setters, and terrazzo work ers -----------------------------------------------------Marine biologists, see: Oceanographer________ Marine Corps____________________________ Marine geologists, see: Oceanographers________ OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page 388 503 525 539 394 564 586 687 291 615 606 619 602 607 257 415 606 429 512 541 564 586 687 512 425 673 512 668 448 237 35 714 621 476 239 53 591 621 669 620 563 460 278 343 140 612 140 P age Marine meteorologists, see: Oceanographers_ Markers, apparel_________________________ Market news reporters_____________________ Marketing research workers__________________ Masons, brick____________________________ See also: Iron and steel industry-------------------Railroad bridge and building work ers ____________________________ Masons, cement and concrete----------------------Masons, stone_____________________________ Materials handlers, motor vehicle and equip ment manufacturing. ___________________ Mathematical assistants, electronics manufac turing _________________________________ Mathematical statisticians____________________ Mathematicians____________________________ See also: A ctu aries_________________________ Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manu facturing ________________________ Electronics manufacturing------------Statisticians_______________________ Mathematics and related fields-----------------------Mathematics technicians_____________________ Mechanical engineers_______________________ See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manu facturing ________________________ Aluminum industry----------------------Atomic energy field_______________ Electronics manufacturing----------------Industrial chemical industry-----------Iron and steel industry-----------------Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ______________________ Pulp, paper, and allied products in dustry ________________________ Mechanical technicians______________________ Mechanic-attendants, see: Gasoline service station attendants_______________________ Mechanics, see: Air-conditioning mechanics-------------------Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufac turing ----------------------------Aircraft mechanics------------------------------Automobile mechanics-------------------------Bowling-pin-machine mechanics------------Bus mechanics------------------------------------Diesel mechanics---------------------------------Dispensing opticians and optical me chanics _____________________________ Electronics manufacturing-----------------------Farm equipment mechanics-----------------Floor covering installers--------------------------Foundry industry----------------------------------- 140 516 633 37 324 564 692 329 360 572 538 122 119 124 502 538 122 119 193 72 502 512 523 537 555 565 570 586 192 476 399 646 406 409 435 418 469 541 423 337 547 747 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Gas burner mechanics_________________ Heating mechanics____________________ Oil burner mechanics__________________ Refrigeration mechanics_______________ Truck mechanics_____________________ Vending machine mechanics____________ See also listing under Servicemen and Repairmen. Mechanics and repairmen__________________ Media directors, advertising__________________ Medical laboratory assistants_______________ Medical record librarians____________________ Medical secretaries________________________ Medical social workers____________________ Medical technologists________________________ Medical X-ray technicians___________________ Melters, see: Foundry industry_____________________ Iron and steel industry_________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing ______________________________ Mental health occupations, see: Nurses_________________________________ Physicians (psychiatrists)________________ Psychiatric aids (hospital attendants)___ Psychologists________________________ Social workers________________________ Metal cranemen, iron and steel--------------------Metal finishers, motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing_________________________ Metal patternmakers, foundry--------------------Metal roofers____________________________ Metallurgical engineers------------------------------See also: Atomic energy field----------------------Electronics manufacturing--------------Iron and steel industry-------------------Metallurgical technicians_____________________ Metallurgists, see: Aluminum industry----------------------------Electronics manufacturing--------------------Foundry industry-------------------------------Iron and steel industry-------------------------Motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing ____________________________ Meteorological instrumentation specialists----Meteorologists_____________________________ Meter installers, electric power-------------------Meter readers, electric power_______________ Meter testers, electric power________________ Metermen, electric power---------------------------Microbiologists __________________________ See also: Agriculture______________________ Biological sciences__________________ Page P age 400 400 400 399 435 438 398 35 89 91 248 228 93 95 547 562 571 87 106 306 222 227 562 572 549 356 73 523 538 565 193 512 538 547 565 570 137 137 663 663 663 663 129 632 129 Milling machine operators, see: Machine tool op erators______________________________ M illw rights______________________________ See also: Aluminum industry_________________ Iron and steel industry_______________ Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ________________________ Pulp, paper, and allied products in dustry __________________________ Mineralogists, see: Geologists_____________________________ Petroleum and natural gas production___ M ining_____________________________ Mining engineers_________________________ Ministers, Protestant________________________ Missile assembly mechanics, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft____________________________ Missile manufacturing occupations___________ Missionaries, see: Clergy_____________________ Mixers, baking_____________________________ Modelmakers, see: Instrument makers (me chanical) _______________________________ Molders, foundry___________________________ ■ See also: Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing_______________________ Molders’ helpers, foundry industry____________ Molding machine operators, baking industry_ Molding machine operators, foundry---------------Monitors, radiation, atomic energy___________ Monotype caster operators, printing (graphic arts) ___________________________________ Monotype keyboard operators, printing (graphic arts)___________________________ Mortgage clerks, see: Bank clerks--------------------Mothers’ helpers, see: Private household workers_________________________________ Motion picture projectionists------------------------Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing occupations_____________________________ Motor vehicle body repairmen--------------------Motor vehicle operators, post office----------------Music directors, radio and television---------------Music librarians, radio and television-------------Musicians and music teachers------------------------Nailers, fur, apparel-----------------------------------Natural gas processing occupations----------------Natural sciences____________________________ N avy _____________________________________ Neon sign servicemen_______________________ News directors, radio and television----------------Newscasters, radio and television-------------------Newspaper rep orters-------------------------------See also: Technical writers-------------------Newswriters, radio and television------------------- 390 431 512 564 573 585 132 724 722 74 44 504 500 44 532 393 550 571 546 532 550 527 448 448 712 291 481 568 404 606 668 668 158 518 729 127 612 420 668 668 198 199 668 748 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page Note tellers, banking_____________________ _ Nuclear physicists________________________ See also: Atomic energy field---------------Nuclear reactor operators, atomic energy------Nurse aids, see: Hospital attendants------------Nu,rse educators, see: Registered professional nurses_________________________________ Nurse maids, see: Private household workers_ Nurses, industrial_________________________ Nurses, licensed practical__________________ Nurses, licensed vocational-------------------------Nurses, registered professional______________ Nursing assistants, see: Hospital attendants---Nutritionists_____________________________ See also: D ietitians_______________________ Home economists_________________ Observers, petroleum and natural gas pro duction ________________________________ Occupational health nurses________________ Occupational therapists----------------------------Oceanographers -------------------------------------Oceanographic engineers, see: Oceanogra phers Odd-job men, see: Private household workers— Office machine operators__________________ Office machine servicemen_________________ Office nurses____________________________ Offset pressmen, printing (graphic arts)------Oil burner mechanics-------------------------------Operating engineers, construction machinery— Operations agents, civil aviation____________ Operations officers, banking________________ Operatives, see: Semiskilled workers, indus tria l___________________________________ Operators, compressor-station, natural g a s processing ____________________________ Operators, resistance welding----------------------See also: Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing_____________________ Operators, telephone______________________ Optical laboratory technicians--------------------Optical mechanics________________________ Opticians, dispensing---------------------------------Optometrists ____________________________ Orderlies, see: Hospital attendants__________ Organic chem ists________________________ Ornamental-iron workers, building trades___ Osteopathic physicians____________________ Outside production inspectors, aircraft, mis siles, and spacecraft_____________________ Over-the-road truckdrivers________________ Ovenmen, baking industry_________________ Oxygen cu tters__________________________ 713 147 528 528 306 110 291 110 87 87 110 306 130 83 207 725 110 97 139 140 292 256 412 110 453 400 346 652 714 316 729 *495 571 262 469 469 469 99 306 142 363 100 504 366 532 495 Page Packaging engineers, pulp, paper, and allied products_______________________________ Painters, automobile______________________ Painters, production______________________ See also listing under Production painters. Painters and paperhangers_________________ Paleontologists, see: Geologists___________________________ Petroleum and natural gas production__ Pantrymen and pantrywomen, restaurants___ Paper and allied products_________________ Paper inspectors, pulp, paper, and allied products_______________________________ Paper machine operators, pulp, paper, and allied products_________________________ Paper sorters and counters, pulp, paper, and allied products_________________________ Paper testers, pulp, paper, and allied products. Paperhangers_____________________________ Parcel post carriers, post office______________ Parole officers, see: Social workers___________ Parts changers, electronics manufacturing___ Parts countermen, automobile______________ Paste-up men, see: Commercial artists_______ Pastors, see: Clergy.______________________ Pathologists______________________________ Pathologists, speech_______________________ Patrolmen, see: Policemen __________________________ State police officers___________________ Pattern graders, apparel___________________ Patternmakers, a p p a re l___________________ Patternmakers, foundry industry____________ See also: Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ____________________ Paying and receiving tellers, banking________ Payroll tellers, banking____________________ PBX installers and repairmen, telephone____ PBX operators, see: Telephone operators_____ Peanut grow ers__________________________ Perforator operators, petroleum and natural gas production_________________________ Performing arts, the______________________ Personal maids, see: Private household workers-----------------------------------------------Personnel workers____________________ Petroleum and natural gas production and processing_____________________________ Petroleum engineers, see: Mining engineers____________________ Petroleum and natural gas production__ Petroleum refining___________________ Petroleum geologists______________________ See also: Petroleum and natural gas production________________________ Petroleum refining_______________________ 586 462 488 349 133 724 591 582 586 584 585 586 349 606 228 541 273 163 44 130 115 297 299 516 516 549 571 713 713 702 263 627 727 153 291 39 577 74 725 580 133 724 579 749 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Petrologists, see: Geologists_________________ Pharmacists_____________________________ Pharmacologists _________________________ Photocheckers and assemblers, see: Photo graphic laboratory occupations___________ Photo-journalists, see: Photographers________ Photoengravers, printing (graphic arts)_____ Photogrammetric surveyors________________ Photograph retouchers, see: Photographic lab oratory occupations_____________________ Photographers __________________________ See also listing under Cameramen, print ing (graphic arts). Photographic laboratory occupations________ Phototypesetting machine operators, printing (graphic arts)________________________ Physical anthropologists___________________ Physical chemists------------------------------------Physical geographers_____________________ Physical meteorologists____________________ Physical oceanographers__________________ Physical sciences_________________________ Physical therapists________________________ Physicians __________________________ Physicists _______________________________ See also: Atomic energy field_______________ Electronics manufacturing-----------Physicists, health, atomic energy-----------------Physicists, radiological, atomic energy-----------Physiologists ____________________________ Phytopathologists, plant pathologists_________ Picklers, forge shop_______________________ Piercer machine operators, iron and steel------Pilots and copilots, civil aviation— „_______ Pinchasers, see: Bowling-pin-machine me chanics Pinsetting machine mechanics, see: Bowlingpin-machine mechanics-------------------------Pipefitters ---------------------------------------------See also: Industrial chemical industry________ Iron and steel industry-----------------Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ____________________ Pulp, paper, and allied products in dustry ________________________ Placement directors, see: College placement of ficers _________________________________ Placement officers, see: College placement of ficers _________________________________ Plainclothesmen, see: Policemen-----------------Plane table operators, petroleum and natural gas production________________________ Planners, urban_________________________ Plant pathologists_______________________ P age 133 102 130 484 217 450 230 484 217 483 448 171 142 174 137 140 142 104 106 147 527 538 527 527 130 130 383 564 640 411 409 354 554 564 573 586 206 205 297 724 234 130 Page Plant quarantine and plant pest control inspec tors, see: Agriculture____________________ Plant scientists, see: Agriculture____________ Plasterers _______________________________ See also: Railroad bridge and building workers __________________________ Platemakers, printing (graphic arts)________ Platers, electroplaters_____________________ See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft man ufacturing ___________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing _____________________ Plumbers and pipefitters___________________ See also: Aluminum industry________________ Railroad bridge and building work ers ____________________________ Podiatrists ______________________________ Policemen, see: State police officers----------------Policemen and policewomen------------------------Policy change clerks, insurance---------------------Policy writers, insurance-------------------------------Polishers, motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ---------------------------------------------Political geographers______________________ Political scientists________________________ Portable equipment operators, see: Track workers, railroad______________________ Porters, baggage, hotel______________________ Porters, restaurant_______________________ Portrait photographers--------------------------------Post office occupations______________________ Postage and mailing equipment servicemen---Postal clerks---------------------------------------------Postal inspectors----------------------------------------Posting machine operators, see: Bank clerks---Postmasters ______________________________ Pot liners, see: Aluminum industry----------------Potmen, see: Aluminum industry--------------------Poultry farmers____________________________ Pourers, see: Foundry industry------------------------------Iron and steel industry--------------------------Motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing _____________________________ Power brake operators, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft ------------------------------------------Power dispatchers, electric power---------------Power hammer operators, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft------------------------------------Power linemen, electric power-----------------------Power truck operators----------------------------------Powerplant installers, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft ---------------------------------------------Powerplant mechanics, civil aviation-------------- 632 632 351 692 455 472 504 572 354 512 692 108 299 296 719 719 572 174 178 691 617 591 217 602 415 607 603 712 603 510 510 627 547 562 571 503 659 503 660 486 504 647 750 OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page Powerplant occupations, electric power---------Power shear operators, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft ____________________________ Practical nurses---------------------------------------Press feeders, printing (graphic arts)-----------Press operators, forge shop_________________ Pressers, apparel-------------------------------------Pressing occupations, apparel_______________ Pressmen, printing (graphic arts)___________ Priests, Roman Catholic___________________ Print developers, machine, see: Photographic laboratory occupations--------------------------Printer operators, see: Photographic laboratory occupations __________________________ Printer-slotter operators, pulp, paper, and allied products________________________ Printers, see: Photographic laboratory occupa tions _________________________________ Printers, printing (graphic arts)------------------Printing (graphic arts) occupations_________ Printing pressmen and assistants, printing (graphic arts) _________________________ Private duty nurses_______________________ Private household workers_________________ Private outdoor recreation operators------------Probation and parole officers, see: Social workers________________________________ Producer-directors, p r o g r a m , radio and television _____________________________ Production managers, advertising---------------Production painters_______________________ See also: Aircraft, missile, a n d spacecraft manufacturing ________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing _____________________ Railroad bridge and building work ers ___________________________ Production planners, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft ____________________________ Production technicians, see: Industrial engi neering technicians_____________________ Professional and related occupations_________ Professors, college________________________ Professors, university______________________ Profile cutting torch machine operators, air craft, missiles, and spacecraft_____________ Program assistants, radio and television-------Program directors, radio and television---------Program producer-directors, radio and tele vision ____________ Programers, electronic computer____________ See also: Insurance business____________ Projectionists, see: Motion pictures__________ Proof machine operators, see: Bank clerks----Proofers, printing (graphic arts)------------------ 657 503 87 454 381 518 517 453 47 484 484 585 484 451 444 453 110 291 628 228 667 35 488 504 572 692 503 192 29 187 187 503 667 667 667 219 718 481 712 451 Page Proofreaders, printing (graphic arts)________ 448 Property and liability insurance agents and b rokers________________________________ 281 Prospecting drillers, petroleum and natural gas production_____________________________ 725 Prospecting geophysicists__________________ 135 Protestant clergym en_____________________ / 44 Psychiatric aids, see: Hospital attendants_____ 306 Psychiatric social workers---------------------------228 Psychologists ____________________________ 222 See also: Counseling__________________ 56 Public affairs directors, see: Radio and tele vision _________________________________ 668 Public health nurses______________________ 110 Public health sanitarians, see: Sanitarians----113 Public librarians_________________________ 214 Public relations workers___________________ 41 Public stenographers______________________ 248 Pulp, paper, and allied products industry, occu pations in the__________________________ 582 Pulp testers, pulp, paper, and allied products_ 586 Pumpers, petroleum and natural gas produc tion ___________________________________ 727 Pumpmen, petroleum refining--------------------579 Punch press operators, see: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manu facturing _________________________ 503 Electronics m anufacturing____________ 540 Motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing _____________________________ 571 Purchasing agents________________________ 241 Rabbis __________________________________ Rack clerks, hotel_________________________ Radiation monitors, atomic energy--------------Radio and television announcers____________ Radio and television broadcasting occupations. Radio operators, ground, civil aviation---------Radio service technicians__________________ Radiographers, see: Aluminum industry----------------------------Atomic energy_______________________ Radioisotope-production operators, atomic en ergy ----------------------------------------------------Radiologic technologists, see: Medical X-ray technicians____________________________ Radiological physicists, atomic energy________ Railroad bridge and building workers________ Railroad clerks____________________________ Railroad conductors______________________ Railroad occupations-------------------------------Ranchers ________________________________ Range conservationists, see: Range managers— Range managers__________________________ Range scientists, see: Range managers_______ Reactor engineers, atomic energy------------------ 46 618 527 671 665 651 433 511 528 528 95 527 692 686 682 675 626 53 53 53 525 751 INDEX TO OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES Reactor technicians, atomic energy----------------Real estate salesmen and brokers_____________ R ealto rs__________________________________ Receiving clerks, see: Shipping and receiving clerks __________________________________ Receiving inspectors, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft_______________________________ Receiving tellers, banking____________________ Receptionists______________________________ Reconcilement clerks, see: Bank clerks________ Recording clerks, see: Bank clerks------------------Recording technicians, radio and television----Recreation workers_________________________ Reference librarians_________________________ Refinery mechanics, petroleum refining--------Refrigeration mechanics------------------------------Regional geographers_______________________ Regional planners__________________________ Registered professional nurses------------------------Registered representatives, see: Securities sales men __________________________________ Rehabilitation counselors--------------------------Rehabilitation workers, see: Social workers----Reinforcing-iron workers, building trades------Remelt operators, see: Aluminum industry— Renderers, see: Commercial artists----------------Repairmen, see: Automobile body repairmen-----------------Central office repairmen, telephone--------Industrial machinery repairmen---------------Instrument repairmen_________________ Jewelry repairmen____________________ Shoe repairmen________________________ Telephone and PBX repairmen---------------Vending machine operators____________ Watch repairmen_______________________ See also listings under Mechanics and under Servicemen. Reporters, newspaper_______________________ Reporting stenographers_____________________ Research directors, advertising______________ Research workers, agricultural______________ Research workers, marketing_______________ Reservation agents and clerks, civil aviation__ Reservation clerks, hotel___________________ Resilient floor layers, see: Floor covering in stallers ________________________________ Resistance-welding operators________________ Restaurant industry_________________________ Retail salesmen and saleswomen_____________ Rewrite men, see: Newspaper reporters_______ Rig builders, petroleum and natural gas produc tion ___________________________________ Riggers and machine movers, building trades_ Riveters, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft____ Page 525 283 283 265 504 713 251 712 712 673 224 214 580 399 174 234 110 286 58 228 363 510 163 404 697 425 426 479 489 702 438 441 198 248 35 632 37 652 618 338 495 591 268 198 725 362 503 P age Rocket assembly mechanics, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft_________________________ Rodmen, see: Reinforcing-iron workers_______ Rodmen, see: Surveyors___________________ Rodmen, petroleum and natural gas produc tion __________ *_______________________ Roll turners, iron and steel---------, --------------Rollers, iron and steel_______________________ Rolling mill attendants, iron and steel-------------Rolling mill operators, see: Aluminum in dustry __________________________________ Roman Catholic priests______________________ Roofers___________________________________ Room and desk clerks, hotel__________________ Rotary drillers, petroleum and natural gas pro duction _________________________________ Rotary floormen, petroleum and natural gas production______________________________ Roughnecks, petroleum and natural gas pro duction _________________________________ Roustabouts, petroleum and natural gas pro duction _________________________________ Route salesmen, see: Routemen---------------------Routemen ________________________________ See also: Baking industry________________ Routers, printing (graphic arts)_____________ Rural carriers, post office-------------------------------Rural sociologists, agriculture------------------------- 504 363 230 724 564 563 563 511 47 356 618 725 725 725 725 371 371 533 451 606 632 Safety technicians, see: Engineering and science technicians______________________________ 193 Sailors, see: Navy___________________________ 612 Sales clerk, retail store----------------------------------268 Sales engineer, see: Manufacturers’ salesmen— 279 Sales managers, see: 621 H otels________________________________ Radio and television broadcasting------------669 Sales occupations___________________________ 267 Salesmen and saleswomen, see: Automobile parts countermen----------------273 Automobile salesmen-----------------------------271 Automobile service advisors--------------------275 Insurance agents and brokers------------------281 Manufacturers’ salesmen------------------------278 Radio and television-----------------------------669 Real estate salesmen and brokers-------------283 Salesmen and saleswomen in retail stores— 268 Salesmen in wholesale trade--------------------277 Securities salesmen______________________ 286 Sample stitchers, apparel-------------------------------516 Sample-taker operators, petroleum and natural gas production___________________________ 727 Sandblasters, forge shop-------------------------------383 Sandblasters, foundry----------------------------------547 Sand mixers, foundry-----------------------------------546 752 Sanitarians______________________________ Savings tellers, banking____________________ Scalemen, see: Aluminum industry__________ Scalper operators, see: Aluminum industry___ Scenic designers, television_________________ See also: Interior designers and decoratorsSchool counselors_________________________ School librarians_________________________ School recreation workers__________________ School social workers______________________ School teachers, see: Teachers______________ Science aids_______________________________ Science information specialists, see: Librar ians ___________________________________ Science technicians________________________ Scientists, biological_______________________ Scientists, earth___________________________ Scientists, natural_________________________ Scientists, physical________________________ Scientists, soil____________________________ Scouts, petroleum and natural gas production. Sealers, electronics manufacturing___________ Seat-cover installers, see: Automobile trimmers and installation men____________________ Secondary school teachers__________________ iSee also: Agriculture__________________ Secretaries______________________________ Securities salesmen________________________ Securities tellers, banking__________________ Sedimentologists, see: Geologists____________ Seismologists, see: Geophysics_______________ Semiskilled workers, industrial______________ Service advisors, see: Automobile service ad visors _________________________________ Service assistants, telephone________________ Service occupations_______________________ Service salesmen, see: Automobile service ad visors _________________________________ Service station attendants, see: Gasoline service station attendants_______________________ Service station managers, see: Gasoline service station managers________________________ Service station mechanic-attendants__________ Service writers, see: Automobile service ad visors _________ Servicemen, see: Appliance servicemen_________________ Business machine servicemen___________ Electric sign servicemen_______________ Gas appliance servicemen______________ Neon sign servicemen__________________ Telephone and PBX servicemen________ Television and radio service technicians_ Setup men (machine tools)________________ Sewers, hand, apparel_____________________ OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK HANDBOOK Page 112 713 510 511 668 167 56 214 225 228 182 190 214 190 127 132 127 142 630 725 540 464 185 632 248 286 713 133 135 316 275 263 289 275 475 476 476 275 401 412 420 401 420 702 433 395 517 P age Sewing machine operators, see: Apparel industry______________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing _____________________________ Sewing room occupations, apparel___________ Shakeout men, see: Foundry industry_____________________ Motor vehicle and equipment manufac turing _____________________________ Shapers, apparel---------------------------------------Shear operators, electronics manufacturing-----Shearmen, iron and steel----------------------------Sheet-metal workers----------------------------------See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manu facturing ______________________ Electronics manufacturing------------Railroad shop trades______________ Shipping and receiving clerks_______________ Shoe repairmen__________________________ Shooters, petroleum and natural gas produc tion ___________________________________ Shop trades, railroad______________________ Shotblasters, forge shop----------------------------Shotblasters, foundry---------------------------------Signal department workers, railroad------------Signal maintainers, railroad-----------------------Signalmen, railroad----------------------------------Silk screen operators, electronics manufactur ing ___________________________________ Singers and singing teachers-----------------------Skilled and other manual occupations-----------Skilled workers___________________________ Skipmen, iron and steel------------------------------Slaggers, iron and steel------------------------------Slate roofers, building trades----------------------Slicing-and-wrapping machine operators, bakSlide mounters, see: Photographic laboratory occupations___________________________ Soaking pit cranemen, iron and steel------------Soaking pit operators, aluminum-----------------Social caseworkers------------------------------------Social psychologists----------------------------------Social sciences____________________________ Social secretaries---------------------------------------Social workers_____________________________ Sociologists_______________________________ Sociologists, rural, see: Agriculture--------------Soil conservationists-----------------------------------Soil scientists______________________________ Soldiers, see: Army---------------------------------Sorters, see: Bank clerks----------------------------Sorting machine operators_________________ 517 572 517 547 571 516 540 563 358 503 539 687 265 489 725 687 383 547 689 689 689 540 160 313 314 561 561 356 484 565 511 227 222 170 248 227 179 632 631 630 612 711 258 IN D E X TO O C C U PA TIO N S A N D Sound effects technicians, radio and television. Spacecraft manufacturing occupations---------Special agents, see: FBI Special Agents---------Special delivery carriers, post office--------------Specialty farm operators----------------------------Specifications writers, see: Electronics manu facturing -------------------Speech pathologists_______________________ Sportscasters, radio and television___________ Sprayers, motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing ______________________________ Spreaders, apparel industry_________________ Stage managers, radio and television------------Star route carriers, post office----------------------State and local government occupations--------State highway patrolmen----------------------------State police officers----------------------------------Station agents, civil aviation-----------------------Station agents, railroad------------------------------Station installers, telephone-------------------------Stationary engineers_______________________ See also: Aluminum industry----------------------Pulp, paper, and allied products------Stationary firemen (boiler)-------------------------Statisticians______________________________ See also: A ctu a ries_______________________ Electronics manufacturing------------Mathematicians -------------------------Steamfitters, see: Plumbers and pipefitters----Steel industry occupations--------------------------Steel pourers, iron and steel-----------------------Stenographers and secretaries----------------------Stereotypers, printing (graphic arts)------------Stewardesses, civil aviation-------------------------Stillmen, petroleum refining-----------------------Stillmen, gas plant, natural gas processing------Stock chasers, motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing-------------------------------------Stock clerks, banking---------------------------------Stock clerks, motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing_________________________ Stock house larrymen, iron and steel_________ Stock house men, iron and steel--------------------Stonehands, printing (graphic arts)------------Stonemasons ------------------------------------------Stove tenders, iron and steel-----------------------Stratigraphers, see: Geologists________________ Stretcher-leveler-operators, aluminum indus t r y ____________________________________ Strippers, printing (graphic arts)___________ Structural-iron workers, building trades_____ 753 IN D U S T R IE S Page 668 500 293 602 628 538 115 672 572 516 668 603 609 299 299 652 685 702 491 512 586 493 122 124 538 119 354 559 562 248 452 644 579 729 573 533 573 561 561 448 360 561 133 511 455 362 Page Structural-, ornamental-, and reinforcing-iron workers, riggers, and machine workers_____ Studio supervisors, radio and television_______ Substation operators, electric power__________ Supercalendar operators, pulp, paper, and allied products_______________________________ Surfacers, optical goods____________________ Survey statisticians________________________ Surveyors________________________________ Switchboard operators, electric power________ Switchboard operators, telephone___________ Switchers, petroleum and natural gas produc tion ----------------------------------------------------Switchmen, railroad______________________ Switchmen, telephone_____________________ Synoptic meteorologists____________________ Systems analysts__________________________ Tabulating machine operators______________ Tailoring occupations, apparel--------------------Tailors, apparel---------------------------------------Tape librarians, see: Electronic computer oper ating personnel_________________________ Tape perforating machine operators, printing (graphic arts)_________________________ Tape perforator typists, see: Typists__________ Tape-to-card converter operators, see: Elec tronic computer operating personnel_______ Tappers, see: Aluminum industry---------------Taxi drivers______________________________ Teachers, college and university-------------------Teacehrs, dancing________________________ Teachers, drama_________________________ Teachers, high school---------------------------------Teachers, junior high school, see: Secondary school teachers--------------------------------------Teachers, kindergarten and elementary school. Teachers, music__________________________ Teachers, secondary school-------------------------See also: Agriculture---------------------------Teachers, singing--------------------------------------T eaching________________________________ Technical illustrators, see: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufac turing __________________________ Electronics manufacturing-------------------Technical stenographers_______________ Technical writers-------------------------------------See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft m anufacturing________________ Electronics manufacturing------------Newspaper reporters______________ Technician occupations___________________ 362 668 659 585 470 122 229 657 263 727 684 697 137 232 258 517 517 260 449 250 260 510 379 187 155 153 185 185 182 158 185 632 160 182 503 538 248 200 503 538 199 190 754 Technicians, broadcasting, radio and tele vision _________________________________ Technicians, dental laboratory______________ Technicians, engineering and science________ See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft manufacturing ________________ Atomic energy field_______________ Dispensing opticians and optical me chanics _______________________ Electronics manufacturing_________ Foundry industry_________________ Industrial chemical industry________ Iron and steel industry____________ Petroleum refining________________ Pulp, paper, and allied products in, dustry________________________ Technicians, forestry, see: Forestry aids_____ Technicians, medical X-ray_________________ Technicians, optical laboratory_____________ Technicians, sound effects, radio and televisionTechnicians, television and radio service-------Technologists, medical_____________________ Tectonophysicists, see: Geophysicists_________ Telegraphers, telephoners, and towermen, railroad _______________________________ Telephone and PBX installers and repairmen_ Telephone central office craftsmen-,________ Telephone central office equipment installers_ Telephone craftsmen______________________ Telephone industry occupations____________ Telephone installers and repairmen__________ Telephone linemen and cable splicers________ Telephone operators______________________ Telephone repairmen_____________________ Telephone servicemen_____________________ Telephoners, railroad_____________________ Teletypists, civil aviation__________________ Television announcers_____________________ Television broadcasting occupations_________ Television and radio service technicians_____ Tellers, banking__________________________ Terrazzo workers, building trades___________ Testboardmen, telephone__________________ Therapeutic dietitians_____________________ Therapists, occupational___________________ Therapists, physical_______________________ Thermal cutters, see: Welders______________ Thread trimmers and cleaners, apparel_______ Ticket agents, civil aviation________________ Ticket sellers, see: Cashiers_________________ Tile roofers, building trades________________ Tile setters, building trades_________________ Time salesmen, radio and television_________ Tinners, electronics manufacturing__________ Tobacco growers_________________________ O CCUPATIO NAL O UTLOOK H A N D B O O K Page 672 78 190 503 525 469 538 547 555 565 580 586 52 95 469 668 433 93 135 684 702 697 699 697 694 702 700 262 702 702 684 651 671 665 433 713 343 697 83 97 104 495 517 652 254 356 343 669 540 627 P age Tool-and-die makers______________________ See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft man ufacturing ____________________ Aluminum industry_______________ Electronics manufacturing_________ Iron and steel industry____________ Motor vehicle and equipment manu facturing _____________________ Tool designers, see: Mechanical technicians__ Tool pushers, petroleum and natural gas production____________________________ Toolmakers, electronics manufacturing---------Topographic surveyors____________________ Towerman, railroad_______________________ Tracers, see: Draftsmen___________________ Track workers, railroad___________________ Trackmen, railroad_______________________ Traffic agents and clerks, civil aviation_______ Traffic controllers, air-route________________ Traffic controllers, airport__________________ Traffic managers, industrial________________ Traffic managers, radio and television-----------Traffic representatives, civil aviation_________ Train directors, railroad___________________ Train dispatchers-------------------------------------Trainmen, see: Brakemen, railroad--------------Transcribing machine operators, see: Typists— Transfer clerks, post office--------------------------Transit clerks, see: Bank clerks______________ Transmission and distribution occupations, electric power__________________________ Transmitter technicians, radio and television_ Transportation, communication, and public u tilities________________________________ Treaters, see: Petroleum and natural gas production---Petroleum refining----------------------------T rimmers, apparel----------------------------------Trimmers, automobile (automobile upholster ers) __________________________________ Trimmers, motor vehicle and equipment man ufacturing ___________________________ Trimmers, forge shop_____________________ Troopers, see: State police officers--------------Troublemen, electric power-----------------------Truck mechanics--------------------------------------Truckdrivers, local_______________________ Truckdrivers, motor vehicle operators, post office _________________________________ Truckdrivers, over-the-road-----------------------Trust bookkeepers, see: Bank clerks--------------Trust investment clerks, see: Bank clerks--------Trust officers, banking------------------------------Tube benders, aircraft, missiles, and spacecraftTumbler operators, foundry------------------------ 391 503 512 539 564 571 193 725 539 230 684 196 691 691 652 649 649 239 667 652 685 676 684 250 608 712 659 673 635 727 579 517 464 572 383 299 660 435 369 606 368 712 712 714 503 547 IN D E X TO O C C U PA TIO N S A N D 755 IN D U S T R IE S P age Tune-up men, see: Automobile mechanics----Turbine operators, electric power---------------Typesetters, hand, printing (graphic arts)----Typesetting machine operators, printing (graphic arts)_________________________ Typewriter servicemen____________________ Typists -------------------------------------------------Typographic surveyors------------------------------Understudies, see: Actors and actresses---------Underwriters, insurance----------------------------United States Government occupations---------University librarians---------------------------------University professors---------------------------------University teachers----------------------------------Unskilled workers, industrial----------------------Upholsterers, see: Automobile trimmers and installation men ______________________________ Furniture upholsterers-----------------------Upsetter operators, forge shop--------------------Urban geographers----------------------------------Urban planners--------------------------------------- 407 657 448 448 413 250 230 153 718 595 214 187 187 317 464 474 382 174 234 Valets, see: Private household workers-----------Vending machine mechanics----------------------Vending machine routemen, see: Routemen— Veterinarians -----------------------------------------See also: Agriculture--------------------------Video-control technicians, television------------Video-tape recording technicians, television— Vocational agriculture teachers, see: Agricul ture __________________________________ Vocational counselors-------------------------------Vocational nurses--------------------------------------- 632 60 87 Waiters and waitresses------------------------------Waste disposal men, atomic energy------------- 304 528 Digitized 262-057 for FRASER -49 0 — 68 292 438 372 116 632 673 673 P age Waste-treatment operators, atomic energy___ 528 Watch engineers, electric power_____________ 658 Watch repairmen___________________________ 441 Watchmakers_____________________________ 441 Weather forecasters, see: Meteorologists______ 137 Welders and oxygen cutters__________________ 494 See also: Aircraft, missile, and spacecraft man ufacturing ____________________ 503 Iron and Steel industry____________ 564 Natural gas processing_____________ 729 Welders, electric-arc______________________ 495 See also: Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ______________________ 571 Welders, gas______________________________ 494 See also: Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ______________________ 571 Welding operators, resistance_______________ 495 See also: Motor vehicle and equipment manufacturing ______________________ 571 Well pullers, petroleum and natural gas pro duction _________________________________ 727 Wheat farmers_____________________________ 627 Wholesale and retail trade___________________ 590 Wholesale salesmen_______________________ 277 Window clerks, post office_________________ 607 Wire chiefs, railroad______________________ 685 Wire draw operators aluminum______________ 511 Wire drawers, iron and steel________________ 564 Wood patternmakers, foundry______________ 549 Work distributors, apparel_________________ 517 Wrapping machine operators, baking________ 532 Writers, technical_________________________ ' 200 ■ See also listing under Technical writers. Writing occupations________________________ 198 X-ray technicians, medical-------------------------- 95 Yard foremen, railroad____________________ 682 Zoologists ________________________________ 130 BLS Occupational Outlook Service for Counselors To help the professional community concerned with youth keep up to date on occupational developments that have significant implications for young people, and to assist counselors in making occupational information available to their clients, the Bureau of Labor Statistics supplements the Occupational Outlook Handbook with the following publications: OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK QUARTERLY: Handbook users will want to consult the Occupa tional Outlook Quarterly to make sure they have up-to-date, authoritative occupa tional information between editions of the Handbook. Published four times during each school year, the Quarterly presents the latest occupational outlook studies by the Bureau of Labor Statistics and interprets the guidance implications of Government and other authoritative research in the economic, educational, demographic, and technological fields. A 2-year subscription for the Occupational Outlook Quarterly is $2.50 domestic, $3.50 foreign; 1 year is $1.25 domestic and $1.75 foreign; single copies are 35 cents each. Order from Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. 20402. See order form, page 760. OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK REPRINT SERIES: The reports in the Handbook are reproduced in this series of reprints, each of which covers a single occupation, an industry, or a group of related occupations. The reprints enable counselors to make occupational information available to more students interested in specific careers. Teachers can use these reprints as motivational aids in relating school subjects to earning a living. Librarians who keep a file of occupational information will find these reprints helpful in extending their resources to greater numbers of young people. Single reprints of a full set of 119 reprints can be ordered. A list of reprints, with prices, is available from the Occupational Outlook Service, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C. 20212. FREE OCCUPATIONAL OUTLOOK PUBLICATIONS: These include wall charts and reprints of articles from the Quarterly. Wall charts emphasize graphically the salient facts about various occupations and industries. Reprints from the Quarterly deal with the employment outlook in new occupational areas, the impact of technological changes, and other subjects of interest to young people and counselors and teachers. Free publications are announced in the Quarterly, and many of these are distributed auto matically to schools, organizations, and individuals on the occupational outlook mail ing list. Write to the Occupational Outlook Service, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C. 20212, to request the List of Free Occupa tional Outlook Publications and to have your name placed on the mailing list. COUNSELOR’S GUIDE TO OCCUPATIONAL AND OTHER MANPOWER INFORMATION, AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SELECTED GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS: This bibliog raphy, as the title suggests, lists the major occupational and other manpower publications of Federal and State government agencies that will be useful to counselors and others interested in trends and developments that have implications for career decisions. The bulletin, No. 1421 (currently being revised), is available from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402; 50 cents a copy. Other BLS Publications Useful to Counselors Information on employment, unemployment, occupation trends, earnings, and other labor force developments can be obtained from the following publications: EMPLOYMENT AND EARNINGS AND MONTHLY REPORT ON THE LABOR FORCE: Monthly reports featuring timely analysis of current developments in employment, unemployment, hours, and earnings for the Nation. Contains statistics on employment, earnings, hours of work, and labor turnover by industry for the Nation and by industry division for each State and 202 metropolitan areas. Also, contains detailed statistics on the labor force including characteristics of the employed and unemployed, such as age, marital status, color, industry, and occupational attachment. Statistics for earlier years are contained in Employment and Earnings Statistics for the United States (BLS Bulletin 1312-5), price $4.75 and Employment and Earnings Statistics for States and Areas (BLS Bulletin 1370-4), price $5. SPECIAL LABOR FORCE REPORTS: Reports based on special surveys of the labor force are issued several times a year. They include statistics and analysis of selected character istics of the labor force, such as educational attainment, employment of school dropouts and recent high school graduates, work experience during the year, and marital and family status. Published in the Monthly Labor Review, which may be available in your school library, these reports are also available (as long as the supply lasts) without charge, upon written request to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C. 20212. OCCUPATIONAL WAGE SURVEYS: These reports include figures on average earnings and employment in selected o
@FedFRASER